a
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>a</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 不定冠词有两种形式，即 <b>a</b> 和 <b>an</b>，以下说明时只用 <b>a</b> 表示。<b>a</b> 不是只能指单数的事物。复数的事物如果作为一个整体受到定语修饰，该定语前面可以有 <b>a</b> 或者表示不特指的形容词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b><u>a</u></b> mere 100 区区一百</div><div class="ex-item"><b><u>a</u></b> full fifteen years 整整十五年</div><div class="ex-item"><b><u>a</u></b> contentious three years 纷争的三年</div><div class="ex-item">Last year, Carnegie Mellon University received <b><u>a</u></b> record 18,864 applications and admitted 6,357. (<i>Newsweek</i>, Aug. 21-28, 2006) 去年，卡内基·梅隆大学收到了创纪录的 18,864 份入学申请，录取了 6,357 人。/ The Desert Fox still had <b><u>an</u></b> estimated 80,000 German and Italian troops. “沙漠之狐”率领的德意军队仍然有大约八万士兵。/ But then some instinct made him stand and take <b><u>a</u></b> silent two steps over the turf, so that he could see the profile of that face. (John Fowles, <i>The French Lieutenant's Woman</i>) 接着，他下意识地站起身，在草地上静静朝前走了两步，看清了她的脸。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 当某一专有名词前有说明该人或事物一时的、非固有的情状的定语时，该定语前面可以有 <b>a</b>。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b><u>A</u></b> stubborn Senate voted Wednesday to ease restrictions on federally funded embryonic stem cell research, ignoring President Bush's threat of a second veto on legislation designed to lead to new medical treatments. (The Associated Press, Apr. 11, 2007) 尽管布什总统扬言再次否决旨在推动新的医学治疗的立法，但参议院置之不顾，在星期三仍然固执地表决通过了放宽对联邦拨款支持胚胎干细胞研究的限制。/ <b><u>A</u></b> subdued Assistant District Attorney McDermott said on Thursday that justice was served. (<i>The Daily Gazette</i>, Aug. 11, 2006, A7) 满面愁容的地区助理检察官麦克德莫特于星期四说，正义得到了伸张。/ In the days before the test, when driving to the secret testing grounds, <b><u>a</u></b> speeding Dr. Greisen was pulled over by a police officer, ... (<i>The New York Times</i>, Apr. 3, 2007, B6) 在试验前几天，格雷申博士开车前往秘密试验场时超了速，被一个警官拦住了路，……</div><br><br>如果该定语所指的是固有的或长期的情状(至少是超出当前范围的情状)，则不能用 <b>a</b>，而要用 <b>the</b>。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b><u>a</u></b> split Supreme Court 内部存在意见分歧的最高法院(此处表示一时的、非固有的情状)</div><div class="ex-item"><b><u>the</u></b> mostly silver-haired Supreme Court 多数大法官都是满头银丝的最高法院(此处表示固有的或长期的情状)。另外，如果在说明一时的、非固有的情状的形容词之前，还有别的表示固有情状的形容词，则也不能用 <b>a</b>，而要用 <b>the</b>。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b><u>the</u></b> entire stunned world 惊愕的世人们 (entire 是固有情状，如果没有 entire，则不用 the，试比较：<b><u>a</u></b> stunned world)。</div><br><br>究竟是一时的还是固有的情状，有时候也不一定是客观硬性规定的，而是可以有主观观察角度的不同。例如有一部描写斯大林格勒战役的影片，评论该片子时提到了当时赫鲁晓夫指挥的一支苏军，说：... led by <b><u>a</u></b> middle-aged Nikita Khrushchev (……中年赫鲁晓夫所指挥的)。这里用 <b>a</b>，是注意到了后来他老年时有了大不相同的一番生涯。但是如果就当时论当时，不理会以前或以后如何，就可以在表示年龄的形容词前面用 <b>the</b>。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b><u>The</u></b> 65-year-old O'Neill was chairman of aluminum giant Alcoa. 65 岁的奥尼尔是铝业巨头美铝公司的董事长。 (3) 某一专有名词前面有定语，而这个定语是信息的中心，在这种情况下，中文和英文都可以将该事物当作不特指的。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b><u>a</u></b> prosperous China 一个繁荣的中国。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 表示某单数形式的人的职业、信仰、国籍等身份信息时，英文通常要在名词前加上 <b>a</b>。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm <b><u>a</u></b> teacher. 我是一名老师。中文根本没有冠词，但即使是其他许多有冠词的西方语言，如西班牙文、葡萄牙文、法文、德文，表示国籍、职业等身份信息时也与英文不同，不用任何冠词。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 但是，如果 <b>be</b> 后面的表语，是个既可作为形容词也可作为名词的表示国籍、信仰之类的单词，则可以作为形容词使用，因而前面不需要放上不定冠词 <b>a</b>。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He is Canadian. 他是加拿大人。/ They're English. 他们是英格兰人。/ I'm Catholic. 我是天主教徒。此时即使是复数，也因为是形容词，不是名词，而可以不变成复数形式。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They are Canadian. 他们是加拿大人。/ All students at Holy Child School are Catholic. 圣婴学校的学生全是天主教徒。/ Almost all kitchen help, food-prep workers and cooks in Chicago are Mexican. 芝加哥的帮厨工人、食品加工工人和厨师，几乎全是墨西哥人。/ Whether we're Democrat or Republican we care deeply about this country. (George W. Bush, Jan. 7, 2009) 我们无论是民主党人还是共和党人，都深切关心这个国家。而由于形容词前不加 <b>a</b> 的连锁影响，有些本来是名词的词，单数有时也不加 <b>a</b>，例如 I'm Frenchman. 但这并不规范。因此 <b>a</b> 仍是不可缺少的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 并列的“一个……、一个……、一个……”，中文的数量词要重复不可省略，但英文只要开头用一次即可。参见(7)中 Danny's apartment ... 例句。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 表示“一个像……的……”，可以用 <b>a X of a Y</b> 的结构。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b><u>a</u></b> mountain of <b><u>a</u></b> man 一个彪形大汉</div><div class="ex-item"><b><u>a</u></b> mountain of <b><u>a</u></b> wave 一个排山倒海的巨浪</div><div class="ex-item"><b><u>a</u></b> nightmare of <b><u>a</u></b> marriage 一桩噩梦似的婚事</div><div class="ex-item"><b><u>an</u></b> angel of <b><u>a</u></b> girl 一个天使般的女孩子。</div><br><br>但是，如果是特指的，则应将第一个 <b>a</b> 改为 <b>the</b> 或其他限定词，但注意：第二个 <b>a</b> 保持不变，也就是 <b>a/the (his ...) X of a Y</b> (其中 <b>of a</b> 永远不变，对于这点中国人可能不大习惯)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b><u>the</u></b> angel of <b><u>a</u></b> girl (= <b><u>the</u></b> angelic girl) 那个天使般的女孩子</div><div class="ex-item"><b><u>the</u></b> fool of <b><u>a</u></b> policeman (= <b><u>the</u></b> foolish policeman) 那个笨蛋警察</div><div class="ex-item"><b><u>their</u></b> angel of <b><u>a</u></b> daughter (= <b><u>their</u></b> angelic daughter) 他们那个天使般的女儿</div><div class="ex-item"><b><u>his</u></b> museum of <b><u>a</u></b> home (= <b><u>his</u></b> museum-like home) 他那个像博物馆的家</div><div class="ex-item">The street, <b><u>the</u></b> stump of <b><u>a</u></b> street, one hardly remembered at first. 大街，那条破破烂烂、凋零的大街，一开头人们都没有把它想起来。</div><br><br>有一点要注意：这个 <b>a X of a Y</b> 的结构表示的整个事物，可以是特指的(此时说 <b><u>the</u></b> X of <b><u>a</u></b> Y，这里的 <b>the</b> 可以用其他特指的指示词如 <b>this</b>、<b>his</b> 代替)，也可以是不特指的(此时说 <b><u>a</u></b> X of <b><u>a</u></b> Y)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was opened by <b><u>a</u></b> small barrel <b><u>of a</u></b> woman, ... (John Fowles, <i>The French Lieutenant's Woman</i>) 开门的是一个木桶般粗壮的矮个子女人，……</div><div class="ex-item">For an absurd moment Mrs. Poulteney looked like Sam: that is, she stood with <b><u>her</u></b> grim purse <b><u>of a</u></b> mouth wide open. (ibid.) 有那么片刻，事情显得怪荒唐的，波尔蒂尼夫人看上去极像了萨姆，她站在那儿阴沉地噘着嘴唇，大张着口。</div><div class="ex-item"><b><u>A</u></b> lean yellow scimitar <b><u>of a</u></b> moon hung low over the rocky peaks like a sword of Damocles suspended over our heads. (R. M. Price & H. P. Lovecraft, <i>The Nyarlathotep Cycle</i>) 一轮像窄窄的阿拉伯黄色大弯刀似的月亮，高悬在岩石山峰上空，就像悬在我们头上的达摩克利斯之剑。(虽然月亮是唯一的事物，但在那个结构中也要说 <b>of <u>a</u> moon</b>；表示唯一事物的 <b>the</b> 要放在句首，本来要说 <b><u>the</u></b> yellow scimitar <b><u>of a</u></b> moon，但是此例作为月亮一时而非经常的表现，所以句首用了 <b>a</b> 而不用 <b>the</b>。)</div><div class="ex-item"><b><u>a</u></b> tall bruiser <b><u>of a</u></b> former paratrooper (Tom Clancy, <i>Executive Orders</i>) 一个高大魁梧的像拳击师似的前伞兵。但是后面的 Y 永远要用不定冠词 <b>a</b>，整个事物尽管是特指的，这个特指的标志也只能放在 X 前面，可以是 <b>the</b>，也可以是别的特指限定词，如 <b>his</b>、<b>this</b>，但不能放在 Y 之前。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We're putting a halo on <b><u>our</u></b> jewel <b><u>of a</u></b> theater. (<i>The Daily Gazette</i>, Mar. 5, 2009, A6) 我们正在为我们这座珍宝似的剧院加上一道光环。(修缮剧院屋顶时说的)</div><div class="ex-item">The Chief Inspector of the local police didn't like the movie people at all. He disliked them disrupting <b><u>his</u></b> happy playground <b><u>of a</u></b> town when they were shooting. 当地警察局的总巡官根本就不喜欢那些搞电影制片的人。他讨厌他们来拍片子时打扰了他管辖的这个本来像快乐的游乐场似的小镇。/ Danny's apartment was on the ground floor, small and exceedingly Spartan. <b><u>Its</u></b> cubicle <b><u>of a</u></b> living room faced a tiny back courtyard and was furnished with a reading chair, small desk, floor lamp, and bookcase, all of which looked as though they had come from a flea market. (Allan Folsom, <i>Day of Confession</i>) 丹尼的公寓就在一楼，又小又简朴。它那个白鸽笼似的客厅，对着一个小小后院，里面的家具有一把看书时坐的椅子、一张小桌子、一盏落地灯和一个书橱，全都像是从旧货摊那里弄来的。/ He had <b><u>a</u></b> disconcerting smudge <b><u>of a</u></b> beard in the center of his chin. (John Darnton, <i>The Darwin Conspiracy</i>) 他下巴的中央有一丛乱糟糟的胡须。</div><br><br>这个 <b>a X of a Y</b> 中的 Y，即使是已知的、确定的事物，也必须用 <b>a</b>，不可以用 <b>the</b>。例如美国《纽约时报》2017年4月26日 A24 版的一篇攻击特朗普总统的社论，标题是：Mr. Trump's Shambles of <b><u>a</u></b> Trade Policy (特朗普先生一塌糊涂的贸易政策)。本来，这个贸易政策是已知的事物，但在这里的语言用法上，要用 <b>a</b>；反而新出现的用来描述的名词(烂摊子，虽然有 -s，却是单数名词)，本该用 <b>a</b> 来形容，却因为 Mr. Trump's 而变成特指的形式，所以，这种 <b>the X of a Y</b> 其实是“像 <b>a X</b> 的 <b>the Y</b>”的颠倒现象，值得注意。<br><br>如果 <b>a X of a Y</b> 中的 Y 是个不可数名词，这时候 Y 前面当然不可以有 <b>a</b>，但是凡是表示特指意义的指示词，仍然只能落在 X 前面，形成 <b>the/his/this X of Y</b> 的格式。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The crisis paralyzed state government and made Blagojevich and <b><u>his</u></b> helmet <b><u>of</u></b> lush, dark hair a punchline from coast to coast. (The Associated Press, Jan. 29, 2009) 这次危机，使得州政府陷于瘫痪，也使得布拉戈耶维奇和他那一头头盔似的浓密黑发成了传遍东西海岸的笑料。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> 即使是“独一无二”的事物，如果尚未实际存在，而只是一个“如果有的话”的推测，也不能用 <b>the</b>，而只能用 <b>a</b> (中文可以加上“如果”之类的字样)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span> <b><u>An</u></b> avid snowboarder and father of three, Goolsbee, 39, is expected to be named chairman of the President's Council of Economic Advisers in <b><u>an</u></b> (<i>the) Obama administration. (</i>U.S. News & World Report<i>, Sept. 15-22, 2008, p. 38) 39 岁的顾尔斯比是个醉心于滑雪板运动的人，有三个孩子，据估计，如果奥巴马上台，他将会被委任为总统经济顾问委员会的主任。(如果用 <b>the</b>，就等于肯定奥巴马会上台。奥巴马当选后，这句话就要用 <b>the</b>，不能用 <b>a</b>。)</div><div class="ex-item">Under <b><u>a</u></b> President Hillary Clinton we will not see a Democratic House of Representatives. That will never be her mission. What we will see is a steady leadership. Mostly status quo. Status quo means that we get mostly what we have. (Eliot Lear's Ramblings, July 30, 2016) 如果希拉里当上总统，我们将看不到有民主党的众议院。那绝不是她的使命。我们将会看到的是一种稳定的领导。大体上是维持现状。维持现状，意思就是：我们已有什么，也就得到什么。/ <b><u>A</u></b> victory by Le Pen in France wouldn't necessarily be a triumph for Trump. (</i>The New York Times*, Apr. 26, 2017, A5) 即使勒庞在法国获胜，也不一定就是特朗普的胜利。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(9)</span> <b>a</b> 出现时其实包含两种可能的不同含义。一种是“虚指”，代表尚未确知熟悉的事物，唯一一只说出当前最重要的特征，其他特征根本就谈不上，也不承认其存在。另一种是“实指”，代表某一确实已知存在的事物，但在当前语言表达上只说出其最突出的特征，其他构成该事物总和的特征，虽然默认其存在，但都暂不显现。例如：I'm looking for <b><u>an</u></b> interpreter. 我说出这一句，其实我心中有两种可能：一种是“我唯一要求的，就是 interpreter 所起的翻译传话的作用，不问男女，不问老幼，不问张三李四”；另一种则是“我心中已经知道这个 interpreter 是张三，男性，30 岁……”，但我只说出他当前最重要的特征是 interpreter，具体姓名、性别、年龄等信息，我心中知道，但在当前没有必要说出来(所谓“实指”或“虚指”，是说话者自己内心的选择，听者是听不出来的)。但是，到下一步人找到时我的说法就不同了。前一种情况，我会说：I've found <b><u>one</u></b>。后一种情况，我会说：I've found <b><u>him</u></b>。可见先前虽然都说 <b><u>an</u></b> interpreter，其实这个 <b>a</b> 的含义在我心中是不同的，前一种情况是“虚指”，后一种情况是“实指”。<br><br>可见，言谈中涉及事物是虚是实，并不在于客观存在是虚或实，而是在于说话者自己心中的虚或实。但是，听者又不是说话者“肚子里的蛔虫”，无法当场分辨判明。不过，在个别场合，言语中的遣词用句会“透露”出这个区别，有时候是说话者有意的透露，有时候则是无意中“露马脚”。例如 <b><u>A</u></b> friend <b><u>can</u></b> betray you. (朋友可能出卖你。) <b>can</b> 表示“可能”，可以用于理论性的概括论述，这里用 <b>can</b>，暗示 <b>a friend</b> 是“虚指”。而 <b><u>A</u></b> friend <b><u>may</u></b> betray you. 这里用 <b>may</b> (表示“可能”，可以用于具体个案)则是“已有的朋友当中会有一个出卖你”，是“实指”(参见 <b>may</b> 与 <b>can</b> 条)。又例如：双方在打电话，甲方觉得谈得太长了，不耐烦，就说：I <b><u>have to</u></b> go to <b><u>a</u></b> meeting now. <b><u>It</u></b> starts in five minutes. 这样说是可以的，因为 <b>have to inf.</b> 隐含着这个 <b>a meeting</b> 虽然不明确交代但的确有其事，是“实指”。但是如果说：I'<b><u>d better</u></b> go to <b><u>a</u></b> meeting now. <b><u>It</u></b> starts in five minutes. 那就是撒谎了，这是因为 <b>had better</b> 本来用于表示一种“对象未定的寻求”(参见 <b>(had) better</b> 条之(2))，后面的 <b>a meeting</b> 并不是真正的客观存在，只是“虚指”，后面用实指的 <b>it</b> 来指代，自相矛盾。要有“慧眼” 发现这个区别，就要掌握英文的细微微妙处。<br><br>讲到言谈中有意无意的“透露”，有一种将问题简单化的误解，以为凡是未发生的事，涉及的人或事物就可能是“虚指”，而凡是已发生的事，就可能是“实指”。其实问题不在于发生与否，而在于说话者想传达的信息究竟是要告诉你一个笼统的概念，还是给你摆出一个实在的实体。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>John wanted to marry, and Bill did marry, <b><u>a</u></b> blonde. 约翰想娶一个金发女郎，比尔真的娶了一个。按理，这里前面是未发生的事，后面却已发生，这里的 <b>a blonde</b> 究竟算不算前虚后实呢？其实后面也是虚的，因为说话者说到后面，仍然将这个女子除了“金发”之外的其他一切情况统统排除。他可能真的认识她，也可能除了听说“金发”这一点之外一无所知，但无论哪一种情况，他所说的有关她的情况，都同样是“虚指”。也就是说，以他实际说出多少信息为准，不以他知道多少信息为准。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(10)</span> <b>a</b> 与 <b>one</b> 用法的异同，参见 <b>one</b> 与 <b>a</b> 条。<br><br>
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able 与 capable
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>able 与 capable</b></div>两个形容词意义都是“能够的”，在许多场合可以互换，但也有一些重大的区别：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 在语法构造上，<b>able</b> 后面接 <b>to inf.</b>；<b>capable</b> 后面接 <b>of + -ing</b> 或 <b>of + 名词</b>。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> <b>able</b> 指本身有能力或客观条件允许具体实现某事；<b>capable</b> 则仅指本身能力的存在，但不强调其实现。这一点，当谓语动词是现在时态时，区别尚不明显，但当谓语动词是过去时态时，就明显了。He was <b><u>capable</u></b> of + -ing 只是说明过去有此潜在的能力或客观条件(这个 <b>was</b> 是延续的)，而 He was <b><u>able</u></b> to inf. 则表明这个能力或客观条件已经在当时的具体场合起了作用(这个 <b>was</b> 是瞬间的)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 与上条有关，<b>able</b> 常指具体单独的一件事，而 <b>capable</b> 则指笼统的一类事。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> <b>able</b> 涉及的方面比较广泛，包括本人的能力、财力、拥有的时间、人际关系、规章允许范围、机遇等等；而 <b>capable</b> 则涉及面较窄，只有本人的能力、本领、物力之类。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> <b>able</b> 由于多顾及正面的要求，所以很少用于负面恶劣的行为或心态；而 <b>capable</b> 则没有这样的限制。<br><br>下面举一些例句来说明：She is <b><u>able</u></b> to recite the whole poem from memory. 她能够将全诗背诵出来。(当前马上可以兑现的一项能力)He didn't arrive in time and wasn't <b><u>able</u></b> to attend the meeting. 他没能及时赶到，参加不了会议。(客观障碍，具体的一次)A lazy student, he isn't <b><u>capable</u></b> of finishing college this year. 他这个懒学生，今年大学毕不了业。(本身条件，趋势预测)The treatments are <b><u>incapable</u></b> of curing the disease. 各种疗法都无法治愈那病症。(按现时条件对将来的预测)They <b><u>were</u></b> finally <b><u>able to</u></b> expose (*capable of exposing) him. 他们终于揭发了他。(过去时，单独具体一事，已生效；用 <b>capable</b> 则只是表示当时有此可能)The fire spread quickly, but luckily everybody was <b><u>able</u></b> to escape (*was capable of escaping). 火势蔓延很快，不过所有人都幸免于难。(过去时，单独具体一事，已生效；用 <b>capable</b> 只表示当时有此能力，此处说不通)Your son is <b><u>capable</u></b> of becoming a successful musician. 你的儿子能成为成功的音乐家。(按现时能力对将来的预测)They are <b><u>capable</u></b> of violence. 他们是劲粗也干得出来的。(干坏事的可能性)Unlike her father, she is <b><u>capable</u></b> of sympathy. 她跟她父亲不一样，是能够同情他人的。(有良好感情的趋向)If he refrained from making advances, how could she know if she was <b><u>capable</u></b> of resisting him? 如果他忍住不再挑逗，她怎能知道自己能不能顶得住？(笼统的能力)
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abound
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>abound</b></div>是个表示延续状态的第一类动词，不及物，基本意义是“众多”，但是有两种不同的搭配。<br><br>一种搭配是：为数众多的事物(具体或抽象均可)作为主语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Rumours <b><u>abound</u></b>. 谣言纷起。/ Fish <b><u>abound</u></b> in this brook. 这条小溪鱼很多。</div><br><br>另一种搭配则是：承载的载体(具体或抽象均可)作为主语，为数众多的事物(具体或抽象均可)用 <b>with</b> 或 <b>in</b> 引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The hills <b><u>abound with</u></b> streams and waterfalls. 丘陵上面有许多溪流和瀑布。/ History <b><u>abounds with</u></b> examples. 历史事例很多。/ London <b><u>abounds in</u></b> public monuments. (Max Beerbohm, <i>And Even Now</i>) 伦敦有许多公共纪念碑。</div><br><br>
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about
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>about</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> (往往在 <b>there be</b> 句中或在有动词 <b>have</b> 的句中)表示在某人身上或某物之中的某种抽象性质。中国人往往因汉语的影响而使用 <b>in</b>。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There's something different <b><u>about</u></b> her. 她显得有点异样。/ There was much to admire <b><u>about</u></b> this man, butso much also to merit disdain. (Tom Clancy, <i>Clear and Present Danger</i>) 这个人有许多令人钦佩之处，也同样有许多值得鄙视之处。/ There was a defiant manner <b><u>about</u></b> this young man. 这个青年带有一种桀骜不驯的神情。/ There's something so selfish and insincere <b><u>about</u></b> him. 他给人一种自私和虚伪的印象。/ There's something peculiar <b><u>about</u></b> mankind. 人类有点特别。/ What I like <b><u>about</u></b> him is his sense of humour. 我喜欢的是他的幽默感。/ There was a steely confidence <b><u>about</u></b> her that Rachel liked. (Dan Brown, <i>Deception Point</i>) 她身上有一种雷切尔所喜欢的坚如钢铁的信心。/ There was outwardly a certain cynicism <b><u>about</u></b> him, ... (John Fowles, <i>The French Lieutenant's Woman</i>) 乍一看，他的确有些玩世不恭，……</div><div class="ex-item">Everything <b><u>about</u></b> him was old except his eyes ... (Ernest Hemingway, <i>The Old Man and the Sea</i>) 他身上的一切，除了那双眼睛，都是老的……</div><div class="ex-item">... if there's anything <b><u>about</u></b> an economy, it's that it's constantly in transition. (<i>U.S. News & World Report</i>, June 7, 2004, p. 38) 如果说经济有什么特点，那就是其经常处于过渡状态之中。/ The great thing <b><u>about</u></b> a notebook computer is that no matter how much you stuff into it, it doesn't get bigger or heavier. (Bill Gates) 一台笔记本电脑了不起的地方，就是无论你塞进多少东西，它都不会变大加重。/ There is indeed something distasteful <b><u>about</u></b> the appearance of small figures in a text. 文章中夹带小图，看起来的确有点令人不舒服。/ The place has a certain charm <b><u>about</u></b> it. 这地方有点吸引人之处。/ He saw nothing inappropriate <b><u>about</u></b> a captain shaving one of his soldiers. 他认为，一个上尉给自己的一个士兵刮胡子，并没有什么不对。/ But there was something <b><u>about</u></b> him that made it difficult for her to fake an enthusiasm she didn't feel. 但是他身上有这样一种气质，使得她难以假装热情。/ After all, there's nothing illegal or unethical <b><u>about</u></b> photographing prospective jurors. 归根到底，偷拍可能担任陪审员的人的照片，并没有什么违法或不道德之处。</div><br><br>有时候，动词不直接表示“有”而是表示“是”(<b>be</b>)，<b>about</b> 也有这样的含义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Two things were odd <b><u>about</u></b> the list. 这张单子有两点奇怪的地方。/ Some things <b><u>about</u></b> this age of change are unchanging. (<i>Time</i>, Aug. 8, 2005, p. 41) 在这个变幻多端的时代，有些东西还是不变的。</div><br><br>如果主体和所占之事物都是具体的，则不可以用 <b>about</b>，要用 <b>to</b>。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b><u>There is</u></b> depth and structure <b><u>to</u></b> the skin (of the fossilized dinosaur). ... <b><u>there is</u></b> a pattern of handing <b><u>to</u></b> the larger and smaller scales on the skin. (<i>The Associated Press</i>, Dec. 2, 2007) 恐龙化石的皮肤有厚度，有结构。……皮肤上的大小鳞甲有带状花纹。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> <b>about</b> 与 <b>on</b> 都表示“关于”：<b>about</b> 是一般的“谈及”，<b>on</b> 则是有一定学术水平的“论及”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a conversation <b><u>about</u></b> housekeeping 有关家政的谈话</div><div class="ex-item">a book for children <b><u>about</u></b> Mexico 一本向儿童介绍墨西哥的书</div><div class="ex-item">a lecture <b><u>on</u></b> theoretical physics 一场关于理论物理的讲课。</div><br><br>所用介词前后名词的正式程度，在这里都需要综合考虑在内。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a novel <b><u>about</u></b> (<i>on) love 一本有关爱情的小说</div><div class="ex-item">a film <b><u>about</u></b> (</i>on) Lincoln 一部有关林肯的影片</div><div class="ex-item">a thesis <b><u>on</u></b> (<i>about) Lincoln 一篇有关林肯的毕业论文</div><div class="ex-item">a speech <b><u>on</u></b> (</i>about) a political subject 一个有关政治的演说</div><div class="ex-item">a poem <b><u>about</u></b> (<i>on) the Holocaust 一首有关纳粹大屠杀的诗</div><div class="ex-item">a paper <b><u>on</u></b> (</i>about) the Holocaust 一篇有关纳粹大屠杀的论文。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 在表示“知晓；感知”的动词后面，用 <b>about</b> 比 <b>of</b> 表示了解得更为详细具体。例如：<b>know of</b> somebody 可能只是从书报电视上知道有此人，但 <b>know about</b> somebody 则是对此人有比较多的了解。表示“从不知到知”这一变化的 <b>learn of</b> 与 <b>learn about</b>，也有类似区别。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> <b>what X is all about</b> 是英语常用的词组，表示 X 是怎么一回事。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>That is <b><u>what our job is all about</u></b>. 那就是咱们工作的所有内容。也就是说，这里有一个公式：<b>X is all about Y</b>，其中 X 是个概括性的概念，Y 则是它较为具体的内容。所以即使不用 <b>what</b>，这个公式也成立。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Moving ahead <b><u>is</u></b> often <b><u>all about</u></b> making good choices from the start of any venture—professional or otherwise. 有选有成，往往就在于在任何事业刚开始时，无论是职业上的还是其他方面的事业，都做出良好的选择。</div><br><br>有时候 <b>all</b> 可以去掉。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But if he does it any more I shall certainly let him know that I see <b><u>what</u></b> he <b><u>is about</u></b>. (Jane Austen, <i>Pride and Prejudice</i>) 要是他再这样，我一定要叫他明白我并不是个糊涂蛋。(直译：我一定要叫他明白我知道他的老底。)</div><div class="ex-item">Successful truffle-making <b><u>is about</u></b> temperature control. 做软糖要成功，关键在于控制好温度。/ Political courage <b><u>is</u></b> not <b><u>about</u></b> standing up for what's easy and popular with the people who elect you. (Susan Estrich, <i>The Daily Gazette</i>, Aug. 27, 2008, A9) 政治勇气，并不在于挺身去抓住轻松而易举而且讨选民欢心的事情。/ But this project is more than <b><u>about</u></b> beautifying a theater. It's <b><u>about</u></b> revitalizing Schenectady, restoring pride in Schenectady and getting everyone to work together. (<i>The Daily Gazette</i>, Mar. 5, 2009, A6) 但是这个工程不单单是要美化一座剧院。它是要重振斯肯内克塔迪，要恢复人们对该地的自豪感，要使得人人都协同心协力。</div><br><br>但是这个 <b>X is (all) about Y</b> 的表达法，有些语言上保守的人士认为不高雅，所以在比较正式的书面英语中不常用。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> <b>do X about Y</b> 有“对 Y 这种负面的情况采取 X 办法加以弥补”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The question is, what can be done <b><u>about</u></b> it. 问题在于对此有什么办法。/ There's nothing we can do <b><u>about</u></b> it. 我们对此束手无策。</div><br><br>
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above
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>above</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> <b>above</b> 与 <b>over</b> 都可以表示超过某一数量。<b>above</b> 通常用于表示垂直高度上的“超过，高于，多于”，如高度、温度(具体体现为垂直的水银柱)、平均数(所有数据形成的一条抽象的线上的一点)等等。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>only two degrees <b><u>above</u></b> zero 仅仅零上 2 度</div><div class="ex-item">3,000 meters <b><u>above</u></b> sea level 海拔 3,000 米</div><div class="ex-item"><b><u>above</u></b> average in IQ 智商高于平均数。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> <b>above</b> 与 <b>over</b> 后面都可以接一个数量，表示比这个数量还多，但是 <b>above</b> 往往暗示“超过了这个数量限度”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b><u>Above</u></b> 200 people: Please call the restaurant at least 48 hours in advance for special arrangements and pricing. 超过 200 人：务请至少提前 48 小时电话告知本餐馆，以便特别安排及计价。/ It is <b><u>above</u></b> a week since I saw Miss Crawford. (Jane Austen, <i>Mansfield Park</i>) 我已经有一个多礼拜没有看见克劳福德小姐了。/ He doesn't look <b><u>above</u></b> forty. (Arnold Bennett, <i>The Journals of Arnold Bennett</i>, ed. Frank Swinnerton) 他不像是个 40 开外的人。此外，“<b>above + 数量</b>”不能作为主语放在句首，<b>over</b> 则可。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> <b>above</b> 与 <b>beyond</b> 可以互换，表示“超出了某范围；不可能”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Our love for the country is <b><u>above</u></b> reproach. 我们对国家的爱是无可指责的。/ The director ought to be <b><u>above</u></b> suspicion. 主任应该是不可怀疑的。/ His analysis is <b><u>above</u></b> criticism. 他的分析是无懈可击的。/ I thought you were <b><u>above</u></b> that kind of thing. 我还以为你是不屑干那种事的呢。但 <b>above</b> 也可以表示肯定的加强语气。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b><u>above</u></b> all praise 无论如何赞扬都不过分。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> <b>above</b> 有时候可以表示“比……更加”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>As his daughter, she <b><u>above</u></b> all others should know that. 她是他女儿，应该比谁都更加明白。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> <b>above + -ing</b> 可以表示“不屑做某事”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He is not <b><u>above</u></b> inventing relatives. He might say, "My cousin, Baron Guy de Rothschild ..." 他甚至会捏造出一些假亲戚来。他会说：“我的表兄罗特希尔德男爵……”</div><div class="ex-item">They were not <b><u>above</u></b> any act of crime. 他们是什么犯罪行为都做得出来的。在美国总统竞选中，如果说某个候选人 <b>run <u>above</u> the issues</b>，意思就是他只是就整个局势发表意见，不对具体问题拿出解决办法。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> <b>above</b> 还可以作为名词(前面必须加定冠词 <b>the</b>)，表示“本文上面所说的内容”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The <b><u>above</u></b> demonstrates that ... 以上所述，表明了……但是要注意，不能拿它的反义词 <b>below</b> 做同样的用途来表示“如下所述”，即不能说：*The below demonstrates that ...</div>
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absent
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>absent</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> <b>absent from</b> 指“不在”某个按常理预计会在的地方，而且这个“不在”造成一定的后果。因此，如果是临时离开一下，不用 <i>absent from。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I called on him unexpectedly but he was out (或 not in，不说 </i>absent)。我临时去拜访他，他不在家。/ He has never been <b><u>absent from</u></b> school. 他从来不缺课。也就是说，<b>absent from</b> 通常用于主语按常理与 <b>from</b> 后面的地点有固定联系的情况(因而 <b>absent from</b> 这个地点就多少显得有点不平常)，否则就不自然，例如不应说某儿童 *absent from 某老人院。</div><br><br>表示本来以为某地有某物，结果发现并没有，也可以用 <b>absent from</b>，以表示认识上的一个变化。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We can see why whole groups of organisms ... should be <b><u>absent from</u></b> oceanic islands, whilst the most isolated islands possess their own peculiar species of aerial mammals or bats. (Charles Darwin, <i>The Origin of Species</i>) 我们可以看到，为什么整批的有机体……在海岛上看不到，而那些最为隔绝的岛屿，却有自己独特的空中的哺乳动物亦即蝙蝠的品种。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> <b>absent in</b> 可以有两种截然相反的含义，一种是“不在通常所在之处而在某地”，另一种则是“在……不存在”，或“在某地”。如何判别，方法比较简单。如果主语是人，<b>in</b> 后面是个表示地点的名词，该地点并非该人经常所在之处，那么 <b>absent in</b> 就是“不在通常所在之处而在某地”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Mr. Allworthy had been <b><u>absent</u></b> a full quarter of a year <b><u>in</u></b> London, ... (Henry Fielding, <i>The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling</i>) 阿尔沃西先生原先离开此地到伦敦去了整整一个季度，……(按照小说故事，Allworthy 经常住在 Somersetshire，不在 London)</div><div class="ex-item">... there were some of the legatees whose place of abode was unknown, or even whose persons were not known, or who were <b><u>absent in</u></b> a remote country, so that it was not possible (for the executor of a testament) to acquaint them (Jean Domat, <i>The Civil Law in Its Natural Order</i>) ……有些遗产接受人居住地址不明，甚至身份也不明，或者不在此地而身处远方，因而(遗嘱执行人)无法通知他们。/ Much of his trade was with France, and his son was born while he was <b><u>absent in</u></b> that country. 他的生意很大部分是同法国进行的，他儿子也是当他离家在法国时出生的。/ In the fourteenth year of the reign of King Henry the Third, he was made captain-general of the king's forces in Brittany, and, whilst <b><u>absent in</u></b> that country, a war broke out in Ireland, whereupon he was sent to that kingdom with a considerable army to restore tranquility. (Charles G. Addison, <i>The History of the Knights Templars: The Temple Church</i>) 在亨利三世在位的第十四年，他被任命为国王驻布列塔尼部队的总兵，而正当他不在国内而在布列塔尼的时候，爱尔兰爆发了战争，他就被指派率领一支大军到那个王国去恢复秩序。/ ... he has become financial adviser to Romania. He was <b><u>absent in</u></b> that country during the period of my stay in France. ……他成了罗马尼亚的财政顾问。我在法国期间，他不在法国而在罗马尼亚。</div><br><br>如果主语不是人而是物，或者是抽象事物，或者 <b>in</b> 后面的名词不是明确的地点而是其他事物，则 <b>absent in</b> 就是“在……不存在”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Snow is <b><u>absent in</u></b> some countries. 有些国家终年无雪。/ Measles is virtually <b><u>absent in</u></b> these countries. 麻疹在这些国家实际上已经绝迹了。/ Mutation is a sudden change in a gene which enables a child to inherit a characteristic totally <b><u>absent in</u></b> his or her parents. 变异是一个基因发生的突然变化，它使得一个孩子获得其父母身上根本没有的特征。/ The recent paintings in this show, from 2003, introduce an element of color <b><u>absent in</u></b> his earlier work. 这次展览中，2003 年以后的近期画作采用了他早期作品中所没有的一种用色手法。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> <b>absent</b> 是个形容词，但有时也可以放在已有限定词的名词前面当作介词使用，相当于 <b>without</b>，表示“在缺乏……的情况下”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b><u>Absent</u></b> such a direct threat, Mr. Carter professes to feel no pressure. (William Safire, in <i>The New York Times</i>, Dec. 20, 1976) 既然没有这样一个直接的威胁，卡特先生就装作不感到有什么压力了。/ Those strategies are being shaped <b><u>absent</u></b> any real knowledge of what Fitzgerald might do before the grand jury's scheduled dissolution on Oct. 28. (<i>Time</i>, Oct. 24, 2005) 那些对策目前在形成过程中，尚未知道菲兹杰拉德在大陆审团预定 10 月 28 日解散之前会有何行动。/ <b><u>Absent</u></b> any in-place protection against the missiles described here, "defense" means either a counteroffensive, nuclear retaliation or open-ended diplomacy, cease-fires and negotiation. 既然对这里所描述的导弹没有什么当场防御的办法，那么，所谓“防御”，要么是反攻、核报复，要么就是没完没了的外交交涉、停火和谈判。</div><br><br>
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absolutely
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>absolutely</b></div>这个副词，自 19 世纪末 20 世纪初开始，在英国口语中就逐渐流行，用来代替表示肯定回答的 <b>yes</b>。当时马克·吐温和稍后的詹姆斯·乔伊斯都这样用过。含义没有我们通常认为的“绝对”这样重。<br><br>
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academy
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>academy</b></div>不一定是高级的“学院”，在美国也可以指一些私立的高中，如著名的 Phillips Academy (布什父子三人都是该校毕业生)，以前北京也有 Bridgeman Academy (贝满女中)。<br><br>
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accept
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>accept</b></div><b>accept</b> 与 <b>receive</b> 含义不同。前者是“同意，接受”，后者只是“收到”。前者涉及本人的意志，后者则与本人愿不愿意无关。因此，如果劝某人不要接受某邀请，应该说 not to <b><u>accept</u></b> the invitation，而不是 not to <b><u>receive</u></b> the invitation。<br><br>
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accident
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>accident</b></div>也可以不指“事故”，而是“尿床”，或是“尿裤子”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The child had a little <b><u>accident</u></b>. 孩子尿裤子了。/ Should you have an <b><u>accident</u></b>, synthetic quilts are quite easy to wash. 万一尿了床，化纤被子是很容易洗的。</div><br><br>
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accompany
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>accompany</b></div><b>accompany somebody</b> 与 <b>keep somebody company</b> 参见 <b>company</b> 条之(4)。<br><br>
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according as
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>according as</b></div><b>according to</b> (见下一词条)是介词短语，后面引入的是名词成分；<b>according as</b> 则是连词短语，后面引入的是从句。这个连词短语有些人认为不规范，不过莎士比亚作品和《圣经》中都有用例。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Is all things well, <b><u>according as</u></b> I gave directions? (Shakespeare, <i>2 Henry VI</i>) 一切都妥当，都照我吩咐的那样吗？/ The land which the Lord will give you, <b><u>according as</u></b> he hath promised ... (<i>Exodus</i> 12:25) ……耶和华按着所应许赐给你们的那地……</div><br><br>从这几个例句看来，<b>according as</b> 意思是“按照”，后面接的是单独一个固定的意思。这个意思也可以是不固定的、可变的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Each of us will give <b><u>according as</u></b> we're able. 我们每人都会根据自己的能力做贡献的。/ In like manner, again, <b><u>according as</u></b> the ulterior development of the representation varies, so does the whole development of the man vary. (Hippolyte Adolphe Taine, <i>Introduction to the History of English Literature</i>) 同样，表象的进一步发展情况不同，这个人的进一步发展也就随之而不同。</div><br><br>但是 <b>according as</b> 后面也可以有两个意思(用 <b>or</b> 连接)，表示“因 X 或 Y 的不同而不同”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b><u>According as</u></b> actual loss to the injured party following upon the act of the wrong-doer is <b><u>or</u></b> is not essential to its tortuous character. (Thomas Erskine Holland, <i>The Elements of Jurisprudence</i>) 要看加害方的行为使得受害方蒙受的实际损失是否实质上构成侵权。/ <b><u>According as</u></b> the representation is distinct, as if stamped by a coining-press, <b><u>or</u></b> confused and blurred; <b><u>according as</u></b> it concentrates in itself a larger <b><u>or</u></b> smaller number of the characters of an object; <b><u>according as</u></b> it is violent and accompanied withimpulsions <b><u>or</u></b> tranquil and surrounded with calmness, so are all the operations and the whole running-gear of the human machine entirely transformed. (Hippolyte Adolphe Taine, <i>Introduction to the History of English Literature</i>) 表象或则像钱币压模机压出来的那样清清楚楚，或则模糊不清；它对于一个对象，或则集中了其大量的特征，或则只是集中较少的特征；它或则猛烈冲动，或则平和安详，因而人类机械的一切运作和整个传动装置都随之而改进。</div><br><br>后面还可以进一步有两个以上的意思，其中最后两个也是用 <b>or</b> 连接。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It (= the lever) is usually named as the first of the six mechanical powers, and is of three kinds, <b><u>according as</u></b> either the fulcrum F, the weight W, <b><u>or</u></b> the power P, respectively, is situated between the other two. 杠杆通常列在六种机械力的首位，本身又分为三类，视支点 F、阻力点 W 和动力点 P 三者任一个在其他两者中间而分。</div><br><br>
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according to
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>according to</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 客观复述他人的意见或说法，并不一定表示同意，而且后面可以直接是人，不用再加上“意见，说法”等字样。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b><u>According to</u></b> Dr. Santos, the cause of death was drowning. (不习惯说 *according to Dr. Santos's opinion) 据桑托斯医生的意见，死因是溺水。</div><br><br>既然 <b>according to</b> 表示对意见或说法持客观复述不加可否的态度，那么，说出自己的看法，就不能说 <i>according to me，更不能说 </i>according to my opinion，而应该说 <b>in my opinion</b>。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 后面也可以不是人而是某一有形的资讯实物(不是非物质的“意见，说法”)，此时 <b>according to</b> 也是客观的复述，不一定表示同意。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's nearly half past six, <b><u>according to</u></b> my watch. 按照我的手表，已经将近六点半了。(但我的手表也可能不准确)</div>
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according to 与 in accordance with
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>according to 与 in accordance with</b></div>两者在“遵照(某一规定或计划)”这个意义上(而且引入状语词组而非表语词组)可以互换。<b>according to</b> 倾向于客观“复述”，不加自己的意见，不一定自己认为就是如此。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He and his father, <b><u>according to</u></b> local gossip, haven't been in touch for years. 据当地传言，他和他父亲已经多年没有来往了。</div><br><br>句子如果是叙述动作的，<b>according to</b> 则引入这个动作的方式。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The work was done <b><u>according to</u></b> his instructions. 工作是按照他指点的那样完成的。(不是“按照他(应该把工作做了)的指点，做了工作”。)</div><div class="ex-item">They played the game <b><u>according to</u></b> the rules. 他们按照规则玩游戏。(不是“按照必须玩游戏的规则，他们玩了游戏”。)</div><b>in accordance with</b> 则是“遵照”某一规定或某一计划来做某事，没有客观“复述”的含义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b><u>In accordance with</u></b> your instructions, we have done the following: ……遵照您的指示，我们采取了如下措施：……</div><br><br>
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accountability, liability 与 responsibility
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>accountability, liability 与 responsibility</b></div>参见 <b>responsibility, liability</b> 与 <b>accountability</b> 条。<br><br>
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accounted for
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>accounted for</b></div>这个词组甚至成了正式的形容词，可以直接放在名词前面(注意后面的名词不是 <b>for</b> 的宾语)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>list of already <b><u>accounted for</u></b> objects 已有下落物品清单(最好加连字符：<b>accounted-for</b>)。否定形式也可以用 <b>unaccounted for</b>。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> (被动语态，延续状态)已经计算在内。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>These transactions are already <b><u>accounted for</u></b> on the balance sheet. 这些交易已经列入了收支表中。/ However, these costs are often discounted within the organization because they're already <b><u>accounted for</u></b> in payroll expenses. 但是，这些成本往往在组织内是刨去的，因为已经计算在工资支出内了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> (主动语态，延续状态)占总量当中多大的份额。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In 1991 women already <b><u>accounted for</u></b> more than 50% of jobs in certain services. 1991 年，妇女在某些服务业中已经占了 50% 以上的职位。/ Table 9 also shows that in some cases immigrants already <b><u>accounted for</u></b> a large share of births in 1970. 表 9 还表明，在某些情况中，移民在 1970 年占了出生人数当中很大的份额。</div><br><br>
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account for
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>account for</b></div>这个动词词组，语法作用相当于一个及物动词(可以有被动形式 <b>be accounted for</b>)，其释义是：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> (主语是人或事)解释、说明(其经过或理由)(是个延续状态动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span> How do you <b><u>account for</u></b> the dent in the car? 车身上的凹痕你又做何解释呢？/ That would <b><u>account for</u></b> his behavior. 那也许能说明他为什么有这样的行为。/ Bad weather <b><u>accounted for</u></b> the long delay. 耽搁时间那么长，原因是天气恶劣。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> (主语是人)交代清楚(是个瞬时动态动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I have to <b><u>account for</u></b> every penny I spend. 我花的每一分钱都必须交代清楚。/ One thousand dollars remains to <b><u>be accounted for</u></b>. 还有一千美元尚未交代清楚。/ Do I have to <b><u>account</u></b> to you <b><u>for</u></b> everything I do? 难道我做什么事情都得向你交代吗？/ You'll have to <b><u>account</u></b> to me <b><u>for</u></b> whatever happens to her. 她出了什么事情，我都唯你是问。/ The suspect couldn't <b><u>account for</u></b> his time that night. 嫌疑犯无法交代那天夜里他干了些什么。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 查明下落(是个瞬时动态动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Kip Godwin, chairman of the Columbus County Commission, said authorities had nearly concluded their search of the area where all the deaths occurred ... and had <b><u>accounted for</u></b> everyone. (The Associated Press, Nov. 16, 2006) 哥伦布县委员会主席基普·戈德温说，当局已经基本对致死事件发生的那个地区完成了搜索……并查明了所有人的下落。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> (被动语态，延续状态)已经知道下落。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Another 3,400 employees have made initial contact with the company but are not working and 500 are not yet <b><u>accounted for</u></b>. 另有 3,400 人初步同公司取得了联系，但尚未上班，500 人仍然下落不明。/ We suspected thousands had been killed, and many who worked in the World Trade Center and the Pentagon were not yet <b><u>accounted for</u></b>. 我们估计已有好几千人丧生，还有许多在世界贸易中心和五角大楼上班的人仍然下落不明。</div>
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-ache
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>-ache</b></div>身体各部位的疼痛，通常就在 <b>-ache</b> 之前加上该部位的名称，成为一个复合名词(但不是自由组合)。但是要注意的是：这些不同的复合名词，有的属于可数名词，有的则属于不可数名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>headache</b> (头痛)是可数名词，可以说 <b>a</b> <b>headache</b>，英式英语和美式英语都是如此。但是在英式英语中，<b>backache</b> (背痛)、<b>earache</b> (耳痛)、<b>stomachache</b> (胃痛)、<b>toothache</b> (牙痛)等属于不可数名词，而在美式英语中，这些名词如果指的是具体的一次疼痛，则仍然当作可数名词处理。试比较：I've got <b><u>toothache</u></b>. (英式英语)</div><div class="ex-item">I have <b><u>a toothache</u></b>. (美式英语) 我牙痛。</div><br><br>
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acquaint
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>acquaint</b></div>作为及物动词，是“使某人熟悉某事物”，不是“自己熟悉”，而且是个瞬时动态动词。“自己熟悉”就应该加直接宾语 <b>oneself</b>，熟悉什么，用介词 <b>with</b> 引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'll <b><u>acquaint</u></b> you <b><u>with</u></b> the facts. 我要把情况向您介绍一下。/ I had <b><u>acquainted myself with</u></b> their customs. 我了解了他们的风俗习惯。</div><br><br>但是 <b>acquaint somebody with</b> 后面只能是事情，不能是人。如果是人，<b>acquaint</b> 要变换一下，成为 <b>make somebody acquainted with somebody else</b>。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'd like to <b><u>make you acquainted with</u></b> my brother. 我想让您认识一下我哥哥。</div><br><br>无论是 <b>acquaint</b> 还是 <b>make ... acquainted</b>，都是瞬时动态动词，表示“从不熟悉到熟悉”的瞬时变化。但 <b>be acquainted</b> 则通常不指瞬时变化，而表示延续状态，指无限延续的“熟悉”状态，<b>with</b> 后面是人或是事物均可。<br><br>
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acquaintance
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>acquaintance</b></div>这个名词的用法和搭配，中国人可能不大习惯。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 可以指人，意思是“熟人，有交情的人”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We're old <b><u>acquaintances</u></b>. 咱们彼此是老熟人了。/ He has a wide circle of <b><u>acquaintances</u></b>. 他的交友范围很广。/ They were nothing more than casual <b><u>acquaintances</u></b>. 他们只是萍水相逢而已。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> “熟人关系；交情”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There's a doctor of my <b><u>acquaintance</u></b> in the hospital. 医院里有我认识的一位大夫。/ strike up an <b><u>acquaintance</u></b> 结交一个熟人</div><div class="ex-item">his <b><u>acquaintance</u></b> with the minister 他同部长的交情</div><div class="ex-item">have a nodding/passing <b><u>acquaintance</u></b> with somebody/something 同某人有点点头之交/对某事物略知一二</div><div class="ex-item">I'm pleased/delighted to make your <b><u>acquaintance</u></b>. 很高兴同您结识。(这个特别的结构可能来自法文 <i>faire votre connaissance</i>，也可以采取接近中文的结构，说 <b>make acquaintance with you</b>。)</div>除了 <b>make</b> 之外，<b>acquaintance</b> 前面还可以有其他动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>By a lucky chance it excited attention, and various persons <b><u>sought</u></b> my <b><u>acquaintance</u></b>. (Somerset Maugham, <i>The Moon and Sixpence</i>) 由于偶然的因缘这本书引起了人们的注意，不少人想要同我结识。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 涉及对人或物的了解。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>On first <b><u>acquaintance</u></b>, the city seems quite old. 初来乍到时一看，这城市似乎相当古老。/ On closer <b><u>acquaintance</u></b>, I found her quite easy to get along with. 经过进一步熟悉，我发现她很好相处。</div><br><br>
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across, across ... from ..., across from ... 与 from across ...
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>across, across ... from ..., across from ... 与 from across ...</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> <b>across</b> 可以是副词，也可以是介词；而无论是副词还是介词，都可以是动态的，或者是静态的。中国人比较习惯于将 <b>across</b> 单纯理解为动态的介词(“穿过，越过”)，对于它作为动态的副词、静态的介词与副词，不是十分习惯。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> <b>across</b> 作为动态的副词，中国人还是比较容易接受的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The signalturned green and we walked <b><u>across</u></b>. 绿灯亮了，我们就穿过马路了。/ The boatman ferried them <b><u>across</u></b>. 船工把他们送到了渡口对面。/ She passed the photo <b><u>across</u></b>. 她把照片递了过来。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> <b>across</b> 作为静态的介词，意思是“位于某物的另一边”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They live just <b><u>across</u></b> the road. 他们就住在马路对面。/ The parking garage is just <b><u>across</u></b> the bridge on the left. 停车库就在桥那头左边。/ <b><u>Across</u></b> the floor in men's casual wear you could buy almost anything except British. (<i>The Sunday Times</i>, Oct. 31, 1982) 这一层楼的另一边是男便服部，那里什么都可以买到，就唯独英国货买不到。/ The idea of being in contact with all those silhouetted shadows he saw thronging before the windows and passing in and out of the doors <b><u>across</u></b> the street—it gave him a nausea. (John Fowles, <i>The French Lieutenant's Woman</i>) 他影影绰绰地看到他们涌到橱窗前，看到他们在门口进进出出，络绎不绝，他厌恶跟这些人打交道。(这里 <b>across the street</b> 中的 <b>across</b> 是静态的，意思是“在马路对面”，不是动态的“穿过马路在门口进进出出”。)</div>如果主语是两件东西，说它们 <b>across</b> 第三物，意思就是两物中间隔着第三物而相对着。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Their rooms are <b><u>across</u></b> the hall. 他们两人的房间中间隔着大厅。</div><br><br>但是，<b>across</b> 如果同 <b>from</b> 配合使用，就有如下的情况：(a) 如果要说“在 X 的对面”，英文用 <b>across from X</b> (仍然是静态的，但这里的 <b>across</b> 其实是副词而非介词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I sat next to Lori, and Peter and Anne sat <b><u>across from</u></b> us. 我坐在洛里旁边，彼得和安妮坐在我们对面。/ The supermarket is just <b><u>across from</u></b> the theater. 超市就在剧院对面。</div><br><br>英式英语则更习惯用介词 <b>opposite</b> 来代替 <b>across from</b>。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She was sitting <b><u>opposite</u></b> him. 她坐在他对面。</div>(b) 把 <b>across from</b> 颠倒为 <b>from across</b>，则恢复动态意义。<br><br>后面的名词如果指的是一个空间，而且行动所涉及的是两个个体，则意思是从这空间的一侧到另一侧。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He cried out to them <b><u>from across</u></b> the room. 他从房间的另一头向他们喊叫。</div><br><br>如果后面的名词所指的是一个区域，涉及多个个体，则意思是“来自这个区域的各处”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>messages <b><u>from across</u></b> the country 全国各地传来的信息</div><div class="ex-item">trade news <b><u>from across</u></b> the world 来自全世界的商业新闻</div><div class="ex-item">The meeting drew 1,500 participants <b><u>from across</u></b> the state. 集会吸引了全州各地 1,500 人前来参加。</div><br><br>如果后面的名词所指的是一条“线”，则意思是“在(或从)线的另一侧”(静态、动态意义都可以)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the lady <b><u>from across</u></b> the street 马路对面的那位女士。</div>
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across from
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>across from</b></div>后面可以是一个“点”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's <b><u>across from</u></b> the hotel. 就在旅馆对面。但是 <b>from across</b> 后面通常不能是“点”，应该是“线”或“面”，甚至“体”。</div>(c) 说“中间隔着 Y 而与 X 相对”，英文用 <b>across Y from X</b>。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>directly <b><u>across</u></b> the street <b><u>from</u></b> the synagogue 隔着马路与犹太教堂相对。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> <b>across</b> 作为静态的副词，可以表示“位于(不明言的某物的)另一边”(如果明言某物，就用 <b>from</b>，见上面 <b>across from</b>)，或者“有多宽”或“直径有多长”(前面有表示长度的数量)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They're already across. 他们已经到了对面了。/ It's 30 cm across. 它的直径为30厘米。/ 它宽30厘米。</div><br><br>
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active 与 positive
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>active 与 positive</b></div>两者在中文里都有“积极”的意思，区别参见 positive 条。<br><br>
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actually
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>actually</b></div>这个副词，可以表示“真正，的确”，也可以表示转折的“其实”。<br><br>表示“真正，的确”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She's actually very bright. 她的确很聪明。/ I never believed I'd actually win. 我从未认为自己会真的获胜。/ ... but as I have actually paid the visit, we cannot escape the acquaintance now. (Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice) ……现在既然拜访也拜访过了，我们今后就少不了要结交这个朋友。</div><br><br>表示转折的“其实”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Sea anemones may resemble pretty flowers, but actually they are deadly animals. (Murray T. Pringle, Boy's Life) 海葵看起来可能像是美丽的花朵，但其实是致命的动物。</div><br><br>actually 还可以有“反面，反倒(与前面所说的恰恰相反)”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>ANTIOXIDANTS: Not only could these be a waste of money, but one pill may actually increase cancer risk. (健康书广告)抗氧化剂：这些东西不但是白费金钱，而且吃一粒反而会加大癌症的风险。/ Why so-called "diet" foods actually make you gain weight? 为什么所谓“食疗”食品反倒会使你增加体重?</div><div class="ex-item">A tight grip is actually a sign of a weak hand. (Bill Clinton) 握得紧反倒是握力弱的信号。/ Q: Do I really need to apply antibiotic ointment every time I get a cut, scrape or burn? A: No, and sometimes it can actually be harmful. (Consumer Reports, On Health) 问：我每次割伤、刮伤或烧伤，是不是都要抹上抗生素软膏? 答：不，有时候这样反而有害。/ I wasn't called up by the army. Actually, I volunteered. (Randolph Quirk et al., A Grammar of Contemporary English) 我不是被征召入伍的，我反倒是自愿入伍的。参见 instead 条。</div><br><br>
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act 与 action
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>act 与 action</b></div>两者区别不大。一些细微的区别是：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> act 常常指单个的动作，action 则可以指范围较广的一整套行为。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The movie will have to pack all the action into less than three hours. 影片将要把全部剧情压缩到三小时之内。/ The Knopf edition (= an English version of Tolstoy's War and Peace), in contrast, comes laden with a long introduction by Pevear, heavy annotation, a historical glossary of people and places and a summary of the action. (Newsweek, Oct. 15, 2007, p. 81) 诺普夫版的译本则反之，加上了佩维阿尔的一篇长长的序言，又有大量的注释、人名地名的历史词汇表以及故事梗概。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> act 用于比较抽象和静态的行为，action 的行为则比较具体可见，而且动态意义较强。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Yet as the years passed, more Americans came to see the pardon as an act (*action) of unusual statesmanship. (Newsweek, Jan. 8, 2007, p. 32) ……然而随着岁月流逝，越来越多的美国人把这个特赦看作是一个不平常的政治家风度之举。/ The CEO vowed not to take any action that would eliminate jobs. 首席执行官许诺绝不采取任何削减工作机会的行动。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 修饰 act 的定语，通常用 act of + 名词(或动名词)来表示，这个名词或动名词是 act 的具体化或评价。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... performing numerous acts of kindness to those in need (The Times Literary Supplement, Feb. 8, 1968) ……进行许多救助危难者的行动</div><div class="ex-item">an act of arson 纵火行为</div><div class="ex-item">the act of reading 阅读行为。</div><br><br>action 的定语则通常以形容词(或名词)形式放在 action 前面。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a protest action (*an action of protest) 抗议行动</div><div class="ex-item">a political action 政治行动</div><div class="ex-item">unilateral actions 单方面行动。</div><br><br>如果 action 后面有 of + 名词，这个名词通常是 action 的施动者。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... the future of our children depends in great measure on the actions of our political leaders. (Lena L. Gitter, Children's House) ……我们孩子们的前途，在很大程度上要取决于我们那些政治领导人的行动。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> action 可以是可数名词，也可以是不可数名词；而 act 则只能是可数名词。因此，action 可以不要任何冠词；act 作单数时则通常要有 a 或 the。action 作为不可数名词时，意义是抽象而非具体个别的“行动”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>egalitarianism in action (<i>act) 见诸行动的平均主义</div><div class="ex-item">take decisive action (</i>act) 采取决定性的行动</div><div class="ex-item">press for Congressional action 敦促国会采取行动。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> action 还可以放在另一个名词前面作为其定语，这是 act 所不能的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>action movie 武打片</div><div class="ex-item">action group 行动小组</div><div class="ex-item">action level (达到政府采取行动干预的)食品含毒浓度</div><div class="ex-item">action painting 抽象派的泼洒画</div><div class="ex-item">action radius (军队的)行动半径</div><div class="ex-item">action replay 体育比赛精彩场面录像的重放。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> action 常常在观念上同 words (言词)相对，表示“实际行动”而非“空谈”(这也是 act 所不能表示的)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Their actions show them to be untrustworthy. 他们的行动表明了他们是不可信的。/ Actions speak louder than words. 行动胜过言词。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> action 还在军事上表示“战斗，作战”(act 没有这个意义)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>killed in action 阵亡</div><div class="ex-item">go into action 加入战斗</div><div class="ex-item">He'd seen action, that was plain enough from the shrapnel scar running into the right eye. 他是经历过战争的，这一点，从那个一直延伸到他右眼的弹片伤痕就可以一望而知。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> 在有些固定词组中，act 与 action 不能随便更换。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>caught in the act (<i>action) 当场抓获</div><div class="ex-item">take action (</i>act) 采取行动</div><div class="ex-item">go into action (<i>act) 采取行动</div><div class="ex-item">out of action (</i>act) 不起作用，发生故障</div><div class="ex-item">class action (*act) (法律用语)集体诉讼。</div><br><br>
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A.D.
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>A.D.</b></div>A.D. 与 B.C. 分别是“公元”与“公元前”。但是，A.D. 是拉丁文 Anno Domini (the year of the Lord) 的缩写，指的是年份，而 B.C. 则是 Before Christ 的缩写，可以指年份，也可以指世纪。因此，不能说 *the second century A.D.，但可以说 A.D. 197 或者 197 A.D. (注意：A.D. 放在年份前后均可)。“公元前 197 年”或“公元前三世纪”可以分别说 197 B.C. 与 the third century B.C. (注意：B.C. 放在年份或世纪后面)。<br><br>
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adapt
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>adapt</b></div>这个动词(瞬时动态)可以是及物的，也可以是不及物的。作为及物动词，它的直接宾语通常是物而不是人，adapt X to Y 是对 X 加以改变或调整，使之适应 Y。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We adapted our methods to the students' needs. 我们调整了方法，使之适应学生们的需要。而 adapt X for Y 是进行改编、改写的意思。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They adapted the novel for television. 他们把小说改编成电视剧。</div><br><br>如果指人改变自己去适应某事物，既可以说 adapt oneself to something，也可以把 adapt 变为不及物动词，说 adapt to something。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He cannot adapt/adapt himself to being free. 他对自己获得自由不能适应。</div><br><br>
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add
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>add</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为及物动词(瞬时动态，即第四类动词)，add 的基本搭配是 add X to Y (主语是有意识者，通常是人)，即原已有 Y，现在在上面加上 X (主语亦即主动者，是人)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>add his name to the list 名单上加上他的名字</div><div class="ex-item">add fuel to the fire 给火增添燃料</div><div class="ex-item">We added our voices to the chorus of protest. 我们在一片抗议声中也加进去了自己的声音。/ We were soaked, added to which, it was starting to snow. 我们身上湿透了，而且还开始下雪了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 但是，如果主语不是人，而是新增之物或是使得 Y 加大的原因，不说明主动者是谁，则可以简化为 add to Y。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He is given answers that only add to his confusion. 他得到的回答，只是使得他更加莫名其妙。/ Looters Add to Woes 抢劫者加重了灾情 (2005年9月的美国报纸报道新奥尔良水灾后有人趁火打劫的新闻的标题)</div><div class="ex-item">Adding to his problem was that, to achieve anything at all, he had either to subdue those feelings or keep them to himself. 问题更大的是，为了办成一点事，他不得不把这些情绪要么压下去，要么藏在自己心里。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 有时也可以说 add X (主语可以是主动的人，也可以是原因)，Y 略而不提，表示“增添”某种新因素。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This will add a touch of class. 这会增添一点高雅气息。/ The West Wing was added later. 西翼是后来增建的。/ Occasionally, a real fireman would come in to add reality. 有时候会有一个真的消防员前来参加(防火演习)，增加真实感。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> add up (合起来)，可以相当于一个及物动词，也可以相当于一个不及物动词。(a) 相当于及物动词时，add up X 或 add X up 是“把 X 加到一起成为一个总量”或“把 X 放到一起通盘考虑”(瞬时动态动词，第四类动词，主语是人)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Add up all your expenses. 把你的开支都加到一起。/ We added up the advantages and disadvantages. 我们对各种利弊进行了通盘考虑。/ You'll find the solution when you add it all up. 通盘考虑，就能找出解决办法。</div>(b) 相当于不及物动词时，add up 意思是“加起来同意料中的总数相符”(延续状态动词，第一类动词，主语不是人，而是零散的数量)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I can't get the accounts to add up. 账目我怎么也对不起来。/ It seems to add up differently every time. 每次加起来的总数都不一样。/ The bill doesn't add up. 账单数目不对头。</div><br><br>还可以转义为“说得通”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Now it adds up! 这一来就对头了!</div><div class="ex-item">Why would she lie? It doesn't add up. 她何必撒谎呢? 这不合情理嘛。/ Something doesn't add up. 事有蹊跷。 (5) add up to 后面有宾语，意思是“加起来成为，加起来相当于，相当于”(延续状态动词，第一类动词，主语不是人而是事物)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Two and two add up to four. 二加二得四。/ It adds up to quite a lot of money. 总数加起来，这笔钱可不小。/ I wouldn't say it adds up to treachery. 我看还不到背叛这么严重。/ It all adds up to a wonderful show. 简直是一场精彩的演出。/ It doesn't add up to much. 没有什么大不了的。/ His explanation of the problem adds up to nonsense. 他对有关问题的说明，简直就是胡说八道。/ What their attitude adds up to is an unwillingness to help. 他们的态度说白了，就是不肯帮忙。</div><br><br>
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(add) insult to injury
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(add) insult to injury</b></div>是习语，也可以颠倒为 injury to insult；字面上是“不但损害，而且侮辱(或辱骂)”，但是实际用起来，无论是“损害”还是“侮辱”，意义都有了转变，不一定有人对别人如何如何，而是可以作为一个架构，加上其他词语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>First, the basement flooded, and then, to add insult to injury, a pipe burst in the kitchen. 先是地下室淹了水，后来又祸不单行，厨房一条水管爆裂了。/ My car barely started this morning, and to add insult to injury, I got a flat tire in the driveway. 我的车今天早上好不容易才发动，但更糟糕的是刚开出车库就爆了一个轮胎。</div><br><br>
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address (v.t.)
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>address (v.t.)</b></div>这个及物动词(瞬时动态动词)的意义和用法，对中国人来说有点新鲜。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 宾语可以是人，此时 address 表示：(a) 在一群人面前发表演讲。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He addressed a mass meeting. 他在一次群众集会上讲了话。</div>(b) 称呼某人为(as ...)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She always addressed me as "my daughter." 她总是把我叫作“我的女儿”。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> address 表示谈论、研究、应付、处理(某件事情或某个问题)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has not addressed the issue of the strike demands. 他没有处理关于各项罢工要求的问题。/ That country has reduced national gas export to address greater domestic demand. 该国已经减少了天然气出口，以应付国内增长的需求。/ Some treatments address the symptoms, while others reduce your risk of a heart attack or stroke. 一些治疗是针对症状的，而另一些则降低你心脏病发作或脑卒中的风险。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 宾语是某个主张、建议、要求之类，address 表示“提交”，提交的对象用介词 to 引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He addressed some general remarks to the gathering. 他向会议提交了一些一般性的意见。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 宾语是信件，address 表示“致送”，收件人也是用介词 to 引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The letter is addressed to the president. 信件是致送总统的。</div><br><br>
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adequate
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>adequate</b></div>这个形容词，乍看起来，意思就是“足够的，合适的”，容易理解为正面意义的“适当的”甚至“良好的；正确的”。但其实它的意义不是无条件一律正面的，而是依每一具体场合而定的，并无确定的褒贬义。当然，在一般场合，它的意义是“符合或达到某一(正面的)标准”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>an adequate supply of hot water 充分供应的热水</div><div class="ex-item">The room was small but adequate. 房间虽小但住得下。/ The source available is not adequate for our needs. 已有的来源不足以满足我们的需要。/ There is a lack of adequate provision for disabled students. 对残疾学生还缺乏适当的供应。/ He didn't give an adequate answer to the question. 他对问题没有做出对题的答复。这些例句的语境，都是正面的需要或要求，因而 adequate 也就带有正面的意义。</div><br><br>但是，如果语境的要求是负面的，adequate 的意义也就随之而成为负面。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Still the mouth remained clamped shut; and a third party might well have wondered what horror could be coming. Nothing less than dancing naked on the altar of the parishchurch would have seemed adequate. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 那张嘴依然紧紧地绷着，要是有第三者的话，他一定会惊奇不已，不明白她到底会说出何等可怕的事情。除了在教区教堂的祭坛前光着身子跳舞以外，还会有比她所说的更为可怕的事吗? 这里的 adequate 要特别注意：它不是“合适的，适当的”，更不是正面的“正确的”，而是“符合的；够格算得上的”。“算得上”什么? 是算得上负面的“可怕的事情”。如果把 adequate (“够得上可怕的”)译成“适当的”或“恰当的”，意义就完全相反了。</div><br><br>
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admirable
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>admirable</b></div>通常 -able 结尾的形容词，重音都落在 -able 前面的一个音节上，如 remarkable、available；但是有少数重音落在第一音节，admirable 就是一例，noticeable 也如此。此时 i 就读为短的、不重读的 /i/，而不是重读的 /ai/。<br><br>
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admire
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>admire</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为及物动词，admire 表示一种“赞赏，钦佩”的内心感情，不是行为动作，因此是延续体的状态动词(属第一类动词)，而且不能有进行时态。直接宾语可以是人，也可以是被人钦佩的事。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We admire our professor deeply. 我们对我们的教授深感钦佩。/ They admire the woman for her beauty. 他们赞赏这个女子的美貌。/ They admire her good looks. 他们赞赏她的美貌。/ I admire your being punctual. 您这样守时，我很钦佩。</div><br><br>但是，不能以 that 引入名词从句作直接宾语，例如不能说：*I admire that you are punctual.<br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 但经过转义，admire 表示一种外向的有意志行为，“欣赏，观赏”，从第一类动词转变成为了第二类动词。第二类动词与第一类不同，可以用进行时态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>While the tourists were admiring one of the great mammals of the sea, however, a Norwegian whaling boat approached and shot the whale in front of their eyes. 游客们正在观赏海上一种巨大的哺乳动物时却开来了一艘挪威捕鲸船，在众目睽睽下，向鲸鱼射击。</div><br><br>
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admission
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>admission</b></div>作“招生”解时要用复数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>admissions selectivity 招生的择优尺度</div><div class="ex-item">admissions dean 招生办主任(中文从“号召前来”的角度，英文则从“号召来了报名之后是否录取”的角度)。</div><br><br>admission 与 admittance参见 admittance 与 admission 条。<br><br>
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admit
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>admit</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 同许多表示“承认”“否认”“记忆”“遗忘”“遗憾”的动词一样，admit 后面如果跟着源出于瞬时体体动词(即第四类动词)的动名词的现在式或完成式(即 -ing 或 having + pp.)，则表示“承认(瞬时动作)过去做过某事(瞬时动作)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>No one would admit doing it. 没有谁会承认做过这个的。(过去做过)</div><div class="ex-item">He admitted having lied. 他承认撒了谎。(明确指出是过去的行为)</div>也有可能是承认的同时正在发生的反复瞬时动作。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He admitted takingsteroids. 他承认服用类固醇。(可以是当时正在发生的反复瞬时动作，也可以是过去的行为)</div>注意：He admitted taking bribes. 他承认受了贿。(过去的行为；不太可能在承认的同时反复多次受贿)<br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 如果后面动名词源出的动词是个延续体静态动词，则表示承认(瞬时动作发生的)当时自己处于这种状态(延续静态)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Two people who admitted being part of a ring that distributed illegal copies of music on the Internet before its commercial release were sentenced to prison. 有两个人承认他们有一个团伙，将尚未发行出售的音乐非法翻录在互联网上传播，因此这两入被判入狱。/ Of those patients with low literacy, 67.4% admitted having trouble reading and understanding what they read. 这些文化程度低的患者当中，有 67.4% 承认自己阅读和理解有困难。/ They admitted having firearms in their vehicles. 他们承认有枪支藏在汽车里。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 也可以在 admit 与动名词之间加上介词 to，用法和意义与不加 to 时相同。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Iraq admitted to having arrested and detained 126 Kuwaitis. 伊拉克承认逮捕并扣留了 126 名科威特人。(having + pp. 明确了 arrest 与 detain 在先，admit 在后)</div><div class="ex-item">The student admitted to cheating. 该学生承认曾作弊。(瞬时动作 cheat 在先，admit 在后)</div><div class="ex-item">She won't admit to loving him. 她不会承认爱他的。(延续状态 love 与 admit 同时存在)</div>admit that + 直陈式，也是“承认”，不是“允许”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The Hungarians did not admit that they had simply taken advantage of Czechoslovakia's defenseless situation to move in on her. (Waverley Root, The Secret History of the War) 匈牙利人不肯承认他们只是钻了捷克斯洛伐克毫无防御能力的空子，占了其便宜。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 以上的 admit，是瞬时的动态行为，主语是人，除非在说话行文中自我表态，不用一般现在时。但是，admit of 则是延续的状态，表示“获得(某种评价，某种待遇)”，可以用一般现在时，主语通常是物不是人。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Her behaviour admits of no excuse. 她的行为是无法原谅的。/ It admits of one interpretation only. 这只能有一个解释。</div><br><br>
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admittance 与 admission
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>admittance 与 admission</b></div>两者意义往往重合。但是 admission 在表示公事公办的“允许入内；接纳；录取”的行动这一点上意义比 admittance 具体，而在既可接纳进入具体场所也可接纳参加抽象组织这一点上意义又比 admittance (通常指具体场所)更广泛。由于 admission 的意义比较偏重公事公办的具体行动，所以甚至可以有复数形式表示多种的行动。admittance 则不太注意具体的行动，而是着重“接纳”的抽象意义(因而没有复数)，而且往往偏重当事人被动的角度，指一次或经常能进入某地点(通常不包括参加某组织)的资格或权利甚至道义地位。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>her admission to the club 她获准参加俱乐部</div><div class="ex-item">No admissions are permitted in the hour before closing. 闭馆前一小时停止入场。/ The admission to the movie was five dollars. 这部电影的票价是五美元。/ They don't charge admission to the museum. 博物馆是免费入场的。/ No admittance (*No admission). 请勿入内。/ As a European I can gain admittance to their home and table. (Edgar Rice Burroughs, Tarzan and the Jewels of Opar) 我是个欧洲人，我就能够进他们的家，坐上他们的餐桌。/ Anyone who picked an apple gained admittance into the golden castle, ... (Andrew Lang, The Yellow Fairy Book) 谁捡起一个苹果，谁就能够进入那座金色的城堡，……</div><div class="ex-item">It was only the man's insistence that procured him admittance at such an hour. (Jack London, Adventure) 经过一番坚持，这个人这时候才被允许进去。/ Into one house in this neighbourhood they shall never have admittance. (Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice) 这一带的人家，他们哪一家都休想进得去。</div><br><br>注意：admission 与 admittance 后面的名词(无论是场所还是组织)，介词用 to，但是如果强调“进入内部空间”，可以用 into。<br><br>
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adopted 与 adoptive
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>adopted 与 adoptive</b></div>本来按照原有词义，adopted 是“被领养的”，adoptive 是“领养他人的”，所以“养父”应该是 adoptive father，“养子”应该是 adopted son。但是，实际使用时，往往发生混淆。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... the estate of the last of Janice's adopted parents (Erle Stanley Gardner, The Case of the Stuttering Bishop) ……詹妮斯最终的养父母的房产</div><div class="ex-item">... Mme. Gabrielle Osorio and her adoptive daughter ... (Edward T. Cone, American Scholar, Summer 1973) 加布里埃尔·奥索里奥夫人和她的养女……</div><br><br>经领养而发生的其他关系，用 adopted 或 adoptive 都可以。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>adoptive sister 或 adopted sister 继姐(妹)</div><div class="ex-item">adoptive country 或 adopted country 归化国</div><div class="ex-item">... who was knighted in his adoptive England in 1980 (Diane McWhorter, The New York Times Book Review, May 1, 1980) ……1980年他在归化地英格兰被册封为骑士。</div><br><br>
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adore
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>adore</b></div>这个及物动词(延续状态)可以表示“崇拜”，例如“崇拜上帝”。有一首赞美诗里面就有一句：Joyful, joyful, we adore thee. 快乐，快乐，我们崇拜你。<br><br>adore 也可以表示亲人之间的钟爱、疼爱。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He just adores his wife. 他只宝贝他妻子。/ She adored her sister. 她疼她妹妹。/ Both adored their daughter Juliet, now fifteen and apparently unspoiled despite the adoration. 他们俩都疼爱女儿朱丽叶，她现在 15 岁，虽然受到疼爱，但是没有被惯坏。</div><br><br>
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adventure
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>adventure</b></div>不一定是惊心动魄的冒险，也可以是一段不平常、好坏未卜因而有刺激性和吸引力的经历。例如英国学者亨利·伯拉萧(Henry Bradshaw) (1831—1886)有一次碰巧在巴黎图书馆找到了一本丢失了一个世纪的珍本。A. C. 本生(A. C. Benson) (1862—1925)在一篇介绍此事的文章中就称之为 the story of his adventure in the Parisian Library。<br><br>甚至比较平淡的经历也可以说是 adventure。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Marriage late in life was a quiet but fulfilling adventure. (Kathleen Walker Seegers, My Dark Journey Through Insanity) (我)结婚很晚，但是婚后生活平静美满。</div><br><br>
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adversary, enemy 与 foe
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>adversary, enemy 与 foe</b></div>adversary 只是“对手”，不是“仇敌”。例如比赛中的对方，或是诉讼中的对方。enemy 则是感情上或政治上对立的“敌人”或是军事上的“敌军”。foe 与enemy 相近，但是较为古旧与正式。<br><br>
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advice
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>advice</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 要注意这是个名词(名词用 c: advice; 动词用 s: advise)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 这是个不可数名词，不能说 *an advice，要说 a piece of advice。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> advice 是一般的、不正式的、非专业的建议或劝告；recommendation 是经过集体调查研究后提出的建议；counseling 则是专家就个人问题提供的专业咨询。<br><br>
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advisable
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>advisable</b></div>这个形容词，按照一般词典上的释义，只能指某个做法，不能指人(“可取的，值得主张的”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Because of the popularity of the region, it is advisable to book hotels or camp sites in advance. 由于该地区很吃香，所以最好预先订下旅馆或者营地。</div><br><br>但是，在实际语言中，也可以指人，后面接上动词不定式，表示“被建议去做某事的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Children who are below the age of 18 years are not advisable to use this drug. 未满 18 岁的儿童，不宜服用本药物。</div><br><br>也可以回过头来仍然指具体或抽象事物，后面的动词不定式用及物动词，该事物是逻辑宾语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>These foods are not advisable to eat. 这些食品不宜食用。</div><br><br>如果是不及物动词或是虽然及物而另有宾语，则这个动词不定式表示“有助于达到某目的的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>These shoes are advisable to protect against sharp objects, cuts, scrapes, bruises on the rocky river bottom. 这些鞋可用于防止在岩石河底被刺破、刮破或割伤。</div><br><br>
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advised
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>advised</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> be advised that ... 是商业信件的惯用语，只是表示提醒，没有任何实质意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Be advised that nothing of the sort is contemplated. 确无此等意图，尚希鉴察。也可以用于一般的告示上。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Please be advised that the parking lot will be closed tomorrow. 请注意，停车场明日将关闭。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> well-advised、better-advised、ill-advised (有或没有连字符均可)常用来评判做某事(后面加动词不定式)是否明智。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Tom would have been well-advised to tear himself away from the enterprise before he lost any more money. 汤姆本来明智的做法，应该是趁自己还没有损失更多的钱时从这个企业脱身。/ They would have been better advised to stick with their first choice. 他们要是一直坚持头一个选择，那本来就更为可取。/ I think he may have been ill-advised to put his suggestions down on paper. 我觉得他把自己的建议写在纸上可能是不明智的。/ (They) are well advised to die young lest they make fools of themselves. (The Economist, Oct. 13, 2007, p. 41) (他们)最好英年早逝，以免日后出洋相。</div><br><br>
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aficionado 与 amateur
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>aficionado 与 amateur</b></div>aficionado 来自西班牙语，意思是“业余爱好者”，大体上相当于英语的 amateur。但是英语中 aficionado 与 amateur 两个单词都使用，原因是 aficionado 借用到了英语后，意义发生了细微的变化，同 amateur 有所区别。<br><br>aficionado 着重“爱好，嗜好，入迷”，甚至“有功底”，不着重其“非专业；不内行”，反而着重其“热衷于此道”的意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... and yet Grail aficionados still discussed it ad nauseam on Internet bulletin boards and worldwide-web chat rooms. (Dan Brown, The Da Vinci Code) ……但是那些圣杯迷们却仍然不厌其烦地在互联网布告栏上和网络聊天室里讨论这个问题。</div><br><br>amateur 则隐约有“非专业，水平不高”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a bunch of amateurs 一群门外汉</div><div class="ex-item">There's a big difference between an amateur video and a slick Hollywood production. 业余玩玩的录像，同地地道道的好莱坞出品，差别不可同日而语。</div><br><br>
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afraid
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>afraid</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 可以有三种搭配：一是 be afraid to inf.; 二是 be afraid (that)...; 三是 be afraid of + -ing。三种搭配的意义略有不同。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He's afraid to die. 他怕死。(对死亡本身感到恐惧)</div><div class="ex-item">He's afraid (that) he'll die. 他对自己会死感到担心。(可能怕留下孩子没人照料，或是正在办一件事担心未办完，等等)</div><div class="ex-item">He's afraid of dying. 他害怕死亡。(两种意义都有可能)</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> be afraid to inf. 不可以有肯定的祈使句(*be afraid to inf.)，但是可以有否定的祈使句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>When he had contemplated this, an angel of the Lord appeared to him in a dream and said, "Joseph, son of David, do not be afraid to take Mary as your wife, because the child conceived in her is from the Holy Spirit." (Matthew 1:20) 正思念这事的时候，有主的使者在他梦中显现，说：“大卫的子孙约瑟，不要怕，只管娶过你的妻子马利亚来，因她所怀的孕是从圣灵来的。”</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> be afraid to inf. 中 inf. 动词如果是自主有意识的动作，就表示由于害怕其后果而打算避免这样做。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Even fools are afraid to lean against a rotten post. 朽烂的柱子，是连傻瓜都不敢靠的。/ Although the figure seemed to be beckoning them, they were afraid to approach her. 虽然那个人形似乎是在向他们招手，他们却不敢靠近她。</div><br><br>而动词 dread (也是延续状态的第一类动词)不但恐惧的意义更重，而且不着重“避免”的意义，甚至可以有“虽然害怕但无可奈何”的含义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I dread going to the dentist. (*I'm afraid to go to the dentist.) 我害怕去看牙医。/ I dread to think what might have happened. 一想到本来会发生什么事，我就不寒而栗。/ The dreaded moment finally came. 让人害怕的时刻终于到来了。</div><br><br>名词 dread 也是如此。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I have a dread of spiders. 我害怕蜘蛛。/ His greatest dread is dying of cancer. 他最害怕的是死于癌症。/ They lived in constant dread of being deported. 他们老是提心吊胆，生怕被驱逐出境。</div><br><br>afraid 是对眼前已经存在的不利情况感到害怕，而动词(或名词)fear 则带有因“不知道将要发生什么事”而心神不宁的意思。所以可以说 fear God，因为不知道上帝会对人施加什么赏罚，前途未卜；说 be afraid of God 就有点突兀，仿佛对眼前的上帝敬而远之。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The authorities were immediately suspicious of the apparitions; they feared that the large crowds attracted to them would encourage political dissent... (Michael Durham, 1995) 对于那些怪影，当局马上产生了疑心；当局担心，被怪影所吸引的大批人群，会助长政治上的异议活动……(这里的“担心”是对可能要发生的事没有把握。)</div>afraid 和动词(或名词)fear 的另一个不同之处，是 afraid 所害怕的不利情况往往限于说话者本人或是句子的主语，而 fear 则可以扩大为替谈及的他人感到担心。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Great fears are held for the safety of John. 人们对约翰的安全感到十分担心。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 和中文的“恐怕”一样，be afraid 也可以不是指真的“害怕”而只是婉转拒绝对方的要求，英文的 I'm afraid (只有 I 可以，其他人称不可以，在这个意义上后面只能接 that 从句，that 可以省略，不能接上 of ...，也不能接上动词不定式)也有同样的转义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm afraid I can't help you. 我恐怕帮不了你的忙。同样，这样的转义，在中英文中都可以用来引入一个不利的消息。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm afraid there's been an accident. 恐怕出了事故。</div><br><br>
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after
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>after</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 说“(从现在起)再过十天”或“(从现在起算)十天之后”，中国人容易说成：I will start doing it after ten days. 而其实应该说：I will start doing it in ten days. 这里的 in 不是用多长的时间完成某一动作(参见 for 与 in 条)，而是指从现在算起经过多长的时间再开始做某事情，在这个时间段之内是不做这件事的。而与 in 相对的 for 则指这件事就在某个时间段之内做而且做完。但是，谈及过去的事情，说“过了多长时间之后”，英语也可以说“after 多长时间”，表示在这个时间段中有某一演变过程，这一时间段结束，过程也就结束，出现结果。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>After a few minutes, she went under and the surgeon began to work. 过了几分钟，她的麻药生效了，外科大夫就开始动手。/ When Earth was very young, its days were but six hours long. After 1.3 billion years, the length of a day reached 15 hours. 地球很年轻时，一天只有 6 小时长。过了 13 亿年后，一天的长度达到了 15 小时。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> after 常后接时间点，但也可说 after five years of effort，其后的时间段当作一个整体而不是一段延续的时间。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> after 后面可以接上动名词，表示“在做了某事之后”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>After receiving the e-mail, he started for New York. 他收到了电子邮件之后，就动身去了纽约。但是要注意，不要说 *after having received ...。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> after you 是“请您先走”的客气话，是从自己的角度来说的。<br><br>
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after all
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>after all</b></div>有“总算，到底”的意思(即“不好中有好；可聊以自慰”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Bad as it has been, we have after all kept our investments unscathed. 情况虽然糟糕，但是我们的投资总算保住了。</div><br><br>
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again
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>again</b></div>同是副词，但作附加状语(adjunct)时(与全句一气呵成，没有逗号分隔)，意思是“再次，又一次”；作联加状语(conjunct)时(有逗号分隔)，意思是“此外还……”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Again he felt hesitant. 他又一次感到踌躇。/ Again, he felt hesitant. (Randolph Quirk et al., A Grammar of Contemporary English) 而且他还感到踌躇。</div><br><br>
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against
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>against</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 不一定是“反对”，也可以指对照标准进行查核。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a standardagainst which all work, at home and abroad, should be judged 判断国内外一切工作的标准</div><div class="ex-item">How does Bush measure up against the giants of old? (Newsweek, May 31, 2004, p. 41) 布什同昔日的巨人们相比，有多大的分量呢?</div><div class="ex-item">Private businesses such as rental and mortgage companies and car dealers are checking the names of customers against a list of suspected terrorists and drug traffickers made publicly available by the Treasury Department, ... (The Washington Post, Mar. 27, 2007, D01) 一些私营企业，像租赁公司和房产公司以及汽车零售商，都在把顾客的姓名同财政部公布的恐怖分子嫌疑人和贩毒分子嫌疑人的名单进行比对，……</div><div class="ex-item">So Washington should carefully weigh the marginal benefits of new nuclear capabilities for deterrence and destruction against their diplomatic cost to the overall counterproliferation effort. (Foreign Affairs, September/October 2004, p. 82) 那些新的核武器的威慑力与破坏力带来的微小的作用以及这些能力会使得总的防止扩散的努力付出多大的外交代价，华盛顿应该对此小心地衡量。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 还可以表示空间中的“靠着”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Put the piano there, against the wall. 把钢琴放在那边，靠着墙。/ The legend of Atlantis, an island-continent lying in the Atlantic Ocean over against the Pillars of Hercules, which, after being long the seat of a powerful empire, was engulfed in the sea, has been made the basis of many extravagant speculations. (Daniel Wilson, The Lost Atlantis and Other Ethnographic Studies) 亚特兰蒂斯这个位于大西洋当中背靠着赫拉克勒斯山的擎天柱的岛洲，曾一度是一个强大的帝国的所在地，但随后被海洋所吞没，它引起了许多离奇古怪的推测。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 有时候可以用来表示“从……当中扣除”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Your carrier processes the call as if it were made from your phone, so it won't count against your friend's minutes. 您的手机运营商对这次通话进行的处理，就如同从您自己的手机中打出一样，不算入你朋友的通话时间。(将手机 SIM 卡装入别人的手机时)(参见 toward 条)</div>
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age
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>age</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 用这个单词(作为名词)或其形容词 aged 表示人的年龄，可以有几种搭配。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>children aged 5 and 2 五岁和两岁的孩子</div><div class="ex-item">women aged 80 to 90 八十至九十岁的妇女</div><div class="ex-item">children aged 2 through 17 两岁到十七岁的孩子</div><div class="ex-item">a woman aged about 30 一个大约三十岁的妇女</div><div class="ex-item">children aged 9 to 12 或 children 9 to 12 years old 或 children 9 to 12 九到十二岁的孩子</div><div class="ex-item">at the age of 65 或 at 65 years of age 或 at age 65 或 65 years old 或 at 65 六十五岁时</div><div class="ex-item">patients aged 75, 85 and up 七十五、八十五甚至年龄更大的病人</div><div class="ex-item">adults aged 60 or older 六十岁或六十岁以上的成年人。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> be ... age 的结构中，age 前面可以加上一个物主代词或者 the same，但是再前面就不加任何介词(如 at、of 之类)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>When I was your age I used to work six days a week. (不说 <i>at your age) 我在你现在这个年龄的时候，通常每周工作 6 天。/ The two boys are the same age. (不说 </i>of the same age) 那两个男孩年龄相同。/ She's the same age as her husband. (不说 *of the same age as) 她同她丈夫同年。</div><br><br>如果 age 前面不是物主代词或 the same，而是一个表示类别的形容词，再前面就要加上 of。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>These children are of school age. 这些是学龄儿童。/ They are not of legal age. 他们不到法定年龄。</div><br><br>此外，be of age 是“已经成年”的状态；come of age 是“到成年年龄”的变化。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> act your age 原意是“按照你的年龄来行事”，告诫成年人不要孩子气，但是现在主要用于告诫小孩子不要顽皮(假定他已经长大了)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Johnny was squirming around and pinching his sister. His mother finally said, "Johnny, act your age." 强尼一直在捣乱，还捏他妹妹。他妈妈终于对他说：“强尼，别捣乱。”</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> age 既可以指“年龄”，也可以指“时代”，参见 middle age 条。阅读时要善于辨别。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The facts that we know with absolute certainty about William Shakespeare can be given in a few paragraphs. It is not strange that we know so little about one of the greatest men that the world has produced. His age was not one of biographical writing. 关于威廉·莎士比亚，我们完全确实知道的情况，短短几段文字就能写完。对于这位世界上出现的最伟大的人物之一，我们知道得这样少，这并不以为奇。在他那个时代，写传记是不流行的。(his age 不是“他的年龄”)</div><div class="ex-item">He seemed as he stood there to see all his age, ... (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 他此时似乎是高瞻远瞩，看清了他的时代，……</div><br><br>
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agency
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>agency</b></div>这个名词，可以十分具体，指机构、团体、服务型企业。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>employment agency 职业介绍所</div><div class="ex-item">advertising agency 广告公司</div><div class="ex-item">travel agency 旅行社</div><div class="ex-item">news agency 新闻通讯社</div><div class="ex-item">Central Intelligence Agency 中央情报局。</div><br><br>也可以指抽象的“作用”(用 through the agency of)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>through the agency of influential friends 靠有势力的朋友</div><div class="ex-item">through the agency of wind and rain 经风雨洗刷。</div><br><br>但是，agency 本身的词义“作用因素”，许多词典没有收入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>To judge how much, in the case of any variation, we should attribute to the direct action of heat, moisture, light, food, etc., is most difficult: my impression is, that with animals such agencies have produced very little direct effect, though apparently more in the case of plants. (Charles Darwin, The Origin of Species) 要在任何变异中判断我们在多大程度上归因于热量、湿度、光照、食物等因素的直接作用，那是十分困难的。我的印象是，这些因素对动物起的作用是十分小的，不过对植物则看来作用大些。</div><br><br>
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aggression
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>aggression</b></div>通常，由及物动词派生的名词(如 invasion)，后面跟有 of + 名词时，后一个名词相当于直接宾语，有被动意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the Roman invasion of England 古罗马入侵英格兰</div><div class="ex-item">invasion of privacy 侵犯隐私。</div><br><br>但是 aggression of 后面的名词却只有主动而没有被动意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the aggression of a foreign country 来自另一国家的侵略。</div><br><br>
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aggressive
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>aggressive</b></div>许多人一看见这个形容词，容易想到负面的“好侵略的”。的确，这个形容词有负面的政治意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We will not allow a reunited Germany to become an aggressive force again. 我们不会允许一个恢复统一的德国再次成为一支侵略力量。</div><br><br>而且在日常生活的语言中，aggressive 也可以有贬义，表示“莽撞的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>an aggressive driver 驾驶汽车时莽里莽撞的人。</div><br><br>但是在美式英语中，也有中性的“咄咄逼人的”，甚至正面的“进取的，积极的；大刀阔斧的，有闯劲的”之意。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>U.S. business today finds itself challenged by aggressive overseas competitors. 美国工商业今天面临着来势汹汹的海外竞争者的挑战。/ He is not aggressive enough to succeed in business. 他闯劲不够，经商不易成功。/ The Indonesian government was expected to take more aggressive measures in dealing with avian influenza. 人们估计印尼政府将会采取更加大刀阔斧的措施来对付禽流感。/ (Gates said) the Army's response to the substandard conditions for the war-wounded was defensive, and not aggressive enough. (The Washington Post, Feb. 3, 2007) (盖茨当时说，)陆军方面提供给战伤者的治疗条件不合格，所做出的反应是被动的，不够积极主动。</div><br><br>
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ago
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>ago</b></div>在日常的交际语言中，ago 只能是以说话的时间为参照点说明某事发生于或某状态存在于过去的某一时间点。如果改为以过去某时间点为参照点说明更远的过去，则不能用 ago 而要用 before。两者各有适用范围，“互不侵犯”。而且，与 ago 连用的动词时态，通常是一般过去时(例如：came，不能用现在完成时 have come)；而与 before 连用的动词时态，通常是过去完成时(例如：had come，不用一般过去时 came)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I met him in Tokyo two years ago. 我两年前在东京见过他。/ When we got talking, I found out that I had been at school with her husband ten years before. 我们交谈起来，我发现原来我十年前同她丈夫是同学。</div><br><br>然而，在小说的叙述中，往往故事的展开虽然一直用过去时态，但时间坐标整个从现在挪到了过去，读者的心理感觉是身临其境的，也就是说，有“现在时态”的感觉。因此，虽然参照点是过去时，但提及更远的过去，仍然可以用 ago 而不用 before。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The present storm had been born five days ago in the ice of the Colorado mountains. (注意 present 一词)当前这场暴风雪是五天前从科罗拉多山脉上的结冰处那里发源的。(Arthur Hailey, Airport) 与现在完成时不同，过去完成时可以同表示明确时间点的时间状语一起出现，参见 had + pp. 条。</div><br><br>
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agree
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>agree</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 同意(某人的意见)(瞬时的表示或延续的看法)，只需说 agree with somebody 即可，不必说出“意见”，在什么事情上同意用 on 引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I entirely agree with you on that matter. 我在那件事情上完全同意你的意见。同意的实质内容可以用that 从句来表示。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I agree with you that he is wrong. 我同你一样认为他是错了。如果要明确说明同意某人的什么，也可以说 agree with something。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>agree with what they are doing 赞成他们所做的事</div><div class="ex-item">I agree with political scientist Morris Florina's thesis that ... (Time, Oct. 30, 2006, p. 8) 我同意政治学家莫里斯·弗洛里纳的主张，即……</div><br><br>同意(某一做法，不是某一意见)，要说 agree to something (通常是瞬时动作，但也可以是延续状态)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>agree to the use of force 同意使用武力</div><div class="ex-item">They agreed to John's marrying Julie. 他们同意了约翰娶朱莉。但是在争论或审议议案的过程中(而不是在日常的意见交流中)，赞同某人的方案或主张，也可以说 agree to something。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I agree to Mr. Johnson's proposal. 我赞成约翰逊先生的提案。(可单方) agree to 的主语也可以是双方，而且可以用被动语态(瞬时动作或延续状态)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was agreed to that they would meet again soon. 他们约定不久之后再次会面。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 表示同意(自己将来做某事)(瞬时动作)，可后画接动词不定式。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She had agreed to let us use her apartment while she was away. 她同意了当她不在的时候让我们用她的公寓。(可单方)</div>但是由于这是“同意将来做某事”，所以后面的动词不定式只能是一般现在时，而不能是现在完成时。不可以用现在完成时来表示“一致认为自己过去如何”，例如不可以说：*They all agree to have seen UFOs. 而要用下面(3)的格式，说：They all agree that they have seen UFOs. 他们一致认为自己看见过不明飞行物。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 一致认为(双方、多方；对客观情况加以评判；瞬时动作或延续状态均可)，后面可以接上 that 名词从句作直接宾语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The World Health Organization and U.S. health authorities agree that exposure to movies with smoking leads kids to smoke. 世界卫生组织和美国卫生当局一致认为，儿童接触有吸烟镜头的电影，容易被引导去吸烟。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 就某个问题或事项(用 on 或 upon 引入)表示或达成一致看法(瞬时动作或延续状态均可)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Few doctors agree on how you treat schizophrenia. 如何治疗精神分裂症，很少有医生能有一致的看法。/ As the jurymen could not agree upon one of the vital points at issue, it has been transferred to another jury. 由于陪审团成员们对涉及的一个重大问题无法达成一致，案子转到另一个陪审团那里去了。/ Even legislators who wrote the bill setting up the intel czar's office can't agree on how it should work. (Newsweek, Oct. 10, 2006, p. 8) 就连那些起草成立“情报沙皇办公室”的立法议员们，对于该办公室该如何工作，也无法达成一致意见。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> agree 与 be agreed 有时意义相同(但 be agreed 只能表示延续状态)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>All the unions are agreed on this point. 所有工会在这一点上都意见一致。/ We were agreed that business morals nowadays were very low. 我们大家一致认为，今天的商业领域道德很低。(关于主被动同义，还可以参见 worried 条。)</div>
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ahead
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>ahead</b></div>go ahead 是“事先有了预定打算，付诸实施”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I think we should go ahead with it. (Sidney Sheldon, The Stars Shine Down) 我觉得咱们该动手了。move ahead 是“继续原先正在进行的延续活动”(延续)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>To move ahead in your career, ... (U.S. News & World Report, Oct. 7, 2002, p. 64) 为了继续推进你的事业，……</div><br><br>
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aid
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>aid</b></div>someone's aid 表示别人对自己的帮助。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was waiting for someone to come to his aid. 他在等待有人来援助他。(这里的 his aid 不是“他对别人的援助”而是“别人对他的援助”。)</div>
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aim at
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>aim at</b></div>后面的名词成分或动名词，可以是：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 正面的、要达到的目的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>N.J. stimulus bill aimed at creating jobs. (New Jersey News, July 28, 2009) 新泽西的经济刺激法案旨在创造就业机会。/ (Israeli Foreign Minister) Lieberman's trip to South America aimed at curbing Iran influence. (Haaretz, July 20, 2009) 利伯曼的南美之行旨在制约伊朗的影响。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 负面的、要克服的对象。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Obama Defense review aimed at waste. (The News & Observer, Aug. 19, 2009) 奥巴马对国防事业的整顿，针对的是浪费现象。/ The initiative aimed at economic barriers to college. 这项措施旨在消除读大学的经济障碍。/ The FTC (Federal Trade Commission) Rule Aimed at Oil Price Manipulation (The New York Times, Aug. 7, 2009) 联邦贸易委员会的规定旨在控制油价操纵行为。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 以某些人作为对象，可能是正面的，也可能是负面的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The bigamy report aimed at Hindus. (The Times of India, Aug. 9, 2009) 这份关于重婚的报告专门针对印度教徒。/ Wildly inaccurate mailing lists, supposedly aimed at "unregistered single women," but in reality reaching many registered voters as well as families, deceased persons and pets. (Facing South, Aug. 15, 2009) 一些凌乱不堪的邮寄名单，据称是专门递送给“未登记的单身女性”的，但其实却寄给了一些已经登记的选民以及一些家庭、已经去世的人，甚至宠物。</div><br><br>
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airline
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>airline</b></div>不要从字形望文生义，以为这是“空中航线”。实际意义是作为企业的“航空公司”。airliner 则是载客的班机。<br><br>
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aisle 与 isle
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>aisle 与 isle</b></div>两个名词发音完全相同(而且 s 都不发音)，但意义完全不同。aisle 是会场(包括教堂大厅、剧院观众席等)当中的通道以及超市货架与货架之间供顾客漫步选购的通道。此外，飞机、火车、大巴等靠中间通道的座位，叫作 the aisle seat 或 the seat on the aisle。walk down the aisle 常常指新娘在婚礼上沿着教堂大厅的过道走向祭坛。<br><br>isle 则是“岛屿”，常用于文学语言，通常比 island 小，但也用于一些表示大岛屿的专有名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the British Isles 英伦三岛，不列颠群岛。</div><br><br>
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a la
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>a la</b></div>意思是“类似”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Congress could set up a special congressional committee dedicated to investigating this, <b><u>a la</u></b> the Republican-majority Benghazi committee. 国会可以设立一个调查此事的国会特别委员会，类似共和党占多数的班加西委员会。</div><br><br>
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albeit
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>albeit</b></div>来自 all be it，有“虽然”的意思，通常要放在另一意义单位后面，对之起缩小限制的作用。它同 though 一样(但更正式)，可以引入形容词、副词或是整个从句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>an intelligent albeit rash leader 一个聪明但又鲁莽的领导人</div><div class="ex-item">He spoke firmly albeit pleasantly. 他说话的口气很坚决但又很和蔼。/ Yes, I have been there, albeit briefly. 是的，我到过那边，但是时间很短暂。/ The priest who greeted him at the door looked sleepy. He was the same priest who had greeted Aringarosa five months ago, albeit tonight he did so with much less hospitality. (Dan Brown, The Da Vinci Code) 那个在门口迎接他的教士，样子很困倦。他也就是五个月以前迎接阿林加罗萨的那个教士，只不过今天晚上他对他就很不殷勤。</div><br><br>
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alike
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>alike</b></div>这个形容词有如下特点：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 只能在相似的双方或多方共同出现(而且在句中联成统一成分，大多作主语)时才可以用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The two boys are alike in looks, but not in personality. 两个男孩相貌相似，但是性格却不同。/ They're twins, but they don't look alike. 他们俩是双胞胎，但是并不相像。</div><br><br>只有一方出现，或者双方在句中分处不同地位，就不能用 alike，例如不能说 *He is alike his brother. 而只能说 He's like his brother. 或 He and his brother are alike. (他和他的弟弟长得很像。) 因此，以 alike 作表语的句子，主语必须是复数的；被 alike 修饰的名词，也必须是复数的。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 只能用作表语放在系动词(copula)后面，或是用作后置定语放在名词后面，不能用作前置定语放在名词前面。例如不能说 <i>He's got two very alike daughters. 而只能改为 He's got two very similar-looking daughters. (他有两个长得十分相像的女儿。) <div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>coins alike in size and weight 大小和重量相仿的硬币。 (3) 前面不能直接加副词 very，而应该加 very much。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His two daughters are very much alike (</i>very alike). 他的两个女儿长得十分相像。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 可以当作副词使用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The children are all treated alike. 孩子们全都得到同样的对待。/ They did everything alike. 他们做什么事情都是一个样。</div><br><br>还可以放在并列的两个名词成分之后，表示两者做同样的事或处于同样的状态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The strike is damaging to managers and workers alike. 罢工对管理人员和工人们都有损害。</div><br><br>
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all
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>all</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为形容词，all 必须放在一切定语、限定词甚至冠词之前。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>all the world 全世界</div><div class="ex-item">all my best friends 我所有最好的朋友</div><div class="ex-item">all the president's men 总统的整个班子</div><div class="ex-item">They believed this magic panacea would solve all a new teacher's woes. 他们相信这个包治百病的灵药会解决一个新教师的一切苦恼。</div><br><br>all 修饰复数名词时，如果没有 the，泛指这一类事物的全体；如果有 the，则指特定范围内这一类事物的全体。试比较：All students should be able to get grants. 凡是学生，都可能获得资助。/ All the students live on campus in this university. 这所大学的全体学生都住在校园里。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 可以作为不定代词，表示“一切(事物)”。但是通常只能当后面接着有一个以 that 引入的定语从句(that 在定语从句中作宾语时可以省略)对其范围加以限定时才可以这样用(否则就成了“万事万物”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>All (that) I have is yours. 我的一切都是你的。但不能说 <i>All is yours. 而要说 Everything is yours. (这里的 everything 其实也被当时的语境限定了范围。) 不能说 </i>She lost all. 而要说 She lost everything.</div>特别要注意的是：由于 that 常常省略，all 后面就会紧接着一个名词或代词，此时很容易误将 all 看成这个名词或代词的修饰语，把两者连成一体。例如 All my friends want is an explanation. 不能理解为“所有我的朋友……”，这样分析句子，到了 is 就分析不下去了。又例如：One beacon of sanity is all society needs. 中，all 与 society 没有修饰与被修饰的关系，全句意义是“一座清醒的灯塔，就是社会所需的一切”或是“社会唯一需要的就是一座清醒的灯塔”(作笼统的“社会”解时，society 不带冠词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>All microevolution needs to work is a loss of genetic information. 只消遗传信息有丢失，微观进化就能起作用。(all 不修饰 microevolution)</div><div class="ex-item">All these men would be able to see is a large glass mirror. 这些人所能看见的只是一面巨大的玻璃镜子。(all 不修饰 these men)</div><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 与此相仿，all (the) people 或 all (the) things 后面如果不附上补充的限定修饰成分，就很少使用，而代之以 everybody (everyone) 或 everything。例如我们很少说 <i>All the people are ready. 而要说 Everybody is ready. (人人都准备好了。) 但是可以说 All the people in the room are ready. (房间里人人都准备好了。) 同样，很少说 </i>I got all the things. 而要说 I got everything. (我样样都得到了。) 但是可以说 I got all the things you asked for. (你要的东西，我全都拿到了。)但是如果所指的人或物比 people 和 things 类别更明确，则可以用 all 放在其前面，表示泛指，但不能有限定冠词 the。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>All children like to play. 凡是儿童都喜欢玩。 (4) all 往往隐含“这就是全部，再多就没有了”的负面限制意义。上面(2)的几个例句都有这种情况。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Is that all he said? 他就说了这些，没说别的吗？/ That's all I've got. 我就只有这一点，再也没有其他了。/ 售货员问你 “Anything else?” 回答是 That's all. 意思是“不买别的了”(不说 *Nothing else.)。/ All that's left are massive, empty niches in the sandstone cliffside. (The Associated Press, June 8, 2008) 剩下来的，只有砂石峭壁上巨大而空空如也的神龛。</div><br><br>由于以上原因，正面强调“全部无缺”时，用 all 往往不自然。例如 I understand all he said. 就不如把 all 改为 understand 自然。但是，如果 all 后面还有别的成分，而且 all 代表更为抽象的事物，则用 all 似乎比用 everything 好些。例如美国总统布什 2008 年 6 月 2 日表彰一名在伊拉克阵亡的 19 岁士兵 Ross McGinnis 时说 (He) gave all for his country. 这里用 all 就似乎比用 everything 好些。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> All that glitters is not gold. 发光的不全足金子。这是一句有名的谚语(来自莎士比亚名剧《威尼斯商人》)。这里 all ... not ... 不是全部否定，而是局部否定。就是说，all 与否定词在一起，是 all 被否定而变成了“只有一部分”，不是否定被 all 所支配而变成“全盘否定”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>All the guests haven't arrived yet; two are missing. 客人还没有全部到齐，还差两位。/ 美国有一家制造食油的企业，为了标榜自己的产品富含维生素 E，就在油瓶上模仿《独立宣言》中的 All men are created equal. (人人被创造出来都是平等的。) 这句话，变成否定句，再改头换面，成为：All oils are not created "E"-qual. (并非一切油制造出来都是含同等的 E 的。) 这里的 all ... not ... 也是局部否定。</div><br><br>但是这种 all 在前而 not 在后的局部否定方式有古旧气息，已经很少使用，现在更多使用的是 not 在前而 all 在后的方式。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Although not addressing all these details, the senior intelligence official confirmed that McCarthy was preparing to retire and said she would retain her government pension despite the agency's decision. (The Washington Post, Apr. 25, 2006) 那位资深情报官员虽然没有一一谈及所有这些细节，但是证实了麦卡锡正在准备退休，而且尽管当局做出了这样的决定，她仍然会保住那份政府退休金。/ But even proponents say minimally invasive (knee) replacement isn't an appropriate technique for all surgeons or for all patients. (U.S. News & World Report, Dec. 22, 2003) 但是，连主张者也说，介入性最小的膝关节置换法，也不是对所有外科医生和所有患者都合适的。</div><br><br>不过，有时候 not ... all ... 也可以表示全部否定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... jurors in his (Michael Jackson's) child molestation case found the pop star not guilty on all accounts. ……审理这位流行音乐巨星亵童案的陪审员们，认定他所有指控都不成立。</div><br><br>另外，在前面的 all 同后面的 not 之间，如果语气有停顿(书面上有逗号)，则仍然是全部否定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In all those things, you can not actually disprove. 在那一切问题上，都是实际无法证伪的。</div><br><br>同样，前面的 all 同后面的 not 如果离得很远，all 管了主语，not 否定不了，整个句子也可以是全部否定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>All inquiries not relevant to the following procedure will not receive a response. 凡不符合下述程序的查询，恕不答复。procedure will not receive a response. 凡不符合下述程序的查询，恕不答复。</div><br><br>有些学者认为，not 与 all 无论孰先孰后，都是否定了整句，也就是全部否定(此时 all 有“虽然”的让步意义)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>All the perfumes of Arabia will not sweeten this little hand. (Shakespeare, The Tragedy of Macbeth) 就是倾阿拉伯所有的香料，都无法让这只小手香起来。/ But all his uncle's last-minute warmth and hand-shaking could not disguise the fact that the old man was relieved to see the back of him. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 可是他看得出，在他告别时，尽管伯父表现得很热情，还跟他紧紧握手，但实际上他掩盖不住希望侄子尽早离开的心情。/ Not all the water in the rough rude sea can wash the balm from an anointed king. (Shakespeare, The Tragedy of King Richard the Second) 哪怕是汹涌大海里所有的海水，都冲洗不掉一个奉天承运的国王身上的油膏。(不是一部分海水可以，另一部分不可以)</div><div class="ex-item">Not all that Mrs. Bennet, however, with the assistance of her five daughters, could ask on the subject, was sufficient to draw from her husband any satisfactory description of Mr. Bingley. (Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice) 尽管班纳特太太有了五个女儿帮忙，向她丈夫盘问宾利先生这样那样，可是丈夫的回答总不能叫她满意。(不是一部分盘问达到了目的，另一部分没有达到) 从例句看来，似乎是：如果 all 所修饰的是个不可数的整体，由于该事物不可分，所以否定时只能全部否定。总之，由于这个问题牵涉到复杂的逻辑，这个争论恐怕一时不能了结。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> all 作为形容词表示“整个的(某空间或时间)”时往往跑到介词之前，变得类似副词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>all over the world 在全世界</div><div class="ex-item">all along the line 全线</div><div class="ex-item">all around Europe 在欧洲各地</div><div class="ex-item">stay asleep all through the night 整夜安眠。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> all 可以同人称代词主语连用。在古旧的英语中，它可以放在这个主语之前，成为句子开头第一个单词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>All we like sheep have gone astray. 我们大家全都像羊一样迷了路。但是现代英语更多将 all 放在人称代词之后：We all like sheep have gone astray. 而且，如果代词是 it，all 就不能放在前面。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It all came to nothing. 一切全都一场空。</div><br><br>但是，如果谓语动词是 be 或 have，则 all 再挪后，放在谓语动词和表语或谓语动词和宾语之间。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They are all married. 他们全都已婚。/ They are all very friendly. 他们大家态度都很友善。/ These are all problems that he's concerned with. 这些全都是他所关心的问题。(注意：all 管 these，不管 problems)</div><div class="ex-item">Your friends have all a lot of money. 你的朋友们全都很有钱。如果谓语动词是复合形式的，all 就插在当中，通常是复合动词形式中的第一和第二词之间。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The children have all finished their homework. 孩子们全都把作业做完了。/ The money is all gone. 钱全花光了。/ They would all have perished. 他们本来全体都会遇难。</div><br><br>通常 all 与代词连用但不是主语时，all 放在代词后面。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Where's the salad? Have you eaten it all? 沙拉怎么不见啦？是你把它吃光了吗？/ She helped us all. 她帮助了我们大家。/ Now I've seen it all. 现在我开了眼界了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> all 修饰宾语时，如果宾语是代词，all 可以放在代词后面，也可以放在代词前面，当中加上 of。但是如果宾语是名词，则只能用 all of 形式(如果名词是特指的，of 可以省略)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They played all of/all the Beethoven concertos. 他们演奏了贝多芬全部的协奏曲。这句可以改为：They played them all. 但是不能改为：<i>They played the Beethoven concertos all. 的，of 可以省略)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They played all of/all the Beethoven concertos. 他们演奏了贝多芬全部的协奏曲。这句可以改为：They played them all. 但是不能改为：</i>They played the Beethoven concertos all.</div><br><span class="seq">(9)</span> all 后面有数词时，虽然是指这个数目的全部，但通常不加 the。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>All five (<i>all the five) were lost. 五个都损失了。/ I bought all three (</i>all the three) of them. 我把三个全都买下来了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(10)</span> 表示特指的“全部的”时，all the 只用于可数名词的复数和不可数名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>all the books 所有的书</div><div class="ex-item">all the butter 全部的黄油。</div><br><br>如果是可数名词的单数，就不用 all the 而用 the whole。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the whole book (*all the book) 整本书。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(11)</span> all 还可以作为副词加上名词，表示“全神贯注”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>all ears 洗耳恭听</div><div class="ex-item">We waited, all curiosity, until with another effort he braced himself to tell his story. (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes) 我们大家都抱着极大的好奇心，等候他又一次费神说他的故事。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(12)</span> all 还可以作为副词表示数量有限。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It took all of three weeks. 这仅仅花了三个星期。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(13)</span> all 可以作为表示“仅仅”的副词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His family was something he rarely talked about. With him, it was usually all business. 他的家庭情况，是他很少谈到的。对他来说，通常只有公事。(注意这里的 all 不是 business 的前置定语)</div>
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all but
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>all but</b></div>是个状语词组(“几乎”)，可以修饰定语，也可以修饰谓语动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He all but (= very nearly) strangled me. (Randolph Quirk et al., A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language) 他几乎把我闷死了。/ Random House editors were entrusted with all but unlimited autonomy. (The New York Times Book Review, Feb. 10, 2011, p. 28) 兰登书屋的编辑们拥有几乎无限的自主权。/ Public employees are fighting to keep their old-fashioned defined benefit plans, which have all but disappeared in the private sector. (The Daily Gazette, Mar. 5, 2011) 公职雇员们正在力争保住自己那些老式、明确的福利方案，而这些福利，在私营部门，则已经差不多消失了。</div><br><br>
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alleged
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>alleged</b></div>这是一个新闻常用的单词。新闻报道发生了某件事时，如果不是记者目睹或是经过证实的，为了慎重起见，往往使用这个单词，表示“据称”。这个单词的搭配用法如下：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 整件事情用 alleged 来概括。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is alleged that they mistreated the prisoners. 据称他们虐待囚犯。否定时单独否定从句即可：It is alleged that they did not mistreat the prisoners.</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> alleged 这个单词落在作主语的某个人身上，但是 alleged 的内容实际上落在“主语 + to inf.”这件事情上。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They are alleged to have mistreated the prisoners. 但是这种用法不适合否定句，例如一般不说：<i>They are not alleged to have mistreated the prisoners. 也不说：</i>They are alleged not to have mistreated the prisoners. 此时最好用上面(1)或下面(3)的句型，改为否定句。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 将 alleged 加上后缀 -ly 成为副词 allegedly，对句子加以限定：They allegedly mistreated the prisoners. 否定时可以说：They allegedly did not mistreat the prisoners.<br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 形容词 alleged 可以当作前置定语，所修饰的名词可以是事情，也可以是人。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>his alleged innocence 他自称的清白</div><div class="ex-item">the alleged identity theft 涉嫌的冒名顶替行为</div><div class="ex-item">the alleged murderer 涉嫌的谋杀犯</div><div class="ex-item">the alleged victim 自称受害的人。</div><br><br>与 alleged 类似的还有 reported、supposed 等词，搭配用法差不多相同，但意义有些细微差别。alleged 往往是“有人指称的”；reported 则是“有人报道的”；supposed 则可能是说话人或写报道者自己猜测的。<br><br>
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alligator
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>alligator</b></div>是生长在美洲和中国的一种鳄鱼，嘴比 crocodile 略短。美国人在非正式的口语中道别时往往说：See you later, alligator. 在这一句中，alligator 完全失去了“鳄鱼”的意义，而仅仅是用于与 later 押韵。这句话只是表达“回头见”，说了这句话，对方往往也用同样押韵的话回应：After a while, crocodile. 意思也是“回头见”。(参见 crocodile 条)
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allow
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>allow</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 表示“允许”时，直接宾语可以是人或行为(用名词或动名词表示)，也可以是瞬时的行动，或是延续的状态。用被动语态时也如此。但无论主动被动，如果被“允许”者是人或是内容不明确的事物，则必须补上 to inf.，否则意义不完全。(注意：let 后面的 inf. 不要 to，allow 则无论主动被动，后面的 inf. 必须有 to。) <div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Smoking is not allowed here. 此处禁止吸烟。/ Allow me to introduce to you my friend Mr. Jones. 请允许我向您介绍我的朋友琼斯先生。/ You are not allowed to use aflash in this museum. 本博物馆内不准使用闪光灯。/ The further this process is allowed to go, the more difficult it will be to reverse. 这个局面越是任其发展下去，今后要扭转就越是困难。</div><br><br>但如果不是表示“允许”而是“接纳”，则指人的直接宾语后面可以没有 to inf.。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The club doesn't allow women members. 这个俱乐部不接纳女性会员。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 表示“允许”，let 是最普通的词；permit 的主语是有此权力者，较为正式；allow 则介乎两者之间，通常用于有礼貌的交际场合。一般来说，allow 是主观有意的行为，但有时也可以表示无意的疏忽(加 to inf.)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>allow a cake to burn 把蛋糕烤糊了</div><div class="ex-item">Some evidence had been allowed to spoil. 有些证据已经因保管不善而损坏。在这种意义上，只能用 allow，不能用 permit。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> allow 也可以有双宾语(间接宾语无 to，先于直接宾语)，表示“允许某人享有某事物”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She allowed her son only two hours of television a week. 她每周只让儿子看两小时的电视。/ He allows himself no sweets. 他戒食糖果。</div><br><br>在这个意义上，可以有被动语态，而且通常将间接宾语变为主语，原来的直接宾语不变。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The royal prisoner, allowed unusual privileges, seemed to enjoy his captivity. 这位钦犯享受着不寻常的特权，似乎在囚禁中自得其乐。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 同 order 相似，allow 表示“允许(不明言的人)对某物施加某行动”时，可以以某物为直接宾语，将该行动用被动语态表示，以 to be + pp. 形式放在直接宾语后面(但 order 是瞬时动词，allow 则可以是瞬时体或延续体)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... federalism allows many functions to be farmed out by the central government to the states or provinces. ……联邦制允许把许多职能由中央政府下放给各个州或省份。</div><br><br>与 allow 同义的 permit 也可以采取这样的搭配。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>King Henry VIII of England permitted these properties to be privately owned by Protestants, or followers of the new English Church. 英格兰国王亨利八世允许新教徒亦即新的英国教会追随者占有这些地产。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> allow X for Y (X 是金额、物资或时间，Y 是某一可能的情况或项目，用名词或动名词表示)是“为 Y 这种情况预留 X”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>allow fifteen minutes for fueling 预留 15 分钟的加油时间</div><div class="ex-item">allow a gallon for leakage 预留一加仑作漏出量</div><div class="ex-item">allow 5 percent for cash payment 预留其中 5% 可以用现金支付。</div><br><br>也可以只有 for Y 而没有 X，也是“预先估计到，把某个可能发生的情况估计进去”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>allow for the unexpected 把预计不到的情况算在内</div><div class="ex-item">Buy a large one to allow for shrinkage. 买件大的，以防它日后缩水。/ Allowing for traffic delays, we should leave at 7:30 at the latest. 把交通耽搁的时间也算在内，我们最晚 7 点半出发。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> allow 除了表示“允许”之外，还可以表示“承认；同意”，后面可以接上 that 从句或是“名词成分 + to inf.”(但是这个 inf. 的动词应该是不自主的延续状态，如果是瞬时的自主行动，allow 就仍然是“允许”的意思)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>One has to allow that she has talent. 应该承认她是有才华的。/ Mrs. Hurst and her sister allowed it to be so. (Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice) 赫斯特太太和她的姐妹同意这种看法。/ Mr. Darcy had at first scarcely allowed her to be pretty; ... (ibid.) 说到达西先生，他一开始并不认为她怎么漂亮；……</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> allow of 与 admit of 同义，可以互换，都是延续体的状态动词(第一类动词)，表示“可以容许对自己给予(某种评价，某种待遇)”，可以用一般现在时，主语通常是物不是人。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His remarks allow/admit of no other interpretation. 他的那些话不可能有别的解释。</div><br><br>
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all right
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>all right</b></div>插在句中，可以表示让步(“的确，虽然”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The residents in the costlier (指 Medicare 州支出更多) regions received 60 percent more care all right, but they did not seem to have better quality or outcomes of care. (U.S. News & World Report, June 30, 2003, p. 64) 那些费用较高的地区，得到的医疗保障的确比其他地区多 60%，但是它们并不显得有更高的质量或是更好的效果。</div><br><br>无论是中文还是英文，在“但是”之前，往往要先让一步，对另一方的说法给予一点肯定。英文中可以说：It is true that ...</div><div class="ex-item">Quite true, ...</div><div class="ex-item">There is little doubt that ...</div><div class="ex-item">It cannot be denied that ...</div><div class="ex-item">Sure, ...</div><div class="ex-item">To be sure, ...</div><div class="ex-item">True, ...</div><div class="ex-item">Of course, ...</div><div class="ex-item">Certainly, ...，或者在让步的前半句中给谓语动词加一个 do 来表示“肯定”。<br><br>
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all-round, all-out 与 overall
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>all-round, all-out 与 overall</b></div>大体上中文都是“全面的”，但是意义上有细微的差别。all-round 偏于静态的“面面俱到”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>all-round education 通才教育</div><div class="ex-item">all-round development 全面发展。用于人则表示“全才；多面手”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He's a good all-round player. 他是个出色的全能型球员。</div><br><br>all-out 则偏于动态的“全力以赴”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>an all-out offensive 全面攻势。</div><br><br>all-round 与 all-out 通常都是用来修饰人或其计划或行动，overall 则除此之外还可以用来修饰客观事物，而且往往暗含“范围广了但可能稀薄了”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>my overall impression 我的大体印象(总的概括，笼统而不具体深入)</div><div class="ex-item">overall improvement in standards of living 生活水平的普遍改善(人人都有改善，但可能每人都不多)</div><div class="ex-item">the overall situation 全局情况(面面俱到，但每个方面都只能蜻蜓点水)。</div><br><br>
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all that + adj.
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>all that + adj.</b></div>all that 放在形容词前面，表示减弱语气。通常前面要有否定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His performance wasn't all that bad. 他的表演并不那么差劲。(参见下条 all that much) 但是可以放在肯定的从句中，前面主句为否定，将整个从句加以否定。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I don't think (that) his performance was all that bad. 我觉得他的表演并不那么差劲。</div><br><br>
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all that much
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>all that much</b></div>前面有否定，加在一起，表示减弱语气的否定(“不那么”)。much 可以是形容词，也可以是副词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He didn't like barracks life all that much. 他并不那么喜欢军营生活。/ O'Neil was a bright young kid and didn't need all that much supervision. (Tom Clancy, Clear and Present Danger) 奥尼尔是个聪明伶俐的小伙子，不那么需要别人来监督他。</div><br><br>
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all the more
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>all the more</b></div>中国人不太习惯使用这个词组，因为译成中文是“更加”，似乎同英文的 more 或 even more 差不多。但其实 all the more (或类似的比较级形式)表示的“更加”，是前后文说出原因或隐含原因的，而简单的 more 或 even more 则不涉及原因。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's all the more remarkable if you consider ... 如果你考虑到……那么这一点就显得更加值得注意。/ There's much to admire in this film, making its shortcomings all the more lamentable. 这部片子有许多值得钦佩之处，因此它的缺点就更加令人遗憾。/ I felt all the better for having told him. 我因为告诉了他，心里就舒畅了些。/ If we lose our will at home, it makes the task for our soldiers all the more difficult. 如果我们在国内失去斗志，我们士兵们的任务就更难办了。/ For this very reason, their recklessness is all the harder to forgive. 正是由于这个原因，他们的鲁莽就更难以原谅。/ But his feet strode on all the faster. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 可是，他的两条腿却迈得更快了。</div><br><br>相反的说法是 all the less (“更加不”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His record is all the less impressive once you discover that he made half of it up. 他的纪录，只要你发现其中有一半是编造的，那就更加不动人了。如果对这种相反的说法加以否定，all 就要改为 any。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Saying things doesn't make one any the less guilty of them. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 把事情说出来，并不能减轻一个人的罪过。</div><br><br>
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all the more so
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>all the more so</b></div>是个副词短语，意思是“尤其是”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was a magical month, all the more so because it was the last time we were all together. (Mary Higgins Clark, Where Are You Now?) 那个月，真是过的神仙的日子，尤其是因为那是我们全家最后一次聚在一起。</div><br><br>
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(all the) while
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(all the) while</b></div>后面跟着动词现在分词，意思是“而同时又(一直)做着某事”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Second, the soldiers. One could not have arms negotiations without the men who controlled the arms, ... <b>all the while</b> telling themselves that the politicians who controlled the men would never give the order to launch. (Tom Clancy, The Cardinal of the Kremlin) 其次，是军人。任何人都无法进行军备谈判，除非他手下有一批人控制住武器，……而同时又一直告诉自己说，那些控制着军人的政治家们永远不会下令发射这些武器。</div><br><br>
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almost 与 nearly
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>almost 与 nearly</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> almost 与 nearly 常常可以互换。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I've almost/nearly finished. 我差不多做完了。/ There were almost/nearly a thousand people there. 那里有将近一千人。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 但是有时候 almost 比 nearly 更加强一些。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's nearly ten o'clock. 快十点钟了。(可能是九点三刻)</div><div class="ex-item">It's almost ten o'clock. 马上就十点钟了。(可能只差两三分钟)</div><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> nearly 前面可以再再加上增强语气的 very 或 pretty，但 almost 前面则不可。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I've very/pretty nearly (*almost) finished. 我差一点点就做完了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> almost 可以用于表示性质上的“近似”，而 nearly 则偏重数量上的接近。因此，表示“像”什么时，可以用 almost，但不可以用 nearly。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Jake is almost (*nearly) like a father to me. 杰克几乎像父亲一样对待我。/ Our dog understands everything. He's almost human. 我们的狗什么都懂。他几乎是通人性的。/ My aunt's got a strange accent. She almost sounds foreign. 我的姨妈口音很古怪。听起来像外国人。/ I almost wish I'd stayed at home. 我几乎恨不得留在家里。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> nearly 不能同否定副词或否定代词一起使用；almost 则可以同 not 除外的否定词一起使用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She's almost never/hardly ever (*nearly never) at home. 她几乎从不在家。/ Almost nobody/Hardly anybody was there. 几乎没有人在那里。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 在 everybody、everything、anybody、anything 之前，多用 almost，少用 nearly。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She likes almost everybody. 几乎所有的人她都喜欢。/ Almost anybody can do this job. 这个工作几乎谁都能做。/ He's been almost everywhere. 他几乎什么地方都去过。/ He eats almost anything. 他几乎什么都吃。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> almost 后面如果遇到 not，通常就两者合起来改为 hardly。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Hardly (<i>Almost not) a day goes by without her paying us a visit. 她几乎没有一天不来看我们一次。/ I need hardly (</i>I almost don't need) remind you that ... 我几乎不用提醒你……</div><br><br>但是偶尔也有人用 almost not 的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The menu is almost not readable in daylight. 屏幕上的菜单在白天几乎看不出来。</div><br><br>
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alone (adj.)
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>alone (adj.)</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> alone 不能用 very、too 等副词来修饰，但可以用 very much 或 all (作副词用)来修饰。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The house stands on the hillside all alone. 房子孤零零地立在山坡上。</div><br><br>也可以有比较级，不同事物彼此比较或同一事物在不同场合比较均可。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Sometimes men are more alone than women. 男人有时候比女人更孤单。/ She is more alone than ever. 她比任何时候都更加孤单。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> leave somebody/something alone 通常不是留下来某人(或某物)孤零零一个或孤立某人，而是“不打扰”他或“不惊动”他，或对某物不采取行动。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>About half the American people turned their clocks ahead for daylight saving time, while the other half left their clocks alone. 美国人大约有一半按照夏令时把时钟往前拨，而另一半人则不动时钟。</div><br><br>要注意有时候 leave 和 alone 当中会隔着很长的其他成分(即 leave 的直接宾语)，但 leave 和 alone 之间的呼应关系不能因此而中断。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They left the hospital, where we had been treating servicemen, alone for several weeks and then they abruptly shut us down at 24 hours notice. (BBC News, Mar. 29, 2008) 这所医院原本是我们用来治疗军人的，他们有几个星期没有打扰我们，但是忽然之间，通知我们 24 小时内关闭。</div><br><br>但是有时候 leave somebody/something alone 也有字面上的“单独留下某人或某物”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Don't leave the baby alone. 别把婴儿单独留下。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> let alone 可以是“暂时放下”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Do you think the study of Bach is necessary to the development of one's technique, or should one let his music alone until a later day when one's technique is in good condition? (Josef Hofmann, Piano Playing) 你觉得学习巴赫是增进自己技艺所必需的，还是说应该先把巴赫的音乐放下，等到有朝一日自己的技艺长进了再捡起来？</div><br><br>
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alone 与 only
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>alone 与 only</b></div>alone 作为副词，同 only 究竟有何异同，是值得探讨的一个问题。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 首先，alone 同 only 都有的意义，就是肯定某一事物的某一情况，而同时否定或贬低其他同类事物的同样情况，但是着重点有所不同：alone 着重肯定某一事物本身的某一情况，是“内向”的；而 only 则着重否定(已经不光是贬低)其他类似事物的同样情况，是“外向”的。有时即使两者可以互换，侧重的语气也略有不同。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This alone would be a miracle. 单单这一件事就已经是个奇迹了。(何况还有别的也可能是奇迹呢)</div><div class="ex-item">Only this would be a miracle. 只有这件事可以是个奇迹。(再也没有别的可能是奇迹了)</div>如果句子是否定句，alone 本来的对内的正面肯定意义就发生了变化，出现了一定程度的对外肯定意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Man shall not live by bread alone. (Matthew 4:4) 人活着，不是单靠食物。(这一句是对 bread 本身内在的功能加以说明，只是表示它不足，对它本身并不否定，同时暗示另外还需要别的东西)</div><div class="ex-item">But his charm alone cannot explain the honeymoon atmosphere of these encounters. 但是单单他的魅力，还不是这几次会谈在蜜月气氛中进行的唯一原因。(还有别的原因)</div>如果是 only 用于否定，则仅限于对该事物本身加以否定，而同时保持对范围以外的事物加以肯定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Only John and Jennifer didn't come. 除了约翰和珍妮弗，全都来了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 由于 alone 没有排斥其他事物的作用，所以在下面的一些例子中应该用 alone 而不用 only。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Losses due to IP theft in Brazil amounted to $900 million in 2003 alone. 单单在 2003 年一年内，盗窃知识产权在巴西造成的损失就达 9 亿美元之多。(还有别的年份)</div><div class="ex-item">U.S. casualties alone exceeded6,000 人。(还有别的盟国的伤亡)</div><div class="ex-item">100 civilians had perished in his province alone. 单单在他的那一个省，就有 100 名平民丧生。/ Iraqi President Jalal Talabani said 1,091 people had been killed in April in Baghdad alone. 伊拉克总统塔拉巴尼称，4 月单单在巴格达一地，就有 1,091 人被杀害。(还有别的地方未计算在内)</div><div class="ex-item">Since 2000 alone, the nation has added some 20 million people. (U.S. News & World Report, Oct. 2, 2006, p. 48) 单单从 2000 年算起，美国人口就增加了大约 2,000 万。(更早的时候未计算在内)</div><div class="ex-item">... and since the First Lady appeared to many as a soft target, one of Roy's functions was to make the casual troublemaker think twice on that basis alone. (Tom Clancy, Executive Orders) ……由于第一夫人在许多人看来是个容易下手的目标，所以罗伊的任务之一就是(以他魁梧的身躯)镇住万一出现的麻烦制造者，让其单单看到这一点就不得不三思而后行。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 一个与 alone 和 only 意义相近的形容词(但不能作为副词)，是 mere。但是 mere 着重“本身之区区有限”，同 alone 的“聚焦本身(承认本身区区有限)而又不排斥其他”和 only 的“肯定本身而又排斥其他”都不相同。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A mere child can do that. 甚至区区一个小孩也能够做。/ A child alone can do that. 单单一个小孩也能够做。(不必多人，也不必成年人，如果多人或是成年人当然更加能够做)</div><div class="ex-item">Only a child can do that. 唯有一个小孩才能够做。(成年人反而不能够)</div>mere 还有“尽管本身区区不怎么样但却能够起大作用”(“四两拨千斤”)的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His mere presence made them feel afraid. 他人在那里，就足以令他们心惊胆跳。/ ... the mere fact that the type of the fern has remained so constant through the time that has elapsed since the Palaeozoic coal measures that a mere child can recognize it, is astonishing. (Journal of the Transactions of the Victoria Institute, or Philosophical Society of Great Britain, Vol. XVIII, 1885) ……这一类的蕨，尽管自古生代煤层以来过了这么久，但竟然一直保持未变，连一个孩子都认得出来，单单这个事实就使人感到惊讶。(这个例句中的两个 mere，都包含了这个意思。)</div>mere 还可以用于 a mere + 数词 + 复数名词，也有“四两拨千斤”的含义，表示“区区为数这样少的”(此时 a 与复数并不矛盾)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It took him a mere 20 minutes to win. 他只花 20 分钟就赢了。/ A mere 135 words long, George Washington's second inaugural address (Mar. 4, 1793) was the shortest ever given by a U.S. president. 华盛顿 1793 年 3 月 4 日的第二次就职演说只有短短的 135 个词，是美国总统所发表的最短的就职演说。</div><br><br>有时候 a mere 也只是强调其少或小，没有“四两拨千斤”的暗含之义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A mere 645 spectators watched the game. 只有 645 名观众看了比赛。</div><br><br>mere 后面如果是个抽象的范畴名词(进一步的内容说明不在后面，而是在前文已经交代)，则前面通常不用 this 或 that 而用特定冠词 the (意义上仍然是 this 或 that)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The (*That) mere thought frightens me. 一念及此，我就心惊胆跳。</div><br><br>如果不是“四两拨千斤”，而是排他性的“仅仅”，就用 only。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The only synthesis of the product dates from 1903. 这种产品仅有的一次合成，是 1903 年的事。试比较：The mere synthesis of this product intimidates the chemists. 单单这种产品的合成，就使得化学家们大吃一惊。</div><br><br>即使句子中有“拨千斤”，但没有“四两”与之相对，只是“仅仅，唯一”，就仍然用 only 而不用 mere。试比较：The only known synthesis of this product intimidates the chemists. 该产品唯一已知的一次合成，使得化学家们大吃一惊。/ The mere fact of taking the shortcut finally delayed us. 单单因为抄这条近路，最后就耽误了我们。/ The mere fact of presentation of his baggage makes him nervous. 单单提交行李这一件事，就弄得他很紧张。<br><br>only 与 mere 还有一个细致含义上的不同。not only 表示它所管辖的成分其实并不被否定，而是被肯定，然后再另加一个肯定成分；not merely 则用 not 根本否定了它所管辖的成分，再加上 merely 来“贬低”这个成分。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There are good and decent people who work in the White House, people who haven't merely latched on to Trump to leech off his fame and climb to power. (National Review, Jan. 4, 2018) 在白宫工作的有一些正派的好人，他们并不是为了区区蹭特朗普的名望向上爬、揽权而粘到他身上的。这一句中，如果将 merely 改为 only，意思就会大变，成为“这些人(很坏)，不但为了蹭特朗普的名望向上爬、揽权而粘到他身上(而且还干别的坏事)”。此外，not only 的 not，可以连到谓语动词上，但其实并不否定这个谓语，也(如上所述)不否定其后的部分，只否定 only 的排他作用。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She doesn't only read people and situations to the point where it feels like sorcery, she also notices patterns. (Estelle Ryan, The Gauguin Connection) 她不光是从观察人和事态中看出问题，到了出神入化的地步，而且她还注意到人们行为的规律性。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 另一个与 alone 和 only 意义相近的形容词(也不能作为副词)，是 sole。它的词义大体上同形容词 only 相近，都有对其他同类事物进行排他的含义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This is his sole/only invention. 这是他唯一的发明。但是深层的含义略有不同，用 only 可能有“看不起”的含义(“他一辈子就只发明了这么一件东西”)；用 sole 则可能有着重事物本身的积极面的含义(“这是凝聚了他毕生心血的发明”)。在这一点上，sole 与 mere 也是取向相反的(尽管 mere 对本事物是“先贬后褒”，没有“后褒”就不能用，例如不能说：*This is his mere invention.)。但是，在“for sole + 无冠词名词”(“作为仅有的……” )这个惯用词组中，sole 的意义相当于 only (但不能以 only 代之)，也是“排外”而并不着重本身积极面的。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>For sole answer, he smiled. 他不回答，只是笑了笑。/ For sole furniture, he had a bed and a desk. 他仅有的家具只有一张床和一张桌子。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> sheer 也同 mere 一样有“四两拨千斤”的意义，但是不像 mere 那样可以用于有明确数目的个体，而只能用于笼统的量或抽象性质。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He succeeded by sheer hard work. 他是单单靠艰苦努力而成功的。/ They were overwhelmed by the sheer size of the problem. 问题如此庞大，单单这一点，他们看到就发愣。/ The sheer scale of the data is a challenge, ... (The Economist, Feb. 27, 2010, p. 8) 单单数据的规模，就是一个难题……</div><div class="ex-item">The sheer number of these plans的数量之多，就使人不禁觉得，……</div><br><br>
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already
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>already</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 同 still 和 yet 一样，already 所修饰的，应该是一个延续状态(其中 already 修饰一个业已开始的肯定的延续状态，yet 修饰一个尚未开始的否定的或有疑问的延续状态，still 则肯定与否定均可)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She's already here. 她已经在这里了。/ When I was fourteen I already knew that I wanted to be a doctor. 我 14 岁的时候就已经知道自己想当个医生。</div><br><br>但是，英语的现在完成时和过去完成时用于瞬时动作的动词时，有一个特殊功能，就是表示这个动作创造出了一个新的状态，这个状态业已开始，而且继续存在。也就是说，already (以及 still 和 yet)可以同完成时的瞬时体动词连用，意思是某个新的状态业已存在。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has already arrived. = He is already here.</div><div class="ex-item">The boy had already fallen asleep. = They boy was already asleep.</div><div class="ex-item">He has already put on the new coat. = He is already wearing the new coat.</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 一般来说，already 用于肯定(“已经”)，yet 用于否定(“尚未”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has already left. 他已经离开了。/ He hasn't left yet. 他还没有离开。</div><br><br>但是在英语中，疑问意念同否定意念的关系比在汉语中密切(参见 any 条)，因此，在不带倾向性的一般疑问句中也如同在否定句中一样，用 yet 而不用 already (这是中国人不太习惯的)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Has he left yet? 他已经走了吗？(而不说：*Has he left already?) 回答时，如果是肯定，就要把原先问句中的 yet 改为 already: Yes, he already has. (注意：already 要提前到主语后、谓语前，谓语只留下助动词并重读，略去实义动词。) 如果是否定回答，则可以说：He hasn't yet.</div><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 但是，如果提问的人已经有了认为回答会是肯定的倾向性，则仍然可以用 already 而不用 yet。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Haven't you read this book already? 你不会没看过这本书吧？或者提问时已经认为答案将是肯定的而只是为了表示惊讶而提问，也用 already 而不用 yet。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Is it May already? 已经是五月了吗？/ Haven't you read this book already? 你不是已经看过这本书了吗？/ Have you already finished your task? 你真的完成了任务？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 有一些词组，尽管有否定词，其实意义不是否定的，也不用 yet 而用 already。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They're likely to sell WMD to terrorists, if they haven't already. 他们很可能会把大规模杀伤性武器卖给恐怖分子，甚至也许已经这样做了。(if ... not ... 其实是“甚至”的意思)</div><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 还有一点，用 yet 而不用 already 只是在一般疑问句中如此。如果是特殊疑问句，由于谓语动词所指的事情已经是事实，疑问并不在此，而是在句首的疑问词上，所以就不能用 yet 而只能用 already。例如 Has she left yet? 是对的，因为疑问在“她是否已经动身”上面；但是不能说 *Why has she left yet? 而要说 Why has she left already? 因为“她动身了”一事已经不成问题，问的只是原因。<br><br>
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already 与 all ready
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>already 与 all ready</b></div>already 是个副词，all ready 是形容词，意义完全不同。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Are they already all ready? 他们已经全体准备好了吗？</div><br><br>
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also
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>also</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 这个副词有两层略微不同的含义：一是“相同”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If you will stay, I will also. 您愿意留下我也就留下。</div><br><br>二是“而且”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The game was slow, and it was also boring. 这场比赛进行得慢吞吞的，而且还很沉闷。/ She plays the piano and also sings. 她会弹钢琴，又会唱。/ He is rich. Yet he is also stingy. 他很有钱。但他也很吝啬。/ The book was long, also dull. 那本书又冗长又枯燥。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> also 通常放在它所修饰的单词或词组之前，包括实义动词(但不包括主语，因为 also 修饰谓语也等于修饰了主语)，但是遇到系动词 be 和助动词时就不能放在其前面，而只能放在后面(部分原因是：be 以及助动词通常没有实义或是实义很弱，也就没有很大必要去直接修饰它，更需要直接修饰的成分还在后头)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They also will serve their country. 他们(同别人一样)将为国家服务。/ They will also serve their country. 他们(不但干别的，而且还)为国家服务。但是 also 究竟管句子的哪一个成分，往往不能光从它的位置来判断，还要根据上下文来决定。有些句子结构相似，also 的位置都一样，但是管不同的句子成分。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I read in the paper that their band was coming to town. I also heard that the band would play here. 我在报上看到，他们那个乐队要到本市来。我还听说乐队要在这里表演。(also 管 heard)</div><div class="ex-item">Mary heard that their band is coming to town. I also heard that the band would play here. 玛丽听说他们那个乐队要到本市来。我也听说乐队要在这里表演。(also 管 I)</div><div class="ex-item">The band has been playing on the West Coast for weeks. I also heard that the band would play here. 那个乐队在西海岸表演了好几个星期了。我听说乐队还要在这里表演。(also 管 here) 如果前后文不清楚，最好将 also 放到尽量靠近所管成分之处。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I heard the band would also play here. (also 管 here 或 play，但管 play 的可能性不大)</div><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 有的学者认为，also 不可以放在句首，但在倒装句中表示“同样”时可以放在句首，远距离修饰倒置于谓语之后的主语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Also on the agenda are ... 议程还包括……</div><div class="ex-item">Also old are the words from Old English and Middle English. (W. F. Bolton, A Short History of Literary English) 同样，那些来自中古英语的单词，也已经老旧了。</div><br><br>also 作“而且，更有甚者”解时，也可以放在句首，后面加上一个逗号。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Also, during the summer, so-called interim disciplinary rules were promulgated. (The New York Times, Jan. 9, 1969) 而且，夏季时还颁布了一些所谓的临时纪律。/ The warranty covers all power-train components. Also, participating dealers back their work with a free lifetime service guarantee. 保修范围包括所有动力系统部件。而且，一些参与保修的零售商还提供永久性的免费维修保证，为自己的业务做保障。但是这种结构也受到了非议。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 一般认为 also 只能用于肯定，不能用于否定，否定时要像否定 too 那样改用either。但是其实 also 也往往用于否定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Our concern about such practices is <b>also not</b> new. 我们对这些做法的关切同样也不新鲜了。/ She <b>also</b> knew absolutely <b>nothing</b> about the Theory of Relativity. 她对相对论也是一无所知。</div><br><br>但是要注意两点：第一，如果用 also，要放在谓语动词前面 (too 则放在句末)。<br><br>第二，用 also 与用 too 意义不同。also 表示对前后两者都加以否定；too 则肯定前者，否定后者 (同时也也就否定后者与前者有相同的肯定意义)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You should <b>not</b> smoke, and you <b>also</b> should <b>not</b> drink. 你既不能吸烟，也不能喝酒。/ You may drink, but you may <b>not</b> smoke <b>too</b>. 你可以喝酒，但不可以又加上吸烟。</div><br><br>
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alternative
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>alternative</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 这个名词最原始的意义，是“只能两者选一的局面” (the alternative of A or B)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The government is faced with the <b>alternative</b> of high taxes or poor highways. 政府面临抉择，要么征收高额税收，要么让公路处于恶劣状态。/ The <b>alternative</b> is liberty or death. 不自由，毋宁死。/ The <b>alternative</b> was simply unthinkable. 根本就不能想象有选择的余地。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 经过转义，alternative 又可以表示多个抉择方案中的一个。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There are several <b>alternatives</b> for your choice. 有好几个办法可以供你选择。/ They chose the <b>alternative</b> of attacking. 他们选择了进攻的方案。/ There is no <b>alternative</b> but to keep them indoors. 没有别的办法，只好让他们留在室内。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> alternative(s) to X，表示“代替 X 做法的其他做法”，对 X 有否定意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Those who propound <b>alternatives to</b> destroying human embryos have to struggle to get a hearing. 那些主张采取别的办法不毁坏人类胚胎的人，不得不苦苦争取得到听证。/ The most important point of our study is to let patients know they truly do have an <b>alternative to</b> surgery or radiation therapy, and that alternative is watchful waiting. 我们的研究中最重要的一个点，就是让病人知道他们的确有办法不必动手术或是放疗，这个办法就是观察等待。</div><br><br>也可以指“另外的人选”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He is the only <b>alternative</b> voters will have <b>to</b> the Democratic candidate on November 7. 他是选民们在 11 月 7 日唯一能用来取代民主党候选人的人选。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> alternative 前面加定冠词 the (前文无所指)，带有纯粹的否定意义，表示“(如果)不这样做而采取别的做法”，尤其是出现在惯用句 it sure beats the alternative (“这无论如何也比不这样做做好”) 中 (这个句子往往前面先让一步)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There is additional work involved when working from home, but for me, it sure beats <b>the alternative</b>. 把工作拿到家里来做，会多一些麻烦事，但对我来说，还是这样做更好些。/ I don't think any of us want to take additional meds, but in many cases it sure beats <b>the alternative</b>. 我认为我们当中谁都不愿意增加新药，但是这往往比不增加好些。</div><br><br>这个 alternative 的内容是什么，后面可以用动名词来说明。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Hopefully, you will never find yourself in a situation where you need to live on a deserted island, but it sure beats <b>the alternative</b> dying on a deserted island. 但愿你永远不会落到需要在荒岛上生活的处境，但这也比死在荒岛上强些。(句首的主语 it 常常可以省略：Sure beats <b>the alternative</b>.)</div>有时候 alternative 仍然保持形容词词性，后面再加名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How does the reliability and applicability of computer simulation compare with the <b>alternative</b> approach of metering with or without a control group? (Jacob Foley, "4 Basic Approaches to Determining Energy Efficiency Benefits") 电脑模拟，同不用电脑的有或没有对照组的看表计数法相比较，其可靠性与适用性如何？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> alternative 作为形容词，也可以表示“可供选择的”或“替代(现有的、传统的)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We've made several <b>alternative</b> translations of the text. 我们把这个文本译成了几种不同的译文以供选择。/ <b>alternative</b> energy 替代能源 (指的是风能、太阳能之类代替石油和煤炭的能源)</div><div class="ex-item"><b>alternative</b> lifestyle 不同于传统的生活方式</div><div class="ex-item"><b>alternative</b> medicine 替代医学 (如中医、针灸、食疗等)。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 作为形容词，还可以进一步表示“与此不同的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Alternative</b> counts on these and other subjects were rejected as partisan or uninformed. (The Washington Post, Mar. 20, 2007) 在这些和其他方面的计算数字，如果与此不同，就被当作有党派色彩或是情报来源不确定而被加以否定。</div><br><br>作为形容词，alternative 还可以有后置的介词短语 to X 作为补充说明，而且这个介词短语可以离开 alternative 放在其修饰的名词之后。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Rather than trying to shuffle young people off to college three months after they graduate from high school, policy makers should support <b>alternative</b> routes <b>to</b> the education and training required for high-quality jobs. (Jeffrey Selingo, in The Wall Street Journal, May 27, 2016, A11) 决策者们不应该想方设法让年轻人在高中毕业三个月后就挪到大学去，而是应该支持一些其他途径，让他们不必经历高质量工作所要求的教育和训练。</div><br><br>
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although
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>although</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> although 与 though 一般来说不但在意义上没有区别，而且在用法上在大多数场合可以互换。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Although/Though</b> she smiled, she was angry. 她虽然在微笑，但是心里很生气。</div><br><br>有一种意见，认为 although 引入的从句应该放在主句之前，而 though 引入的从句则比较自由，可以先于或后于主句，但从实际语言使用来看，although 引入的从句，也往往可以后于主句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She kept her coat on, <b>although/though</b> it was warm in the room. 尽管屋里热，她仍然穿着外套不脱。/ He's very nervous, <b>although/though</b> you'd never think so. 他这个人很神经质，尽管看起来一点也不像。</div><br><br>如果不是主从句结构，而是两个意义对立的短语要并列起来，则用 though 可以一口气连贯并列：wiser <b>though</b> poorer (聪明但穷)。用 although 则前面要有停顿 (书面加逗号)：wiser, <b>although</b> poorer。<br><br>如果从句采取别的结构，以另一个单词开始，当中也只能用 though 而不能用 although。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Fond <b>though</b> (*although) I am of sports, I'd rather not sit through another basketball game. 尽管我喜欢体育，但我不想再坐着看完一场篮球赛了。/ Millionaire <b>though</b> he was, he never let an opportunity slip. 他尽管是个百万富翁，但任何机会他都不会放过。(注意这个结构中 millionaire 前没有不定冠词 a，如果改为一般的 though 从句，这个 a 就不能省略：<b>Though</b> he was <b>a</b> millionaire, ...)</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 中国人往往把“虽然……但是……”照搬到英文，成为 <i>although/though ... but ...，这是错误的。用了 although/though 就不能再用 but，用了 but 就不能再用 although/though，两者是“势不两立”的。这一点许多人也知道，但不一定清楚原因。原因何在呢？原因就是：此处 but 不是副词，而是并列连词。副词和连词的区别就是：副词不是句子的根本成分，它只是“锦上添花”，加进了句子并不改变句子的性质。连词加进句子就成了句子结构中不可分割的一部分，而且句子因为加进了 but 这个并列连词就从独立句变成了并列句的第二分句。连词 but 的特点，可以从一个现象看出来：but 后面不能有停顿，在书面上表现为不能加逗号。以 but 开始的句子，不可能是独立的主句，只能是两个并列句当中的第二分句 (有时有些句子以 but 开始，其实也是并列分句省略了前一分句)。另一方面，以主从连词 although/though 开始的句子，既不可能是独立主句，也不可能是并列句中的第一句，而只能是一个让步从句。这样一来，在 </i>although/though ... but ... 的结构中，是一个让步从句 (用主从连词引入) 搭配一个并列句第二分句 (用并列连词引入)，没有主句，因而根本不成句子。如果去掉 although/though 而保留 but，则整个句子成了由两个并列分句组成的并列句，就可以成立。<br><br>说到这里，应该指出，语义上同 but 差不多的 however 或 nevertheless 等在此义上却不是连词而是副词，因此，它们可以放在句首或句中，后面可以有停顿，书面上前后可以加逗号，而且可以与 although/though 相对连用。(参见 however 条、nonetheless 与 nevertheless 条)<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Although</b> this month seemed to be a very quiet month, there were, <b>however</b>, a number of activities that had far reaching consequences. 虽然这个月看来似乎很平静，但是有好些活动是有深远影响的。/ <b>Although</b> he has no authorization to speak with the press, and he could be in personal danger if his identity became known, he's <b>nevertheless</b> too worried to keep silent. (Newsweek, Jan. 9, 2006, p. 32) 尽管他没有得到授权同新闻界说话，并且他的身份万一被发现他会有人身危险，但是他太担心了，以至于无法保持沉默。(又参见 but 条)</div>此外，副词 yet 放在主句的句首，可以同 although 从句呼应。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Although</b> Darwin appears to believe in the special creation of the first one, or the first few, animals and plants, ... <b>yet</b> his theory of evolution is highly materialistic ... (Noble Smithson, Smithson's Theory of Special Creation) 达尔文虽然似乎相信最初的一个或几个动植物是被特别创造的，……但他的进化论是十分唯物主义的……</div><br><br>
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altogether 与 all together
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>altogether 与 all together</b></div>两者意义完全不同。altogether 表示“根本”，用来强调否定、区别的彻底。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The noise had stopped <b>altogether</b>. 杂音全停下来了。/ He abandoned his work <b>altogether</b>. 他索性放下了工作。/ That would be another thing <b>altogether</b>. 那根本就是另外一回事。/ She became an <b>altogether</b> different person from what she had been. 她完全变了个人。</div><br><br>all together 就是字面上的“全都在一起”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The legislators wereall together in the hall. 议员们全都到大厅来了。</div><br><br>
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aluminium
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>aluminium</b></div>金属铝，重音在 /mi/ 音节上。但是美式英语多作 aluminum，重音在 /lu/ 音节上。<br><br>
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always
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>always</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 可以同谓语动词的一般现在时、一般过去时、一般将来时、现在进行时、现在完成时、过去完成时等一起使用。其中最值得注意的是一般现在时与现在完成时。always 同这两种时态一起使用时，往往客观意义相同。但是，与一般现在时一起使用时，注重概括性的说明，而且对今后仍然会继续如此视为当然；与现在完成时一起使用时，则重点在于对迄今为止情况如何的客观陈述，对将来是否继续如此不做交代。<br><br>用一般现在时的例子有：She <b>always</b> arrives half an hour early. 她总是早到半小时。/ I just wanted to show students that there are <b>always</b> various viewpoints regarding every social phenomenon. 我只是想向学生们说明，对于每一个社会现象，总是会有各种各样的看法。<br><br>用现在完成时的例子有：I've never walked or stood. I've <b>always</b> used a wheelchair. (Ben Mattlin, in Newsweek, July 24, 2006, p. 19) 我从来没有行走过或是站起来过。我一直都是用轮椅。/ I have <b>always</b> believed that Japan is a single-race country. 我一直认为日本是个单一种族的国家。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> always 与现在进行时一起使用，表示一种习惯反复行为，而且这种行为使人感到烦恼。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He's <b>always</b> bossing people around. 他老是指使别人。/ You're <b>always</b> looking for faults. 你老是挑毛病。此时动词不一定非延续性的不可，瞬时动词也可以，表示反复多次发生。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He is <b>always</b> losing his keys. 他老是丢钥匙。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> always 与一般过去时一起使用 (动作动词用 did inf.)，可以表示固有的特性 (不限于过去，可以包括现在)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He <b>always</b> did have a way with the ladies. 他对待女士们很有一套。/ You <b>always</b> were an idealist. 你是一贯的理想主义者。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> always 在句中的位置：如果谓语动词是简单的，只有一个单词，always 通常放在主语和谓语之间。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I <b>always</b> walk to school. 我总是步行上学。/ She <b>always</b> gets up early. 她一向起得早。/ He <b>always</b> wanted to come. 他总是想来。</div><br><br>但是如果谓语是系动词 be，由于这个系动词通常同主语密不可分，所以 always 不能插在两者中间，而要挪到后面，放在系动词和表语之间。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He is <b>always</b> late. 他总是迟到。/ He's <b>always</b> kind to me. 他总是对我很好。</div><br><br>唯有十分强调时，always 才可以放在主语和系动词 be 之间。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>— You should <b>always</b> be honest. — I <b>always</b> am honest. — 你应该一直老实。— 我一直都老老实实嘛。</div><br><br>如果谓语动词是复合的，由两个以上的单词组成，则 always 放在复合谓语词群之中，通常在第一个和第二个单词之间。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He will <b>always</b> be late. 他总是会迟到的。/ I'm <b>always</b> losing my keys. 我老是丢钥匙。/ Things do not <b>always</b> go right. 事情不总是顺利。</div><br><br>如果强调 always，也可以放在句末。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I shall treasure it <b>always</b>. 我将永远珍惜它。</div><br><br>通常不可以放在句首，但是祈使句中却应该放在句首。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Always</b> keep in mind that ... 要时刻记住……</div><div class="ex-item"><b>Always</b> look in the mirror before starting to drive. 车子开动前，务必看看反光镜。</div><br><br>never 作为 always 的反义词，在句中的位置安排，大体上与 always 相同，但即使强调，也不能放在句末。<br><br>
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a.m.
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>a.m.</b></div>作“上午”解。p.m. 则为“下午”。<br><br>
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amateur 与 aficionado
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>amateur 与 aficionado</b></div>参见 aficionado 与 amateur 条。<br><br>
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amaze
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>amaze</b></div>参见 surprise, amaze, astonish, astound 与 startle 条。<br><br>
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ambassador
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>ambassador</b></div>作为“大使”，形容词“特命全权” (extraordinary and plenipotentiary) 要放在 ambassador 之后。<br><br>派驻哪一国，用 to 引入国名；但要用 in 或 at 引入首都地名。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>ambassador in/at</b> Tokyo 派驻东京的大使。</div><br><br>派驻联合国的，可以说 <b>ambassador to</b> the United Nations，也可以说 <b>ambassador at</b> the United Nations。但是由于联合国不是一个拥有领土的国家，不可以用 in。同样，派驻某一条约组织的大使，仍然要用 to，例如派驻北约大使是 <b>ambassador to</b> NATO。<br><br>
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America
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>America</b></div>本来是“美洲”，包括北美、中美、南美以及加勒比海的岛屿。后来为了区分北美、中美、南美，用了复数 the Americas 来表示“美洲”。但是美国人可能由于什么原因，以 America 专门指美国，例如“美国之音”就是 Voice of America。这种用法，常常引起美洲其他国家尤其是拉丁美洲国家人们的不满。所以美国政界人士尽管在国内还是以 America 指“美国”，到了拉丁美洲就要注意改口。2005 年 11 月初，布什总统访问拉丁美洲时，还“发明”了一个新名称 an Americas，指美洲大陆，既用了复数词尾 -s，但又用了表示单数的不定冠词 an，表示整个美洲为一体。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>an Americas</b> wholly free and democratic and at peace with ourselves and our neighbors 一个完全自由民主并且彼此之间以及同邻居和平相处的美洲。</div><br><br>
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amid
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>amid</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> amid 与 among 的区别是：among 后面的名词是复数可数名词或是集合名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>among</b> my friends 在我的朋友中</div><div class="ex-item"><b>among</b> the audience 在观众中。</div><br><br>amid 后面则是单数的抽象名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>amid</b> the wreckage 在残骸中</div><div class="ex-item"><b>amid</b> the confusion 在混乱中。</div><br><br>有些抽象名词，用于具体事件的场合，常常以复数形式出现，也可以用 amid。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Amid</b> worries over rising fuel costs, congressional Republicans are pressing for avote as early as this week ... (Newsweek, Oct. 10, 2006, p. 8) 在人们对燃料价格上涨忧虑重重之际，国会里的共和党人正在催促尽快在本周进行表决……</div><br><br>但是，可以说：<b>Among</b> the news was an obscure item about the abdication. 新闻当中有一条有关逊位的不显眼的消息。这是因为 news 在这里是集合名词，不是抽象名词。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> amid 往往用于表示两种对立情况并存，一个范围大，另一个与之对立的范围小，包在其中，像“苦中求乐”或“美中不足”的“中”。例如美国密苏里州 2007 年 1 月有两个失踪的男孩子被找回，但是失踪的原因和情况均不明。报纸的标题是：Mystery Lingers <b>Amid</b> Joy of Finding Boys Alive (The Sunday Gazette, Jan. 14, 2007, A1) 发现男孩无恙，但欢乐中仍然谜团重重。<br><br>但是 amid 也可以用于表示并不对立而是同一个方向的大背景。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Stocks to Open Low <b>Amid</b> Credit Worries (The Associated Press, headline, Aug. 16, 2007) 在人们对信贷忧心忡忡之时，股市开盘将低迷。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 但是 amid 也可以表示同一方向的情况中最突出的情况。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Iran fiercely opposes the deal (between the U.S. and Iraq), fearing it will lead to permanent U.S. bases on its doorstep <b>amid</b> fears of an eventual American attack. (The Associated Press, June 8, 2008) 伊朗强烈反对 (美国和伊拉克之间的) 这个协议，因为它本来就担心美国最终会发动进攻，而现在有了这个协议，美国就更有可能在伊朗的大门口设立常驻基地。</div><br><br>
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among
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>among</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> among 与 amid 的区别，参见 amid 条。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> among 与 between 用法上的区别，参见 between 条。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> among them + 名词，前面有逗号，相当于中文的“其中有，例如”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He is friends with numerous artists, <b>among them</b> Tito Schipa and John Charles Thomas. 他同许多艺术家交朋友，其中有蒂托·席巴和约翰·查尔斯·托马斯。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> among other + 复数名词，或 among others，放在逗号后，可以表示“以及其他……”或“等等”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Beethoven, Mozart and Schubert, <b>among other</b> composers 贝多芬、莫扎特、舒伯特以及其他作曲家。</div><br><br>among 前面也可以没有逗号。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... attended by Hugo, Balzac and George Sand <b>among</b> many other celebrities (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 而果、巴尔扎克和乔治·桑等许多名人都来旁听……</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> among other + 复数名词也可以作插入语，前后加逗号，但是中外译文可以改为以插入语的内容为主，以后面的内容为辅。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The Greeks left (in Italy), <b>among</b> many <b>other</b> treasures, splendid examples of Doric temples. 希腊人 (在意大利) 留下了许多宝贵的珍品，其中有华美的多立克式殿堂。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 最高级后面用 among 或 of 的区别是：of 指的是一个明确的范围，在这个范围内一个个比较，得出“最如何如何”的最高级。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He is the tallest <b>of</b> (*among) the three. 他是三个当中个子最高的。(比较对象范围明确) 但 among 指的是一个不明确的范围。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This is the best <b>among</b> modern novels. 这是现代小说中的最佳者。(比较对象范围不明确)</div><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 比较：John is <b>among</b> you. 约翰在你们当中。/ John is <b>among</b> them. 约翰在他们当中。/ John is <b>with</b> (*among) us. 约翰在我们当中。<br><br>
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amount
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>amount</b></div>amount 通常指一个整体的数量，不涉及构成成分的数目，amount of 后面的名词通常是不可数名词 (物质名词或抽象名词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This large <b>amount</b> of lumber must have cost a large <b>amount</b> of money. 这样大量的木材一定花了很多的钱。/ We'll need a large <b>amount</b> of time, patience, and humor to finish this job. 我们需要大量的时间、耐心和幽默感才能完成这项工作。</div><br><br>反之，如果指许多个可数的个体组成的一群，就不能用 amount，要用 number，of 后面用复数名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The <b>number</b> of the books on the shelf does not exceed one hundred. 架子上的书，为数不超过 100 本。</div><br><br>至于 number 前面用定冠词还是不定冠词，作为单数还是复数处理，参见 number 条。<br><br>
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and
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>and</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 在逻辑上，and 与 or 的区别一直是一个有争议的问题。这个问题也影响到语言。其中一个问题常常出在否定句上面。通常可以这样理解：否定 X and Y 时，是对两者相加之和加以否定，而不是对两者分别一一加以否定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Don't drink <b>and</b> drive. 勿醉酒开车。(不否定醉酒，也不否定开车，但对两者加在一起予以否定)</div><div class="ex-item">You can't have your cake <b>and</b> eat it. 一个饼，你不能既吃掉又保存。(鱼和熊掌不可兼得。)</div>有时候中文可以译成一正一负。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We can never be parents forever <b>and</b> remain psychologically healthy. Neither can our children remain children forever within the parent-child relationship <b>and</b> expect to remain psychologically healthy. 我们如果要永远做父母，心理上就无法保持健康。同样，我们的孩子们如果永远在亲子关系上做孩子，心理上就无法保持健康。</div><br><br>大体上，“只否定其一”的情况，出现在表示“可能性”或“选择”的句子中，而“两者皆否定”的情况，则出现在平铺直叙的句子中，或是在两者意义相互补充交融的句子中。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>美国总统特朗普在 2017 年 2 月 16 日的白宫记者会上指责媒体报道不实，说：“Tomorrow, they will say, ‘Donald Trump <b>rants and raves</b> at the press.’ I'm <b>not ranting and raving</b>, I'm just telling you.” 明天，他们会说：“唐纳德·特朗普对报界大叫大嚷。”我不是在大叫大嚷，我只不过是在告诉你们。</div><br><br>有时候，否定 X and Y and Z，可能是 X 和 Y 合成一组，Z 为另一组，或是 X 为一组，Y and Z 为另一组，只否定其中的一组，表示“两者不可兼得”。例如 2008 年美国总统竞选中，有人替奥巴马的人身安全担心，说：You <b>can't</b> (X) have lived through the civil rights movement <b>and</b> (Y) know something about the history of African-Americans in this country <b>and</b> (Z) not be a little concerned. (The Associated Press, Feb. 22, 2008) 这里的 X 和 Y 合成一组，实际上不被否定，否定的是 Z 单独形成的一组，所以中文可以译成：“你如果经历过民权运动，又对这个国家非裔美国人的历史有所了解，你就不可能不有点担心。”(这种句型中，可以在 can't 后远处加上 not，作双重否定，表示肯定。直译是：“你不可能既……，既……，又不担心……”。而通常 not ... not ... 作双重否定是不可以的。) 这样的情况，同样出现在被 hard 之类的准否定词所支配的 X and Y 句型中。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But amid all the signs of progress, it's <b>hard</b> (X) to be in Bamiyan <b>and</b> (Y) not think about how the hardline Taliban regime destroyed two giant Buddha statues ... (The Associated Press, June 8, 2008) 但是，尽管有这一切进步的迹象，到了巴米扬，就很难不想起，强硬派的塔利班政权是如何把那两座巨型佛像摧毁的…… (直译是：很难既身在巴米扬，又想不到……)</div><div class="ex-item">You could <b>not</b> be a healthcare professional in Africa <b>and</b> not be careful if you wanted to live. (Tom Clancy, Executive Orders) 要在非洲当个专业医护人员，如果想活命，就不能不小心谨慎。(直译是：不可能既当个……又不小心谨慎)</div><div class="ex-item">Former CIA Director George Tenet has written that one “could <b>not</b> sit where I did <b>and</b> read what passed across my desk on a daily basis <b>and</b> be anything other than scared to death about what it portended.” (Chicago Tribune, cited from The Daily Gazette, Dec. 25, 2008, A9) 中央情报局前局长乔治·泰内特曾写道：“如果有谁当时坐在我的那个位置上，日复一日地阅读那些经过我办公桌的材料，就很难不被这些材料所预告的内容吓得要死。”(直译是：“一个人不可能既……，又……，还不被吓得要死。”)(多个 and，则前面并列的不受否定，只否定最后一个)</div><div class="ex-item">It would be almost <b>impossible</b> to visit this town, in the heart of Sonoma County, <b>and</b> miss the Gravenstein, the sweetly tart apple ... (The New York Times, Sept. 2, 2011, A12) 访问索诺玛县中心位置的这个小镇，就几乎不可能错过格拉文斯坦这种甜美的点心式苹果……</div><br><br>疑问句中的 and，也带有肯定一个而对另外一个提出疑问的作用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Can you be serious about national security <b>and</b> vote on Nov. 4 to invite that test? (Charles Krauthammer, in The Daily Gazette, Oct. 27, 2008, A5) 你如果是珍视国家安全的，在 11 月 4 日投票时难道会愿意引来这个考验吗？</div><br><br>上述例句中可以看到，通常是以 can't 或其他类似词语来表示后面用 and 并列的成分不可能“共存”，以达到实质上肯定前面成分而否定最后一个成分的效果 (而且往往最后一个成分本身有否定，再否定就成了肯定)。但是否定后面用 and 并列的成分，也有可能不是否定一部分再肯定一部分，而是所有成分加在一起都被否定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... so when there's a shortfall, they <b>can't</b> issue Treasury bills <b>and</b> print the money to repay them. (Froma Harrop, in The Daily Gazette, Feb. 11, 2009, A7) ……如果出现亏空，各州并不能通过发行国库券和印钞票来弥补。</div><br><br>而否定 X or Y 时，是对两者中每一个分别加以否定。带有否定或负面意义的词语，同以 and 连接起来的两件事物发生关系时，则是对两者之和加以否定，例如 the dangers of drinking <b>and</b> driving 也是指“醉酒 + 开车”之和。因此，说 He can read <b>and</b> write. 是可以的，但 *He <b>cannot</b> read <b>and</b> write. 就说不清楚究竟他会读不会写还是会写不会读 (正确的应该说 He cannot read <b>or</b> write.)。否定后面两者用 and 连接时，究竟是否定哪个肯定哪个，是不清楚的。如果用 as well as 连接，就是否定前者，肯定后者，例如 He cannot write <b>as well as</b> read. 就是“他会读不会写”。 (2) 否定了的 X or Y 是两者都一一被否定，这个否定，不一定是 not、no 之类的否定词，也可以只不过是带有部分否定意义的副词，如 hardly、scarcely、rarely 之类。遇到这种情况，要注意这个部分否定的作用是通过 or 一直涵盖到 Y 的，不要把 Y 误解为不受否定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>One (of the faults classifiable as journalese) is the abuse of superlatives — the most, the first, the only. These are <b>rarely</b> true, <b>or</b> provable if true; ... (Wilson Follett, Modern American Usage) (可以列为新闻腔的) 一个毛病，就是滥用最高级——最多、第一、唯一。这些用语往往不是真实的，即使真实也是无法证明的…… (or provable 也受 rarely 管辖)</div><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> and 与 or 的另一个直接影响到日常语言的理解和运用的问题，就是 and 连接的多个定语共同修饰一个复数名词时，究竟是各自分别修饰这组事物的不同部分，还是每个都修饰事物的全部。这里语言本身常常无能为力，要靠语言以外的常识和事理来判断。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>red and white</b> Polish flags 波兰的红白国旗 (不是“一些红旗加一些白旗”：red flags and white flags)，但：the company's <b>self-owned and franchise</b> stores (= self-owned stores and franchise stores) 该公司本身的一些直营店加上一些加盟店</div><div class="ex-item">Today there are 43 African-American members of the <b>House and Senate</b> ... (Newsweek, Oct. 10, 2005, p. 70) 现在众议院和参议院有 43 名非裔美国议员。(按照美国宪法，一个人不可能同时任众议员和参议员，因此，这 43 个非裔美国人，必然其中一些是众议员，其余是参议员，而不会有人兼任众议员和参议员，更不会多达 43 人都兼任。)</div><div class="ex-item">On April 6, 2003, the Pentagon listed 61 U.S. soldiers and marines killed <b>or</b> missing in action, ... (The Washington Post, Mar. 20, 2007) 2003 年 4 月 6 日，五角大楼列出了 61 名在执行任务中阵亡或失踪的美国军人。这里用 or 还是用 and，也是值得研究的。由于一个人不可能既已矩阵亡又同时失踪，用 and 不至于表示 61 个人全都既阵亡又失踪，只能表示一部分人阵亡，其余的人失踪。但是这只是就事理分析，语言上用 and 容易给人以“既……又……”的印象。现在用 or，也不是没有问题，也可能使人以为这 61 个人或者全都阵亡，或者全都失踪。但是，从事理上看，只有失踪的才会情况不明，阵亡的数字是明摆着的。因此，可见是一部分人阵亡，另一部分人失踪，加起来是 61 人。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 遇到较为复杂的文字层次时，弄清楚 and 究竟是把什么和什么并列，十分重要。比如在一个否定句中，and 后面的成分究竟是同前面一个被否定的成分并列 (也就一起被否定)，还是处于更高一层不被否定，就十分重要；理解错了，就会是非颠倒。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The Good Samaritan, unlike a number of others before him, <b>did not</b> cross the street to avoid the man in want of assistance <b>and</b> dug into his own purse to provide it. 那个乐善好施者同他前面许多人不一样，碰到需要救济的人，并没有躲到大街对面去，而是掏自己的腰包提供款济。(这里 and 后面的 dug 是 dig 的过去式，而 cross 则是动词原形，可见两者不是并列的，也就是说，dug 不可能受 did not 管辖，因而也就不被否定。)</div><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> and 前面一个是名词成分，后面一个是表示可能发生某事的句子 (谓语动词为一般将来时的陈述句)，表示“只要发生前面的事，后面的事即将发生”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>One more step <b>and</b> you'll fall down. 再走一步，你就会跌倒。/ A little work everyday <b>and</b> you'll learn all there is to know about computer basics. 每天学一点，就可以学会有关电脑的基本知识。/ A little more capital, <b>and</b> they would have been successful. 本来只要资金多一些，他们是可以成功的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> and 前面是一个祈使句，后面是一个谓语动词为一般将来时或一般现在时的陈述句，意义相当于前面一个条件状语加后面一个主句，同样表示“只要发生前面的事，后面的事即将发生”，往往没有祈使的意思 (有时甚至还有告诫勿做某事的意思)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Neglect your bones <b>and</b> you'll regret it. 你如果忽视自己的骨骼，就会后悔莫及。/ Click <b>and</b> it's done. 点击一下，事就办成。(广告用语)</div><div class="ex-item">Find purpose <b>and</b> you'll find success. 找到奔头就会取得成功。往往前面的祈使句，其主动者只是指泛泛的任何人，后面的 and 分句中的 you 也是泛指的，不能理解为第二人称的“你”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Add love to a house <b>and you</b> have a home. Add righteousness to a city <b>and you</b> have a community. Add truth to a pile of red brick <b>and you</b> have a school. 房子加上爱，就是家。城镇加上正义，就是群体。一堆红砖加上真理，就是学校。/ Sever your spinal cord <b>and you</b> lose control of your arms and legs. 人的脊椎如果断了，对胳膊和双腿就失去控制。</div><br><br>另外，有时候前面的祈使句，如果要说明主语，就要把祈使句改为陈述句 (在谓语处加上“需要”的意思)，也能传达出“只要……，就可以……”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Perhaps you suppose that a novelist <b>has</b> only <b>to</b> pull the right strings <b>and</b> his puppets will behave in a lifelike manner; ... (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 或许你认为小说家只要准确地牵动线绳，他的木偶们便会活灵活现地表演起来；……</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 如果 and 改为 or，则等于前面的条件变为否定 (用 and 是“如果……就会……”，用 or 则变为“如果不……就会……”), 但还是保持肯定的劝说意义，以后面句子中的内容作为后果警告。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Lock it <b>or</b> you'll lose it. 妥锁上，否则会丢失。/ Work hard, <b>or</b> you will fail. 要努力干，否则会失败。/ Make haste, <b>or</b> you will be late for school. 你再不快点，上学就要迟到了。/ Teach kids about money, <b>or</b> you'll pay for it. 要教育孩子管钱，否则会有不良后果。/ Book ahead <b>or</b> you'll pay more. 请提早订位，以免价格更高。/ Backup regularly <b>or</b> you'll be sorry someday. 要定期备份，以免到时候后悔莫及。</div><br><br>无论用 and 还是 or，前面那个祈使句都绝对不能是否定的 (*Don't ... and/or ...)。<br><br>or 有时候连接两个陈述句，仍然保持“否则”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... no one at Schumann's could possibly have looked at the manuscript, <b>or</b> they would have snapped it up immediately. (Jeffrey Archer, The Fourth Estate) 舒曼出版社一定是谁也没有瞧这本稿子一眼，要不然，早就马上抓信不放了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> 中文偏重于“意合” (例如“敌进我退”)，而英文则偏重于“形合” (例如：when the enemy advances ...)，这是一般规律。但是英文也常常有“形合”的用法，用 and 来连接两个并列的动词，前一个作为后一个的附加情况说明。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If we were to <b>wake up</b> some morning <b>and find</b> that everyone was the same race, creed and color, we would find some other causes for prejudice by noon. 假如有一天，我们早上一觉醒来，发现人人都是一样的种族、信仰和肤色，我们也会在中午前找到另外一些歧视的原因的。/ I would <b>hear</b> that <b>and not be able</b> to breathe for a couple of minutes. (Reader's Digest, Jan. 2008, p. 77) 我听到这样的话，就会好几分钟无法呼吸。(其实 Don't drink and drive. 也可以理解为意合的“如果喝了酒，就别开车”。)</div><br><span class="seq">(9)</span> 一连串的名词或其他成分，用逗号分开，但是到了最后两个，英文就用 and 连接，现在的中文也习惯了“甲、乙、丙和丁”这样的排列方式。但是，英文连接最末两个的 and，有时前面仍然有逗号，成为 A, B, C, and D，有时前面又没有逗号，成为 A, B, C and D。<br><br>没有逗号的例子如：I went to Spain, Italy, Switzerland, Austria <b>and</b> Germany. 我去了西班牙、意大利、瑞士、奥地利和德国。<br><br>有逗号的例子如：But by the early twentieth century, after the Renaissance, the Reformation, <b>and</b> the Enlightenment had swept over the Western world, ... (Tony Blair, in Foreign Affairs, January/February 2007) 但是到了 20 世纪初叶，西方世界已经普遍经历了文艺复兴、宗教改革和启蒙运动，……<br><br>凡是遇到 and 前面有逗号时，要注意找出所有并列成分，不要因为有了逗号就以为 and 开始了另一分句。例如上一例句中，had swept 的主语有三个：the Renaissance, the Reformation, the Enlightenment。不要因为有了逗号就误以为主语只有 the Enlightenment。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(10)</span> 大单位数量再加上小单位数量，通常只用逗号，不用 and。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>3 hours, 22 minutes ago 3 小时 22 分钟前</div><div class="ex-item">5 feet, 8 inches tall 5 英尺 8 英寸高。</div><br><br>但是如果小单位本身没有另外的名称，要借用大单位名称，则不用逗号。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>one pound twenty-five 1 磅 25。</div><br><br>英尺和英寸之间，也可以不要逗号。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She's five <b>foot</b> eight <b>inches</b> tall. 她身高 5 英尺 8 英寸。</div><br><br>但是如果不是大单位带小单位，而是两个不同的维度，则要用 and 来连接。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>So that, by digging a canal to it of six feet wide <b>and</b> four feet deep, I brought it into the creek, almost half a mile. (Daniel Defoe, Robinson Crusoe) 这一来，我给这艘独木舟挖出了一道 6 英尺宽、4 英尺深的水沟，把它弄到了差不多半英里外的小湾那里。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(11)</span> 两个数字因一定的关系并列，通常也用逗号连接，不用 and。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>one country, two systems “一国两制”</div><div class="ex-item">national one-man, one-vote election 全国性的一人一票选举。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(12)</span> 两个相同的复数名词用 and 连接，表示“有差别”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There are <b>teachers and teachers</b>. 教师有好有差。/ You can find <b>doctors and doctors</b>. 医生有好有坏。</div><br><br>如果超过两个，则指数量多。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There were <b>dogs and dogs and dogs</b> all over the place. 到处都是狗。</div><br><br>
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and all
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>and all</b></div>放在名词成分后面，原意是“加上种种与此有关的一切”。说话的人说出了最重要的一件事物 (即前面的名词成分) 之后，别的与此有关的东西一时想不起来，就笼统说 <b>and all</b>。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I was expecting snow <b>and all</b> when I went to Boston last winter. 去年冬天我到波士顿去时，我就期望它来个冰天雪地。</div><br><br>但是有时候本来就没有别的有关的东西 (或是说话者心中没有)，此时 and all 只是强调前面那个名词成分整个地参与事件。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He jumped into the river, clothes <b>and all</b>. 他连人带衣服，一股脑儿跳进河里。/ With the time difference <b>and all</b>, I won't call him until midnight. 两地有时差，我要等到半夜 12 点才给他打电话。</div><br><br>
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and ... at that
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>and ... at that</b></div>用来表示比前面所说的更进一步，程度更高。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has a Ph.D. degree, <b>and</b> from Harvard <b>at that</b>. 他有博士学位，而且是哈佛的。/ Today, food safety is a business — <b>and</b> a booming one <b>at that</b>. (U.S. News & World Report, Dec. 15-22, 2008, p. 27) 今天，食品安全已经成了一个行业，而且是一个欣欣向荣的行业。</div><br><br>
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(and ... at) that
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(and ... at) that</b></div>用来更进一步加强前面所说的话的分量(“而且还”)，当中填入的可以是个名词成分，也可以是个定语或状语成分。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Jack nearly smiled to hear a familiar voice, and a friendly one at that. (Tom Clancy, Executive Orders) 杰克听到一个熟悉的声音，更何况是个友好的声音，几乎笑了起来。/ He has a Ph.D., and from Harvard at that. 他有博士学位，而且还是哈佛的。</div><br><br>
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(and ...) at that
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(and ...) at that</b></div>参见 and ... at that 条。<br><br>
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anesthetic
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>anesthetic</b></div>可以是作为物质的“麻醉药” (可数与不可数名词均可)，也可以是“麻醉状态”或“麻醉手术” (也是可数与不可数名词均可)。通常，在“实行麻醉”的各种搭配中，介词都用 under：医生对病人实行麻醉，是 put the patient <b>under anesthetic</b> (第四类动词)；病人经历麻醉状态是 go <b>under anesthetic</b> (第二类动词)；病人处于麻醉状态是 be <b>under anesthetic</b> (第一类动词)。“在麻醉状态下 (进行某事)”也是 <b>under anesthetic</b> (此时动词是第三或第四类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This procedure should be done <b>under anesthetic</b>. 这个手术必须在麻醉状态下进行。通常，“靠 (某种药物) 维持”用介词 on，但是“用”麻醉药不说 *on anesthetic，而说 under anesthetic，可能是因为 on 指较长一段时间的用药，而麻醉药只是一时使用一下，而且麻醉药的功效十分明显，使得病人处于其作用“之下”。</div><br><br>
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angle
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>angle</b></div>中文常常用“角度”来表示看问题的方式，美式英语也同样有用 angle 的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Yes, but you've got to approach it from his <b>angle</b>. 是的，不过你得从他的角度看看问题。/ To solve the problem, view it from more than one <b>angle</b>. 要解决问题，就得从多方的角度来看。/ Roughly speaking, there are three main <b>angles</b> from which a novel can be criticized. (The Times Literary Supplement, July 25, 1968) 大致说来，对一部长篇小说进行批评，主要可以从三个角度。(但因为用得过滥，该用法近年来已少见。)</div>
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animal
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>animal</b></div>介绍某一地区的动植物，不说 *animals and plants，要说 flora and fauna。<br><br>
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another
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>another</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 表示另外的一个复数数量，可以在其前面加一个 another，此时 another 没有单数意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>another</b> 100 people 另外 100 人。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 有人主张前后两个数量应该相等时才可在说到后一数量时用 another，例如他们反对说 Eighteen persons were summoned as witnesses, and <b>another</b> six were interrogated. (18 个人被传唤作证，另有 6 个人被询问。) 但是这种反对意见似乎不能成立，因为这个例句中的 another 如果去掉，可能有歧义，令人以为 6 个人是 18 个人当中的。 (3) another 放在单数的可数名词之前，可以表示除了原有的一个或多个之外，再加上一个。原有的仍然保留，不是换成另外一个。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Could I have <b>another</b> piece of bread? 我可以再吃一片面包吗？/ It's generally not a good idea to pick a New Yorker at random, go through his things and slow his rush to the subway. Nobody needs <b>another</b> irritation on a hot, crowded, smelly commute. 通常，随便挑选出一个纽约人，检查他的东西，耽搁他奔向地铁的路程，这不是个好主意。天气这么热，这么拥挤，气味这么大，谁上下班都不需要额外增添一件恼人的事。</div><br><br>如果名词是不可数的，或者可数但以复数形式出现 (不说明具体数目)，就不能用 another，而要用 more。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Would you like some <b>more</b> meat? 您要不要再来点肉？/ Would you like some <b>more</b> peas? 您要不要再来点豆子？</div><br><br>不过，在复数可数名词前，如果有 few 或是数词，仍可以使用 another。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm staying for <b>another few</b> weeks. 我再多留几个星期。/ We need <b>another</b> three chairs. 我们还需要三把椅子。</div><br><br>another 前面有 yet，就肯定了是“原有之外再另加一个”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Of course, this is not in itself a justification for writing <b>yet another</b> book on tense. (Renaat Declerck, Tense in English) 当然，这本身并不是另外再写一本有关时态的书的理由。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> another 放在单数的可数名词之前，也可以表示不要原有的一个或多个，换成另外一个。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I think we should paint it <b>another</b> colour. 我觉得咱们应该把它漆成别的一个颜色。</div><br><br>在这个意义上，another 的特指形式是 the other。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I don't like this room. I'd prefer <b>another</b> one. 我不喜欢这个房间。我倒不如要另外一间。(如果“另外一间”是特指的，就是 I'd prefer <b>the other</b> one.)</div><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 有时 another 可以表示“普普通通的，同大家没什么分别的” (前面往往加上 just)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... where they had seen but an unsuccessful artist, like <b>another</b>, ... (Somerset Maugham, The Moon and Sixpence) 他们当初看到一个失败的画家，一个同无数落魄艺术家没有什么不同的画家，……</div><div class="ex-item">Six years ago he'd been <b>just another</b> comedian looking to score a gig, a few bucks, anything going. 六年前，他只是一个普普通通的喜剧演员，到处找活儿干，挣几块钱，干什么都行。/ In contrast to the way she had been before her husband's death — handsome, stylish, athletic — she was now <b>just another</b> elderly woman. 她一反丈夫去世之前的那副时髦漂亮、风度优雅、矫健结实的模样，现在成了一个普普通通的老太婆。/ Do you treat your own father as <b>just another</b> sick old man? 你难道把自己的亲生父亲也当作普普通通的一个病老头那样对待吗？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> another 后面如果出现名词，这个名词只能是单数的。但是如果复数名词前面有明确的数目，也可以放在 another 后面。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>another</b> fifty miles 再有 50 英里。如果是 a hundred、a thousand、a million，这个 a 要去掉，也可以用 one 来代替。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>another</b> thousand years 或 <b>another one</b> thousand years 再过一千年。</div><br><br>
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answer, reply 与 respond
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>answer, reply 与 respond</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 中文的“问”，除了真的提问问题求取答案之外，还有“追究责任”的意思 (例如“唯你是问，问责”)；英文 ask 则只有“提问”和“请求”的意思，没有“追究责任”的意思。但是，中文“回答”所没有的“承担责任”的意思，英文 answer 却有。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They will have to <b>answer for</b> their acts in a court of law. 他们将要在法庭上对自己的行为承担责任。/ I'll <b>answer for</b> him. 我替他负责。/ Let him <b>answer for</b> himself. 让他自己为自己负责吧。/ His parents have a lot to <b>answer for</b>. 他的父母要负很大的责任。</div><br><br>answer to somebody 是“要对某人负责” (有过错要受某人惩罚，表示状态，属第一类动词)，answer somebody (没有 to) 则只是“回答某人的提问” (表示行动，属第四类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You are to <b>answer to</b> Brian, to take your orders from him. 你要对布赖恩负责，接受他的命令。/ You'll <b>answer to me</b> if your information is not true. 你的信息如果不对，我就要唯你是问。/ He <b>answered me</b> quickly. 他很快就回答了我。</div><br><br>有趣的是，answer 的同义词 respond，派生了形容词 responsible 和名词 responsibility，都有“(负)责任”的意思，但是动词 respond 本身却只有“回答”而没有“负责任”的意思，这个意义，交给了词根根本不同的 answer (从 answer 派生的形容词 answerable to 是“对……负责的”)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> answer 与 reply to (注意要有 to 才能引入宾语) 往往可以互换，但是 answer 比较偏重答复的内容，reply to 则比较偏重答复的行为 (参见 hear 与 listen to 条、speak 与 talk 条)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>answer</b> (*reply) in the affirmative 给予肯定的回答</div><div class="ex-item">You should <b>reply to</b> this letter at once. 你应该立即回复这封信。/ The mother <b>replied</b> for the daughter. 母亲替女儿做了回答。/ Ed <b>replied</b> for all the graduates. 爱德代表全体毕业生致答词。(如果用 answered 就是“替全体毕业生负责”。) 因此，转义的“回应” (重行动不重内容)，常用 reply to。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We <b>replied to</b> the enemy's fire. 我们对敌人还了火。/ My friend <b>replied</b> with a knowing wink. 我的朋友报以会心的眼神。</div><br><br>名词 answer 和 reply 也有同样的区别。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She had only one <b>answer</b> (<i>reply) correct on the test. 她的测验题只有一道做对了。/ The invention is a good <b>answer</b> (</i>reply) to housewives' problems. 这个发明可以很好地解决家庭主妇们的难题。</div><br><br>另外，reply 还意味着“一来一往”的第二个单独的过程，如果两个过程“合而为一”，就要用 answer。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She <b>answered</b> (<i>replied to) the phone on the first ring. 电话一响她就接了。/ A middle-aged woman <b>answered</b> (</i>replied to) the door. 一个中年妇女应声开门。/ I knocked at the door, but nobody <b>answered</b> (*replied). 我敲了门，但是没有谁应声前来。许多团体或企业、机关的电话由于打来的人很多，接不过来，就用录音请人等候，说：“We'll <b>answer</b> your call promptly.” 我们将很快接听您打来的电话。这里的 answer 就是当场接听，不是事后回一个电话。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> reply 虽然不着重答复的内容，但是后面如果接上 that 从句，却可以说出答复的内容。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He <b>replied that</b> he did not know it. 他回答说不知道。/ She <b>replied that</b> no one would go. 她回答说谁都不会去。/ Asked whether their local residential environment gives a feeling of comfort and serenity, 81% of the respondents <b>replied that</b> they lived in a "pleasant environment." 对于当地居住环境是否给人以一种舒适宁静的感觉这个问题，81% 的受访者回答说他们居住在“愉快的环境”中。</div><br><br>answer 后面也可以接上 that 从句，但这种搭配多见于较古老的英语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Williams <b>answered that</b> he had no specific proposals yet. 威廉姆斯回答说，他还没有具体的建议。/ ... and when I asked him if he forgave me, he <b>answered that</b> he was not in the habit of cherishing the remembrance of vexation; ... (Charlotte Brontë, Jane Eyre) ……我问他是否原谅我时，他说他没有记恨的习惯，……</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> reply to 是对人家专门对自己发出的信息做出回答 (即单来单往)。如果该信息是普遍向公众发出的 (例如招聘公告)，自己应聘，就最好不用 reply 而用 answer 或 respond。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She <b>answered/responded to</b> an advert for a job as a cook. 她看到招聘厨师的广告，就报名称应聘了。/ ... <b>answered</b> Leila's ad for a part-time secretary. (Mary Higgins Clark, Weep No More, My Lady) ……报名称应聘雷拉征聘一名兼职秘书的广告。/ He <b>responded</b> immediately <b>to</b> an appeal for help. 他听到求救，就立即前往。(求救不是单独对他一个人的，而是向所有人发出的。)</div><div class="ex-item">When she smiled, even strangers <b>responded</b>. 她笑时，连陌生人都做出回应。</div><br><br>reply 是比较实际的一对一的“回答，答复”；respond 则是比较笼统的“回应” (可以表现为各种各样的方式，不一定是正面答复)。例如奥巴马当选美国总统后，时任伊朗总统艾哈迈迪内贾德不寻常地发来贺电，奥巴马在记者招待会上被问及这件事时做出了回答：“I will be reviewing the letter from President Ahmadinejad, and we will <b>respond</b> appropriately,” he said, leaving open the question about whether he will <b>reply</b>. (The Washington Post, Nov. 8, 2008) “我将审视来自艾哈迈迪内贾德总统的信，我们将做出适当的回应。”他说。这就留下了是否答复的问题。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> answer (也可以加上介词 to) 还有“符合(描述)”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Two men <b>answering</b> the description of the suspects tried to enter Switzerland. 两名符合关于嫌疑犯的相貌描述的男子，试图进入瑞士国境。/ They never built any aircraft remotely answering to this description. 他们从未制造过任何哪怕是稍微与描述相符合的飞机。</div><br><br>
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antecedent
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>antecedent</b></div>有两个含义：一个是“祖先，前辈”(人或物均可)；一个是“(个人的)背景、历史”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>These cars are much better than their antecedents. 这些车比以前的那些好多了。/ a man of the foulest antecedents (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes) 一个背景极为恶劣的人。</div><br><br>
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anticipate
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>anticipate</b></div>这个及物动词，可以是第二类，也可以是第四类。意思既包含了“预计”的内心看法或对外表示，又包含了“为……做实际准备”的行动。例如美国筹备 2009 年 1 月 20 日奥巴马宣誓就任总统仪式，首都华盛顿市忙于进行各项筹备工作：The city's police chief, Cathy Lanier, said Thursday that authorities were anticipating 1 million to 2 million people. (The Associated Press, Jan. 10, 2009) 市警察局局长凯茜·拉尼尔星期四说，当局预计有 100 万到 200 万人前来。<br><br>
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anxiety
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>anxiety</b></div>参见 anxious 条末段。<br><br>
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anxious
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>anxious</b></div>有两个几乎相反的意义：(a) 急于，(负面的)担心，生怕；(b) (正面的)渴望。如何辨别，取决于：(a) 单词搭配；(b) 搭配词的词义；(c) 上下文。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 如果 anxious 单独用作定语或表语，意义就是负面的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>an anxious day 焦急的一天</div><div class="ex-item">an anxious question 一个令人焦虑的问题</div><div class="ex-item">the anxious class 不安的阶级(因为收入提高不了而为日后养老发愁的美国中产阶级)</div><div class="ex-item">It's time to be going home; your mother will be anxious. 该回家了，你母亲会焦急的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 如果搭配是 be anxious to inf.、be anxious for somebody to inf. 或 be anxious about + -ing，就是正面的“渴望，急于”。这个意义，尽管有一些语言学家反对，但实际语言中常常使用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She's anxious to go abroad. 她渴望到国外去。/ My parents are anxious to meet you. 我父母盼着要见你呢。/ Anxious to please, he offered to cook dinner. 他急于讨个欢心，就自告奋勇说由他来做饭。/ We are anxious for him to return home safe. 我们热切盼望他平安返家。/ The movie is so anxious about covering as much of the novel as possible that it never gives the actors any breathing space. (Newsweek, May 29, 2006, p. 53) 影片急于尽可能多地涵盖小说的情节，弄得演员们一点喘气的空隙都没有。/ Even without his books, Don Quixote set forth once again, anxious as before not to lose any time, "for he could not but blame himself for what the world was losing by his delay..." (Malcolm Muggeridge, Punch, Apr. 8, 1953) 尽管没有了他的那些书，堂吉诃德仍然再一次出发上路，像从前一样分秒必争，“因为他如果耽搁了，全世界就要遭受损失，这个过错他是担当不起的……”</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> anxious about 搭配的不是动名词而是名词时，意义是负面的“担心”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... will ease the professor's mind on a point that he seemed anxious about. (George Bernard Shaw, Cashel Byron's Profession) ……可以让教授对一件他似乎担心的事情放心。/ ... people are afraid of losing their jobs and their homes and are anxious about a possible recession. (U.S. News & World Report, Jan. 14, 2008, p. 16) ……人们害怕失去工作，失去住房，担心可能经济衰退。</div><br><br>anxious lest 则当然是负面意义的“担心”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was anxious lest they were broken and thus make an evil omen. (Pearl S. Buck, The Good Earth) 他担心东西破了，兆头不好。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 如果搭配是 be anxious for something，意义可能正面也可能负面。<br><br>如果这个 something 是特指的正面利害关系，则与 be anxious about something 相同，anxious 意义为负面的“担心”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I was anxious for their safety when I heard the news. 我听到这消息，就替他们的安全担心。/ Distraction display very rarely occurs except when a bird is anxious for its nest and eggs or young. (Edward A. Armstrong, Bird Display and Behaviour) 一只鸟除非担心自己的鸟巢和蛋或是小鸟，否则很少出现分神的现象。</div><br><br>但如果 something 不是特指的事物(亦即尚未拥有的事物)，则 anxious 意义为正面的“渴望”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The boy is anxious for a bike. 那个男孩渴望有一辆自行车。/ civil servants anxious for promotion 盼望晋升的公务员</div><div class="ex-item">His sisters were very anxious for his having an estate of his own; ... (Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice) 他的姐妹们倒反替他着急，希望他早些购置产业；……</div><div class="ex-item">... her sister ... for whose happiness she grew daily more anxious ... (ibid.) ……她愈加迫切地关心姐姐的幸福……</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 如果后面有以 that 引入的从句，意义可能正面也可能负面。如果从句中谓语的功能词(operator)是 may (might)、will (would)之类表示可能性的助动词(属陈述语气)，或是直接用动词的陈述时态，意义就是负面的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They were anxious that the enemy might turn south and attack the city. 他们担心敌人会掉头向南进攻这座城市。/ Retailers are anxious that consumers may cut back on spending. 零售商担心消费者可能削减支出。/ I am getting more and more anxious that gene doping may be misused by athletes and coaches. 我越来越担心基因兴奋剂会被运动员和教练们所滥用。/ We are anxious that technology will be turned against us by terrorists. 我们担心科技反面会被恐怖分子用来对付我们。/ We're anxious that doing the opposite would be something wrong. 我们担心反过来干会不会错了。/ You don't need to feel worried and anxious that pregnancy is playing havoc with your hormones. 你不必忧虑担心怀孕会破坏你的激素。</div><br><br>但如果从句中的助动词是 should 或从句中使用动词不定式之类表示愿望的(属虚拟语气)，则意义就是正面的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was very anxious that we should have lunch one day soon. 他很希望我们大家最近找一天一起吃顿午餐。/ We are anxious that there should be no delay. 我们不希望有什么拖延了。/ Martin Luther was very anxious that the truths that he now knew be known to his followers. 马丁·路德渴望他的追随者们也能懂得他现在懂得的真理。</div><br><br>但在实际使用时，由于表示虚拟语气的动词不定式同动词的一般现在时同形，难以区分，结果是即使个别两者不同形的动词(如 be 动词)也用了一般现在时来表示虚拟语气。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Villagers are anxious that the kidnapper is (应该是 be) caught without delay. 村民们已不得绑架犯马上能给逮住。但这样一来，正面意义又同前面所说的动词陈述时态表示“担心”的事的负面意义似乎形式雷同了。分辨的办法是：表示负面意义时，从句动词本身是延续体的；而表示正面意义时，从句动词本身是瞬时体的。这个例句中的 is caught 必然是瞬时体，所以可知 anxious 是正面意义，而前面的例句中 is playing havoc 则是延续体，所以可知 anxious 是负面意义。</div><br><br>由 anxious 派生出来的名词 anxiety，却主要有负面的“焦虑，担心”的意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>(作为不可数名词)There is mounting anxiety for the safety of the hostages. 大家对人质的安全越来越担心。/ This can lead to unnecessary anxiety over a child's quite normal behaviour. 这种做法，对于一个本来十分正常的儿童行为，会引起不必要的忧虑。作为可数名词，是“令人忧虑的问题”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is a great anxiety to me. 这是我十分担心的事。另外，anxiety 如果后面带有作修饰语的动词不定式，则也有正面的“渴望，急迫需要”的意义，但仍然带有一点负面的“唯恐有失”的成分。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In his anxiety to be gone, he forgot his case. 他匆匆忙忙想一走了事，结果忘了箱子。</div><br><br>
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any
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>any</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> not ... any 不常放在单数可数名词前，例如说“我没有什么问题了”，尽管心目中“问题”不是多个，但仍然不习惯说 <i>I don't have any question. 而应该说 I don't have any questions. 至于通常只有一件的事物，any 后不适合用复数，就宁可不用 any，例如不说 </i>She hasn't got any job. 而要说 She hasn't got a job. 关于 any 后面名词单复数的问题，请参见 no¹ 条。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 放在不可数名词或复数可数名词之前，暗示说话者心中考虑到该事物的量而不单单是该事物的质。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Is there any water in the can? 罐子里有水吗? (考虑到一定量的水，可能有用的，也可能需要倒掉，主要不是考虑水不同于其他物质的性质。)/ Is there water (*any water) on the moon? 月球上有水吗? (只考虑到水这种氢氧化合物是否存在，不考虑量的多少。)/ Do you need any water? 你需要水吗? (一定量的水，不光是水的性质)</div><div class="ex-item">Do you need water? 你需要水吗? (同果汁、牛奶等相对立)</div><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 一般语法书指出，some 用于肯定句，any 用于否定句、疑问句和条件从句。但是有些疑问句本身带有主观的肯定倾向性，仍然多用 some。例如提出邀请：Would you like some (<i>any) coffee? 您来点咖啡好吗? 或是提出要求：Can I have some (</i>any) soup, please? 能给我一点汤吗?</div><div class="ex-item">Can you lend me some (*any) money? 能借点钱给我吗?另外，有时候表示“如果”并不一定要出现 if 才可以用 any，例如两个人在争论，第三个人来劝说：Both of you save any more arguments until Monday. (= If you have any more arguments, save them until Monday.) 有什么争议，下星期一再谈吧。这里的 any 就带有“如果有的话”这个含义。<br><br>any 用于否定句，还有一点要注意的是：any 要出现在否定之后，不能出现在否定之前，例如可以说 He didn't tell anybody. 他没有告诉任何人。但不可以说 *Anybody didn't tell him. 要说 Nobody told him.<br><span class="seq">(4)</span> any 除了用于否定句、疑问句和条件状语从句，还可以用于肯定句，意思是“随便一个，任何一个”。也就是说，其实有两个不同的 any，一个是作为负面极性项 (negative polarity item, NPI，具体参见 ever 条之(1))的 any，一个是作一般定语的 any。但是，有时候即使出现在否定句中，any 也可能不是 NPI。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>(报纸上有一则推销床垫的广告)Free mattress plus $500 if we don't beat any price on a comparable mattress, no matter what brand. (The Sunday Gazette, Dec. 9, 2007, A2) 原意第一步是：We'll beat any price on a comparable mattress, no matter what brand. 凡是相仿的床垫，无论什么品牌，我们的售价都会比它便宜。(这里 any 不是 NPI)第二步是：If we don't, (we'll give you a) free mattress plus $500. 如果我们不比它便宜，我们就会自送您一张床垫另加 500 美元。这里不能理解为“假如我们连别人的任何价钱都比不过”，因为原意是“假如我们在价格竞争中不处于首位”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Can anyone get here early tomorrow? 有谁能够明天一清早来这里吗?</div><div class="ex-item">Is this an open party? Can anyone come? 这是个自由参加的聚会吗? 什么人都可以参加的吗? 这两个问句中的 anyone 就属于不同的类别。前一句的 anyone 是个 NPI，是疑问句所要求的，配合“有没有”这个疑问，对这样的人是否存在表示疑问，是从量的角度(“有”或“无”，不问是张三或李四)来界定的。后一句的 anyone 就不是一个 NPI，可以用于肯定句、否定句或是疑问句，配合的是“是否任何人”这个疑问，是从质的角度来界定的(问题在于这是个什么人，张三可以，李四不可以)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Under the antitrust laws, anyone may refuse to do business with anyone else. 根据反垄断法，爱拒绝同谁做生意就拒绝同谁做生意。这里的第一个 anyone 是肯定的“任何人”(不是 NPI)。第二个 anyone 则可以有两种理解，一个是“全部否定”(是 NPI)，意思是“完全拒绝同任何人做生意”；另一个则同前面的 anyone 一样是“任何人”(不是 NPI)，意思是“爱拒绝同谁做生意就拒绝同谁做生意”。按照情理，这里应该是第二个理解。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> as any 或 as anything (anyone 等)原始的意思是“同任何一个一样”，这里的“任何”，指的是“哪怕是最……的”，因而整个意思就是“哪怕同最……的相比也比得过”(不是同随便一个差劲的比)，也就是“自己最……”了。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>With his stunning, historic victory yesterday, Barack Obama has risen as far, and fast, as any politician can. (The Daily Gazette, Nov. 5, 2008, editorial) 奥巴马昨天惊人的历史性胜利，使得他比任何一个政治家的崛起都显得更高更迅速。/ July 4 is as good as any day to mark independence. (George Will, in The Daily Gazette, July 4, 2008, A9) 7 月 4 日比任何一天都更加适合纪念独立。/ ... for as you are as handsome as any of them, Mr. Bingley might like you the best of the party. (Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice) ……因为你跟女儿们比起来，她们哪一个都不能胜过你的美貌，你去了，宾利先生倒可能挑中你呢。/ It was war, as much as anything else, that made an artist out of Westermann. 韦斯特曼之所以成为艺术家，最主要的原因是战争。/ She had been the day manager for as long as anyone could remember. 她当日班经理，时间长得谁都记不清了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 与此相类似，like anything 也有“比什么都更加……”(而不是“如同随便任何……一样”)的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Tom only left last week and I already miss him like anything. 汤姆上星期才走，但是我已经无比想念他了。</div><br><br>
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anybody
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>anybody</b></div>参见 everybody 条。<br><br>
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any more than
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>any more than</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 这个词组可以用来连接两个句子，两句都是表示否定，但第一句用否定形式表示否定，第二句则用肯定形式表示否定(这一点很重要)；两句之间的 any more than 用来表示前一句的否定同后一句的否定同等强烈。(可以这样理解：X 并不比 Y 更多地如何如何，而 Y 之不如如何如何，已经是人所共知，不言而喻的。)<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span> The mind does not create what it perceives, any more than the eye creates (<i>doesn't create) the rose. (Ralph Waldo Emerson) 心智创造不出它所感受的事物，正如眼睛创造不出玫瑰花。/ The motion picture and recording industries are not legitimate stakeholders in the discussion of what features should or should not exist in my personal computer or VCR, any more than they are (</i>aren't) a legitimate stakeholder in the production of my corrective eye-glasses. 电影行业和音像行业，在有关我的个人电脑或录像机里面该有或不该有哪些性能的争论中，并不是正当的利益攸关者，就正如它们在我的矫正眼镜的制作过程中并不是正当的利益攸关者一样。/ You cannot learn to sketch and express yourself graphically only by reading about it any more than you can (*cannot) learn to swim while standing by the pool. 单靠看书，是学不会速写和用图像表达自己的，就正如站在游泳池边是学不会游泳的。</div><br><br>如果后一句中有些成分同前一句重复，可以采用简略法或指代法避免重复。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Drug company payments to FDA haven't sped approvals any more than federal funding increases did (<i>did not). 各制药公司付给食品及药物管理局的钱，就如同联邦增拨的经费一样，对于加快批准速度毫无作用。/ I don't like it any more than you do (</i>don't). 我同你一样不喜欢它。/ Technical resources, however, are not sufficient for a physics instructor, any more than they would be (*would not be) for a doctor. 但是，一个物理学教师，就如同一个医生一样，光有技术设备，是不够的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> any more than 有一个变化，就是 no more ... than，此时，any more 变成 no more，向前移动到前一句原来有否定词之处，取代这个原来的否定词，后一句则仍然是以肯定形式表示否定。结构有些不同，但是意思同 any more than 是一样的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A learner can no more obtain knowledge without reading than a farmer can get good harvest without ploughing. = A learner cannot obtain knowledge without reading any more than a farmer can get good harvest without ploughing. 学习者不读书就不能得到知识，正如耕作者不耕地就得不到好收成。/ Stephen is no more a musician than Patty is a dancer. = Stephen isn't a musician any more than Patty is a dancer. 史蒂芬不是个音乐家，就正如帕蒂不是个舞蹈家。/ They could no more decline participation in this mission than they could deny their manhood. = They could not decline participation in this mission any more than they could deny their manhood. 他们无法拒绝参加这项任务，正如他们无法否认自己是堂堂男子汉。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> any more than 还有另外一个变化，是将前后两句的次序颠倒过来，后一句移到前面，any more than 移到句首改为 no more than，原先的前一句移到后面，取消否定并采取倒装语序。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>No more than a soldier wants to admit being frightened, did Marianne want to admit being cold, frigid. (Anaïs Nin) = Marianne didn't want to admit being cold, frigid, any more than a soldier wants to admit being frightened. 如同一个士兵不愿承认自己胆怯一样，玛丽安也不愿承认自己冷淡。(注意：no more than 是管前一句全句的，不是管 a soldier 的，不能理解为“只不过一个士兵”。)</div>
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any more 与 anymore
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>any more 与 anymore</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 关于在否定句、疑问句和非肯定语气的从句中的 anymore，有三种意见。第一种认为英语中根本没有这个单词。第二种认为 anymore 与 any more 意思和用法都一样，只是写法不同，都可以用。第三种则认为 anymore 是个副词，而 any more 则是专门放在名词前面的定语。从实际情况看来，三种意见都各有部分根据。就第三种意见来说有以下例子。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I don't buy books anymore because I don't need any more books 我再也不买书了，因为我不需要更多的书。(前面的 anymore 作为副词，后面的 any more 作前置定语，似乎可以从书面上区别清楚，但是这样的区别，实际用处不大。)在美国，any more 既可以用作名词的前置定语，也可以用作副词，anymore 则出现较少(所以第一种意见也有其事实根据)。但是美式英语中 anymore 有特别的用法，表示与过去相比的“现在”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Anymore I do that. 现在我那样干了。这样，anymore 连写成了一个单词才有其实际需要。不过，无论在肯定句还是否定句中，anymore 的写法似乎只限于美式英语(而且也不是所有的美国人都这样用)。美国的英语词典中收进 anymore 的更多些，英国词典则很少(如 1993 年版的 New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary)收进这个单词。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> any more 作为副词，在否定句(或疑问句或非肯定语气的从句)中，本来意义是程度比较的“不更多”，但是实际上的使用大多是转义的前后比较的“再也不”，需要注意辨别意义上的差别。如何辨别，要看前面是否有一个本来可能使得程度提高的意义成分，此时 not ... any more 就表示：虽然有了这个本来可以使程度提高的因素，但是它还是起不了作用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The knowledge of it did not make him like it any more. 他虽然知情，但对此仍然增加不了好感。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> not ... any more (“再也不”)还有 no more、not ... more (即略去 any)的变化形式(但语气略为减弱)。关于 no more，参见 no more 条。no more 通常放在句末，例如一种去毛剂的广告：Shave no more, with Ultra Hair Away. 使用超级去毛剂，再也不用剃毛。no more 也可以作定语，放在名词前面，尤其是用于一些醒目标题。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>No more Hiroshima. 不让广岛悲剧重演。也可以放在名词后面。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Hunger no more. 消除饥饿。也可以放在句子当中。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She (Hillary Clinton) was no more inviting when a television reporter approached her after a rally on Thursday and asked if she was "moved" by Benazir Bhutto's assassination. Clinton turned away without answering. (Los Angeles Times, Dec. 28, 2007) 一名电视采访记者在星期四的一次集会散会后向她(希拉里)走去，问她对贝纳齐尔·布托的遇刺身亡是否感到“震惊”，此时她就不像从前那样殷勤好客了。她答也不答就转身走开。</div><br><br>
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anyone have ...?
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>anyone have ...?</b></div>集合中对人群讲话，可说 Anyone have any ideas? (还有人有什么意见吗?)这里不能用单数的 has，因为其实句子是 Does anyone have any ideas? 这里的 have 不是一般现在时的谓语动词，而是动词不定式。又如侦探检查枪击现场时间 Anybody/one hear (*heard) a gunshot? (有人听到枪声吗?)这也是 Did anybody/anyone hear a gunshot? 的简略说法。参见 everybody 条。<br><br>
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anyone 与 any one
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>anyone 与 any one</b></div>anyone 专指人，意思是泛泛的“任何人”，不必同任何集合发生关系，any 重读。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Anyone who is interested may attend. 凡感兴趣者均可参加。any one 则指某一个由多人或多事物组成的集合中的“任何”一个个体，one 重读。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Any one of those neckties will do. 那些领带哪一条都行。</div><br><br>
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anything
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>anything</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 英语的 any 及其复合词如 anything 之类，常常同否定词或疑问词连用，这是学英语的人都很熟悉的。但英语中不是否定句也不是疑问句的一般陈述句，如果有表示疑问词义的单词，也往往同 anything 之类的代词连用，带有一定的否定色彩。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Even those skeptical about olive oil's potential as anything other than an ingredient seem willing to cede some ground to ... 甚至有些人，尽管对橄榄油的潜在作用持怀疑态度，怀疑它除了做配料之外没什么用处，也有点让步……</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 疑问句和 if 条件从句通常不用 something 而用 anything。但是，如果条件从句是否定的，而这个否定又同事实(肯定的)相反，就要用 something (虽然 if 和否定合在一起似乎对 anything 的使用提出了双重的要求)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>美国民主党的众议院议长 Nancy Pelosi 在 2008 年 9 月谈到民主党关于在本土沿海开采石油的让步条件时说：... if we don't have something in the bill, it's drilling three miles offshore. ……如果我们不在法案中加进一点自己的东西，那就会在离岸三英里处钻探了。</div><br><br>在下面的例句中，anything 究竟同前面的哪一个否定成分相呼应，加强这个否定的力量，值得注意：He laughed, I remember, and shrugged his shoulders, and said there was no use denying anything to a woman. (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes) 我记得他笑了一下，耸耸肩说，对于一个女子的任何一个要求，加以拒绝都是没用的。(这里的 anything，不是同 denying 相呼应，如果这样，意思就成了“对一个女子样样都不准”，而是同 no use 的 no 相呼应，意思反而是正面的。)
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anything but
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>anything but</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 在实际语言使用中，anything but 相当于否定副词 not，后面可以接上形容词或名词成分，表示强烈的否定，如 2000 年美国总统大选中反对布什的人提出口号 Anything but Bush (直译是“只要不是布什就谁都行”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Though the tail assembly of the aircraft was anything but intact, you could tell what it had once been. 飞机的尾部尽管已经毁坏，但是原先的形状仍旧依稀可辨。/ Langdon was feeling anything but fortunate. (Dan Brown, The Da Vinci Code) 兰登觉得自己真倒霉。/ If the restroom is anything but clean, please ... 如果厕所有不够洁净之处，烦请…… 这个 anything but 甚至可以代替 not 出现在谓语动词词组当中。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The confidence of the business community and the consumer has been anything but buoyed by the performance of the Bush team's economic leadership. (U.S. News & World Report, Nov. 25, 2002, p. 84) 企业界和消费者的信心，根本没有从布什班子在经济方面的领导业绩那里得到什么鼓励。有时候 anything but 后面没有别的词语，意思也是“(前面情况的)反面”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>What began as a convenience is now anything but. 本来开头是一种方便，现在却成了麻烦。</div><br><br>everything but 也与 anything but 一样相当于否定副词 not。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... she was everything but prudent. (Jane Austen, Sense and Sensibility) 她这个人就是很不谨慎。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> anything else 也可以表示否定。参见 else 条。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> anything you say 是“好的，照你说的办”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—Will you please take this over to the cleaners? —Sure, anything you say. —请你把这个送到洗衣店去好吗? —好的，你怎么说就怎么办。</div><br><br>
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anytime 与 any time
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>anytime 与 any time</b></div>anytime 是副词或主从连词。any time 则是名词短语。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> anytime 作为副词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You can borrow my car anytime. 你随时都可以借我的车子用。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> anytime 作为主从连词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You can call on me anytime you are free. 你有空随时都可以到我这里来。/ Anytime I was late, the teacher got mad. 每次我迟到，老师都会气坏。/ We have a memory bank, a full-scale computer within us, and we can draw on its record of past experiences anytime we need to do so. 我们有一个记忆库，是身体内一个完整规模的电脑，我们随时有需要，都可以从中提取过去经历的记录。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> any time 作为名词短语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Any time spent being unhappy is wasted. 任何在不快乐中度过的时间，都是浪费了的。</div><br><br>
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any way 与 anyway
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>any way 与 anyway</b></div>any way 或 in any way 是主从连词短语，在肯定句中引入方式状语从句，后面没有内容就不通。anyway 则是个副词，后面不引入任何成分。这与 any time (名词短语)和 anytime (副词或连词)情况不同。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> any way 在肯定句中充当主从连词短语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Any way you look at it, Angel City is heaven on earth for biker crowd. 不管你怎么看，天使城对骑自行车的人群来说都是人间天堂。/ You're allowed to use software any way you see fit. 你可以随意使用软件。/ Arrange you stuff any way you want. 你爱怎样安排材料就怎样安排。/ Help in any way you can. 你能用什么方式就用什么方式来帮忙。</div><br><br>美国有一句常用的俗语 any way you slice it，原意大概是切肉或切面包怎样切都无所谓，亦即“无论怎么说”(这里的 you 只是泛指，不是特定的“你”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He shouldn't have hit her, any way you slice it. 无论怎么说，他都不该打她。/ Any way you slice it, there are going to be some very unhappy people when the prizes are announced. 无论怎么说，获奖名单一揭晓，总会有人很不高兴。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 但是，需要注意的是：any way 之所以不是副词短语而是主从连词短语，是因为它本身意义不完全，需要后面有更多的话来把意思说完整。如果把 any 改为 some 或别的能把意义说完整的形容词，它就会从主从连词短语变为副词短语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>All right, we'll do it the usual way. 好吧，咱们就照平常的办法办。/ Please try to see it my way. 请替我设身处地想一想。/ He must have got to know it some way. 他一定是用什么办法打听出来了。/ Every author in some way portrays himself in his works, even if it be against his will. 每个作者总是会这样或那样地在作品中刻画出自己的形象，哪怕这是违反他本人意愿的。</div><br><br>另外，in any way (any way 很少用)前面如果有否定或疑问的词，则 in any way 就可以不是主从连词短语，而是副词短语(相当于肯定句中的 some)，在否定句中表示“根本(不)”，在疑问句或 if 从句中表示“以某种方式”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Umbilical and embryonic stem cells are not in any way interchangeable. 脐带干细胞与胚胎干细胞是根本不能互相代替的。/ You may not copy, reproduce, upload, post, distribute, republish, retransmit, or modify in any way any of the material on this site. 您不可以以任何方式抄录、复制、上传、张贴、散发、再发表、转递或是修改本网站上的任何材料。/ Do molds help human beings in any way? 霉菌对人类有什么帮助吗?</div><div class="ex-item">If you feel affected in any way by the noise, we can help. 您如果感受到了噪声的任何影响，我们可以帮助您。遇到这几种情况，any way 都不是主从连词短语，但即使如此，它同副词 anyway 的意义仍然有区别。anyway 表示“不管怎样，无论如何，反正；起码”，而且主要用于肯定句。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We can sell the car which we hardly use anyway. 车子咱们反正不怎样用，不妨卖掉。/ Anyway, I have to go. 不管怎样，我得去。/ That's what we all think, well, most of us anyway. 这是我们全体，嗯，起码是我们大多数人的想法。</div><br><br>
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apart from
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>apart from</b></div>中文“除了……之外”，可以有两个意思，一个是“以……为例外”(“把…… 排除不算在内”)，一个是“有了……，再加上(别的)……”。英文的 apart from 也同样有这两个大不相同的意义。(1) 表示前面一个意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Apart from her, we were all in agreement. 除了她一个人不同意，我们大家都一致同意。/ This movie house has a reduced price, apart from Saturday and Sunday. 这家电影院有减价票，但是星期六和星期天不减。/ Apart from the cost, the plan was a good one. 成本高了一点，但计划还是不错的。(2) 表示后面一个意思。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Quite apart from the time it would take, I can't afford it. 不但时间要拖得很长，而且我也负担不起。/ Who else went there apart from you? 除了你，去那里的还有谁?</div><div class="ex-item">There are other problems with that car apart from its cost. 那辆车不但价钱高，而且还有其他一些问题。</div><br><br>apart from 前面如果有否定词 nothing，可能有两个不同的意义。一个是“除此之外没有别的，唯一只有”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She has nothing apart from her good looks to get by in life. 她只能靠自己的美貌过日子。另一个是“离开了……就什么也不是” (apart from 仍然保持“离开”的意义)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... good is nothing apart from truth, nor truth anything apart from good. (Emanuel Swedenborg, The Divine Providence) ……善离开了真，就什么也不是，同样，真离开了善，也就什么也不是。</div><br><br>但是 nobody apart from 则只有“除了……之外无他人”一个意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Nobody apart from my mother has ever said that to me. 除了我母亲，谁也没有那样对我说过。</div><br><br>besides (作为介词)则只有“不但……而且还有”的意义，没有“除去……不算在内”的意义。参见 beside 与 besides 条。<br><br>
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apology
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>apology</b></div>apology 也和 sympathy 一样，常常以复数形式出现。但是，apology 又和 sympathy 不同，没有内心感情这一层意义，只是一种对外的社交表示，因此比 sympathy 更多以复数形式出现。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Please accept my apologies. 请接受我的歉意。/ We offered them our apologies. 我们向他们表示了歉意。/ Jim sends his apologies, but he cannot come. 吉姆表示歉意，他不能来。</div><br><br>如果强调在一件特定事情上的抱歉，可以说 an apology。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I owe you an apology. 有一件事我要向你道歉。/ a letter of apology 一封道歉信。</div><br><br>另外，表示“不后悔，不顾虑”，也可以用单数的 no apology。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I make no apology for bringing up the subject. 我毫不后悔提起了这件事情。/ I make no apology for my remark. 我对自己说出的意见毫不后悔。</div><br><br>an apology for a ... 是“一个不三不四的什么”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>an apology for a team 一个七拼八凑的球队</div><div class="ex-item">an apology for a marriage 一门将就凑合的亲事。</div><br><br>
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apparent
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>apparent</b></div>这个形容词，意思可以是“明显的”，但也可以是“似是而非的”。Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary 认为，这个形容词如果不作名词的前置定语，意思是“明显的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was apparent from her face that she was really upset. 从她的面部表情看来，她显然很不高兴。如果放在名词前面作定语，意思就是“仅仅表面如此，其实不见得”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My parents were concerned at my apparent lack of enthusiasmfor school. 我父母看见我似乎对上学没有热情，他们感到担心。但是，即使作为名词的前置定语，apparent 前面如果有否定词，仍然是“(不)明显的”之意。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There is no apparent difference. 没有明显的不同。而即使不作名词的前置定语而是作表语，如果伴随有动词其正面意义的词语，也可以是“似是而非的”之意。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The damage was more apparent than real. 损害主要是表面上而非实际的。</div><br><br>加了 -ly，成为副词 apparently，意义仍然同作前置定语的形容词那样，是“看来似乎”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This apparently mad gamble turned out to be a stroke of genius. 这一手本来似乎荒唐的一赌，原来竟然是高超的一招。也可以单独用。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—Is she pregnant? —Apparently. —她怀孕了吗? —看来是的。</div><br><br>
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appeal
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>appeal</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为动词表示法律诉讼中的“不服上诉”，通常说 appeal against，这同中国人的语言习惯是一致的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>appeal against the sentence 对判决不服上诉</div><div class="ex-item">appeal to the Supreme Court 向最高法院上诉。</div><br><br>美式英语中 appeal 可以是个及物动词，以原审判决(或案件)为其直接宾语，甚至可以有被动语态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We intend to appeal the verdict. 我们对判决不服打算上诉。/ The plaintiff appealed his case to the Vermont Supreme Court. 原告人把案件上诉到佛蒙特州最高法院。/ The case is being appealed. 案子正在上诉中。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 另外，appeal to 还有不属于法律范围的“诉诸”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You must appeal to public opinion to win the election. 竞选要获胜，就要诉诸舆论。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> appeal 作为表示“不服上诉”的名词时，“提出上诉”的“提出”可以是 lodge、enter 或 file，原审判决可以用 against 或 of 引入，也就是：lodge/enter/file an appeal against/of a sentence/decision/verdict。<br><br>
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appear
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>appear</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为瞬时动态动词(即第四类动词)，是“出现”(即从原先看不见变为看得见)的意思，通常不能有一般现在时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She suddenly appeared in the doorway. 她忽然出现在门道上。/ She has appeared in five Broadway musicals since 2000. 她自 2000 年以来出演过百老汇的五部音乐剧。/ Cracks have suddenly appeared in the walls in our lounge. 我们休息室的墙壁忽然出现了裂缝。/ Digital radios for less than $50 began to appear in the shops before the end of last year. 去年年底商店里开始出现了价格在 50 美元以下的数码收音机。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作为表示状态的延续动词(即第一类动词)，是“显得似乎，看来像是”的意思，可以有一般现在时，后面的动词应该是延续状态或延续过程，如果是瞬时动作，就要用 to have + pp.。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The baby appears to be hungry. 婴儿像是饿了。/ They do not appear to be at home. No one's answering. 他们不像在家。没人应门。/ They appear to have run away from home. They cannot be traced. 他们像是离家出走了。追踪不到他们。</div><br><br>appear 也可以作为瞬时动态动词(即第四类动词)，作“显出某个样子”解。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He appeared happy when the company promoted him. 公司给他升职的时候他显得很高兴。 (3) 也可以不以事情的主体作 appear 的主语，而以事情本身作 appear 的主语，但真正的主语放在后面的 that 从句中而由 it 在前面充当形式主语(这里的 appear 当然还是个第一类动词，可以有一般现在时)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It appears that you may be quite innocent of any crime. 看来你可能完全清白无辜。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> appear to inf. (appear adj.) 与 seem to inf. (seem adj.) 都可以作第一类动词，指事物给人的客观印象以及人的客观估计，但是两者有区别：(a) 如果不涉及说话者的情感评价成分，appear 和 seem 均可用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They have the same surname, but they don't appear/seem to be related. 他们同姓，但是看来没有亲属关系。/ She's not getting any better. It seems/appears that she's not been taking the medication. 她的病情没有见好。看来她没有在服药。</div><br><br>如果涉及说话者的情感评价成分，就不能用 appear 而只能用 seem。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It seems (<i>appears) ridiculous that he has to stay here to look after the cat. 他为了照料猫，非得留在这里，这看来简直是荒谬。/ It doesn't seem (</i>appear) like a good idea to leave him here by himself. 把他一个人留在这里，似乎不是个好办法。</div><br><br>从另一个角度来说，appear 表示的是给人的客观印象，而 seem 则是说话者自己主观的印象。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He seems tired. (我觉得)他似乎很疲倦。/ He appears to be tired. 他客观上给人以疲倦的印象(我却不一定觉得他疲倦)。</div>(b) appear 作“显出……样子”解，本身可以是表示延续状态的第一类动词，也可以是表示瞬时事件的第四类动词(作“出现”解当然是第四类动词)。作为第一类动词，appear 如果在时态上采用一般现在时或一般过去时，它由于本身是延续的，它后面的动词也必须代表一个延续的状态或延续过程，所以要求一个第一类动词(延续状态)；如果是第二类动词(延续动作)或第三类动词(延续动作但完成)，就要采取进行时 to be + -ing，以表示状态或动作在延续中；如果是第四类动词(瞬时动作)，则应把动词不定式改为 to have + pp.，也就是取该完成动作或事件所造成并留下来的延续状态。例如不能说：<i>He appears to come. 因为 come 是第四类动词，表示瞬时动作，同表示延续状态的 appear 冲突。但可以说：He appears to have come. 因为 to have come 间接代表了一个延续状态(= He is here.)。也不能说：</i>He appears to walk. 但可以说：He appears to be walking. 经过动词不定式的变化，就同 appear 不冲突了。这一个特点，appear 和 seem 作为第一类动词，两者都是一样的。但是，appear 可以是第一类或第四类动词；seem 却只能是第一类动词，采取一般过去时，加上动词不定式，通常也只能表示过去的延续状态，用来表示过去的瞬时事件就不自然。例如用 appear 可以说：He appeared to accept my proposal. 他似乎接受了我的建议。(accept 是瞬时动作，第四类动词。)说 He seemed to accept my proposal. 虽然不能算错，但有点勉强。总而言之，appear 或 seem 作为前一个动词，不定式作为后一个动词，两个动词所代表的，是延续状态还是瞬时事件，必须前后一致。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> appear to inf. 与 seem to inf. 如果要否定，可以否定 appear 或 seem，也可以否定后面的动词不定式。无论否定前者还是否定后者，如果 appear 或 seem 用一般现在时，后面的动词就必须是个延续体动词(即第一类和第二类动词)，如果是个表示瞬时动作的第四类动词(除非是经常反复的)，就必须是完成式(to have + pp.)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Why do some pages seem not to be indexed? 为什么有些页没有编入索引?</div><div class="ex-item">People seem not to see that their opinion of the world is also a confession of their character. (Ralph Waldo Emerson) 人们似乎看不见，他们对世界发表什么看法，同时也就是承认了他们自己有怎样的性格。/ Capitalization and space don't seem to matter. 大写和留空格，看来似乎不要紧。/ Civil liberties don't appear to mean much to Republicans. 公民自由对于共和党人来说似乎没有什么意义。/ Stem cells appear not to turn into heart cells. 干细胞似乎并不会变成心脏细胞。/ Clinical trials appear not to drive up cost of cancer treatment. 临床试用似乎并没有抬高癌症治疗费用。/ The U.S. appears to have fought war for oil and lost it. 美国似乎为石油打仗却又打输了。/ 9/11 appears to have changed everything. “9·11”似乎改变了一切。</div><br><br>如果 appear 用一般过去时，则后面的动词不定式既可以表示延续状态，也可以表示瞬时动作(可以用 to inf. 或 to have inf.)。如果以 to inf. 表示瞬时动作，appeared 就不是表示过去似乎存在某个延续状态，而是表示过去似乎发生了某事。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He appeared not to know what to do. 他似乎不知道该怎么办。(过去延续状态)</div><div class="ex-item">There didn't appear to be a time limit. 似乎没有什么时间限制。(过去延续状态)</div><div class="ex-item">But he didn't appear to react at all. 他似乎根本没有做出反应。(过去瞬时动作)</div><div class="ex-item">The hijacked plane didn't appear to crash into the building. 被劫持的客机似乎没有撞到建筑物上。(过去瞬时动作)</div><div class="ex-item">Anna appeared not to notice Vronsky's worried and inquiring expression. 安娜似乎并没有注意到弗隆斯基那种忧心忡忡、意欲探询的表情。(过去瞬时动作)</div>
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apply
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>apply</b></div>这个动词的几个释义当中，有一个是“运用；适用”，而且是可以作及物或不及物动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This law should not have been applied to such a case. 这部法律本来不应该用于这样的一个案子。/ This rule does not apply to members of the club. 这条规则不适用于俱乐部成员。这里及物和不及物的区别在于：作为及物动词，所指的是某一具体的“将 X 运用于 Y”的行动，是个瞬时体动词，即第四类动词；而作为不及物动词，所指的则是“X 具有可适用于 Y 的性质”，是个表示状态的延续体动词，即第一类动词。因此，除非指的是习惯或反复的行动，apply 作为“运用”释义的及物动词不能以一般现在时形式出现，但作为“适用”释义的不及物动词则可以。</div><br><br>
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appoint
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>appoint</b></div>后面有无 as，参见 consider 条之(1)。<br><br>
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appraise 与 apprise
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>appraise 与 apprise</b></div>appraise 是“估价，评价”；apprise 则是“告知”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We'll appraise your jewelry and apprise you of the results sometime tomorrow. 我们要把您的珠宝估一下价，明天找个时候通知您。</div><br><br>
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appreciate
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>appreciate</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 在日常会话当中常常用来表示感谢(是个第一类动词)，但是要注意它同 thank 的搭配不同。thank 的直接宾语是人，不能是对方给自己的好处；appreciate 则相反，直接宾语必须是对方所做的好事，不能是对方这个人。例如不能说：*I'd appreciate you if you'd do me a favor. 而要说 I'd appreciate it if you'd do me a favor. (如果您能帮我一下忙，我将十分感谢。) thank you 用滥了，往往不一定真的认为对方给自己做的事有多大价值，而说 I appreciate it 则至少在口头上表示对价值的承认。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> appreciate 还有许多词典没有收进的一个转义，即可以表示带有赞成倾向的“理解，明白，体会”(是个第一类兼第四类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I appreciate your request, but our store is now closed. 我理解您的要求，但是我们店已经关门了。/ The witness didn't appreciate the question, and looked at the lawyer for help. 证人没有听懂问题，就把目光投向律师求助。/ Once you know this, you can appreciate what Bush means when he calls himself the "decider." (Richard Cohen, in The Daily Gazette, Dec. 9, 2007, A9) 这一点你懂了，你就能明白布什自称“决策者”是什么意思。</div><br><br>要注意的是：appreciate 不是单指“理解，体会”的努力过程，而且还包括了“理解到，体会到”这个结果。而且，其对象(宾语)可以是正面的，也可以是负面的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This is a coffee for people who appreciate the good things in life. 这种咖啡是专供懂得享受生活的人们品尝的。/ The defendant's apparent inability to appreciate and understand the gravity of his conduct is appalling. (The Daily Gazette, June 18, 2010, B1) 被告显然不理解也没有认识到自己行为的严重性，这使人吃惊。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> appreciate 还可以作不及物动词，表示“增值”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Because of the rise in the stock market, many individuals have securities that have appreciated considerably. 由于股市上涨，许多人手中的证券大大升值了。在这个意义上，appreciate 可以用现在进行时或过去进行时，而(1)和(2)的意义则不能用进行时态。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Homes were appreciating as much as 40% per year in some areas. 有些地区的居民房每年增值 40%之多。</div><br><br>
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apprise 与 appraise
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>apprise 与 appraise</b></div>参见 appraise 与 apprise 条。<br><br>
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approve 与 approve of
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>approve 与 approve of</b></div>两者大体上都是“赞同，同意”的意思，但是细看起来有区别。<br><br>approve 是个瞬时体(第四类)动词，表示来往手续公事公办上的“予以同意”，不牵涉好坏的价值判断。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>(一个会计师可以说)I cannot approve the reimbursement because you haven't given me the receipts for your expenditure. 我不能同意报销，因为你没有交来开支的单据。/ (一个招生负责人可以说)I cannot approve your application to study law because you do not have the relevant qualifications. 我不能同意你学法律的申请，因为你不具备相应的资格。</div><br><br>而 approve of 则是个表示价值判断的延续状态动词词组(第一类动词)，表示对某事或某人有好感，予以支持或善待。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Her family approves of him. 她家人认可了他。/ I don't approve of smoking in restaurants because it is so upsetting usually for non-smokers. 我不赞成在饭馆吸烟，因为这通常使得不吸烟的人很不舒服。/ Why don't you approve of my friends? They are all good upright people. 你为什么看不惯我的这些朋友? 他们全都是正派的好人呀。对应的反义词 disapprove 与 disapprove of，用法也与 approve 和 approve of 相对应。</div><br><br>
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(a quick) study
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(a quick) study</b></div>名词 study 本来不可以指人，但是 a quick study 既可以指“快速的学习过程”，也可以指“很快就上手的人”（无论是一人还是多人，都用单数 a quick study）。后一个意义，原本限于很快就把台词记熟的演员。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>These kids are a quick study in their Robin Hood roles. 这些孩子在罗宾汉剧中的角色排练得很熟练。但是，词义也可以扩大为学任何东西。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Researchers are a quick study when assessing drugs for Alzheimer's. (Health and Medicine, June 18, 2008)研究人员对老年痴呆症药物进行评估时，很快就学到了东西。</div><br><br>study 还可以指事不指人。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Voters may make English a quick study. (Red Orbit, Sept. 8, 2008)选民们可以很快地把英语学完。</div><br><br>
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archive
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>archive</b></div>单数 archive 和复数 archives 都可以。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has had access to the whole of Lady Astor's archive, including her draft of an autobiography. (British Book News, December 1972) 他可以查阅阿斯托夫人的全部档案，包括她的自传草稿。/ The archives in the European capitals were searched. (Van Wyck Brooks, The Flowering of New England, 1815—1865) 欧洲各个首都的档案都翻查过了。</div><br><br>复数的 archives 还可以用来表示“档案馆”这个机构。如果是单数的一所档案馆，虽然 archives 用复数，但是整个名称还是当作单数处理。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>From 1954 the National Archives has carried out training programmes for its serving archivists. (Library Science Abstracts, 1956) 自 1954 年起，国家档案馆对其档案工作人员开展了一些训练项目。/ An act to establish a National Archives of the United States Government ... (U.S. Code, 1948) 设立美国政府国家档案馆的做法…… 既然是机构，就甚至可以理解为一处地点，因此前面也可以用介词 at 表示“在……”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... documents at the archives on the outskirts of London ... (The Associated Press, May 6, 2008) ……位于伦敦郊外的档案馆中的文件……</div><br><br>archive 如果用于比喻，要看所指的是具体的人或事物，还是抽象的概念。具体时多用单数，抽象时多用复数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... memorizing practically every line, thus making herself a living archive (<i>living archives) ... (Hedrick Smith, Saturday Review, Jan. 24, 1976) ……她几乎每一行都背诵如流，简直是个活档案……</div><div class="ex-item">But we must have more than an intellectual desire, filed away in the archives (</i>the archive) of idea. (Charles A. Lindbergh, Saturday Review, Feb. 27, 1954) 但是，我们如果只是有求知的愿望，放到理念的档案里束之高阁，那是不行的。</div><br><br>
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argument
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>argument</b></div>有两个不同的意义：(1) (多方的)争论、争辩；(2) (一方的)论据、理由。由第二个意义衍生出的一个常用表达 That leaves the argument that ...，意思是“(将对方的各个论据一一驳倒之后)对方最后的一个论据就是……”(复述对方这个论据，然后反驳)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>That leaves the argument that the world is somehow a richer place if its events and contests are less predictable. (The Economist, May 7, 2016, p. 14) (前面反驳了那种认为世事毫无规律无法预计的种种论点)最后，剩下的一个论据，就是认为世界上的事件和竞争如果不那么可以预见，这个世界说不定就会更为丰富多彩。</div><br><br>
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arise, arouse 与 rise
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>arise, arouse 与 rise</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> arise 是不及物动词(过去式 arose，过去分词 arisen)，表示“出现，开始；引起注意”，主语常常是抽象事物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A discussion arose about the best way to pay. 有关最好采取哪种支付方式，发生了争论。/ Some difficulties have arisen. 出现了一些困难。/ The disagreement arose from a misunderstanding. 分歧是从一个误解产生的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 同 arise 的过去式 arose 有点相似(但拼写和读音都不同)的 arouse，则是及物动词(规则动词)，意思是“唤醒，唤起；引起，激发”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His appeal aroused no response from the public. 他的号召没有得到公众的响应。/ The rejection of the measure aroused the people to indignation. 该措施被否决，激起了人民的公愤。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> rise 是不及物动词(过去式 rose，过去分词 risen)，没有“出现”的意思，而是表示从低往高的“上升”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Prices keep rising. 物价一直在涨。/ What time does the sun rise? 太阳几点钟升起？/ Leave the dough to rise. 让面团自己发起来。/ A feeling of rage rose within him. 他心中怒气上冒。</div>
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arm
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>arm</b></div>指“胳膊”，是可数名词，有单复数。但作为“武器，军备”的统称，则是复数形式的不可数名词，必须以 arms 的形式出现，即使作前置定语修饰另一名词时也必须用复数形式。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>arms race (*arm race) 军备竞赛。</div><br><br>arms 指笼统的“武装，军备”(甚至包括兵员、军事训练等等)。单独一件件可数的武器，用 weapon。某一特定类型的武器，也多用 weapons (复数)或 weaponry (单数集合名词)而较少用 arms。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>nuclear weapons/weaponry 核武器。</div><br><br>但是，如手枪、步枪之类的小件武器，可以说是 small arms。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Small arms are weapons of mass destruction, killing hundreds of thousands of people around the world each year. 小型武器是大规模杀伤性武器，每年在全世界有数十万人因其殒命。</div><br><br>笼统提及“武装”(尤其是与“非武装”相对比)，不能用 weapons，一定要用 arms。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a call to arms 武装起来的号召</div><div class="ex-item">by force of arms 靠使用武力</div><div class="ex-item">take up arms against the enemy 拿起武器对敌作战</div><div class="ex-item">lay down one's arms 放下武器</div><div class="ex-item">appeal to arms 诉诸武力</div><div class="ex-item">lie/sleep on one's arms 枕戈待旦。</div>
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army
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>army</b></div>可以指陆军，也可以指陆海空三军的整体。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The Chinese People's Liberation Army 中国人民解放军。</div>
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around
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>around</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为副词，around 可以有动态和静态的不同意义：(a) 动态：表示“转来转去”或是“从一处到另一处”(单方向进行或是来回反复进行)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Around and around they drove. 他们开着车子转来转去。/ She glanced around. 她环顾四周。/ It is 12 m around. 它的周围一圈是 12 米。/ The dog followed us around. 这狗到处跟着我们。/ She was rolling around on the floor. 她在地板上滚来滚去。/ He was waving a knife around. 他拿着一把刀子晃来晃去。/ She rummaged around in her bag. 她把手伸进袋子里翻找。</div>(b) 静态：(b1) 表示“在附近，在周围，在该地”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>All around are towering skyscrapers. 周围全是高耸的摩天大楼。/ There's nothing for miles around. 周围好几英里之内空空如也。/ There's no one around. 这里一个人也没有。/ I'm usually around after eight. 我通常 8 点钟以后在。</div>(b2) 表示“生存，存在”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In 40 years none of us will be around. 再过 40 年，我们大家全都不在人间了。/ She's the only person around who really understands. 真正懂得的，只有她一个人还活着。/ The idea has been around for quite a while. 这个主意已经出现很久了。/ Computers weren't around in those days. 那些日子，还没有电脑。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作为介词，around 也可以有动态和静态的不同意义：(a) 动态：(a1) 表示“以……为中心在外围旋转”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She looked around her. 她环顾四周。</div>(a2) 表示“在内部来来去去”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They traveled around Europe. 他们在欧洲各地旅行。/ He sailed around the world. 他航海走遍世界各地。/ She took them around the house. 她带他们到房子各处看看。</div>(b) 静态：(b1) 表示“以……为中心在外围停留”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They sat around the fire. 他们围着篝火坐着。/ Do you live around here? 你就住在这附近吗？</div>(b2) 表示“在……内部各处”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I depended upon my oldest son the most to help with chores around the house. 我主要依靠大儿子帮我干家里的杂活。(这里 around the house 不是“房子外面周围”)</div><div class="ex-item">We have more than 100 locations around the U.S. for your convenience. 本公司分布在美国各地 100 多处地点，方便阁下光临。(不是“在美国外面周围”)</div><div class="ex-item">A number of uniformed officers were sitting around the living room as if it were a doctor's waiting room. 若干穿着制服的军官坐在客厅里，仿佛客厅是医生的候诊室似的。(不是“在客厅外面周围”)</div>(b3) 表示“就在……后面转弯处”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>around the corner 就在拐弯墙角后面(近在眼前，虽然一下子看不见)</div><div class="ex-item">Spring is just around the corner. 春天快到了。</div><br><br>around 作为介词的动态和静态双重意义，从美国邮局 2008 年 1 月发出的一张广告传单也可以看出，它告知人们 1 月 19 日开始任何一个邮局都可以办理护照申请手续。醒目的标题是 Go around the world from around the corner。前一个 around 是动态的，后一个 around 则是静态的，意思是：出国(周游世界)的第一步手续很简单，就从你身边最近的邮局开始，办理申请护照手续就可以了。(中文可以试译为：“出国旅行，远在天边；办理护照，近在眼前。”)<br><span class="seq">(3)</span> around 作为介词，可以引入表示时间的名词，表示“大约”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>around five o'clock 大约在 5 点钟</div><div class="ex-item">around March 3rd 大约在 3 月 3 日</div><div class="ex-item">around the year 2006 大约在 2006 年</div><div class="ex-item">around the beginning (end) of the century 大约在世纪初(世纪末)</div><div class="ex-item">John began to read around the age of five. 约翰大约从 5 岁起就开始看书了。/ Around what time will he come? 他大约什么时候来？</div><br><br>around 也可以用来引入表示空间的名词，表示“大约”的位置，但是通常要用“at a + 长度、数量等维度名词 + of around + 长度、数量等”这种形式。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>At a depth of around 3,000 meters, the pressure of the water is enormous. 在深度大约3,000 米之处，水的压力非常巨大。/ At an altitude of around 1,500 meters, the air is very cold. 在高度大约 1,500 米之处，空气非常寒冷。</div><br><br>值得注意的是，around + 名词成分，合在一起成了一个新的名词成分，前面还可以加另一个 of 以外的介词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>At around 2,000 meters, the trees no longer grow. 在大约 2,000 米的高处，树木就不再生长了。/ At around 2,000 meters, the fish have strange shapes. 在大约 2,000 米的深处，鱼类的形状就很古怪。(这里 at around 2,000 一处理解为高度，一处理解为深处，是从具体情况来区别理解的。)</div><b>arouse</b>参见 arise, arouse 与 rise 条。
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arrival
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>arrival</b></div>基本意义是“到达”这一事件(用于这个意义时通常没有复数)，但是意义逐渐扩大，可以指人、货物、交通工具等等(此时就可以有复数)。机场、车站、码头通常都有 arrivals and departures board (航班或车次告示牌)，这里的 arrivals 既可以指到达此处的交通工具，也可以指排定的航班或车次。书店中新到的书、商店中新到的货物，都叫作 new arrivals。来到某处的人也是 arrivals。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Late arrivals will not be admitted. 迟到者恕不接待。/ He was being pushed aside by some late arrivals trying to get a better look. 有些迟到的人，为了看得更加清楚，就推着他，把他挤到一边。/ The church was full. Late arrivals stood in the back, in silence. 教堂挤满了人。来得晚的，静静地站在后面。new arrival 还可以指新生婴儿。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Congratulations on your new arrival. 祝贺添丁。</div><br><br>类似这种以动词性名词代替动作主体的借用现象，还出现在另外少数名词上。例如 replacement 原意是“代替”，转义成了“代替者”：We're looking for a replacement for Helen. (我们正在找人代替海伦。) appointment 原意是“约定会面”，转义成了“约定来访的客户”：My last appointment told me that ... (我最近一个来访的客户告诉我……) prospect 原意是“前景”，转义成了“可争取的对象(人)”：They could be good prospects. (他们可能成为很好的客户。) reservation 原意是“预订位置”，转义成了“预订的客户”：As soon as the three other reservations arrived, the dispatcher announced the flight. (另外那三个订了票的乘客一到达，调度就宣布飞机起飞。)但是 departure 很少能够用于人，一般仍然保留其抽象意义，至多只能作为可数名词指一个航班或车次。
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art
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>art</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 中文的“艺术”，所指的范围比较明确。英文的 art 则界限比较模糊，既可以包括戏剧、诗歌(在中文就不属于“艺术”而属于“文学”)、绘画、雕塑甚至音乐，也可以缩小范围，只限于绘画和雕塑(严格说是 fine art 或 fine arts，这就相当于中文的“美术”)。但是，学校的“文科”(包括文学、艺术和社会科学)也通称 arts 或 liberal arts。这些学科的学位，学士是 Bachelor of Arts (简称 B.A.)，硕士是 Master of Arts (自然科学的硕士是 Master of Science，简称 MSc)，此时 arts 就远远不单是“艺术”了。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 一个有趣的现象是：在英语中，art 常常令人联想到同自然对立的“人工，人为”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This beautiful garden owes more to art than to nature. 这个美丽的花园，主要得力于人工，而非自然。由 art 还派生出形容词 artificial (人工制造的)。</div>
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as against
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>as against</b></div>参见 (as) against 条。
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(as) against
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(as) against</b></div>在一个句子中说了一个数量之后，可以用 as against 引入另一个数量，供间接参考比较(并不直接比较)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There were more than 30 students this week, as against hardly 20 the week before. 这个星期有 30 多个学生，而上一个星期才勉强有 20 个。/ The index increased 1% today, as against more than 2% yesterday. 今天这指数增加了 1%，而昨天却增加了 2% 以上。</div><br><br>
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(as a) matter of fact
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(as a) matter of fact</b></div>字面上的意思乍一看来是“的确，真的”，但是实际上的语气没有这样重。<br><br>它的用法，可以是转折语气 (对前面自己或他人说过的内容加以纠正)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But, <b>as a matter of fact</b>, it was hardly fair to blame the doctor. (Joseph Conrad, <i>The Shadow Line</i>) 但是，其实责怪医生，未免有失公平。</div><div class="ex-item">It seemed to him when he left the little bar that he had been there for hours; <b>as a matter of fact</b> barely five minutes had passed since he had left Ernestine. (E. Phillips Oppenheim, <i>A Millionaire of Yesterday</i>) 他觉得自己离开那家小酒吧时在那里已经逗留了好几个钟头，而其实他离开埃尔斯蒂娜还不到五分钟。</div><br><br>也可以是加强语气 (对前面自己或他人说过的内容再进一步加强或具体化)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I spoke to Madam Wu Yi today, <b>as a matter of fact</b>, had her into the Oval Office; wanted to thank her for bringing her delegation in, ... (George W. Bush, Press Conference, May 24, 2007) 我今天同吴仪女士交谈过，当时是请她进入总统办公室谈的；我感谢她率团前来，……</div><br><br>
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as ... any 与 as ... ever
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>as ... any 与 as ... ever</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 从字面上看，似乎意思是“同任何一个都一样”或是“同任何时候都一样”，换句话说，就是“平淡无奇”了。但其实 any 和 ever 都有加强语气的作用，拿 as ... any 来说，也可以理解为这个 any 不是“随便普普通通的一个”，而是“哪怕是千挑万选出来的一个”，这一来，意义就变为“不比任何别的程度低”，再进一步又变为“比任何一个都更加”，也就是“最”(但是 as ... ever 情况较为复杂，请见下面(2)的解释)。这个问题，参见 any 条之(5)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> as ... ever 也有类似的情况，但是情况比较复杂。如果 as ... as ... have + pp. 当中 pp. 动词是瞬时性的，就有“从来之最”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She has as fine a figure as I have ever seen. 她的身材是我所见过最苗条的。(不是“同我所见过的一样苗条”，see 是瞬时性动词。)</div><div class="ex-item">D'Este's biography of General Patton is as thorough and balanced a treatment of this great man as I have ever seen. 德斯特写的巴顿将军的传记对这位伟人的处理，是我所看过的最为透彻、最为面面俱到的。如果 as 后面有 any 又有 ever，则“比任何一个都更加”亦即“最”的意义就更为突出。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The speech was as poetically written as any he'd ever heard. 那篇演说辞，是他所听过的写得最诗意的。(不是“同任何一个一样诗意”)但是，如果 as ... as ... have + pp. 当中 pp. 动词是延续性的，则有“与从前一样，同从前一个程度”的意思。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Factories are going at full blast, and wages are as high as they have ever been, if nothigher. 各家工厂全面开工，工资和从前一样高，甚至更高。(be 是延续动词。)</div><b>as good as</b>放在形容词前面、动词前面或动词词组之中，表示“几乎，差不多；简直是；实际上”(虽然有 good，也可以指不好的事情)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Without her glasses she was as good as blind. 她没有了眼镜，就差不多等于瞎了。/ They as good as promised him admission. 他们实际上等于答应了录取他。/ He had as good as abdicated. 他简直等于退了位。/ The Defense Ministry as good as admitted that most of the R.A.F.'s fighters are too slow. (Time, Feb. 28, 1955)国防部实际上承认了皇家空军的战斗机大部分飞得太慢。但是也有些语法学者反对将 as good as 放在谓语动词前面的用法。</div>
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ash
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>ash</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作“灰，灰尘”解，是个不可数名词。但是它的复数也是个不可数名词（虽是复数，但是不能加数词 two、three 等）。单数和复数意义差不多，但是如果是指燃烧后的灰烬（比较注意前面燃烧的事实），尤其是如果涉及毁灭、死亡留下的后果，而不是自然形成（或非灾难性的燃烧留下）的灰尘物质，就倾向于用复数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The stately palace was reduced to <b>ashes</b> (<i>ash). 富丽堂皇的宫殿化为了灰烬。/ Half the capital now lies in <b>ashes</b> (</i>ash). 半个首都现在成了一片灰烬。/ <b>Ashes</b> (<i>ash) to <b>ashes</b> (</i>ash), dust to dust. (基督教葬礼诗句) 灰烬归灰烬，尘土归尘土。</div><br><br>但是如果是非灾难性的燃烧，留下的灰烬用单数 ash 或复数 ashes 均可。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>cigarette <b>ash/ashes</b> 香烟灰</div><div class="ex-item">fireplace <b>ash/ashes</b> 壁炉灰</div><div class="ex-item">Coke leaves a lot of <b>ash/ashes</b>. 焦炭留下很多灰烬。如果是自然形成的灰，也是单数复数均可。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>volcanic <b>ash/ashes</b> 火山灰。美国有个叫 James M. Deem 的人在2005年写了一本关于意大利维苏威火山公元79年爆发将庞贝古城毁灭的书，书名为 Bodies from the <b>Ash</b>，全书 ash 用单数。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 复数形式的 ashes 仍然是个不可数名词，前面不能有数词，但是前面究竟用 many 还是 much? 表示“较少”时究竟用 fewer 还是 less (“较多”则可数与不可数都用 more，没有区别)? 各人有各人的用法，并不统一。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If too <b>much ashes</b> are added to the resin material from which fibers are produced, however, the strength of the produced fibers is adversely affected. 但是，如果给用于制造纤维的树脂材料增添许多灰，纤维的坚固性就会受到不利的影响。/ It could be easily ascertained how <b>much ashes</b> twelve bushels of peat would make. 十二蒲式耳的泥炭，能产生多少灰，这是很容易查明的。/ At the bottom of the ditch are <b>many ashes</b>. 水渠的底部有许多灰。/ This can cause a problem with raising the soil pH over the optimum level of 6.5 to 7.0 if we spread too <b>many ashes</b> in the same area. 如果我们在同一表面上撒的灰太多，那么，6.5的土壤 pH 最佳值就会出现升高到7.0的问题。/ With complete incineration you have <b>fewer ashes</b>. 如果燃烧充分，灰烬就会少一些。/ You will have <b>fewer ashes</b> to handle and get more heat. 要处理的灰烬会少些，而且热量会多些。/ What can I do to my fireplace to have <b>less ashes</b>? 我要壁炉少一些灰烬，能有什么办法吗?</div><div class="ex-item">The trunks of trees afford <b>less ashes</b> than the leaves. Evergreens yield <b>less ashes</b> than trees and shrubs that shed their leaves in autumn. (Jean-Antoine-Claude Chaptal, J. P. Breister, Chemistry Applied to Agriculture) 树干烧出的灰，比树叶少。常绿树产生的灰烬，比秋天落叶的乔木和灌木少。</div><br><br>关于一些特殊名词的复数问题，可以分成四类来观察。第一类是像 ash 这类，本来单数就是不可数名词，变成复数仍然是不可数名词（前面既可以加 many，也可以加 much）。第二类是像 oats 这类，本来就没有单数形式，只有复数，虽然是复数但仍然不可数（也是前面既可以加 many，也可以加 much）。第三类是像 clothes 这类，只有复数形式（单数 cloth 是别的东西），但又不是完全不可数的物质名词（mass noun），复数仍然代表着一件又一件，只是不能分割为个体，也不能数出准确数目（不可以说 <i>much clothes 或 </i>less clothes，但可以说 many clothes, several clothes 或 fewer clothes，只是不能说 <i>five clothes）。第四类是像 profit、tax、investment 这类，本来单数是可数名词，变成复数也是可数名词，但是变成复数后意义可以当作一个混沌的数量来处理，像是类似 money、air、water 之类的物质名词（前面既可以加 fewer，也可以加 less）。另外还有一些名词，所代表的物品通常只能成双出现，所以只有复数形式，例如 scissors、pants、shorts、binoculars。严格说来，这些不能算是不可数名词，所以不能说 </i>much pants、*a little shorts。<br><br>
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ashamed
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>ashamed</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> be ashamed 后面是介词 of、for、about、at 等，再后面是个名词或动词名词 having + pp.，或者 be ashamed that/when ...。如果后面是个从句，此时感到难为情或羞耻的事情，是已经存在的事，不是害怕将要发生的事。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I feel <b>ashamed of</b> having lost my temper. 我对自己发脾气感到难为情。/ I am <b>ashamed of/for</b> havingsaid such a thing. 我对自己竟然说出这样的话感到难为情。/ Corruption suspects did not feel <b>ashamed</b> about their crimes despite being arrested by the police. 贪污嫌疑犯虽然被警察逮捕，但对自己的罪行并不羞愧。/ He is <b>ashamed</b> that he has failed again. 他对自己又一次失败感到羞愧。/ Some teenagers feel <b>ashamed</b> when they buy second-hand uniforms. 有些青少年买二手制服觉得不好意思。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 如果 ashamed 后面接 to inf. (不是 to have + pp.)，则 inf. 所指的行为可能是同时的，也可能是预感的；可能是肯定的，也可能是否定的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm <b>ashamed</b> to say (that) I don't do much reading. 说来惭愧，我很少看书。/ I'm <b>ashamed</b> to ask you such a silly question. 这样蹩脚的问题我竟然还问你，很不好意思。/ Our firm is going bankrupt, I'm <b>ashamed</b> to say. 我们公司正在破产，说来难以启齿。/ Women are often <b>ashamed</b> to admit they are being abused. 妇女往往羞于承认自己正在被虐待。/ Xiang Yu was <b>ashamed</b> to face the elders east of the Yangtze. 项羽无颜见江东父老。有时候究竟是肯定还是否定，要看上下文或语境。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They are <b>ashamed</b> to shop at thrift stores. 他们不好意思到旧货店购物（所以就不去了）。/ 他们到旧货店购物，但感到不好意思。</div><br><br>如果不定式是延续的，表示此状态已经在存在中（不是自己有意要处于这种状态），已经是事实，但对这个事实感到羞耻，不是“免于处于这种状态”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A former cabinet minister today admitted he felt "<b>ashamed</b>" to be a Labour MP as criticism of the prime minister's performance in office intensified. 一位原内阁部长今天承认，看到首相的政绩受到越来越猛烈的批评，他就“羞于”作为一名工党的国会议员。</div><br><br>后面是 to inf. 时，有时候，ashamed 前有 too 与没有 too 意义相同。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She told the court she had been <b>too ashamed</b> to tell her husband about the alleged sexual abuse she suffered. 她在法庭上中说，她自己受到性侵，不好意思告诉自己的丈夫。</div><br><br>
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aside
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>aside</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为副词，是动态的“到一边去”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I stepped <b>aside</b> to let her pass. 我踱到一边，让她过去。/ He took her <b>aside</b>. 他把她带到一边。/ We've been putting money <b>aside</b> for the trip. 我们一直在为旅行存钱。/ They felt cast <b>aside</b> by society. 他们感到自己被社会边缘化了。</div><br><br>可以放到名词后面表示“撇开不算”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>These problems <b>aside</b>, we have been very successful. 撇开这些问题不算，我们干得十分成功。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 中文“除了……之外”有歧义，既可以表示“除了……例外”，也可以表示“除了……还有……”。美式英语的 aside from 也与此相类似，可以有这样的两个意义。参见 apart from 条。<br><br>表示前一种意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We're all happy <b>aside from</b> him. 除了他之外，我们大家都很高兴。/ <b>Aside from</b> history, I did pretty well. 除了历史，我都考得不错。</div><br><br>表示后一种意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Aside from</b> that, the apartment was too small. 不但如此，这公寓还太小。/ <b>Aside from</b> being tired, I am so sleepy. 我累了，而且还很困倦。/ <b>Aside from</b> federal and state aid, county revenue is generated through property andsales taxes and service fees. (The Sunday Gazette, Oct. 26, 2008, C1) 除了从联邦和州那里得到补助之外，县的收入来自财产税、销售税和服务费。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> aside 前面有名词成分，可以表示“先别说……”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Talk of Twitter and Facebook <b>aside</b>, nearly 30 percent of 80 million Egyptians are illiterate. (Richard Parker, in The Sunday Gazette, Feb. 13, 2011) 什么推特和脸书就先别提了，埃及8,000万人口中，将近30%还是文盲呢。/ Temperament <b>aside</b>, what distinguishes Tillerson as the next face of U.S. foreign policy is his clear understanding of how economic incentives shape government decisions around the world. (Jennifer M. Harris, "The Rex Files," in Foreign Affairs, Dec. 16, 2016) 撇开脾气不说，蒂勒森作为下一届美国对外政策头面人物的特点，就是他十分了解经济上的刺激能如何塑造全世界的政府决策。</div><br><br>
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as it is
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>as it is</b></div>这个状语词组意义比较复杂。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 如果 it 有明确指代，意思是“照现在的原样”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We can't publish it as it is. 我们不能把它原样发表。/ Paris as it was and as it is. 巴黎今昔。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 如果 it 是泛泛的，没有明确指代，则：(a) 以现在与将来相对立(“现在已经如何”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Don't disturb me. I'm nervous as it is. 别打扰我。我本来就已经够紧张的了。/ Just keep quiet—you're in enough trouble as it is. 不耍吵闹，你们惹的麻烦已经不少了。/ I can't help—I've got too much to do as it is. 我不能帮忙了——我已经有不少工作了。</div><br><br>或者是以现状同理想相对立(“照现在这个样子”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If Obama used his popularity to achieve those critical goals for our nation's future, he would deserve to be on all those T-shirts and coffee mugs. He might even be a candidate for Mount Rushmore. As it is, he and we are headed in the wrong direction. (Mona Charen, in The Daily Gazette, Jan. 14, 2009, A7)如果奥巴马为了我们国家的前途运用自己的声望来达到那些关键目标，那么他被人家印在那些 T 恤上和咖啡杯上本来也可以当之无愧。他甚至有望跻身于拉什莫尔山上的总统之列。但是，照眼下的情况来看，他和我们都走在错误的方向上。</div>(b) 以现在与过去相对立(“而现在呢”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If Carter had done what he has done now six months ago, the Germans would have found it perfectly acceptable. As it is, they are afraid that Carter has given an impression of weakness and inexperience not only to his allies ... 卡特现在做的事情，如果是半年前做的，德国人本来还会觉得完全可以接受。但是现在呢，他们就担心卡特不但给他的盟国一个软弱和无经验的印象……</div><div class="ex-item">Would I want to starve to death, and there being enough unemployed in the country as it is? Wouldn't I be a terrible eejit altogether if I wasn't doing accounting? (Andrew M. Greeley, Irish Gold)难道我打算饿死吗？在这个国家，失业的人本来已经够多的了。我如果不干会计，难道要当一个完完全全的白痴吗？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 这个 is 可以有时态变化。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He had decided that four bottles were all he could carry. As it was, the bottles would be enough for eight people. 他早已经认定，自己最多只能带四瓶。就拿四瓶来说，也够八个人喝了。/ I had enough troubles in life as it was without becoming involved with a woman. (Andrew M. Greeley, Irish Gold)本来，不搭上一个女人，我这辈子的麻烦也够多的了。</div>
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as it were
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>as it were</b></div>可以作为一个状语词组插在句子中，表示“好像，仿佛”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I have never before expressed an opinion, following as it were some unspoken etiquette to remain silent, ... (John Darnton, The Darwin Conspiracy)我先前从没有发表过议论，我仿佛一直遵守着某个不明言的保持沉默的规矩……</div><div class="ex-item">By putting the weak there in the place usually occupied by the subject we as it were hide away the subject and reduce it to an inferior position, because it is indefinite. (Otto Jespersen, The Philosophy of Grammar)把弱意的 there 放在通常由主语占据的位置，我们就仿佛将主语藏到他处，并将之贬到一个次要地位，因为它是不特指的。</div>
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ask
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>ask</b></div>这个动词（瞬时动态，第四类动词）有两个基本释义，除了人们熟知的“问”，还有“请求”。要善于辨别。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 如果是征求意见、咨询或要求允许、帮忙，可以接直接宾语，不要 for。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>May I <b>ask</b> a favor? 我能请您帮一下吗?</div><div class="ex-item">Nobody <b>asked</b> your opinion. 没有人向你征求过意见。/ I should have <b>asked</b> permission to leave. 我本来应该要求允许让我走。/ All I <b>ask</b> is to be left alone. 我唯一的要求，就是别打扰我。/ What more can you <b>ask</b>? 你还能要求什么呢?</div><div class="ex-item">Is that <b>asking</b> too much? 那样的要求难道过分了吗?</div><div class="ex-item">How much is he <b>asking</b> for the car? 这辆车他开价多少?</div><div class="ex-item">He <b>asked</b> the professor's advice. 他请教授给予指导。</div><br><br>ask 后面可以直接接上 advice，不要 for，但是如果用代词 it 代替 advice，就要有 for。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>When I want your advice, I'll <b>ask for</b> it (*ask it). 我需要向你征求意见的时候，我会征求的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 可以以对方为直接宾语，请求得到的东西用介词 for 引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She <b>asked</b> them <b>for</b> forgiveness. 她请求他们原谅。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 可以不要直接宾语，而是作为不及物动词，请求得到的东西（具体的和抽象的事物均可）用介词 for 引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She <b>asked for</b> a drink of water. 她请求给她喝点水。/ They <b>asked for</b> help with their project. 他们请求人家帮助他们开展那个项目。</div><br><br>但是如果 for 后面是个具体的人，则 ask for 是打听该人的情况。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> ask to inf. 是要求别人允许自己去做某事。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I <b>asked to see</b> the manager. 我要求见经理。/ She <b>asked to have</b> the day off. 她要求那一天请假。/ He <b>asked to be</b> remembered to your mother. 他请我替他向你母亲问好。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> ask somebody to inf. 是请求某人去做某事（是某人去做，不是自己去做）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I must <b>ask</b> you <b>to leave</b>. 我必须请你离开。/ He'll do it for you if you <b>ask</b> him <b>to</b>. 你如果请他给你做，他一定会做。/ You're <b>asking</b> me <b>to believe</b> that? 你是不是要我相信那一套?</div>但是，如果特别标明，也可以是自己去做。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But when Nick <b>asked</b> his mother <b>to see</b> the newspapers <b>himself</b>, she'd refuse. 但是每当尼克要求他妈妈让他自己看看报纸，她总是不让。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> just ask ... (直接宾语是人)，意思是：作为例证，可以看看某人的所作所为或遭遇（“你看那……”）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Writing a best seller is hard. But writing the next book is no picnic either. <b>Just ask</b> Patchett and Sebold. (Newsweek, Oct. 15, 2007, p. 83) 写出一本畅销书是很不容易的。不过再写一本也不是轻松愉快的事。帕切特和西博尔德两个人的例子就能说明问题。/ Civil disobedience is a strong form of protest. Obstruction, occupation, and nonviolent forms of breaking the law can change public opinion—<b>just ask</b> Martin Luther King, Mohandas Gandhi, and the movement that brought down the Egyptian government earlier this year. (Steve Keller, in The Sunday Gazette, Nov. 13, 2011) 公民不服从运动是一种强有力的抗议形式。堵塞、占据，以及非暴力的违法方式，可以使得公众舆论发生变化，你看那马丁·路德·金和圣雄甘地，还有那今年早些时候推翻埃及政府的运动。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> ask that 后面的从句用虚拟语气，表示“要求某事”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She <b>asked</b> that the money (<b>should</b>) be given to charity. 她要求把钱捐赠给慈善事业。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> 从“请求”派生出“邀请”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They <b>asked</b> me to their wedding. 他们请我参加他们的婚礼。/ We'll <b>ask</b> them to dinner. 我们要请他们吃饭。/ <b>Ask</b> him along. 就请他过来吧。/ We <b>asked</b> them over for tea. 我们请了他们过来喝茶。</div><br><br>
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(as) long as
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(as) long as</b></div>参见 as long as 与 so long as 条。<br><br>
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as long as 与 so long as
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>as long as 与 so long as</b></div>字面意义表示引入的从句中谓语动词的动作或状态延续多久，主句的动作或状态也就延续多久。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'll remember it as long as I live. 我只要一息尚存，就将永志不忘。/ As long as there are sovereign nations possessing great power, war is inevitable. (Albert Einstein, in The Atlantic, November 1945)只要一些大国存在一天，战争就不可避免。</div><br><br>但是主从句之间也可以完全没有时间长短相同的关系，而是由从句引起条件状语的作用，表示充足条件(“只要……就……”), 此时从句中的谓语动词既可以是延续体的，也可以是瞬时体的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You can go as long as you're back by twelve. 你只要 12 点以前回来，就可以去。/ You're welcome to stay with us as long as you share the expenses. 只要你分摊费用，我们就欢迎你留在这里。/ I'll do it as long as I get paid for it. 只要有报酬，我就干。/ Detergent cannot harm a fabric, so long as it has been properly dissolved. 洗涤剂只要好好溶解，就不会损伤衣料。</div>
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as much as
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>as much as</b></div>这个词组的意义和用法比较复杂，分析如下：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 字面意义为“像……那样多”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>three times as much as last year 为去年的三倍</div><div class="ex-item">The cat eats almost as much as the dog. 猫吃得几乎同狗一样多。/ I've done as much as I can. 我已经尽力而为。/ I don't work as much as I used to. 我现在干得没有从前那样多了。/ He spends as much as he earns. 他挣多少花多少。/ Social Security protects the young as much as it does the old. 社会保障制度既保护老人，也保护年轻人。/ People who live with this plant consider it a friend as much as a foe. 同这种植物生活在一起的人，与这种植物亦敌亦友。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> “多到……地步”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You can lose as much as four pounds in one week. 你可以一周之内减重 4 磅之多。/ Whirlpool confirmed plans to invest as much as $145 million in its Ohio facilities, saving 2,000 jobs. 惠而浦公司确定了对其在俄亥俄的工厂投资高达 1.45 亿美元的计划，这一来就能保住 2,000 个职位。/ In North Carolina, two people died in car crashes as heavy rain pounded the state, dropping as much as 5 inches in some areas. (The Associated Press, Nov. 16, 2006)在北卡罗来纳州，两个人死于车祸，当时大雨袭击全州，在某些地区降雨量达 5 英寸之多。 (3) “(虽然)一边的理由如此充分，(但是)另一边的理由也一样充分”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>As much as I hate to do it, I must stay home and finish my paper. 尽管我讨厌这样做，但我还是必须待在家里，把论文写出来。/ As much as he hated his adversary, he could admit that he was the right candidate to challenge the establishment. 他尽管讨厌他的对手，但他也承认，对方是个向权威集团挑战的合适的候选人。/ As much as she dreaded the conversation, Terry decided that she couldn't wait any longer. (David Rosenfelt, Heart of a Killer)特莉尽管十分害怕这次谈话，但她决定不能再等下去了。</div><br><br>有时候开头的 as 可以省去。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I can't leave you here. Much as I'd like to. 我不能把你留在这里。尽管我很想这样。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> “一边的程度之高，同另一边一样；无异于；简直就是”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He as much as admitted it. 他实际上承认了这一点。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> “as much as + 主语 + can do”表示“所能做到的差不多都做了，几乎技巧；险些做不到”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's as much as I can do to stand up. 我简直站不起来了。/ It was as much as I could do just to stop her crying. 我简直没法让她停止号哭。/ It was as much as I could do to keep a straight face. 我几乎无法一直把脸绷着。参见 so much as 条。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 最末的 as 往后移，成为 as much ... as ...，有“与……的程度相当”或“既……又……”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm as much a patriot as any of you. 我之爱国，不亚于你们当中的任何人。/ Yet the Buckeye State ... is as much a battleground in the economic as the political sense. (U.S. News & World Report, June 7, 2004, p. 36)然而七叶树州(俄亥俄州)……既是经济意义上的战场，也是政治意义上的战场。(注意这里 as much 后面同 as 后面的成分在句法结构上不对称。)</div>有时候后移的 as 要等到很迟才出现，此时要注意抓住前后的呼应关系，以免“断线”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The project you were shown bore about as much resemblance to the one we've approved as horseshit does to roast beef. 人家给你看的那个方案，比起我们通过的那个方案，就仿佛马粪之比起烤牛肉。/ Twice as much money went to presentations about American life and values as to programs on Middle East peace, combating terrorism, weapons of mass destruction, and Iraq combined. (U.S. News & World Report, Mar. 17, 2003, p. 40)用于介绍美国生活和价值观的钱，比用于中东和平、反恐、大规模杀伤性武器和伊拉克等项目的加在一起还多出一倍。</div><br><br>as much ... as ... 不但可以表示“一样多”，也可以表示“一样少”，视后面那个比较对象的大小而定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I had exactly as much experience dealing with the media as I had with the New Jersey Supreme Court, but I figured that was as good a time as any to learn on the job. (David Rosenfelt, Heart of a Killer)我应付媒体，就同应付新泽西最高法院一样没有多少经验，但是我觉得那是个很好的机会，可以边干边学。</div>
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(as) much as
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(as) much as</b></div>参见 as much as 条。<br><br>
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as of
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>as of</b></div>as of 是美式英语特有的用法，可以有以下几种用法：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> “截至……之时”，谓语动词可以用一般现在时、现在完成时或过去完成时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>as of</b> this writing 截至本文写作时</div><div class="ex-item"><b>as of</b> print time of this paper 截至本报上机付印时</div><div class="ex-item"><b>As of</b> March 2000, Japan's Internet users exceed 21 million, ranking second only to the U.S.-reported 124 million. 截至2000年3月，日本的互联网用户已经超过2100万，仅次于美国所宣布的1.24亿。/ <b>As of</b> June 2, 2006, USCIS has approved 1,901 petitions under the 20,000 H-1B numbers reserved for holders of U.S. master's or higher degree, and 4,698 petitions are pending. 截至2006年6月2日，美国公民及移民服务局在留给持有美国硕士及更高学位者的20,000个H-1B名额中，已经批准了1,901件申请，尚有4,698件在处理中。/ <b>As of</b> Friday, that total had reached 28,700. (The Washington Post, Mar. 20, 2007) 截至星期五，（美国增兵伊拉克）总数已经达到28,700人。/ Iraq war results and statistics <b>as of</b> Oct. 22, 2008 截至2008年10月22日的伊拉克战争结果与统计数字。</div><br><br>as of 表示“直到……为止”，同 until 意义不同。until 表示“延续到某一时间点就发生变化”，as of 表示“直到某一时间点仍然保持原状不变”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>As of</b> last year, they still had some concerns to resolve. 直到去年，他们仍然有一些问题需要解决。又例如2007年4月美国弗吉尼亚理工学院枪击事件中，仍然有人从宽恕出发对凶手赵承熙表示悼念，在他的祭坛上放了小石子，但又有人把小石子拿走了：After the first stone for Cho was removed, someone else came forward and placed a new one there. <b>As of</b> Thursday, the stone remained. (The Associated Press, Apr. 26, 2007) 第一块祭奠赵的小石子被拿走后，又有人前来放上了一块新的。这块小石子直到星期四还在那里。</div><br><br>如果谓语动词是被否定的，则 as of 也与 until 不同，until 表示到了该时间点就发生了从否定变为肯定的变化，而 as 表示这个否定状态到了该时间点仍然保持，后来如何则不交代。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>As of</b> Saturday, the governor still had <b>not</b> declared a state of emergency. 直到星期六，州长仍然没有宣布紧急状态。/ <b>As of</b> now I'm not sure how I'll vote. 直到现在，我还拿不准要怎样投票。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> as of 本来是个复合介词，如果后面加上 yet，成为 as of yet，就成为一个副词短语，意思是“截至现在”。如果谓语动词（通常用现在完成时）是被否定的，则 as of yet 也与 until now 不同，until now 表示现在刚刚发生了从否定变为肯定的变化，而 as of yet 表示这个否定状态到了现在仍然保持，今后如何则不交代。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>As of yet</b>, no timetable has been set for construction. 直到现在为止，还没有定下兴建的时间表。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> as of 后面不一定是个截止日期，也可以是指“按照（迄今为止的信息）”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>As of</b> the most recent filings with the state Board of Elections, ... 按照已经报请州选举委员会备案的最新资料，……</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> as 不光可以指与前述相反的“自……起”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Accordingly, <b>as of</b> January 31st, 2006, Internet Explorer for the Mac is no longer available for download from Microsoft. 因此，自2006年1月31日起，苹果的Mac电脑上将不能下载微软的 Internet Explorer 浏览器。/ The border, effectively closed since 1981, will be opened <b>as of</b> January 1. 从1981年起就关闭了的边境，将自1月1日起开放。这个用法，也可以用于日常语言。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>As of</b> next week I'll be working at home. 从下周起，我就在家里工作了。/ <b>As of</b> 5 o'clock the store will be closed for inventory. 自5点起，本店将闭门盘点。/ Extraterrestrial life. <b>As of</b> today, the most popular modern myth of all time was no longer a myth. (Dan Brown, Deception Point) 地球之外有生物。从今天起，历来最流行的神话，已经不再是神话了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> as of 还可以指同时间段无关的时间点，表示“很快在某时即将如何”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>As of</b> Monday I will talk to him about it. 礼拜一我就同他谈这件事。</div><br><br>但是，as of 是指预料同说话时有一些距离的将来。如果是眼前马上要做的事，用 as of + 时间点就不太妥当。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Right now (<i>As of now) I will cross the street. 我现在马上就过街去。同样，as of 表示“从何时起开始的一个时间段”时，这个起点也同说话时有一些距离，如果是立刻起算，也最好不要用 as of。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>From now on (</i>As of now), I shall always refuse such offers. 从现在起，凡是这样的提议，我都一律拒绝。不过也有这样用的。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>As of now</b> you're on leave. (Mary Higgins Clark, I'll Be Seeing You) 从现在起你就休假吧。</div><br><br>
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assertive
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>assertive</b></div>这个形容词来自及物动词 assert，意思是“伸张”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>assert one's own rights 伸张自己的权利。到了形容词 assertive，基本意思没有变化，可以是褒义的“有主见的”，也可以是贬义的“刚愎自用的”。中文翻译时有点不容易表达。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Sistani proved himself an <b>assertive</b> competitor among the jostling senior ayatullahs, ... (U.S. News & World Report, Dec. 25, 2006, p. 47) 西斯塔尼在那些互不相让的阿亚图拉们当中显示出自己是个很有主见的竞争者，……</div><div class="ex-item">End life as a doormat with <b>assertiveness</b>. (Times Union, Aug. 20, 1998) 以自我振作的精神结束逆来顺受的生涯。</div><br><br>
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assume
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>assume</b></div>这个及物动词作“假定”（第一类动词）解时，可以有几种搭配：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 后面加上 that 从句 (that 可以省略) 作为假定认为的内容。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>When you have a language degree people <b>assume that</b> you can speak the language fluently. 你如果有一门语言的学位，人家就会假定你讲那种语言一定很流利。/ Let's <b>assume</b> they're right. 咱们姑且假定他们正确吧。/ I <b>assume</b> you've heard the news. 我想你已经听到那消息了。/ <b>Assuming</b> that everything goes to plan, ... 假定一切都按计划进行，……</div><br><br>that 从句的谓语动词指的是将来的事情时，可以用一般将来时，也可以用一般现在时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Let's <b>assume</b> (that) she <b>wins/will win</b> the game. 咱们假定她会赢得这场比赛。 (2) 所假定的内容也可以用名词或代词作直接宾语来表示。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His mother <b>assumed</b> his honesty. 他母亲估计他是老实的。/ We can't <b>assume</b> anything. 我们无法做任何假定。</div><br><br>这个“假定”也可以转义为“要求以……为前提”（属延续状态的第一类动词）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This course <b>assumes</b> no prior background in computer science. (The Wall Street Journal, May 27, 2016, B5, ad) 本课程不需要有计算机科学的背景。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 这个“假定、估计”的内容也可以用“直接宾语 + to inf.”来表示 (inf. 应该是个延续体动词，如果是个瞬时体动词就要用 to have + pp.)，此时被 assume 的，不是直接宾语，而是这假定的内容整体。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His mother <b>assumed</b> him <b>to be</b> honest. 他母亲估计他是老实的。/ Let's <b>assume</b> that <b>to be</b> the case. 咱们姑且假定情况确是如此。/ We can <b>assume</b> him <b>to have received</b> the letter. 我们可以假定他收到了信。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 前面(3)的用法也可以变为被动式，此时被 assume 的，也同样不是原先直接宾语变成的主语，而是这假定的内容整体。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was mistakenly <b>assumed to be</b> a Welshman because of his surname. 他因为姓氏关系，被误认为是威尔士人。/ All employees are <b>assumed to be</b> honest, hard-working, and possessing a genuine desire to do good work. 对所有员工，都先假定他们是老实的、勤奋的、真正愿意好好干的。</div><br><br>类似这样的假定对象在形式上与实质上不一致的情况，参见 believe 条、report 条、say 条等。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 前面所有的说明中，assume 的主语都是人。但是 assume 也可以不以人为主语，此时它的意义是“（某主观打算）以……为前提”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This strategy (of McCain) <b>assumes</b> a Barack Obama candidacy. (The Daily Gazette, May 10, 2008, A7) (共和党总统候选人麦凯恩的) 这个战略，是以 (民主党) 由奥巴马出任候选人为前提的。</div><br><br>由于 assume 有“假定”的含义，assuming (that) 有时可以代替连词 if。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... <b>assuming</b> the baby's sex is not already known from ultrasound or other techniques. ……如果婴儿的性别不是已经靠超声波或其他技术事先获悉的话。/ <b>Assuming</b> half of all video game consoles are left on all the times, Americans would save $1 billion a year if we just turned them off when we're not using them. (The Sunday Gazette, May 31, 2009, p. 7) 假设有一半的电子游戏机是一直接通电流的，那么只要在不使用时关掉，美国人一年就可以节省十亿美元。/ It depends on whether your wrist is stiff from non-use or from wrong use. <b>Assuming</b> the latter, I should recommend studies in wrist octaves, but you must watch your wrist while playing and rest at the slightest indication of its stiffening. (Josef Hofmann, Piano Playing) 这要看你手腕的僵硬是因为没有使用手腕，还是因为使用不当。如果是后者，我建议你弹一些腕八度练习曲，不过你弹奏时必须注意手腕，一有手腕僵硬的些微迹象，就停下休息。</div><br><br>
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assure 与 ensure
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>assure 与 ensure</b></div>中文翻译都是“保证”，但意义有所区别。<br><br>assure 是向对方做出保证的表示。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He <b>assured</b> them <b>of</b> his sincerity. 他向他们保证自己是真心诚意的。/ They <b>assured</b> her it was true. 他们向她保证这是真的。/ We've never had anyone like that here, I can <b>assure</b> you. 我可以向你保证，我们这里从来没有过这样的人。/ They <b>assured</b> us that they would be there. 他们向我们保证他们一定会到那边去。/ They have <b>assured</b> us <b>of</b> their support. 他们向我们保证一定支持我们。/ He tried to <b>assure</b> them that the rumor was false. 他向他们保证，传闻没有根据。</div><br><br>ensure 是采取实际措施保证事情成功。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I did everything I could to <b>ensure</b> his success (to <b>ensure</b> that he would succeed). 我用尽一切办法去保证他的成功。/ My recommendation will <b>ensure</b> you an interview. 我的推荐信可以保证你能有一次面试的机会。/ This decision <b>ensured</b> a large income for her son. 这个决定，保证了她儿子能有一大笔收入。/ <b>ensure</b> a good job for a person (= <b>ensure</b> a person a good job) 保证某人有一份好工作</div><div class="ex-item">The first duty of the state is to <b>ensure</b> that law-abiding people are protected from crime. 国家的首要义务，是保证守法人民受到保护，不受犯罪侵害。/ The door did not lock, but at least it <b>ensured</b> a reasonable amount of privacy. 门锁不起来，但是起码保证了一定程度的隐私。</div><br><br>此外，insure 则是“为……买保险”或“给……承保”的意思，同 ensure 不一样。但是由于发音相同，在英国也有人用 insure 来代替 ensure，但是由于 insure 的经济意义很突出，所以很少有反过来用 ensure 代替 insure 的。<br><br>
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astonish
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>astonish</b></div>参见 surprise, amaze, astonish, astound 与 startle 条。<br><br>
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astound
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>astound</b></div>参见 surprise, amaze, astonish, astound 与 startle 条。<br><br>
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as well'
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>as well'</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作状语词组，表示：(a) “也一样”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He bought the house and the land <b>as well</b>. 他把房子连同地皮一起买下来了。/ You've already been late for breakfast, and if you don't eat fast, you'll be late for school <b>as well</b>. 你早餐已经吃晚了，如果再不快点吃，上学也会迟到。</div>(b) “而且加以”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>And then the car broke down <b>as well</b>. 接着，车子又坏了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> it is/was just as well (that) 是“幸亏”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Judging from everything you've said, <b>it was just as well</b> she wasn't there. 从你所说的全部情况来看，幸亏当时她不在那里。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> may/might (just) as well 有两个可能的意义。<br><br>第一个意义，是表示“那也行；就……吧；索性……算了”（并不太主张这样做，但“既来之则安之”，也不反对）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If I've got to go somewhere, I <b>may as well</b> go to Birmingham. 如果非到什么地方去不可，我就到伯明翰去吧。/ Anyway, you're here; you <b>might as well</b> stay. 反正你已经来了，你就留下来算了。/ You <b>might as well</b> watch the movie, given that you already bought it. 既然片子你已经买了，你就看看吧。/ I'll come with you if you like. I <b>might as well</b>. 你乐意的话我就跟你一起去。我无所谓。/ —Shall we go to the cinema? —We <b>might as well</b>. —咱们去看电影好吗？—去也行。</div><br><br>第二个意思，是更进一步，表示当前所说的情况已经差到 as well 后面所说的情况那样坏的地步，甚至还不如那样干脆。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The couple <b>might as well</b> have been strangers. 那一对简直如同陌路人。/ We <b>might just as well</b> be in prison for all the quality our lives have at present. 拿我们目前的生活质量来说，倒不如干脆住进监狱里。/ 芝加哥曾经打算规定出租车司机必须穿着整齐，但是许多司机抱怨天气太热，于是有如下的一段话：That's "crazy" and "too hot in the summer," says driverSteve Wiedersberg, "You <b>might as well</b> have us wear a tuxedo." (Newsweek, Oct. 10, 2006, p. 9) 司机韦德斯堡说，这简直是“发疯”，而且“夏天太热了。倒不如干脆让我们穿上燕尾礼服好了”。</div><br><br>
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as well'
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>as well'</b></div>as well 作表语，表示“最好是；不妨；倒不如”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Almost all the problems tourists in Barcelona encounter are to do with petty crime-pickpocketing and bag-snatching rather than more serious physical confrontations, so it's <b>as well</b> to be on your guard and know where your possessions are. 游客在巴塞罗那所遇到的问题，差不多全是偷钱包和抢手袋之类的小偷小摸行为，而不是什么严重的人身伤害，所以最好还是小心提防，记住自己的财物放在哪里。</div><br><br>
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as well as
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>as well as</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 一般都熟知 as well as 常常用于并列多个概念，这些概念可以表现为名词、代词、形容词、副词、介词短语，甚至谓语动词，as well as 后面的一个概念通常是已知的或是作为衬托的，重点往往在前一个概念上。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He gave me clothes <b>as well as</b> food. 他给了我食物还给了我衣服。/ I can't carry his bags <b>as well as</b> my own. 我拿了自己的箱子，就拿不了他的。/ It has symbolic <b>as well as</b> economic significance. 它既有经济意义，也有象征意义。/ He designs <b>as well as</b> makes fashionable dresses. 他既裁制时装，也设计时装。</div><br><br>但是，as well as 有时候的作用不在于并列概念，而是表示两者的相似。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Women, <b>as well as</b> men, have a fundamental right to work. 妇女和男子一样，也有参加工作的基本权利。此时 as well as 甚至可以像 than 或 as 那样连接一个有谓语动词的不完整的从句。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Although IQ tests were not originally intended for use in business, studies have shown that these instruments predict work performance at least <b>as well as</b> competency interviews <b>do</b>. 尽管智商测验原先不是为了用于工作，但是一些调研结果显示，这些手段起码能够同能力面试一样预示工作业绩。</div><br><br>另外，as well as 究竟是表示并列还是比较，以及拿什么同什么并列或相比，要看上下文。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A new study has found that a diet of fruits, vegetables, whole grains and low-fat dairy lowers blood pressure <b>as well as</b> drugs. 一项新近的研究发现，由水果、蔬菜、全谷物和低脂乳制品组成的食谱，可以同药物一样降低血压。（不是拿 blood pressure 与 drugs 并列或比较，也不是拿 a diet of ... 与 drugs 并列，而是拿 a diet of ... 与 drugs 相比）。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 此外，由于 as well as 的原意是“同……一样好”，有时候这个原意仍然保留，就可能产生歧义。例如 Jennifer plays the violin <b>as well as</b> Sylvia. 这一句可以是“珍妮弗也同西尔维亚一样拉小提琴”，也可以是“珍妮弗拉小提琴同西尔维亚拉得一样好”。为了避免歧义，如果意思是前者，可以改为：Both Jennifer and Sylvia play the violin. 如果意思是后者，可以改为：Jennifer and Sylvia play the violin equally well.
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as well ... as
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>as well ... as</b></div>如果 as well as 当中的 well 与第二个 as 隔开，形成 as well X as Y，意思就同 well （“好”）相反，指 X 之坏同 Y 之坏程度相等，而 X 之坏是大家已经熟悉的，用这样的比拟，衬托出 Y 是多么的坏（要注意 X 和 Y 不要换错了位置）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>One <b>may as well</b> not know a thing at all <b>as</b> know it imperfectly. 一知半解，倒不如干脆一无所知。/ I'm going to be late for work anyway, so I think I'll go to the shop for a paper. I <b>might as well</b> be hanged for a sheep <b>as</b> a lamb. 我反正上班要迟到了，所以我打算索性到店里去买张报纸。一不做二不休嘛。（这里要注意的是，I <b>might as well</b> be hanged for a sheep <b>as</b> a lamb. 是句习语，如果补全了应该是 I <b>might as well</b> be hanged for a sheep <b>as</b> be hanged for a lamb. 字面意思是“反正偷一只小羊也是要被处以绞刑，那就索性偷一只大羊，一样被处以绞刑”。）另外，如果说的是一般的普遍道理，用 may；如果说的是当前特定的一件事，用 might。</div><br><br>
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as with
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>as with</b></div>用以表示“如同其他类似的事例一样”，当前拿来对比的事物，在句中可以有各种各样的地位，可以是主语、宾语、定语、状语等等。<br><br>对比的事物是主语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But <b>as with</b> the nuclear airplane proponents in the 1950s and the nuclear space power proponents of the SDI era, advocates of nuclear propulsion for human space exploration have been hard-pressed to demonstrate clear-cut advantages to their preferred solution. 但是同20世纪50年代主张通过核飞机以及“战略防御方案”时期主张搞太空核能的人们一样，那些主张通过核能推进人类太空探索的人对于他们所热衷的解决办法有什么明确的优越性，要证明起来也很吃力。/ <b>As with</b> the first two volumes in this series, volume III amasses a great deal of useful information (including bibliography) on the words dealt with. 正如本系列的头两册一样，第三册收集了大量涉及相关单词的有用信息（包括书目）。</div><br><br>对比的事物是句中其他成分。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In an agreement between two parties where there is an imbalance in power, <b>as with</b> the Israelis and Palestinians, the rights of the weaker party must be protected. 双方实力悬殊，像以色列人和巴勒斯坦人那样，要达成协议，力量弱的一方的权利必须得到保护。/ <b>As with</b> the other players, encrypted support is not provided directly by MPlayer. 同其他播放器一样，MPlayer 并不直接提供加密支持。</div><br><br>
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as²
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>as²</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> as 作表示“方式如同……一样”的连词，引入一个状语从句，如果 as 前面有否定，这个否定究竟是到达 as 前面就停下来，还是一直继续，把 as 及其后面从句的内容也一起否定？应该说，通常情况下，否定的作用是一直贯彻下来，把 as 后面的内容连同 as 前面的内容合在一起全盘加以否定(即使 as 前面有逗号隔开，这个否定作用也越过逗号贯彻到 as 后面)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He did not go to office daily, as his father did before him. (Kruisinga)他不象他父亲从前那样每天都去上班。/ Her pregnancy was not seven months along, as he had believed, but only five. 她并不如他原先以为的那样怀孕了 7 个月，而只是 5 个月。/ Women's desires to connect with others and their emotional accessibility traits were essential strengths not weaknesses as they were traditionally regarded. 妇女要同他人联络的愿望，以及她们在感情上容易触动的特点，是重要的优点，而不是像传统上所认为的那样是弱点。/ But it was another Italian, Alessandro Volta, who found that the electricity came not from the frog, as Galvani had thought, but from the metals. 但是另外一个意大利人亚历山大德罗·伏尔塔却发现了电并不像加尔万尼所想的那样来自那只青蛙，而是来自金属。/ Working in an open-source world is not without its hardships. There is no toll-free number to call when things don't work, as is the case with packaged software. 在一个开源的世界里工作，总是免不了遇到种种麻烦。东西不灵了，就不能像买来原装的软件那样有免费电话号码可以拨打查询。/ ... that it was not that that kept me silent: it was the fear that this sudden cessation of pain was not so favourable a symptom as he supposed. (Anne Brontë, The Tenant of Wildfell Hall)……使我沉默不语的，并不是那个原因，而是我担心，疼痛忽然这样停止，并不如他所推测的那样是个好症状。</div><br><br>as 前面的否定，如果更前面有 not only，则 as 后面的成分照样被前面近处的否定所否定，但不受远处的不 not only 影响。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Not only is God not dead, as the German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche prematurely proclaimed; he never seems to have been more alive. (Alister McGrath and Joanna Collicutt McGrath, The Dawkins Delusion?)不光是上帝没有像德国哲学家尼采所匆匆宣称的那样已经死去，而且上帝从来都没有像现在这样如此有活力。</div><br><br>但是，也有 as 及其后面内容不受否定的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The Supreme Court normally does not hear any evidence, as is true with all appeals courts. 同所有上诉法院一样，最高法院通常不听取证据。/ Standard treatment is not terribly effective, as is the case with many advanced cancers. 正如许多晚期的癌症那样，标准疗法并不十分有效。</div><br><br>此外，有时候 as 前面没有 not 之类的否定，但是有带有否定意义的单词或词组。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Under the new policy, a film's rating will consider all tobacco use, rather than just teenage smoking, as in the past. (The New York Times, May 11, 2007, C1)按照新的政策，影片的分级要将一切吸烟镜头都考虑在内，而不是像过去那样只考虑青少年吸烟的镜头。/ The government would allow outsiders to own 100% of local companies by June rather than by the end of the year as had been earlier contemplated. 政府可能到 6 月而不是按照原先预定的那样要到年底才让外来人百分之百地拥有本地公司。</div><br><br>有时候 as 前面既有否定词语也有肯定词语，此时要注意弄清楚 as 向前管到何处。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>While Iraq's president is optimistic about his country's future, Iran's president remains intransigent in his refusal to halt nuclear-related activities as demanded by the United States as a precondition for talks. (Newsweek, Oct. 2, 2006, p. 31)伊拉克的总统对本国的前途表示乐观，而伊朗的总统则仍然坚持拒绝按照美国提出的谈判先决条件停止与核有关的活动。(这里的 as demanded 向前只管到 to halt，不能继续往前管到 refusal；如果管到 refusal，意义就相反，变成“美国要求伊朗拒绝停止核活动”，这是荒谬的。)/ The White House is betting that the steps it has taken to address the housing and financial crises will be enough to avert a recession without resorting to a major tax cut or new spending, as leading economists in both parties have urged. (The Washington Post, Dec. 21, 2007)白宫正在估计，它为了对付房贷与金融危机而采取的措施将足以避免衰退，而不必照两党的高级经济学家们所敦促的那样实行大幅度减税或新增支出。(as 管 resorting，不管 avert a recession)</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> as 如果引入表示“正当……之时”的时间状语从句，此时从句中的谓语动词即使用一般现在时或一般过去时，不用进行式，也仍然表示无限延续的动作，不是表示瞬时完成的动作。用第二类动词(“活动动词”)时，固然表示正在过程中，没有终点可言。使用第三类动词(“趋成动词”)时，本来通常用一般过去时，这类动词表示动作已经到达了终点，但是在 as 引入的时间状语从句中却是例外，所表示的动作仍在进行过程中。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Even as the ink on the treaty dried, a final struggle was taking shape over the vast lands of the West. (Jack C. Estrin, American History Made Simple)条约墨汁未干，争夺西部大片土地的最后一场战斗就已经开场了。(注意：这里的 dried 不是“干了”，而是“正在逐渐干但未全干”，as 表明了过程在进行中，否定了过程的结束。)/ The clack of high heels can be heard as she crosses the yard. 她穿过院子时，可以听到高跟鞋的咯噔声。/ On sidewalks a tide of hurrying inbound office workers swirled around Sam and Celia as they strolled. 萨姆和西莉亚在人行道上漫步时，被潮水般的一大堆往里走的白领团团围在中间。/ AntoineGhanem ... died when a bomb in a parked car went off as he drove by in a Christian suburb of the capital. (The New York Times, Sept. 20, 2007, A1)安托万·加涅姆正在驱车经过首都一个基督教郊区时，一辆停着的汽车里炸弹爆炸，他因而丧生。/ They had encountered each other in a corridor where others were passing as they talked. 他们是在一条走廊上碰面的，交谈时别人就从他们身边走过。/ As FDA's examination proceeded, scientists from the pharmaceutical companies would be called in, perhaps to explain some of the submitted material or to add even more. 当食品及药物管理局在审查时，医药公司的一些科学家往往被喊去，也许是要对原先提供的材料做出说明，或者再补充更多的材料。</div><br><br>因此，as 引入的时间状语从句(谓语动词用一般现在时或一般过去时)，往往相当于中文的“随着”(这是一个很简单的用法，不必麻烦去找复杂的英语说法来翻译“随着”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>As time went on, the prediction of Dr. Gould seemed increasingly and sadly to be true. 随着时间的推移，古尔德博士的不祥预言就越来越显得“不幸但正确”。/ As the world warms, the United States will face more severe thunderstorms with deadly lightning, damaging hail and the potential for tornadoes. (The Associated Press, Aug. 30, 2007)随着地球变暖，美国将遇到更多的大雷雨，带有致命的闪电、破坏性的冰雹以及潜在的龙卷风。/ As his computer expertise grew, he began making Internet connection all over the world. 随着他的电脑技能日益提高，他就开始通过互联网连上了全世界。/ Therefore, as months went by with no decision made, his frustration grew. 因此，随着时间一个月一个月过去，事情却悬而未决，他就越来越心焦如焚。/ Resources produced in the United States play a leading role in meeting our domestic energy needs. They will continue to do so as our economy grows and Americans' demand for energy increases. (ExxonMobil ad, The New York Times, OP-ED, Nov. 29, 2007, A31)美国国内生产的资源，对于满足我们国内的能源需求，起着主导作用。今后，随着我国经济的发展，随着美国人对能源需求的增加，国内生产的资源将继续起着主导作用。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 从上述内容可见，as 作主从连词引入时间状语从句时，它对从句中谓语动词的“体”可以起“延续化”的影响，不但可以使第二类动词(延续性的“活动动词”)免用进行时，也可以使第三类动词(延续但有必然终点的“趋成动词”)转化为第二类而免用进行时，甚至可以使第四类动词(瞬时性的“达成动词”)“延续化”(把短促的行动用“慢镜头”显示)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>As I left the house I remembered the key. 我正要出门时，就想起了钥匙。(门还没有锁上，还来得及回去拿)相当于：While I was leaving the house I remembered the key. 本来 leave 是个瞬时的短促动作，但是在这里被 as 这个“慢镜头”拖长了。反之，如果说 When I left the house I remembered the key. 意思就变为“我刚出门，就想起了钥匙(但为时已晚)”。不过，while 后面之所以要说 was leaving，而不能像 as 后面那样说 left，是因为动词 leave 是瞬时性的“达成动词”(第四类)，如果动词是延续性的“活动动词”(第二类)，while 从句中不一定非用进行时不可，而是也可以同 as 从句一样用一般时。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She cooked dinner while the kids watched (were watching) TV. 孩子们看电视时，她做晚饭。或者如果主句动词是延续的，while 从句动词即使是瞬时的也可以变成“慢镜头”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We waited a few minutes outside his office while he finished up his meeting. 我们在他办公室外面等了几分钟，让他把会开完。</div><br><br>又例如：They sat down and watched as the commercial ended. 他们坐下来，一直看到广告播完。这里的 end 本来明明是个瞬时体的第四类动词，但是在 as 的影响下，被拖长了，带有“一直进行着直到结束”的意思，此时这个 as 也可以用 while 来代替。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> as 后面如果引入表示“就像……那样，照……那样”的方式状语从句，这个从句的标准结构，就是句子成分不完全，或是缺主语，或是缺宾语，或是缺表语，或是缺宾语补足语(也有学者认为在这里 as 兼管代替了所缺的成分，尤其是主语)。正是这个短缺，使得从句同主句的关系拉得更紧。下面分述各个句子成分缺位的情况：(a) 缺主语的(也可以说是 as 兼管代替了主语)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Eli Camperdown, as befitted the president and CEO, sat front and center. 埃利·坎普尔顿作为董事长兼首席执行官，理所当然地坐在前排正中。(as 后面缺主语 it)</div><div class="ex-item">It is unlikely that the Attorney General would go to Florida, as was earlier thought. 司法部长不大可能像前些时候预料的那样前往佛罗里达。(as 后面缺主语 it)</div><div class="ex-item">When, as happens all too often, there is a fire, or the city council demolishes illegal constructions, ... 每当发生屡见不鲜的事件例如火灾或是市政府拆除违章建筑之时，……(as 后面缺主语 it 或 so)</div>(b) 缺直接宾语的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... as The Times confirmed in its study of rampage killings, ... (The New York Times, Apr. 22, 2000)……据《泰晤士报》在其有关狂暴杀人行为的研究材料中证实……(confirmed 后面缺宾语 it)</div><div class="ex-item">As I said a moment ago, we each want to write a bestseller. 我刚才说过，咱们每个人都想写一本畅销书。(said 后面缺宾语 it 或 so)</div>注意：常常可以用 such ... as ... 的结构，such 后面(也可以前面)是个名词，as 则代替关系代词 that (在从句中充当主语或直接宾语)，在意思上与 those ... that ... 相近，但是 those ... that ... 是从外延角度规定该事物外部界限，而 such ... as ... (或 ... such as ...) 则是从内涵角度对该事物的内在性质加以说明。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>And in them (= her eyes) was a look of adoration such as few men in their lifetimes ever see. 她的目光中流露出一种许多男人一辈子都很少见到的仰慕神情。(参见 such 条之(3))</div>(c) 缺表语的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>as things stand, ... 从现在的情况看来，……</div><div class="ex-item">as has been the case in previous crises 正如在以前历次危机中的情况那样</div><div class="ex-item">Leave things as they are. 事情就原样别动了。/ The present owner is a keen art collector, as were several of his ancestors. 现在的所有者，同他前面的几位一样，是个热心的艺术收藏家。/ As it is we can do nothing. 既然如此，也就无能为力了。</div>(d) 缺宾语补足语的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The old lady was exactly as Arthur had described her. 老太太就是阿瑟原先描述的那个样子。/ In Susan's eyes, David was as close to perfect as she could imagine. 在苏珊心目中，戴维同她心目中十全十美的样子已经相差无几了。 (e) 缺实义动词的。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I like the freedom to organize my day as I want to. 我喜欢自由，一天想怎样安排就怎样安排。/ Napalm should be banned, as should the development, production, and stockpiling of all chemical weapons. 凝固汽油弹，如同所有化学武器的开发、制造和储存，都应该禁止。/ I found she was staying in the same small hotel as I was. 我发现她住的小旅馆就是我住的那一家。/ I love her as I would my own daughter. 我爱她如同爱自己的亲生女儿。/ The new president would not intervene in overseas crises as readily as has his predecessor. 新任总统对海外危机也许不会像他的前任那样爽快地干预。/ Klemperer's conducting of the third movement shows the extreme strength of his interpretation, as does his earlier recording of the Mass in C. 克伦佩勒对第三乐章的指挥，显示了他极强的表现力，就正如他先前录下的《C 大调弥撒曲》所显示的那样。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 也有 as 从句完整，不缺少任何成分的，这种情况往往出现在两件没有相同成分但可以作比喻的事情上。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They hunted him as a tiger stalks his prey.</div><div class="ex-item">As a tiger stalks his prey, so they hunted him. 他们像老虎追逐猎物般追捕他。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 有时候乍看之下 as 从句完整，但其实省略了一个状语(状语不是句子的必要成分，所以缺了一下子看不出来)。苏联 1978 年出过一本用英语写成的俄语课本，书名是 Russian As We Speak It。乍看之下，as 从句中，主语、谓语、宾语都齐全，但是其实在意义上缺了状语 how (结构上 how 也放不进去)，这就不是两件事情相比喻了。<br><br>这种句子的主句往往以 so 开头，而且主语谓语颠倒。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>As he sat then, so had he sat for a whole day and a whole night. (E. Phillips Oppenheim, The Yellow Crayon)他这个样子坐着，已经坐了整整一天一夜了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> as 后面不是从句，而是一个过去分词。过去分词作后置定语时，没有 as 与有 as 的区别在于：没有 as，这个过去分词是表示对前面的名词有长远的、固定的修饰作用；而有 as，则表示这个修饰作用只在当前这个具体场合有效。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>their position, as opposed to ours 他们的立场同我们的对照(当前说话时拿来相对照，不是一直都是对立的。)</div><div class="ex-item">Paris as seen by tourists is a very different city. 如果用观光客的眼光来看巴黎，那就是另一个大不一样的城市了。(当前说话时临时提到观光客，巴黎并不是一直被这样看的。)</div><div class="ex-item">This report only discusses unemployment as measured by statistics but not as experienced by actual people. 这个报告仅仅从统计数字的测定而不是从人们实际的感受来谈论失业问题。(当前说话时谈到失业问题在眼前这个报告中如何测定，并非这个问题向来都是这样来测定的。)</div><div class="ex-item">Tests for safety and efficacy, as required by law, could begin in the United States. 按照法律要求对药物进行安全与功效测试，可以在美国着手进行。(进行测试，当前的着眼点就是满足法律的要求，尽管法律要求是一贯的、普遍的。)</div><div class="ex-item">The gap between the written word, as acquired from grammar-books, and the living speech as spoken by a native, is not necessarily a wide one. 从语法书学来的书面文字，同本国人所讲的活语言，彼此之间的差距，不一定很大。</div><br><br>这个 as + pp. 词组，有时候不一定要放在一个名词后面作定语，它也可以作状语，表示“按照……；每当……之时”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Reseal as required. 请按需要重新封紧。/ They can help as needed. 必要时他们可以帮忙。/ Take two aspirins as needed. 必要时服用两片阿司匹林。如果修饰的事件已经发生，as + pp. 则可以是“照原来说的办了事”的意思。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He went as agreed. 他如约去了。/ They came as promised. 他们履行诺言前来了。as + pp. 也可以作为对全句内容的一个概括说明。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A bolt of lightning strikes, as seen from Bogart Road in Huron Township, Ohio, Wednesday, June 21, 2006, the first day of summer. 夏季的第一天，2006 年 6 月 21 日星期三从俄亥俄州休伦镇波格特路看到的一道闪电。(照片说明)</div><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> as with 后面可以接一个与主语语义同格的名词成分，表示这个成分所代表的事物与主语所代表的事物有相同的遭遇。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>As with many other adventurous foreigners later, he was forbidden to leave. 正如日后的许多外国冒险家所遭遇的那样，他当时也被禁止离开。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(9)</span> as 在一些特殊的结构中，可以表示“虽然”。具体如下：(a) “名词或形容词 + as + 主语 + 谓语”，这样的结构，可以充当一个让步状语从句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Child as he was, he was brave. 他尽管是个孩子，但却很勇敢。(注意 child 在句首不能有冠词，意义相当的 although he was a child 则有冠词。)</div><div class="ex-item">Late as it was, we started. 虽然晚了，我们还是出发了。/ Powerful as the president is, he cannot stop his country's disintegration. 尽管总统权力很大，他也阻止不了他这个国家的解体。</div><br><br>要注意：上述结构中，末尾的谓语(往往是 be 的变位形式)出现不出现，会产生不同的意义和用法。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Busy as any working mother was, she found time to attend every PTA meeting. 她尽管像任何一个上班的母亲一样忙碌，但总是抽时间参加每一次家长会。(有了 was，主从句的意义方向就彼此相反。)</div><div class="ex-item">Busy as any working mother, she could not find time to attend every PTA meeting. 她像任何一个上班的母亲一样忙碌，因此就抽不出时间参加每一次家长会。(没有 was，主从句的意义方向就彼此一致，成了因果关系。)</div>此外，即使末尾的谓语 be 的变位形式出现，如果句首的形容词(表语)前面还有一个 as，则从句就不是让步状语从句，而是表示同一方向背景的从句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>As confused as I am, it's hard to make a decision. (Robin Cook, Crisis)我现在心乱如麻，很难定夺。</div>(b) 与此类似，另外还有“inf. + as + 主语 + 谓语助动词”的结构，也是用来表示“虽然，尽管”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Try as she would, she could never remember a word of what he said. 她无论怎样回忆，他说过什么话她还是一个字也想不起来。/ Try as they might, they couldn't persuade her. 他们用尽了办法，都没有能够说服她。</div>(c) 还有“as + adj. + as + 主语 + be”，也可以表示“虽然，尽管”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>As Ronald Reagan's vice president, he (George H. W. Bush) hewed to the CIA view of Saddam, which was that, as sadistic as he was, he had his uses as a counterweight to fundamentalist Iran. (Newsweek, Jan. 8, 2007, p. 27)老布什担任里根的副总统时，他与中央情报局对萨达姆持相同的看法，也就是认为他暴虐是暴虐，但是作为一支同原教旨主义的伊朗相抗衡的力量，他还是有其用途的。</div>(d) 如果 as 后面接一个“主语 + 谓语”结构，而且前面有一个副词，这也形成“虽然”的含义。最前面的副词也可以不是形容词而是副词，此时后面的主谓结构中的谓语就可以不限于连词，而可以是任何动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Little as she cared about art, the gallery was her creation. 她尽管对艺术并不那么在意，但这个画廊仍然是她创办的。</div><br><br>这个最前面的副词，最常用的是 much。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Much as he hated doing it, Price contacted his ex-wife Ginee ... (J. Collins, Dangerous Kiss)普莱斯尽管很讨厌这样做，但还是联系了前妻吉妮……</div><div class="ex-item">Much as I like it, I will not buy it. 我尽管喜欢这个，但我不会买的。</div><br><br>这个 much 前面再重复加上一个 as，形成“as much as + 主谓”结构。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>And, as much as she loved her husband, Lucky knew that being a homebody was not for her. (J. Collins, Dangerous Kiss)拉吉尽管很爱她丈夫，但她懂得固守家园是不适合她这个人的。参见 as much as 条之(3)。</div>
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as¹
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>as¹</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 可以指主语，依动词词义的不同，可以有不同的意义。(a) 可以指没有变化的固定身份(动词通常不涉及整体的变化)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Over the summer she worked as a waitress. 整个夏天她都干服务员的工作。/ As a child, she adored dancing. 她童年时喜欢跳舞。</div>(b) 可以指一时的身份或性质(动词通常不涉及整体的变化)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They met almost as strangers. 他们会面时几乎是陌生人。/ The sudden change came as a shock to him. 突如其来的变化，对他是个打击。(主语说了变化，动词 came 不是变化。)/ I want to speak to you as a friend and not as a lawyer. 我想以朋友的身份而不是律师的身份同你说话。</div>(c) 可以指当前新得到的身份(动词通常涉及主语整体的正面变化或获得的情况)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>be sworn in as president 宣誓就任总统之职</div><div class="ex-item">He strikes me as a fool. 我觉得他简直是个傻瓜。</div>(d) 可以指当前失去的身份(动词通常涉及主语整体的负面变化或失去的情况)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>step down as president 下台(不再当总统)</div><div class="ex-item">She resigned immediately as the club's chairman. 她立刻辞去了俱乐部主席之职。</div><br><br>但是在个别场合，虽然动词涉及负面的变化，as 却不表示失去的身份或性质，而是表示经过这负面变化后新取得的身份或性质。例如一本虚构小说中说以色列情报部门在 1967 年收到一份关于核攻击的预报，但不予重视，接着埃及发动进攻，以色列就把这份预报理解为有关埃及进攻的预报，而把核进攻的预报置诸脑后：Two days later, the Six-Day War broke out and the note was dismissed as a warning of the Egyptian attack, ... 两天之后，六日战争爆发，于是这个预告就被否定，而被当作是有关埃及进攻的预告，……(e) 可以指当前加强或减弱的身份或情状(动词有加强或减弱的含义)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>With Casualties Down, the War Retreats as a Political Issue (U.S. News & World Report, Dec. 24, 2007, p. 40, Headline)(新闻标题)随着伤亡人数减少，战争作为政治问题的地位后退。</div>(f) 如果 as 后的身份同句子所说的内容有矛盾，则意思是“不够格”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>When I was hired, old George was dubious, and with reason, because as a salesman I was tongue-tied. (Bill Gerry, The Yale Review, Winter 1948)我受雇用时，老乔治有点放心，那也是有道理的，因为我这个笨嘴拙舌的人，本来不适合当推销员。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 可以指主语以外的其他名词或代词成分，特别是宾语。可以指固定身份，也可以指一时的、新得到的或失去的身份或性质。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We regard the whole thing as a joke. 我们把这件事全看成玩笑。/ He uses his umbrella as a walking stick. 他拿他的雨伞当拐棍使。/ They promised to back him as the leader. 他们答应支持他当领袖。/ The board of directors fired him as the chief engineer. 董事会解除了他的总工程师职务。/ The alibi eliminated him as a suspect. 由于有不在场证明，他就被解除了怀疑。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 甚至可以指 of 后的名词或形容词性代词所指代的人称。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>his duty as a father 他作为父亲的责任</div><div class="ex-item">my honor as a soldier 我的军人荣誉</div><div class="ex-item">his life as a composer 他的作曲家生涯</div><div class="ex-item">test of English as a second language 第二语言英语测验</div><div class="ex-item">Her father's income as a computer programmer ... (The New York Times, Sept. 30, 2007)她父亲做电脑程序设计师的收入……</div><div class="ex-item">As British ambassador in that period, his advice to London heavily favoured the opposition. 作为那个时期的英国大使，他向伦敦提出的主张明显地偏向在野一方。/ As a doctor, my duty is to preserve life. 作为医生，我的义务就是维护生命。/ If I glance back over my long career as a doctor, I recall ... (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman)如果回顾一下我多年的行医生涯，我可以回想起……</div><div class="ex-item">Do your duties as a priest extend beyond the church? 你作为牧师的职责是否超出教会之外？/ As the Leon County supervisor of elections, Jon Sancho's job is to make sure voting is free of fraud. (The Washington Post, Jan. 22, 2006, A6)作为莱昂县的选举督察员，乔恩·桑乔的任务是保证选举不出现舞弊现象。/ Such ideas were drummed into his head as a battalion commander. 这些想法都塞进了他这个营长的脑中。/ Gold has always been at the heart of Mexico—from the ancient Aztec and Inca civilizations to European conquests started by Cortés to its modern day struggles as a nation. 黄金向来是墨西哥的核心——从古代的阿兹特克和印加文明，到科尔特斯所开始的欧洲人征服时期，到现代它作为一个国家艰苦奋斗的时代。/ His inexperience as a commander was revealed most pathetically at the Casablanca conference, ... (U.S. News & World Report, Oct. 28, 2002, p. 46)他缺乏作战指挥经验这一点，在卡萨布兰卡会议上暴露得最为狼狈，……</div><div class="ex-item">South Africa spends nearly 1 percent of its gross domestic product on science—about five times the African average. Reflecting its needs as a developing country, much of that goes toward research in agriculture, health and biotechnology. (The Washington Post, Apr. 24, 2006, A06)南非的国内生产总值将近有百分之一用于科学，大约是非洲平均数的五倍。其中很大一部分用于农业、卫生和生物科技的研究，这正反映出南非作为一个发展中国家的需要。</div><br><br>有时候甚至 his、her、their 之类的形容词性物主代词不出现，也可以用 as。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But a quarter century's habits as a staff officer, with a staff officer's meticulous attention to detail and instinctive concern for pleasing his superiors, did not slough away easily. (U.S. News & World Report, Oct. 28, 2002, p. 46)但是，他担任参谋人员 20 多年养成了习惯，作为参谋人员，总是事无巨细均在关心之列，而且还养成了博取上级欢心的本能，凡此种种习惯，是不会轻易丢掉的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 可以指主语的行动，作为对它的补充说明或评价。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He builds houses as a hobby. 他以盖房子来作为业余消遣。/ He undermined the regime as the unintended consequence of his efforts to reform it. 他设法改革这项制度，但没想到却破坏了它。/ Court deputies, as a general rule, are uniformed and armed. 法警照例通常是穿着制服并且携带武器的。/ David Ridgen had been assigned by CBC Television to do a new documentary on the "Mississippi Burning" case. As part of his research, hehad watched a 1964 CBC piece on the murders. (The Washington Post, Jan. 25, 2007)大卫·里真是由 CBC 电视台指派拍摄有关“密西西比烧杀案”的纪录片的。作为他的调研工作的一部分，他看过 CBC 1964 年一部有关这些谋杀案的片子。/ ... as a step towards conversing with her himself, (Darcy) attended to her conversation with others. (Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice)……他想要慢慢地跟她攀谈攀谈，因此她跟别人谈话的时候，他就留神去听。/ She was not standing at her window as part of her mysterious vigil for Satan's sails; but as a preliminary to jumping from it. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman)她站在窗前并非是在等候撒旦的帆船，而是准备从窗口跳下，了此残生。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 对整个事件做补充说明或评价。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Gas prices fell as a result of Congressional attention to the problem. 由于国会重视这个问题，汽油价格下降了。/ All schools were closed as a precaution. 作为预防，所有学校都关闭了。</div>
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as 与 like
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>as 与 like</b></div>参见 like 与 as 条。
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at
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>at</b></div>“对……做出回应”常常英文用介词 at。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>at</b> his suggestion 根据他的建议</div><div class="ex-item"><b>at</b> my request 应我的请求</div><div class="ex-item"><b>at</b> her signal 回应她所发出的信号</div><div class="ex-item"><b>at</b> the ringing of the bell 应铃声一响</div><div class="ex-item"><b>at</b> the call of the mayor 应市长的号召</div><div class="ex-item"><b>at</b> the advice of the doctor 遵照医嘱</div><div class="ex-item"><b>At</b> the initiative of Belarus, the U.N. General Assembly adopted on October 19, 2006 a resolution on fighting trafficking in persons. 在白俄罗斯的倡议下，联合国大会在2006年10月19日通过了一项打击人口贩卖的决议。/ <b>At</b> her insistence, the matter was dropped. 在她的坚持下，该事项撤销了。/ Why did Darwin act so strangely? Why did he hightail it away from the dinner table <b>at</b> the mere mention of that famous phrase "survival of the fittest"? (John Darnton, The Darwin Conspiracy) 为什么达尔文的行动如此离奇? 为什么他仅仅一听到人家提到“适者生存”这句名言就马上离开餐桌?</div>但是 advice 和 recommendation 前面也可以用 on 而不用 at (用 on 似乎比较庄重正式)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>on</b> the doctor's advice 遵照医嘱</div><div class="ex-item">Our friends ordered scallops <b>at</b> the recommendation of the waitress. 我们的朋友们按照女服务员的推荐，点了扇贝。/ <b>on</b> the recommendation of the European Commission 按照欧洲委员会的推荐。</div><br><br>at the opposition of somebody 可以有两个相反的意思。一个意思是“对某人的反对让步、顺从”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The prince wanted to go to the hills and take up defense position there, but <b>at the opposition of</b> his generals he changed his mind. 王子本来想转移到山上去布防，但是经不起将领们的反对，改变了主意。另一个意思是“不顾某人的反对”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The black professor moved his family into a predominately white community <b>at the opposition of</b> the white neighbors. 黑人教授不顾白人邻居们的反对，把家搬进了一处以白人为主的社区。</div><br><br>
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at all
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>at all</b></div>这个词组的意义和用法不大容易掌握：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 一般词典的解释是加强否定、疑问或准否定的语气，这个意义比较容易掌握。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They don't like him <b>at all</b>. 他们一点也不喜欢他。/ Come late? He didn't come <b>at all</b>. 来晚了? 他根本就没来。/ Do you know him <b>at all</b>? 你到底认不认识他?</div><div class="ex-item">Has he tried to contact you <b>at all</b>? 他到底有没有同你联系过?</div><div class="ex-item">It (prostate cancer) is a cancer that doctors debate on not just how to treat but whether they should treat it <b>at all</b>. 前列腺癌是一种医生们不但争论如何治疗而且还争论根本该不该治疗的癌症。/ He couldn't help wondering how anybody ever walked out of there with any money left in their pocket <b>at all</b>. 他不得不琢磨怎会有人能够离开时兜里还有钱剩下来。</div><br><br>值得注意的是：有时候否定在前面，后面形式上是肯定句，其实也被前面的否定所支配，此时后面如果有 at all，它也对后面部分起加强否定的作用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>All that McCreedy had been able to tell him was that Mr. Austin Pierson was a paragon of virtue—<b>not</b> a breed with whom Townsend had a lot in common, or was <b>at all</b> certain he knew how to handle. (Jeffrey Archer, The Fourth Estate) 麦克里迪所能够告诉他的，只不过是：奥斯汀·皮尔逊先生是个道德楷模，不是同汤森大同小异的那类人，汤森也根本没有把握懂得如何驾驭他。（前面 not 的否定作用透过 or 延长到 was certain。）</div>另外，如果出现一个带有否定意义的动词，前面又有一个否定词，则 at all 是加强否定词，而不是加强那个动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>And yet the pain has <b>not</b> faded <b>at all</b>. (The Daily Gazette, Sept. 12, 2009, A1) 但是疼痛根本没有消退。</div><br><br>if 从句也有怀疑不定的意义，所以里面的 at all 可以加重“即使，万一”的不肯定语气。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They'll come late, <b>if</b> they come <b>at all</b>. 他们就是来也会来晚的。/ seldom <b>if at all</b> 即使有也很罕见</div><div class="ex-item"><b>If</b> you do it <b>at all</b>, do it well. 不做则已，一做就好好做。/ Medical care was not free for them, <b>if</b> they could get it <b>at all</b>. 他们即使得到医疗照顾，也不是免费的。/ I can see only with great difficulty, <b>if at all</b>. 我即使看得见，也十分吃力。</div><br><br>whether 从句表示怀疑不定时，at all 也可以加重这种犹豫不定的语气。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He had been of two minds about <b>whether</b> to accept the lunch invitation <b>at all</b>. (Frederick Forsyth, Icon) 是否接受午餐邀请，他本来就打不定主意。</div><br><br>如果主句有表示惊讶的意思，从句 (引起惊讶的事实) 也可以用 at all 来加重“竟然”的语气。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It would surprise me <b>if</b> he had seen that guy <b>at all</b>. 如果他 (竟然) 见过那个人，我会很惊讶。/ It was truly a miracle that he survived <b>at all</b>. 他竟然活了下来，的确是个奇迹。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 但是在肯定句中，at all 的意义就比较微妙。大体上，有“究竟，到底，总算，终于”甚至认为不大可能或不应该发生的事竟然发生的“竟然，即使”或“万一”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How this pair of vases managed to survive <b>at all</b> is still another mystery. 这一对花瓶究竟是如何保存下来的，这又是一个谜。/ My original question, why he did it <b>at all</b>, has not been answered. 我原先的问题，即他到底为什么这样做，还没有得到答案。/ Patroni himself had remembered several times, with concern, his reason for being out <b>at all</b> tonight, ... (Arthur Hailey, Airport) 帕特罗尼已经好几次忧心忡忡地记起他自己今天晚上到底是因为什么出来的，……</div><div class="ex-item">With the grazing wound the bullet had caused to his head, it was a wonder he had regained consciousness <b>at all</b>, but he had. 子弹擦伤了他的头部，他却竟然能够恢复知觉，简直是个奇迹，但他的确恢复了。/ When I was finally ready to begin training again, I came down with an ear infection and a cold and could not regain my status as the number one runner. However, I was happy enough to be helping my team and to still be running <b>at all</b>. 我终于准备好重新训练时，耳部却被感染，得了感冒，无法重新获得第一名跑手的地位。但是，我还是很高兴能够协助我的团队，而且总算还可以跑。/ They scoffed that he should be charged <b>at all</b>. 对于他竟然被指控一事，他们采取嘲笑态度。/ That such an assessment should be made <b>at all</b> was in itself paradoxical. 竟然做出了这样一个评估，这件事本身就很奇怪。/ The faculty for myth is innate in the human race. It seizes with avidity upon any incidents, surprising or mysterious, in the career of those who have <b>at all</b> distinguished themselves from their fellows, and invents a legend to which it then attaches a fanatical belief. (Somerset Maugham, The Moon and Sixpence) 制造神话是人类的天性。对那些毕竟与众不同的人物，如果他们生活中有什么令人感到诡异或者迷惑不解的事件，人们就会如饥似渴地抓住不放，编造出种种神话，而且深信不疑，近乎狂热。/ The giving of the address <b>at all</b> was a risk but a calculated one. (Frederick Forsyth, Icon) 竟然亮出了地址，这是冒险的一着，但却是经过深思熟虑的一着。/ They were the happiest days of my life. And yet as I recalled them, I felt not simply an ache of regret that they were forever gone but a great joy that they had happened <b>at all</b>. (John Darnton, The Darwin Conspiracy) 那是我一生最幸福的日子。我回想这些日子时，并不单单是痛惜它们已经一去不复返，而是因为还好有过这样的日子而非常高兴。</div><br><br>对已有的事实表示惊讶，也多少包含了疑问甚至接近否定的语气，所以尽管句子是肯定句，也可以用 at all。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's a miracle that the landing has been carried out <b>at all</b>. 登陆竟然真的执行了，这简直是个奇迹。</div><br><br>与 any 连用时，at all 突出了“任何”这个意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'll do <b>any</b> job <b>at all</b>—even road-sweeping. 我什么活都干，哪怕是扫大街。</div><br><br>与 only 和 any 连用时，at all 有“总算是”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Of the twenty projectsunder construction, <b>only</b> seven had been completed and were producing <b>anything at all</b>. 20个建设项目中，只有7个已经完工，而且总算是生产出点东西来了。</div><br><br>在连续列举几件负面的事情的最后，来一个总概括，表示“说到底，囊括一切”，也可以用 at all。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>However, Ernestina did her best to be angry with her (= Aunt Tranter); on the impossibility of having dinner at five; on the subject of the funereal furniture that choked the other rooms; on the subject of her aunt's oversolicitude for her fair name...; and above all on the subject of Ernestina's being in Lyme <b>at all</b>. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 谁知，欧内斯蒂娜却偏偏跟姨妈处处作对。她对5点钟不能准时开晚饭感到不满；对塞在其他房间里的那些单调的家具不满；对姨妈过分关心她的名声不满……欧内斯蒂娜感到最不满的是，她觉得自己本来就不应该到莱姆镇来。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 值得注意的是：有时候主句是否定的，而对这个否定起加强作用的 at all 却不在主句而在从句 (肯定句) 中，此时 at all 其实不属于从句而属于主句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... and in other cases the officials were <b>un</b>aware that the account had been opened <b>at all</b> (= were unaware at all that the account had been opened). (The Daily Gazette, May 15, 2010, B1) ……在其他情况中，官员们根本就不知道开了账户。</div><br><br>
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at issue
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>at issue</b></div>参见 issue 条之(3)。<br><br>
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atmosphere
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>atmosphere</b></div>作为可数名词，表示“周围的一层气体”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They study the composition of Jupiter's <b>atmosphere</b>. 他们研究木星大气层的成分。但是，这个名词的复数形式，除了在天文学与气象学中，其他地方很少见到使用。</div><br><br>单数形式通常前面加定冠词 the 表示地球的大气层，用法相当于一个专有名词 (尽管有 the 而且小写)，试比较下句中的 atmosphere 与 space (用法都相当于专有名词) 在冠词上的不同：The rocket soared out <b>the atmosphere</b> into <b>space</b>. 火箭冲出大气层，进入了太空。<br><br>
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at no time
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>at no time</b></div>是个状语词组，相当于 never，否定全句(at no time 在句首时主语要倒倒)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>At no time</b> did they reveal what they wanted. (James D. McCawley, The Syntactic Phenomena of English) 他们从不透露自己想要什么。<b>in no time</b> 也是状语词组，却相当于 immediately，主语不颠倒。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>In no time</b>, we were approaching Toledo. (ibid.) 我们一下子就到了托莱多附近。</div><br><br>
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(at) once
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(at) once</b></div>这个状语词组有几个不同的意义和用法：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> “立刻，马上”，修饰过去、现在和将来的一瞬时动作。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Come here at once. 你马上过来。/ The audience at once greeted him warmly. 观众立刻热烈欢迎他。/ He started at once to compose a reply to Anna. 他立刻写信回复安娜。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> “在同一时间内”，修饰过去、现在或将来的多个同时实行的瞬间动作。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You can't be doing two things at once. 两件事不能同时做。/ No bank could everpay off its creditors if they all demanded their money at once. 任何银行，如果债权人全都同时来索债，都是无法支付的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 表示“同时”具有多个延续的状态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The book is at once funny and instructive. 这本书既有趣又有教育意义。/ From childhood, he was evidently at once rebellious and precocious. 他从小就显得既顽皮又早熟。</div><br><br>at once 前面可以加 all，也同样有上述三个意义。但是用于第一个意义(“立刻，马上”)时，all at once 多出现在句首。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>All at once there was someone knocking on the door. 突然有人敲门。/ All at once, his serious expression softened into a grin. 突然，他严肃的表情变得柔和起来。用于第二个和第三个意义(“几件事情同时发生”或“几个状态同时存在”)时，all at once 多出现在句末。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She wanted to laugh and weep all at once. 她同时又想笑又想哭。/ She is a teacher, housewife, and mother all at once. 她是老师，同时又是家庭主妇，又是母亲。</div><br><br>
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at one's peril
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>at one's peril</b></div>参见 peril 条。<br><br>
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(at) stake
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(at) stake</b></div>参见 issue 条之(3)。<br><br>
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attend 与 attend to
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>attend 与 attend to</b></div>两者在意义上和用法上都十分接近，都从“注意 (听讲或办事)”这个基本意义出发，可以是瞬时的动作，也可以是延续的动作，但是也有一些细微的差别。两者的共同点和差别如下：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 如果表示一次性的参加某一集会，通常用 attend，但有时候也说 attend to。 <div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>At night she <b>attended</b> a state banquet at Buckingham Palace. 她晚上参加了白金汉宫的一次国宴。/ He <b>attended to</b> a fancy dress ball. 他参加了一场绚丽的化装舞会。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 如果表示一次性的照料或医治，通常用 attend to，表示长期例行的照料或医治，就用 attend (不加 to)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A doctor who happened to be on the scene <b>attended to</b> (<i>attended) her. 当时恰巧在现场的一位医生对她进行了救治。/ Dr. Jones has <b>attended</b> (</i>attended to) our family these twenty years. 琼斯大夫20年来一直给我们一家人看病。/ Are you being <b>attended to</b> (*attended)? 您已经有人接待了吗? (店员问顾客的话)</div>但是一次性也有用 attend 而不用 attend to 的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I beg to inform you that I was yesterday called into a neighbor's in Vauxhall Walk to <b>attend</b> a young lady who had been suddenly taken ill. (Wilkie Collins, No Name) 谨向您报告，昨天我被叫去了沃霍尔区的一个住户家，去救治一位忽然病倒的年轻女士。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 表示“作为某一现象的共生迹象或必然后果” (此时主语不是人而是抽象事物)，要用 attend，不可以用 attend to。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Success often <b>attends</b> hard work. 努力常会成功。/ High fever <b>attends</b> malaria. 疟疾有高烧症状。但是可以用 attend upon。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Tidal waves <b>attend upon</b> (或 attend) earthquakes. 地震时会发生海啸。/ Many dangers <b>attend upon</b> (或 attend) the expedition. 这次远征，有许多危险。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 凡是表示“长期出席 (某机构) 参加听讲”，只能用及物动词 attend，不能用 attend to。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She <b>attended</b> (<i>attended to) a racially mixed school. 她曾在一所种族混合的学校就读。/ He <b>attended</b> (</i>attended to) Prof. Smith's lectures and took copious notes. 他听了史密斯教授的课，做了大量的笔记。/ She <b>attended</b> (*attended to) a Methodist church and taught a children's Sunday school class for many years. 她多年来都到一所卫理公会教堂做礼拜，而且一直教一个儿童主日学班。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 如果 attend 表示“对……给予注意”或“对……加以处理”，要用 attend to，不用 attend。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I've got some unfinished business to <b>attend to</b> (<i>attend). 我有未完成的工作要处理。/ The staff will helpfully <b>attend to</b> (</i>attend) your needs. 工作人员将会悉心照料您的需要。/ I must get this tooth <b>attended to</b> (<i>attended). 我这颗牙必须治一下。/ Will you <b>attend to</b> (</i>attend) the fire while we're out? 我们出去了，你能照看一下火炉吗?</div><div class="ex-item"><b>Attend to</b> (<i>Attend) your own business. 别多管闲事。/ Please <b>attend to</b> (</i>attend) what I say. 我说的话，请你好好听着。/ You won't succeed unless you <b>attend to</b> (*attend) your work. 你除非用心干活，否则不会成功。</div><br><br>
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attention
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>attention</b></div>按照需要，可以有多种搭配。其中：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> “引人注意 (自己)” (主语是被注意者)，但引谁注意则笼统不特指，此时可以说 get attention 或 attract attention，更加强调时是 be the center of attention。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> “引 (特定的) 人注意 (自己)”，此时对 attention 加上定语“谁的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>attract <b>his attention</b> 引他注意。但是 get 或 attract 都是指己方有意主动的行动或客观造成的结果，对方都是被动的。如果临时打扰一下对方，要说 Could I <b>have your attention</b>? 而不能说 *Could I attract/get your attention? 这是因为这里有对方的主动因素在内。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> “A 注意 B” (主语是注意者)，最常用的搭配是 A pay attention to B。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> “A 使 B 注意 C”，可以从两个不同的角度来搭配：(a) 把 B 摆在可动的位置，可以用 A draw B's attention to C。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Let me draw your attention to this problem. 请让我提醒您注意这个问题。(b) 把 B 摆在不动的位置 (对 B 更为尊重)，可以用 A bring/call C to B's attention。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I have often called to the reader's attention the kind of mistaken generalizations. 我曾经一再提醒读者注意这一类的错误概括。</div><br><br>
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attention 与 caution
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>attention 与 caution</b></div>一般的告示上，用 attention 的多半后面内容比较长，而且往往是好的消息。用 caution 的则多半后面内容是简短的，而且往往是提醒其注意危险，一望而知。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Attention students. Looking for a job with great hours? Come join our team! 学生们注意。你在找钟点合适的活儿干吗？来加入我们的队伍吧。/ Caution, Wet Floor. 注意，地面有水。</div><br><br>
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at the cost of
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>at the cost of</b></div>参见 cost 条之(3)。<br><br>
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at the expense of
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>at the expense of</b></div>参见 cost 条之(3)。<br><br>
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attitude
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>attitude</b></div>这个名词，由于作“态度”或“态势”解时本身意义空泛，需要有定语来补充说明，或是从内涵的角度来说明“什么样的态度”，或是从外延的角度来说明“谁采取的态度”或是“对谁或对什么样的态度”。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 从内涵角度的，可以前面加上形容词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a firm/friendly/aggressive/defiant/arrogant/condescending/scornful/hostile/complacent/tolerant/unyielding/positive/negative/passive/optimistic/pessimistic/defeatist/indifferent attitude。也可以后面加上 of + 抽象名词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>an attitude of arrogance 骄横的态度</div><div class="ex-item">an attitude of conciliation 和解的态度。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 从外延角度的，表示“谁采取的态度”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His attitude irritates me. 他的态度令我恼火。表示“谁对谁或对什么样的态度”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the blacks' attitude toward the whites 黑人对白人的态度</div><div class="ex-item">his attitude to his work 他对工作的态度。</div><br><br>如果既无内涵界定，又无外延界定，那就用在个别的词组中，表示具有某种特定内涵的“姿态”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>get an attitude 发怒，发脾气</div><div class="ex-item">cop an attitude 摆架子，自高自大 (中文这里的“态度”表面上也是没有内涵说明的。)</div><div class="ex-item">have an attitude 态度肃然</div><div class="ex-item">strike/pack an attitude 装腔作势，摆架子</div><div class="ex-item">Don't give me attitude! 别对我摆架子！</div><br><br>说某人是个 with an attitude 的人，这个 with an attitude 通常是正面的“有胆量的，有魄力的”。例如美国有一名专门帮助受害人打官司的妇女积极分子，为了防范犯罪分子报复伤害，买了手枪，练就了一手射击本领，以便自卫，她写的一篇自述，标题就是 Woman with an Attitude (敢作敢为的女性)。<br><br>with an attitude 还可以不用来修饰人，而是修饰事物，意思大致是“独特的，别有风味的”。一家以烤猪肉招徕客人的餐馆，广告就说：Pork with an Attitude (风味猪肉)。一家售卖飞禽羽毛的商店，广告是：Feathers with an Attitude (特色彩羽)。美国有一个叫 Patrick J. Finn 的人，写了一本书，这本书的书名就叫 Literacy with an Attitude: Educating Working-class Children in Their Own Self-interest (《实行有特色的基础文化教学：按照工人阶级子弟自己的需要来教育他们》)，书的封面上 “Attitude”一词用了特大号字体。<br><br>
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attitude 与 posture
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>attitude 与 posture</b></div>两者在中文中都是“态度”，但是 attitude 偏重内心的看法，posture 则是外露的，甚至可以是假装的。<br><br>
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attorney
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>attorney</b></div>最原始的意义，是“代理人”，所以法律上的“授权委任状”叫作 letter (warrant) of attorney。律师一般可以叫作 attorney-at-law，或简称 attorney。但是这个单词既可用于私人开业的律师，也可用于政府行政部门的司法官员，要看用什么定语来修饰。美国联邦与各州的司法部长，因为是在司法范围的政府授权代理人，所以叫作 Attorney General (复数为 Attorneys General 或 Attorney Generals)；另外全国有 90 多个 U.S. attorneys，是由总统任命派驻各个司法区的代表联邦政府的检察官。<br><br>顺便说一下，美国政府的各个部长，通称 secretary (英国政府的各个大臣也通称 secretary)，中文都译成“部长”。但是其中专管外交的 Secretary of State 由于历史上译成古色古香的“国务卿”，已经“木已成舟”，不好更改。反过来，英文离开通例的 Attorney General，不用 secretary 一词，中文却回到通例，译成“司法部长”。<br><br>
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at ..., we ...
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>at ..., we ...</b></div>许多公司刊登广告或启事，一开头提到本公司如何如何时，用公司名字作主语 (第三人称而不是第一人称) 听起来有点置身事外，不太合适；用“我们”作主语又不能放上公司名字；中文的“本公司”或“敝公司”在英文中又不易表达，而且还是放不上公司名称。所以通常就用“at + 公司名称，we 如何如何”这种表达法。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>At</b> T. Rowe Price, <b>we</b> believe ... 我们普信集团深信……</div><div class="ex-item"><b>At</b> Samsung, <b>we</b> realize that to succeed in business we must also succeed in life. 我们三星公司深知，要事业有成，就必须生活亦有成。/ <b>At</b> UBS, <b>we</b> dedicate our resources to solving the financial issues that really matter. (Newsweek, Apr. 24, 2006, back cover) 我们瑞银集团致力于解决真正重要的金融问题。/ <b>At</b> Toyota, <b>we</b> purchase more than $28 billion in U.S. parts, materials, goods, and services every year. (Newsweek, Nov. 20, 2006, p. 3) 我们丰田公司每年在美国采购280亿美元以上的部件、材料、货物和劳务。</div><br><br>at ..., we ... 这个用法，也用于 we 的宾格。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Max needs to liquidate these luxury watches so he came to <b>us at</b> NextTen. (Newsweek, Oct. 10, 2005, p. 56, ad) 马克斯需要把这批豪华手表脱手，所以他就来找我们 NextTen 公司了。</div><br><br>
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at 与 in
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>at 与 in</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 如果要表示在某一栋位于某城市或某街道的建筑物中，通常用 at 而不用 in。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She is <b>at</b> the market. 她在市场里。/ We're <b>at</b> our friend's house. 我们在我们朋友的房子里。/ I live <b>at</b> 2345 Maple Avenue. 我住在枫树大街2345号。</div><br><br>如果要进一步说明在某建筑物内的哪一个厅房，则建筑物仍然用 at，厅房用 in。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Mary is <b>at</b> school <b>in</b> her classroom. 玛丽在她学校的教室里。/ Mom is <b>at</b> home <b>in</b> the kitchen. 妈妈在家里里的厨房里。/ He works <b>at</b> the grocery store <b>in</b> the meat department. 他在副食店的肉类部工作。</div><br><br>如果要更进一步表明建筑物内某厅房里面的某一处地方，就要采取 at ... in ... at ... 的用法。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Mom is <b>at</b> home <b>in</b> the kitchen <b>at</b> the stove. 妈妈在家里厨房的炉子边。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> at the White House 与 in the White House 有时候有一点细微的差别。前者可能偏重这座建筑物的空间位置 (有时只是一时的地点所在)，后者则可能更多指其功能与象征意义 (可以暗示长时间担任的职务)。例如有一篇文章 (U.S. News & World Report, Sept. 9, 2002, p. 32)，开头时讲1991年美国总统老布什在白宫楼上开会：President George H. W. Bush convenes his inner circle upstairs <b>at</b> the White House. 后面又说到现在的总统是他的儿子小布什了：There's a different Bush <b>in</b> (<i>at) the White House, and Cheney is now second in command. 现在身居白宫的，是另一个布什了，而切尼成了第二把手了。/ And whether the individual who ends up <b>in</b> (</i>at) the White House fulfills that possibility, you know, depends on both skill and circumstance. (BarackObama) 至于最后入主白宫的人能否实现那个可能性，那就要看他的本领和机遇了。但是这个区别，有很大的主观成分，所以并不是绝对的。<br><br>专门述及一时的空间位置也往往可以用 in。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Channel 4 News has seen minutes from that meeting, which took place <b>in</b> the White House on 31 January 2003. 第四频道新闻节目已经看到了2003年1月31日在白宫进行的会谈的一些记录。</div><br><br>述及功能时 (但是通常是总统以外的人员) 也可以用 at。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The president's press secretary has chosen his words carefully in denying that anyone <b>at</b> the White House was involved with the leak. 总统的新闻秘书字斟句酌地否认白宫有任何人同泄密案有牵连。</div><br><br>
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audience
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>audience</b></div>这是个集合名词，可数。an audience 指一次场合聚集的许多人；audiences 指多个场合聚集的许多人。这样的场合，可以是演讲、音乐会、戏剧表演、电影放映、广播播送、电视播放，不拘泥于 audience 词源所指的“听众”，也可以指“观众”，甚至可以指同“听”或“观赏”无关的书籍、报章、杂志的读者。意义再放宽一些，甚至可以指某一主张的信奉者、支持者、同情者。关于其语法地位，参见 population 条。<br><br>也可以作为复数名词，但不用加 -s。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... and her "fit audience" during her lifetime must have been emphatically few. (Jane Austen, Sense and Sensibility) 她生前的读者，肯定是十分稀少的。</div><br><br>
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autograph
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>autograph</b></div>参见 signature 与 autograph 条。<br><br>
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available
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>available</b></div>这个形容词在英语中十分常用，它的词义在一般词典上已经有了说明。但是它的用法有点特别，同 possible 有点类似但又有所不同。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 它同 possible 一样可以放在名词之前或之后，如果放在后面，倾向于表示这是就当前而言的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the only available solution (the only solution available) 唯一可行的解决办法</div><div class="ex-item">You'll have to examine the available alternatives (the alternatives available). 你们要研究一下各种方案。/ one of the few options available 少数几个可供选择的方案之一</div><div class="ex-item">The 2004 records were the latest available. 2004 年的记录是现有最新的了。</div><br><br>如果同表示“有”或“存在”的动词连用，通常要放在名词后面。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There are currently five categories available. 目前有五类。/ There is almost no food available on the market. 市场上几乎没有食品出售。/ The basic principle is that when there is no oxygen available, yeast produces alcohol as a byproduct of sugar metabolism. 基本原理就是：当没有氧气时，酵母就会产生糖代谢的副产品酒精。 (2) 它同 possible 一样可以同形容词最高级放在一起，表示最高级的范围。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the best available quality</div><div class="ex-item">best quality available 现有最好的质量</div><div class="ex-item">the most powerful available gasoline engine 现有的动力最大的汽油引擎</div><div class="ex-item">the most recent official figures available 当前最新的官方数字</div><div class="ex-item">Book me on the earliest available flight. 给我订最早的一班飞机。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 但是，与 possible 不同，available 不能用来限定副词含义的范围。例如我们可以说 as early as possible，但不能说 *as early as available。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> available 的词义比较灵活，大体上表示“可以满足他人在某一场合的例行需要”。例如打电话找某人，找得到就是 available；要拜访某经理，秘书说他忙或者外出了，就是 not available；市场上某种货物脱销，也是 not available。<br><br>make oneself available 是婉转的说法，相当于“赶到现场”。make something available 是常用的说法，多用被动语态，表示“发表，公布”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The photos were made available by the official news agency. 照片是官方通讯社发布的。make something available 用主动语态也可以有“发挥，使之起作用”的意思。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>make a room available 腾出一个房间 (作某种用途)</div><div class="ex-item">They were invaluable in the transformation of the group, making available their organizational skills. 他们发挥了自己的组织才能，对改造该团体起了宝贵的作用。</div><br><br>
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avenge 与 revenge
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>avenge 与 revenge</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为及物动词，avenge 的搭配有点特别。它的宾语是原先受到损害的人或者是原先所受到的损害，意义也就是“替……报仇”或“报……之仇”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was determined to avenge his father's death. 他决心要报杀父之仇。/ Our brothers will avenge us. 我们的兄弟们会替我们报仇的。</div><br><br>通常是替别人特别是自己的亲人报仇，但 avenge 也可以用于为自己报仇，此时就说 avenge oneself on/upon somebody for something (为自己向某人报……之仇)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> revenge 与 avenge 意义相近，但 avenge 偏重于“善与恶”的对立与“维护公道”，而 revenge 则更多带有“私怨，仇恨”，与其说是“报仇”，不如说是“报复”，通常限于“为自己报复”，但偶尔也可以指为亲人复仇。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He revenged his dead father. 他替死去的父亲报了仇。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> revenge 比 avenge 更多用作名词，搭配常是 take revenge on somebody (报复某人)；如果用作动词时常用搭配也同 avenge 一样是 revenge oneself on/upon somebody for something (为自己向某人报……仇)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I must revenge myself upon him for this insult. 我一定报复他给我的这个侮辱。</div><br><br>有些词典认为动词 revenge 不能将原先所受到的损害以名词形式作其直接宾语，但是实际语言中也有这样用的例子：... she is out to revenge her father's death. (Geoffrey Godsell, in The Christian Science Monitor, Sept. 14, 1979) ……她一心要报杀父之仇。/ ... resolving to revenge the flagrant insult ... (Oliver Goldsmith, The Citizen of the World) ……一心要报复这个公然的侮辱……<br><br>
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average, median 与 mean
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>average, median 与 mean</b></div>这三个形容词意义相近，但是略有不同。average 指平均值，即从低到高各个数相加之后再除以数目。median 指中位数，即居于中间位置的一个数。mean 指平均值，与 average 相似。假设有五个值，4、6、8、12、15，则平均值为 9，中位数为 8。<br><br>此外，average 还可以表示“普普通通的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The average family spends $35 a day on food. 普通一户人家一天花在食品上的开支是 35 美元。</div><br><br>
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avoid
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>avoid</b></div>这个及物动词，笼统来说，意义是“避免，躲避”。可以指努力躲避的过程，此时为第二类动词；也可以指躲避成功，此时为第四类动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>2009 年 2 月美国一家广播公司 Sirius XM Radio 周转不灵，濒于破产，但找到了新债主得以幸免于难，报上的标题就是：Sirius XM avoids bankruptcy，是“成功避免了”的意思，不是“在想办法避免”。但是搭配用法值得注意 (参见 avoid 与 prevent 条)：</div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 最简单也是中国人最容易掌握的用法搭配，是只带一个直接宾语 (人或物)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Why are you avoiding me? 你为什么躲着我？/ She avoided his eyes. 她避开了他的视线。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 以动名词为直接宾语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'd managed to avoid being noticed until then. 直到那时以前，我一直能够避免引人注目。/ Avoid drawing attention to yourself. 要避免引人注意。/ You can't avoid seeing her occasionally. 偶尔看见她，你是避免不了的。/ He only just avoided being sent to prison. 他险些被送进了监狱。/ He could not avoid laughing. 他忍不住笑了起来。/ Avoid getting into arguments with him. 要避免同他发生争论。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 作直接宾语的动名词，可以另有主语，此时这个主语以 avoid 的直接宾语的形式出现，放在动名词 (严格说来已经不是动名词而是动词的现在分词) 前。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The first and most effective step in reducing waste is to avoid it being produced in the first place. 减少浪费第一个也是最有效的步骤，就是一开头就防止浪费产生。/ You should keep your medications with you when you travel on the plane to avoid them being lost in the heaps of luggage. 你乘飞机旅行时应该把药物随身带着，以免它们在大堆行李中丢失。/ He saw me and smiled, but I moved further into the crowd to avoid him finding me. (Darrell McBreairty, The Passing of Martha O'Shea) 他看见了我，笑了一下，但是我又往人群里挤，不让他发现我。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 同许多其他欧洲语言不同，英语表示“避免，阻止，不让”的动词，大都不能带 that 名词从句作其直接宾语。that 名词从句，整个内容被前面一个动词所“否定、制止”，在英文中是不习惯的，所以不说 *avoid that the cup falls down，而要使从句的主语谓语都变成 avoid 在主句中的从属成分：avoid the cup falling down 或 keep the cup from falling down。(英文只有很少几个比较固定的句型可以用 that 名词从句来作为被否定、被制止的对象。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Heaven forbid that all her family should come too! 但愿她千万别把全家一起带来！/ God forbid that they actually encounter a bear. 但愿他们别真的遇到一头熊。/ God forbid that the tornado pulls off the roof. 但愿龙卷风千万别把房顶掀开。)(参见 prohibit 与 forbid 条等有关搭配的说明)</div>
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avoid 与 prevent
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>avoid 与 prevent</b></div>两者有相同之处，也有区别。相同之处都是可以表示预先防范某件不利之事发生 (可以是表示一个连续过程的第二类动词，也可以是表示瞬时达到了防范目的的第四类动词或是借用来表示习惯的第一类动词)，但是动词的内涵及其作用对象都有一些不同。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 最大的一个不同之处，是 avoid 着重消极的“躲开，避开” (对于对象本身并不产生影响)，而 prevent 则着重积极采取措施来“挡住，使之 (在这个具体场合) 失效” (对于对象本身产生了影响)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Try to avoid (<i>prevent) the rush-hour traffic. 要设法避开交通高峰时间。/ It was an attempt to avoid (</i>prevent) the draft. 那是企图逃避兵役。/ These methods prevent pregnancy. 这些方法可以避孕。/ Stir the custard occasionally to prevent skin forming. 蛋糊要不时搅拌，以免结皮。/ Smear Vaseline on to your baby's skin to prevent soreness. 给您的婴儿皮肤上涂抹凡士林，以免疼痛。/ prevent (<i>avoid) forgery of passports 防止伪造护照</div><div class="ex-item">prevent (</i>avoid) a financial crisis 防止金融危机。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 由于 avoid 对于对象本身并不产生影响，所以它的对象可以是人、物、事，而 prevent 的对象 (不是指形式上的宾语) 既然受到影响，就不能是人或具体的物，而只能是抽象的事。(a) 对人 (或动物)，要用 avoid 来表示“躲开”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Why are you avoiding (<i>preventing) me? 你干吗老是躲我？/ If you want to avoid (</i>prevent) the crowds, it's best to come on a weekday. 你如果要躲开人群，最好是别赶周末来。/ The driver had ample time to brake or swerve and avoid the woman. 司机当时有充分的时间，可以刹车或是转个弯，躲开那位妇女。/ Avoid the dog and you will avoid a dog bite. 躲开狗，就不会被狗咬。</div><br><br>但是 prevent 的直接宾语也可以是人，意思不是“躲开”，而是“妨碍其达到目的”，这其实是 prevent sb. from doing something 略去了 from doing something。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'll come at two if nothing prevents me (= if nothing prevents me from coming). 如果没有什么阻碍的话，我将于两点钟前来。/ I've made up my mind to go, so don't try to prevent me (= don't try to prevent me from going). 我已经打定了主意要去，你就别阻拦我了。有时候甚至连这个人称宾语也可以省略 (此时 prevent 成了不及物动词)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She will come if nothing prevents. 如果没什么障碍，她会来的。</div>(b) 对物，也要用 avoid 来表示“躲开，躲避”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The horse veered to avoid the tree. 马转身要躲开那棵树。/ She braked sharply to avoid another car. 她来了个急刹车，躲开另一辆车。/ Expertly he zigzagged his way across the field, avoiding the deeper gullies. 他驾轻就熟地弯弯扭扭越过田野，躲开那些更深的沟槽。/ He avoids the elevator. 他不喜欢乘电梯。/ Avoid unhealthy foods such as hamburger and chips. 避免吃汉堡包和炸土豆条等不健康的食品。/ It is better to avoid all food colours. 倒不如避免所有食品色素。 (c) 对事，如果措施较为积极，而且抽象的对象在这个具体场合缩小为一个单独的个案时，两者均可用。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>avoid/prevent a quarrel 避免一场争吵</div><div class="ex-item">avoid/prevent bloodshed 防止发生流血事件。通常 prevent 的宾语表示比较严重的后果，如果后果并不严重，还是用 avoid 好些。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Book early to avoid (*prevent) disappointment. 及早订票，以免向隅。</div><br><br>但是如果措施是消极而不是积极的，尽管对象已经个案化了，措施对于对象本身仍不产生影响，那就仍然不宜用 prevent。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Avoid (<i>prevent) bad company. 别同不三不四的人来往。/ Try to avoid (</i>prevent) wasteful duplication of effort. 要设法避免重复劳动，造成浪费。/ Avoid (<i>prevent) strenuous exercise in the evening. 晚间要避免剧烈运动。/ He avoided (</i>prevented) this tricky question and talked in generalities. 他避开了这个难题，只是泛泛而谈。</div><br><br>有一家公司的雇员须知中有一句：Avoid verbal orders. 原意本来是提醒雇员发出指示尽量用文字而少用口头，但是由于 avoid 通常的对象是已经存在的事物，结果意思变成了“对别人的口头指示要躲开”。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> avoid 的主语通常是人，prevent 的主语则人、物、事均可。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Early diagnosis and treatment can usually prevent (*avoid) blindness. 及早诊断与治疗，通常可以防止失明。但是日常的文字和语言中，avoid 的主语也常常可以是措施而不是人。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Proper diagnosis will avoid treatment errors. 诊断得当，可以避免治疗出错。/ A kid-size heart valve will avoid invasive surgery. (UCLA Medicine Magazine, Winter 2007) 采用一种儿童型的心脏瓣膜，可以免除介入性的外科手术。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 由于 prevent 有 pre- 这个前缀，“事先预防”的含义比 avoid 重，所以 avoid 常用干临时的躲避，而 prevent 则多少有点事先觉察，而且有点一先一后的时间差。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The pilot had to take emergency action to avoid (<i>prevent) a disaster. 飞行员只好采取紧急行动，以避免一场灾难。/ He narrowly avoided (</i>prevented) an accident. 他险些发生事故。</div><br><br>但是，prevent 的这个“时间差”，只限于 prevent 后面直接跟着表示所要防止的事情作直接宾语。如果是 prevent sb./sth. (from) doing something 的结构，就没有这个时间差，而是当场采取措施或施加作用，当场阻止某人或某物去做某事。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They tried to prevent us from leaving. 他们试图不让我们走。/ The police prevented the riot (from) breaking out. 警察防止了骚乱的爆发。/ The firemen fought to prevent flying sparks from setting fire to neighboring roofs. 消防队员们努力奋战，不让那些飞溅的火花烧到旁边房子的屋顶。</div><br><br>prevent 的主语还可以是一个不利的因素，使得某件本来有利的事情未能实现，此时就更加没有“事先防止”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Flu prevented her from attending her daughter's confirmation. 她因为害了流感，未能参加她女儿的坚信礼。</div><br><br>prevent 本来是个表示瞬时达到“防止”目的的第四类动词，但是主语如果是某个规章，则可以表示“禁止，不准”，此时它就是一个表示延续状态的第一类动词，可以有一般现在时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The club constitution prevents women from becoming full members. 俱乐部章程不准妇女成为正式会员。/ City laws prevent horses from working between 13:00 and 17:00 under the baking summer sun. 市政法律禁止夏季下午 1 时至 5 时在烈日下役使马匹。 (5) 在搭配上，avoid 只有一个直接宾语 (名词或动名词)，这个名词如果来自及物动词，则 avoid 的主语是这个及物动词的逻辑宾语。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They are cheating but are sophisticated enough to avoid detection. 他们在作弊，但是干得十分巧妙，可以避免被查出。(detect 的逻辑宾语是 they。)</div><div class="ex-item">He couldn't avoid humiliation. 他无法避免丢脸。(humiliate 的逻辑宾语是 he。)</div>avoid 后面的直接宾语如果是个动名词，则 avoid 的主语也就是动名词的逻辑主语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He could not avoid laughing. 他忍不住笑了起来。/ Avoid drinking on an empty stomach. 避免空腹喝酒。/ He avoided giving a direct answer. 他避免正面回答。/ Avoid drawing attention to yourself. 别让人注意你。/ They avoid going out alone after dark. 他们避免天黑后出门。/ An easy way to cut the amount of fat in your diet is to avoid eating red meat. 减肥的一个简便办法，就是避免吃红肉。</div><br><br>如果 avoid 的主语不是后面动名词的逻辑主语而是其宾语，就要把这个动名词改为被动式 being pp.。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'd managed to avoid being noticed until then. 直到那时以前，我一直能够不让人家注意到我。/ He'd managed to avoid being sidetracked by Schneider's problems. 他一直避免了因为施奈德的问题而被撂到一旁。/ Women have to dress modestly, to avoid being harassed by the locals. 妇女们只好衣着简朴，以免被当地人骚扰。</div><br><br>如果 avoid 后面的动名词另有主语，则可以在这个动名词前加上相应的物主代词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I endeavored to avoid his seeing me. 我尽量设法不让他看见我。</div><br><br>prevent 可以后面只有一个直接宾语，也可以直接宾语后面再加上 from + -ing (from 可以省略，avoid 则不可以有 from)，这个区别，上面许多例句中都可以看出。<br><br>
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await 与 wait
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>await 与 wait</b></div>两者的区别，参见 wait 与 await 条。<br><br>
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aware
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>aware</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> aware 如果是“知道”，是个“绝对”形容词，就是说，“知之为知之，不知为不知”，不能有程度修饰语 (但加强语气的如 well 之类可以)，也不能有比较级或最高级。而且，通常还要交代清楚“知道什么”，这个“什么”用三种句法形式来表示：(a) aware 后加 of + 名词成分，这个形式用得最多。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Are you aware of the problems you're causing? 你知道自己惹了一些什么问题吗？/ I was dimly aware of someone calling my name. 我当时隐约听到有人在喊我的名字。/ You have to be aware of the latest teaching methods. 你应该知道那些最新的教学法。(b) aware 后加 that 从句。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Is your father aware that you drink? 你喝酒，你父亲知道吗？/ When did you become aware that something was wrong? 你是什么时候开始觉得事情不对头的？/ I'm well aware that it's dangerous. 我很清楚，这很危险。(c) aware 后加间接问句。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Are you aware who you're talking to? 你知道你现在是在跟谁说话吗？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> aware 在两种情况下，后面不需要补充说明：(a) 前后文或语境已经说明了 “知道”的是什么。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>As far as I'm aware, ... 据我所知，…… (b) aware 的词义从“知道”转为“懂事” (“明白事理”)，此时 aware 由本来不能有程度修饰语变为可以有。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He's very aware for his age. 他年纪小小就很懂事。/ They are politically aware. 他们有政治头脑。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 无论属于上面的哪一种情况，aware 这个形容词都不能放在名词前面作其前置定语，而只能作后置定语、表语等。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 常常有 make somebody aware of something 的说法，意思是“将某事情告知某人”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>make people aware of environment issues 向人们宣传环境问题</div><div class="ex-item">We want to make people aware of their rights. 我们要让人们认识到自己的权利。这个说法，也可以有被动语气。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... but (he) had not been made aware of the charges until last week. (Time, Oct. 25, 2006, p. 59) ……他直到上周才得悉这些指控。</div><br><br>
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awareness
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>awareness</b></div>这个名词，指对于某个问题或现象的注意，中文大致上相当于“意识，观念”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>political awareness 政治意识；讲政治。</div><br><br>对于什么的注意或是重视什么的观念，这个“什么”用 of 引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She has no awareness of other people's feelings. 她不体谅别人的心情。/ We should increase public awareness of the dangers of smoking. 我们必须呼吁公众关注吸烟的危险。/ Past U.N. campaigns have included the Year of Rice in 2004, which successfully raised awareness of that grain's nutritional value and resulted in more cultivation. (U.S. News & World Report, Feb. 18, 2008, p. 34) 联合国过去发动了一些运动，例如 2004 年的大米年，那次运动成功地提高了人们对该谷物营养价值的认识，从而增加了种植。</div><br><br>许多按期发动的公众宣传运动，往往使用 awareness 这个名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>breast cancer awareness month 乳腺癌宣传月。</div><br><br>
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aware 与 conscious
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>aware 与 conscious</b></div>参见 conscious 条及 unaware 与 unawares 条。<br><br>
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away
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>away</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为副词，同前面的一个动词连在一起，成为一个 phrasal verb，此时往往表示一种“逐渐减弱直至消失”的含义 (属于第三类动词，即经历一个过程最后到达必然的终点，着重其过程)，同某些动词后加 out 的含义 (属于第四类动词，着重其结果) 不同。试比较 fade away、die away、rub away、worn away 同 fade out、die out、rub out、worn out，即可体味出“体”的区别。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The sound slowly faded away. 声音慢慢地消失了。/ He faded away into obscurity. 他逐渐隐没，不为人所知。/ The sound of the chopper finally faded out. 直升机的声音终于消失了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作为副词，还可以表示距离多远 (其相差的数量放在 away 前)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—How far are you from answers? —Perhaps light-years away. —你离答案还有多远？—说不定还有好些光年呢。</div><br><br>距离数量往往前面是系动词 be，而且这个距离数量有时候不是以数量词而是以普通名词词组形式出现 (尤其是“距离数量”转义为“达到目的所需条件”时)，所以容易被误解为表语 (其实表语是 away)，需要特别注意。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A playground is but a hard day's work away. 努力干它一天，运动场就可以修起来。(a hard day's work 是距离数量转义为所需条件)</div><div class="ex-item">All the answers were just a phone call away. 只要打个电话，所有答案就在眼前。(just a phone call 是距离数量转义为所需条件)。</div><br><br>The entire world was not to them only a push or a switch away. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 这一句，某个版本的《法国中尉的女人》(应为《法国大尉的女人》) 原译是：“那时，他们觉得整个世界并非是人声鼎沸，拥挤不堪。”这完全是误读误译。这句话前面谈到了广播电视，此处的表语，不是 push 与 switch，而是 away，而 a push or a switch 是修饰说明 away 的程度 (“差距、距离”)，或是 world 与 they 之间需要越过的“障碍”，或是排除这障碍所有待采取的手段 (push 是“按键”，switch 是“拨动开关”)。似应该改译为：“对他们来说，并非只需按一下按钮或是拨动一下开关，就能接触到整个世界。”这样的误读误译，原因正是在于译者没有看出 away 是真正的表语，而把说明 away 程度的 a push 和 a switch 误认为表语，这一来，下一步就无法破解这两个名词的词义，从而牵强想象，一个译成“人声鼎沸”，一个译成“拥挤不堪”，同原意相差了十万八千里。<br><br>away 后面还可以加上 from 介词短语，表示“离开……有多远”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Many families are just one layoff or one medical emergency away from going into bankruptcy. 许多家庭，只要有一个人下岗，或是有人突然害一场病，就会陷于破产。(这里的 away 也是表语，one layoff or one medical emergency 是说明 away 的程度。)</div>如果前面的名词表示“距离”，甚至可以不要 away 而只说 from。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's only a hairsbreadth from the hall. 它离大厅只有方寸之遥。/ My son is 15 now. I'm a slipknot from 57; his father, Mort, still older. (Wendy Watson in Newsweek, Dec. 5, 2005, p. 16) 我的儿子今年 15 岁。我马上 57 了；他爸爸墨尔特年纪就更大一些。</div><br><br>有时候，前面如果出现过 way，为了避免发音重复，后面的 away 就可以改为 off。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Yet he also acknowledges that with Tikrit's security still in chaos, that prospect seems a long way off. (Newsweek, Oct. 15, 2007) 但他也承认，鉴于蒂克里特的治安仍然混乱，那样的前景看来还遥远。</div><br><br>还有一些单词和词组有类似 away 的情况。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Some newspaper editors' feeling for usage often is about two generations in arrears. 有些报纸编辑遣词造句的语感常常落后大约两代人之久。/ At each turn, they are steps ahead of the French police. (U.S. News & World Report, Dec. 22, 2003, p. 46) 每一个关口，他们都比法国警察抢先几步。(steps 不是 are 的表语。)</div><div class="ex-item">The French and many of those demonstrating in the streets of Western Europe last weekend are six decades removed from their liberation. (The Daily Gazette, Feb. 23, 2003) 法国人和许多上周末在西欧上街游行示威的人，距离他们获得解放已经有 60 年了。(six decades 不是 are 的表语，removed 也不是 decades 的定语。)</div><div class="ex-item">He drove slowly, keeping a few cars behind, just in case the man happened to glance in his mirror. 他慢慢地开着车跟在后面，保持隔着几辆车远的距离，以防那个人万一从后视镜向后看。(keeping a few cars behind 不是“把几辆车保持在后面”，而是自己 keeping behind，而 a few cars 则是 behind 的距离。)</div>
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(away) from
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(away) from</b></div>有时候作表语的 away from ... (前面通常有一个表示距离或差距的名词成分)可以略去 away 而只剩下 from ...，此时要注意，是前面的名词成分修饰 from ... (说明距离有多远)，而不是 from ... 修饰前面的名词成分。参见 away 条。<br><br>
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awesome 与 awful
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>awesome 与 awful</b></div>两者有相当大的区别。<br><br>awesome 往往有褒义，表示“了不起的，令人肃然起敬的，壮观的”，尽管有时也带有“令人生畏的”的负面意义。例如 2009 年 1 月美国一艘以前总统老布什命名的航空母舰举行编队服役典礼，当时的总统小布什在典礼上说：Laura and I are thrilled to be here to help commission an awesome ship and to honor an awesome man. 劳拉和我来到这里来，协助一艘了不起的军舰编队服役，并且向一位了不起的人物致敬，十分激动。<br><br>awful 则主要是负面的“可怕的，邪恶的，狰狞的”之意。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This is a story about the fascinating business of pharmaceuticals, with its awesome power for good and awful potential for evil. 这是一个有关那使人眼花缭乱的医药行业的故事，这个行业既有惊人的能力造福人群，也有可怕的潜能作为害。/ Oh, Christ, it was awful! 天哪！太可怕了！另外，awful 也可以表示一般的“很糟糕”的意思。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The food was bad and the service was awful. 饭菜很差，服务更是糟透了。参见 terrible 与 terrific 条。B b</div>
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a 与 an
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>a 与 an</b></div>一般教科书都指出，以辅音开头的单词，前面用 <b>a</b>；以元音开头的单词，前面用 <b>an</b>；另外，以字母 <b>h</b> 开头的单词，如果 <b>h</b> 发音，前面用 <b>a</b>，如果 <b>h</b> 不发音，前面用 <b>an</b>。但是，在英国和加拿大，有时候有些本来 <b>h</b> 发音的单词，前面仍然用 <b>an</b>。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b><u>an</u></b> historian</div><div class="ex-item"><b><u>an</u></b> historical reference</div><div class="ex-item"><b><u>an</u></b> historical display</div><div class="ex-item"><b><u>an</u></b> hereditary disease</div><div class="ex-item"><b><u>an</u></b> habitual liar。而美式英语则在这些场合仍然通用 <b>a</b> 而很少用 <b>an</b>。原因是：这些单词，头一个音节都是轻读的，在英国和加拿大，人们发音时这个轻读音节的 <b>h</b> 往往很弱，接近于以元音开头，所以就用 <b>an</b>，做分开音节之用。但是，这种情况还需要进一步分析。例如 <b>historical</b> 和 <b>historic</b> 情况就不相同，前者比后者多出一个音节，因而第一音节 <b>his-</b> 的发音就不如后者清楚，所以即使在英国和加拿大，也多说 <b><u>a</u></b> historic occasion 而少说 <b><u>an</u></b> historic occasion。又例如 <b>hotel</b> 的第一个音节虽然不重读，但仍然带有次重音，所以英国人和加拿大人也多说 <b><u>a</u></b> hotel 而少说 <b><u>an</u></b> hotel。</div><br><br>
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back
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>back</b></div>这个词作为副词时，要注意它究竟是管后面另一个状语成分，还是同前面 (例如动词) 结合或是修饰前面的动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Now he was back. 现在他回来了。/ He had no idea how anxious his wife was back in Mexico. 他不晓得他妻子在墨西哥老家是多么着急。/ There are no dusty cassette-tape fragments among the ancient bones, for example, to tell us how language was back in the early stages. (George Yule, The Study of Language) 古代骨骼堆中，又没有带尘土的录音带碎片来告诉我们，在那些远古时代，语言是怎么样的。/ For one night, New York City was as it was back before air conditioning. 纽约市有一夜简直就像昔日没有发明空调时那样。这四句都有 was back，但是在第一句中，back 同前面的 was 直接结合；在后三句中，back 同前面的 was 没有直接关系，是用来加强后面时间状语的“老家”或“昔日”的意义。</div><br><br>back 同后面的状语连在一起，还有另外一个意义，就是相当于 again，表示“重新”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>US security company Blackwater was back on the streets of Baghdad on Friday. 美国黑水安保公司星期五又重新出现在巴格达街头。/ The wound did not hit any major arteries or bones and he was back in the fight within two weeks. 伤势没有触及任何主要动脉或骨头，于是过了两周，他又重新参加战斗了。</div><br><br>
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bake
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>bake</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 可以有双宾语 (搭配参见 buy 条)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She is baking him a cake.</div><div class="ex-item">She is baking a cake for him.</div><div class="ex-item">She is baking it for him. 她正为他烤蛋糕。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 这个动词可以是第二类动词 (没有必然终点)，也可以是第三类动词 (有必然终点)。所以可以说 bake it for half an hour (烤半小时) (不管烤熟了没有)，也可以说 bake it in half an hour (用半小时把它烤熟)。<br><br>
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balk
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>balk</b></div>无论是作为及物动词还是不及物动词，balk 都是属于第四类的瞬时动作动词。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为及物动词，意思是“妨碍” (是达到了目的的妨碍，而不仅仅是“起点妨碍作用”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We were balked at every turn. 我们处处遇到障碍。某人的什么遇到妨碍，某人可以是主语，这个“什么”可以用 of 或 in 引入。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was balked of/in his hopes. 他所希望的遇到了障碍。/ He was balked of/in the chance to escape. 他的逃脱遇到了障碍。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作为不及物动词，意思是自己停住了，停住的原因用 at 引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The horse balked at the fence. 马遇到栅栏就停住了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 但是 balk at 还可以用于比较抽象的事情上 (at 后面可以是个名词，也可以是个动名词)。<br><br>在肯定句中，表示“遇到某个不如意的因素因而不敢做某事”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He balked at the idea of murder. 他一想到这是谋杀，就打退堂鼓了。/ He balked at the suggestion. 他不愿接受这个建议。/ She always balks at being interviewed. 她老是不愿意接受采访。/ He balks at meeting the creditors. 他不愿意同债权人们见面。</div><br><br>在否定句中，表示“毫不退缩地做了某事” (不光是对某事抱有毫不退缩的态度，而且的确动手做了某事)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He never balks at any task no matter how difficult it is. 无论任务多么困难，他都毫不退缩。/ She works hard, takes classes on her own time and never balks at working late on weekends. 她很勤奋，自己抽时间上课，向来不惜在周末工作到很晚。/ He loves his reading lessons and never balks at doing them even on weekends. 他喜欢上阅读课，甚至周末也做功课。</div><br><br>
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banner 与 flag
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>banner 与 flag</b></div>有细微的区别，flag 更多是就“旗帜”的物质意义而言，banner 则兼有物质与表示信仰、忠诚等象征意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>under the banner of social reform 在社会改革的旗帜下。但是，表示投降“举”的“白旗”是 white flag 或 flag of surrender。“国旗”是 flag 而不是 banner。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>navigate under the Panamanian flag 悬挂巴拿马国旗航行</div><div class="ex-item">Their coffins were draped with American flags. 他们的灵柩盖着美国国旗。</div><br><br>
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barely
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>barely</b></div>barely 本来同 hardly、scarcely 等都是带有否定倾向的副词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I barely heard any noise in the house. 我听不到房子里面有什么声音。barely 也同 hardly 和 scarcely 一样，可以表示“刚刚”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Barely had we taken our seats when/before the detective entered. 我们刚刚就座，那位侦探就进来了。但是 barely 的否定作用比较弱，有时候只是表示“勉强”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He barely survived doing odd jobs. 他干点零活勉强度日。/ I had barely enough food to sustain myself. 我的粮食只勉强够我自己吃。/ He barely escaped disaster. 他幸免于难。/ I barely struggled through calculus. 我勉强学了点微积分。</div><br><br>
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barring
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>barring</b></div>已经成为介词，意思是“除非，除了”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Barring any reason I have to stay in Florida, can we have dinner tomorrow night? (Mary Higgins Clark, Where Are You Now?) 除非我有理由要留在佛罗里达，否则咱们明天晚上能不能一起吃顿饭？/ Barring a legislative miracle, it looks next to impossible for him (Obama) to push these bills to the finishing line. (The Economist, Feb. 20, 2010, p. 24) 除非出现立法方面的奇迹，否则奥巴马要将这些法案推进到完成阶段，看来几乎是不可能的。/ We'll be home by sunset barring accidents. 我们日落前会回到家的，除非发生事故。/ Nobody knows, barring me. 除了我，没有谁知道。</div><br><br>
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based on
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>based on</b></div>本来 based 是由动词过去分词转变成的形容词，应该依附于一个名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His opinions are based entirely on prejudices. 他的意见完全是基于偏见。但是用多了，往往游离于任何名词之外，成了句子中的一个副词，引入一个状语成分，管句中的动词，而不管近处的名词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>(They) insist such a (DNA) databank must come with guarantees that no one be denied employment or insurance based on genetic makeup. (U.S. News & World Report, Dec. 2, 2002, p. 60) 他们坚持主张，如果建立 DNA 数据库，就必须同时做出保证，对任何人都不得根据其基因结构而拒绝录用或拒绝承保。(based on 同前面的 employment or insurance 没有修饰关系，是修饰 deny 的状语。)/ What has changed radically in recent years is the view that cancers of different types—breast, lung, colon—are relatively homogeneous based on how they look under the microscope and how far they have burrowed into the body. (U.S. News & World Report, Nov. 3-10, 2008, p. 46) 近年来发生了根本变化的是原先的那个看法——认为各种不同类型的癌症，如乳腺癌、肺癌、结肠癌，按照显微镜下看到的形状以及侵入身体的程度来看，似乎是比较相似的。类似这种情况 (即形容词作副词) 的，还有 relative to、effective、compared to 等等，均各另见相关词条。</div><br><br>
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basic
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>basic</b></div>同 fundamental 的意义差不多，但是通常没有 fundamental 可能有 (但不常有) 的强烈的“根本的，彻底的”意义，而是“基本上的，大体上的”。即使是香港特别行政区的“基本法” (Basic Law)，虽然重要，但与一国宪法的“根本法” (fundamental law) 地位相比，仍然不可同日而语。<br><br>basic 甚至还有“起码的，初级的，初步的”含义 (这又是 fundamental 所没有的)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>basic training 初步训练</div><div class="ex-item">basic vocabulary 基本词汇</div><div class="ex-item">This textbook is very basic. 这本教科书很浅。/ My needs are very basic. 我的需求是很低的。当然，basic 尽管只是“起码的”，但既然是基础，就仍然有其重要性，只是不能囊括一切而已。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Tourism is basic to the island's economy. 旅游业是该岛经济的基础。/ Mathematics is basic to all sciences. 数学是一切科学的基础。</div><br><br>至于 basic 派生出的副词 basically，意义也是弱意的“基本上，大体上”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I was basically lucky. 我大体上还算运气。/ I believe men are basically good. 我相信人基本上是好的。/ Another 39,965 children received outpatient treatment at hospitals and were considered "basically recovered," the ministry said. (The Associated Press, Sept. 21, 2008) 据卫生部发言，另有 39,965 名儿童在医院接受了门诊治疗，被认为“基本痊愈”。(参见 fundamental 条)</div>表示弱意的“基本上，大体上”，副词可以避免使用 fundamentally 或 basically，而用 practically 或 virtually。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The campers were practically out of food. 宿营者基本上断了炊。/ —Have you finished? —Practically. —你做完了吗？—基本上做完了。/ Practically everybody was present. 基本上人人都出席了。/ They virtually completed the work in an hour. 他们一小时就把工作基本上做完了。/ Before he won the contest he was virtually unknown. 他比赛获胜之前，基本上是不为人所知的。</div><br><br>
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basis
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>basis</b></div>on a ... basis 这个词组在英语中是十分常用的，一般相当于将填入的形容词转化为副词，已经没有什么“基础”的意思了。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>on a temporary basis 暂时地</div><div class="ex-item">on a regular basis 定期地</div><div class="ex-item">on a case-by-case basis 采取个案方式</div><div class="ex-item">on an exclusive basis 采取独家方式</div><div class="ex-item">on a first-come-first-serve basis 采取先到先办的方式</div><div class="ex-item">on an autodidactic basis 采取自学方式</div><div class="ex-item">on a competitive basis 通过竞争</div><div class="ex-item">on an urgent basis 以加急速度</div><div class="ex-item">on a ceremonial basis 以仪式的形式</div><div class="ex-item">Another version of this surgery can now be done on an outpatient basis. 这种外科手术现在还有另外一种以门诊方式进行的办法。basis 还可以指“基本的状况或关系框架”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They had swum to a first-name basis after the second round of drinks, and this was the fourth. 他们俩酒过两巡，就已经互相用名字称呼，而现在他们喝的已经是第四巡酒了。</div><br><br>
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beans
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>beans</b></div>是不可数的物质名词，但却总是以复数形式出现。由此就产生一个矛盾。比如说，前面究竟用 much 还是 many？从不可数的角度看，应该用 much，但是从复数的角度看，应该用 many。因此，人们用起来见仁见智，莫衷一是。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The reason behind Pirouz' defeat by the Huns was that he ate too much beans the night before. 卑路斯被匈奴打败的原因是头一天晚上他吃了太多豆子。/ I am wondering, is it possible to eat too many beans and fruits? 我在琢磨，豆子和水果会有吃得过量的时候吗？与此情况相类似的还有 oats、peanuts、grapes 等，均各见相关词条。</div><br><br>
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bear (v.t.)
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>bear (v.t.)</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 最原始的含义，是延续性的“支撑”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The ice on the lake is much too thin to bear your weight. 湖上的冰太薄，支撑不住你的体重。/ The table can bear several vases. 桌子能承受几个花瓶的重量。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 另一个含义，是延续性的“容忍”或“忍受”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He bore his grief with dignity. 他为了尊严忍受着悲痛。/ The waiting was too much to bear. 等得令人不耐烦。/ I can't bear her! 我受不了她！</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 非延续性的“负担”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Postage will be borne by us. 邮费由我们承担。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 延续性的“经得起”，直接宾语可以是名词或代词，也可以是由动名词或带有后续成分的词组。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This cloth bears washing. 这种布料很耐洗。/ His argument doesn't bear close scrutiny. 他的论据是经不起细察的。/ He can't bear being criticized. 他经不起批评。/ It doesn't bear thinking about. 这件事不堪设想。/ What she said doesn't bear repeating. 她所说的话，简直不能再复述一遍。（参见 worth' 条。）</div><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 延续性的“bear + 动词不定式”，通常采取否定形式，表示“不忍”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I can't bear to watch. 我不忍心目睹。/ I can't bear to think what might have happened! 本来会发生什么事，我真不忍设想！</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 延续性的“携带”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The armed police bear riot shields. 武警携带防暴盾牌。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 延续性的“心中抱有”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She's no one to bear resentment. 她不是个好记仇的人。/ He bore no great affection for them. 他对他们没有什么好感。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> 延续性的“带有”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It bears all the signs of a professional job. 它带有专业工作成果的一切标志。/ His account bears little relation to the truth. 他所说的情况，同事实很不相符。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(9)</span> 瞬时性的“生育”，可以用于人和动植物。用于人的时候，要注意：(a) 以被动语态表示某人出生的情况，参见 born 条。(b) 以主动语态表示妇女的生育活动，bear 用于概括性的综述，不具体单独表示某一次的分娩（具体一次的用 give birth to）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She only bore (<i>gave birth to) one child. 她只生了一个孩子。/ She gave birth to (</i>bore) a boy yesterday. 她昨天生下了一个男孩。/ His wife bore him two daughters and a son. 他妻子给他生了两女一男。/ Wal-Mart's buyers even learned to chart the Chinese calendar. They stocked up on diapers in the Year of the Monkey because it's considered a lucky year to bear children. (Newsweek, Oct. 30, 2006, p. 52) 沃尔玛的采购人员甚至学会了查考中国日历。他们在猴年进了大量婴儿尿布，因为据说这一年生孩子很吉利。</div>(c) 植物长出叶子、开花、结果，也用 bear 表示，不分具体一次还是概括总述。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The cherry tree bears beautiful blossom in spring. 那棵樱桃树每到春天就开出美丽的花朵。/ Some plants only bear fruit once every twenty-five years. 有些植物每25年才结一次果。</div><br><br>
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beat
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>beat</b></div>这个及物动词除了“打击”（瞬时体动词，第四类动词）的意义，还有一些中国人不习惯的用法和意义： (1) “赛过”和“胜过”。主语可以是人，也可以是事物（此时这个动词可能是瞬时体动词，第四类动词，表示一时发生的事件，也可能是延续体动词，第一类动词，表示静止的状态）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He thinks he can beat me at chess. 他觉得下棋能赢我。/ He was beaten into fourth place. 他屈居第四名。/ His cooking beats mine easily. 他的厨艺胜过我绰绰有余。/ To my mind nothing beats a cup of tea. 对我来说，什么都比不上一杯热茶。/ Our prices cannot be beaten. 我们的价格是谁都比不过的。/ You cannot beat the Chinese for inventiveness. 中国人善于发明创造，是谁都赛不过的。/ Investing to keep employees working and healthy beats paying for them when they're out and sick. (U.S. News & World Report, Feb. 11, 2008, p. 13, ad) 投点钱让雇员们既能工作又能健健康康，胜过等到他们生病不能工作时再为他们花钱。/ (It) sure beats the alternative. 无论如何这样也比不那样合算。/ He decided that a walk through the city beat waiting for his wife in the empty flat. 他认定，在大街上闲逛一下，也比在空荡荡的公寓里等妻子好过些。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 也有“使……无法理解”的意义（延续状态动词，第一类动词）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It beats me how he gets away with it. 我真不明白他是怎样屡屡得手的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 也有“比……抢先，抢在（某人或某事）之前”（瞬时体动词，第四类动词）的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Beat the rush hour, travel early. 抢在高峰时间之前，提早上路。/ Buy now and beat the new tax. 抢在新税目实行之前现在就买。/ I beat him to the telephone. 我比他先一步赶到了电话机前。/ Beat a possible increase next winter plus save an extra $50. (电热器广告) 请赶在今冬涨价之前购买，而且可以额外节省50美元。此时 beat 可以没有敌对的含义。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Vice President-elect Joe Biden's family beats the Obamas in getting a puppy first. (The Associated Press, Dec. 9, 2008) 副总统当选人拜登的家人，比奥巴马一家先弄到了一只小狗。甚至可以有善意的含义。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>President Ryan headed toward the coffeepot, but a corporal beat him there. (Tom Clancy, Executive Orders) 赖安总统往咖啡壶那边走过去，但是一位警卫班长比他抢先了一步。</div><br><br>
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because 与 as, since 及 for
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>because 与 as, since 及 for</b></div>四者都可以引导原因从句，表示“因为”，但是有重大的差别：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 四者当中，只有 because 能够把原因当作唯一的新知信息加以突出。其余三者当中，as 与 since（引入的从句放在句首）常常只是把已经知道的事情作为原因一带而过，或者即使是新知信息也不加以强调；而 for（引入的从句放在句末）虽然引入新知信息作为原因，但只摆在次要的地位。至于 because，它引入的原因状语从句通常包含新知信息，主句则可能是新知信息，也可能是已知信息。His electricity was cut off (,) because he had not paid his bill. 这句当中，如果 off 后面保留逗号（此时 because 从句是个“外加状语”/ disjunct），中文可以译成“他被停了供电，因为他没有付清账单”（因和果都是新知信息）。如果没有逗号（此时 because 从句是个“附加状语”/ adjunct），可能因和果都是新知信息，也可能果是已知信息，只有因才是新知信息（译成“他之所以被停了电，是因为没有付清账单”）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He's at home, because I've just spoken to him. 他是在家的，因为我刚刚同他交谈过。（“我刚刚同他交谈过”不能理解为“他在家”的原因。）/ He's at home because he's not feeling well. 他留在家里，是因为身体不舒服。（“身体不舒服”是“他留在家里”的原因。）而如果把 because 换成 since、as 或 for，都不能起到将原因提升为唯一新知信息的作用。所以可以说，要将原因突出作为唯一的新知信息（“之所以……是因为……”），只能使用前面没有逗号的 because，而 since、as、for 等都不能使用。正是因为如此，回答 why 问句只能用 because。 (2) 传统语法认为 for 是并列连词而 because 则是主从连词，也就是说，for 引入的是并列句的第二分句，而 because 引入的则是原因状语从句。但是，除了上面说过的区别外，because 与 for 表示原因在许多方面意义十分接近，这样的区分实际意义已经不大（但是 because 前面可以依主句是否为新知信息而加或不加逗号，for 前面则必须加逗号，主句必然是新知信息）。两者都可以表示客观因果关系中的原因；如果要表示主观判断的根据，就要看说话重点放在哪里。如果重点在结论，根据只是一个附带说明，就通常多用 for。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They must have fallen asleep, for the light is out. 他们一定已经睡着了，你看灯是灭了的。/ It is morning, for the birds are singing. 早上了，鸟都在叫了。如果重点在根据，就多用 because。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You didn't tell me the truth, because I found the money in your room. 你没有给我说真话，因为我发现钱在你屋里。这样的句子不能用 as 或 since，因为着重提出主观判断的根据，必然要说出新知信息，不能一带而过。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 从 because 的例子可以看出，往往新旧信息在英文中不一定直接显示区别，要看上下文和语境；但是用中文表达时，通常在本句中就要显示差别，不能逐字翻译了事。（这里要顺便说明：一个成分是否为独立的新信息，同它在句子中的语法地位无关。往往主语、主句等语法地位极其重要的成分并不包含独立的新信息；反之，状语、从句甚至定语之类语法地位较低的成分，却可能包含独立的新信息，甚至是唯一的新信息。这是“主述位切分”即 functional sentence perspective 的一个十分重要的基本概念。）<br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 有时候 because 从句是唯一的新信息，而其前面的主句却是已知的新信息，这种情况，如果主句之前再加主句，这个再加的主句，只同 because 从句发生意义上的关系，同原先的主句（已经降格为名词从句）在意义上不相干，不要产生误解和误译。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But there has been such chaos since the dictator's fall that it's now common to hear Iraqis yearn for the order imposed by his strong-arm rule. Even some Americans share that sentiment. "I feel like we should let Saddam out of jail and say, 'Sorry, we didn't realize you were so brutal because you had to be'," a member of a U.S. Special Operations unit told Newsweek after a hard day's fighting in Fallujah in 2004. (Newsweek, Jan. 8, 2007, p. 22) 但是，自从独裁者垮台以来，局势如此混乱，以至于现在往往可以听到伊拉克人怀念他的铁腕统治下强加的秩序。甚至一些美国人也有同感。2004年费卢杰的一整天鏖战之后，美国特种部队的一名成员告诉《新闻周刊》说：“我觉得我们应该把萨达姆释放出狱，对他说：‘对不起，我们原先不知道你之所以如此暴虐是不得已的。’” (不要译为“我们原先不知道你因为不得已而如此暴虐”) 这里的 we didn't realize 的内容绝对不是 you were so brutal (已知信息)，而是 because you had to be (新知信息)。 (5) 有时候 because 前面有两个或两个以上的意义单位（一个单位不一定是一个句子，也可以只是一个句子成分，例如状语），此时要注意辨别哪一个是 because 引入的原因状语从句所管的结果。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The similarity of dress as well as their equivalently bricklike habitus and dark hair gave them the superficial appearance of twins as long as they weren't together, because the man in the spectator area was at least one and a half times the size of Tony Fasano. (Robin Cook, Crisis) 他们两人穿着差不多的衣服，同样有砖头似的体型和深色头发，所以看起来像是一对双胞胎兄弟，但是只有他们两人不在一起时才给人这种感觉，因为旁听席上的那个人的身材起码有托尼·法萨诺的 1.5 倍大。（两个意义单位，一主一从，主是带谓语的 ... gave them the superficial appearance of twins，从是状语词组 as long as they weren't together，而后面的 because ... 只管 as long as ... 部分，不管 ... gave them ... 部分。）</div><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 有时候习惯在 because 前面加上 not least，成为 not least because，表示“其中一个重要原因是……”，意思即是“并非最次要的原因是……”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was an evening that Charles would normally have enjoyed; not least perhaps because the doctor permitted himself little freedoms of language and fact in some of his tales, ... (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 一般说来，这样的晚上查尔斯本应该兴高采烈，也许原因之一是医生在讲故事时没有像以前那么古板，语言的运用和情节的叙述都稍许随便了些，……</div><br><br>
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beginning
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>beginning</b></div>中文的“开始、开端”在英文中不一定是 beginning。<br><br>正面、正常的过程的开始可以是 outset。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>at the outset of a three-nation trip (of U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton) 希拉里三国之行的开始之时</div><div class="ex-item">I made it clear right from the outset that I disapproved. 我一开头就明确表示了我不赞成。</div><br><br>负面、不愉快状态的开始可以是 onset。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the onset of disease/old age/winter 疾病/老年/冬天的开始</div><div class="ex-item">... to detect the onset of an infection before obvious symptoms emerge (The Economist, Feb. 27, 2010, p. 8) ……在明显的症状出现之前就探测出感染的开始</div><div class="ex-item">The onset of European war in 1914 ... 1914年欧战的爆发……</div>“世纪”(但年、月、年代似乎不可以)的开始可以用 turn。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>At the turn of the 20th century new flows of information through channels such as the telegraph and telephone supported mass production. (The Economist, Feb. 27, 2010, p. 5) 20世纪刚开始时，通过电报与电话这类渠道的新兴信息流支撑起了大规模的生产。</div><br><br>
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(be) going to inf.
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(be) going to inf.</b></div>be going to inf. 作将来时 will inf. 和 shall inf. 的补充形式，它的意义是“当前眼下已经有此将来事件发生的现成依据”，其中包括依靠主观意志可以操纵的行为或与主观意志无关的事件。<br><br>主观意志可以操纵的行为 (大体上是某人现在打算将来做某事)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>What are you going to do today? 你今天委干些什么？/ I'm going to call on some friends. 我打算去拜访一些朋友。这种打算，应该是比较实际可行的。试比较：I intend to punish them. 我打算惩罚他们。/ I'm going to punish them. 我要惩罚他们。前一句只是一个打算，可能只是气话，不一定有这样的权威和能力；而后一句则比较有把握做到。一般这个说法通常是指不久之后要实行的行动。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We're going to live in the country. 我们要到乡下居住了。(意思是很快就要去了)</div>与主观意志无关的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There's going to be a storm this evening. 今天晚上会有暴风雨。/ This wall is going to fall down. 这堵墙要倒塌了。还可以包括被主观意志所作用的被动句。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This bench is going to be painted green. 这张长凳要漆成绿色。</div><br><br>要注意的是：用 be going to inf. 通常要当前已经有了将来发生某事的现成根据，而且这个根据不是模棱两可的。所以如果有一个“如果……”从句，be going to inf. 就不合适。例如 *If you accept that job, you're never going to regret it. 要改为 If you accept that job, you'll never regret it. 你如果接受那个职位，你将永远不会后悔的。因为 if ... 表示接受与否尚未未定，也就是当前尚未存在将来发生某事的现成根据。<br><br>I'm going to inf. 同 I'll inf. 还有一个区别，就是前者通常在说话之前事先已经计划好要做此事，因此不能用于对答中临时做出的回应或许诺。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You did not hear me, I'll (<i>I'm going to) repeat. 我说的你没有听见，我再说一遍。又如有人来访，传达室的人告诉来客说主人不在，说 but I'll tell him you've been here (这不是马上要做的事)，或是告诉来客说主人在，说 Come in please, and I'll (</i>I'm going to) tell him you're here. (这是马上要做的事)。两者都用一般将来时。</div><br><br>还要注意的是：上面所说的 be going to inf. 中的 be 都限于现在时 (要做某事或要发生某事，比较确定)。如果是过去时 was/were going to inf.，这个动词不定式的内容就是尚未实现的，是否实现了，要看后文。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was going to sue me, but I persuaded him it was pointless. 他本来要跟我打官司，但是我说服了他，让他知道那是没用的。</div><br><br>
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behalf
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>behalf</b></div>in my behalf 是“为了我的利益”；on my behalf 是“以我的名义，代表我”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Since I was unable to appear, he reported on my behalf. 由于我无法到会，他就代表我做了报告。/ She put in a good word in my behalf. 她替我美言了几句。但是，“代表……”与“为了……的利益”在意义上有时有些重叠，所以 in my behalf 与 on my behalf 有时也不加区别地互换。</div><br><br>
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behave
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>behave</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为不及物动词(表示活动的延续体动词，第二类动词)，意思是中性的“行为(好或坏)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He doesn't usually behave so well. 他平常的表现没这样好。/ They behaved in a suspicious manner. 他们形迹可疑。/ You behaved very rudely toward him. 你对他太粗暴了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作为不及物动词，也可以表示正面的“行为良好”，尤其是小孩子的“乖”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Will you behave! 乖点!</div><div class="ex-item">The others preferred to persuade him to behave other than complain to the teacher. 另一些人则认为，与其向老师告状，不如说服他规矩点。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 作为不及物动词，也可以以事物为主语，表示“起良好作用”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Let's hope the weather behaves. 咱们就盼望天气变好吧。/ The car behaves well in the snow. 车子在雪地里走得很好。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 也可以作为及物动词加上 oneself，表示“行为良好”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Behave yourself! 放规矩点!</div><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 过去分词 behaved 起形容词作用，表示中性的“行为(好或坏)的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span> He's very badly behaved. 这个人的表现很坏。/ But at least our fans were very well behaved. 但是起码我们的球迷们很守规矩。</div><br><br>
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behind
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>behind</b></div>可以作为介词或副词，意义都是“在后面”，本来是空间意义上的“在后面”，但很自然地可以转用到时间意义上来。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 很有趣的一个现象是，就时间来说，“前”和“后”的说法，往往出现意义相反的表达形式。例如中文“往前看；前景，前途”的“前”，指的是“未来”；相反，“前人，前任；不久之前”的“前”，指的却是“过去”。“前不见古人，后不见来者”中的“前”和“后”，听起来仿佛说话的人脸对着过去，背对着将来。在英语中，behind 虽然在空间意义上是“在后面”，但在时间意义上却既可能相当于中文的“在其后，在更晚之时”，也可能相当于中文的“在其前，在更早之时”：(a) 表示“时间上更晚”，常常说 far behind。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If winter comes, can spring be far behind? 冬天来了，春天还会远吗?</div><div class="ex-item">The slump in the economy had hit lawyers, too, and people had stopped suing each other. Could world peace be far behind? (Lisa Scottoline, Dead Ringer) 经济的衰落也影响到了律师们，人们不再打官司了。难道世界和平还遥远吗?</div><div class="ex-item">2008年因嫖妓丑闻辞职的纽约州州长 Eliot Spitzer 在2009年6月又公开露面，路透社新闻的标题是：Spitzer in spotlight; can comeback be far behind? 斯皮策又到了聚光灯下；东山再起是否为期不远?</div>(b) 表示“时间上更早”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But how could one write history with Macaulay so close behind? (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 在历史界，刚刚出了个麦考莱，谁还能写出更好的史书? (这里的 behind 指“不久之前”。)</div><div class="ex-item">... it is also partly because Chaucer's English lies almost directly behind our own. (W. F. Bolton, A Short History of Literary English) ……这也是因为乔叟的英语几乎是直接发展成我们今天的英语的。(这里的 behind 指“刚刚过去的从前”。)</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 此外，behind 还有抽象(“重要性次之”)的意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Prescription drugs, illegally used to get high, are the second most abused type of drug by teens, right behind marijuana. (Newsweek, Oct. 15, 2007, p. 39, ad) 把处方药品非法用来兴奋提神，这是青少年滥用药品的第二种最常见的方式，仅次于吸食大麻。/ If the Australians are winning, then the New Zealanders are close behind. 如果澳大利亚人获胜，那么新西兰人就紧随其后。/ Yahoo tops in Japan, Google close behind. 雅虎在日本占据首位，谷歌紧接其后。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> behind 单独使用，作表语，从“落在后面”的意义转化为“滞后，亏欠”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How much am I behind? 我还欠多少? 后面有 on 或 in 引入的介词短语，表示“欠什么”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was two months behind on his rent. 他已经欠了两个月的租金。/ He is behind in his mortgage payments. 他欠了房贷分期付款。/ I'm three payments behind. 我已经欠了三次款了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> leave something behind 原意是“把某物留在后面”，但可以转义为“了结某个问题或悬案”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... without national penitence nothing can be left behind, not the wounds of slavery or the unfulfilled promise of the civil rights movement. (U.S. News & World Report, May 12, 2008, p. 6) 除非来一次全国大忏悔，否则什么问题都无法了结，无论是奴隶制的创伤，还是民权运动尚未实现的诉求。/ It must be awfully nice to have someone to go home to and leave all this bad news behind. 家里有个人，可以回去做伴，把这些坏消息统统置于脑后，这一定美得很。</div><br><br>behind 作为介词，也可以指某个已经过去、对现在不产生影响的经历。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>That's all behind me. 这些全都是已经过去的事情了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 说某人 have something behind，或是 with something behind，这个 something 是某人迄今为止的经历。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a guy with that many convictions and so much state time behind 一个被定过这么多次罪而且在州监狱中度过了这么长的刑期的人。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> behind 还有“支持，赞成”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He claimed he was foursquare behind disarming Saddam Hussein, but ... (Ann Coulter, Treason) 他自称坚决支持解除萨达姆的武装，但是……</div><div class="ex-item">... the company "stands 100 percent behind the quality of our product." (The New York Times, Feb. 12, 2010, B5) ……本公司“百分之百地保证我们产品的质量”。/ Defiant and frustrated, President Barack Obama aggressively challenged Republicans Thursday to get behind his jobs plan or explain why not, ... (The Associated Press, Oct. 6, 2011) 倔强而又沮丧的奥巴马总统，星期四咄咄逼人地向共和党人提出挑战，请他们要么支持他的就业计划，要么解释为什么不支持，……</div><br><br>
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believe
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>believe</b></div>这个动词(表示状态的延续体动词，第一类动词)十分普通，但是它的用法和意义还是有一些值得注意之处：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> believe somebody 和 believe in somebody 意义不同。前者是相信某人在某一次或几次具体场合所说的话，后者是对某人的人品予以信赖。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There's a big difference between believing someone and believing in someone. 相信某人所言和信赖某人，两者有很大的不同。</div><br><br>believe in 还有信仰或相信某一主张的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>believe in God 信仰上帝</div><div class="ex-item">believe in Buddhism 信仰佛教</div><div class="ex-item">believe in the generation gap 相信代沟之说</div><div class="ex-item">believe in exercising every day 相信每天做运动有效果。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> believe somebody 是相信某人所说的话。但是后面如果加上一个动词不定式，就成了“相信某人具有某种性质或处于某种状态”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I believe him to be honest. 我相信他是老实的。(加强语气可以省略 to be)</div><div class="ex-item">I believe him to be dying. 我相信他快要死了。</div><br><br>同时要注意，后面加上的动词不定式，其动词必须是表示性质或状态的静态动词，不能说 *I believe him to die. 这是因为 believe 与后面动词所表示的事情是同时发生的，我不可能在这一刹那相信他在现在这一刹那死去。如果是瞬时的动态动词，唯有采取完成式，才可以与 believe 相容：I believe him to have died. 因为完成式间接表示了一种状态(“死了，人处于死亡状态”)。<br><br>同样，这个某人也可以改为某物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I believe the story to be true. 我相信故事是真实的。从逻辑上分析，这时候真正被相信的已经不是某人或某物，而是某人或某物具有某性质或处于某状态的这件事。 (3) 此外，believe 的宾语补足语可以不是动词不定式而是动词过去分词，此时这个过去分词所表示的是一种持续状态。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Electricity was considered a mysterious force believed entwined with mind and body. (The Sunday Gazette, Sept. 12, 2004, G8) 从前电被看作是一股有灵又有形的神秘力量。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 由此出发，这个 believe 还可以采取被动语态，此时，原先是直接宾语的人或物变成主语，后面的动词不定式情况不变。同样，这时候真正被相信的，不是某人或某物，而是某人或某物具有某性质或处于某状态的这件事。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Oil prices are believed to be the biggest threat to the economy. 人们相信，油价是对经济的最大威胁。/ The FBI released photographs of 19 individuals believed to be the hijackers of the four airliners that crashed on September 11. 联邦调查局公布了19名被认为是“9·11”事件中撞毁的四架客机的劫持者的照片。/ The fugitive cocaine importer is believed to have fled Australia dressed as a priest. 据说那个携带可卡因入境的在逃者已经乔装成教士逃出了澳大利亚。/ At least 21,000 people are believed to have been killed by the earthquake and tsunami in Indonesia. 据说印尼至少有 21,000 人在地震和海啸中丧生。放在 believed 后面的动词不定式必须是个延续性的动词，如果是瞬时性的动词，就必须采取 to be + -ing，或采取 to have + pp. 的形式，临时取得延续性。</div><br><br>否定时，可以否定后面的动词不定式，也可以否定 be believed。但后一种否定比前一种强烈。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This product is believed not to contain toxic materials. 该产品据说不包含毒性材料。/ The plan is believed not to require approval. 据说计划不需要经过批准。/ The plan is not believed to require approval. 人们并不认为计划需要经过批准。/ Five Iraqis believed not to have been enemy combatants have died. 5名据说并非敌方战斗人员的伊拉克人丧生。/ Bin Laden is not believed to have nuclear weapons. 据说本·拉登并没有核武器。/ Judging from the relatively weak axial musculature and the thick bones in the limbs, Basilosaurus is not believed to have been capable of sustained swimming. 从龙王鲸的中轴肌肉系统比较弱以及四肢骨头很厚来看，估计它不会有持续游泳的能力。与此相类似的动词还有 assume、say、report、schedule、fear 等，均参见各词条。</div><br><br>如果“相信 X 是 Y”中的 X 很短，而 Y 较长，就可以有以下三种搭配：1) believe it to be the will of God; 2) believe that it is the will of God; 3) believe it the will of God。三者都表示“相信这是上帝的意志”。<br><br>
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belligerent
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>belligerent</b></div>除了“好战的，怀敌意的”之外，这个形容词还有“处于交战状态的”之意。但中国历史上的“战国”，不译为 Belligerent States 而译为 Warring States，是因为 belligerent states 是国际法上的“交战国”(与“中立国”相对而言)，而当时的“战国”，只是一会儿打，一会儿和，一会儿同这个打，一会儿同那个和，这同“交战国”的含义大不相同。<br><br>
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belong
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>belong</b></div>通常把 belong 同 to 连在一起(表示“属于”)，但是 belong 也有不同 to 一起而是同别的状语或表语成分一起的时候，意思是“处在这个状况时很合适”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span> Are you sure these documents belong together? 你肯定这几份文件是应该放在一起的吗?</div><div class="ex-item">She doesn't belong married to Joseph. 她嫁给约瑟夫是嫁错了人。</div><br><br>有时候 belong 单用，也可以表示“处在这个状况时很合适”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>When he opened it he was taken aback—what was printed inside didn't seem to belong. (Graham Greene, The Power and the Glory) 他把书打开，愣了一下，里面印的似乎不对头。</div><br><br>
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below
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>below</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> below 可以是副词，也可以是介词；under 则只能是介词。两者往往可以互换，但也有区别。表示物理位置，under 可以表示上下两物互相接触，below 则往往表示两者之间有空隙。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She put the letter under her pillow. 她把信塞进枕头底下。/ The ice crackled under his feet. 冰在他脚下噼噼啪啪作响。/ They live below us. 他们住在我们楼下。</div><br><br>below 还用于表示度量上的“低于”，这是 under 所不能表示的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The temperature is five degrees below zero. 温度为零下五度。/ She is well below average in intelligence. 她的智力远低于平均值。</div><br><br>如果表示未达到某一标准数量，可以用 under。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You can't see this movie if you're under 18. 你如果未满 18 岁，就不能看这部电影。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 转义为职务地位的高低时，这样的区别仍然起作用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>John is under Bill. 约翰直接受比尔领导(比尔是约翰的顶头上司)。/ John is below Bill. 约翰的职位比比尔低。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> below、under 与 beneath 的区别：beneath 在物理位置意义上既可以代替 below (上下不接触)，也可以代替 under (上下接触)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Wood dust beneath a piece of furniture is a sure sign of woodworm. 一件家具底下如果有木粉，就肯定是长了蛀木虫的迹象。(可能上下当中有些空隙，相当于 below)</div><div class="ex-item">She concealed the letter beneath the mattress. 她把信藏到床垫底下。(上下紧贴，相当于 under)</div>但是 beneath 更多放在比较抽象的名词前面，这是 below 和 under 所不常用的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He acts as if I was beneath his notice. 他那样做，仿佛我是不值得他一顾似的。/ He would think it beneath him to tell a lie. 他会觉得，说谎于他是有失身份的。(这里的 him 其实是抽象的“他的身份”。)</div><div class="ex-item">She married beneath her. 她下嫁了。(这里的 her 其实是抽象的“她的身份”。)</div><div class="ex-item">Rule 5: Flipping burgers is not beneath your dignity. Your grandparents had a different word for burger flipping—they called it opportunity. (Bill Gates, "11 Rules") 第五条：做翻烤汉堡包的活并不有失你的尊严。对于翻烤汉堡包，你的祖父辈有另外一个名词来表示，叫作机会。</div><br><br>
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beneath
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>beneath</b></div>参见 below 条之(3)。<br><br>
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(be) one's to inf.
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(be) one's to inf.</b></div>这是英语中常用的句法结构(后面的动词必须是及物动词)，意思是“某事物属于某人所有，因此某人可以或应该对之施加某行动”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The future is yours to create. 你自己的前途，由你来创造。/ The world is yours to change. 世界是你们的，该由你们来改造。/ UCLA's legacy is yours to fulfill. 加州大学洛杉矶分校的校风，该由你们(这些毕业生)来发扬。/ The trial issue is yours to keep. 赠送试阅的这一期归您所有并保存。/ His pay is hers to spend. 他挣的工资，由她来花。/ Whatever the wife owned before her marriage is hers to keep. 妻子婚前的财产，仍归妻子所有。/ Their nation's future is theirs to decide. 他们国家民族的前途，是由他们自己来决定的。/ The record of the White House is now his (= Obama's) to defend. (The Associated Press, Sept. 24, 2010) 白宫的纪录现在是由他来保持了。</div><br><br>如果强调排他，可以在 one's 后面加上 alone。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They believe these controls are theirs alone to exercise. 他们以为这些控制手段属他们专有，只有他们才能把持。/ It happens that the social contract between the government and the governed seems to be his alone to write. 政府和被治理者之间的社会契约，简直像是应该由他一手来起草的。</div><br><br>
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beside 与 besides
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>beside 与 besides</b></div>beside 是介词，表示“在旁边”的空间意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We stood beside the canyon. 我们站在峡谷旁边。</div><br><br>besides 也可以是介词，但却表示抽象的“除此之外(还有)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Besides the lecture there was a concert. 除了讲座，还举行了音乐会。/ There are three othercandidates besides yourself. 除了你自己，还有另外三个人选。/ Besides being old, she was also extremely deaf. 她不但年老，而且还非常耳背。另外，besides 还可以是副词，也是“除此之外(还有)”的意思(主要用于列举理由，不可以用于列举具体事物)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I am too tired to go, and besides, it is late. 我太累，不去了，何况时间也晚了。由于不可以用于列举具体事物，所以不太说：She likes playing the piano. Besides, she likes singing. (她喜欢弹钢琴。而且她还喜欢唱歌。)但是，besides 前面如果有否定词，“除此之外(再另加，但原先的仍保留)”与“排除在外不算”的两种意思(中文的“除此之外”也同样有这样两种不同的含义)之间的区别在此就消失了，只表示后者。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>nobody besides you and me 除了你和我再也没有别人。</div><br><br>
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best
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>best</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为副词 well 的最高级，best 修饰动词时可以同 the 一起出现，也可以不要 the，有 the 的时候语气更为强调。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Who sings (the) best of all the boys in your class? 你班里的男孩子，谁唱歌唱得最好? 但是只有多个事物相互比较时才可以加 the，同一事物不同场合的比较就不能加 the。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Work out where and how these forces would best (*the best) be used. 弄清楚这些力量最好在什么地方以什么方式来使用。</div><br><br>best 作为形容词，在句中充当主语 it 的表语，也可以没有 the。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It will, perhaps, be best to start from a concrete example. (Otto Jespersen, The Philosophy of Grammar) 也许最好是首先举个具体的例子。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 动词 like 与 love 可以用副词 very much 来修饰，但是用 like 时 very much 的最高级不是 most 而是 best (用 love 时则 best 与 most 均可)。反义词 dislike 与 hate 的最高级则只能用 most。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 两件事物做比较，较好的一件是 the better one；多件事物做比较，最好的一件是 the best one。best 用作副词也是如此，但是不严格，可以用用于两件事物的比较。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Which season do you like best, summer or winter? 你最喜欢夏天还是冬天?</div><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 作为形容词，best 可以不指质量上的“最好(部分)”而是指数量上的“最大(部分)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the best part of a week 一周的大部分时间</div><div class="ex-item">the best part of one's life 一生的大部分时间。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 作为名词，best 可以表示“最大的收益”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She knows how to bring out the best in her students. 她懂得如何发掘学生们最大的潜力。/ He always gets the best out of his employees. 他总是使自己的雇员们发挥最大的力量。/ Just make the best of the opportunity. 有这个机会就好好利用吧。</div><br><br>但是 get the best of somebody 有“打败某人”或“从某人身上捞到最大便宜”的负面意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Don't let those people get the best of you. 别让那些人占你的便宜。</div><br><br>make the best of a bad job 中，job 不一定真的指“工作，差事”，而是指“条件不利”，只能尽力而为。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> best 作为名词，有时候容易被误解为形容词最高级。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In fact, his knowledge of such things (= foreign affairs) may be the best America has had in recentyears, but at the cost of near-ignorance of domestic issues. (Tom Clancy, Executive Orders) 的确，他对外交事务了如指掌，可能是美国近年来最了不起的，但是他也因此而对国内事务几乎一窍不通。(best 不是修饰 America 的形容词，而是名词。)</div><div class="ex-item">Still, the policy—which seems impractical if not unenforceable—may be the best university officials can do, short of putting cameras in students' dorm rooms. (The Daily Gazette, Mar. 21, 2007, editorial) 虽然如此，但是这个规定(看来似乎不实际，甚至是无法执行的)可能是大学主管人员所能采取的上上策了，除非在学生宿舍的房间里装上摄像头。这一句中的 best，不能同 university officials 连在一起，误解成“最好的大学主管人员”。它是个名词，同 university officials 之间本来有个关系代词 that 被略去了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> best 虽然是最高级，但是在修辞中往往同否定一起使用，作为一种婉转的说法表示“不佳”(直译是“并不最好”)，但其实并不一定是“次好”，也许可能是最坏的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Risking his career didn't seem like the best of options. 拿自己的事业来冒风险，看来实非上策。/ ... a sailor's life is not the best school of morals. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 海员的生活本来就是不检点的。这种否定最高级是很常用的修辞手段，中英文也有共通之处。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> best 作为副词，放在 be 之后、一个动词过去分词之前，往往可以表示一种判断，即“最好对之加以(某种行动)”，此时这个过去分词的动词是瞬时的第四类动词，也可以用一般现在时，因为这个句子已经不是通常意义上的叙述句，而是一个判断句，相当于 It is best to inf. X (X 本是主语，但在此相当于宾语)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Going to court can be an expensive, time consuming and gut wrenching experience that is best avoided. 打官司费钱费时间，又揪心揪肺，最好避免。参见 better 条之(7)。</div><br><br>
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best man
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>best man</b></div>作表语或跟在 as 后面，通常没有定冠词 the，是婚礼上的“伴郎，男傧相”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I was recently asked to be best man for a friend's wedding. 不久以前，一个朋友请我在他的婚礼上担任伴郎。/ The two of them served as best men at each other's weddings. 他们两人互相在对方的婚礼上担任伴郎。</div><br><br>但是作为句中其他成分，仍然可以有 a 或 the。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>While the basic responsibilities of a best man have remained largely unchanged over the years, the world has moved on. 伴郎要担负的基本职责多年来大体没有变化，尽管世界已经向前进了。/ It is the bridegroom's duty to make the second toast to the bridesmaids. The best man responds, on behalf of the bridesmaids, to this toast. 新郎应该把第二杯酒敬伴娘们。伴郎则代表伴娘们回敬。</div><br><br>此外，在实际语言中，best man 作表语，也有加上 the 的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>And when Muller was engaged to be married, he asked Sullivan to be the best man at his wedding this New Year's Eve. (The Daily Gazette, NY, Dec. 26, 2006, A8) 当穆勒订婚时，他邀请沙利文今年除夕在他举行婚礼时当伴郎。</div><br><br>
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bet
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>bet</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 这个动词，同 cast、hit、put、set 等以 -t 结尾的动词一样，它的不定式、过去式和过去分词都是 bet。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 这个动词可以表示瞬时的打赌行动，此时通常不用一般现在时(除非是习惯或重复行动或代替将来时表示意愿)；也可以表示并不真的打赌而只是自己对某事确信不疑的想法，此时就可以用一般现在时。(a) 如果表示真正的打赌行动，此时就可能涉及打赌的对方以及下的赌注，此时可以采取较为罕见的三个宾语的特殊搭配，即：间接宾语、直接宾语、that 名词从句(that 可略)，以表示对某事有信心(that ...)、同某人(作间接宾语)打赌若干赌注(直接宾语)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He bet them (间接宾语) $100 (直接宾语) (that) they wouldn't win. 他同他们打赌 100 美元，认定他们赢不了。/ I'll bet you twenty dollars you don't know the answer to this question. 我敢同你打赌 20 美元，你肯定不知道这个问题的答案。打赌的对方也可以不出现。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He said he was willing to bet a ton of money the deal was a dark secret. 他说他愿意赌一大笔钱，赌那笔交易肯定是有见不得人的秘密。</div>(b) 表示确信(延续状态，第一类动词)而不真正打赌，可以直接在 bet 后面加上 that 名词从句，也可以在 bet 和 that 之间加上 you (但并不是真的“同你打赌”)，that 也常常省略。它引入的从句中，可以用将来时，但更多用一般现在时表示将来。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I bet (you) (that) the Democrats (will) win. 我肯定民主党人会赢。/ I bet (that) he's missed his flight. 我肯定他误了航班。</div><br><br>也可以在 bet 后面加上想象中的“赌注”作直接宾语，再加上 that 从句(that 常常省略)表示自己确信的判断。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'll bet anything (that) he's just trying to get the reward. (Mary Higgins Clark, Where Are You Now?) 我敢打保票，他只是想要拿到悬赏。/ I'll bet my last dollar even those prices don't carry that overhead. (Mary Higgins Clark, Weep No More, My Lady) 我可以肯定，收费那样高，也维持不了流水开支。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> I bet. 或 I'll bet. 意思是表示正面的表示赞同，也可以是负面的讥讽，表示不相信，要看语境和上下文。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—I'll tell him off. —I'll bet. ——我要说他一顿。——是呀。/ 不见得吧。但是 You bet! 则是强势的肯定，相当于 Sure. 或 Of course. You bet 后面可以接上句子表示肯定的内容。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>中了彩票的一对夫妇在交谈：—We are rich. —You bet we are. ——咱们有钱了。——的确是呀。</div><br><br>
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better
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>better</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> better 是形容词 good 和副词 well 的比较级，但是同一般的比较级不一样，它作为形容词表示“患病痊愈”时，可以加上 completely 或 quite 等副词作修饰语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He hasn't been well, but he's completely better now. 他一度身体欠佳，但是现在已经完全康复。/ Don't start work again until you're quite better. 你完全好之前，别恢复工作。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> know better than to inf. 实际上是一种否定方式，意思是“懂得不应该做某事，也就没有去做”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He knew better than to think the assailant had given up. 他心中有数，知道刺客并没有罢休。</div><br><br>think (the) better of it</div><div class="ex-item">of + -ing 也是一种否定方式，意思是“经过考虑后觉得还是不这样做为妥(从而也就没有这样做)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Craig polished off his seconddrink, eyed the Scotch bottle, and thought better of pouring a third. 克雷格喝光了第二杯，眼睛盯了一下那个苏格兰威士忌酒瓶，想了一下，没有再倒第三杯。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 动词 like 与 love 的加强修饰语是 very much，但这个修饰语的比较级不是 more 而是 better。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Which do you like better, dogs or cats? 狗和猫你更喜欢哪一种?</div><div class="ex-item">No one has been better liked than he was. 没有谁比他更讨人喜欢。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> get the better of somebody 是“赛过(某人)；超过(某人)；压倒(某人)；支配(某人)”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Mary got the better of Jennifer in the tennis match. 玛丽在网球赛中赢了珍妮弗。/ You have a lot of personal problems which are getting the better of you, creating unfair prejudices, clouding your judgment. 你有许多个人的问题压住了你，造成一些不公正的成见，给你的判断蒙上暗影。/ He tried not to let his emotions get the better of him. 他努力不让情绪控制自己。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> have seen better times/days 是一个惯用词组，委婉地表示当前情况比过去差远了。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This city has seen better times. 这座城市已经衰落了。/ His hat had seen better days. 他的帽子已经很破旧了。</div><br><br>凡是动词的完成时态配合 better，都可以用来婉转地表示“过去曾经比现在好”，也就是“今不如昔”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You've had better assignments, but I asked the boss to ask for you. I need a competent man to do this. 这一次的任务对你来说没有从前那么顺手，但是我仍然向老板提出要你来干。我需要一个得力的人来干这件事。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> better 与 could 或 might (注意不是 can 或 may)连用，往往表示当前“并不太好”(直译是“本来可以更好”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—How are things going, Fred? —Things could be better. ——喂，弗雷德，情况怎么样? ——不太好。/ —Hi, Bill! How are you? —I could be better. ——喂，比尔! 你好吗? ——不太好。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> better 作为副词，有一个特别的用法，就是放在被动语态的谓语动词词组之中，但是并不修饰谓语动词，而是对整句内容做评价。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Cases like this are better forgotten. 像这样的一些事例，还是忘掉的好。(不能误译为“这样的一些事例被更好地忘掉”。还要注意，这里瞬时动词 forget 用被动式一般现在时，表示一个判断，不是表示眼前发生什么事情。)/ —I really don't know how to tell you this. —Then don't. Maybe it's better left unsaid. ——这件事我真的不知道怎样告诉你才好。——那么就别说了。也许不说还好些。</div><br><br>better 后面还可以有 than 表示比较。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>These phrases are better avoided than used. 这些词组最好还是避免使用。</div><br><br>有时候也有模棱两可的情况，better 仍然可以理解为修饰谓语动词，但更加准确的理解仍然是对整句内容做评价。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He might be better described as a poet. 把他描述为一个诗人，更为恰当。参见 best 条之(8)。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> 由于 better 既可以作为形容词，又可以作为副词，所以要注意具体判明它的词性，以免误解。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>No one knows how important realistic expectations (about weight loss) are better than LaVonnia "Bonnie" Johnson. (U.S. News & World Report, June 16, 2003, p. 38) 关于抱(减肥的)期望应该如何切合实际，谁都比不上拉沃尼娅·“宝妮”·约翰逊看得清楚。这里的 better 不能理解为形容词，成为 are 的表语。如果这样理解，全句就成了一团乱麻，不知所云。这里的 better 是个副词，修饰前面远处的 knows；are 的表语不是 better 而是前面远处的 how important。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(9)</span> the better (非 best) part of 表示“量的大部分”而非“质的更好”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Carter Stewart spent the better part of Wednesday morning working in his suite at the Hudson Valley Hotel. (Mary Higgins Clark, Nighttime Is My Time) 卡特·斯图尔特星期三上午的大部分时间躲在哈得孙河谷旅馆的套间里工作。/ ... guaranteeing the continuity that has been the hallmark of the paper's success for the better part of a century. (Jeffrey Archer, The Fourth Estate) ……保证了该报的连贯性，而这又是它大半个世纪以来一直取得成功的标志。</div><br><br>
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better off
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>better off</b></div>或 better-off，是 well off 或 well-off (富裕)的比较级；但是有时候比较之中还有进一步的比较，于是出现了 more better off。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... it means the free-market argument—that because economic growth makes every body better off, it does not matter that some are more better off than others—does not stand up, at least if "better off" is measured in terms of happiness. (The Economist, Dec. 20, 2008, p. 128) ……这就意味着，原先的那个市场经济论据，即认为由于经济增长，人人都富裕了起来，一些人比另一些人更为富裕，也就不要紧了，而如今这个论据就站不住了，起码如果“富裕”程度是以幸福感来衡量的话，这个论据就站不住。</div><br><br>
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between
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>between</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 这个介词后面如果有两个名词成分，按理两者的句法结构应该对称，但是实际上往往为了省略而出现不对称的情况。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The most essential difference between learning the native language and a foreign language lies in ... 学习母语与(学习)外语之间最根本的不同，就在于……</div><div class="ex-item">There is often a difference between doing research in universities and in private industry. 在大学里和在私人企业里做研究工作，是有区别的。/ He has to choose between listening to what the American people are telling him, and what the Left is telling him. (Newt Gingrich, Sept. 9, 2009) 他需要做出选择，要么听美国人民对他说的，要么听左派对他说的。/ Moreover, submarine warfare will be intensified in July and August to such an extent that by September, England will have to choose between getting American planes and food. (Waverley Root, The Secret History of the War) 而且，到了七八月，潜艇战将会大大加剧，英国到九月份时必须做出选择，要么是要美国的飞机，要么是要美国的粮食。但是如果可能，最好还是设法做到对称。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There are big differences in the standard of living between a steel worker in Pittsburgh and in Magnitogorsk. 匹兹堡和马格尼托哥尔斯克的一个钢铁工人生活水平差别很大。要改成对称并不难：... between a steel worker in Pittsburgh and one in Magnitogorsk.</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> keep something between us/you and me 是“只可你知我知，不得外传”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>What I'm about to say is strictly between us. 我下面要说的事情，只可你知我知。试比较：He put the chair between you and me. 他把椅子放到你我当中。(附加状语)</div><div class="ex-item">Between you and me, he got married last week. 这事不要告诉别人，他上周结婚了。(外加状语)</div><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> between 前面可以再加介词 in，成为 in between。可以作为复合介词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In between trips to Britain, a personal milestone occurred in her life. 在多次前往英国旅行的间隙当中，她的生活出现了一个个人的里程碑。in between 也可以作为状语词组。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We have to be more a part of what people are watching and reading instead of being in between. (BusinessWeek, Aug. 1, 2005, p. 89) 我们(登广告)不应该是在空隙时插进，而应该让广告成为人们观看和阅读的东西的一部分。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> between A and B 是最常用的搭配，但是如果前后有两组事物，事物在组内是多个的，A 与 B 为一组，C 与 D 为一组，说 between A and B and C and D 会令人不知所云，就要说 between A and B, on the one hand, and C and D, on the other。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is the age-old battle between progress and reaction, between those who embrace the modern world and those who reject its existence—between optimism and hope, on theone hand, and pessimism and fear, on the other. (Tony Blair, in Foreign Affairs, January/February 2007) 这是一场由来已久的战斗，一方是进步，另一方是反动，一方是拥抱现代世界的人们，另一方是那些拒绝现代世界存在的人们，亦即一方是乐观与希望，另一方是悲观与恐惧。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> between A and B 的搭配，有时候还会遇到另一个麻烦，就是两者是同一个抽象概念，用同一个名词表达，但是属于不同的对象，也就是：between X of A and X of B。此时，在文字安排上就出现一个问题：X 要不要重复? 如果不重复，能不能用复数(between Xs of A and B)。重复会显得十分累赘，抽象概念的名词又不能用复数，结果常常采取 between X of A and B 的形式。这个形式，从语言逻辑角度看，是有毛病的，因为 between 后面只有一个 X，如何表示两者呢? 但是只要意思能够表达，不产生误解，就可以了。例如 2007 年年底，美国民主党几名争取总统候选人提名的人竞争激烈。其中希拉里·克林顿曾谈到 a big difference between our courage and our convictions, what we believe and what we're willing to fight for (我们的勇气与信念，我们之所信与奋斗的目标，彼此都大不相同)。这里的 between，后面当然不是 courage 同 convictions 对立，也当然不是 what we believe 同 what we're willing to fight for 对立，而是抽象的事物在概念称谓上是大家相同的，但是你有你的内容，我有我的内容。有时候，即使不是十分抽象的概念，但是名词通常不用复数的，也采取这样的结构。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>between the working class of China and Japan 中日两国工人阶级之间(既不说 <i>between the working classes of China and Japan，也不说 </i>between the working class of China and the working class of Japan)。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 涉及两者之间取舍时，由于是“非此即彼”，容易在 between 后面的 A 与 B 之间用 or 而不用 and，但这是不对的(因为这里是两者同时摆在面前供选择，选择过程尚未结束，还是两个，不是一个)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The choice lies between Smith and (<i>or) Jones. 要在史密斯和琼斯两人当中做出选择。/ The choice clearly lies between an honorable agreement of three or four powers on the one hand and (</i>or) a disagreement that might lead to anarchy and doom. 要做的选择，显然是：要么由三四个国家达成体面的协议，要么就是达不成协议，从而可能导致混乱和灾难。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> between 除了表示“(两者)之间”，还可以表示“(两者)加在一起”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Medicare and Medicaid, which cover elderly and low-income patients respectively, eat up a growing portion of the federal budget. Investigations by Sen. Tom Coburn (R-OK) point to as much as $60 billion a year in fraud, waste and overpayment between the two programs. (Reader's Digest, Jan. 2008, p. 89) “医疗照顾”与“医疗补助”是分别惠及老年病人和低收入病人的，所需的联邦预算份额越来越大。汤姆·科本恩参议员(俄克拉荷马州共和党)所做的调查指出，两项的欺诈、浪费和超额支出，加在一起，每年达 600 亿美元之巨。/ I'm doing my best to convince them to keep you. As for looking good, between Botox and face-lifts everybody in this business looks good. (Mary Higgins Clark, Nighttime Is My Time) 我会尽力说服他们留住你。至于外形要好看，于我们这一行，只要用肉毒杆菌素注射剂，加上脸部拉皮手术，谁的样子都是好看的。/ Between the executive order, the cuts and the Administration's sweepingderegulatory agenda, it appears that the White House is trying to revive fossil fuels. (Time, Apr. 3, 2017) 又是行政命令，又是经费削减，又是政府的那套横扫一切的废规方针，看来白宫是在企图恢复使用化石燃料。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> between 按理后面应该是复数名词或是 A and B，但是有时候后面可以是 "each + 单数名词”，其实意思仍然是“在每两个之间的夹缝中”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... with odd small pauses between each clipped, tentative sentence; ... (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) ……每说一句结结巴巴、嗫嚅讷讷的话就不自然地短暂停顿一下；……</div><div class="ex-item">What is the approximate distance between each degree of latitude? 纬度每一度的距离大约是多少?</div><div class="ex-item">Insert a space between each letter. 字母之间都加一个空格。/ Between each smile there's a tear in your eye. 你每笑一下，眼里都有一滴泪珠。英国诗人、小说家兼剧作家 Adam Thorpe 在 2007 年出版的一本长篇小说，书名就叫作 Between Each Breath。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(9)</span> between sessions of 可以是“在……闭会期间”或“当……不进行之时”，meetings、seasons 也有类似用法。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If the office of the Director-General becomes vacant between sessions of the Conference, ... (Edmund Jan Osmanczyk, Encyclopedia of the United Nations and International Agreements, Vol. 4) 如果会议闭会期间总干事职务出现空缺，……</div><div class="ex-item">The Executive Board shall conduct the affairs of the Commission between meetings of the Commission. 委员会会议闭会期间，其事务由执行委员会办理。/ The guest rooms are not expensive right now. It's between seasons. In about three weeks, around Thanksgiving, they go up and stay up through the skiing season. 客房现在不贵。现在是淡季。再过三个礼拜，快到感恩节的时候，价钱就要提高，一直持续到滑雪季节结束。/ For some babies, pacifiers are the key to contentment between feedings. 没有喂奶之时，橡皮奶嘴对于某些婴儿能起关键的满足作用。/ No forces between battles are in a position more wearing to the nerves than fortress troops. (Waverley Root, The Secret History of the War) 在战斗间隙，没有什么部队比那些固守碉堡的部队更为精神疲惫的了。/ ... and carefully plans how he'll spend the time between jobs. (U.S. News & World Report, Mar. 2010, p. 16) ……他就仔细地计划，失业期间如何安排时间。</div><br><br>即使不是用 between 连接，A 与 B 的某一有共同名称的抽象概念，也只能用单数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The mix of shale oil and gas on either side of the (U.S.-Mexican) border may be different, too. (The Economist, May 3, 2014, p. 32) 美墨边境两边的页岩油气，其成分可能彼此不相同。(注意此处 mix 为单数。)</div><br><span class="seq">(10)</span> 有一种说法，认为 between 后面管两个，among 后面管两个以上，这种说法基本上是对的，但不够准确。如果只涉及两件事物，当然只能用 between。但是涉及三件或三件以上的事物时，不一定不能用 between 而只能用 among。总的原则是：用 between 时，指的是一件件彼此分隔的单独事物，着重其“异”；用 among 时，指的是多件事物组成的混合集体，着重其“同”。因此：(a) 后面事物如果数目清楚明确(也就有独立存在的意义)时用 between。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a treaty between four nations 一份四国条约</div><div class="ex-item">Luxembourg lies between Belgium, Germany and France. 卢森堡位于比利时、德国和法国之间。</div><br><br>如果后面事物数目含糊而且合成一个集体，就用 among。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was happy to be among friends again. 他很高兴又回到朋友们当中来了。/ There was a village among the hills. 群山当中有一个村庄。</div>(b) 用 between 时，即使是三件或三件以上的事物，彼此界限还是分明的，并不混成一体，用 among 则表示已经纠缠在一起。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They fought among (<i>between) themselves. 他们彼此打起架来。(自己内部打架)此时即使数目明确，也用 among。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>divide the candy among (</i>between) four children 把糖果分给四个孩子(四个孩子是分配的范围)。</div>(c) 同理，后面如果是集合名词，更说明了是混成一体，因此只能用 among，不能用 between。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We saw him among (<i>between) the crowd. 我们看见他在人群中。/ She stood among (</i>between) the audience. 她在听众当中站着。/ My brother was traveling among a group of tourists. 我哥哥正在同一批游客旅游。</div>(d) 由于 between 倾向于独立性而 among 倾向于集体性，下面例句就因 between 和 among 而在意义上有细微的差别：The bomb landed between/among the houses. 用 between 时，炸弹落在房子当中的空地上(房子是互相分开的)，没有击中房子；用 among 时，多栋房子合成一个“小区”，炸弹落到了小区里，可能毁房伤人。再如：A series of wars between/among the Greek cities. 如果用 between，这些希腊城邦是各自以独立的身份作战；如果用 among，则给人以“混战”的印象，今天联甲攻乙，明天联乙攻甲，类似我国春秋战国时期的情况。<br><br>among 后面可以是个单数的集合名词，between 后面则必须是复数名词或是“单数 and 单数”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Yet among her own class, a very limited circle, she was renowned for her charity. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman)不过，在她自己阶层的一个小圈子之中，她却是赫赫有名的慈善家。</div>(e) 同一类的事物，由于不强调彼此的差别，只能用 among，不能用 between。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She is among the best of our singers. 她是我们最好的歌手之一。/ There must be a spy among them. 他们当中一定有一个间谍。</div>(f) 同理，由于 between 倾向于独立性，当列举多件不同事物作为某一范围的外部标志时，也要用 between 而不能用 among。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Luxembourg lies between Belgium, Germany and France. 卢森堡位于比利时、德国和法国之间。(比、德、法三国并没有在此合成一体。)/ They searched the area between (<i>among) the river, the farmhouse, and the woods. 他们搜索了河流、农舍和树林之间的地带。/ He shared his property between (</i>among) his wife, daughter, and sister. 他把财产在妻子、女儿和妹妹之间分配。但是如果不是几个单数名词的并列，而是笼统的复数名词，则可以用 among，例如上句可以改成笼统的 He shared his property among his loved ones. (外人没有份)。</div>(g) among 倾向于表示“合在一起”，between 则偏重彼此界限，因此，凡是涉及“区别，差异，分歧”，甚至“对立”，就用 between，不用 among。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the difference between (*among) them 他们彼此的差异</div><div class="ex-item">... interactions between differentnon-European peoples (Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs, and Steel)……各个非欧洲的民族之间的互动</div><div class="ex-item">The Walker Cup is a bi-annual match play between male amateur golfers from Great Britain, Ireland, and America. 沃克杯是一项两年一次的竞技，在英国、爱尔兰、美国的男性业余高尔夫球员之间进行。/ Though on general lines his (= the composer's) manner of writing may be the same in all his works, there will, nevertheless, be marked differences between the various pieces. (Josef Hofmann, Piano Playing)尽管作曲家的创作风格大体上在其所有作品中都是一样的，但不同的乐曲彼此还是有明显的区别。但是，among 和 difference 有可能同时出现。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>What makes the difference among such people? (Mayo Clinic Health Letter)这样的人们，靠的是什么而有所成的呢？(列举了几个名人很老时才成就了大事)这里的 among 不表示彼此的差异，而是表示这是一个整体，difference 不是“区别，不同”，而是“起的正面作用”。</div>(h) 表示“保密，你知我知，不外传”，即使是多人，也不用 among 而用 between。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If these ideas were spoken publicly, they would be unpopular. But between us here, I conceive them to be wholly realistic. 这些想法，如果公开说出来，会不得人心的。但是，在咱们这里，我觉得这些想法是完全实事求是的。</div>(i) 多个个体两两之间的关系，由于是单纯的双边关系，用 between。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the cracks between the boards of the ceiling 天花板上板与板之间的缝隙</div><div class="ex-item">The truck driver had obviously been drinking between stops. 卡车司机显然在行驶途中喝了酒。</div><br><br>
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between ... and ... 与 from ... to ...
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>between ... and ... 与 from ... to ...</b></div>between A 时间点 and B 时间点，意义和用法不同于 from A 时间点 to B 时间点。前者指 A 至 B 时间段中的某一时间点，同瞬时动词连用；后者指自 A 到 B 的整个时间段的始终，同延续动词连用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Bill posted (瞬时动词) the parcel between 9 and 10 o'clock. 比尔在 9 点和 10 点之间寄出了包裹。/ Angela worked (延续动词) from 9 to 10 o'clock. 安杰拉从 9 点工作到 10 点。</div><br><br>between ... and ... 与 from ... to ... 的这个“点”与“段”的区别，甚至也表现在非时间的表述上。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Richard is between 40 and 45 (<i>from 40 to 45) years old. 理查德年纪大约在 40 和 45 岁之间。(只能是当中的一“点”。)但是：Prices vary from 100 to 250 dollars (</i>between 100 and 250 dollars). 价格自 100 到 250 美元不等。(vary 要求有一个“段”幅度，而不是当中的一“点”。)</div>
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beware
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>beware</b></div>这个动词(“提防”)，只有不定式(可以附在别的动词后面)与祈使式两种形式(都是动词原形)，没有过去式，也没有过去分词。它可以是个及物动词(“提防”什么人或事物，后面接上直接宾语)，也可以是个不及物动词(要用 of 引入宾语)。由于它是 be 与 ware 的结合，而 be 又是个表示延续状态的第一类动词，所以 beware 也属于表示延续状态的第一类动词(因为带有“有意志”的含义，所以才可以有祈使式)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为及物动词时，它的宾语通常是要提防的人或动物，偶尔也可以是抽象事物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Beware the sharks when you are making up your mind how to invest. 下决心如何投资的时候，要提防那些贪婪的大户。/ Beware the man who speaks softly of love and marriage. 要提防甜言蜜语大谈爱情与婚姻的男人。/ ... a notice whichsaid "Beware flooding". ……一个告示上面写着：“小心水淹”。/ Beware, oh, beware the perils of international arbitration. (Ambrose Bierce, Fantastic Fables)呃，要小心，要小心提防国际仲裁的种种风险。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作为不及物动词时，of 后面引入的宾语，通常是具体或抽象的客观事物，但偶尔也可以是人或动物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Motorists were warned to beware of slippery conditions. 开车的人们得到警告，要小心路滑。/ We had to beware of the icy patches on the road. 我们不得不提防路上结冰的地方。/ But I must beware of my own weakness too, for I never knew till now how strong are a parent's temptations to spoil an only child. (Anne Brontë, The Tenant of Wildfell Hall)但是我对自己的脆弱也必须加以提防，因为我一直到现在才知道，原来做父母的是多么容易把独生的孩子惯坏，这样做的诱惑力是多么的强烈。/ We were told to beware of forgeries. 人家提醒我们小心假冒产品。/ He was told to beware of pickpockets. 人家叫他提防扒手。/ Beware of the dog. 小心被狗咬。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 作为不及物动词，也可以单独用，后面再加一句说明要注意的内容。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Beware, this recipe is not for slimmers. 要小心，这个食谱对正在减肥的人不合适。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> beware of 后面最常见的搭配是动名词，指的是要提防不要做某事。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Parents should beware of imposing their own tastes on their children. 做父母的要注意别把自己的喜好强加给孩子。/ Beware of being too impatient with others. 要小心对别人不要不耐烦。/ Beware of making hasty decisions. 要小心别匆匆做出决定。</div><br><br>有时候也用作及物动词，不要 of。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Iran had better beware aiming nukes at Israel. (Mona Charen, in The Daily Gazette, July 15, 2008, A7)伊朗最好小心别将核武器对准以色列。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 如果后面是个间接疑问句，通常 beware 作为及物动词，不要 of，而且这个间接疑问句的内容不是要避免的负面事物，而是要注意处理的问题。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Beware what you say to her. 你对她说什么话要小心。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> beware 后面常常接上 lest，再引入一个用虚拟式动词(用动词原形，第三人称单数无 -s)的从句，表示要避免的事情，但这个用法比较陈旧。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Beware lest you fall into temptation. 你要提防自己经不起引诱。/ Beware lest you lose the substance by grasping at the shadow. (Aesop, The Dog and the Shadow)要小心别抓了影子，放过了本质。/ Beware lest anyone falsely interpret these words. 要提防有人曲解这番话。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> beware 后面另一个常用的搭配是以 that 引入一个从句(从句通常是否定的虚拟或直陈语气，因而 beware 转为肯定的意义)，表示要小心别做某事或别让某事发生，但这个用法也比较陈旧。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Abraham said to him, "Beware that you don't bring my son there again." (Genesis 24:6)亚伯拉罕对他说：“你要小心，不要带我的儿子回那里去。”/ Beware that none touch the young man Absalom. (2 Samuel 18:12)你们要小心，不可害那少年人押沙龙。</div><br><br>有时候 beware 后面出现直陈式与虚拟式并列，但并不规范。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... bewarethat it is God who is with me, that he not destroy you. (2 Chronicles 36:21)……免得他毁灭你，因为上帝是与我同在。</div><br><br>
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beyond
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>beyond</b></div>这个单词可以是介词，也可以是副词。它的含义可以是正面的，也可以是反面的。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 正面的意义，指的是“超出某一范围但不脱离或否定这个范围”，也就是“既保持原有的，还外加”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The plan was beyond ingenious. 此计妙极。/ My responsibilities go beyond computers. 我的职责不单单在于电脑。/ Parents and children have little in common beyond the biological link. 父母和儿女除了血缘关系之外，没有多少共同之处。/ Beyond flooding, villagers worry that more tree cutting could put an end to the mushroom bonanza. 除了水涝，村民们还担心，树木再继续砍伐下去，蘑菇盛长的局面就会告终。在这个意义上，beyond 后面可以接名词，也可以接形容词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This has gone beyond ridiculous. 这已经不光是可笑了。</div><br><br>beyond 有时也可以放在一个形容词(或起形容词作用的过去分词)之前，表示比这个更甚。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was beyond exhausted. 他已经过度疲惫了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 反面的意义，指的是“超出某一范围，不再属于这个范围”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>beyond repair 坏到无法修理</div><div class="ex-item">beyond his means 他力所不及的</div><div class="ex-item">The social situation has changed beyond recognition. 社会状况已经变得面目全非了。/ Speech seemed beyond her. 她似乎说不出话来了。/ It's beyond his authority to give us such orders. 他给我们下这样的命令，是超出了他的权限的。/ Phenomena like this are beyond human understanding. 这样的现象是人类无法理解的。</div><br><br>注意：在这个带有反面意义的用法上，above 与 beyond 常常可以互换(但以 beyond 更为多用)，参见 above 条之(3)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> beyond 还可以作为副词，放在名词后面，起定语作用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This economy of ours is strong and so you'll have more jobs to choose from than previous classes and your starting salaries will be higher. And the opportunities beyond are only limited by the size of your dreams. (George W. Bush, addressing Oklahoma State University graduates, May 6, 2006)我们的经济是强劲的，所以你们将会比前几届的人有更多的工作机会可选择，你们的起薪也会更高。再往后的机会，唯一的限制就是你们的梦想够不够广阔了。</div><br><br>
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be²
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>be²</b></div>通常以 be 开始的句子是祈使句，逻辑主语是 you。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Be careful. 当心。/ Be quiet, please. 请安静。但是有时候这种句子不是祈使句，逻辑主语是 I，尽管乍看起来不易区别。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Be right there. (= I'll be right there.) 我马上到你那边去。/ Be right with you. 或 Be with you in a minute (in a moment, in a second). (= I'll be right with you.) 我回头马上就来 (找你)。/ —Would you fix this, please? —Be (= I'd be) happy to. —请你把它修一下好吗？—没问题。</div><br><br>be 的例子比较典型，另外还有一些动词也有类似的情况。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Try to catch you later. (= I'll try to catch you later.) 我晚些时候再设法赶上你。</div><br><br>此外，通常以 be 开始的句子，如果 be 后面接着出现主语，就是个让步从句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Be it scroll, or be it book, into it, knight, thou must not look. (Walter Scott, The Lay of the Last Minstrel) 无论它是卷纸还是书，骑士，你都不可以往里面看。</div><br><br>
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be¹
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>be¹</b></div>系动词 be 对于中国人来说，并不是十分难于理解和掌握。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 最主要的一个词义 (“是”)，中英文是相通的。但有时候中文不用“是” (尤其是表示情状时)，英文中这个 be 却不可少。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm afraid. 我怕。/ They were asleep. 他们睡着了。/ I'm against the plan. 我反对这个计划。/ He's like his father. 他像他父亲。</div><br><br>但有时候也要注意不能矫枉过正，不该用 be 也用了 be。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I like this dog. 我喜欢这只狗。千万不能画蛇添足，加了 be 而变成 *I'm like this dog.</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> be 表示“是”时，也可以有两个不同的含义。一个是表示客观的、自己不能随意左右的情状。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>China is a big country. 中国是个大国。/ He was very happy. 他高兴得很。另一个则表示自己可以左右的情状 (这个含义主要出现在祈使句中)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Be quiet. 安静点。/ Be a man. 拿出男子汉的勇气来。/ Don't be foolish. 别糊涂了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 另一个主要的词义是“在 (某地方)”。这个词义，中国人略微有点不习惯，但是经过学习，还是不难适应的。但是，英文常常用 be (“在”) 的静态形式代表动态的“到达”，这对中国人来说，需要注意表达方式的不同，逐渐习惯。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'll be with you in a few minutes. 我过几分钟就到您那边来。/ We could be in London tomorrow morning. 我们明天上午能够抵达伦敦。</div><br><br>有时候，究竟是“是 (怎么样的)”还是“在 (某地方)”，要注意加以区别，以免发生误解。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He had also visited America a dozen times in the past year, selecting cities where the main employers were in steel, coal, or automobiles, because he nearly always found that companies involved in those ailing industries also controlled the local newspapers. (Jeffrey Archer, The Fourth Estate) 这里的 were 究竟是管 where 还是管 in steel, coal, or automobiles 的？两种理解意义会大不相同 (“钢铁业、煤炭业或是汽车工业的主要雇主们所在的那些城市”或是“主要雇主们从事的是钢铁业、煤炭业或是汽车工业的那些城市”)。从全文来看，“主要雇主们”如果没有进一步的限定，就十分空泛，所以 in steel ... 是 main employers 的定语，而不是 were 的表语，只不过为了避免头重脚轻，本来应该在 automobiles 后面的 were，挪到了 employers 后面。were 的真正表语应该是 where，也就是说，这里 be 是表示“在 (某地方)”，而不是“是 (怎么样的)”。全句的译文是：他在过去的一年当中访问了美国十几次，专门挑选那些钢铁业、煤炭业或是汽车工业的主要雇主们所在的城市，因为他几乎总是发现，那些经营这些老旧行业的公司，也控制着当地的报纸。/ It's a strange place to be for the Democratic operatives and elected officials who saw their party devastated in part by Obamacare. 那是民主党人和当选的官员的为难之处，他们看到他们的党派由于奥巴马医疗方案而一败涂地。(这里的 place to be 是“所处之地，处境”。) (4) be 的另一个词义是“存在” (不需要表语)。中国人最习惯的用法，就是 be 同 there 一起出现 (there is ..., there are ..., there was ... 等等)。但是 be 在这里往往还同一些助动词或其他动词配合出现，使得结构复杂化。参见 there be 条。另外，be 常常在哲学和文学理论中出现 (没有表语)，中文也是“存在”的意思。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>to be, or not to be (Shakespeare, Hamlet) 生存还是毁灭</div><div class="ex-item">I think, therefore I am. (René Descartes) 我思故我在。being (“存在”) 问题甚至是哲学上最核心的问题。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> be 这个动词，通常属于第一类动词 (延续状态)，但也可以属于第四类动词 (瞬时变化)。即使作为第一类动词，它也可以以延续状态形式间接代表造成这种状态的瞬时变化。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He is dead. (代替 He has died.) 他死了。/ I'll be back in Beijing next week. (代替 I'll go back to Beijing next week.) 我下周回北京。/ Give me a shout when you're ready. 你准备好了喊我一声。(其中的 are ready 就不是表示延续状态，而是表示从 not ready 到 ready 的变化。) 作为第四类动词，be 最典型的用途就是在被动语气中作补助动词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was promoted. 他被提拔了。但是即使是“be + 形容词”，也不一定表示延续状态，而是表示瞬时发生的事件。比如两个人约会，甲按时赴约到达，但是乙迟迟未到。如果乙最后还是来了，事后说 He was late. 这个 was 就是第四类动词 (“他来了，但是来晚了”)。如果不是事后叙述发生了什么，而是事后描述甲当时苦苦等候的情况 (不知乙怎么样了，来还是不来)，说 He was late. 意思就是“他迟迟不来”，此时 was 就是第一类动词 (无限延续状态)。两者意思是很不一样的。如何区别，要取决于前后文和语境。</div><br><br>
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bi-
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>bi-</b></div>这个表示“双”的前缀有歧义，比如说，biennial(ly)、bimonthly、biweekly，可能是两年、两月、两周一次，也可以是每年、每月、每周两次。所以有人主张，如果是前一种情况，最好改为 every two years/months/weeks，如果是后一种情况，最好改为 semiannual(ly)、semimonthly、semiweekly。不过，biennial 通常指的是“两年一次的”，“每年两次的”除了 semiannual，还可以用 biannual 来代替。<br><br>
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bill
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>bill</b></div>在英美两国，bill 都是“账单”，例如 electric bill (电费账单)；但是在美国，饮食店用餐后的账单叫作 check，英国则仍叫作 bill。<br><br>
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billion
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>billion</b></div>这个数词究竟代表多大的数目，各国原先有些不同。美国是“十亿”(thousand million)，但英国从前是“万亿”(million million)，现在英国也采取了美国的计算法，是“十亿”。<br><br>
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birth
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>birth</b></div>涉及分别的多人时，可以用复数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>(The study) has been following several thousand twins since their births in 1994 and 1995. (这次调查)追踪了几千对双胞胎，从他们 1994 年与 1995 年出生时就开始了。(参见 life 条与 death 条)</div>
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birthday
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>birthday</b></div>这个单词主要指出生的那一天之后每年的周年日而不是出生的那一天。不过，有些人抠字眼，主张后者应为 birthday anniversary，但是这个用法在日常生活中是不会有多少人采纳的。既然 birthday 不指出生的那一天(一辈子只有一天)，而是具有纪念意义的每年的一天，所以在正式的文件中，“出生日期”不能说 *birthday，而要说 date of birth (简称 DOB)或 birth date。<br><br>
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bit
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>bit</b></div>这个名词，既可以用于肯定句，也可以用于否定句。<br><br>one bit 必然用于否定句，加强否定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I am not one bit worried. 我丝毫不担心。(不可以说 *I am one bit worried.)</div>a bit 则可以用于肯定句或否定句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I am not a bit worried. 我丝毫不担心。/ I am a bit worried. 我有点担心。</div><br><br>a little bit 虽然只是 a bit 加了个 little，但是用法和意义有些不同，在肯定句中，意义同 a bit 差不多。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I am a little bit worried. 我有点担心。但是在否定句中，却反而将句子变为强调的肯定。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I am not a little bit worried. 我不是有点担心，而是十分担心。也就是说，它可以将否定作用从整句缩小，缩小到仅仅是自身这个程度状语上。</div><br><br>
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black
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>black</b></div>black eye 与 dark eye 意义完全不同。dark eye 是本身乌黑的眼睛，有时甚至表示漂亮，而 black eye 则是被打得鼻青脸肿、眼圈发黑的眼睛。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A black eye is caused by bleeding under the skin around the eye, usually from a blow or other trauma. 眼睛发黑，是由眼珠周围的皮肤底下出血造成的，通常是因为遭到打击或是其他伤害。/ the beautiful expression of her dark eyes (Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice)她那双乌黑的眼睛美丽非凡。</div><br><br>此外，black 往往指本身固有(或被染上)的黑色，而 dark 则指因为没有亮光照射而呈现的阴暗。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>When the screen went dark (*black) last week, the often blase Cannes audience rose up in a five-minute standing ovation. (Newsweek, May 28, 1984)上周银幕暗下来时，连那些本来都看腻了好戏的戛纳观众也纷纷站起来，鼓掌了五分钟之久。</div><br><br>
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blame
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>blame</b></div>be to blame 表示“应对此负责；是自己的过错”。虽然意义是被动的，但形式上不用累赘的被动式 be blamed。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The severe housing shortage is largely to blame (*to be blamed) for the inflated rents. 住房奇缺是租金猛涨的重要原因。</div><br><br>
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blessed
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>blessed</b></div>原意是“得到祝福的”，但 be blessed with 的意义是“具有(某种天赋)”(是延续状态，不是被动的瞬时变化)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was blessed with the gift of being a lot smarter than he looked. 他具有一种天赋，就是外表不怎么样，内在却精明得多。</div><br><br>
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blinds
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>blinds</b></div>作“百叶窗”解时，动词 draw 是“关上”，不是“拉开”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The lamps had been lit, but the blinds had not been drawn, so that I could see Holmes as he lay upon the couch. (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes)灯已经亮了，但是百叶窗没有拉上，所以我能看见福尔摩斯躺在沙发上。</div><br><br>
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bloody
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>bloody</b></div>除了原始的“血的”词义之外，也是一个粗俗词，主要用于英式英语，可以是形容词，也可以是副词，用来表示厌恶、惊讶。<br><br>作为形容词，通常只能用作前置定语，不可以用作表语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Where's that bloody dog? 那条死狗跑到哪里去了？(不可以说 *The dog is bloody.)</div><div class="ex-item">I don't understand a bloody word. 我一个字都不懂。/ Turn that bloody television off! 把那个鬼电视关上！/ It's a bloody miracle he passed. 他竟然考及格了，真是铁树开花了。</div><br><br>作为副词，主要用于修饰形容词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's bloody useless. 这顶个鬼用。/ The weather was bloody awful. 天气糟透了。/ It's bloody impossible. 这根本没门儿。bloody 甚至可以插入 impossible 中间：It's im-bloody-possible.</div>有时候副词 bloody 也可以修饰一个表示正面意义的形容词，加重这个形容词的力量，但仍然带有负面意义，表示一种特殊的“虽坏但正因此而好”的矛盾。例如 1979 年美国百老汇喜剧 Sweeney Todd 主题是搞笑滑稽的，但是情节却包含许多谋杀事件，所以一篇评论的题目是 A bloody good comedy (一出血红的好喜剧)。<br><br>
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blossom
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>blossom</b></div>作为动词时，通常表示“兴旺，发展”，后面加上 into 就是“发展成为”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The girl blossomed into a beautiful woman. 这个女孩子发育成为一个美丽的女子。但不一定指的是好事，有时候不好的事也可以用这个动词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>That is blossoming into a public relations nightmare. 那件事正在发展成为一场公关噩梦。</div><br><br>
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boast
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>boast</b></div>这个动词，词典上通常的解释是“夸耀”(后面有 of)，但在实际使用中常常用来作“拥有(某一值得夸耀之物，但不一定真的在夸耀)”解(后面无 of，直接带宾语)，是延续状态(第一类动词)而非瞬时动作。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Our school boasts a new gymnasium. 我们学校有一座新的体育馆。/ Such clubs now number more than a thousand and boast assets in the millions. 这样的俱乐部现在为数已上千，资产以百万算。/ Domino's Pizza Inc. boasts 8,124 company-owned and franchise stores and $5 billion in global sales. 达美乐比萨拥有 8,124 家公司直营店与加盟店，全世界销售额达 50 亿美元。/ Poland boasts one of the highest percentages of university graduates inthe world among younger workers. 波兰年轻工人当中大学毕业生的百分比在世界上位于前列。/ Central Europe's top cities boast state-of-the-art infrastructure, but second-tier cities and the countryside are another story. 中欧的大城市具备了顶尖的基础设施，但是二线城市和乡村却是另外一回事了。/ Samsung's DLP projection televisions boast better picture quality and slimmer design than conventional projection models that are typically bulky. 三星的数字光学处理投影电视机，比那些通常笨重的常规投影器材图像质量更好，设计更加娇小玲珑。</div><br><br>由于 boast 借以表示“拥有，具有”用得多了，甚至不是什么值得夸耀的东西(但不可以是负面的东西)都可以用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The next generation space shuttle does not possess the familiar airplane shape that the current shuttles boast. 下一代的航天飞机，不具有现在的航天飞机那样的飞机形状。</div><br><br>另外，如果 boast 前面加上 can，后面加上 of，则 can boast of 也可以表示“拥有(但不一定夸耀)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Many Oxford colleges can boast of beautiful gardens. 牛津的许多学院都拥有美丽的园圃。</div><br><br>
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boat
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>boat</b></div>关于 boat 前的介词，参见 bus 条。<br><br>
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body
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>body</b></div>指健康状况时不能说 body，应该说 health。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Good health (<i>body) is essential for the success of a career. 身体好是事业成功的本钱。说“他身体很健康”，不能说 </i>His body is healthy. 要说 He is in good health. 或简单的 He is healthy. 美国人注意减肥，有时也说 I want a good body. 但这只是指体形，不是指健康状况。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>No need to let any little bulges spoil your body any more, because XX has developed some exceptional slimming products. 不必再让小小的发胖部位把你的体形破坏掉了，因为 XX 已经开发出一些非常有效的减肥产品。</div><br><br>
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book
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>book</b></div>指书、笔记本、练习本等，但有时候复数 books 指“账册”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She often helped him with the books. 她常常帮他记账。</div><br><br>
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border on
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>border on</b></div>border on 后面接上一个抽象名词或形容词，表示“近于，几乎是”(通常用于表示负面的情状)。这是英语中很常用的一个表达方法。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>an act of irresponsibility bordering on folly 一个近乎胡闹的不负责任的行为</div><div class="ex-item">I thought the author's criticism bordered on rudeness. 我觉得作者的批评近于粗暴。/ U.S. "interrogations" border on torture. 美国的“审问”几乎等于刑讯。/ He was in a state of excitement bordering on insanity. 他当时处于一种几乎是疯狂的激动状态。</div><br><br>后面的形容词往往加上定冠词 the。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The story borders on the indecent. 故事近乎猥亵。/ His restraint and patience bordered on the robotic. (Dan Brown, The Da Vinci Code)他的克制和耐心，简直像个机器人。但是也有不加 the 的。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She had a dogged determination that bordered on obstinate. (ibid.)她的决心十分坚定，简直有点顽固。参见 verge 条。</div><br><br>
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bore
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>bore</b></div>这个单词可能是动词 bore 的不定式与一般现在时，但也可能是动词 bear 的过去式。听与阅读时要弄清楚。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Most fishermen simply bore a hole in the ice and drop a line through. 渔人大多干脆在冰上钻一个洞，扔进一条钓鱼线。(这句中的 bore 就是现在时。)参见 lay 与 lie 条。</div><br><br>
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bored 与 boring
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>bored 与 boring</b></div>两者分别是及物动词 bore 的过去分词与现在分词。bore 的意思是“使人感到烦闷”，因而 bored 就是“感到烦闷”，而 boring 则保持了“使人感到烦闷的”的主动意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A bored guest is a boring guest. 客人烦闷了，会使主人也烦闷。英语中有相当多的动词都有这种“使人感到如何”的意义，而“感到如何”的个人，倒不一定真的是“被”如何如何，他的感觉很可能只是自发的，但是在语言上仍然要采取被动式，例如 excited、interested、amazed、frightened、surprised、astonished、stunned、pleased、embarrassed。英语学习者容易按照自己的心理，认为这种感觉既然是自发的，不见得是被诱发的，就应该用主动的 -ing，所以常常出现 <i>I'm boring...、</i>I'm interesting in...、<i>I'm exciting...、</i>I'm amazing...、*I'm surprising... 之类的错句。</div><br><br>
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born
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>born</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 按照常理，“诞生”本来应该是个自动的动词。但是，不同的语言有不同的理解。中文等理解为自动，英文等则理解为被动(当然也有道理，因为婴儿不可能有主动的行为，只能是被母亲分娩下来)。<br><br>附加说明诞生的状况，通常使用一般过去时 was (were) born，但是简单指出诞生这一事实，或者累计迄今的诞生人数时，可以用现在完成时或过去完成时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A baby has been born. 生了一个婴儿。/ Three great writers have been born in this city. 有三位大作家是在这座城市出生的。</div><br><br>如果不用于被动语态而用主动语态，现在完成时或过去完成时中 bear 的过去分词就不是 born 而是 borne。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She had borne (<i>born) five children. 她一共生了五个孩子。同样，在被动语态中，如果用 by 提及生母是谁，过去分词也用 borne 而不用 born。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Jesus was borne (</i>born) by Mary. 耶稣是玛利亚所生。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 诞生的日期、地点，用的介词同使用其他动词时相同，但是诞生的家庭和父母，使用的介词是中国人不大习惯的 into (家庭)和 to (父母)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was born in Baltimore on March 26, 1922, into a banking and textile family. 他 1922 年 3 月 26 日生于巴尔的摩一个从事银行业兼纺织业的家庭。/ Mendelssohn was born into a prominent and highly cultivated German-Jewish family. 门德尔松出生在一个有名望而且有教养的德国犹太人家庭。/ They adopted a child that had been born to Kathleen Smith. 他们领养了凯瑟琳·史密斯生的一个孩子。</div><br><br>如果重点是说某人父母的社会状况，则用 of。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Some of the children were born of slave mothers. 有些孩子是做奴隶的母亲亲生的。</div><br><br>正式婚生的是 born in wedlock，非婚生的是 born out of wedlock。同父母结婚的次数相联系，第二次结婚所生，是 born to the second marriage。 (3) 动词的现在完成时，通常表示新知信息，而且很重要的一点是，这个新知信息重心正落在动词本身上面。如果该动词本身所指的动作或事件已经是已知信息，新知信息的重心不在此而落在其他成分上，就不要用现在完成时，而改用一般过去时。最明显的例子，就是 be born 这个动词，它几乎总是用一般过去时(was born、were born)，只有少数特殊情况下才用现在完成时(has been born)。原因就是：只要一说某人，他的“出生”这件事就必然是已知信息，只剩下“何时”出生、“何处”出生、出生在“什么人家”等成了有待提供的新知信息。如果不提供这些新知信息，只说 He was born.，就是把已知信息拿来“炒冷饭”；如果说 He has been born.，就是把一个现有的、人必然曾经出生一事当作新闻。这些都是荒谬的。唯有在 He was born 的基础上加上 in 1976，或是再加上 in Chicago，再加上 into a Catholic family 之类的新信息，句子才有存在的价值。至于把“出生”作为新闻，则当然可以用现在完成时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Standing here before you, feels like I've been born again. 站在你面前，我简直就像是再生了一样。</div><br><br>有个别风趣的成语，用了 have not been born (“还没出生”)，但同现实生活的常用说法有距离，不足为训。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The doctor hasn't been born who can cure this disease. 这个病，没有医生能治好。(直译：能治好这个病的医生还没有生下来呢。)</div>be born 的主动形式 bear，有人称这一类的动词为“创造动词”(verbs of creation)，其特点就是：直接宾语所指的事物，是这个动词所指的动作所创造出来的(在这个动作之前，该事物并不存在)。因此，该事物如果是已知地没有 the，则该“创造动词”的动作也必然同样是已知地。He was born. 之所以经常不能成立，就是因为 he 是已知地，was born 也是已知地，全句没有新知信息。He has been born. 是硬要把 be born 当作新知信息，违反了常理。总之，凡是有“创造动词”出现作为谓语的句子，其中必须有至少一个成分是新知信息，才能成立。如 *Someone built this garage. 是经常不能成立的，因为 this garage 既然是已知信息，build 也必然是已知信息，而 someone 的存在也是必然的(也是已知信息)。如果把 someone 改为 John，这就有了新知信息。或者说 Someone built this garage last year. (或更通顺地说 This garage was built last year.)，加上了 last year，就是加上了新知信息。另一方面，如果不用“创造动词”而用别的动词，如 Someone has painted this garage. 那就可以，因为 paint 并不和 this garage 一样是已知信息，而是新知信息。<br><br>有一篇关于纽约的老罗斯福博物馆的介绍，最后一句是：The Roosevelt Memorial Association, which established the museum, charges a nominal admission fee to visitors. 设立本博物馆的罗斯福纪念协会，向参观者收取名义上的参观费。这里的 museum 是已知地，前面有 the，而且 establish 又是“创造动词”，从句中唯一的新知信息是 which，即 the Roosevelt Memorial Association，说明了设立这个博物馆的是该协会。由于这里是“创造动词 + 已知宾语”，所以 established 这个一般过去时(已知信息)不可以改为现在完成时 has established (新知信息)。如果不是“创造动词”，比如说，如果是 take over (接管)，就可以说 which has taken over the museum。<br><br>但是，新旧信息之间的界限，往往不是黑白分明的。有时候“动词 + 状语”可以加在一起当作新知信息(而不是动词作旧信息，状语作新信息)。如果说话的人持这样的观点(尤其是着重这个信息对当前的重要性)，be born 在谓语中也可以采取现在完成时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has been born and brought up in New York. 他是在纽约出生和长大的。</div><br><br>
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borrow
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>borrow</b></div>参见 rent 与 lease 条。<br><br>
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both
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>both</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> both 限定主语与限定宾语时的位置和搭配，与 all 相类似(但 both 后面不加 the)。参见 all 条之(7)与(8)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He played both of the Brahms concertos/both Brahms concertos. 他演奏了勃拉姆的那两首协奏曲。这句可以改为 He played them both. 但是不能改为 *He played the Brahms concertos both.</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 必须是对双方有效而且排除了第三者时方可以用 both。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Both guests have arrived. 两位客人都到了。(当前谈到的只有两位客人。)而且情况必须是对两者相同。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Both books weigh more than five pounds. 两本书每本都重五磅多。(不是两本加起来五磅多。)/ It was having an effect on them both. 这正在对他们两个人都起作用。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 由于 both 表示谓语对每一方都起作用，因而如果表示双方合起来才能完成的行动时，最好不要画蛇添足加上 both。例如 John and Mary got married. 是两人结为夫妇，而 Both John and Mary got married. 可能是各自同他人结婚。John and Mary are married. 是“两人是夫妻”，而 John and Mary are both married. 是“两人均已婚”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It sounds to me as if you two (*both) are going to get a divorce. 我听起来似乎觉得你们两人要离婚了。(说 both 就可能是两人分别同配偶离婚。)/ She walked to the kitchen to bring us both a cup of hot coffee. 她走去厨房给我们两个人每人端来一杯热咖啡。(不是“两个人共一杯”。)</div>有人则持相反的看法，认为 both 表示两者加在一起如何如何而不是各自如何如何。例如 Both boys are to receive a scholarship. 在他们看来是“两个人共同获得一份奖学金”，Both children wore a new hat. 是“两个孩子合戴一顶新帽子”。这样的看法似乎有点牵强。<br><br>不过，如果不是这样极端的例子，有时候 both 的确可以给人一种两者加在一起的印象，例如英国的《蒸汽世界》(Steam World)杂志上曾经有这么一句话：Didn't he know that the LMS and the LNER both employed more people than today's entire railway industry? 他难道不知道，伦敦、密德兰及苏格兰铁路公司和伦敦及东北铁路公司所雇用的人员都比今天整个铁路业的从业人员多？这里的 both 本来是对两者各自起作用的(即每一家雇用的人员都比整个铁路业多)，但是也容易造成误解，令人以为两家加在一起才如此，所以最好还是避免用 both，将句子改为：Didn't he know that the LMS and the LNER each employed more people than today's entire railway industry?<br><span class="seq">(4)</span> both ... and ... 表示的是一种并列的关系，如果是两个行动或状态，则表示“既……又……”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>John both loves Mary and wants to marry her sister. 约翰既爱玛丽，又想同她妹妹结婚。/ John loves Mary and wants to marry her. 约翰爱玛丽， (因此)想同她结婚。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 表示主有关系时，通常最好用 of 表示说 the mothers of both (他们两人各自的母亲)而不说 <i>both their mothers，说 the fault of both (两人共同的过错)而不说 </i>both their fault。both the girls' mother 是两姐妹的母亲，both the girl's parents 是一个女孩子的双亲。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> both 前面有否定时，是局部否定，即否定一个肯定一个。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I don't want both books. 这两本书我不全要(只要一本)。both 后面的否定可能是局部否定，但更多是全部否定。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Both of them are not in good shape. 他们两个人身体都不好。/ 他们两个人并不是身体都好。/ Both children were not to be found at home. 两个孩子在家里都不见了人。但是全部否定最好不用 both ... not ... 而用 neither，例如最好不要说 *Both of them did not go swimming. 而说 Neither of them went swimming.</div><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 无论 both 究竟是强调两者各自如何如何还是强调两者加在一起如何如何，两者一定有相同的情况，这一点是必须肯定的，否则就不能用 both。不过，即使以英语为母语的人，也往往忽视这一点，以为 both 就是简单的指“两者”，甚至两者情况明明不同也用 both。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>有一个英文病历上就有这样的记载：In addition, both children had a different medical history. Child A was vaccinated against all common childhood illnesses, while child B was not; child A had her tonsils removed, while child B did not. 此外，两个儿童的病历不同。儿童甲接种了各种儿童常见病的预防疫苗，儿童乙则没有；儿童甲的扁桃体已经摘除，儿童乙则没有。/ The team looked at two sets of images taken several years apart. In both cases the second set of images revealed a light-colored substance several hundred yards long that had not been there before, indicating something had erupted from the ground and apparently sloshed toward the bottom of the basin. (Los Angeles Times, Dec. 7, 2006) (关于火星表面有水的报道)小组注视着相隔几年拍摄的两组照片。在两组照片中，第二组显示有一种浅色的物质，有几百码长，是先前没有的，这表明地底下冒出了一些什么东西，溅泼到了盆地的底部。(说了 both，但后面只说一组如何，也没有谈到两组相同之处，这种用法是不足为训的。)</div><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> both 和后面的名词之间加不加上 the 均可，加不加都是特指的，以不加更为普遍。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Both (the) students were excellent. 两个学生都很优秀。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(9)</span> both 与介词孰先孰后，是一个有争论的问题。主张介词先于 both (如 in both China and other countries)的人所持的理由是：both 后面的两个成分一定要在句法地位上对称(如果说 both in China and other countries 就一轻一重)。而主张 both 可以放在介词前面的人，则认为两个成分不容易保持对称，而且一般人行文都已经习惯了 both 先行。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She was considering childbirth both as a woman and an obstetrician. 她是既以女人的身份，又是以产科医生的身份来考虑生孩子的问题的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(10)</span> both 后面有复数名词，不一定就是“两个这样的事物”，它后面可能还有 and ...，此时前一个复数名词就只是 both 所管的两个单位当中的第一个(尽管它是复数)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... made the school more attractive to both topflight professors and the next wave of applicants. (Nancy Gibbs, "Who Needs Harvard?", Time, Aug. 13, 2006)……使得学校既对顶尖的教授们，也对下一批投考学生有更大的吸引力。(不是“两个顶尖的教授”)也就是说，both 可以指两组复数事物，不一定是两个单数事物。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Polar bears and penguins may live poles apart. But they both depend on ice and cold for survival. (U.S. News & World Report, Apr. 2009, p. 76)北极熊和企鹅生活的地点可能相距很远，但是它们都要靠冰雪和寒冷才能生存。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(11)</span> both ways 是“有来有往”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Besides, he knew enough about sibling rivalry to understand that it worked both ways. (John Darnton, The Darwin Conspiracy)此外，他对兄弟姐妹之间的竞争懂得很多，所以明白这是双向的。</div><br><br>
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bother
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>bother</b></div>这个单词，无论作为及物动词还是不及物动词(第二类兼第四类动词)或是名词，基本上都是“麻烦”的意思，但是用法和含义有些值得注意之处：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为及物动词，直接宾语是人，意义很简单明确，就是“干扰，麻烦”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Does my smoking bother you? 我吸烟打扰您吗？/ Sorry to bother you. 对不起，打扰您一下。/ He always bothers me for money. 他老是缠着我要钱。/ What bothers you? 您有什么烦心事儿呀？/ She can do what she likes; it doesn't bother me. 她爱做什么就做什么，我不介意。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> bother oneself to inf.、bother oneself + -ing、bother oneself about + -ing 都是“麻烦自己去做某事”，通常用否定(即“懒得去做某事”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He doesn't bother himself to cook.</div><div class="ex-item">He doesn't bother himself cooking.</div><div class="ex-item">He doesn't bother himself about cooking. 他懒得做烧饭这件麻烦事。(注意：在这里，否定的范围一直到句末，不能误解为“做某事不觉得麻烦”。)</div>上面三个否定语态用法，oneself 都可以省略。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I didn't bother to get washed as I knew I would be working on the farm. 我知道我的工作地点是农场，也就懒得洗漱一番了。/ No one bothered to visit him.</div><div class="ex-item">No one bothered visiting him.</div><div class="ex-item">No one bothered about visiting him. 谁都懒得去探望他。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> bother (oneself) to inf. 之类的结构，通常用否定，但也可以用“准否定”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Very few people bothered to climb there. 人们通常懒得爬上去。</div><br><br>bother 的主语如果不是人，而是形式主语 it，真主语是动词不定式，则这个动词不定式不被否定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Now we're asking ourselves why our children have no conscience, why they don't know right from wrong, and why it doesn't bother them to kill strangers, their classmates, and themselves. (Ben Stein)现在，我们问自己，我们的孩子为什么没有良知，为什么分不清对和错，为什么对杀害陌生人，杀害自己的同学，杀害自己，都不感到难以出手。</div><br><br>
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bottom
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>bottom</b></div>这个名词在 to the bottom 中也往往用于表示“彻底”，同中文相近。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the matter must be probed to the bottom. (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes)事情必须侦查个水落石出。/ I have conceived of a bold plan to get to the bottom of the mystery once and for all. (John Darnton, The Darwin Conspiracy)我设想了一个大胆的计划，要干净利落地彻底弄清楚这个谜团。</div><br><br>
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bow and arrow
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>bow and arrow</b></div>“弓箭”如果理解为一种武器的整体，作主语时动词用单数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The bow and arrow was invented at that time. 弓箭是那个时候发明的。</div><br><br>
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bread
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>bread</b></div>是个不可数名词。通常在饮食店点饮料和食品，不可数名词可以临时当作代表一份份饮食的可数名词看待。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We ordered two beers. 我们要了两份啤酒。但是面包就不可以说 *two breads，这可能是因为面包种类很多，大小也不一，形状也是五花八门(可以是 loaf、bun、roll、slice 等等)，说 two breads 根本说不清楚要的是什么。通常购买时，一个个的面包，用可数名词 loaf (复数 loaves)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Could I have two big seedy loaves and ... 我要两个带籽粒的面包和……</div><br><br>但是 bread 也有作为可数名词使用的时候，那是用来表示某一种类的面包。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I have to buy three breads: a loaf of gluten-free for Rose, two loaves of sourdough rye for Daisy, and a white loaf for Jennifer. 我需要买三种面包：给罗丝买一个没有麦麸的，给黛西买两个黑麦酸面包，给珍妮弗买一个白面包。</div><br><br>
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break a leg
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>break a leg</b></div>直译是“但愿你跌断一条腿”，但这却是对一个即将上台表演的人的祝福和鼓励的习语。因为习俗认为，对表演者如果说吉利的话，反而会给他带来厄运，而说不吉利的话，就会使他交上好运。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—The big show is tonight. I hope I don't forget my lines. —Break a leg, Bill. —正式演出就在今天晚上。我希望我不会忘掉台词。—祝你好运，比尔。/ —I'm nervous about my solo. —You'll do great. Don't worry. Break a leg! —我对这次独唱很紧张。—你一定会唱好的。别担心。祝你成功！</div><br><br>
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(break a) leg
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(break a) leg</b></div>参见 break a leg 条。<br><br>
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breakfast
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>breakfast</b></div>结婚的“婚宴”，英文叫作 wedding breakfast，但其实不是早上的“早餐”，而是正式的盛大的晚宴。之所以叫 breakfast，要从这个单词的词源说起。fast 在这里不是“快的”，而是带有宗教色彩的“禁食”，禁食过了，次日第一顿早餐打破 (break)了禁食，所以叫 breakfast。结婚那一天，可能古时新郎新娘在婚礼举行前都禁食，婚礼举行之后，到了婚宴之时才打破禁食，所以婚宴叫作 wedding breakfast，尽管在现代已经不流行婚礼前禁食了。<br><br>
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brick
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>brick</b></div>通常是可数名词(一块一块的砖头)；但也可以是不可数名词(作为建筑材料的一堆砖头)，此时 brick 保持单数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Already the two gaslamps on the pavement opposite have been pulled to brightness by the lamplighters' long pole and illume the raw brick of the warehouse walls. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman)旅馆对面人行道上的两盏气灯已由点灯工用长竿拨亮，仓库墙上粗糙的砖头被照得雪亮。brick 作为不可数名词时，前面用 much 而不用 many，用 less 而不用 fewer。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How to figure how much brick for a wall? 如何算出一堵墙需要多少砖头？/ Being largely hollow, such walls contain less brick than their solid equivalents although they offer improved water resistance and economy of brick. 这样的墙，很大部分是空心的，里面用砖比实心墙少，但是防水性能却更强，所以更经济。注意下面的例句：With so much brick used on homes in South Carolina, there should be plenty of places near you to find used bricks. 南卡罗来纳州盖住房用了这么多的砖，你附近一定有许多地方可以找到废砖。(这里前面的 brick 是不可数名词，因为这里的“砖”是集合的建筑材料；后面的 bricks 是可数名词，因为这里的“砖”是零星分散的。)</div>但是，有时候复数的 bricks 也被看作一堆不可数的材料，此时 bricks 前面也可以用 much 和 less。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How much bricks can 1 cubic meter accommodate? 一立方米能容下多少砖？/ Calculate how much bricks you would need and then purchase your materials. 计算一下可能需要多少砖，然后去采购材料。/ Less bricks and mortar, more cement and copper. 少用砖头和砂浆，多用水泥和铜。</div><br><br>
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bridge
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>bridge</b></div>架在一条河上的桥，是 a bridge across the river 或 a bridge over the river。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the bridges across/over the Seine 塞纳河上的桥梁。</div><br><br>bridge 用于抽象转义时亦同。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a bridge across/over the racial divide 跨越种族分野的桥梁。</div><br><br>
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brigade
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>brigade</b></div>这个名词，军事上尽人皆知是“旅”，但是也常常用于指一批抱某一想法或主张的人。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the anti-smoking brigade 反对吸烟的公众</div><div class="ex-item">the government-is-responsible-for-everything brigade 那些老是认为一切都是政府的错的人。</div><br><br>
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bring 与 take
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>bring 与 take</b></div>首先，按照一般字面上的理解，bring 是“拿来”，take 是“拿去”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A mother asks a boy setting out for school to take a note to the teacher and to bring home a reply. (Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of Synonyms)一个母亲叫出门上学的男孩子带一张便条去给老师，并把老师的回条带回家来。/ A farmer takes his cattle to the market and brings back a supply of sugar, flour, and fresh meat. (ibid.)一位农民把自己的牲口赶到集市去，带回来一些糖、面粉和鲜肉。但是有些美国语言学家认为两者的区别在美国已经不大。</div><br><br>再深入一步考察，可以说，只要所指的目的地是说话者自己或者对方有任何一方所在的，就可以用 bring，而如果目的地是双方都不在的，英式英语就必须用take，但美式英语常常用 bring。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This is a nice restaurant. Thanks for bringing me here. (双方都在此)这家饭馆真不错。谢谢你带我到这里来。/ Let's have another drink, and then I'll take (美式英语 bring) you home. (双方都不在此)咱们再来一杯，回头我送你回家。/ Can we come over on Sunday? We'll bring a picnic. (打电话时说；对方到时会在此)我们星期天过来行吗？我们会带些野餐食品。/ Let's go and see them on Sunday. We can take (美式英语 bring) a picnic. (双方都不在此)咱们星期天去看他们好吗？咱们可以带些野餐食品去。</div><br><br>其次，这个“在此”，不光是指说话时的现在，也可以指说话时特定的过去或将来。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—Where's the report? —I brought it to you when you were in Mr. Allen's office. Don't you remember? (对方过去特定时间所在)—报告在哪里？—你在艾伦先生办公室的时候我把报告送给你了。你不记得了吗？/ I'll arrive at the hotel at six o'clock. Can you bring me the car at six thirty? (自己将来特定时间所在)我 6 点钟到达旅馆。你能 6 点半给我把车子送来吗？</div><br><br>另外，凡是参加说话者或听者去他处的行动(这个“去”的行动本身是 go，但是参加是 come)，参加时带来人或物是 bring 而不是 *take。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm taking the kids to the cinema tonight. Would you like to come with us and bring Caroline? 我今天晚上要带孩子去看电影。你带卡罗琳跟我们一起去好吗？(参见 come 与 go 条)</div>最后，即使既非说话者，亦非说话对方，而是第三人，但成了话语的中心人物，此时，以他所在的地点为目的地，带东西去也说 bring 而不说 *take。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He heard nothing for months. Then one day his brother brought him a letter. 他好多个月听不到一点音信。忽然有一天，他弟弟给他送来了一封信。</div><br><br>
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British
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>British</b></div>是 Great Britain (大不列颠，英国)的形容词；前面加上 the 就是英国人的总称。单独一个英国人，可以说是 a British person (男女均可)、a British man、a British woman (报章上简称都可以说 a Briton)。同样的情况，也见 French、Spanish、Dutch、English (注意：全都是以 -sh 或 -ch 结尾的)。但是 Spanish 有点特别，参见 Spanish 条。<br><br>
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broad 与 wide
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>broad 与 wide</b></div>这两个形容词往往可以互换。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a broad/wide street 一条宽阔的马路</div><div class="ex-item">a broad/wide valley 一片宽阔的峡谷</div><div class="ex-item">a broad/wide ribbon 一条很宽的缎带。</div><br><br>两者也有如下一些区别：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> broad 着重大片面积的“宽广”(通常是“有标记的”，marked)，而 wide 则着重两点之间的测量距离(通常是“无标记的”，unmarked，但也可以是“有标记的”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The canal was as narrow as 300 yards wide (无标记). 运河很窄，只有 300 码宽。/ Broad (有标记) to the North (c. 4,600 mi</div><div class="ex-item">7,400 km wide (无标记)), Africa straddles the equator and stretches c. 5,000 mi (8,050 km) from Cape Blanc (Tunisia) in the north to Cape Agulhas (South Africa) in the south. (Columbia Encyclopedia)非洲北端宽(宽度约 4,600 英里即 7,400 公里)，跨越赤道，向南伸展约 5,000 英里(8,050 公里)，从布朗角(突尼斯)直到阿古利斯角(南非)。前一例句的 narrow，从根本上否定了后面的 wide 有任何“很宽阔”的意思；后一例句开头的 broad，是指地域的广阔，括号里的 wide，则是实际的测量数字，各司其职。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 用于“有标记的”之意时，broad 着重事物本身所充满的面积，而 wide 则可以指空缺的距离。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a <b><u>wide</u></b> (<i>broad) gap 一个很宽的缺口</div><div class="ex-item">The boy stood there with his eyes <b><u>wide</u></b> (</i>broad) with amazement. 那个男孩子站在那里，诧异地睁着双眼。/ Open the door <b><u>wide</u></b> (<i>broad). 把门开得大大的。/ a <b><u>broad</u></b> (</i>wide) leaf 一片宽阔的树叶</div><div class="ex-item">a <b><u>broad</u></b>-headed (<i>wide-headed) tack 大头图钉</div><div class="ex-item"><b><u>broad</u></b>-shouldered (</i>wide-shouldered) 宽肩的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 用于抽象事物，broad 和 wide 的用法则往往遵从习惯，难以概括为规律。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a <b><u>broad</u></b> range of courses 范围很广的课程</div><div class="ex-item"><b><u>broad</u></b> implications 广泛的后果</div><div class="ex-item">in its <b><u>broad</u></b> sense 就其广义而言</div><div class="ex-item"><b><u>broad</u></b> construction 广义解释（美国法律用语）/ <b><u>broad</u></b>-spectrum antibiotic 广谱抗生素</div><div class="ex-item">a <b><u>wide</u></b> variety of things 五花八门的东西</div><div class="ex-item">We stock a <b><u>wide</u></b> selection of imported goods. 本店存有众多进口货物供选购。/ <b><u>Wider</u></b> debate on this subject is essential. 这个问题有必要进行更加广泛的讨论。/ Her interests are <b><u>wide</u></b>. 她的兴趣很广泛。/ Ours is the newspaper with the <b><u>widest</u></b> circulation. 本报是销售范围最广的报纸。/ There is <b><u>wide</u></b> agreement among academics that ... 学术界大都一致认为……</div><div class="ex-item">Their style of music has <b><u>wide</u></b> appeal. 他们的音乐风格很受欢迎。</div><br><br>
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brush
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>brush</b></div>这个及物动词的直接宾语，可以是被刷的物体本身。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b><u>brush</u></b> one's teeth 刷牙</div><div class="ex-item"><b><u>brush</u></b> the carpet 刷地毯。但也可以是物体上要刷掉的脏东西（此时往往加上方向副词或介词短语）。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He <b><u>brushed</u></b> the crumbs off the table. 他把餐桌上的碎渣擦掉。/ She <b><u>brushed</u></b> out the wrinkles in her dress nervously. 她紧张地把自己衣服上的褶皱抹平。/ Tears welled up in his eyes and he <b><u>brushed</u></b> them aside with his sleeve. 泪水涌上了他的眼睛，他就用袖子把泪水擦掉。/ He <b><u>brushed</u></b> the plaster dust from his clothes. (Dan Brown, <i>Angels and Demons</i>) 他擦掉自己衣服上的石膏粉末。</div><br><br>这个动词如果动作延续没有终点，属第二类动词；有终点就属第三类动词；表示短促瞬时动作，尤其是如果加上方向副词或介词短语，就属第四类动词。但是有时候也可以作为第一类动词表示延续状态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Her skirt <b><u>brushed</u></b> the floor. 她的裙子拖着地。</div><br><br>
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buffalo
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>buffalo</b></div>参见 cow, ox, bull 与 buffalo 条。<br><br>
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build
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>build</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 可以有双宾语（搭配参见 buy 条）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Their children are <b><u>building</u></b> them a small house.</div><div class="ex-item">Their children are <b><u>building</u></b> it/a small house <b><u>for</u></b> them. 他们俩的儿女正在给他们盖一栋小房子。/ They are <b><u>building</u></b> a small house <b><u>for</u></b> their parents. 他们正在给他们的父母盖一栋小房子。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> build 是个典型的“趋成动词”（即第三类动词）。关于这类动词在体方面的特点，详见本书附录一。<br><br>
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build ... into ...
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>build ... into ...</b></div>中文“把……建设成为……”，英文说 build ... into ...，这个英文搭配受到了许多批评。有人甚至认为这是“中式英语”。但是美国不少人并不懂中文，也不大可能受到“中式英语”的影响，却不乏使用 build ... into ... 的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But credit where credit is due, he single-handedly <b><u>built</u></b> Stanford Enterprises <b><u>into</u></b> one of the biggest privately held conglomerates in the world. 但是，公道话该说还是要说，他单枪匹马把斯坦福公司建设成了世界上最大的私营联合企业之一。/ Townsend had watched with increasing anger as Armstrong <b><u>built</u></b> up WRC <b><u>into</u></b> a strong power-base in the north of England. (Jeffrey Archer, <i>The Fourth Estate</i>) 汤森越来越气愤地眼巴巴注视着阿姆斯特朗把 WRC 建设成为英格兰北部的一个强大的势力基地。</div><br><br>
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bull
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>bull</b></div>参见 cow, ox, bull 与 buffalo 条。<br><br>
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burgle
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>burgle</b></div>美式英语作 burglarize。作为及物动词（“盗窃”），直接宾语通常是被盗的房屋，也可以是被盗之物的主人。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We were (= Our house was) burgled while we were away. 我们外出时家里被盗了。</div><br><br>由于房屋被盗不一定就代表丢失东西，所以如果直接宾语是财物，burgle/burglarize 可以表示“盗走”，也可以表示“被企图偷盗（但不一定盗走）”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—It (= the photo) must be where she can lay her hands upon it. It must be in her own house. —But it has twice been <b><u>burgled</u></b>. (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, <i>The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes</i>) —那张照片一定是放在她顺手够得着的地方。一定是在她家。—但已经被偷盗过两次了。（偷盗未遂）</div>
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burned
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>burned</b></div>不一定是烧伤，也可以是被水烫伤或烫疼。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was <b><u>burned</u></b> while showering. 他淋浴时被烫伤了。/ Armstrong disliked having to wait for anything to cool down. He would rather be <b><u>burned</u></b>. (Jeffrey Archer, <i>The Fourth Estate</i>) 阿姆斯特朗对任何东西都不喜欢等凉下来才吃。他宁可烫了嘴。</div><br><br>
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bus
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>bus</b></div>通常说，“在小汽车上”是 <b><u>in</u></b> a/the car；但是“在大汽车上”就不用 in 而用 <b><u>on</u></b>，如 <b><u>on</u></b> a/the bus。“上小汽车”是 get <b><u>in/into</u></b> a/the car；“下小汽车”是 get <b><u>out of</u></b> a/the car（不能说 *get off the car）。“上大汽车”是 get <b><u>on/onto</u></b> a/the bus；“下大汽车”是 get <b><u>off</u></b> a/the bus。(in、into、out of 是一组；on、onto、off 是一组。) 出租车 (taxi) 的用法也和 car 一样。看来，交通工具，比较小的，用 in、get in/into、get out of；比较大的，尤其是公共的，就用 on、get on/onto、get off。同样，火车、飞机、轮船，用法也和 bus 相同，可能因为比较大了，就有一片较为广阔的平面。如果略去交通工具，只说“上、下”，交通工具小，可以说 get in、get out；交通工具大，可以说 get on、get off。总之，大型的交通工具，似乎被当作一个二维的平面，而小型的，则似乎被当作一个三维的立体。<br><br>但是，也有两可的情况。例如“电梯”（美国叫 elevator，英国叫 lift），固然是公共设备，但是体积很小，所以“走进电梯”可以说 get <b><u>into</u></b> the elevator/lift，也可以说 get <b><u>onto</u></b> the elevator/lift；“走出电梯”可以说 get <b><u>out of</u></b> the elevator/lift，也可以说 get <b><u>off</u></b> the elevator/lift。<br><br>
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business
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>business</b></div>这个名词在现代英语中用得非常频繁，因而增添了许多新义，意义非常丰富、繁杂、多样，有时简直难以译成其他语言。大体上可以先从这个单词的词源来看。它本来是形容词 busy 派生出来的名词。顾名思义，它的原意就是“忙；办事；事情；事业”。凡是正式的（同“休闲”相对），如“办公”，甚至很抽象含糊的语言交际行为，也都可以列入 business 的范围。例如在谈及两个单词在日常语言中的使用频率时，就可以说：<i>Endorse</i> seems to be putting <i>indorse</i> out of <b><u>business</u></b> altogether. <i>endorse</i> 这个词似乎正在把 <i>indorse</i> 完全从日常使用中排挤出去。笼统抽象的“事情”，也可以说是 business。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Life is a hard <b><u>business</u></b>. 人生处处不容易。但是，在英美这样的商业社会，business 就自然同企业、行业，甚至更具体地同商业甚至一家家的公司联系了起来。下面我们归纳一下 business 几个方面的主要词义：</div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 笼统意义上的工商业（包括生产与流通），相当于中文的“生意”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b><u>business</u></b> people 工商界人士</div><div class="ex-item">He has made a lot of money in <b><u>business</u></b>. 他做生意赚了许多钱。/ He is a leading industrialist with <b><u>business</u></b> interests in China. 他是一位在中国有生意经营的大工业家。/ They have lost <b><u>business</u></b> to foreign competitors. 他们的生意被外国竞争者抢去了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 意义较为狭窄的商业买卖活动（只包括流通）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We do <b><u>business</u></b> with Japanese exporters. 我们同日本出口商做买卖。/ We deal fairly in <b><u>business</u></b>. 我们买卖公平。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 任何行业（甚至工商业以外的行业）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He's in the travel <b><u>business</u></b>. 他从事旅游业。/ She's in the fashion <b><u>business</u></b>. 她是搞时尚产业的。/ We're also in the insurance <b><u>business</u></b>. 我们也是保险业的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> (企业)进行中的营业活动。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The firm has been in <b><u>business</u></b> for over twenty years. 该公司已经经营了 20 多年。/ The factory is back in <b><u>business</u></b> again. 该工厂现在又开工了。/ Taxis are plying for <b><u>business</u></b> at the airport. 出租汽车在机场争生意。/ High rents have put many local traders out of <b><u>business</u></b>. 由于租金太高，当地许多经营者只好歇业。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> (企业的)营业状况。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b><u>Business</u></b> is good. 生意好。/ <b><u>Business</u></b> is slack. 生意清淡。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> (任何行业或事业的)运行。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The government tried to give the appearance of <b><u>business</u></b> as usual. 政府企图装出事情一切正常的样子。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 对公众营业或办公。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The store/bank opens for <b><u>business</u></b> at nine o'clock. 商店/银行 9 点开门营业。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> 与私事相对的公事。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>mix <b><u>business</u></b> with pleasure 趁办公事的机会玩乐一下</div><div class="ex-item">Is it <b><u>business</u></b> or personal? 是公事还是私事？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(9)</span> 正事（与次要的事相对）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>get down to <b><u>business</u></b> 言归正传</div><div class="ex-item">mean <b><u>business</u></b> 正经八百，说到做到。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(10)</span> 某人自己的事情（不分公私）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Mind your own <b><u>business</u></b>. 少管闲事。/ That's none of your <b><u>business</u></b>. 你管不着。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(11)</span> 要办的事项。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'll make it my <b><u>business</u></b> to find out what is wrong. 我要亲自察看一下问题在哪里。/ This divorce <b><u>business</u></b> is getting me down. 离婚这件事把我弄得心力交瘁。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(12)</span> 最广泛意义的“办事处世”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>As these events unfold, our country will need a better way of doing <b><u>business</u></b>, a new compact between citizens and their government. (Michael Gerson, <i>The View from the Top</i>, in <i>Newsweek</i>, Aug. 21-28, p. 60) 随着这些事件的展开，我们国家将需要用更好的方式来办事，需要公民们同他们政府之间建立新的约定。</div><br><br>
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busy
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>busy</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> busy 通常只能指人、由人组成的群体、多人的场所地点、人所支配的时间（包括时间表），以及通信、交通，不能指人的活动。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The children keep me very <b><u>busy</u></b>. 孩子们把我弄得很忙。/ This street is usually very <b><u>busy</u></b>. 这条街通常很热闹。/ I've had a <b><u>busy</u></b> day. 我忙了一天。/ The shops are very <b><u>busy</u></b> today. 今天商店很拥挤。/ Summer is our <b><u>busiest</u></b> season. 夏天是我们最繁忙的季节。/ The line is <b><u>busy</u></b>. 电话占线。/ Your cell phone was <b><u>busy</u></b>. 你的手机占线着。可以说 I have a <b><u>busy</u></b> schedule next week. (我下礼拜日程很紧。) 但不能说 *My work is <b><u>busy</u></b>. (我工作忙。)</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 说“忙于做某事”，可以在 busy 后直接加上动词现在分词，不必加上任何介词再加动词名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I was <b><u>busy</u></b> <b><u>writing</u></b> a letter. 我那时正忙着写一封信。/ Engineers are <b><u>busy</u></b> <b><u>developing</u></b> next-generation chips for automobiles and medical equipment. 工程师们正忙于开发下一代供汽车和医疗器材使用的芯片。参见 difficulty 条。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> get busy 是口语，是“开始动手干起来”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We'd better get <b><u>busy</u></b>. 咱们还是动手干起来吧。/ I got <b><u>busy</u></b> on the reports. 我开始动手写报告。</div><br><br>
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but
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>but</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> but 与 although (though) 能否同时出现的问题，参见 although 条。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 在 although 条中已经谈到了，用主从连词 although 引入让步从句时，主句不能用 but 引入，因为 but 是个并列连词，加进去就会把主句降格为并列句的第二个分句，全句就成了不伦不类的一个让步从句加一个并列分句。but 因为是并列连词而不是副词，所以只能放在分句的句首，后面不能停顿（书面上不能加逗号），它前面同前一句的分隔，只能用逗号，不能用分号。反之，意义上同 but 相同但词性不同的副词 however、nevertheless、nonetheless 等，就可以与 although (though) 一起出现，本身可以放在主句的句首，后面一定要有停顿（书面上加逗号），也可以插在主句之中（前后加逗号）。如果前面的从句去掉 although (though)，主从句就变为并列句，但后一分句句首的 however 同前一分句之间不能用逗号连接，而应该改用分号。这就形成了下面几个意义相同但结构不同的句子（注意标点）：<b><u>Although</u></b> I wanted to study, I was too tired. I wanted to study, <b><u>but</u></b> I was too tired.I wanted to study; <b><u>however</u></b>, I was too tired.但是有些让步句并不是从句，而是独立句，此时后面一句可以用 but 放在句首。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b><u>Insipid</u></b> her verse <b><u>is</u></b>, as you will see in a minute; <b><u>but</u></b> she was a far from insipid person. (John Fowles, <i>The French Lieutenant's Woman</i>) 虽然其诗可能味同嚼蜡，这是你一下子就可以看出来的，但她却绝不是一个枯燥的人。这里 Insipid her verse is 其实是 Her verse is insipid，但是把表语 insipid 提前到句首作主位（前一句刚谈到 Mrs. Norton 是个 insipid 的诗人，所以 insipid 成了眼下谈论的主题，即主位），是个独立句，所以两句之间可以用分号隔开，后一句还可以用 but 引入。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> sorry 后面的 but，参见 sorry 与 but 条。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> but 还有一个许多词典上没有提及的很独特的语法功用，就是作为一个否定词引入一个定语从句，将这个从句的内容加以否定。这个作用，有点像介词 without。其他一些欧洲语言中，都有相当于 without + that 从句的结构，唯独英文 without 后面不能引入 that 从句。这个作用，在比较小的范围内由 but 来弥补。由于英文没有 without that 的结构，这样的结构，就相当于 without + X + -ing。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Not a day passed by <b><u>but</u></b> he repented of what he had done. = Not a day passed by <b><u>without</u></b> him repent<b><u>ing</u></b> of what he had done. 没有一天他不忏悔自己做过的事。/ I never go past the theatre <b><u>but</u></b> I think of his last performance. = I never go past the theatre <b><u>without</u></b> (my) think<b><u>ing</u></b> of his last performance. 我没有一次经过那个剧院不想起他最后一次的演出。/ It never rains <b><u>but</u></b> it pours. 不下则已，一下就是倾盆大雨。/ And I would have you believe, my sons, that the same Justice which punishes sin may also most graciously forgive it, and that <b><u>no</u></b> ban is so heavy <b><u>but that</u></b> by prayer and repentance it may be removed. (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, <i>The Hound of the Baskervilles</i>) 而且，我的孩子们，我要向你们说清楚，正义固然惩罚罪孽，但正义同样会十分宽宏大量地饶恕罪孽，而且任何禁令，哪怕多么严厉，经过祈祷和悔改，都无不可以取消的。这样的句子，有一个特点，就是主句通常都是否定句，再加上从句的否定，形成否定 + 否定 = 强意全部肯定。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 但是 but 的这个特殊用途还发展到同前面的 so 相呼应，形成 so (such) ... but ... 结构，意义上相当于 so (such) ... that ... not ...。而且这样的句子也都是“否定 + 否定 = 强意全部肯定”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Nothing is <b><u>so</u></b> bad <b><u>but</u></b> it might have been worse. = Nothing is <b><u>so</u></b> bad <b><u>that</u></b> it might <b><u>not</u></b> have been worse. 没有什么事情会是坏到不可能更坏的。/ No one is <b><u>so</u></b> old <b><u>but</u></b> he may learn. = No one is <b><u>so</u></b> old <b><u>that</u></b> he may <b><u>not</u></b> learn. 谁都不会老到不能学习的地步。/ No man is <b><u>so</u></b> great <b><u>but</u></b> he has his weak side. = No man is <b><u>so</u></b> great <b><u>that</u></b> he does <b><u>not</u></b> have his weak side. 谁都不会伟大到没有弱点的地步。/ He is not <b><u>so</u></b> sick <b><u>but</u></b> he can come to school. = He is not <b><u>so</u></b> sick <b><u>that</u></b> he <b><u>cannot</u></b> come to school. 他还没有病到不能来上学的地步。/ He is not <b><u>such</u></b> a fool <b><u>but</u></b> he knows it. = He is not <b><u>such</u></b> a fool <b><u>that</u></b> he doesn't know it. 他还没有笨到连这个也不懂。/ Nothing is <b><u>so</u></b> beautiful <b><u>but</u></b> it betrays some defect on close inspection. = Nothing is <b><u>so</u></b> beautiful <b><u>that</u></b> it does <b><u>not</u></b> betray some defect on close inspection. 没有什么东西会美丽到即使走近细看也不暴露出某种缺陷的地步。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> but 的特殊用途，还沿另外一个方向发展，“兼任”that (或 who) 和 not 双重角色，但这里的 that 同 (5) 中与 so 相呼应的 that 不同，不是连词（连词引入的从句中有另外一个词作主语），而是关系代词（在从句中作主语），同时又对从句的内容加以无形的否定。这样的句子，也都是“否定 + 否定 = 强意全部肯定”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There is no rule <b><u>but</u></b> has any exceptions. = There is no rule <b><u>that doesn't</u></b> have any exceptions. 没有毫无例外的规则。/ There is no one <b><u>but</u></b> loves his own country. = There is no one <b><u>who doesn't</u></b> love his own country. 没有不爱自己祖国的人。/ <b><u>Barely a day goes by but</u></b> local newspapers report a new cut in services. (<i>The Economist</i>, May 24, 2003, p. 27) 很少有哪一天当地的报纸不报道服务项目又有新的削减。</div><br><br>但是也有不用 but 而在从句中恢复用表示否定的词的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b><u>Not a day goes by</u></b> that you <b><u>don't</u></b> see two or three animals. (<i>U.S. News & World Report</i>, Feb. 2010, p. 64) 很少有哪一天看不见人带来两三只宠物的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> but 的特殊用途，还有一个方向，就是 but that 可以形成一个连词词组，表示“要不是……的话”，指的是“假如过去已经发生的某事没有发生的话”，从句谓语动词用直陈语气的一般过去时，形式上肯定而其实否定；主句则用虚拟语气的完成时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She would have fallen <b><u>but that</u></b> he caught her. = She would have fallen <b><u>if</u></b> he <b><u>hadn't</u></b> caught her. 要不是他扶住了她，她当时会摔倒的。/ I would have come <b><u>but that</u></b> I was sick in bed. = I would have come <b><u>if</u></b> I had <b><u>not</u></b> been sick in bed. 我要不是卧病在床，本来会来的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> but 的另一个特殊用法，是在 deny、doubt、question、wonder 等有负面意义的动词的否定形式后面加强“否定 + 否定 = 肯定”的语气。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I don't deny <b><u>but</u></b> that he will succeed. 我丝毫不否认他会成功。/ I will not deny <b><u>but</u></b> that there are innumerable errors in the rest of Descartes' works. 我丝毫不否认笛卡尔的其他作品中有数不清的错误。由于这个 but 在此只是加强语气，所以用或不用都不影响文意。在林肯同政敌道格拉斯的论战中，道格拉斯于 1858 年 8 月 21 日反驳林肯时有一段话说：He (= Lincoln) does not <b><u>deny but that</u></b> that principle was unanimously adopted by the Republican party; he does not <b><u>deny that</u></b> the whole Republican party is pledged to it; he does not <b><u>deny that</u></b> a man who is not faithful to it is faithless to the Republican party; ... 他并不否认，那个原则是共和党一致采纳的；他并不否认，整个共和党都是发了誓要坚持那个原则的；他并不否认，不忠于那个原则，就是不忠于共和党；……</div><br><br>类似这样用法的，还有 but 前面有作为名词或动词而被否定的 doubt，而 but 则只是起加强语气的作用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There is no doubt <b><u>but</u></b> that he is the greatest painter of this century. 毫无疑问，他是本世纪最伟大的画家。(but 完全可以删去) 美国法院的判决书中，there is no doubt but that ... 这个句型出现频率很高。that 还常常可以略去。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I don't <b><u>doubt but</u></b> he'll do it. 我毫不怀疑他会这样做。/ ... nor do we <b><u>doubt but</u></b> our reader ... will concur with us. (Henry Fielding, <i>Jonathan Wild</i>) ……而且我们也不怀疑，我们的读者……一定会同我们一致。</div><br><br>question 前面有 no 或 little 等否定词，后面有 but that，这个 but 也只是起加强语气的作用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There is <b><u>no question but that</u></b> there will be a general rise in wages in the next month or two. (Edwin A. Lahey, in <i>The New Republic</i>, Oct. 1, 1945) 毫无疑问，往后一两个月，工资会普遍提高。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(9)</span> but 的另一个特殊用法，是 I have no idea but (that) ...，表示“说不定，也许”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b><u>I have no idea but</u></b> they will insist upon the whole amount being paid. 说不定他们会坚持要求全额支付。/ <b><u>I have no idea but</u></b> it seemed like the right thing to do at the time. 当时那样做，看起来也许是做对了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(10)</span> but 的另一个特殊用法，是 Who knows but (that) ...? 意思也是“说不定，也许”，从句的内容肯定或否定同语言形式一致。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b><u>Who knows but that</u></b> he may go? 他说不定能去。/ <b><u>Who knows but that</u></b> everything will come right? 事情会一帆风顺也说不定。/ When I play with my cat, <b><u>who knows but that</u></b> she regards me more as a plaything than I do her? (Michel de Montaigne) 当我同我的猫玩耍的时候，我把它当作玩物，但说不定它更加把我当作玩物呢。/ <b><u>Who knows but that</u></b>, as a result of this shock to the public conscience, the vicious dance halls will be wiped out? 说不定经过这次对公众意识的震动，可以把那些诲淫诲盗的舞厅一扫而光。（译成中文似乎不以译为问句为宜）</div><br><span class="seq">(11)</span> but 的另一个特殊用法，是 It was impossible but (that) ...，以 but 来否定后面从句的内容，加上前面的 impossible，形成“否定 + 否定 = 强意肯定”，表示过去的“不可能不”，亦即“一定”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b><u>It was impossible but</u></b> they must have observed it. 他们不可能没有观察到这一点。/ <b><u>It was impossible but that</u></b> the vast mass of the icebergs must have been subjected to climateric influences; ruptures must surely have taken place at some points. 冰山的巨大质块一定已经受到过气象变化的影响；某些地方肯定发生过断裂。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(12)</span> 表示“不是 A 而是 B”，这个“而”虽然不是“但”，英文也要用 but 来表示 (not A, <b><u>but</u></b> B)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is <b><u>not</u></b> red, <b><u>but</u></b> black. 它不是红的而是黑的。但是如果先说肯定的 B，再说否定的 A，两者之间就不用 but 而用 <b><u>and</u></b> 来连接 (and 之前没有逗号)。因此前句可以改为：It is black <b><u>and</u></b> (<i>but) <b><u>not</u></b> red. <span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He did what his father told him to do <b><u>and</u></b> (</i>but) <b><u>not</u></b> he himself thought best. 他父亲叫他做什么，他就做什么，而不是他自己觉得做什么最好就做什么。</div><br><br>也可以分成两个并列的小句 (但要重复谓语动词)，否定在前，肯定在后，不用 but。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He <b><u>doesn't</u></b> drink coffee; he <b><u>drinks</u></b> tea. 他不喝咖啡，他喝茶。</div><br><br>如果 A 和 B 不涉及谓语动词，也可以先说 B，再说 A，不用 and。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Mary, <b><u>not</u></b> George, was admitted. 玛丽而不是乔治被录取了。但如果先说 A，再说 B，就要用 but。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b><u>Not</u></b> George, <b><u>but</u></b> Mary, was admitted.</div><br><span class="seq">(13)</span> but 有“除去，不要”的含义，如果前面有 any，就有“除了……哪个都行”的意思。2000 年美国总统大选中，反对布什的阵营就有一句简短的口号：ABB，即 Anyone But Bush (除了布什之外谁都行)。如果前面有疑问词，意思就是“如果不是……那又是什么 (谁、何时、何处、如何)？”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>To <b><u>whom</u></b> can riches give repute, or trust, content, or pleasure, <b><u>but</u></b> the good and just? (Alexander Pope, <i>An </i>Essay on Man*) 财富能给人以名望或信誉、满足或快乐，但是如果不给善良正直的人，又能给谁呢？(这里的 but 同句首的 to whom 呼应，不是同 repute、trust、content、pleasure 这几个名词呼应。如果看错了，全句就无解。)</div>
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but for
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>but for</b></div>这两个单词合在一起，可以有两种根本不同的意义，要注意辨别：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 组合在一起时，意思是“要不是，多亏；假如没有”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b><u>But for</u></b> them, we'd have lost all our money. 要不是他们，我们的钱本来会全部丢失。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 但也可以不组成统一的词组，而是各自保持本身的词义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b><u>But for</u></b> Hillary Clinton, the shift now is into new territory, ... (<i>U.S. News & World Report</i>, Jan. 21, 2007, p. 27) 但是对于希拉里来说，现在这个转移，是转移到新的领域，……</div><br><br>如何区别，大体上如果谓语动词用虚拟式，就是“要不是，多亏；假如没有”；如果谓语动词用陈述式，but 和 for 就各自保持本身的词义。<br><br>
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buy
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>buy</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 可以有双宾语，搭配和词序是：(a) buy + 间接宾语 + 直接宾语 (必须是名词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He <b><u>bought</u></b> her a ring. 他给她买了一个戒指。(b) buy + 直接宾语 + <b><u>for</u></b> (不能用 <i>to) + 间接宾语 (名词或代词均可)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He <b><u>bought</u></b> it/a ring <b><u>for</u></b> her/Cindy. 也就是说，如果直接宾语是代词，就只能用 (b) 式搭配，绝不能说 </i>He bought her/Cindy it. 类似这样搭配的动词，还有 bake、build、cook、find、fix、pour、save 等，均另参见相关词条。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 有双宾语时，主语可以不是人而是付出的代价。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A six-million-dollar payout to the Internal Revenue Service <b><u>bought</u></b> him the right to return to America. 向国税局缴纳的 600 万美元，让他获得了返回美国的权利。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 中文有“推销”某一主张，“推销”自己的形象，公众“买 (某人的) 账”等说法。同样，英文也有与此对应的 sell 与 buy 的说法。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'll <b><u>buy</u></b> that. 我相信。/ She'll never <b><u>buy</u></b> that story. 她绝不会相信那个故事的。/ We <b><u>bought</u></b> his argument. 他的论据我们听进去了。/ Because it didn't make sense to me. I never really <b><u>bought</u></b> that she did it. (David Rosenfelt, <i>Heart of a Killer</i>) 因为我觉得这说不通。我从未真正相信过是她干的。参见 sell 条。</div><br><br>
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by
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>by</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 通常一个及物动词如果转换成为名词，它的逻辑宾语要用 of 来引入，逻辑主语要用 by 来引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the use <b><u>of</u></b> pocket calculators <b><u>by</u></b> schoolchildren 小学生对袖珍计算器的使用。</div><br><br>但是如果这个名词不是来自及物动词，而是来自一个表示态度的形容词，则由于它没有动作的意思，而只是一种心态，因而它的逻辑宾语 (产生这种心态的对象) 虽然常常仍然可以用 of 来引入，但是逻辑主语则不能用 by 来引入，而用 on the part of 引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There is a widespread <b><u>mistrust of</u></b> grammar <b><u>on the part of</u></b> learners who feel that the "right" way to learn a language must be "nature's" way, ... 许多学习者当中对语法的不信任十分流行，他们觉得，学习一种语言的“正确”办法，应该是“自然而然”的，…… 但是如果心态持有者 (逻辑主语) 用代词来表示，就可以以物主代词的形式放在名词前面：<b><u>their</u></b> <b><u>mistrust of</u></b> grammar (他们对语法的不信任)。这种代表心态的名词，有许多也和代表动作的名词一样，后面用 of 引入的成分是这种心态的对象。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>resentment <b><u>of</u></b> somebody 对某人的愤恨。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> by 后面如果宾语是个时间点，就表示在过去或将来的这个时间点到达时已经发生了什么事或是形成了什么状态。动词如果是表示状态的延续动词，可以用一般过去时或一般将来时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b><u>By</u></b> the time I went to bed, I <b><u>was</u></b> absolutely exhausted. 我睡下来时，已经筋疲力尽了。/ Will it <b><u>be</u></b> ready <b><u>by</u></b> five? 五点钟能办好吗？/ <b><u>By</u></b> the end of the meal, everyone <b><u>was</u></b> drunk. 快要吃完时，人人都喝醉了。/ <b><u>By</u></b> the time the guards realized what was happening, the gang <b><u>were</u></b> already inside the bank. 等到警卫人员弄清楚出了什么事，那帮歹徒已经进入了银行。/ <b><u>By</u></b> 9 a.m. I <b><u>was sitting</u></b> in my private practice office waiting for Camille. (Anna Salter, <i>Fault Lines</i>) 上午 9 点，我已经在我的私人诊所等着卡米尔。</div><br><br>如果动词是表示瞬时动作或事件的，则要用过去或将来完成时，表示该动作或事件发生在 by 所指的时间点之前。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b><u>By</u></b> the time he arrived, most of the others <b><u>had left</u></b>. 他到达时，其他人大都已经走了。/ <b><u>By</u></b> the mid-eighteenth century Williamsburg <b><u>had taken on</u></b> a more modern look. (<i>Guide to Williamsburg</i>) 到了 18 世纪中叶，威廉斯堡已经有了更为现代的面貌。/ <b><u>By</u></b> 2050 we <b><u>will have seen</u></b> at least two major earthquakes. 到 2050 年，我们至少会遇到两次大地震。</div><br><br>动词如果是表示累计变化的，也要用完成时态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b><u>By</u></b> the late eighties their number <b><u>had grown</u></b> fourfold. 到了 20 世纪 80 年代末期，他们的人数增加到四倍。/ ... programs that <b><u>by</u></b> the late 1970s <b><u>had left</u></b> the U.S. economy caught in a stagflationary trap. (<i>U.S. News & World Report</i>, Apr. 21, 2008, p. 46) ……这些措施到了 20 世纪 70 年代后期，已经使得美国经济陷入了滞胀的困境。</div><br><br>但是如果将来要做的事不强调是在这个时间点之前完成的，而只是笼统指出一个截止时间，那么这个瞬时体动词也可以不用完成时态而用一般时态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We <b><u>can do</u></b> it <b><u>by</u></b> next Tuesday. 咱们可以下星期二前干。</div><br><br>
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(by) association
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(by) association</b></div>by association 有“由于连带关系”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>guilt <b>by association</b> 株连</div><div class="ex-item">responsibility <b>by association</b> 连带责任</div><div class="ex-item">scandal <b>by association</b> 连累卷入的丑闻。</div><br><br>
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by 与 by the
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>by 与 by the</b></div>by 后面接上一个表示地点或实体的单数名词 (不带定冠词 the)，表示“依……的不同而不同”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Return and exchange rules vary <b><u>by</u></b> store. 退换货办法，各家商店不同。/ This percentage will vary <b><u>by</u></b> school. 这个百分比，各校各有不同。</div><br><br>如果后面接上一个表示数量单位或时间单位的单数名词，表示“按每个……计算”，此时这个名词前面就要有 the。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>John rents this house <b><u>by the</u></b> month. 约翰按月租用这座房子。/ They are paid <b><u>by the</u></b> hour. 他们的工资按小时计算。/ She sells apples <b><u>by the</u></b> dozen. 她一打一打地出售苹果。/ We sell crackers <b><u>by the</u></b> carton. 我们整箱整箱地出售饼干。此时 the 丝毫没有特指的意义。</div><br><br>但是，如果不是“按 (重量、体积等的) 单位计算”，而是“按重量、体积等的范畴计算”，则 by 后面不要 the。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The package is sold <b><u>by weight</u></b> (<i>by the weight), not <b><u>by volume</u></b> (</i>by the volume). 包裹按重量而不是按体积销售。试比较：The package is sold <b><u>by the kilo</u></b>, not <b><u>by the cubic centimeter</u></b>. 包裹按千克而不是按立方厘米销售。 # Cc</div>
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café
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>café</b></div>参见 coffee 与 café 条。<br><br>
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calibrated
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>calibrated</b></div>一般词典上有及物动词 calibrate，意思是“测定其直径”或“在上面定刻度”，但是人们往往没有注意到已经变成纯粹形容词的 calibrated，它的派生意义是“有分寸的，审慎的，恰如其分的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... others, including European heavyweights France and Germany, which favor a more <b><u>calibrated</u></b> approach ... (<i>Reuters</i>, Aug. 30, 2008) ……其他主张采取较为有分寸的态度的国家，包括欧洲大国法国和德国……</div><br><br>
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call
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>call</b></div>是个多义动词，即使作为不及物动词，意义也很多，取决于前后文和具体语境。例如 Smith <b><u>called</u></b> this morning. 这在英式英语中，就可能是“史密斯今天上午打电话来过”或是“史密斯今天上午到这里来拜访过”。<br><br>Smith <b><u>called here</u></b> this morning. 是指他本人亲自到此拜访。如果是亲自拜访而不是打电话，美式英语则多说 Smith <b><u>stopped by</u></b> this morning.过去没有电话时，call 都是亲自拜访。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I should like Mr. Fursey-Harris to <b><u>call</u></b>. (John Fowles, <i>The French Lieutenant's Woman</i>) 希望弗斯-哈里斯先生能光临寒舍。</div><br><br>
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call for
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>call for</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 表示“提出要求或呼吁” (call for 在这里是个瞬时行动，属第四类动词)，除非是某一主张的内容，否则不用一般现在时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The declaration <b><u>called for</u></b> an immediate cease-fire. 声明呼吁立即停火。/ They passed a resolution attacking the government and <b><u>calling for</u></b> financial aid for the miners. 他们通过了一项决议，抨击政府，并要求给予矿工们以经济补助。/ But it (= emergency treatment) was never <b><u>called for</u></b>, and when help arrived it was too late. 但是一直没有人提出要紧急抢救，到有人前来抢救时，为时已晚。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 表示“需要” (call for 在这里是个延续状态，属第一类动词)，可以用一般现在时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Controlling a class <b><u>calls for</u></b> all your skills as a teacher. 管好一个班级，需要你使出教师的浑身解数。/ Apology is <b><u>called for</u></b>. 需要表示道歉。/ Bold action was <b><u>called for</u></b>. 当时需要采取果敢的行动。</div><br><br>
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call me ...
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>call me ...</b></div>英语国家的人们互相结识之后，如果关系不错，不必再过分客气，就可能由其中的一方提出，今后彼此以名字 (first name) 相称。此时就会说 <b><u>Call me</u></b> Bob. 或是 <b><u>My friends call me</u></b> Bob. 有时候还可以加一个 do 在 call 之前，<b><u>Do call me</u></b> Bob. 对方接过来可以简单地说 I'm Ken. 从此就不再称“某某先生”了。这样的关系，也叫作 <b><u>on a first-name basis</u></b>。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>All his guests were <b><u>on a first-name basis</u></b>. 他所有的客人都是对他直呼其名的。</div><br><br>这样不拘束的关系，在美国甚至也用于比较正式的工作场合。连总统或白宫发言人同比较相熟的记者们回答时也直呼他们的 first name。<br><br>on a first-name basis 这个词组由于用得十分普遍，所以可以转义为“关系密切”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Hey, you live in New Orleans where people have always been <b><u>on a first-name basis</u></b> with Death. 唉，人家是在新奥尔良居住的，那里的人同死神只有一墙之隔。(指 2005 年 8 月美国新奥尔良市因决堤被淹，数千人遇难。)</div>
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campaign
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>campaign</b></div>相当于中文的“运动”，但是与 movement 不尽相同。<br><br>movement 可以指一个规模比较广泛、界限不明确、为时比较长，但不一定十分紧张集中，甚至可能是细水长流的或是自然而然进行的运动 (如中国的“五四”运动)，也可以指进行这个运动的组织或团体 (如古巴的“七二六运动”)。<br><br>campaign 则通常指一次集中、紧张、有意组织、界限明确、为时有限的运动或活动，而且不能指组织或团体。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>sales <b><u>campaign</u></b> 促销活动</div><div class="ex-item">presidential <b><u>campaign</u></b> 总统竞选活动</div><div class="ex-item"><b><u>campaign</u></b> for the mayoralty 市长竞选活动</div><div class="ex-item"><b><u>campaign</u></b> for traffic safety 交通安全活动</div><div class="ex-item">fundraising <b><u>campaign</u></b> 筹款活动。在西方，campaign 往往指选举活动。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b><u>campaign</u></b> fundraising 竞选经费募捐</div><div class="ex-item"><b><u>campaign</u></b> manager 竞选事务管理人。</div><br><br>
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can
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>can</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 从前常常说 can 指本人的能力，may 指他人的允许。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b><u>Can</u></b> he beat the record? 他能打破纪录吗？/ <b><u>May</u></b> I look at your watch? 我可以看看你的手表吗？但是现在 can 已经逐渐占据了 may 的位置，并不会显得无礼。</div><br><br>a/an 作为不定冠词，所指的事物，可以是实际存在的某个事物 (“实某”)，也可以是尚未存在而只是想象中的 (“虚某”)。例如 I'm looking for <b><u>an</u></b> interpreter. 这个 interpreter 可以是实际存在的张三或李四，说话者心中知道是谁，只是没有说出来；但也可以是说话者根本不知是否存在着，往往只能靠前后文或语境来判断。有时候，用哪个动词也可以提供一点线索。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A friend <b><u>can</u></b> betray you. 朋友可能出卖你。这里用 can，暗示 a friend 是“虚某”。而 A friend <b><u>may</u></b> betray you. 这里用 may 则是“已有的朋友当中会有一个出卖你”。又例如 Someone <b><u>has got to</u></b> be telling lies. 是指“肯定有人在撒谎” (只是肯定有此事，不涉及是谁)；而 Someone <b><u>must</u></b> be telling lies. 则是指“已知的人当中肯定有某个人 (可能知道是谁但不明说，也可能不知道是谁，但肯定有这样一个人) 在撒谎”。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> can 的过去时 could 所表示的是过去当时的主观能力或客观可能 (是个表示状态的延续动词)，并不表示该事实际上做了没有 (也就是说，不是一个表示动作的瞬时动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>As the 11th-ranking member of the House when he retired, Mr. Montgomery <b><u>could</u></b> be stubborn when it came to some veterans issues. (<i>The Washington Post</i>, May 14, 2006) 蒙哥马利先生退休时是众议院排名第 11 的议员，每当问题涉及某些退伍军人事项时，他都可能十分固执。</div><br><br>如果要表示有能力做该事而且也实际上做了，就要改用 was/were able to inf. 或 managed to inf. 不过，如果要从否定方面表示该事不可能而且实际上也没有做，除了用 was/were not able to inf.、was/were unable to inf. 或 didn't manage to inf. 之外，也可以用 could not/couldn't inf. 或双重的 couldn't manage to inf. <div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They started something they <b><u>couldn't</u></b> finish. 他们开了场却收不了场。/ He <b><u>couldn't manage to</u></b> find a place to live in Berkeley that was wheelchair accessible. 他在伯克利找不到一处能让轮椅通行的居住地点。/ I was tired last night but I <b><u>couldn't</u></b> sleep. 我昨夜很累，但是没法入睡。/ Bill and Jenny <b><u>couldn't</u></b> come to the party last week. 比尔和珍妮上星期没能够参加联欢会。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 肯定的 can 和 could (较为客气) 都可以表示能力、允许或提出邀请。但是表示对客观可能发生某事表示估计时，只能用 could、may、might (即使是对现在或将来的估计)，不能用 can。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It <b><u>could</u></b> (<i>can) rain this afternoon. 今天下午可能下雨。/ By the time people actually feel pain in their legs, their arteries <b><u>could</u></b> (</i>can) have narrowed by 60 percent or more. 到人们真正感到腿痛的时候，他们的动脉可能已经变窄了 60% 甚至更多。不能用 can，也可以不用 could 而用 may 来代替。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There <b><u>may/could</u></b> (*can) be a strike next week. 下周可能会发生一场罢工。</div><br><br>但是表示客观不可能发生某事时，可以用否定的 cannot 或其缩写形式 can't。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It <b><u>can't</u></b> be true. 不可能是真的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 由于现在时的 can 通常不能表示对现在与将来客观可能发生某事的估计，因而 can have + pp. 也不可以用来表示对过去客观可能发生了某事的估计。而由于 can 局限于表示能力、请求允许和提出邀请等尚未发生的事，can have + pp. 本身的词义结合就显得不合逻辑。尽管客观语言使用上不排除 can have + pp. 的出现，但是它的含义仍然不属于现在对过去客观发生某事的可能估计，而是现在主观对过去经历的接受或允许。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The submissions must be in English, but <b><u>can have been</u></b> published (= but <b><u>can be</u></b> papers that <b><u>have been</u></b> published) in any country. 提交的论文必须用英文写，可以是曾经在任何国家发表过的。/ Training <b><u>can have been</u></b> (= <b><u>can be</u></b> a training that <b><u>has been</u></b>) undertaken in any country provided it has been supervised. 训练可以是在任何国家进行的，只要是受到监督的即可。can have + pp. 的另一个可能的意义是：肯定某事物 (can 的主语) 过去的确“有能力”做而且实际上做出了某事。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Before addressing the question of how the laws of physics <b><u>can have come about</u></b> in the absence of intelligent design, let me provide a response to the arguments from probability outlined above. 在谈论没有智慧设计的情况下物理学各定律如何能够出现这个问题之前，先让我对上面概要介绍的那些从概率得来的论据加以回答。本来，过去有能力做而且实际上做出了某事，英文通常是用 was able to inf.、managed to inf. 之类的词语来表示，但是这些表示方法通常需要主语是人，如果主语不是人而是事物，就可以使用 can have + pp. 不过要注意，无论如何，can have + pp. 同表示对过去可能发生了的事情的主观估计的 could have + pp. 在意义上是不同的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 但是，如果是否定的，也就是说，如果是现在对过去不可能发生某事的主观估计，就可以用“否定 + ... can have + pp.”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is <b><u>impossible</u></b> that Berkeley <b><u>can have been</u></b> ignorant of Descartes' "Dioptric". 伯克利对笛卡尔的《屈光》一无所知，是不可能的。不是完全否定，准否定也可以。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b><u>Few</u></b> books of such a highstandard <b><u>can have been</u></b> devoted to a single building. 很少有这样高水准的书专门只谈一座建筑的。/ There are those who are <b><u>sceptical</u></b> that Iceland <b><u>can have been</u></b> a ratless island in the Middle Ages. 对于冰岛在中世纪竟然是个无鼠之岛，有人是抱怀疑态度的。</div><br><br>
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cannot
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>cannot</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> cannot (could not) 与 too 连用，意思不是“不能太过”，而是“再……不过，无以复加” (这里的 cannot 或 could not 不是“不应该”，而是“不可能有此情况”)。这一点，中国人容易出错。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You <b><u>can't</u></b> be <b><u>too</u></b> careful. 你千万要小心。(直译“你无论多么小心也不过分”，不是“你不能过分小心”。)</div><div class="ex-item">I <b><u>cannot</u></b> warn students <b><u>too</u></b> strongly against this pernicious habit. (Josef Hofmann, <i>Piano Playing</i>) 对于这个坏习惯，我无论多么强烈地警告学生们加以提防，都不为过。/ And yet you <b><u>cannot</u></b> guard yourself <b><u>too</u></b> closely. (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, <i>The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes</i>) 不过你必须十分小心地保护自己。</div><br><br>有时候 too 可以先于 cannot 或 could not。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>And <b><u>too</u></b> much importance <b><u>can't</u></b> be placed on the value of meeting with a prospective doctor face to face. (<i>Saratoga Parent</i>, May 31, 2002) 而且，同一位物色中的医生面对面交谈，无论多看重其价值都是不为过的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> cannot (主要用 could not 形式) 与形容词或副词比较级连用，也有“无以复加”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Things <b><u>couldn't</u></b> be <b><u>better</u></b>. 情况再好不过了。/ I <b><u>couldn't</u></b> agree with you <b><u>more</u></b>. 你的意见，我完全同意。/ But intelligence officials and experts say that <b><u>could not</u></b> be <b><u>further</u></b> from the truth. (<i>U.S. News & World Report</i>, Aug. 12, 2002, p. 18) 但是情报官员和专家说那与事实完全不符。/ You <b><u>couldn't</u></b> be <b><u>more</u></b> mistaken. 你大错特错了。/ He <b><u>could not</u></b> have cared <b><u>less</u></b>. 他根本不放在心上。/ For many businesses, the loss of telephone service Thursday <b><u>couldn't</u></b> have come at a <b><u>worse</u></b> time. 对于许多企业来说，星期四电话不通，时间是最不凑巧的了。/ The candidates <b><u>could not</u></b> be at a <b><u>greater</u></b> distance on this issue. 各个候选人在这个问题上彼此的距离极大。/ The contrast between the morning paper and the news on radio and television <b><u>could not</u></b> have been <b><u>more</u></b> dramatic this morning. 今天上午拿晨报和广播电视新闻对比了一下，反差太大了。/ Even the date of <i>Omphalos</i>—just two years before <i>The Origin</i>—<b><u>could not</u></b> have been <b><u>more</u></b> unfortunate. (John Fowles, <i>The French Lieutenant's Woman</i>) 《中枢》一书甚至出版时间也很不走运，它是在《物种起源》之前仅仅两年问世的。</div><br><br>与表示“过分”的动词连用，也有这种情况。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The awful toll exacted on the soldiers and citizens <b><u>cannot be exaggerated</u></b>. 军人和平民伤亡惨重，不计其数。</div><br><br>祝贺人家结婚，可以说：It <b><u>couldn't</u></b> happen to two <b><u>nicer</u></b> people. (直译：这样的好事，不会有更美满的一对能遇到的了。意译：天生一对，地造一双/天作之合。)参见 overemphasize 条与 overestimate 条。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> If you want the ultimate in calculators, you <b><u>couldn't do better than</u></b> to choose Sharp. 你如果想要最新式的计算器，就最好选择夏普。(广告) 在这句中，couldn't do better than to inf. 也是表示“好到无以复加”的意思。但是如果 than 后面不是动词不定式而是一个名词，而且主语不是指人而是指物，就仍然保持“(主语)比某物的效果好不到哪里去”的意思，而没有“最好做某事”的含义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>After a decade of study, Merck last year abandoned its effort to develop a new type of antidepressant when it <b><u>couldn't do better than</u></b> a placebo in tests. 经过十年的研究，默克公司去年放弃了努力，不再开发一种新的抗抑郁症药品，因为这种药品经过试用，功效并没有超过安慰剂。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> enough 也有与 too 类似的情况 (即“不可能足够”与“不可能更多”都是间接表示程度之“极”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I <b><u>can't</u></b> thank you <b><u>enough</u></b>. 我不知怎样谢你才好。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> can 后面加上 not、never 之类的否定词，通常意思是“不可能”或“不可以”而不是“可能不”或“可以不”。表示“可能不”或“可以不”，要说 need not 或 may not (但 may not 有时候也有“不可以”的意思)。但是如果 can 和后面的否定词离得很远，也可以表示“可能不”或“可以不”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You <b><u>can</u></b> work an entire lifetime in this field and <b><u>never</u></b> see two cases of autism alike. (<i>The Sunday Gazette</i>, Feb. 25, 2007, A1) 你可能在这个行业干一辈子也遇不到两个相同的自闭症病例。这里的 can 和 never 如果靠在一起，意思就会变为“绝不可能”。</div><br><br>
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(can't) ... enough
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(can't) ... enough</b></div>enough 与 cannot/could not 连用时，意思是“无法达到应有的程度”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I <i>can't</i> thank you <i>enough</i>. 我不知怎样谢你才好。</div><br><br>另外，cannot have <i>enough</i> of something 或 cannot get <i>enough</i> of something 是常用的说法，但少见有词典收入，意思大致是：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 对某事物爱不释手，乐此不疲，或是全神贯注，或是不厌其烦。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There is one thing in the world that I <i>cannot have enough of</i>: music. 世界上有一样东西是我乐此不疲的，那就是音乐。/ Power and wealth have this addictive quality; there are many people who <i>cannot have enough of</i> it, and we must always be vigilant about those who have been smitten with these addictions. 权势和财富就是有这种使人上瘾的作用；许多人乐此不疲，我们必须对那些染上这个嗜好的人一直保持警惕。/ Americans are thirsty for information about the Civil War; they <i>cannot get enough of</i> it. 美国人如饥似渴地要找有关南北战争的材料；他们陶醉于此。/ If you <i>can't get</i> <i>enough of</i> this year's still-unpredictable contest for the White House, you shouldn't miss our Campaign 2008 coverage. (U.S. News & World Report, Mar. 17, 2008, p. 6)如果您密切关注今年尚未有定论的白宫争夺战，您就不能错过本刊的 2008 年竞选报道。/ He said his paper "<i>can't get enough of</i> the election." (<i>The New York Observer</i>, Feb. 19, 2008)他说他的报馆“对这次大选充分关注”。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 对某物的需要多多益善。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The items we use heavily are: blankets, tents, flashlights, paper towels, milk powder and bottled water. We <i>cannot have enough of</i> these items. 我们大量使用的物品是：毛毯、帐篷、手电筒、纸巾、奶粉和瓶装水。这些物品对我们是多多益善。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 从某事物中得到无穷无尽的好处，受用不尽。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You <i>can never have enough of</i> Nature. (Henry David Thoreau)大自然让人受用不尽。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 对某一喜爱的事物尽情享用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This cheese is delicious; I <i>cannot eat enough of</i> it. 这种干酪很好吃，我吃了就停不下来。/ If you <i>cannot have enough of</i> seeing water rolling beneath you as you while away the time daydreaming, then opt for the full day cruises. 您如果喜欢一面打瞌睡消磨时间，一面看着您脚底下流水潺潺，流连忘返，那么您就挑选全天的海上旅游吧。有时也可以省略 of it。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Carlo's first parachute jump was the most exhilarating physical experience of his life. It was like flying with God. Carlo <i>could not get enough</i> ... the silence ... the floating ... (Dan Brown, <i>Angels and Demons</i>)卡洛第一次跳伞，是他有生以来最兴奋的一次经历。简直是同上帝一起飞翔。卡洛纵情享受……万籁无声……漂浮空中……</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 老是重复某一观点或某一故事。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We have a tendency to revert to the "Noble poor", the law-abiding ghetto dweller, and we <i>cannot have enough of</i> the story of the rich man's difficulties in passing through the Eye of the Needle. 我们有一个倾向，就是喜欢反复谈论什么“高尚的穷人”亦即遵纪守法的贫民窟居民如何如何，而总是免不了大谈特谈富人难以穿过针眼的故事。(意思是以此自我安慰，而不去努力解决现实的贫富差距悬殊的问题。)</div>此外，动词的进行时态被否定，后面加上 enough，此时否定的意义变为肯定，表示“没完没了地做某事”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We're <i>not</i> getting a big <i>enough</i> jolt from our coffee, sodas and energy drinks these days. (<i>Reader's Digest</i>, Oct. 2007, p. 24)这些日子，我们老是拿我们的咖啡、苏打水和能量饮料来提神。</div><br><br>如果不是否定，而是肯定的 have enough of something (第三类或第四类动词)，那么意思就是“尝够了……的滋味，对……领教够了”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>As much as he sympathized with Craig, he'd <i>had enough of</i> his funk at lunch. 尽管他同情克雷格，但是他在吃中饭时对克雷格的消沉泄气已经领教够了。</div><br><br>
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capable
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>capable</b></div>一般理解，capable 或 incapable 指的是人的能力，但其实也可以指事物发生变动的可能性。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a conflict <b><u>incapable</u></b> of resolution 一场难解难分的冲突</div><div class="ex-item">The last name alone gives an unfortunate impression of brusqueness and is <b><u>capable</u></b> of injuring the sensibilities of relatives and friends. 单单用姓而不用名，会给人一种不舒服的突兀感，而且可能伤了亲戚朋友的感情。</div><br><br>与 able 的区别，参见 able 与 capable 条。<br><br>
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car
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>car</b></div>car 在美国专指机动车，不包括非机动车。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—What if I were Amish, didn't believe in <b><u>cars</u></b>, and I worked at the DMV? Would I have the right to deny you a driver's license? —Of course not. (Steve Keller, in <i>The Sunday Gazette</i>, Nov. 13, 2011, D1) —假如我是个 (专用马车不用机动车的) 阿米什人，不相信汽车，但又在机动车管理局工作，那怎么办？我有权拒绝给你发放驾驶执照吗？—当然没有。(可见 car 只能是机动汽车)</div>关于 car 前面的介词，参见 bus 条。<br><br>
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carat, caret 与 karat
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>carat, caret 与 karat</b></div>三个单词非常相似，发音也差不多，但是释义不同。carat 是宝石重量单位“克拉”，也是黄金纯度单位“开”。caret 是印刷校样上用的“脱字号”或“补注号”。karat 是 carat 表示黄金纯度单位“开”时的另一种写法。<br><br>
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care
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>care</b></div>这个单词作为名词使用时词义比较清楚明确，问题不大。但是作为动词使用时，部分意义有点复杂，甚至有些意义似乎相互矛盾。下面将 care 的几种主要意义和用法分别列举。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> <b>care about</b> 或是 <b>care</b> 后面接从句，是个表示状态的延续动词 (第一类动词)，词义是“关心，在乎；介意；顾虑” (意义从正面逐渐到了反面)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She <b><u>cares</u></b> deeply <b><u>about</u></b> social issues. 她十分关心社会问题。/ All he <b><u>cares about</u></b> is sport. 他唯一关心的就是体育运动。/ He doesn't <b><u>care about</u></b> his clothes. 他不讲究衣着。/ He <b><u>cares (about)</u></b> what other people think. 他对别人怎样想是在乎的。/ Once inside, we didn't <b><u>care</u></b> whether it rained or not. 进去之后，下不下雨我们就不在乎了。/ I don't <b><u>care</u></b> a damn <b><u>about</u></b> the job. 对这份差事我才不在乎呢。/ I couldn't <b><u>care</u></b> less what he does. 他干些什么我才不管呢。/ I couldn't <b><u>care</u></b> less if he comes or not. 他来不来，我才管不着。/ What do I <b><u>care</u></b> if they don't invite me? 他们不邀请我又怎么样？/ Who <b><u>cares</u></b> what she says? 谁管她说些什么呢？逐渐往否定意义发展，可以接近 mind 的程度。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I don't <b><u>care</u></b> if I go. 我去一趟也可以。/ If no one <b><u>cares</u></b>, I'll smoke. 如果没人介意，我就抽烟了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 表示“喜欢；乐意，愿意” (都是正面的，属第一类动词)，采用三种形式：(a) <b>care for</b> (多用于否定句或疑问句，较少用于肯定句，而且由于表示心态，不能用进行时)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I don't <b><u>care for</u></b> his type very much. 我不太喜欢他那一类型的人。/ The house was lovely, but I didn't <b><u>care for</u></b> the furniture. 房子倒是挺舒服的，不过我不喜欢那些家具。/ What music do you <b><u>care for</u></b> best? 您最喜欢哪种音乐？/ How do you <b><u>care for</u></b> bowling? 您喜欢保龄球吗？/ Would you <b><u>care for</u></b> a cigar? 来根雪茄烟好吗？/ I don't <b><u>care</u></b> much <b><u>for</u></b> going to the theatre. 我不太喜欢看戏。/ He didn't drink; he didn't <b><u>care for</u></b> the taste of it. 他没有喝；他不喜欢那股酒味。</div><br><br>但是 <b>care for</b> (不限于否定句与疑问句) 也有普通的含义，就是“照料” (在体上属表示活动的延续动词，第二类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b><u>care for</u></b> the wound 照料伤员</div><div class="ex-item"><b><u>care for</u></b> an aged relative at home 在家照料一个年老的亲戚</div><div class="ex-item">The children are well <b><u>cared for</u></b>. 孩子们得到良好的照料。care for 用于表示行动的“照料”意义时，可以用现在进行时或过去进行时。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Millions of boomers <b><u>are caring for</u></b> parents afflicted with a disease that steals minds and memories. 数以百万的婴儿潮时期出生者，正在照料着患了一种让人丧失心智和记忆力的疾病的父母。</div>(b) <b>care to inf.</b> (属第一类兼第二类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Would you <b><u>care to</u></b> join us for dinner? 您愿意同我们一起吃晚饭吗？/ He needs her more than he <b><u>cares to</u></b> admit. 他比自己愿意承认的更加需要她。/ I don't <b><u>care to</u></b> attend the rally. 我不愿参加那个集会。/ I should not <b><u>care to</u></b> be seen with him. 我不愿意让入家看见我同他在一起。/ We have power if we only <b><u>care to</u></b> exercise it. 我们本来是有力量的，只要我们愿意运用这个力量。/ It was a memorable experience, but I shouldn't <b><u>care to</u></b> repeat it. 那是一次难忘的经历，不过我不愿意再重复。/ It's wrong whichever way you <b><u>care to</u></b> look at it. 不管你从哪个角度来看，这都是错误的。</div>(c) <b>care for somebody to inf.</b> (愿意让某人做某事) (第一类动词，表示延续状态)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I don't <b><u>care for</u></b> him <b><u>to</u></b> read this letter. 我不愿意让他看到这封信。</div><br><br>
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carry
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>carry</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> carry 有许多个词义，其中绝大多数是表示延续状态的第一类动词或表示延续动作的第二类动词，如“携带；支撑，承担着；具有 (某性质)；照规定应该受到 (某惩罚); 传递; 带有(某标志); 有(某存货); 怀着(某婴儿)”。其中有一些加上了其他成分(如“最终目的地”)而向第三类动词靠拢。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The fullback's kick carried 50 meters into the crowd. 后卫踢的一球，踢出了50米，踢到了观众当中。</div><br><br>但也有少数词义是瞬时的动作(属第四类动词)，如“得到赞同”或“使之得到赞同”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The resolution was carried by 340 votes to 210. 议案以340票对210票通过。/ She nodded in agreement, and he saw he had carried his point. 她点头赞成，于是他看到自己的道理站住了脚。</div><br><br>可以表示“刊登”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Two newspapers carried the same article yesterday. 昨天两家报纸刊登了同一篇文章。</div><br><br>也可表示“(计算加法时后一位满10就)进位”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In addition, if the sum from the ones column is greater than 9, you need to carry the ten over to the next column to the left (the tenth column). 在加法中，如果个位数之和大于9，就要将其中的10进位到左边的位(即十位)。/ For example, 6 + 6 = 12. You will need to start carrying values. 例如：6 + 6 = 12，就需要数额进位。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 说某个行为 carry 某一惩罚时(此时 carry 属于表示延续状态的第一类动词)，并不是说这个惩罚已经成为事实，而只是说按照法律规定应该或可能受到这种惩罚，是个概括性的说法，动词的体是延续状态，可以有一般现在时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Adultery in most cultures carried the death penalty. 从前在大多数文化中，通奸是会被处以死刑的。/ Violations of rules carry automatic fines. 违反规则会自动被处以罚款。/ Prosecutors said they had not determined which penalties they would seek (against former Illinois Governor George Ryan), but the counts carry maximum sentences ranging from 3 years to 20. (The New York Times, Apr. 28, 2006, A20)检察官们说，他们还没有决定请求(对伊利诺伊州前州长乔治·赖恩)判决怎样的刑罚，但是几项罪名可以判处3年到20年的最高刑期。参见subject条。</div><br><br>
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case
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>case</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 可以是“理由”，the case for + -ing 是要做某事的理由，make his case 是申述理由。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>With the case for supporting African countries so compelling, it may come as a surprise that ... 既然向非洲国家提供支持的理由如此有力，那么，……一事就可能使人感到惊讶。/ He made a strong case for peaceful settlement. 他申述了和平解决的有力理由。/ The lawyer made a compelling case that the defendant is innocent of all the allegations made regarding his behavior. 律师申述了强有力的理由，说明被告清白，有关他的行为的一切指控都不能成立。/ He tried to plead his case that he is over 18. 他力图申辩，说他已经年满18岁了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> in case ... 字面上看来，似乎是“在……情况下”的意思，接近“如果……”，但 in case 后面如果接的是一个从句，意义同 if 就很不相同，不是“如果”，而是“为万一可能发生的事预先准备；以防……”，指的是为将来雨绸缪，不是针对现在。所以，说 *Raise your hand in case you have any question. (有问题请举手)是错误的(因为有没有问题是当前的事，举手也不是为了预防将来有问题)，in case 应该改为 if。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Make a note in case you forget. 记下条，以免忘掉。/ I took anumbrella this morning in case it rains today. 我早上带了雨伞，以防今天下雨。/ I've got the key in case we want to go inside. 以防我们万一要进去，我带来了钥匙。/ In case your checked luggage is lost in the confusion, label your bags well, with name, business address and phone on the outside and an itinerary and contact information packed inside, on top. (The Associated Press, Aug. 10, 2006)以防你的托运行李在混乱中丢失，你要把每件行李标好标签，在箱子外面标明姓名、工作地址和电话号码，在箱子里面上方放上行程及联系方式。/ Business travelers must carry essential tools with them, but be prepared in case a ban on all carry-on luggage is suddenly imposed domestically, the way it was in England. 商务旅客总要随身携带一些必要的工具，但是，要做好准备，以防国内航线也像英国那样忽然对一切手提行李发布禁令。</div><br><br>in case 后面接从句，既可以指将来发生的人力不可抗拒的事(如下雨)，此时可以译为“以防”；也可以指可由此而避免的事，此时可以译为“以免”之类。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She drew herself up, but not too severely, in case she might freeze the poor man into silence. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman)她绷起了脸，但绷得不太紧，唯恐这个可怜的人看了太紧张，吓得说不出话来。</div><br><br>in case 是事先的“未雨绸缪，以防……”，而不是“一旦如何就到时对付”，这个重要但又容易模糊的区别，可以从下面的例子得到较好的说明：... the only constitutional duty of a vice president, which is standing by in case a president dies or becomes incapacitated. (Jim VandeHei and John F. Harris, in Politico, Aug. 30, 2008)……副总统唯一的宪法职务，亦即各位准备万一总统去世或丧失履行职务的能力。这里的 standing by 是现在就必须实现的“未雨绸缪”的延续状态，而总统缺位则是未来可能发生的瞬时事件，两者一先一后，这是使用 in case 所必须具备的条件。如果是同时发生的瞬时事件，就不能用 in case (例如不能理解为“一旦总统去世或丧失履行职务的能力，副总统就必须 stand by”)。<br><br>in case 不但可以表示对未来发生的情况预先加以防范，或对未来出现的需要预先做出准备，而且它所引入的从句还可以表示对过去有可能已经发生的(但尚不确定的)情况采取事后的补救措施。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She scanned the curb in case she'd dropped her wallet there. 她细看路边，看看钱包会不会丢在那里。</div><br><br>但是如果 case 以复数形式出现，而且后面有 where，则仍然是“如果遇到……情况”的意思，不是“未雨绸缪”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... in cases where a program is offered in more than one college, ... ……如果同一个课程多个学院都开设，……</div><br><br>in case 还可以不作为连词词组，后面不引入从句，而作为副词词组，表示“以防万一；以备不时之需，有备无患”，此时前面还可以加上 just，成为 just in case。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She ought to be there in case. 她应该在那里，以防万一。/ ... and taking into consideration the vagaries of the English climate, I like to take some woolens just in case. (Graham Greene, Travels with My Aunt)……考虑到英格兰气候的变幻莫测，我打算随身带几件羊毛衣，以备不时之需。</div><br><br>just in case 和 in case 一样，既可以是副词词组，也可以是连词词组，引入一个从句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The room has a stained-glass window with two small light bulbs just incase there isn't enough natural sunlight to show off the artwork. 厅房里有一扇彩色玻璃窗，装有两个小灯泡，以备天然阳光不足时给艺术品照明。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 但是 in case of 则的确是“如果遇到，万一发生”的意思，不是“(预先做某事)以防万一”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Do you know what to do in case of fire? 你知道遇到火灾该怎么办吗?</div>in case of 有时候在 case 前面加上定冠词 the，此时 in the case of 则是“就……而论”。后面如果是不特指的名词，仍多少有点“如果”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In the case of cancer or heart disease the only person who literally gets hurt is the one who failed to get to his doctor in time. (Glenn V. Carmichael, in Ford Times, September 1966)就癌症或是心脏病而论，唯一真正吃亏的人，就是没有及时去找大夫看的人。/ ... asked if he would, in the case of an emergency, be willing to lend me some money. (Jane Harriman, The Atlantic, March 1970)……问他万一是一急病的话，他愿不愿意借给我一点钱。</div><br><br>但是如果 in the case of 后面是特指的名词，则没有“如果”的意思，单纯是“就……而论”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... leniency would be a mistake in the case of the confirmed young criminal ... (Current Biography, 1947)……对于这个定了罪的青年罪犯来说，如果宽大处理，就是错误的……</div><div class="ex-item">In the case of the Hollywood writers, some of the accused took their case to courts. (Collier's Year Book, 1949)具体到好莱坞的编剧来说，有些被告把案子闹到法庭上去了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 如果前面没有 case 的所指，第一次就出现 the case，这个 the case 相当于形容词 true (有点像 the matter 相当于形容词 wrong); is the case 相当于 is true。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>That is the case. 那是真的。/ Can we assume that this is in fact the case? 我们能假定事情的确如此吗?</div><div class="ex-item">How can you know what he said was the case? 你怎么能知道他说的是真的呢? 但是 the case 所表示的“真”，倾向于指一件具体事情或一段有限时期的情况，而不是漫长时间比较普遍的情况。如果是后者，还是说 true 好些。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This has been true (*the case) since time immemorial. 自古以来就一向如此。但如果只是涉及某一特定的事件，则即使是谈及历史上比较长期的情况，也可以就事论事地用 the case 而不用 true。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is not the case that societies on the different continents were comparable to each other until 3,000 B.C., whereupon western Eurasian societies suddenly developed writing and began for the first time to pull ahead in other respects as well. (Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs, and Steel)不能够以为，各个不同大陆的各个社会直到公元前3,000年都彼此相仿，只是到了那时候欧亚大陆西部的那些社会忽然之间发展了文字并首次在其他方面也开始突飞猛进。</div><br><br>
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catholic
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>catholic</b></div>首字母大写，是“天主教的”。首字母小写，则是个普通的形容词，表示“随和的；兼容的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She has catholic tastes. 她的审美观是最收并蓄的。/ He was catholic. He had not only a true appreciation of the old masters, but sympathy with the moderns. (Somerset Maugham, The Moon and Sixpence)他是很包容的。他不但真正赏识那些过去的大师们，而且对那些现代的大师们也很有好感。catholic 原本来自希腊文 katholou，意思是“普遍的”，后来天主教在欧洲一统天下，故取此名。过去天主教有过另一中文译名“公教”，这个“公”字也是出自 catholic 的原意。</div><br><br>
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cattle
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>cattle</b></div>是单数形式的集合名词，与之连用的动词用复数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Cattle were sold for next to nothing. 牲口贱卖掉了。类似的情况还有：clergy、police、offspring、people、poultry、vermin、intelligentsia、majority、swine 等。</div><br><br>
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cause
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>cause</b></div>作为及物动词，cause 可以有单宾语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Drunken driving can cause traffic accidents. 喝酒开车可能造成交通事故。也可以有双宾语。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The typhoon caused the town a lot of damage. 台风使得该镇蒙受巨大损失。双宾语的间接宾语可以转换为被动句的主语。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We were caused a great deal of grief by his death. 他的去世，使我们感到十分悲痛。</div><br><br>值得注意的是：cause 的单宾语通常是“事”而不是“人”，但是这个宾语如果充当“兼语”(即 cause 的宾语，又兼后面动作的主语)，则可以是“物”，也可以是“人”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Anger caused her to rise and leave the room. 她一怒之下，站了起来，走出房间。/ The traffic jam caused him to be late. 交通堵塞，使得他来晚了。</div><br><br>有时候，有些英语书面文字，甚至在后面的动词不定式那里采用被动式(“使之被如何如何”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is the same motive that caused the Malaya jungles to be cleared for rubber estates. (George Orwell)也是同样的原因，使得马来亚的丛林被砍伐，改为橡胶种植园。这样的句子，由于 motive 还不直接是 clear 的施动者，所以拐一个弯仍然有其理由。而下面的句子，就显得有点“叠床架屋”，只能用于咬文嚼字的公文：In witness whereof I have hereunto set my hand and caused the Seal of the United States of America to be affixed. 兹由本人亲手印上美利坚合众国国玺，以昭郑重。</div><br><br>用于兼语式的 cause，有时候同后面的动词不定式可能离开很远，要注意不要断线。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... the sub-zero temperature at the district's bus garage in Grande Industrial Park off Geyser Road caused some of the heaters on school buses that help their engines start not to work. (The Daily Gazette, Jan. 25, 2011, A3)在设在盖瑟路口的格兰德工业园的校区公共汽车车库中，零度以下的气温使得那些校车上帮助引擎发动的加热器无法运行。</div><br><br>
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caution 与 attention
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>caution 与 attention</b></div>参见 attention 与 caution 条。<br><br>
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CCTV
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>CCTV</b></div>中国人对 CCTV 这个英文缩写很熟悉，都知道这是专有名词 China Central Television (中央电视台)的简称。但是 CCTV 在英文中也可以是一个普通名词 closed-circuit television (闭路电视)的简称。英文中有许多普通名词，本来都用小写字母，但是一变为缩写，一般都采用大写字母，同专有名词一样。<br><br>
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cease
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>cease</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> cease to inf. 通常这个动词必须是个延续体动词，否则，瞬时的动作或事件是不可能“停止”的，所以不可以说 <i>The bomb ceased to explode. 因为这不合情理。同样，不可以说 </i>John ceased to have a fit of anger. 因为“发怒”是一下子的事。延续体动词则可以。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>John ceased to be angry at me. 约翰不再生我的气了。/ Ben ceased to yell at me. 本不再向我大声吆喝了。/ There ceased to be any reason to remain here. 再也没有理由在这里待下去了。</div><br><br>但是，如果瞬时体动词指的是反复或习惯，就可以“停止”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>John ceased to have fits of anger. 约翰不再动不动就发火了。/ John ceased to have a fit of anger every time he saw me. 约翰不再一看见我就发火了。或者主语变为复数，则瞬时动作或事件不是一下子发生就完了，而是形成一个延续的系列过程，此时也可以用 cease to inf.。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The bombs ceased to explode. 炸弹停止了爆炸。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> cease 作为不及物动词时，它的主语通常是一个延续的过程或状态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The bombing ceased. 轰炸停止了。/ At last the rain has ceased. 雨最终停止了。也可以指谓语(延续的动作或状态)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She cried for hours without ceasing. 她不停地哭了几小时。也可以后面加动词不定式(动词也必须是延续性的)，表示该延续动作或状态的停止。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Dinosaurs ceased to exist. 恐龙不复存在了。</div><br><br>cease 作为及物动词时，它的直接宾语如果是名词，通常代表一个延续的过程；如果是动名词，通常这个动词也是延续性的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>cease work 停止工作</div><div class="ex-item">cease production 停止生产</div><div class="ex-item">cease fire 停火(延续交战过程的停止)</div><div class="ex-item">cease payment 停止支付(反复多次支付过程的停止)</div><div class="ex-item">She never ceases regretting. 她一直不停地感到遗憾。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> cease 与 stop 的区别是：(a) cease 多用于动态程度较弱的延续过程；stop 则用于动态程度较强的延续过程或是处于较强动态中的事物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The train stopped (*ceased). 火车停下来了。/ stop a quarrel 停止争吵</div><div class="ex-item">His naivety never ceased to amaze me. 他的天真幼稚，一直都使我感到惊讶。</div>(b) 就“停止”这个动作本身而言，stop 也比较强烈、迅速，cease 则比较柔和、缓慢。例如 The rain ceased. 比 The rain stopped. 更强调逐渐的过程，不是一下子就雨过天晴。(c) stop to inf. 与 stop + -ing 意义完全不同。前者是“停下原先(不明言)的延续动作，转而去做另一(to inf. 所指的瞬时或延续的)动作”；后者是“停下原先(-ing 所指的)延续动作”。(d) stop 可以单独用，表示行为者自己停止某前述行为；cease 则必须同时用附带成分来说明停止什么。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I suggested that they not shriek anymore, so they stopped (*ceased). 我请他们别再嚷嚷，他们就停下了。除非主语是指某一延续的过程(而不是人)，否则 cease 不可以作为不及物动词单独出现。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Welfare payments cease as soon as an individual starts a job. 个人一开始就业，福利费就停止发放。</div>(e) cease 后面可以接动词不定式或动名词，后面的动词必须是延续性的(第一类动词和第二类动词)。如果是第一类动词(延续状态而非延续动作)，就只能用动词不定式。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The problem ceased to exist (<i>ceased existing). 问题不复存在。/ That never ceases to amaze (</i>ceases amazing) me. 那件事一直使我感到离奇。</div><br><br>
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celebrate
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>celebrate</b></div>不一定是“庆祝”。有时候举行一个哀伤的仪式，也可以用这个词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>That night when the Bunko Girls and their families gathered in the hotel bar to celebrate Marianne's memory, I understood what it was like to be one of the team. (Newsweek, Sept. 4, 2006, p. 19)当天晚上，玩邦科骰子游戏的女生小组和家人聚集在酒店的酒吧间悼念玛丽安的逝世时，我体会到了，作为小组的一员是怎么一回事。</div><br><br>
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cement
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>cement</b></div>是水泥，不等于“混凝土”(concrete)。通常铺地面，用的是混凝土，但以讹传讹，叫作“水泥地”。英文中混凝土人行道也叫 cement sidewalk，和中文一样不确切。下面一个例句，可以说明两者的区别与关系：The contractor failed to put enough cement into his concrete mixture. 承包商没有往自己的混凝土里加足够的水泥。<br><br>
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center
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>center</b></div>英式英语中为 centre。这个名词的词义，同它的搭配很有关系：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 前面有 the，后面有 of ...，指某具体或抽象事物的中心点。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the center of a circle 圆心</div><div class="ex-item">the center of the room 房间的中央</div><div class="ex-item">the center of attention 注意力的中心。</div><br><br>表示静态位置时，前面的介词用 at。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The Sun is at the center of the solar system. 太阳位于太阳系的中心。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 前面有 the、a、this 等限定词，还有其他前置或后置定语，表示场所、设施、中心地带。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>an amusement center 娱乐场所</div><div class="ex-item">a medical center 医疗中心</div><div class="ex-item">a center of trade 贸易地带</div><div class="ex-item">recycle center (超市内的)旧瓶回收处。这里的“中心”，其实没有什么“中心点”的意思。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 前面总是有 the，没有其他定语，指政治上的“中间派，中间立场”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>As he grew older, he also increasingly moved to the center. (Newsweek, Jan. 8, 2007, p. 32)他年纪越大，也就越是向中间立场靠近。/ "If I'd been elected in 1976," he told me flatly, "the party (= the Republican Party) wouldn't be as far right as it is at the present time ... I sure hope it comes back to the center." (ibid.)他直言不讳地对我说：“我1976年要是当选，党(指共和党)本来不会像现在这样的右。……我的确希望它回到中间立场上来。”</div>“中间偏右”是 right-of-center。“中间派人物”是 centrist。<br><br>
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ceremonial 与 ceremonious
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>ceremonial 与 ceremonious</b></div>两个形容词都来自名词 ceremony (“仪式；礼仪”)。但前者指事物，后者指人(“彬彬有礼的”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Weddings are ceremonial occasions. 婚礼是讲究礼节的场合。/ He is a ceremonious person. 他是个彬彬有礼的人。</div><br><br>
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certain'
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>certain'</b></div>这个形容词用作表语，在释义和搭配用法上同 sure 十分相似，但也有些不同：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> sure 用作表语，后面可以没有任何补充成分(如：Are you sure?)。certain 用作表语，虽然也可以不要任何补充成分，但更常见的是加上补充成分，如 about something、of something、to inf.、that 从句(that 常省略)，以及间接问句等。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There's one thing I'm certain of. 有一点我是可以肯定的。/ We're not quite certain how much there is. 我们不太清楚究竟有多少。/ He's certain that she will disapprove. 他肯定她不会赞成。/ I'm not certain whether he's there or not. 他在不在那里，我可摸不准。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 同 sure of + -ing (主语本人有信心)及 sure to inf. (说话者有信心，主语本人不知道)的区别相似，certain of + -ing 也是表示主语本人有信心，而 certain to inf. 则表示只是说话者自己的看法，并非主语本人的看法。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He is certain of winning the game. 他深信自己一定会赢这场比赛。/ He is certain of re-election. 他有把握能在选举中连任。/ He is certain to win the game. (我深信)他一定会赢这场比赛。/ Also avoided were the questions certain to have been asked at a hospital or doctor's office. 同样也避免了的，还有那些肯定在医院里或者在医生诊所里问过的问题。</div><br><br>
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certain'
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>certain'</b></div>这个形容词作前置定语时，有不同的甚至相反的意义。最原始的意义是“确实的，肯定的”(这同 certain 作表语的意义相同)。但是这个意义只用于不可数名词(无冠词)和有定冠词 the 的可数及不可数名词。如果用于有不定冠词 a 的可数名词，则意义就变为相反的“不确实的，不肯定的，某个”。其实，这个现象，中文的“一定”也是一样，说是“一定程度”，实际意义是“某个说不准的程度”。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作“确实的，肯定的”解。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Capture means certain death. 如果被抓住，就必死无疑。(death 是不可数的抽象名词，此处无冠词)</div><div class="ex-item">certain evidence 确凿的证据(evidence 是不可数的抽象名词，此处无冠词)</div><div class="ex-item">the certain advance of age 时代肯定不变的前进(advance 是不可数的抽象名词，此处有定冠词 the)</div><div class="ex-item">the certain way to success 必然成功之路(way 是可数名词，此处有定冠词 the)</div><div class="ex-item">To avoid certain defeat in the courts, he moved away to Nyon in the territory of Bern, taking Rousseau's aunt Suzanne with him. (Wikipedia: Rousseau)为了避免在法庭上必然败诉，他父亲带着卢梭的姨母苏珊娜搬到了伯尔尼地区的尼翁。(certain defeat 是不可数名词，所以 certain 的意思是“必然的”)德国物理学家、1954年诺贝尔物理学奖获得者 Max Born 写了一本书 The End of the Certain World (《确实世界的终结》)，里面阐明了他的新理论，即“不确定物理”(Physics of Indeterminacy)。这里 the certain world 是可数名词加定冠词，所以 certain 的意义就是“确实的”。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作“不确实的，不肯定的，某个”解。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>at a certain time 在某个时候</div><div class="ex-item">to a certain degree 在某种程度上</div><div class="ex-item">a certain person 某个人</div><div class="ex-item">a certain disease 某种疾病</div><div class="ex-item">under certain conditions 在某些条件下(conditions 是可数名词，因为复数所以没有 a)</div><div class="ex-item">have a certain hesitation 有点犹豫</div><div class="ex-item">feel a certain reluctance to do so 有点不太愿意这样做。</div><br><br>
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chance
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>chance</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为名词，take a chance on ... 是“冒……之险；把希望寄托在……之上”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Barrott has been sure I'm in touch with Mack. They wouldn't take achance on not knowing if he called. (Mary Higgins Clark, Where Are You Now?)巴罗特已经肯定我同麦克是有联系的。他们不会冒险不弄清他是否打过电话。</div><br><br>chances 也可以作句子的主语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Chances are you'll never be able to read all the supporting documents. (Brad Meltzer, The Tenth Justice)很可能你们根本无法看完那些中述理由的文件。还可以加上形容词说明可能性的大小。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If you apply to a particular college solely on the basis of its acceptance rate, the chances are good that the selection process will work against you. 你如果单单凭某所大学的录取率来申请入学，那么，录取过程就很可能对你不利。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作为动词，属于表示瞬间事件的第四类动词，有两种可能的搭配。<br><br>一种是“主语 + chance + to inf.”，表示(恰巧)实现某事。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... when she chanced to be in good humour ... (Charlotte Brontë, Jane Eyre)……当她心情好的时候……</div><div class="ex-item">If I do chance to find out where she is, I'll inform you immediately. 我如果恰好找到她在哪里，我会马上告诉你。/ They chanced to be staying at the same hotel. 他们碰巧住在同一家旅馆。</div><br><br>另一种搭配则是以 it 作形式主语，引入 that 从句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It chanced that they were staying at the same hotel. 碰巧他们住在同一家旅馆。</div><br><br>
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change
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>change</b></div>作为不可数名词，change 可以指“找回的零钱”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He told the waiter to keep the change. 他叫服务员把找回的零钱留下。再经过转义，还可以指单纯的“零钱”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The man in the store won't give him change for the phone unless he buys something. 店里的人不肯给他换零钱打电话，除非他买点东西。</div><br><br>但是在口语中，change 甚至可以指大笔的钱。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... a boat with two internal engines is going to be large and cost you a serious amount of change. (Stephen Coonts, The Art of War)……配备两台内置引擎的船，体积会很大，还会费你一大笔钱。</div><br><br>
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change 与 alter
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>change 与 alter</b></div>两个动词，意义相近，但有些不同。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> change 作为不及物动词时，可以指主语所代表的某事物内部发生变化(但该事物仍是该事物，这是因为主语事物仍然存在)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The weather changed suddenly. 天气骤然变化。(weather 并不变为他物)</div><div class="ex-item">The signal changed from red to green. 交通信号灯由红变绿。(笼统的 signal 仍然存在)</div><div class="ex-item">She's changed a lot during the last few years. 这几年来她变了很多。(she 还是 she)也可以指该事物发生变化后不复存在，变成另一事物(主语事物消失)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Her smile changed to a frown. 她从微笑变为皱眉。(smile 不复存在)</div><div class="ex-item">The witch changed into a princess. 女巫化身成为一个公主。(witch 起码表面上不复存在)</div><div class="ex-item">Winter changed to spring. 冬去春来。(winter 不复存在)</div>change 作为不及物动词时，还可以表示(非主语)由一物转向另一物的变化(主要指衣物和交通工具)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He changed from one make of car to another. 他由一种车换成了另一种。/ Passengers must change here for Chicago. 乘客到芝加哥去要在这里换乘。/ We have to change at Victoria. 我们要在维多利亚换车。/ I'm going upstairsto change. 我去楼上换衣服。/ She changed into a black dress. 她换上了一条黑色的连衣裙。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> change 作为及物动词，主要是表示将某事物换为另一事物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The sorcerer changed her into a stone. 魔术师将她变成一块石头。这一点，同 alter 有比较明显的区别。比如 alter a dress 是对连衣裙加以改动(如加宽或收窄)，而 change a dress 则是根本不穿它，换成另一件。不过，alter 偶尔也可以指变为另一物的“更换”，但仍然指对本身的改动以至于变成另一物，而不是简单的不要这个要那个。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>alter the storeroom into a bedroom 把储藏室改成卧室。</div><br><br>另外，alter 和 change 作为及物动词，都可以接一个表示大种类事物的直接宾语，这个事物本身持续存在，不变为另一事物，但是具体内容或表现形式发生变化。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We'll have to alter/change our plans. 我们将要改变计划。/ Research indicates that increasing water temperatures and rising sea levels can alter/change the distribution of cold water and warm water species. 研究表明，海水温度上升以及海平面升高，可能使得冷水生物和温水生物的分布状况发生变化。(distribution 概念不变，实际内容发生变化。)</div>但是，如果是从一个事物转为另一个事物，即使这两个事物的概念用同一个名词来表达，通常也用 change 而不用 alter。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>change position 改变地位</div><div class="ex-item">change color 改变颜色</div><div class="ex-item">change gear 换挡</div><div class="ex-item">change one's address 换地址</div><div class="ex-item">change one's job 换工作</div><div class="ex-item">change one's doctor 换个医生</div><div class="ex-item">Let's change the subject. 咱们换个话题吧。/ She changed her name from Bronowski to Brown. 她把自己的姓从布罗诺夫斯基改为布朗。</div><br><br>
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charge
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>charge</b></div>这个动词，许多词典都有比较详细的释义，但是有些习惯用法尤其是搭配还是值得注意：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作“收费”解，是个及物动词，通常是以付款的人为间接宾语，款项为直接宾语，换取的商品或劳务用 for 引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They charged him $15 for a haircut. 他们收了他15美元的理发费。但付款人可以不出现，如：They charged $15 for a haircut. 也可以转换为被动句，通常以原来的间接宾语作主语：He was charged $15 for a haircut. 但是信用卡出现后，charge a sum to somebody 可以表示在某人的信用卡上扣除款项，不一定要说出 credit card，而且主语可以不是收款人而是信用卡的主人。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She never carries cash, she just charges everything. 她从不携带现金，买什么都用信用卡付账。/ He charged the meal on VISA card. 他用 VISA 信用卡付了这顿饭的账。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作“交付任务”解，直接宾语当然是领受任务之人，任务用介词 with 引入，但更多是采用被动句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This body was charged with the supervision of the project. 本单位负责督察项目的进行。也可以不用介词 with 而用动词不定式。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They charged him to see that all was right. 他们委托他将一切都照料妥当。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 但是同样用介词 with，如果后面的名词成分不是某工作而是某不良行为，则 charge 不是“交付任务”，而是“指控”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>charge him with identity theft 指控他盗用身份。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 另外一个词义，是“装填(某物通常应有的内容)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>charge a gun 给枪装上子弹</div><div class="ex-item">charger 充电器。</div><br><br>可以用过去分词来表示“装有”或“负荷”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>positively charged 带正电荷的</div><div class="ex-item">negatively charged 带负电荷的。也可以用来表示“带有”比较抽象的内容。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a voice charged with emotion 带着激动情绪的声音</div><div class="ex-item">This was an incredibly politically charged issue, national in scope, ... (David Rosenfelt, Heart of a Killer)这是一起政治意义大得不得了的全国范围的问题，……</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 作“攻击”解，可以及物或不及物。作为不及物动词时，攻击的对象用 at 引入。<br><br>
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cheap 与 inexpensive
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>cheap 与 inexpensive</b></div>价廉的商品是 cheap (但 cheap 有时也给人以“质次”的印象)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This is a cheap piece of workmanship. 这件东西做工很简陋。/ This coat was made with cheap fur. 这件外套是用廉价皮毛做的。而 inexpensive 则可以有“价廉物美”(即使不美也不低劣)的意义，而在实际价格上给人的印象则比 cheap 高一些。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She bought an inexpensive but attractive suit. 她买了一套价钱相宜但又很吸引人的衣服。/ Jack purchased an inexpensive car whose value equaled its cost. 杰克买了一辆价格相宜的车子，从它的质量看，价钱是合算的。商店的售货员和老板，几乎从来不说自己的货物 cheap，都是说 inexpensive。</div><br><br>价格在中文中可以说“便宜”，但英文的 price、salary、wage、pay 等不可以说 cheap (反义也不可以说 dear 或 expensive)，要说 low (反义说 high)。<br><br>
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check out
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>check out</b></div>这个动词短语，可以相当于一个瞬时动词(第四类动词)或趋成动词(第三类动词)，也可以相当于一个延续动词(第一类动词)。现在分别说明如下：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为瞬时动词(第四类动词)或趋成动词(第三类动词)，可以是不及物动词，也可以是及物动词：(a)作为不及物动词(第三类动词或第四类动词)，意思是“办理”(第三类动词)或“办妥离开旅馆的退房手续”(第四类动词)(也可以在 check out 后面加上 of the hotel 或 of the room)。(b)作为及物动词，意思是“核查，查证；借出”(是第三类动词，不是第四类动词的“查明”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The police are checking out his alibi. 警察正在查证他是否当时不在场。/ How many books can I check out at one time? 我一次能借出多少本书?</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作为延续动词(不及物动词，第一类动词)，主语不能是人，只能是事物，意思是“说得通，站得住”(延续状态)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The local police found her story didn't check out. 当地警方觉得她所说的经过不对头。/ Does his background check out? 他的背景清楚吗?</div><div class="ex-item">"Her references checked out," Dr. Keating said. "She made a nice appearance and had a pleasant manner. I hired her and was very satisfied with her the three years she was here." (Mary Higgins Clark, I'll Be Seeing You)基廷博士说：“她的介绍材料是对头的。她很有风度，举止大方。我雇用了她，对她在这里三年的表现十分满意。”</div><br><br>
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chemistry
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>chemistry</b></div>除了“化学”一解之外，chemistry 还可以指两人之间意气相投，互相吸引。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There was absolutely no chemistry between her and Alex. 她和亚历克斯根本不来电。</div><br><br>
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childish 与 childlike
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>childish 与 childlike</b></div>前者是“幼稚的”(有贬义)；后者是“童真可爱的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Don't be so childish! 别这样孩子气!</div><div class="ex-item">I thought her nice but rather childish. 我觉得她很不错，但相当孩子气。/ She looked at us with her big, childlike eyes. 她用一双天真烂漫的大眼睛看着我们。(-ish 常常有贬义；-like 则常常不褒不贬，甚至带有一点欣赏的语气。)</div>
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choice
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>choice</b></div>have one's choice 不是“得到自己所选择的”，而是“面临选择”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... and the French had their choice—accept the underpowered engines or get along without planes. (Waverley Root, The Secret History of the War)……于是法国人就面临这样一个选择，要么接受那些动力不足的引擎，要么就设法不要飞机。</div><br><br>
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choose
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>choose</b></div>作为及物动词(第四类动词)，意思是“选中，挑选出”，表示结果的完成，不是表示“选择”的过程；它的直接宾语，不是多个供选择的对象，而是挑选完毕的当选者。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They've chosen a very strong team. 他们挑选出了一个很强的队。/ Choose your words carefully. 要字斟句酌。</div><br><br>如果要说“选择”的过程，有多个供选择的对象，choose 就要作为不及物动词，在多个选择对象前面加上 between (两个对象)或 among/from (多个对象)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You can choose among/from these hotels. 你可以在这几家旅馆当中挑选。/ There are lots of flavors to choose from. 有多种口味供选择。/ There's little to choose between them. 两者之间没有多少好选择的。如果说 We have two people for you to choose. 那就几乎等于“等额选举”，一定要对方选中这两个人；应该把 choose 改为 choose from，让对方从两个人当中选出一个。</div>“选中 A 而不要 B”可以说 choose A over B。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... Carlotta had probably chosen Sweet Tomatoes over my office because she knew I wouldn't yell there. (Anna Salter, Fault Lines)……卡尔洛塔之所以挑选“甘美番茄饭店”，而不要在我的办公室吃这顿饭，大概是因为她知道，我在饭店里是不会高声嚷嚷的。</div><br><br>
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chore
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>chore</b></div>通常指劳苦的、不愉快的家务活。不应该用来指日常习惯的事，更不能指使人沉醉其中的事。所以不能说：*One of his first chores on getting up in the morning is to read the newspaper. 他早上起床后的第一件家务活是看报。<br><br>
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church
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>church</b></div>church 既可以是作为建筑物的一座教堂或礼拜堂，也可以是作为一个组织的教会。作“教堂”解时，可以有复数，按情况加上定冠词或不定冠词，或其他限定词。作“教会”解时，指不同教派的教会，也可以有复数，如果指笼统的基督教教会(不分教派，甚至不分新教和天主教)，就说 the church，不能说 *a church。美国前总统小布什 2003 年纪念马丁·路德·金时说的两句话中，分别用 a church 指教堂，the church 指教会，很能说明这个区别：It is fitting that we honor the life of a great American in a church who derived his inspiration from the church. It is fitting that we honor this great American in a church because, out of the church comes the notion of equality and justice. (George W. Bush, honoring Martin Luther King Jr., Jan. 20, 2003)我们今天到教堂来缅怀一位从教会获取灵感的伟大的美国人，这是合适的。我们到教堂来缅怀这位伟大的美国人，其所以合适，是因为平等与正义的观念是来自教会的。<br><br>如果忽略 church 前面的冠词对于词义的决定作用，就会产生误解并导致误译。例如刘宪之与尚延梓合译的《法国中尉的女人》译笔十分流畅，可圈可点，但是第三章有一句译文不妥：He rushed from her plump Cockney arms into those of the Church horrifying his father one day shortly afterwards by announcing that he wished to take Holy Orders. 译文是：“他懊恼万分，挣脱那个伦敦下层社会女人的浑圆双臂，一头扎进教堂里忏悔起来。事后不久，他向父亲宣布，他希望去当牧师。”这一句译文同原文有相当大的出入，其中 the Church (注意：是大写的)被误解为“教堂”，those of the Church 本来是 those arms of the Church，作为一座建筑物，它的 arms 就十分费解。应该理解为“摆脱了那个伦敦下层女子的怀抱，转而投入教会的怀抱”，是抽象意义的。而且，“事后不久”根本不是“一头扎进教堂里忏悔”之后不久(本来就没有这回事)，而是他同这个女人发生关系之后不久，horrifying his father by announcing 就是“转而投入教会的怀抱”这个转变的具体表现，也可以说是同时发生的。综观全句，发生的几处误译，在很大程度上都是由于对 the Church 有了误解，这个误解，乍一看来无伤大雅，但却造成连锁反应，接连产生一系列的误解。<br><br>
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cinema
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>cinema</b></div>参见 radio 条。<br><br>
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circumstances
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>circumstances</b></div>这个名词前面的介词，究竟应该是 in 还是 under，语言学界多年来有争论。反对用 under 的理由是：circum- 意思是“围绕”，同“上下”无关。但是语言的发展，是不受词源的拘束的。用 under 已经约定俗成。<br><br>
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civic
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>civic</b></div>这个形容词意义接近于 civil 的基本意义“公民的”(参见 civil 条)，但是没有 civil 的其他引申意义，而且带有比较浓厚的“权利”或“义务”色彩。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>civic rights 公民权利</div><div class="ex-item">civic duties 公民义务</div><div class="ex-item">civic consciousness 公民意识</div><div class="ex-item">civic pride 作为公民的自豪</div><div class="ex-item">civic virtue 公共道德。</div><br><br>同市镇有关的“城市的，市政的”之意，civic 则比 civil 更强地保留下来。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a civic leader 一个致力于市政建设的名流</div><div class="ex-item">a civic organization that worked to improve downtown (The Daily Gazette, Mar. 5, 2009, A6)一个致力于改善闹市区状况的市政建设事业团体</div><div class="ex-item">The civic improvements so enthusiastically contemplated by the five millionaires in the earlier pages of this veracious chronicle—the fountain, reservoir, town-hall, and free library—had not yet been erected. (Bret Harte, Devil's Ford)那五位百万富翁，在这份口气很大的纪事的最初几页里，满腔热情地谈论了那几项市政建设，又是喷泉，又是蓄水池，又是市政厅，又是免费图书馆，但是都还没有盖起来。</div><br><br>
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civil
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>civil</b></div>这个形容词有多方面的意义，可谓是“一言难尽”。它来源于拉丁文的 civitāt (城市)，作为形容词的意思是“市民的”。但是由于欧洲中世纪时的城市往往具有独立国家政体的功能，“市民”就逐渐成了具有政治意义的“公民”。现在的“公民”一词，在各主要的欧洲语言中都源自“城市”，因而 civil 也就获得了政治上的“公民的”这个意义。但是经过进化，词义往四面八方伸展，形成了一个复杂的词义网。现将 civil 的几个主要词义分别说明如下：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 最基本的词义是“公民的”，亦即“因公民身份而产生的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>civil rights 民权，公民权利</div><div class="ex-item">civil duties 公民义务。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 与国家机器相对而言的“民间的，平民的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>civil society 民间社会。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 与武装力量相对而言的“文职的，民政的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>civil administration 民政当局</div><div class="ex-item">civil affairs 民政事务</div><div class="ex-item">return to civil life (军人)复员转业</div><div class="ex-item">civil aviation 民用航空</div><div class="ex-item">civil defense 民防</div><div class="ex-item">civil servant 文职公务员。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 指“国内公民与公民之间的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>civil war 内战(参见 civil war 条)</div><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 法律上与刑事相对的“民事的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Civil Code 民法典</div><div class="ex-item">civil law 民法</div><div class="ex-item">The prosecutors concluded that his tax problems were better handled as a civil matter. 检察官们得出结论认为他的缴税问题以作为民事案件处理为宜。 (6) 由于一般认为城里人比较讲礼貌，civil 也就获得了“有礼貌的”之意(但只是一般表面上的礼貌)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Be civil to strangers. 对陌生人要以礼相待。如果用于这个意义，可以派生出副词 civilly (“文明守礼地”)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You have to speak to the suspects civilly even when the evidence of their guilt is overwhelming. 即使犯罪嫌疑人罪证如山，同他们谈话也需要文明守礼。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 可能同军队工程兵的工作相对，civil engineering 指修桥、补路、盖房子之类的民用土木工程，civil engineer 是“土木工程师”。<br><br>
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civil war
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>civil war</b></div>欧洲各国的语文巾，这个词直译的原意都是“公民战争”或“平民战争”，原本指的是一国之内发生的不牵涉正规军而只由平民进行的战争(按照西方旧时的观念，正规军只能对外，不能对内)，但是后来这个常规也被打破了。<br><br>
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claim
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>claim</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 这个单词，无论作为名词还是动词，基本意思都是“伸张(固有权利)，要求(实现权利)，(按照权利)追索(应得的利益)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>insurance claim 保险索赔</div><div class="ex-item">His claim for a disability allowance was rejected. 他申请残障补助被拒绝了。/ He claimed to be the owner of the hotel. 他声称自己是该旅馆的所有者。/ He claimed diplomatic immunity. 他声称自己享有外交豁免权。/ They're going to claim compensation. 他们要去要求赔偿损失。</div><br><br>但是这个单词用得越来越多，词义逐渐扩大，后来，声称某个对说话者自己有利但与权利不相干的情况，也用 claim，这种用法，有人反对，但相当流行。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They claimed their city was the best place to live. 他们声称，他们那座城市是最适宜居住的地方。/ Their efforts were not so unsuccessful as is often claimed. (Noam Chomsky, in Columbia Forum, Winter 1969)他们的努力，尽管常常有人说并不成功，但是情况不见得如此。/ He accuses Britain and the West of consistently siding with the forces of White repression in southern Africa in defence of what they claim to be the "free world." (The Times Literary Supplement, Aug. 27, 1971)他指责英国和西方为了保卫自己所说的“自由世界”而一贯同南部非洲的白人镇压势力站在一起。</div><br><br>claim 还可以表示“声称(某个理由)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The time for claiming ignorance as an excuse may be coming to an end. (U.S. News & World Report, May 19, 2008, p. 44)拿不知晓作为借口，这样的时代可能快要结束了。</div><br><br>值得注意的是：claim 作为及物动词，主要仍然是“声称(某一已有的事实)”而不是“提出(某一尚未达到的要求)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>President Barack Obama claimed progress Tuesday night in his aggressive campaign to lead the nation out of economic chaos ... (The Associated Press, Mar. 24, 2009)奥巴马总统星期二晚上声称那旨在带领全国摆脱经济混乱的大刀阔斧的运动取得了进展……(不是“要求得到进展”)即使是前面的例句 They're going to claim compensation. 里面的 compensation 其实也是指“有权取得赔偿”这一已有的事实，而不是“尚未达到的赔偿要求”。</div><br><br>同样，claim to inf. 不是“要求做某(尚未做的)事”，而是“声称自己已经做了某事”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>After that, nobody claimed to see the Grail ever again. (Dan Brown, The Da Vinci Code)自从那次之后，再也没有人声称看见过圣杯。</div><br><br>意义再扩大，主语可以是一场天灾人祸，claim 表示“索取”，直接宾语是生命财产或其他方面的损失。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The conflict has claimed casualties over the years. 这场冲突多年来一直造成伤亡。/ The earthquake claimed many lives. 地震使得许多人丧生。</div><br><br>claim 可以相当于 cost (但只属第四类动词，不可作为第一类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Adler ... then worked his way up the career ladder through all the drudgery and internal politics that had together claimed his first wife's love and a good deal of his hair. (Tom Clancy, Debt of Honor)阿德勒……然后在升职的阶梯上往上爬，经历了所有的艰苦和内幕政治，这些事情加起来，使他失去了第一位妻子的爱情，也失去了大量的头发。但 claim 不像 cost 那样可以有双宾语，不能说 *claimed him his first wife's love。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 但是，在新闻用语中，claim 有“自称某事是自己所为”的意思，尤其用于有关恐怖行为的新闻中。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Two truck bombs set off in quick succession sheared off the fronts of U.N. offices and a government building in Algeria's capital Tuesday, killing at least 26 people and wounding nearly 200 in an attack claimed by an affiliate of al-Qaida. (The Associated Press, Dec. 12, 2007)星期二在阿尔及利亚首都，两枚接连引爆的卡车炸弹，炸掉了联合国办公处和一座政府建筑物的正面，造成至少26人死亡，大约200人受伤。“基地”组织的一个分支，声称是他们制造了此次袭击。</div><br><br>
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clash
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>clash</b></div>在三种不同的情况下含义略有不同：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 主语是多个或复数，clash 可以是第一类动词或第四类动词，意义是“彼此冲突”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>People's views vary and even clash in many ways. 人们的见解各有不同，甚至在许多方面相互冲突。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 主语是单个，clash 是第四类动词，意义是“(同另一方)冲突”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Youths clashed with police in the streets. 青年人同警察在街上发生冲突。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 主语是一个集合体，clash 是第四类动词，意义是“(内部)发生冲突”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>SENATE CLASHES ON WAR POLICY (报纸标题)参议院在战争问题上发生争执。</div><br><br>
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classic 与 classical
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>classic 与 classical</b></div>两者表示“古典的”时意义相同，但是习惯上各与不同的名词搭配。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>classic style 古典风格</div><div class="ex-item">classical education 古典教育</div><div class="ex-item">classical music 古典音乐(可能 classic music 读音不方便)。有时候 classical 可以代替 classic。如 classical style，但是反过来就不可以，例如不可以说 *classic education。</div><br><br>classic 还有“典型的”之意，此时 classical 就不能代替它。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The painting is a classic example of sixteenth century Venetian art. 这幅画是16世纪威尼斯美术的代表作。/ This movie is one of the classic works of the Hollywood cinema. 这部片子是一部典型的好莱坞电影作品。/ You could call it a classic case of supply meeting demand. 这也不妨叫作供应应于求的一个典型事例。</div><br><br>
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clean 与 cleanse
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>clean 与 cleanse</b></div>这两个及物动词，意义相近，而且都属于第三类动词（“进行洗涤清理”）兼第四类动词（“洗干净，清理好”）。但是 clean 用于表示洗涤日常具体的事物，与之搭配的直接宾语，既可以是衣物之类或身体部分，也可以是被洗掉的污秽。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She was <b>cleaning</b> her teeth. 她正在刷牙。（宾语：牙齿）/ The fluid is used to <b>clean</b> grease from the hands. 该液体用于清洗手上的油污。（宾语：油污）类似这样的宾语游离现象，参见 purge 条、scatter 条、sow 条、sprinkle 条、swarm 条等。</div><br><br>cleanse 的搭配与 clean 相同，但用于具体事物时则只限于医疗范围。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She helped him to <b>cleanse</b> a wound. 她帮他清洗伤口。此外更多是用于抽象事物（“净化”），要洗净的事物作直接宾语，要去掉的东西用 of 引入。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>cleanse</b> one's heart of rancor (= <b>cleanse</b> rancor from one's heart) 消除心中的怨恨</div><div class="ex-item">be <b>cleansed of</b> sin 洗去罪孽得清洁</div><div class="ex-item">The whole world must be <b>cleansed of</b> the evil from which half the world has been freed. (Harry S. Truman, broadcast, May 8, 1945) 如今半个世界已经清除了邪恶，但是整个世界还必须清除邪恶。“种族清洗”是 ethnic <b>cleansing</b>。</div><br><br>但是，clean 往往隐约意味着某具体事物原先肮脏不洁，所以商业上的各种用于人体甚至用于居室环境的洗涤剂，不叫 cleaner，而用比较“高雅”的 cleanser，或 cleansing lotion、cleansing milk 之类。cleaner 则留给房屋的打扫工，女的打扫工叫 cleaning lady。另外，cleaner 或 dry cleaner 还指“干洗店”。<br><br>另外一个同 cleanse 意义相近而且搭配相同的动词是 purge，它在精神领域的抽象意义上可以同 cleanse 互换。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>purge</b> one's conscience 净化自己的良心</div><div class="ex-item">be <b>purged of</b> all suspicion 洗刷了一切怀疑。但是 purge 可以用于政治方面而 cleanse 不能。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>purge</b> the party <b>of</b> renegades (= <b>purge</b> renegades <b>from</b> the party) 清除党内的叛变分子。</div><br><br>
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clear
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>clear</b></div>作为形容词，clear 可以指事物，也可以指人。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> clear 指事物，意义不必多加解释。用法上可以作前置定语，也可以作表语。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> clear 指人，这个用法则有点特别，一般不能作前置定语，只能作表语或主语补足语。意义上也有点特别，依搭配的不同，可以表示：(a) 主语(人)自己对某事有清楚的了解；(b) 主语(人)的意思让别人清楚地了解。(a) 前一种（“自己明白”）通常用表示延续状态的 be clear，或者后面加 about、as to、on 等介词短语或 that、wh- 之类的从句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm not entirely <b>clear</b>. 我还不完全明白。/ He was not <b>clear</b> on/about the conclusion. 他对这个结论还不明白。/ She is not at all <b>clear</b> what is going on. = She is not at all <b>clear</b> as to what is going on. = She is not at all <b>clear</b> about what is going on. 她对这究竟是怎么一回事还莫名其妙。/ Let's be quite <b>clear</b>. 咱们把话说明白吧。（“让大家都明白”）/ I am <b>clear</b> in my own mind that I should give up the plan. 我心里明白自己的计划应该打消了。/ Everybody <b>clear</b> on your duties? (Tom Clancy, <i>The Cardinal of the Kremlin</i>) 大家对自己的任务都清楚了吗？ (b) 后一种（“让别人明白”）则通常用表示瞬时动作的 make oneself clear。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>No problem. You've <b>made yourself clear</b>. 没问题。你的意思已经说清楚了。</div><br><br>
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clever
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>clever</b></div>一般指学问上、理解力上、技巧上的“聪明的，伶俐的”，但有时也有“会算计的，耍小聪明的，有心眼的”之意。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They are <b>clever</b> enough to make sure that no one will associate them with the act. 他们很聪明，有办法使得谁都想不到他们同这件事情有关。/ Lady Lucas was a very good kind of woman, not too <b>clever</b> to be a valuable neighbour to Mrs. Bennet. (Jane Austen, <i>Pride and Prejudice</i>) 这一句中的 clever 是很传神的，因为卢卡斯先生是有爵位的人，他的夫人，如果有心眼 (clever)，就会摆架子，傲视邻居 (not to be a valuable neighbour)。但是卢卡斯夫人不那么有心眼 (not too clever)，比较大大咧咧，因而就成了班纳特夫人的好邻居。可以试译为：“卢卡斯太太是个很善良的女人，不那么有心眼，所以还是成了班纳特太太的一位宝贵的邻居。”</div><br><br>
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client
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>client</b></div>律师及其他专业服务(包括银行业)的顾客称 client，与医生相对应的称 patient。商店的顾客叫 customer，图书馆的读者、剧院的观众以及餐饮业的顾客叫 patron，旅馆的住客叫 guest。比较特别的是：找政府机构办事的老百姓也可以叫作 client (或 customer)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Or if a relief <b>client</b> is described as driving up to the welfare office in a new Cadillac to collect his check ... 或者假如有一个领救济金者被人描写成开着凯迪拉克豪车到福利机构去领取他的支票的话…… 参见 customer, client, guest 与 patron 条。</div><br><br>
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climate 与 weather
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>climate 与 weather</b></div>两者在英文中是不同的。climate 指一个地区一般的气候状况，是“气候”；weather 则是某日或某一段时期的特殊气候状况，是“天气”。所以，只能有 weather forecast (天气预报)，不能有 *climate forecast (气候预报)。<br><br>
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close²
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>close²</b></div>动词 close 只适用于有空间移动的“关闭”（参见 open 条）；关电门、电灯等是 turn off 或 switch off。但夏威夷英语中有接近中文的表述，如 <b>close</b> the light。<br><br>
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close¹
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>close¹</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> close to 当中可以插入名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The Moon is the <b>closest</b> astronomical object <b>to</b> the Earth. 月球是最靠近地球的天体。也可以插入其他成分。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... and the best thing to be said about it was that his children didn't know how <b>close</b> their young lives had come <b>to</b> an early conclusion. (Tom Clancy, <i>Executive Orders</i>) ……有关这件事，能说出来的最幸运的一点，就是他的孩子们还蒙在鼓里，不晓得自己幼小的生命曾经险些提早结束。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> close 的最高级 closest 用在句中时，后面补充说明的 to ... 往往离得很远，要注意两者的呼应关系，以免断线。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The <b>closest</b> thing they could find <b>to</b> a crime is in Statute 348.7 of the Federal Election Code. 他们要罗织犯罪罪名，最接近的，就是《联邦选举法典》第 348.7 节所列的。</div><br><br>往往 closest 后面的名词省略，closest 单独就名词化了。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>“So she's a nut job?” The questioner was Julie Ammerman, the <b>closest</b> I had <b>to</b> a real friend in the entire firm. (David Rosenfelt, <i>Heart of a Killer</i>) “那么，她这件案子是瞎胡闹吧？”提问题的是朱莉·阿默曼，是我在整个事务所里最近于莫逆之交的人。</div><div class="ex-item">Biologically speaking, bonobos are the <b>closest</b> you can get <b>to</b> being human without being human. 从生物学观点看来，矮黑猩猩是最接近人类但又不是人类的了。/ She smiled up at him, the <b>closest</b> he'd seen <b>to</b> a genuine smile on her lips for a long time. (Mary Higgins Clark, <i>I'll Be Seeing You</i>) 她抬头向他微笑了一下，好长时间以来，他从未看到她嘴唇上有真的笑容，这次算是差不多最真的了。</div><br><br>
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close 与 open
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>close 与 open</b></div>两者作为动词，彼此是反义词；但是作为形容词，就不是反义词。open 无论是动词还是形容词，都有“开”的意思(当然用法不同)，但是 close 作为动词与作为形容词，意义就大不相同(发音也有差别，作动词时词尾念 /z/)。close 作为动词，有“关闭”之意，但是作为形容词，它的基本含义是“紧密的，密切的，贴近的”。例如成语 keep a <b>close</b> eye on somebody/something 是“密切注意某人或某事的动静”，不能把 close eye 误解为“闭上眼睛”或“闭上的眼睛”。“闭上眼睛”的 close 应该是动词 (close your eyes)；如果要表示“闭上的眼睛”，close 就要改为过去分词 (with <b>closed</b> eyes)。商店开门营业挂出 Open 牌子，关门休息挂出的是 Closed 而不是 Close。Keep your cell phone <b>close</b>. 不是“把你的手机关掉”，而是“把你的手机带在身边”。<br><br>close 还可以表示人与人之间关系的密切。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>And we were very <b>close</b>. (John Darnton, <i>The Darwin Conspiracy</i>) 我们当时关系很密切。（不必说 close to each other）</div>因此，open 作为及物和不及物动词，反义词都是 close。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The door <b>was opened/opened</b> at 9:00. 九点钟开了门。/ The door <b>was closed/closed</b> at 9:00. 九点钟关了门。但是 open 作为形容词，反义词却是 closed。这样一来，open 可以区别瞬时动作(用作动词：The door <b>was opened</b>.)或延续状态(用作形容词：The door <b>was open</b>.)，而 close 则无法区别(除非作为不及物动词，表示“自行关闭”)，因为 be closed 既可以表示瞬时发生的动作，也可以表示延续着的状态。The door <b>was closed</b> at 9:00. 既可以表示“门在九点钟时关上了”，也可以表示“门在九点钟时是关着的”。参见 was 条。</div><br><br>
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close 与 shut
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>close 与 shut</b></div>两个动词(及物和不及物)的意思都是“关闭”（都是瞬时体），但是在用法上有下列不同：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> close 和 shut 都可以用于门窗、通道和整个建筑物以及其他可开可闭的东西。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I can't <b>close/shut</b> the window. Can you help me? 窗户我关不起来。你能帮一下忙吗？/ The shop <b>closes/shuts</b> at five o'clock. 这家店五点钟关门。/ Open your mouth and <b>close/shut</b> your eyes. 请张开嘴，闭上眼睛。</div><br><br>但是如果涉及及要关在里面或外面的物品或人或动物，就只能用 shut，不能用close。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I <b>shut</b> (<i>closed) the letters in my desk drawer and locked it. 我把信都放进了书桌抽屉锁起来。/ The pigs were <b>shut</b> (</i>closed) in a cage. 猪被关到了笼子里。/ He <b>shut</b> (<i>closed) the cats out of the house. 他把猫关到房子外面。/ She <b>shut</b> (</i>closed) herself in her bedroom and refused to come out. 她把自己关在卧室里，不肯出来。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> close 和 shut 的过去分词 closed 和 shut 都可以当作形容词使用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The post office is <b>closed/shut</b> on Saturday afternoon. 邮局星期六下午关门。但是 closed 既可以用作表语，也可以用作前置定语。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>closed</b> doors 紧闭的门 (*shut doors: shut 只能用作表语或后置定语)。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> close 的动作比较温和，shut 的动作比较猛烈。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>As we watched, he <b>closed</b> (<i>shut) his eyes for the last time. 我们看着他最后闭上了眼睛。/ He <b>shut</b> (</i>closed) his ears to what his parents said. 他对父母所说的话充耳不闻。/ She <b>shut</b> (<i>closed) her fingers in the door. 她关门夹住了手指。/ Her skirt got <b>shut</b> (</i>closed) in the door. 她的裙子被门夹住了。/ They <b>shut</b> (<i>closed) the door in his face. 他们给他吃了闭门羹。/ (牙医对病人说) <b>Close</b> (</i>Shut) your mouth, please. 请把嘴闭上。/ (喝令人家住口说) <b>Shut</b> (<i>Close) your mouth. 闭嘴。一栋大楼，如果出告示说星期天关闭，就说：This building is <b>closed</b> (</i>shut) on Sunday.</div>
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cloth, clothes, clothing 与 garment
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>cloth, clothes, clothing 与 garment</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> cloth 是作为做衣服、被褥、窗帘等的原料的“布料”，是个不可数名词。日常语言中较少用这个名词，较多用的是 material 或 fabric。如果用作可数名词，a cloth 则是一块“抹布”。这个名词作为不可数名词时，没有复数。<br><br>clothes 形式上是 cloth 的复数，其实意义并不相同，可以说它是另外一个单词。clothes 是一个复数形式的不可数名词，用于笼统地指“衣物”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>cloth</b> for <b>clothes</b> 用来做衣服的布料</div><div class="ex-item"><b>Clothes</b> were lying all over the room. 屋里到处乱丢着衣物。clothes 不能加上可数的单位(例如不能说 *a piece of clothes)。如果要加上可数的单位，要用另一个也是笼统地指“衣物”的不可数名词(单数) clothing。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>an item</div><div class="ex-item">an article</div><div class="ex-item">a piece of <b>clothing</b>。</div><br><br>另外，clothing 还有比 clothes 更为笼统、抽象、概括而且也更为正式的含义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>clothing</b> factory 服装厂</div><div class="ex-item"><b>clothing</b> industry 服装业</div><div class="ex-item">The big concern has been with food, <b>clothing</b>, and shelter for everyone. 曾经最大的问题是如何让让人人都有衣食住。</div><br><br>garment 则多用于工商业。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>garment industry 服装行业。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> clothes 是一个复数的不可数名词，前面不能加准确数目的数词(不能说 *five clothes，但可以说 several clothes 或 a few clothes)。本来应该说 many clothes，不应该说 much clothes，但是由于 clothes 已经仿佛是一个混沌的整体，接近于 water、air 之类，所以人们常常说 much clothes。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How <b>much clothes</b> do kids really need? 孩子们真正需要多少衣服？/ Most new parents I talk to say they usually wind up with too <b>much clothes</b>. Sometimes their baby grows so fast that they only wear an outfit once. 我交谈过的新手父母多数都说，他们添置的衣服，到头来是嫌多了。有时候，他们的婴儿长得很快，一件衣服只穿一次。但是，衣服总是一件件可以分开的，同 water、air 等不能分开的物质终究有些不同，所以仍然是 many clothes 较为规范。另外，用代词来指代 clothes 时，仍然用 they。</div><br><br>
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cloud
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>cloud</b></div>虽然天上的云常常连成一片，界限不清，但 cloud 是个可数名词，指单独的一片云。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... a flock of cormorants drifted overhead, like a floating <b>cloud</b> in an otherwise cloudless sky. (Mary Higgins Clark, <i>Weep No More, My Lady</i>) ……一群鸬鹚在上面掠过，像是这本来晴朗无云的天空中的一片浮云。</div><br><br>
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cocktail
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>cocktail</b></div>原意是“鸡尾酒”，通常需要几种酒按比例调成，因此可以转义为“几种组成成分的混合物”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a <b>cocktail</b> of factors 若干因素组成的整体。</div><br><br>
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coffee 与 café
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>coffee 与 café</b></div>coffee 是“喝的咖啡”；café 是“咖啡馆”。英语这个区别，在法语、西班牙语、葡萄牙语、德语中都不存在，都是“咖啡”同“咖啡馆”不分，一律叫作 café。<br><br>
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collapse
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>collapse</b></div>作建筑物“倒塌”（瞬时体）解时，是个不及物动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>What caused the bridge to <b>collapse</b>? 大桥倒塌，是什么原因？但是它的过去分词可以用作定语修饰名词，没有被动意义。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the <b>collapsed</b> bridge 倒塌的大桥。</div><br><br>
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collect
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>collect</b></div>这个及物动词(瞬时体)，中国人最熟悉的意义是“收集”，但是其实还有另外几个不同的意义：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 个人领取属于自己的某物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I <b>collected</b> my suit from the cleaner's. 我到洗衣店去取回衣服。/ I'll go and <b>collect</b> the mail. 我要去领回邮件。/ I must <b>collect</b> my bags from the station. 我必须从车站领回行李。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 接走某人。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Her mother <b>collects</b> her from school every day. 她妈妈每天接她放学。/ I'm <b>collecting</b> Cindy on the way. 我顺路要接一下辛迪。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> (把分散的东西集中)拿走。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They <b>collect</b> the garbage every Monday. 他们每星期一收垃圾。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 挣得，赚得。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He <b>collected</b> around $1,500 last week. 他上周挣了约 1,500 美元。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 机构或个人向个人收取钱财。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>collect</b> taxes 收税</div><div class="ex-item"><b>collect</b> a rent 收租。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 整理。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Give me some time to <b>collect</b> my thoughts. 给我一点时间整理一下思路。/ <b>collect</b> oneself 镇静下来。</div><br><br>
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college
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>college</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 在美国，是高等学府，称为“学院”，相当于大学，但规模往往比大学小些。通常说“上大学”，其实既可能是上某 university，也可能是上某 college，但是说 go to/come to/attend college (不加冠词)就可以包括 university 和 college 两种可能性。所以，如果笼统说“大学”，而不具体说哪一所，都较少说 university，较多说 college (不带定冠词 the)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>college</b> education 大学教育</div><div class="ex-item">a <b>college</b> student 大学生</div><div class="ex-item">enter <b>college</b> 进大学</div><div class="ex-item">be in <b>college</b> 正在上大学</div><div class="ex-item">study history in/at <b>college</b> 在大学学历史</div><div class="ex-item">after <b>college</b> 大学毕业后</div><div class="ex-item">He is fresh from/out of <b>college</b>. 他大学刚毕业。但是如果谈及别的国家，则不常用 college 来统称所有的大学，而仍然用 university。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Her one aim in life is to go to <b>university</b>. 她平生的夙愿就是上大学。/ Anybody who passes the school-leaving <i>baccalauréat</i> exam can enrol at <b>university</b>. (<i>The Economist</i>, July 7, 2007, p. 52) (在法国)任何人只要中学毕业考试及格就能进大学。(法文的 collège 是 11 岁到 15 岁上的学校，大体上相当于中国的初中。)</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> college 前面如果没有任何冠词，在美国就是笼统的“大学教育”（用 college 而很少用不带冠词的 university）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How important is <b>college</b> to Americans? (Christopher Caldwell, “What a College Education Buys,” in <i>The New York Times</i>, Feb. 25, 2007) 大学教育对美国人来说有多重要呢？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 在英国，有几家名牌大学如牛津、剑桥等内部再分成若干 colleges，也可以译成“学院”，如 Trinity College, Oxford 指牛津大学三一学院。英国的贵族中学，一般叫作 public school，但也有个别叫作 college，如顶尖的 Eton College (伊顿公学)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> college 在天主教会是主教们组成的一个集体。College of Cardinals 是梵蒂冈的“枢机主教团”，有权选举教皇。美国的政治制度，仿效了“枢机主教团”的选举形式，在总统选举制度上有一个 electoral college (选举人团)。这里的 college 同“学院”已经毫无关系。<br><br>
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collide
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>collide</b></div>是个瞬时体动词(第四类动词)。可以是两个物体都在移动中相撞或者一个在移动中而与另一个静止的物体相碰撞。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The two vehicles <b>collided</b> head-on. 两辆车迎面相撞。/ He was so close behind me that he almost <b>collided</b> with me when I stopped. 他在我后面很近，我一停下来，他就几乎同我相撞。/ A car <b>collided</b> violently with a telephone pole yesterday morning. 昨天上午一辆汽车猛烈地撞上一根电线杆。但是由此派生的名词 collision 必须是两个物体都在移动中。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The two trains came into <b>collision</b>. 两列火车彼此相撞。</div><br><br>
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Columbia 与 Colombia
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>Columbia 与 Colombia</b></div>中文译名都是“哥伦比亚”，都出自发现美洲的哥伦布，但是第 4 个字母的拼法不同，一个用 u，一个用 o。哥伦布原是意大利热那亚(Genoa)人，他的姓名，意大利文是 Cristoforo Colombo，但是后来“拉丁化”成了 Christopherus Columbus，也就是说，o 变成了 u，这个拉丁化的姓氏 Columbus 也就为英文所用了。Columbia 是美国人给自己国家取的派生于 Columbus 的名称。1791 年，为了纪念哥伦布 1492 年发现美洲 300 年，美国将今天的首都华盛顿特区命名为“哥伦比亚区” (Territory of Columbia)。从此，Columbia 这个名称在美国就“走红”了，许多大小地区都取名为 Columbia。但是，当年哥伦布是替西班牙国王发现美洲的，所以他的西班牙文姓名 Cristóbal Colón 在西班牙语国家是家喻户晓的。南美洲国家“哥伦比亚” (Colombia) 也是按照他的姓氏取名的，但是保持了西班牙文中的字母 o。结果是，同一个哥伦布，在美国派生了 Columbia，在南美洲派生了 Colombia。哥伦比亚大学 (University of Columbia) 不在南美洲国家哥伦比亚，而是位于美国纽约市。<br><br>
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(come in/into) view
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(come in/into) view</b></div>这样一个动词词组，其意义有点复杂，有时甚至相反。<br><br>首先，in/into view 后面没有 of 时，是 in/into view 前面所指的人或物“处在(不明言的某人)的视线之内”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There was not a man in view on the street. 街上空无一人。/ Always keep your child in view while you walk in the street. 在街上走路要千万看住孩子。</div><br><br>其次，如果前面加上动词 come 或类似意义的动词，而后面没有 of，意思是“进入(不明言的某人)的视线之内”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Sarah's dark figure came into view. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman)莎拉的黑影出现在她们眼前。/ As the position of the Earth changes with the seasons, different constellations come into view. 地球的位置随着季节的变换而变化，各个不同的星座也就相继显现。</div><br><br>如果主语是人，of 的宾语是物，当然是“人看见物”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>At last we came in view of the mountaintop. 我们终于看到了山顶。/ As we come into view of a pond, a mix of mallards and American black ducks edges farther away, and we see a hybrid. (Colin Rees, Derek Thomas, Birds of a Feather: Seasonal Changes on Both Sides of the Atlantic)我们看到一个池塘时，一群混杂的绿头鸭和美洲黑鸭正往远处挤去，我们看见一只杂交种。/ A few miles after losing sight of St. Margaret's Bay, we come into view of Mahone Bay, and soon arrive at the village of Chester at its head. (Tourists' guide) of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island)圣玛格丽特湾从我们视线中消失之后，再过几英里，我们就看到了马洪湾，不久就到达了该湾顶端的切斯特村。/ When the officers came into view of the other vehicle, the vehicle pulled back into the driveway, and the driver turned off the lights. 警官们看见另一辆车时，那辆车就开回私宅车道，司机把车灯都灭了。/ About a mile into the hike you will come into view of the Marching Men, a line of tall spires that stand atop a rock fin in a row much like soldiers in formation. (Hike to Tower Arch, Utah)登山约 1 英里，你就会看见“行军士兵像”，那是一片岩石上面的一排高耸的尖形体，很像排队行进的士兵。/ The last pirate to come into view of their weapons is standing at the front of the lifeboat. (Captain Phillips)最后一个看见他们武器的海盗，站在救生艇的前端。</div><br><br>但是如果双方都是人，是谁看见谁，就可能有歧义，要靠上下文和语境来判断。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You can see the ridge where the Union troops came into view of the confederates. 你可以看见那座山脉，(美国内战的)北军在那里进入了南军的视野 (=北军在那里看得见南军)。/ Thus she emerged in full view of the two women at the cottage door, ... (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman)于是牛奶房门口的两个女人一眼便认出她是谁了……有时候，凭事理可以判断是谁看见谁。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Everytime he would come into view of another crowd, the shouting would start up again. (President Bill Clinton)他每次走进另一个人群的视野，人们就又呼喊起来。/ The faithful servant thought to himself for a long time how to approach the matter, for it was difficult even to come into view of the king's daughter. (Grimm 006: Faithful Johannes)忠心的仆人心里琢磨了很久，想要怎样才能接近主人，因为哪怕是让国王的女儿看见自己，也是很难做到的。有时候，是双方互相看见。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Fitz had put on a limp as they'd come into view of the doorman, who had smiled and let them through, offering Sam a large leather volume to sign. (Michael Collier, Doctor Who and the Taint)费茨先装作瘸腿，他们走到了守门人跟前，守门人对他们笑了笑，让他们进去，并且递给萨姆一大叠皮革材料，请他签名。</div><br><br>主语也可以是人所在的地点、建筑物或交通工具，人看见物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Thus, the ship Cirne of the captain Diogo Fernandes Pereira, came into view of Réunion Island on 9 February 1507. 这样，船长迪奥戈·费尔南德斯·佩雷拉的“西尔尼号”船在 1507 年 2 月 9 日驶到了能望见留尼汪岛之处。/ A new group of sunspots that has come into view of Earth has the attention of the U.S. Space Weather Prediction Center. (Bloomberg, Those Sunspots Approaching Earth Could Bring Blackouts)从地球能看见的一组新的太阳黑子，引起了美国太空天气预报中心的注意。</div><br><br>但主语也可以是被看见之物，of 的宾语才是看见的主体。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A chance to encounter these animals is hardly probable, only mountain eagles soaring over the slopes can come into view of the mountain tourist. (Uzbekistani Mountains)能遇到这些动物的机会是很渺茫的，只有那些飞越山坡的山鹰可以让游客看得见。/ If, during dinner, a ship came into view of Chantilly, Lee always kept another looking glass—also made of mahogany—within easy reach ... (J. Kent McGaughy, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia: A Portrait of an American Revolutionary)如果在进餐时有船只来到尚蒂伊能看见之处，李就一直在够得着的地方备着另一个望远镜(也是红木制造的)，……</div><br><br>of 的宾语有时候可以不是有知觉的人或动物，而是一个接受形象的工具或仪器。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>As the platform rotated around the camera, a scene would come into view of the camera. (Wikipedia, The TV Wheel)平台围绕着摄影机旋转时，一个场景就会出现在摄影机上。/ And he has the patience to sit and wait for the specimen to come into view of his camera to snap a good shot. (Nate Yuen at the Tagami & Powell Gallery)他有耐心坐着等待标本出现在他的摄影机上，让他好好地照上一张。</div><br><br>
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come²
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>come²</b></div>本来这个动词指的是一个瞬时动作(第四类动词)，通常不能用一般现在时。但是它有时候也可以指一个状态(第一类动词)，表示出身、籍贯、来源等，此时就可以用一般现在时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I have a friend who <b>comes</b> (= is) from England. 我有一个来自英国的朋友。试比较：I have a friend who <b>came</b> from England. 我有一个从英国到这里来的朋友。/ She <b>comes</b> from Scotland, but her mother's Welsh. 她原籍苏格兰，但她母亲是威尔士人。/ Many of the reports about the snowmen are probably hoaxes, but others <b>come</b> from people of unquestionable honesty. 许多有关雪人的报道可能是骗局，但是另一些报道则来自正直老实的人。如果整个时间框架是过去的，那么 come 就要改成 came。</div><br><br>此外，come 还在一些场合起类似 be 的系动词(copula)作用，此时它可以转为表示延续状态的第一类动词，可以有一般现在时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The Knopf edition (= an English version of Tolstoy's <i>War and Peace</i>), in contrast, <b>comes</b> laden with a long introduction by Pevear, heavy annotation, a historical glossary of people and places and a summary of the action. (<i>Newsweek</i>, Oct. 15, 2007, p. 81) 诺普夫出版则反之，加上了佩维阿尔的一篇长长的序言，又有大量的注释、历史人名地名的词汇表以及故事梗概。</div><br><br>
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come³
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>come³</b></div>it comes to ... 如果放在 when 引入的从句之中，意思是“在……方面，当涉及……之时”（里面的 come 要有时态变化）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This was probably true <b>when it came to</b> George Washington. 如果说的是乔治·华盛顿，也许的确如此。</div><br><br>如果 it comes to ... 是主句，或是从句不用 when 而用别的主从连词(例如 if)引入，则意思是“问题归结为……”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>If it comes to</b> a choice between X and Y, he would not hesitate to opt for X. 如果问题归结为要 X 还是要 Y，他会毫不犹豫地要 X。</div><br><br>
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come¹
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>come¹</b></div>come to inf. 原来意思是表示两个相继的动作(先来，来了后做某事，而且做某事是来的目的)，但是在口语中，很少这样说，更多是说 <b>come and</b> inf. (而且这种说法即使 come 和后面的动词在形态上发生了变化仍然可以，这一点与 try and inf. 和 wait and inf. 不同。)<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Come and have</b> a drink. 来喝点东西吧。/ He <b>came and had</b> (<i>came to have) a drink. 他来喝了点东西。/ He often <b>comes and spends</b> (</i>comes to spend) the evening with us. 他常常来同我们一起度过晚上。(参见 go 条中 go and inf. 和 hurry 条中 hurry up and inf. 相关内容。) 这种以 and 代替 to 的用法，甚至扩大到另外一些句子。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I would like to <b>take</b> a minute <b>and</b> thank all those who have helped me make the project successful. 我要抽出一分钟的时间，感谢所有帮助过我成功完成这个项目的人士。</div><br><br>
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come⁴
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>come⁴</b></div>这个动词的原形后面跟着某个日期，就组成时间状语，表示“等到(某日期)到来之时”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Come</b> 2008, we may see a Republican candidate who understandsthese issues running against a Democrat who has to learn them, like an unguided rocket, on the fly. 到了 2008 年，我们就可能看到，一个懂得这些问题的共和党候选人，同一个需要像没有制导的导弹一样在飞行中学会这些东西的民主党人角力。/ (Ohio is) a presidential battleground that could go either Bush-red or Kerry-blue <b>come</b> November 2. (<i>U.S. News & World Report</i>, June 7, 2004, p. 36) 俄亥俄州是总统竞选的战场，到了 11 月 2 号，它要么成为拥护布什的红色，要么是拥护克里的蓝色。这个 come，也可能是过去分词，因此在谈及过去事件时也不变。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Come</b> evening, they were cooking beefsteak over roaring fires in the courtyard. (John Darnton, <i>The Darwin Conspiracy</i>) 到了晚上，他们就在院子里烤牛排。</div><br><br>come 也可以不是“来”，而是列举时“轮到”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Fourth <b>came</b> the final group, the invisible one, those whom no one could identify in any easy way. (Tom Clancy, <i>The Cardinal of the Kremlin</i>) 第四是最后一组，看不见的一组，是谁也不容易看清楚的一组。</div><br><br>
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come 与 go
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>come 与 go</b></div>用 come 还是 go，有下列的辨别标准：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 目的地为说话时双方任何一方的所在地，用 come。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—Maria, would you <b>come</b> here, please? —I'm <b>coming</b> (*going). —玛丽亚，你到这里来好吗？—我就来。/ I want to <b>come</b> over there! You can put me in the spare bedroom. Or I'll sleep on the sofa. 我想到你那边去！你可以安置我睡客房。要不然我就睡沙发。</div><br><br>到了人家的门口，问是否可以进入，由于这是眼前对方的所在地，也用 come，说：May I <b>come</b> in?<br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 双方任何一方过去或将来的所在地，但这个过去或将来是正在谈论中的焦点时间。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Will you <b>come</b> and visit me in hospital when I have my operation? 我动手术的时候，你会到医院来探望我吗？/ He <b>came</b> to see me in my office yesterday. 他昨天到我办公室看我。/ Susan can't <b>come</b> to your birthday party. 苏珊不能来参加你的生日庆祝会。/ Many thanks for your letter and kind invitation. Since I don't have anything fixed yet for the summer holidays, I'd be delighted to <b>come</b>. 谢谢你的来信和盛情邀请。我暑假尚没有预定的活动，所以我将很高兴前来。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 说话双方任何一方前往他处(动作本身用 go)，参与一起去的动作一般用 come 而不用 *go (中文仍然用“去”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We're <b>going</b> to the cinema tonight. Would you like to <b>come</b> with us? 我们今晚看电影去。你跟我们一起去吗？/ —My father is sick; I have to make a trip to Seattle. I thought I'd leave Monday. —Should I <b>come</b> with you? —我父亲病了，我要到西雅图去一趟。我想星期一动身。—要不要我陪你去？但是，有时候如果是说话者参加对方到远处去的行程，也可以用 go 而不用 come。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>That's another reason why I want to <b>go</b> with you. 这是我要同你一起去的又一个理由。</div><br><br>双方都可能去但该地点主要同其中一方关系密切，用 come 时表示另一方比较紧密配合参与，用 go 则表示另一方虽然也去，但态度上保持一定的距离。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Come/Go</b> and meet me at my favorite restaurant in Washington Street. 到华盛顿街那家我最喜欢的饭馆同我会面吧。这里用 come 表示双方关系比较融洽，可能是好朋友；用 go 则有点“公事公办”的口气。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Oh, you're acting in <i>Othello</i> tomorrow night, are you? I'll <b>come/go</b> and watch you from the gallery. 哦，你明天晚上参加《奥赛罗》演出吗？我去戏院楼座观看你的表演。这里用 come 表示很感兴趣，盼望对方演出成功；用 go 则是一般的好奇去看看，比较冷淡。</div><br><br>可见，遇到英文的 come，要斟酌究竟相当于中文的“来”还是“去”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>著名小说《廊桥遗梦》 (<i>The Bridges of Madison County</i>) 中，Robert Kincaid 在 Francesca 家中幽会的最后一天，劝 Francesca 同他一起私奔，说：<b>Come</b> (*Go) travel with me. 改编为电影时，这句话改为：<b>Come away</b> with me. 可见，本来 away 通常要同 go 一起连用，它的方向同 come 有点格格不入，但由于是“同我一起去”，而且是作为一对私奔的情侣，彼此关系密切，即使有了 away，仍然可以用 come。</div><br><br>又例如英国小说家毛姆 (Somerset Maugham) 的《月亮和六便士》 (<i>The Moon and Sixpence</i>) 中有一段讲到两个人参加葬礼后坐马车回巴黎市区，途中进行交谈：“You'd better <b>come</b> and have lunch with me,” I said to Dirk. “I'll tell him to drop us in the Place Pigalle.” 中译文(傅惟慈译本)是：“你还是来同我一起吃午饭吧，”我对戴尔克说，“我告诉马车夫在皮卡尔广场停车好不好？”但是谈话的双方同坐在一辆马车上，这个 come 译成“来”是不妥当的，其实相当于中文的“去”。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 目的地为说话双方之外已经成为话题中心(在间接叙述中尤其是在小说中)的另一个人的所在地，也用 come 而不用 go。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He begged her to <b>come</b> back to him. 他求她回到他那里去。比较：He begged her to <b>go</b> back to her family. 他求她回到自己家去。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> come 与 go 用法上的区别，归根到底是说话者视角的不同。这个区别，甚至扩大到习语词组，例如 <b>come</b> out on strike (实行罢工)是从罢工者外部的角度来看的，而 <b>go</b> out on strike 虽然意义相同，但却是从罢工者内部的角度来看的。<br><br>
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comic 与 comical
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>comic 与 comical</b></div>两者没有多大的区别，但 comic 常常指有意的滑稽逗笑，comical 则倾向于自己无意但客观效果是逗人发笑。comic 常常可以代替 comical。<br><br>
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command
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>command</b></div>这个及物动词(是个表示延续状态的动词，属第一类动词)，除了它一望而知的“指挥”的意义之外，还有另外一些意义：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> “享有(他人的尊敬、服从，好感，注意，关心)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He <b>commands</b> blind obedience. 他得到别人的盲从。/ The campaign <b>commanded</b> support from all parties. 运动得到了各党派的支持。/ His speech <b>commanded</b> everyone's attention. 他的演说引起了所有人的注意。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> “(物品)值得(某个好价钱)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The shirt could <b>command</b> a good price in Manhattan. 这种衬衣拿到曼哈顿可以卖很高的价钱。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 从“指挥”的意义，发展到“居高临下”，command 可以表示“处于高处对(低处)一览无遗”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The house <b>commands</b> a beautiful view of the whole town. 从那栋房子放眼瞭望，全镇的美景尽收眼底。/ The windows of the suite <b>commanded</b> a view across the city. 从套间的窗可以俯览全城。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> “运用自如”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>command</b> six languages 掌握六种语言。</div><br><br>
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commission
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>commission</b></div>这个名词，最常用的词义是“委员会；佣金；军官身份”。但是，它来自动词 commit，有法律上“作为”或“犯下(罪行)”的意义，与之相对的是“不作为” (omission)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The foreign policy sins of the United States fall into two categories: <b>commission</b> and omission. (Richard Cohen, “Obama's Controlled Response to Iran Is Right,” in <i>The Daily Gazette</i>, June 23, 2009, A7) 美国在外交上犯下的罪孽可以分成两类，即不该做的做了，该做的没有做。</div><br><br>
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commit
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>commit</b></div>这个动词属表示瞬时动作的第四类动词，意义比较复杂微妙，中文很难找到与之完全对应的词。总的来说，它包含“使承担义务”或“使遭到其一重大行动的影响”的概括意义，但是还派生出很多复杂的具体释义。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为及物动词，比较简单明了的一个释义，就是“犯(某罪行)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>commit</b> murder 犯杀人罪</div><div class="ex-item"><b>commit</b> adultery 通奸</div><div class="ex-item"><b>commit</b> blasphemy 犯亵渎罪</div><div class="ex-item">About 17 percent of all crime in 1938 was <b>committed</b> by people under 21. 1938 年全部犯罪案中大约有 17% 是未满 21 岁的人犯的。但是也可以指造成错误或不当。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>commit</b> a stupid blunder 犯一个愚蠢的错误</div><div class="ex-item">He <b>commit</b> needless errors. 他犯了不必要的失误。其中一个较为特别的用法是 <b>commit</b> suicide (自杀)。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作为及物动词，较为捉摸不定的另一个释义，就是“交付，付之”（后有 to 介词短语；体味其含义，可以参考中文的“付诸流水”“付诸实施”“付之一炬”“付之一笑”“付梓”“付邮”等词语)，而宾语所代表的事物，总是要遭受其某种决定性重大行动的影响。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She <b>committed</b> all the letters to the flames. 她把所有信件付之一炬。/ You'll need these figures so often that you must <b>commit</b> them to memory. 这些数字你是会常常用上的，所以你应该记住(付诸记忆)。/ He <b>committed</b> his troubles to oblivion. 他把自己的麻烦置诸脑后(付诸遗忘)。/ He held his tongue and <b>committed</b> his thoughts to paper only. 他一言不发，有什么想法都只是写在纸上(付诸笔墨)。/ He was loath to <b>commit</b> sensitive information to paper. 他很不喜欢把敏感信息形诸笔墨。/ ... Maria would <b>commit</b> the list to the official page in clean, precise writing. (<i>The New York Times</i>, Sept. 30, 2007) ……玛丽亚会把这个列表用清晰准确的字写到正式的填写单上。/ He was <b>committed</b> to trial. 他被交付审判。/ They <b>committed</b> him to prison. 他们把他关进监狱里。/ He's been <b>committed</b> to a private psychiatric hospital in Newark. 他已经被送到了纽瓦克的一所私人精神病院。/ ... we therefore <b>commit</b> his body to the ground: earth to earth, ashes to ashes, dust to dust. (<i>The Book of Common Prayer</i>) ……我们就此将他的身躯归还大地：泥土归泥土，灰烬归灰烬，尘埃归尘埃。/ His body was <b>committed</b> to the waves. 他的遗体海葬了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 与此相类似的一个释义，是“将(某人或某事物)交托(另一人)负责(正面的)照料或(负面的)处理”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>commit</b> the management of an estate to an agent 委托一个代理人管理产业</div><div class="ex-item">... on landing in Boston in 1872, my father and I were able safelyto <b>commit</b> our trunk to the expressman. (George Santayana) ……1872 年在波士顿上岸时，我父亲和我把行李箱安全交托给了运送员。/ She <b>committed</b> her son to the tutor's care. 她把儿子交托给家庭教师照料。</div><br><br>commit 及其派生的名词 commitment 和形容词 committable 的意义是如此广泛而捉摸不定，所以常常要看前后文。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>At the end of twenty-four hours, if Camille wasn't able to leave the hospital and go home, she was to be <b>committed</b> to the state hospital. ... Camille would never meet the criteria for <b>commitment</b>. ... We thought the dog was more <b>committable</b> than Camille. (Anna Salter, <i>Fault Lines</i>) 过了 24 小时，如果卡米尔不能出院回家，就要把她送进州医院去。……卡米尔是怎么样也不符合进州医院的标准的。……我们觉得，倒是卡米尔的那条狗比她自己更符合进州医院的条件。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 与此相类似的另一个释义，是“使某人(直接宾语)承担某责任、义务或任务 (to something)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>One of the strengths of church wedding is that it <b>commits</b> two whole families to the support of the marriage. 在教堂举行婚礼的一个好处，就是使得双方家人都表态支持这门亲事。/ That would <b>commit</b> us to the purchase. (<i>The Daily Gazette</i>, Mar. 14, 2009, A7) 这样做，我们就会有义务非买不可。/ The pact <b>commits</b> both nations to mutual assistance. 根据协定，两国由互助的义务。</div><br><br>commit oneself to something 就是自己承担某种责任或义务。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I can't <b>commit myself to</b> that. 我不能承诺那样做。/ They want to experiment with computers without <b>committing themselves to</b> any capital expenditure. 他们想用电脑进行试验，而不承担任何投资支出。/ She had <b>committed herself to</b> helping him. 她已经承担了帮助他的义务。/ Lisa and Bruce had <b>committed themselves to</b> summer jobs away from home. 丽萨和布鲁斯已经安排了暑期离家干一些活。</div><br><br>如果不说 to something，单说 commit oneself，则意思是“表态”以及随之而来的“承担义务”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He wouldn't <b>commit himself</b>. 他不愿意表态。/ The candidate has not <b>committed himself</b> on this question. 候选人没有就这个问题表明态度。(可以参考形容词 noncommittal “不置可否的”。)</div><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 如果直接宾语所代表的不是人而是资源或力量，commit something to something 就是“将(某物)用于(某事)”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>commit</b> troops to Afghanistan 派兵前往阿富汗</div><div class="ex-item">The company must <b>commit</b> its entire resources to the project. 该公司必须将全部资源投入这个项目中。/ We're <b>committing</b> our blood to the battlefield. 我们正在战场上挥洒热血。/ We <b>committed</b> years and resources to this cause. 我们为了这项事业投入了多年的时间和许多资源。</div><br><br>commit 的过去分词 committed 作为形容词，意思是“被占用的；有任务的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The truck is <b>committed</b> today. 卡车今天已经有任务了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> commit somebody/something to something 意思是“使得(某人或某事物)负起(某个负担)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere <b>commits</b> the world <b>to</b> sea levels rising an average of up to 4.6 feet. (<i>The Associated Press</i>, Nov. 17, 2007) 大气层中已有的二氧化碳，使得世界上的海平面平均升高高达 4.6 英尺。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> be committed to inf. 可以是“坚守(某一承诺或某一观点)”或“对某事负有义务”的意思(属表示延续状态的第一类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm <b>committed to</b> help him. 我有义务要帮助他。但后面的动词不定式最好改为动名词：We're <b>committed to bringing</b> the Silicon Valley approach to the search for intelligent life in the universe, ... (<i>Time</i>, Aug. 3, 2015, p. 30) 我们坚决要用硅谷的办法寻找宇宙中的智能生物，……</div><div class="ex-item">This Agency <b>is committed to</b> vigorously <b>enforcing</b> the prohibition of money laundering. 本机关负责严格执行对洗钱的禁令。/ He <b>was committed to</b> his view on the Iraq issue. 他坚持他在伊拉克问题上的观点。/ He <b>was committed to</b> his own version of evolutionism. 他坚守自己那个版本的进化论。</div><br><br>committed 也可以演变成为纯粹的形容词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a <b>committed</b> Marxist 坚定的马克思主义者</div><div class="ex-item">On land, human beings may be <b>committed</b> agriculturists, but in the sea they remain largely hunter-gatherers—albeit hunter-gatherers with industrialized fleets equipped with satellite and radar. (<i>The Economist</i>, Aug. 9, 2003, p. 19) 在陆地上，人类可能是坚定的务农主义者，但是在海上他们仍然主要是狩猎采集者，尽管这样的狩猎采集者拥有配备卫星和雷达的工业化船队。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> commit 也可以作为不及物动词，相当于 commit oneself。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>When you <b>commit to</b> war, you <b>commit to</b> a situation where you don't always have control. (Gen. Richard Myers, <i>Newsweek</i>, Dec. 13, 2004, p. 36) 你一打起仗来，就要应付一个你不一定总是控制得了的局面。</div><br><br>
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commitment
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>commitment</b></div>这个名词来自自动词 commit，大致意义是“承诺；坚守；义务；信念；力量或精神的投入；努力”，翻译时要看上下文灵活处理。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>their <b>commitment</b> to striving for peace 他们为和平而努力的承诺</div><div class="ex-item">... deciding to have surgery is a major <b>commitment</b> (<i>Healthy Aging</i>, July 2010, p. 8) ……决定去动手术，那是一个重大的决策。/ Europe, especially Northern Europe, has made a major <b>commitment</b> to wind power, and they're generating a significant percentage of their power that way. (<i>Newsweek</i>, Oct. 17, 2005, p. 46) 欧洲，尤其是北欧，已经花了很大力气开发风能，他们的电力已经有很大比例是靠风能发电的。/ Despite the rhetorical concern of Western donor governments, the <b>commitments</b> have been astonishingly stingy. (<i>The New York Review of Books</i>, Mar. 14, 2002, p. 30) 尽管西方各捐赠国的政府口头上表示关心，但是其做出的努力却是吝啬得令人吃惊。/ She had frankly confessed to only two affairs, each without emotional <b>commitment</b> and both ultimately disappointing. 她坦率地承认自己只有过两次恋情，每次在感情上都没有投入，而且两次结果都很令人失望。/ We should make a national <b>commitment</b> to develop flu vaccine technology fit for the 21st century. (<i>U.S. News & World Report</i>, Feb. 9, 2004, p. 61) 我们必须在全国大力发展适合 21 世纪的流感疫苗技术。/ What sort of <b>commitments</b> is the administration prepared to make to restore stability to Iraq and the region? 政府准备做出什么样的努力来恢复伊拉克和这个地区的稳定？/ He may have to miss the debate to honor his <b>commitment</b>. 他可能只好错过这次辩论，以免爽约。/ Yet even for those not keen on spy stories, this movie is worth the <b>commitment</b>. 即使是那些对间谍片不感兴趣的人，这部片子也值得一看。</div><br><br>由于 commitment 来自自动词 commit，而 commit 的意义很广，所以 commitment 的意义也很灵活，例如 commit 条之(3)的第二段，即其一例。<br><br>
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commodity
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>commodity</b></div>经济学的术语“商品”英文是 commodity；但是 commodity 的真正意义是未经加工或只经过粗加工的农牧产品。经济学范畴以外的“商品”通常叫作 merchandise (不可数名词)。<br><br>
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common
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>common</b></div>这个形容词的含义比较多样，而且常常同其他一些形容词交叉。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> “(有限数目的人或物所)共有的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>common</b> property 共有财产</div><div class="ex-item"><b>common</b> interests 共同利益</div><div class="ex-item"><b>common</b> wall 共用墙壁</div><div class="ex-item"><b>common</b> ground 共同基础</div><div class="ex-item">the lowest/least <b>common</b> denominator 最小公分母</div><div class="ex-item">the greatest <b>common</b> divisor 最大公约数</div><div class="ex-item">This characteristic is <b>common</b> to several species. 这个特点是几个物种所共有的。/ Pursuit of happiness is <b>common</b> to all rational human beings. 追求幸福，是所有有理智的人共通的。/ English serves as the <b>common</b> language of many people. 英语是许多人的共通语言。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> “(无限数目的人所)共有的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>common</b> good 公共财产</div><div class="ex-item"><b>common</b> land 公共土地</div><div class="ex-item">It is <b>common</b> knowledge that ... 众所周知，……</div><div class="ex-item">By <b>common</b> consent he is the best. 他被公认为最好的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> “常见的，普通的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the <b>common</b> cold 普通感冒</div><div class="ex-item">in <b>common</b> use 普通使用的</div><div class="ex-item">It is very <b>common</b> for teenagers to feel misunderstood. 青少年常常觉得自己得不到别人的理解。/ <b>common</b> mistakes in English 英语常见错误。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> “一般的，不特别的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the <b>common</b> man 普通人</div><div class="ex-item">the <b>common</b> people 老百姓</div><div class="ex-item">He was treated like a <b>common</b> criminal. 他受到像普通刑事犯那样的对待。/ It's <b>common</b> decency. 这是起码的教养问题。/ Common Law 普通法(一些国家的法律体系)。</div><br><br>
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common sense 与 common knowledge
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>common sense 与 common knowledge</b></div>common sense 中文一般译成“常识”，但不是指地球绕太阳转、水是氢氧化合物之类经过学习启发才获得的知识，而是人单凭其本能就具有的先天感知与判断能力，例如“黑的不可能白”“人的年龄不能减只能加”等等。经过传播，家喻户晓的信息(不需学习，但也不是先天所知)，是 common knowledge。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is <b>common knowledge</b> (<i>common sense) that Spanish is spoken in Mexico. 尽人皆知，墨西哥人是讲西班牙语的。/ It is <b>common knowledge</b> (</i>common sense) that the purpose of respiration is to furnish to the tissues the oxygen needed and to remove the carbon dioxide produced by the metabolism. 尽人皆知，呼吸的目的，是要向机体组织供给所需的氧，并排出新陈代谢所产生的二氧化碳。/ It is <b>common sense</b> (*common knowledge) that you cannot buy friendship. 友谊是买不来的，这是常识。但是也有两可的情况。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is <b>common sense/common knowledge</b> that a rock is heavier out of water than it is under water. 石头离开了水，就(感觉上)比在水下重，这是常识。</div><br><br>
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communication
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>communication</b></div>作为“通信”事业或行业，必须用复数形式 communications。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>With the development of the Internet, <b>communications</b> are being revolutionized at a dizzying speed. 随着互联网的发展，通信事业正在以令人目眩的速度进行着变革。这种属于复数形式的不可数名词，类似的还有：arms、data、goods、media、outskirts、remains、troops、barracks、dregs。</div><br><br>
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community
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>community</b></div>这个名词，中文有时候译成“社会”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the international <b>community</b> 国际社会(不可以说 *the international society)。甚至曾经有译成“大家庭”的。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the socialist <b>community</b> 社会主义大家庭。但这与 society 或 family 在意义上其实是相差很远的。</div><br><br>曾经有人译为“社区”，但是这个译名过于偏重地域，似乎译成“群体”比较妥当。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>vulnerable <b>communities</b> 弱势群体。</div><br><br>牵涉民族的区分时，也可以译为“族群”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the Greek <b>community</b> of Cyprus 塞浦路斯希腊族群。</div><br><br>
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company
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>company</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 这个名词的意义往往是“陪伴”，不一定是“公司”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He usually lunched alone, preferring his own <b>company</b> to other people's. 他通常自己单独用午餐，宁可自己陪自己，也不要别人来陪。/ Students generally attend in the <b>company</b> of their parents. 学生通常参加时有家长陪着。/ The two little girls had clearly been excited by each other's <b>company</b>. 两个女孩子能彼此做伴，显然十分兴奋。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 可以指与某人来往的人群整体，即“交游圈子”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A certain level of distinction came from the <b>company</b> he kept. 他的交游圈子使得他的身份显得较高。/ A man is known by the <b>company</b> he keeps. 物以类聚，人以群分。/ She has been keeping bad <b>company</b> recently. 她近来同一些不三不四的人来往。</div><br><br>company 也可以是个不可数的集合名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Do you receive much <b>company</b>? (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, <i>The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes</i>) 你接待来客多不多？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 但是 be in good company 并不是“同好人来往”的意思，而是“(遇到好事或坏事)都有人陪，不孤单”。“遇到好事”的例子有：Marcelle Gannon was <b>in good company</b> three years ago when she graduated from the University of Melbourne with two bachelor degrees, one in engineering and one in commerce. 马塞勒·甘农三年前从墨尔本大学毕业，获得两个学士学位，一个是工程，另一个是商业，同她一样拿双学位的也大有人在。“遇到坏事”的例子有：You're <b>in good company</b>; we've all been fired. 你并不孤单；我们全都被解雇了。/ They may have been too credulous about the feasibility of SDI, but they were <b>in good company</b>. (<i>The New York Review of Books</i>) 他们大概对于“战略防御方针”（即“星球大战”）的可行性过于轻信，但是同他们一样轻信的大有人在。in good company 也不一定指好事或坏事，而是指“不单是一个人如此”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I had the impression I was <b>in good company</b> in regarding this as an impressive, interesting, and highly worthwhile mission. 我有印象，就是不单是我一个人认为这是一件动人的、有趣的、很值得去做的事。</div><br><br>in good company 也可以转义为“有知音；有人赏识”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Clark was <b>in good company</b> for a young artist of barely 30. 就一个未满 30 岁的年轻艺术家来说，克拉克算是有人赏识的了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> keep somebody company (somebody 是间接宾语)与 accompany somebody 意义有些不同。前者可以指静态的“陪伴”，如陪着聊聊天、玩纸牌等等(属第二类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He kept his mother <b>company</b> in the late afternoons. 他每天傍晚时陪伴他母亲。后者则是陪着移动位置(属第三类动词)，如果位置固定不动的就不能用 accompany。用了 accompany 就不必再加上表示移动位置的另一个动词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She asked him to <b>accompany</b> her to the station. 她请他陪她到车站去。(不要说 <i>to accompany her to go to the station)</div><div class="ex-item">(After) the few other preparations necessary, I <b>accompanied</b> the secretary to the street. (Anna Katharine Green, </i>The Leavenworth Case*) 我做了其他必要的准备后，就送那位秘书到大街上。</div><br><br>音乐上的“伴奏”也用 accompany，虽然没有空间位置上的移动，但是乐曲是在动态“进行”中的。<br><br>但是，如果 accompany 的主语和宾语都是抽象事物，而不是人，则没有陪着移动位置的动态意义(此时属第一类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Their responses, though polite, were ... <b>accompanied</b> by forced smiles. (Dan Brown, <i>Deception Point</i>) 他们的回答，尽管彬彬有礼，还是……带着勉强装出的笑容。</div><br><br>
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compare
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>compare</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> compare X with Y 与 compare X to Y 有区别。前者不管双方差异多大，总之拿来相比较，结果可能是彼此很相像，也可能是有天渊之别。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The auditor <b>compared</b> this year's figures <b>with</b> last year's. 审计员将今年的数字同去年的相比较。后者则事先已经默认两者至少有相似之处，现在拿来比拟。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The teacher <b>compared</b> a light bulb <b>to</b> the sun. 老师把电灯泡比作太阳。但是在多数人的实际语言中，这个区别已经不太严格。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 前面所说的 compare 是及物的，是个瞬时动态动词(第四类动词)。但是 compare 也可以作为不及物动词，此时它就是一个延续状态动词(第一类动词)，而且意义限于“可以与……相比”（“很相像”），介词用 with 或 to 均可。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Not even the collapse of the Roman Empire <b>compared with</b> a calamity so serious. (Henry Adams, <i>Mont-Saint-Michel and Chartres</i>) 就连罗马帝国的崩溃，比起这次严重的灾难，也要逊色。</div><br><br>
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compared
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>compared</b></div>是个动词过去分词，本来应该同句中的一个名词成分相联系，但是往往在句中处于“游离”地位，意义相当于副词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If you are an actual smoker or have been one, you run four times the risk of developing the condition <b>compared to</b> (= incomparison with) non-smokers. 你如果现在是个抽烟者，或者曾经是抽烟者，那么，你患上这个病的风险就是不抽烟者的四倍。这句的 compared ... 同它前面的 condition 无关。类似这样的，还有 effective、based (on)、relative (to)等形容词。</div><br><br>
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compel
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>compel</b></div>有两个意义：(1)“强迫”(compel somebody to inf.)，可以用于主动句和被动句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She was compelled to pawn her ring. 她不得不典当了自己的戒指。(2)“使某人不得不产生某种心理”(compel somebody's something)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It compels our admiration. 这使得我们不得不钦佩。/ His statement compelled our attention. 他说的话使得我们注意起来。/ For all the preposterous hat and the vacuous face, there was something noble in the simple faith of our visitor which compelled our respect. (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, <i>The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes</i>) 我们这位客人尽管戴的帽子很古怪，面容也呆板，但是他的信念带有一点崇高的性质，不由得引起我们的尊敬。</div><br><br>
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compensation
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>compensation</b></div>是薪金和福利加在一起的总和，可以合称为“待遇”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Federal workers have been awarded bigger average pay and benefit increases than private employees for nine years in a row. The compensation gap between federal and private workers has doubled in the past decade. 联邦工作人员连续九年以来，平均获得的薪酬和福利，比私营企业雇员要多。联邦与私营企业工作人员的待遇差距，近十年来翻了一番。/ Federal civil servants earned average pay and benefits of $123,049 in 2009 while private workers made $61,051 in total compensation, according to the Bureau of Economic Analysis. (<i>USA Today</i>, Aug. 12, 2010) 据经济分析局的数据，联邦公务员 2009 年获得的薪酬和福利平均为 123,049 美元，而私营企业员工平均获得的待遇总额为 61,051 美元。</div><br><br>
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competition
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>competition</b></div>不但指“竞争”，而且可以指“竞争对手”的整体。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Walmart was notorious for moving into a new territory, selling products below market value, and driving all local competition out of business. (Dan Brown, <i>Deception Point</i>) 沃尔玛有一个恶名昭彰的“高招”，就是进入一个新领域，然后以低于市场价的价格抛售产品，把当地的竞争者的生意挤掉。</div><br><br>
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competitive
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>competitive</b></div>可以表示：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span>“竞争性的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a fiercely competitive job market 竞争激烈的就业市场。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span>“有竞争能力的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>competitive edge 竞争优势</div><div class="ex-item">competitive prices 有竞争力的价格。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span>“喜欢竞争的，好胜的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>competitive spirit 竞争精神。</div><br><br>
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compile 与 compose
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>compile 与 compose</b></div>compile 主要指编写一本书。compose 主要指创作一件精神产品，如诗歌、乐曲、文章、报告。有时两者意义有重合交叉之处，但是编书肯定不能用 compose 而要用 compile。<br><br>
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complement 与 compliment
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>complement 与 compliment</b></div>是两个不同的单词，各种词典上都解释得很清楚：前者为“补充”，后者为“称赞”。但是由于发音相同，因此容易弄错。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The two characters complement (*compliment) each other. 两个角色互为补充。</div><br><br>
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complete with
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>complete with</b></div>complete 作为形容词，本来意思是“完整的”，但是如果列举一系列的事物，最后说 complete with something，意思就是“还加上……”，不一定真的就“完整”了。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Nevertheless, with two young children and a house to prepare for overnight guests complete with all of the food to accommodate everyone, there was much to be done. 但是，我带着两个年幼的孩子，现在又要忙把家里准备一下让客人过夜，还要妥善安排所有人的食物，要干的事情真不少。</div><br><br>
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complex 与 complicated
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>complex 与 complicated</b></div>这两个形容词意义相近，但略有不同。complex 着重内部组成成分数量之多，complicated 则不重数量，而主要强调各个组成部分之间错综复杂的互动关系（如“牵一发而动全身”）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The mechanism of jet engines is complex. 喷气引擎的构造是复杂的。/ The problems of poverty are complicated. 贫穷的问题是错综复杂的。</div><br><br>
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comply
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>comply</b></div>comply with 是“遵守；听从”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>comply with a request 答应一个要求</div><div class="ex-item">comply with an order 遵令</div><div class="ex-item">comply with your instructions 遵照您的指示</div><div class="ex-item">All machinery must comply with safety regulations. 所有机械都必须符合安全规章。</div><br><br>派生的名词是 compliance。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>in compliance with your wishes 按照您的意愿</div><div class="ex-item">in compliance with the law 遵照法律规定。</div><br><br>派生的形容词是 compliant (介词用 with 或 to 均可)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He is compliant to the demands of others. 他对别人的要求很顺从。1999 年年底，全世界的电脑使用者曾经有过一场虚惊，怕到了 2000 年，凡是简化为两位数的年份要发生混乱，所以许多电脑事先经过了检查调整，然后达到了 Y2K compliant 的状态，就是“符合 Y2K (即 2000 年，Y 是 year，K 是 thousand) 要求”的意思。</div><br><br>
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composed
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>composed</b></div>参见 comprise 条之(2)。<br><br>
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comprise
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>comprise</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 这个动词(表示延续状态，属第一类动词)的用法有点特别。它可以以某个整体为主语，以这个整体的组成部分为直接宾语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The district comprises three counties. 该地区由三个郡组成。但有时候它也反过来以组成部分为主语，以整体为直接宾语。上一例句可改成：Three counties comprise the district. 还可出现它的被动式：The district is comprised of three counties. 有些学者认为只能以整体为主语，以组成部分为直接宾语，不可以反过来，而且认为被动语态的 be comprised of 是不正确的，是受了 be composed of 的影响。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> comprise 所指的组成部分，是所有组成部分，不是其中一些；include 则只是其中一些。两者的不同，参见 include 条。与 comprise 相类似，be composed of 后面也是所有组成部分而不是其中一些。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This chemical compound is composed of five elements. 这种化合物是由五种元素组成的。</div><br><br>
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compromise
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>compromise</b></div>这个单词，作为名词或不及物动词，意义比较简单，大致上相当于中文的“妥协；折中”，还可以作定语语放在另一个名词前面。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a compromise agreement 一个妥协性的协议。</div><br><br>但是作为及物动词，意义就比较复杂，而且在中文中不容易找到准确的对应表述，因而准确的意义就不容易掌握。基本的意义是“使之有所承担，因而有所付出或有所损失”，许多更加具体的释义都由此派生。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span>“不坚持(某信念、标准或主张)”，是瞬时动作，第四类动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The government is said to have compromised its principles. 政府据说放弃了原则。/ Occasionally, we must compromise on-time operations to guarantee safe travel. 有时候我们必须为了保证旅途安全而放宽准时运行。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 宾语是人，负面的意义是“损害某人的正直形象；拉某人下水；使某人不得不勉强做某事”，也是瞬时动作，属第四类动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He vowed not to be lured into any associations that might compromise him. 他立誓不会被引诱参加任何可能损害他形象的团体。</div><br><br>compromise oneself 是“自己把自己套紧；自损形象”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is clear that Bismarck did not wish to compromise himself in any way. He preferred to "listen," and if he uttered his opinion, it was only orally, face to face, without witnesses. (David Riazanov, <i>Lassalle and Bismarck</i>) 显然，俾斯麦丝毫不想把自己套住。他主要是“听着”，即使发表意见，也只是当面口头说出，不愿有人旁证。/ Why did such an experienced politician compromise himself and allow himself to be manipulated by sleazy lobbyists? 为什么这样一个经验丰富的政治家竟然这样自我作践，一任下流的游说者来摆弄呢？但是也可以有正面的意义，表示关系之难解难分。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>(She had) a bundle of letters to prove how deeply the young man had compromised himself. (Somerset Maugham, <i>Of Human Bondage</i>) (她有)一沓信件可以证明这个青年同她关系多深。</div><br><br>由此产生的过去分词 compromised 已经接近一般的形容词，意思是“处境狼狈的；形象不佳的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Has there ever been a summit at which all of the leaders were so weak, so compromised, so unpopular, or so discredited? 与会的领导人全都如此软弱，如此狼狈，如此声名不佳，如此失信于民，这样的高峰会议，难道以往有过吗？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span>“连累，危及，损害”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A lone U.S. ambassador compromised America's hunt for Osama bin Laden in Pakistan for more than two years, <i>The New York Sun</i> has learned. 《纽约太阳报》获悉，单单一名美国大使，就破坏了美国在巴基斯坦搜捕本·拉登的工作达两年多之久。/ Blanche saw that it was hopeless—saw that she had compromised her own interests by her own headlong act. (Wilkie Collins, <i>Man and Wife</i>) 布朗希看到事情没有希望了，她看到自己那种一头栽截的鲁莽举动已经使自己的利益受到了损害。/ (He) tried to devise a plan by means of which he might gain his ends without being compromised himself. (Alexandre Dumas, <i>The Black Tulip</i>) 他努力要想出一个妙计，既能达到目的，又不损及自己。</div><br><br>现在谈到风行的“黑客攻击；网上犯罪；身份盗窃”时，往往就出现 compromise 这个及物动词和它的形容词化了的过去分词 compromised。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>compromised key 已泄露的密钥</div><div class="ex-item">compromised VISA accounts 被盗取的 VISA 信用卡账户</div><div class="ex-item">compromised password 已泄露的密码</div><div class="ex-item">A single compromised account on a server could also be used to compromise the domain controller. 一个服务器上如果有一个账户被盗取，它就可以用来进攻域控制器。/ ... a database used by researchers there was compromised by hackers. ……研究人员使用的一个数据库被黑客攻陷。</div><br><br>人体的机能如果受损，也是 compromised，例如免疫系统受损，可以用复合形容词 immunocompromised (= having a weakened immune system) 来表示。<br><br>又如在秘密的地下工作中，某人或某地址如果暴露了，与之联系会有危险，也说该人或该地址是 compromised。“涉嫌文件”是 compromising papers。<br><br>犯罪现场被破坏，这个“破坏”也是 compromise。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The mother's screams had attracted not only neighbors but a landscaper and a deliveryman who were on the premises next door. The result was a thoroughly compromised crime scene. (Mary Higgins Clark, <i>Nighttime Is My Time</i>) 母亲的叫喊声，不但吸引了邻居们，而且吸引了当时在隔壁房子里的一个庭园设计师和一个送货员。结果是犯罪现场被彻底破坏了。</div><br><br>
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comptroller
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>comptroller</b></div>这个名词，实际上是 controller 的另一个写法，读音同 controller 完全相同，意义也差不多，但是范围缩小到美国联邦和各州的“审计官”，也用于私人企业的“审计员”。<br><br>
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computer
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>computer</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 由于电脑的使用已经很普及，通常当不是指某个特定的电脑，而只是泛指电脑时，就用单数的 the computer；除非特别指某个新提到的电脑才说 a computer，特别指具体多个的电脑才用复数的 computers 或 the computers。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Our employees can all use the computer. 我们的雇员全都会使用电脑。这里的“电脑”不是具体的一台电脑，也不是大家共用一台，而很可能是每人各有一台，单数是泛指的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> computer 前面依情况的不同用不同的介词。<br><br>表示单纯的工作地点用 at。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He sat down at the computer. 他坐到电脑前面。(比较：He sat down at the desk.)</div>表示以电脑为工具工作，用 with。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He solved the problem with the computer. 他用电脑解决了问题。</div><br><br>如果说的是在电脑上留下记录(尽管记录后来可以删掉)，则用 on。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He wrote the text on the computer. 他把文本输入了电脑。如果还是在解题的过程中，solved 可以改为 was solving，此时用 with the computer 和 on the computer 均可，但意思有些区别：着重解题的抽象内容时用 with，着重解题具体过程中屏幕上图像和文字的显示以及键盘和鼠标的操作时用 on。</div><br><br>另外，如果着重从外部输入电脑时用 onto (用 on 则是着重在电脑本身范围内的操作)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He transferred the video onto the computer. 他把录像导入了电脑。</div><br><br>
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concern
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>concern</b></div>无论作为名词还是动词，都可以是正面的关心、关怀、关照，希望有好结果；也可以是负面的担心、担忧、忧虑，生怕有坏结果。也可以是中性的负责某事，管某事。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 中性的“注意；关心；负责；管”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>That's no concern of yours. 那不关你的事。/ What they do in their free time is their concern. 他们在空闲时间干些什么，是他们自己的事。/ Make it your concern to send all the faxes immediately. 你负责立刻把这些传真全发出去。/ It's of no great concern to me what he does. 他干些什么，同我没多大关系。/ What are the concerns of ordinary people? 老百姓关心的是哪些问题？/ I'd dearly love to see more women concerning themselves with such vital issues. 我热切盼望有更多的妇女关心这些重大问题。/ She is dead to all reason where her children are concerned. 一涉及她的孩子们，她就不顾一切理智。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 正面的“关心”(要达到好结果)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She shows genuine concern for their welfare. 她对他们的福祉的确关心。/ Keeping kids safe on the Internet is not only a big concern; it's big business. 保护孩子在互联网上的安全，不仅是一件令人关心的大事，而且也是一门大的生意经。/ John never understood his parents' concern with tidiness. 约翰对他父母如此注意整洁一直不理解。/ You've got a Mum who's really concerned about you. 你有一个真正关心你的妈妈。/ Some area hospitals, concerned about having adequate staff on hand (during the snowstorm), offered employees rides to work in four-wheel drive vehicles. (<i>The Daily Gazette</i>, Feb. 15, 2007) 地区的一些医院为了(在暴风雪时)有足够的人手，提供四轮驱动的车辆来接送雇员们上下班。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 负面的“担忧”，生怕出现坏结果，作为及物动词词是“使担忧”，be concerned 则是“(自己)感到担忧”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There's cause for concern. 有令人担忧的理由。/ Her health has been a constant source/object of concern to her parents. 她的健康状况一直是她父母担忧的事。/ He was concerned about the level of unemployment in the city. 他对市内的失业率感到担忧。/ One of the things that concerns me is the rise in vandalism. 令我感到担忧的一件事，就是流氓行为的猖獗。/ There is concern that the international medical community will not be able to deliver enough doses of an effective vaccine in time. 人们担心国际医药界不能及时输送足够数量的特效疫苗。</div><br><br>be concerned that ... 从句(that 可省略)中的内容是负面的、不利的情况(通常用 would 或 might 表示)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The Ivies are very concerned that their minority numbers might go down, so they are always actively recruiting students from the minority groups. 各常春藤名校十分担心自己的少数族裔人数下降，所以它们总是积极地从少数族裔群当中物色学生。/ The Food and Drug Administration said it was concerned that consumers were poorly informed about serious complications frommisusing the medications, ... (<i>Los Angeles Times</i>, Dec. 20, 2006) 美国食品药物管理局说，它对消费者不清楚误用药物会引起严重并发症感到担忧，……</div><br><br>concerning 可以作为形容词，有“令人担心的”之意。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's concerning, of course. (<i>U.S. News & World Report</i>, Dec. 25, 2006, p. 28) 这当然是令人担心的。</div><br><br>
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concert
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>concert</b></div>concert 是多人登台演奏或演唱的音乐会。如果是单人(独唱或独奏)的，则叫 recital。有时候单人的也叫 concert，但是乐队演奏不能叫 *recital。<br><br>
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condition
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>condition</b></div>医疗上的一种委婉用语，把疾病叫作 condition。如心脏病叫作 a heart condition，肝病叫作 a liver condition，疑难病叫作 a rare medical condition。<br><br>
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conference
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>conference</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> conference 通常是单次的集会，例如国际学术会议，开完了就不存在了。中文“会议”原来也是这个意思，但是后来有了发展，不但可以指一时的集会，还可以指经常性的组织。例如 1945 年在重庆举行的“政治协商会议”，当时就是一个一时的集会，不是经常性的组织。当时的英文译名 Political Consultative Conference 是名正言顺的。后来提出召开“新政协会议”，也没有明确把它固定为一个经常性的组织。直到 1949 年才进一步发展，“中国人民政治协商会议”成了一个经常性的机构，这在中文中没有问题，但是英文仍然使用 conference 就多少有点勉强。不过，为了保持历史的一贯性，略微扩大 conference 的词义范围，用来指一个经常性的组织，也无可厚非，因为语言是可以发展变化的。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> conference 还可以指党的“代表会议”(“代表”不必译出)，区别于正式代表组成的 congress (“代表大会”，“代表”也不必译出)。<br><br>
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confess
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>confess</b></div>可以是及物动词，也可以是不及物动词。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为及物动词(通常是第四类动词，除非是即时表态，不用一般现在时)。可以有单宾语：confess something。也可以有双宾语：confess something to somebody 或 confess somebody something。无论单双宾语，这个 something 都可以是 that 引出的名词从句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>confess one's ignorance 承认自己无知</div><div class="ex-item">I confess (that) you're right. 我承认你是对的。这种“承认”通常是承认一个判断。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 如果是“承认”某个事实，通常 confess 要作为不及物动词，加上 to 引入承认的事实。如果是过去已经发生的事实(瞬时动词)，可以用用动词的现在分词，也可以用动词完成式的现在分词(having + pp.)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The boy confessed to breaking the vase. 男孩子承认自己打碎了花瓶。/ I must confess to having done some flagrant cheating. (Cornelia Otis Skinner, in <i>The New York Times Magazine</i>, Jan. 23, 1955) 我必须承认自己有过一些很严重的作弊行为。如果是说话时仍然存在的延续状态(延续动词)，就要用动名词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We must confess to being somewhat conservative. (<i>International Titanium Association Bulletin</i>, Spring 1965) 我们必须承认自己有点保守。to 后面也可以不用动名词而用名词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Rhee confessed to 78 years and is probably older. (Gerald W. Johnson, in <i>The New Republic</i>, June 15, 1953) 李承晚承认自己已经 78 岁，也许他还更老一些。</div><br><br>承认某个判断也有用 confess to 的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I confess to certain reluctance. (Herbert Read, <i>The Philosophy of Modern Art</i>) 我承认自己有点不大愿意。</div><br><br>个别场合偶尔也有不用 to 而用 of 的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... no Irishman ever again confessed of being Irish. (George Bernard Shaw, <i>Back to Methuselah</i>) ……再也没有哪个爱尔兰人承认自己是爱尔兰人了。</div><br><br>
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confidence
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>confidence</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 是不可数名词，可以是对他人的信任或对外部某事物的信心，也可以是对自己的信心。对他人的信任和对事物的信心，通常要用 in 引入这个他人或是事物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I have every/the greatest confidence in her. 我对她完全信得过。对自己的信心，可以单用 confidence。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She's full of confidence. 她充满了信心。/ They lack confidence. 他们缺乏信心。/ People often lose confidence when they are criticized. 人们受到批评时往往失去信心。当然，仍然可以用 in 来引入“自己”或“自己的能力、机遇”等。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I didn't have any confidence in myself at school. 我上学时，对自己毫无信心。/ 58 percent of adult workers in the U.S. have confidence in their own ability to find a new job, falling two percentage points from the prior month. (<i>United States Employment Report</i>, February 2006) 美国有 58% 的成年职工对自己找到新工作有信心，这个比例较上月下降了两个百分点。</div><br><br>在 He inspired me with confidence. 中，confidence 后面没有 in ...，但是应该把 confidence 理解为对“他”的信心，而不是对“我”自己的信心。这句话意思是“他使我信得过他”。(参见 inspire 条)<br><span class="seq">(2)</span> confidence 常常从“信任”这个原意转移到“机密状态”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He took her into his confidence. 他把自己的秘密告诉了她。/ I'm telling you this in confidence. 我现在告诉你这件事，是私下说的。/ Send applications in confidence to ... 申请表请寄往……处，保证保密。</div><br><br>还可以转变为可数名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They exchanged confidences. 他们互相说了一些私房话。</div><br><br>派生的形容词 confidential 就完全脱离了“信任”，专门表示“机密的”。但是另一个形容词 confident 却又完全保持“有信心”(但却是对自己的能力或运气，不是对他人)的词义，同“机密”不相关。<br><br>
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conflicted
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>conflicted</b></div>作为形容词，意思是“内部不一致的，有冲突的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>conflicted response 爱恨交加的反应</div><div class="ex-item">Home was a conflicted political environment. His father was a Republican ... His mother was an ardent Democrat. (<i>Los Angeles Times</i>, June 9, 2007) 家里的政治环境很不一致。他父亲是个共和党人……他母亲却是个热烈的民主党人。</div><br><br>
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confront 与 face
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>confront 与 face</b></div>参见 face 与 confront 条。<br><br>
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confuse
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>confuse</b></div>作为及物动词，confuse 对人来说可以是“使之糊涂”，对事物来说可以是“使之混乱”；后面有 with 短语时是“把……同……混淆在一起”。但是 confuse oneself with facts 不是“拿事实来使自己糊涂”，也不是“把自己同事实混淆在一起”，而是“向事实低头，承认事实”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The committee has refused to confuse itself with facts. 委员会拒绝承认事实。</div><br><br>
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congratulate
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>congratulate</b></div>只能是“祝贺(别人)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I congratulate you on your marriage. 我祝贺你们新婚之喜。不能是“(自己)庆祝”。例如说 *Let us congratulate our victory. 就是双重错误，一是 congratulate 用在这里不当，二是 congratulate 的直接宾语应该是人(他人)，庆祝的事由必须用介词 on 引入。这句话应该改为：Let us celebrate our victory.</div>
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congratulate 与 wish
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>congratulate 与 wish</b></div>两者都是“祝”，但 congratulate 是就一件已经发生了的喜事表示“祝贺”(被祝贺者为直接宾语，喜事用介词 on 引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I congratulated them on their new baby. 我祝贺他们喜得贵子。wish 则是预祝某人将来有好运气(被祝贺者为间接宾语，放前面，好事为直接宾语，放后面)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We wish you every happiness. 我们祝你们一切幸福。/ He called to wish me (a) happy birthday. 他打电话祝我生日快乐。</div><br><br>
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congratulations
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>congratulations</b></div>这个意为“祝贺”的名词，必须用复数形式(祝贺的原因用介词 on 引入)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Let me offer you my congratulations on your success. 请让我对您的成功表示祝贺。</div><br><br>
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Congress
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>Congress</b></div>美国国会(包括参众两院)，原先在美国《宪法》中多处带定冠词 the (26 次)，但也偶尔不带而只说 Congress (5 次)。后来越来越少用 the Congress，通常只说 Congress。连华盛顿、杰斐逊也常说 Congress。后来罗斯福、杜鲁门、艾森豪威尔等几任总统以及最高法院首席大法官沃伦等曾经有意恢复说 the Congress，但仍然成不了风气。现在几乎没有人说 the Congress 了，但是 the Supreme Court、the Cabinet、the Senate 等仍然必须带定冠词。<br><br>
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congressman
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>congressman</b></div>美国国会是 Congress，但 congressman (congresswoman) 通常只是指众议员，不指参议员 (senator)。众议员本来是 representative，但是在间接指称中较少说 a Democrat representative，而更多说 a Democrat congressman (congresswoman)，面对面的直接指称也说 congressman (congresswoman) 而不说 *representative。而在正式头衔中则通常仍称 Representative，简写为 Rep. (例如 Rep. William J. Jefferson)。参议员则无论间接、直接指称还是头衔仍然是 Senator，简写是 Sen. (例如 Sen. Hillary Rodham Clinton)。如果通指参众两院的议员，可以说 member of Congress 或 congressmember，以避免说 congressman。<br><br>
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connection
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>connection</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 指看得见的、正面的联系或关系，不指无形的、感情上的关系或友情。因此，*I have a good connection with my boss. 不妥，因为既然是 boss，工作关系就必然存在，这里讲的是“关系融洽”，应该改为 good relations 或 a good relationship。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> connection 也可以指秘密活动(如间谍、恐怖、贩毒、洗钱、走私等)中的一个联络点或环节，常常可以在前面加上地名。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the Los Angeles connection 洛杉矶联络点。</div><br><br>
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conscientious, conscious 与 consent
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>conscientious, conscious 与 consent</b></div>三个单词有点相像，但意义完全不同。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> conscientious 是“认真的，勤奋的”之意。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She was her usual conscientious self. 她仍然像平常一样认真。/ He'd been doing his job conscientious for many years. 他已经勤奋工作了多年。/ Their son is a conscientious student. 他们的儿子是个用功的学生。西方社会有些出于宗教、道德或哲学原因拒绝服兵役的人，被称为 conscientious objector，有些国家的法律承认他们拒绝服兵役的权利，但规定要他们从事非战斗的公益劳役作为代替。这个特殊的名词，有时候被转义用来指与兵役无关的“温和的反对者”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Mr. Trump's predecessor was no conscientious objector in the presidential war against the press. (<i>The Globe and Mail</i>, Feb. 23, 2017) 特朗普先生的前任，作为总统在对报界的作战中，并不是一个温文尔雅的对手。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> conscious 是“有意识的”之意，但除了 become conscious (恢复知觉，醒过来)以及前面加上 politically 或 socially 表示“有政治意识的”或“有社会意识的”，或是前面加上名词组成复合形容词(如 protocol-conscious“讲究礼仪的”、face-conscious“讲面子的”、clothes-conscious“讲究衣着的”、fashion-conscious“讲究时髦的”、age-conscious“在乎年龄的”、health-conscious“注意养生的”)之外，通常后面要加上 of ... 或 that ... 作为补充说明；conscious of 是“意识到”某事物(某事物如果是句子则用 conscious that ...)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She became conscious of Rudolph looking at her. 她觉察到了鲁道夫正在注视着她。/ I was conscious that he had changed his tactics. 我觉察到他改变了策略。</div><br><br>conscious of 还有一个意义，就是“很在意，很看重”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He is conscious of his limited achievements. 他对自己有限的一点成就也很在意。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> consent 同上面两个单词没有任何关系，作为名词，是“同意，答应”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She had threatened to marry without her parents' consent. 她曾经扬言父母不同意也结婚。/ It is a splendid idea. I give my consent. 这是个了不起的主意。我表示同意。</div><br><br>consent 也可以作为动词(后面加动词不定式或 to something)，是“同意”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Would you consent to work for us? 你同意为我们工作吗？/ He consented to the removal of the flags. 他同意把旗子挪开。</div><br><br>
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conscious
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>conscious</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 与 conscientious 的区别，参见 conscientious, conscious 与 consent 条。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 表示“有意识的，有感觉到”时，与 aware 的区别是：conscious 所意识到、感觉到的，是自己肉体或精神所感受到的，例如疼痛感、黑暗中的恐惧感。aware 则是指外界对自己视觉或听觉的刺激，例如一面飘扬的旗帜或电视广播的一则消息。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I am aware of my neighbor's frustrations, but conscious of my own. 我注意到邻居的挫折，但感受到自己的挫折。</div><br><br>
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consider
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>consider</b></div>与 regard 意义相近，但搭配有些不同：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> consider 的用法是 consider X Y (认为 X 是 Y，Y 如果是名词，前面通常没有 as；而 regard 的用法是 regard X as Y。所以，He was considered as a coward. 的 as 通常可以去掉。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They considered her a genius.</div><div class="ex-item">They regarded her as a genius. 他们认为她是个天才。/ Some British generals considered the attack a mistake. 有些英国将军认为那次进攻是错误的。/ I regard it as my duty to warn you. 我认为我有责任警告你。</div><br><br>Y 是个名词时，也可以采取 consider X to be Y 的结构。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We don't consider our customers to be mere customers (consider our customers mere customers 不顺)；we consider them to be our friends. 对于客户，我们不仅仅把他们看成客户；我们把他们看成我们的朋友。consider X Y 中的 X 可能很长或很复杂而把 Y 挤到后面远处，此时要注意不要丢失呼应关系。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Two weeks ago, he would have considered the task awaiting him at the far end of this tunnel impossible. (Dan Brown, <i>Angels and Demons</i>) 这项在隧道另一端等候着他的任务，如果是两个星期以前，他会认为是根本办不到的。此外，在实际语言中，尤其是随口讲的话，consider 后面加不加 as 往往很随便。</div><br><br>但是，如果 Y 是个形容词，前面的 X 不是个短促的代词而是个较长的名词成分，要说 consider X as Y。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I consider activities such as jogging and weightlifting as unnatural. 我认为，类似慢跑和举重这样的活动是不自然的。(unnatural 前如果没有 as，就难以同前面远处的 consider 呼应。) 但：I considered it wiser not to criticize the report. 我觉得不去批评那个报告更为明智。(it 很短促，再加 as 反而累赘。)</div>appoint X as Y 中的 as，则可用可不用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They appointed him (as) chair of the department. 他们任命他为系主任。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> consider 后面常常可以用 that 从句引入认为的内容(如 I consider that ...)。regard 则较少用于主动语态，较多用于被动语态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is generally regarded that ... 一般认为…… (很少说 I regard that ...)</div><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> regard 可以以人为宾语，再加上状语，表示对该人的看法或评价。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Initially, they regarded her with suspicion. 开始，他们对她抱怀疑态度。/ Her employers regarded her very highly. 她的雇主们对她评价很高。但是 consider 较少这样使用。</div><br><br>
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consist
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>consist</b></div>consist in 与 consist of 都是表示状态的延续动词(第一类动词)，区别是：consist of 通常后面是具体名词，指组成成分。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This alloy consists of bronze and nickel. 这种合金由铜和镍组成。consist in 后面则通常是抽象名词，指内容或实质。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The appeal of the play consists in its depiction of rural life. 该剧的吸引力，在于它对乡间生活的刻画。</div><br><br>
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consistent
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>consistent</b></div>这个形容词大体上有“对内”与“对外”的不同意义(许多现有的词典中，对这两者不加区别，合在一起解释)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 对内的意义，是“本身坚固或浓稠的；本身内部不自相矛盾的；匀称一贯的”。用于这个意义时，不需要附加必要的介词短语来说明。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a consistent advocate of reform 一贯主张改革的人</div><div class="ex-item">There has been consistent growth in subscribers. 订户不断增加。即使后面有介词短语，也不是 consistent 所不可缺少的。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He is consistent in his actions. 他的行动是首尾一贯的。(这里的 in his actions 是临时加上上的附带说明，并非 consistent 所必需，去掉了，句子仍然成立，只是意思不够明确。)/ ... the influence of America should be consistent in seeking for humanity a final peace. (Franklin D. Roosevelt, fireside chat, Sept. 3, 1939) ……美国必须一以贯之地发挥自己的影响，为人类争取最后的和平。(这里的 in seeking ... 也不是 consistent 所不可缺少的。)/ The anti-German element in French defence thinking is consistent throughout this period. (<i>The Times Literary Supplement</i>, Aug. 27, 1971) 法国国防思想中的反德成分，一直贯穿这个时期。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 对外的意义，是“符合的”，必须要加上 with 短语，句子才能成立。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Speed is not always consistent with safety. 速度快并不一定符合安全要求。/ ... the fastest rate of economic growth consistent with social stability ……同社会稳定相适应的最快的经济发展速度</div><div class="ex-item">failure of memory consistent with senility 伴随着年纪增大的记忆力丧失</div><div class="ex-item">The injuries were not consistent with an accidental fall. 伤势同不慎跌倒不符。/ The story is not consistent with the known facts. 说的故事同已知的事实不符。/ Weather Office analysts report that the event was consistent with data resulting from an underground nuclear blast. 气象台的专家们报告说，这一事件，同一次地下核爆炸产生的数据相符。</div><br><br>但是，有时候 consistent 指两件或多件事物时，就不用 with 短语，但仍然是对外的“相符的”之意。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I believe the two are not inconsistent. (Barack Obama, cited from <i>The Daily Gazette</i>, Mar. 14, 2009, A7) 我相信两者并不是彼此冲突的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> consistent 的派生名词 consistency，除了与形容词的两大类意义相符的意义之外，在“对内”意义中还有物理性的“黏稠度”的意义。这个意义，在形容词 consistent 中虽然也有体现，但很少使用。<br><br>
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conspire
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>conspire</b></div>许多人一看到这个动词(瞬时体动词，第四类动词)，马上就会想到“搞阴谋”，主语一定是人。但其实事情也可以作 conspire 的主语，一般指多种情况凑到一起造成某一不好的结果。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Circumstances conspired to thwart their plans. 事事巧合使得他们的计划落了空。/ Events conspired against him. 事态的发展对他不利。但是，也可以指造成好的结果。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Everything had conspired to make him happy. 事事巧合使他走了运。</div><br><br>
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constituency
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>constituency</b></div>一般指某个选区。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There were about 14,000 voters in the constituency. 该选区大约有 14,000 名选民。也可以指某一选区选民的集合体(这个名词前可以加定冠词 the 或不定冠词 a，但代词用复数)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There is an enormous constituency, and they are waiting too. (<i>Newsweek</i>, Dec. 12, 2005, p. 102) 有大量的选民，他们也在等待着。参见 population 条。</div><br><br>
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constitute
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>constitute</b></div>这个及物动词(延续状态，第一类动词，可以有一般现在时，但不能有进行时态)，可以表示：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 多个成分共同组成一个整体。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Six members constitute the committee. 6 名委员组成委员会。/ A jury is constituted of twelve people. 陪审团由 12 人组成。/ Twelve months constitute one year. 12 个月为一年。/ Meat, milk, vegetables, fruit and starches constitute a balanced diet. 肉类、奶类、蔬菜、水果和淀粉类食物，构成均衡的饮食。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 某一事物等于另一更为抽象的事物(后一事物对前一事物加以定性或描绘)，有时候中文甚至可以译成“是”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The heavy rain constituted a hazard to the crops. 暴雨危及庄稼收成。/ Their actions constitute a direct challenge to law. 他们的行动是对法律的直接挑战。有时候中文也说“构成”，例如“构成犯罪”(英文就是 constitute an offense)。</div><br><br>但是，constitute 终究是比较文绉绉的用语。在前面的(1)的意义上，日常多用 make up (参见 make up 条)。<br><br>
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consult 与 consult with
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>consult 与 consult with</b></div>consult somebody 倾向于表示“向比自己更懂的人征求意见，请教”；consult with somebody 则倾向于“平等协商”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If your baby is losing weight, you should consult your doctor promptly. 你的婴儿如果掉体重，就应该赶快去看医生。/ I ought to consult with my wife first. 我要先同我妻子商量一下。/ The U.S. should consult with its European allies about any important world issue. 任何重大的世界性问题，美国都应该同它的欧洲盟国协商。</div><br><br>consult something 中，这个 something 是固定存在的某件可供查阅的东西，因此不能说 *consult someone's opinion。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He consulted his watch. 他看了看手表。/ She consulted the papers on her desk. 她查阅了桌上的文件。/ We'd better consult the dictionary. 咱们最好还是查字典。/ Let's consult the city map. 咱们查一下市内交通图。</div><br><br>
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consume
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>consume</b></div>这个及物动词(属于第三类动词，趋成动词)，除了表示“消费；消耗”之外，还可以指“吃掉”食物或“喝掉”饮料，但限于正式的用语(常常涉及饮食同人体健康的关系)，与健康或学术无关的日常用语仍然用 eat 与 drink。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Many people experienced a drop in their cholesterol levels when they consumed oat bran. 许多人吃了燕麦麸，胆固醇水平就下降。/ The institute says that 75 percent of 12th graders, two thirds of 10th graders, and two fifths of 8th graders have consumed alcohol. (<i>U.S. News & World Report</i>, Sept. 15-22, 2008, p. 11) 该研究所说，喝过酒的学生，十二年级的有 75%，十年级的有三分之二，八年级的有五分之二。</div><br><br>
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contact
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>contact</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 可以是名词，也可以是动词。同许多兼名词和动词的单词(如 produce、process、record、progress、project)不同，contact 作为名词和动词，重音位置不变，都是在前一个音节。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 可以指物质意义的“接触”，也可以指信息来往的“联系”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Avoid contact with the skin. 避免(该药物)接触皮肤。/ Bodily contact is not allowed in this sport. 这个运动项目不允许有身体接触。/ The plane's wheels made contact with ground. 飞机轮子接触地面了。/ My contact with him is purely professional. 我同他的联系纯属工作需要。/ Be sure to make contact with our office. 一定要同我们办公室联系上。</div><br><br>要注意：contact 作为动词，通常是及物动词。*contact with somebody 中的 with 是多余的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>As soon as we find out anything, we'll contact you. 我们一发现什么东西，就会马上同你们联系。/ Dr. Edwards cannot be contacted. 爱德华兹医生联系不上。</div><br><br>不过，contact 作为及物动词，主动取得联系的意义较强，如果这个意义较弱，也可以作为不及物动词，说 contact with。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Through discrete enquiries, staff determine if the birth parent would agree to contact with the adopted child. 工作人员经过保密查询，明确了究竟生父母是否同意与被领养的孩子联系。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 但是如果指的是主体被动地接受外界无形影响的“接触”，就不说 *contact with，而说 exposure to (动词 be exposed to)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Adolescents are likely to start smoking when exposed to smoking in movies. 青少年受到电影中吸烟镜头的影响，容易开始吸烟。/ Students were exposed to a foreign language for two weeks. 学生有两周时间同一门外语接触。/ occupational exposure to hazardous chemicals 同有害化合物的职业接触</div><div class="ex-item">daily exposure to journalese 天天接触新闻腔</div><div class="ex-item">Exposure to TV violence increases aggression. 接触电视上的暴力镜头，会加强侵犯趋向。</div><br><br>
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contagious 与 infectious
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>contagious 与 infectious</b></div>两个形容词都是“传染的”，但用法略有不同。早期有人认为 contagious 是“接触传染的”，infectious 是“媒介传染的”，contagious 是 infectious 的一种。后来有人认为两者的区别是 contagious 强调其传染之迅速，infectious 强调其传染威力之巨大，但根据似嫌不足。不过可以肯定的是：contagious 转义可以指好的和不好的事情，infectious 转义则几乎都是指好的事情。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>European leaders felt terrorism could become contagious. (Edward Girardet, in <i>The Christian Science Monitor</i>, Apr. 3, 1980) 欧洲领导人们觉得，恐怖主义可能成为一种传染病。/ ... the women's enthusiasm so contagious, that I for one could not keep my heart from beating faster. (Germaine Greer, in <i>Harper's Magazine</i>, October 1972) ……妇女们的热烈心情传染得这么厉害，就拿我来说，我也无法不让心脏更快地跳动。/ ... with an enthusiasm that can be infectious ... (Tony Schwartz, in <i>The New York Times Book Review</i>, Dec. 9, 1979) ……那种热烈，是可能传染开来的……</div><br><br>
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contemptible 与 contemptuous
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>contemptible 与 contemptuous</b></div>前者是被动的“可鄙的，下贱的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You're showing a contemptible lack of courage. 你表现出了一种可鄙的怯懦。后者则是主动的“(对某人或某事)表示鄙视的，高傲的”，这个某人或某事前面用介词 of。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Snobs are usually contemptuous of people they feel to be beneath them. 势利小人觉得有谁地位比他们低，就看不起谁。</div><br><br>
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content
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>content</b></div>这个名词，如果指的是物质容器的内容，则尽管只有一种内容，通常也用复数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He swallowed half the contents of his glass in one gulp. 他一口喝下了半杯。书面的内容通常也用复数。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He knew by heart the contents of the book. 书的内容，他背都背得出来。因此，一本书的目录也说 contents。</div><br><br>单数可以指某著作的要旨(与其形式或辞藻相对而言)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His novels are all form and no content. 他的小说，只有形式，没有内容。/ President Bush delivered his State of the Union address on January 28, 2008. Whatever the form, content, delivery method or broadcast medium, the President's annual address is a backdrop for national unity. (<i>White House website</i>, Jan. 29, 2008) 布什总统 2008 年 1 月 28 日发表了国情咨文。总统每年一次的咨文，无论其形式、内容、发布办法或广播媒介如何，都是全国团结的一个背景。</div><br><br>单数还可以指某一成分的含量。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>No other food has so high an iron content. 没有别的食品含铁量有这样高。</div><br><br>
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contiguous
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>contiguous</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 指多个事物时，是“彼此相接的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>contiguous angles (数学)邻角，接角。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 指单个事物(对外)同其他事物的关系时，是“与之相接的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There may be as many as seven houses contiguous with the property. 同这片地产相邻的房屋，可能有七栋之多。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 指单个事物(对内)“本身连成一片的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Japan is an agricultural country with not much arable land. Even today, one family's acreage is not always contiguous. 日本是个可耕地不多的农业国。直到今天，一户的耕地仍然不一定是连成一片的。</div><br><br>
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continent
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>continent</b></div>通常如果只说 continent 而不说明是哪个，就是从大陆之外的角度来说的。尤其是英国人，说 the continent 就是指欧洲大陆，介词用 on，如牛津大学出版社 2003 年出版的 Owen Chadwick 的一本书，书名就是 <i>The Early Reformation on the Continent</i>。此外，凡是有专有名称的大陆或洲，介词多用 in，如 in the African continent。<br><br>
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continual 与 continuous
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>continual 与 continuous</b></div>continual 是“反复不停地发生的”，如电话铃声。continuous 则是“连续不断的”，如流水。<br><br>
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continue
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>continue</b></div>这个动词，除了可以是及物或不及物动词之外，在个别场合还可以作为系动词，后面接上表语(形容词或名词)，表示“仍然”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>And so they continued Tartars. (Thomas Carlyle, <i>The French Revolution</i>) 这样，他们仍然是鞑靼人。/ Drawing continued for life a pleasant exercise. (George Henry Lewes, <i>The Life of Goethe</i>) 一辈子画画仍然是一种身心乐事。 </div>
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contrary
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>contrary</b></div>contrary 作定语，表示与前面内容相反(但这内容在此不再重复)，可以放在名词前面，但通常最前面要有特指的限定词(如 the)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The contrary view is that prison provides an excellent education in crime. 相反的观点，则认为监狱提供了完备的犯罪教育。</div><br><br>如果前面没有特指的限定词，或是 contrary 用作 be 的表语，则往往将 contrary 改为 to the contrary，放在名词后面。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>despite indications to the contrary 尽管有(与此)相反的迹象</div><div class="ex-item">Unless you have specific information to the contrary, it is obvious that she is lying. 除非你有具体的材料说明并非如此，否则她显然是在撒谎。/ The epithet, despite sounding flattering, was quite to the contrary. (Dan Brown, The Da Vinci Code)这个绰号，尽管听起来很悦耳，其实意思恰恰相反。如果该相反的意见或主张有来源，这个来源要放在 to the contrary 后面。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>despite opinions to the contrary from his advisors 不顾他的顾问们的反对意见。to the contrary 除了可以充当后置定语之外，还可以充当状语。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She has already almost persuaded me of her being warmly attached to her daughter, though I have been so long convinced to the contrary. (Jane Austen, Lady Susan)她几乎已经说服了我相信，她是热爱她的女儿的，尽管我早就已经确信并非如此。/ ... whatever they may say to the contrary ... (Edgar Allan Poe, Poems)……不管他们说哪些相反的话……</div><br><br>但是，to the contrary 与 on the contrary 不同，通常不用来放在句首总揽全句(“恰恰相反”)，尽管有时候也有人这样用。on the contrary 是个状语词组，常用于句首，表示同前一句的内容相反(“恰恰相反”)。但前面的一句往往是否定的，这里的“相反”，不是对前面的否定再来一个否定使之“否否得正”，肯定前句中本来被否定之事，而是对前句中已被否定之事重新再否定一次。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In speaking of to-infinitival complement clauses, therefore, I do not commit myself to any preconceived definitions of what is or is not a "complement". On the contrary, special emphasis will be placed on those data from the corpus which illustrate the full extent of structural complexity in the borderline area between prototypical infinitival complements and prototypically adverbial infinitives. (Christian Mair, Infinitival Complement Clauses in English)因此，谈到动词不定式的补充短语时，我并不认同任何有关“补语”是什么又不是什么的先入为主的定义。恰恰相反，我将特别强调那些来自语料库的能够对那个乎原型不定式补语与原型副词补语之间的交界地带在结构上的复杂性加以充分说明的材料。</div><br><br>当然，自己一个人说话，方向不可能前后相反，所以“反”只能是反前面自己本来已经否定了的部分，再进一步(但用肯定)，或者讲的是两件相反的事，骨子里仍然是一个方向的本意。但二人对谈时则乙可以从根本上反对甲的话。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>— It's rather warm today. — On the contrary, I find it too cool. —今天相当热。—恰恰相反，我觉得太凉了。/ — I hear that you aren't too happy about my decision. — On the contrary, I find it fair and reasonable. —我听说你不太喜欢我的决定。—恰恰相反，我觉得你的决定既公平又合理。此外，单独一个人说话，如果讲的是不同的两件事情，讲第一件事情时并没有否定而是肯定，讲到第二件事情时，要说情况与第一件事情恰恰相反，说 on the contrary 就不自然，最好说 by contrast。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Japanese sounds are pretty easy to pronounce. By contrast, the Japanese writing system is quite complex. 日语单词的发音相当容易。相反，日语书写系统却相当复杂。</div><br><br>
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contrary to
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>contrary to</b></div>contrary 本来是个形容词，放在名词前面修饰名词，如果要说“同什么相反”，就要说 contrary to something，改放到名词的后面。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They happily tolerated the existence of opinions contrary to their own. 他们乐意容忍同他们相反的意见存在。</div><br><br>在实际使用中，contrary to X 往往成为一个副词短语，起修饰全句的作用，而不是修饰句中的某个名词成分。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Contrary to popular belief, many cats dislike milk. 同一般人所相信的相反，许多猫是不喜欢牛奶的。/ And the decoding of the human genome, contrary to some early expectations, has not led to a burst of new drugs, at least not yet. (The New York Times, Nov. 27, 2007, F4)而人类基因组的解码，同早期的预期相反，并没有导致新药物的大量出现，起码尚未如此。这种形容词短语改作为修饰整句的副词短语的现象，还见于 based on、effective 等。</div><br><br>
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contribute 与 contribution
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>contribute 与 contribution</b></div>这两个词的意义都不一定限于正面的“贡献”，也可以表示负面的“助长作用”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>air travel's contribution to global warming 航空交通对全球变暖的影响</div><div class="ex-item">Soaring land prices contribute to the high cost of housing. 地价飞涨，使得建房成本很高。/ His carelessness contributed to the accident. 他的粗心大意，也是造成事故的一个原因。/ Smoking is a major factor contributing to lung cancer. 吸烟是引起肺癌的一个主要因素。</div><br><br>
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control
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>control</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为动词，基本上是属于第一类动词，表示延续的状态，因此可以有一般现在时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Who controls the media in the United States? 谁控制着美国的媒体？采用一般过去时的时候，也是表示过去的延续状态，而不是过去某时发生的变化(“取得控制权，建立控制”)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>By the time that Rome controlled all of the Italian peninsula, Carthage already controlled the North African coast from western Libya to the Strait of Gibraltar. 当罗马控制着整个意大利半岛时，迦太基就已经控制了自利比亚西部至直布罗陀海峡的北非海岸。现在完成时也是表示延续状态。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Who has controlled the Middle East over the course of history? 在历史上，是谁在一直控制着中东？也就是说，control 作为动词，不是“建立控制”这个瞬时动作，而是“一直控制着”这个延续状态。</div><br><br>但是，control 有时候也可以用作第四类动词，表示“控制住”这个瞬时动作。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She controlled her tears. 她忍住了眼泪。/ They were trying to control the epidemic. 他们正在设法控制该流行病。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 如果要突出“建立控制”这个动作，通常的做法是，把 control 变成名词，放在固定词组 get/take/gain control of 之中。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Napoleon III tried to take controlof Mexico. 拿破仑三世企图控制墨西哥。/ We need only a few more shares to take control of the company. 我们只消手里再多一些股份，就能够控制这家公司了。</div>“把……控制住”可以用词组 bring ... under control。相反，可以用 lose control of 表示“失去控制”。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> control 变为名词，不但可以表示瞬时的动作或变化，也可以表示延续的状态(单用动词 control，延续的意义仍然不突出)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Who is in control here? 这里是谁管的？/ They were now in complete control of the straits. 他们当时完全控制着海峡。</div>“保持住对……的控制”是 keep ... under control。也可以用 beyond 来表示“控制不了”的延续状态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The problem is beyond the government's control. 该问题是政府所控制不了的。/ Circumstances beyond our control may lead to delays. 一些我们控制不了的情况，可能会造成耽搁。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 值得注意的是：be in control of something 是“控制着某事物”(主语是人或组织)，但 be in/under the control of somebody 或 be in/under somebody's control 则是“被某人或组织控制着”(主语是事物)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The cotton market is in the control of these firms. (= These firms are in control of the cotton market.)棉花市场是这些公司所控制的。/ The firm remains in the family's control. (= The family remains in control of the firm.)企业仍然在该家族的控制下。类似的情况，还有 in charge of 与 in the charge of，以及 in possession of 与 in the possession of。</div><br><br>be in control 可以是：(1)自我克制。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In spite of all her family problems, she is really in control. 她尽管有种种家庭问题，实际上还是能保持镇定。(2)控制住某单位。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He's reached retiring age, but he's still firmly in control. 他已经到了退休年龄，但仍然紧紧保持着控制权。</div><br><br>
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controversial 与 contentious
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>controversial 与 contentious</b></div>两个都是涉及“争议”的形容词。但是前者主要指事情，后者主要指人。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A contentious man will find every issue controversial. 爱争议的人，遇到什么事情都觉得是个有争议的问题。不过，如果对某个人究竟应该褒还是贬，意见不一致，也可以说这是个有争议的人物(a controversial personage)。</div><br><br>
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convenient
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>convenient</b></div>通常是正面意义的“方便的，便利的”。但是有时候有负面意义，表示“只顾一时的，信口开河的，随心所欲的”(这个负面意义是一般词典上没有的)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We cannot make this minority a convenient excuse to turn our backs. 我们不能拿这个未成年身份当作一个借口，不闻不问。/ Convenient guesses have at times been offered as fact. (The Washington Post, Mar. 20, 2007)一些随心所欲的猜测，往往就拿出来当作事实。/ The timing seems convenient. 时间看来是故意安排得这样凑巧的。convenient 的这个负面含义，并不是近年来才有的，早在 20 世纪初甚至 19 世纪美英两国的英文中就已出现。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... that convenient fallacy which has often served as a temporary shelter for educational practices which were once means to a useful end, but which, mistakenly treated as ends in themselves, grew entrenched before the blunder wasclearly realized. (Music Educators National Conference (U.S.), Yearbook, 1916)……那个信口开河的谬论，常常充当了一道临时的屏障，保护了某些教育上的做法，这些做法，本来曾经是为了达到一个有用的目的而采取的手段，但是人们错误地把这些手段当作目的本身，从而谬误尚未明确认识，就已经积重难返。/ It is a very common and a very convenient fallacy, when abuses take place abroad, to assume that those who are at home have no adequate means of investigating them, and a bold claim to superior local information is frequently made the shield of distant enormities. (The Westminster Review, 1829)每当国外干了坏事，十分常见而且信手拈来的一个谎言，就是说国内的人没有足够的条件，所以对这些坏事难以查明，而且，还常常大言不惭地声称当地的消息更为可靠，以此来掩盖远方的胡作非为。</div><br><br>有时候 convenient 还有一点讽刺的意义，表示“来得正巧的；恐怕另有内幕的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In 1981, his (= Noriega's) mentor and patron, the dictator Omar Torrijos, had been killed in a convenient plane crash—a crash that most in the intelligence community believed had been engineered by Noriega himself. (H. Jay Riker, Casualties of War)1981年，诺列加的导师和保护者奥马尔·托里霍斯恰巧死于一次飞机坠毁事件，这次事件，情报界许多人认为是诺列加自己一手制造的。/ How convenient to ignore the fact that this bubble of prosperity, which has failed the tens of millions losing their homes and jobs, was floated by enormous government indebtedness ... (Robert Scheer, in The Daily Gazette, Jan. 29, 2011, A7)有一个事实是多么随随便便就可以置之不理，那就是：这个貌似繁荣的泡沫，弄得千百万人失去房屋和工作，是被政府的巨额债务吹起来的……</div><br><br>convenient 派生的名词 convenience 用在 marriage of convenience (“利害婚姻”)，也是用其贬义。<br><br>
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convinced
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>convinced</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 不一定是被他人说服(甚至可以根本没有任何人来试图说服)，而是自己出于某一原因而确信。如果是“被他人说服”，那是一种瞬时变化(从“不信”到“信”)。如果是“自己确信”，那就是一种延续状态。瞬时变化不能用一般现在时 (*They convince me that ...)，一般过去时通常也是表示过去的延续状态，较少表示过去发生的瞬时被动变化。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They were all the more convinced that he was guilty. 他们就更加确信他是有罪的了。(延续状态)</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 英语有一个同中文不同的现象，就是喜欢用被动的形式来表示某种心态，仿佛这种心态是被他人影响而造成的。convinced 就是一例，还有 interested、amazed、surprised、bored、scared、frightened 等等。而中国人的心理，则认为这里没有什么被动的意思，对于被动形式，无形中有一种抗拒，因而容易出现 <i>I'm interesting、</i>I'm boring、<i>I'm surprising 之类的错误。即使对于像 convinced 这样的被动形式，虽然不大公会犯 </i>I'm convincing 的错误，也总是觉得“既然没有别人来说服过我，说 I'm convinced 就不妥当”。其实这个被动形式并不真的表示被动。<br><br>
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convince 与 persuade
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>convince 与 persuade</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> convince 与 persuade 在意义上的区别原来比较明确。convince 是说服某人相信某一说法符合事实或某一主张是正确的；persuade 则是说服某人去采取某行动。所以在搭配上是 convince somebody that ...、convince somebody of something、persuade somebody to inf.。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A father may convince his son that his room needs straightening but be unable to persuade him to do anything about it. 一个做父亲的可以说服儿子承认他的房间需要整理一番，但又可能说服不了儿子去动手干起来。但是在现代英语中，这个释义上与搭配上的界限已经模糊，两者已经可以互换：convince somebody to inf.、persuade somebody that ...、persuade somebody of something 的搭配也已经普遍使用。be persuaded that ... 或 be persuaded of something 也可以代替 be convinced that ... 或 be convinced of something 表示“确信”的状态。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Rumsfeld convinced Garner to stay temporarily. (Newsweek, Oct. 9, 2006, p. 35)拉姆斯菲尔德说服了加尔纳暂时留下来。/ I learned a lesson from that, and decided that the best way to convince Kim Jong-il to change his mind on a nuclear weapons program is to have others send the same message. (George W. Bush, Oct. 11, 2006)我由此得到了一个教训，明确了，要说服金正日在核武器计划上改变主意，最好的办法，是由别人来向他发出同样的信息。/ ... and it will require a great deal more evidence than is ever likely to be available, thank God, to persuade me that Tiberius was as blameless a monarch as King George V. (Somerset Maugham, The Moon and Sixpence)……要想劝说我让我把罗马暴君提比略看作是同英王乔治五世一样的一位毫无瑕疵的君主，也需要远比手头掌握的多得多的证据，但是谢天谢地，这种证据看来很难找到。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> convince 是个趋成动词(第三类动词)，是表示经过一段过程后动作完成，达到了目的。如果只是在进行说服工作，对方还没有听从，就不能直接用，但是可以加以“过程化”，说 try to convince。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Before you try to convince anyone else, be sure you are convinced, and if you cannot convince yourself, drop the subject. 你在设法说服任何别人之前，先要确定你自己已经是信服了的，如果你连自己也说服不了，那你就放弃这个话题吧。(这里 try to convince 不能改为 convince，因为说的是开口去说服别人，还谈不上别人听不听，cannot convince 中的 convince 指的才是达到说服目的。)前面 Rumsfeld convinced Garner to stay temporarily. 一例，也可以看出 convince 是达到了说服的目的。至于 persuade，有人主张它只是表示“努力说服”的过程，不包括“说服了”的结果，但是也有人认为 persuade 同 convince 一样，也可以指经过过程之后达到终点的瞬时动作。</div><br><br>
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cook
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>cook</b></div>可以有双宾语(搭配参见 buy 条)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She cooked him dinner. 或 She cooked it/dinner for him. 她为他做了饭。</div><br><br>
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cord 与 chord
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>cord 与 chord</b></div>这两个名词，读音完全相同，但是用法有些差别。<br><br>cord 是“绳索；电线”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>power cord 电源线</div><div class="ex-item">Tie your packages with sturdy cord. 用结实的绳子把你的包裹捆起来。</div><br><br>chord 主要是音乐用语和修辞用语，在音乐上指“和弦”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>major chord大三和弦(如 C-E-G)</div><div class="ex-item">minor chord 小三和弦(如 A-C-E)</div><div class="ex-item">The pianist played the opening chords. 钢琴师弹出了开场的和弦。在修辞上，可以用 chord 表示“心弦”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>That struck a chord with her. 那拨动了她的心弦。/ The speech struck the right chord with the audience. 演讲恰好拨动了观众的心弦。</div><br><br>
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corn
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>corn</b></div>在美国，指的是“玉米”；在英国，指的是麦类，如小麦、大麦、燕麦。英式英语的“玉米”是 maize。<br><br>
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corner
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>corner</b></div>英文 corner 兼有“从内方视角看的角落”和“从外方视角看的拐角”这两个含义，但是前面用的介词有所不同。内方视角通常用 in，外方视角则通常用 on 或 at。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>in the corner of the hall 在大厅的角落</div><div class="ex-item">in the corner of the cupboard 在柜子的角落</div><div class="ex-item">in the top righthand corner of the page 在该页的右上角</div><div class="ex-item">The table is in the corner. 桌子在屋角。/ There was a television set in the corner of the room. 房间的角落有一台电视机。/ on the corner of Josefstrasse and Wilhelmstrasse 在约瑟夫大街和威廉大街相交的角落</div><div class="ex-item">The house is on/at the corner. 房子在街角。/ I'll meet you on/at the corner. 我会在街角同你见面。比较：The café is in/on the corner of the square. 如果用 in，是在广场一个角落的内方；如果用 on，则是在角落的外方。如果是动态的动作目的地，则内方视角用 into。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He drove/forced me into a corner. 他把我逼到墙角。外方视角用 onto。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Exit Downtown Crossing Station onto the corner of Summer Street and Washington Street. 请在闹市过路站出站，前往夏季街和华盛顿街相交的街角。有时候虽然是内方视角，但是涉及的空间是个平面，此时也可以不用 in 而用 on。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He signed his name on the lower right-hand corner of the drawing. 他在画的右下角签上了自己的名字。</div><br><br>
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corporate
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>corporate</b></div>这个词作为形容词，表示“公司的”，用起来同中国人的习惯不一致，往往相当于 of the company 或 of a company。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>make one's way up the corporate ladder 在公司的晋升通道上一步步上升</div><div class="ex-item">a good corporate man 公司的一个好员工</div><div class="ex-item">corporate hospitality 公司免费或低价招待顾客的餐饮或娱乐</div><div class="ex-item">corporate identity 公司形象，公司信誉</div><div class="ex-item">corporate name 公司名称</div><div class="ex-item">corporate jet 公司专用飞机</div><div class="ex-item">corporate structure 公司组织架构</div><div class="ex-item">corporate lawyer 公司法律顾问</div><div class="ex-item">corporate law 公司法</div><div class="ex-item">corporate greed backed by government power 各公司在政府权力撑腰下的贪吝。</div><br><br>甚至形成名词与形容词作用对调的现象。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>corporate America 美国各大公司</div><div class="ex-item">corporate world 世界各大公司</div><div class="ex-item">a corporate misfit 一个不适合于公司工作的人</div><div class="ex-item">A tempting corporate offer lured him to New York. 纽约一家公司答应给他一个很有诱惑力的职务，他就被吸引到那里去了。</div><br><br>派生的副词 corporately 是“作为公司(而非个人)”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I don't think we should involve ourselves corporately. 我觉得我们不应该以公司的名义介入。</div><br><br>
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corps, corpse 与 corpus
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>corps, corpse 与 corpus</b></div>三个名词，都出自拉丁文 corpus，但是经过不同的演变途径，发展到现在，意义已经完全不同。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> corps 的 p 和 s 都不发音(英式英语连连 r 也不发音，美式英语 r 发音；复数与单数同形，但 s 发音)，意思是“队伍，兵团，建制军”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Medical Corps 医疗队</div><div class="ex-item">Marine Corps 海军陆战队</div><div class="ex-item">Peace Corps 和平队。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> corpse 的 p 和 s 都发音(英式英语也是 r 不发音，美式英语 r 发音)，意思从拉丁文 corpus (身体)转义为“尸体”。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> corpus 来自拉丁文(复数亦同拉丁文的 corpora，也可以是 corpuses)，原意是“身体”(body)，但可以转义指解剖学上的“体”或书籍文件的集合体。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>corpus luteum (解剖学)黄体</div><div class="ex-item">corpus striatum (解剖学)纹状体</div><div class="ex-item">corpus callosum (解剖学)胼胝体</div><div class="ex-item">corpus juris 法令大全</div><div class="ex-item">the corpus of Tolstoy's works 托尔斯泰作品大全。</div><br><br>
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cost
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>cost</b></div>作“使(某人)付出(某代价)”解时，过去式与过去分词保持 cost 形式不变。作“估价”解时，过去式与过去分词为 costed。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作“使(某人)付出(某代价)”解时，如果“某人”出现(无论以名词还是代词来表示)，都必须作间接宾语(无 to)放在 cost 之后，直接宾语之前。直接宾语通常指的是“本来拥有或本来可能拥有但作为代价而失去的东西”，而不是损失本身。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How much is it going to cost me? 这回要我付出多大的代价？/ It didn't cost me a penny. 没有费我分文。/ It cost her a lot of time. 费了她许多时间。/ One slip cost him the title. 他偶一不慎，就失去了称号。/ His frankness cost him dear. 他因为坦率吃了大亏。/ Drinking and driving costs lives. 酒后开车会赔上人命。/ Keeping fit costs both time and effort. 锻炼身体是要费时间和精力的。/ It doesn't cost anything to be polite. 以礼待人并不需要付出什么代价。/ It must have cost him to say sorry. 他表示道歉一定是很勉强的。</div><br><br>如果失去的东西有形容词性物主代词如 my、your 等，间接宾语仍然可以保留 me、you，不嫌重复。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A single error here could cost you your life. 在这里稍有不慎，你就会丢掉性命。/ It cost him his job. 这件事使他丢了饭碗。/ Had he not been assassinated, Long might have made an independent run for president in 1936, taking enough Democratic votes to cost Roosevelt his re-election. (Froma Harrop, in The Daily Gazette, Jan. 16, 2009, A7)朗格要不是被刺杀，他本来会在 1936 年独立竞选总统，从民主党那里拉去的选票足以使得罗斯福无法连任。</div><br><br>但是，直接宾语有时候也可以指损失本身。就是说，不是本来拥有或可能拥有的好的东西(作为代价而失去)，而是作为代价而新产生的坏的事情。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It cost him a lot of trouble. 这给他造成许多麻烦。(不是“使他失去 trouble”)有时也可以指作为代价而新动用的资源或做出的努力。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I made something that cost me a hundred days' work. 我做了一件费了我 100 个工作日的事情。/ It cost me a lot of tears, courage, strength and faith. 为了这件事，我流了不少眼泪，鼓起了很大勇气，使出了很大力气，发挥了坚定的信念。有时候直接宾语混合包括了原来有的但现在失去的东西和现在临时出现的负面事物。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But it cost me lots of money and enormous stress. 但是这件事费了我不少钱，心情还弄得很紧张。此外，直接宾语也可以既非损失掉的正面事物，也非损失本身，而是与得失有关的角逐。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This may cost them the Senate contest. 他们可能因此而输掉参议院的角逐。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作“估价”解，动词 cost 的用法比较简单，兹不赘述。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He costed the different types of engines. 他对各种引擎的价格做了评估。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> cost 作为名词，这里只举出其惯用词组 at the cost of 的用法。前面在(1)中已经说过，cost 作为及物动词，其直接宾语所指的，在大多数场合，是本来就拥有或可能拥有的正面事物，但偶尔在少数场合也可以是出现的损失。而在 at the cost of 后面，则两种情况出现的频率几乎差不多。先看 at the cost of 后面接上原有的正面事物的例子。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>discipline at the cost of dignity 为了纪律而牺牲尊严</div><div class="ex-item">Security at the cost of freedom? 为了安全而放弃自由？/ The material position of the worker has improved, but at the cost of his social position. 工人的物质状况改善了，但代价是社会地位下降了。/ We hail the courageous sacrifices made by journalists around the world to report the facts, even at the cost of their lives and their freedom. 我们向全世界不惜以付出生命与自由为代价报道事实的记者们做出的勇敢牺牲致敬。/ That means each person in Japan used two hundred disposable chopsticks a year at the cost of two million and four hundred and ten thousand trees. 这就是说，日本每一个人一年用掉了 200 双一次性筷子，其代价就是砍掉了 241 万棵树。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 现在再看 at the cost of 后面接上新产生的负面后果的例子。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>duty at the cost of death 为了尽职而牺牲生命(与 duty at the cost of life 的意义相同)</div><div class="ex-item">public benefit at the cost of private loss 公众得益而私人受损</div><div class="ex-item">Ghana receives US$ 3 billion in remittances, but at the cost of brain drain. 加纳得到 30 亿美元的外汇收入，但却是以人才流失为代价。/ Is it morally acceptable to extend human longevity at the cost of infertility? 以不育为代价来延长人类寿命，在道德上是可以接受的吗？/ The device offers obvious gains in efficiency, but at the cost of distancing us from reality. 这个装置在效率上具有明显的优点，但是代价却是使得我们脱离现实。/ World Trade Organisation members in December reached a compromise agreement that averted a crisis at their Hong Kong meeting, but at the cost of postponing until next year all the most difficult negotiations in the Doha trade round. 世界贸易组织各成员在十二月达成了一项妥协性的协议，避免了香港会议上的危机，但是代价就是把多哈贸易回合所有最困难的谈判推迟到明年。/ Avoiding such a syntactic construction is only possible at the cost of clumsiness and ambiguity. 如果想要避免这种句法结构，就必然要付出佶屈聱牙、意义混淆的代价。/ Furthermore, for two decades Republicans have connived at using the VRA to enhance their congressional strength, at the cost of deepening the polarization and Balkanization of the electorate. (Newsweek, Oct. 10, 2005, p. 70)况且，二十多年来，共和党一直在悄悄利用《投票权法案》来加强自己在国会里的势力，而其代价则是加深了选民的两极化和巴尔干化。</div><br><br>at the cost of 往往用于转义，表示因正而生负，像跷跷板，这边高了，那边就低了。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In fact, his knowledge of such things (= foreign affairs) may be the bestAmerica has had in recent years, but at the cost of near-ignorance of domestic issues. (Tom Clancy, Executive Orders)的确，他对外交事务了如指掌，可能是美国近年来最了不起的，但是他也因此而对国内事务几乎一窍不通。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> at the expense of 与 at the cost of 是同义的，可以互换，它后面接上的名词成分，也是既可以表示正面的事物(可能失去的东西)，也可以表示反面的事物(可能造成的损失)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He wanted to reach the fishing grounds by daybreak, but not at the expense of costly repairs. Or at the expense of his life. 他想赶在拂晓之前到达渔区，但不要因此而付出昂贵的修船费用。也不要因此而送掉性命。(costly repairs 是负面的事物，his life 是正面的事物。)但是，与 at the cost of 相比，at the expense of 后面更多见的是正面的事物。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Friends of the Earth attacked the oil giant Shell which today announced half-year profits of £5.84 billion, saying the profits came at the expense of people and the environment. (Friends of the Earth, Press Release, July 28, 2005)“大地之友”抨击了今天公布半年利润为 58.4 亿英镑的石油巨擘壳牌石油公司，说这些利润是靠牺牲人类和环境得来的。(people 和 environment 都是正面事物)经过转义，还可以表示一正一负、此消彼长关系中的“负”方和“消”方。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>For four decades, at the expense of the Northeast and Midwest, the South and West have taken off as America's fastest-growing areas, buoyed by immigration, lower costs, and recreational opportunities. (U.S. News & World Report, Oct. 2, 2006, p. 49)四十年间，由于移民众多、成本低廉以及消遣娱乐乐方便，南部和西部超过了东北部和中西部而开始成为美国发展最快的地区。</div><br><br>另外，at one's expense 还可以转义修饰某种对某人不利的事物，而这是 at one's cost 所少用的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Les Dean brooded even more about the nasty cracks made at his expense (*at his cost). (Bobette Gugliotta, Pigboat 39)对于人家那些弄弄他的恶意玩笑，雷迪恩更是耿耿于怀。</div><br><br>
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could
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>could</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> can 的过去形式 could 所表示的是过去的能力、可能性，是延续性的，并不交代这个可能性在某一具体场合的发挥。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>By the time she was seven, she could already speak three languages. 到了七岁的时候，她已经能够讲三种语言了。</div><br><br>如果说这个能力在当时特定场合实现了(是瞬时性的，此时中文往往不好说“能够”)，就要用 was able to inf.、managed to inf. 或 succeeded in + -ing 来表示。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They were finally able to (<i>could) expose him. 他们终于揭露了他。/ The fire spread quickly, but luckily everybody was able to (</i>could) escape. 火势蔓延很快，幸而所有人都免遭于难。/ I managed to run (<i>could run) 10 km yesterday in under an hour. 我昨天竟然不到一小时就跑了十公里。/ After six hours' climbing, we succeeded in getting (</i>could get) to the top of the mountain. 经过六小时的攀登，我们到达了山顶。</div><br><br>succeed in + -ing 与 managed to inf. 的区别是：前者通常指比较大的、全面性的事情，后者则通常指比较具体的、经过努力办成了的事情。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He succeeded in reforming the system. 他成功改革了这个制度。/ He managed to unlock the door. 他(设法)打开了房门的锁。 (2) 但是如果实义动词是感觉动词或是精神活动的动词，前面保持 could 仍然可以表示当时特定场合实现了这种感觉或完成了这种精神活动。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I could hear the blackbirds whistling on the edge of the woods. (Alphonse Daudet, The Last Lesson)我听得到画眉鸟在林子边上鸣叫。/ I could see that he'd been running. 我看得出他刚才奔跑过。/ I could understand what he was saying. 我听懂了他正在说的话。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 如果否定在当时特定场合实现某能力(中文“没有能够”)，则说法同否定当时有此能力状态一样可以用 could not 或其缩写 couldn't。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I managed to find the street, but I couldn't find her house. 我已经找到了那条街，但还是找不到她的那栋房子。/ However, the investigation team found the ill-fated aircraft flew a wrong route at the end of the mission but the pilots did not send an emergency call, implying they could not recognize their mishap because of vertigo. 但是，调查组发现，该失事飞机在飞行任务快结束时飞了一条错误的航道，而驾驶员们并没有发出紧急呼救，这说明了他们因为眩晕而没有能够辨认出自己大难临头。</div><br><br>这个否定，可以包括字面上不否定而事实上的否定。例如 before 从句可以表示否定意义(参见 before 条之(3))，此时从句中的 could 也可以代替 was able to 或 managed to。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This document (declaring Louis Napoleon Bonaparte attainted of high treason) was not signed, as the judges desired new instructions from the Assembly; and before they could be obtained a body of troops entered the hall, seized the papers, and dispersed the members. (Edward Roth, Life of Napoleon III, Emperor of the French)这份(宣告路易·拿破仑·波拿巴犯了叛国罪的)文件，由于法官们希望得到国民议会的新指示，所以没有签署；而指示还没有传达到，就有一批军队进入了大厅，抢走了文件，驱散了议员们。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> could + inf. 与 could have + pp. 的区别是：could + inf. 是从当时的角度对能力或可能性的叙述(不交代事实发生了没有)。而 could have + pp. 则是从事后的角度追述当时“本来”可能或可以如何(往往是事实上并非如此)。如 The war could be avoided. 是叙述当时战争是有可能防止的，至于后来事实上防止了没有，并不交代。The war could have been avoided. 是当时战争本来有可能防止，但事实上还是爆发了。事后回顾，审视当时各种情况，认为本来不至于爆发，只是处理不当，可以防止的没有防止。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>As she lay in her bedroom she reflected on the terrible mathematical doubt that increasingly haunted her: whether the Lord calculated charity by what one had given or by what one could have afforded to give. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman)她在卧室里躺着，一个可怕的数学问题一直萦绕在她心头，使她不得安宁：上帝是怎样计算施舍的呢？是根据一个人已经拿出的量计算呢，还是根据一个人按能力应当拿出的量计算呢？(这里 one could have afforded to give 暗示“按能力应当拿出但是却没有拿出”。)</div>不过，could have + pp. 也并不一定是从事后的角度追述过去“本来可能如何”，它也可以是对未来的一个现在否定了的可能性从另外一个假设来加以描述。例如某个人原先打算竞选，但是决定放弃，他说：I could have won. (我本来会赢的。)说话时选举尚未举行，win 应该是属于将来领域的事，但现在已经决定了不可能，只是从另外一个假设(“没有放弃”)来加以描述，所以仍然用 could have + pp. 的时态。如果说 I can win. 或 I could win. 那就是的确没有放弃，坚持竞选，才能这样说。<br><br>此外，could have + pp. 也可以用来作为假想的比喻，描述过去某个情景。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You could have heard a pin drop. 当时静寂到连一根针掉地上都可以听见。/ You could have knocked me down with a feather. (我当时惊愕得不得了了，)你拿一根羽毛就能把我推倒。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 但是 could have + pp. 并不一定是指当时本来可能或可以如何而事实并非如此，它在疑问句中也可以代替 might have + pp. 问从现在看有没有可能过去如何。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Could the Dark Ages have been triggered by a natural disaster? 黑暗时代有没有可能是一次天灾引起的？如果是陈述句，就说：The Dark Ages might have been triggered by a natural disaster. 此时无论是 could have + pp. 还是 might have + pp.，都没有与过去事实违反的意义。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> could 的否定形式 couldn't 与 more 或形容词或副词的比较级连用，可以表示“无以复加”的意思，此时否定与比较都失去了各自原有的意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I couldn't agree more. 我完全同意。/ I couldn't ask for more. 我满意极了。/ They couldn't be happier. 他们非常幸福。/ He couldn't have treated us more kindly. 他对我们再好不过了。/ In all, there could not be a worse time for investors to pour money into agricultural commodities, ... (U.S. News & World Report, May 19, 2008, p. 36)总的来说，投资者把钱投进农产品的时候是再坏不过了，……此时往往省略主语，如说 Couldn't be better.，意思是“好极了”。</div><br><br>反之，could 如果没有 not 而与比较级连用，则表示“不够”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The soup could have been hotter. 汤不够热。/ You could have been a little bit tidier. 你那时候不够整洁。</div><br><br>另一方面，couldn't 与 less 连用，则表示“丝毫也不”(直译是“少到无以复加”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I couldn't care less. 我才不管呢。</div><br><br>但是要注意，用“couldn't + 比较级”来表示“无以复加”时，对主语和形容词要有所选择。主语代表的人或事物，应该是可以在这个形容词的性质范围内高低移动的。有些人，甚至英语为母语的人，片面理解“couldn't + 比较级 = 最高级”，写出了同原意相反的英文，弄巧成拙。如英国有一则化妆品广告：These cosmestics couldn't be a better collection to slip into your holiday packing. 本来原意是“这些化妆品是一套最适宜于装进您的度假行李的必备品”，结果，“最适宜”变成了“不可能比别的好”。又如 Our candidate is first-class and couldn't be a better man to elect. 原意是“我们的候选人是顶呱呱的，选他最合适不过了”，但结果成了“我们的候选人是顶呱呱的，不可能是比别人更加合适的当选人”。究其出错的原因，就是 these cosmetics 和 our candidate 都是已经固定了的人和事物，内涵不变，如果做比较，就只能对外同其他人或事物做比较。所以用这样的表达方式时，主语往往是个笼统可变的概念。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The timing couldn't be better. 时间安排得巧妙极了。或者是谓语所表示的是主语在某一特殊场合的特殊行为，而非本质固定的性质。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Icouldn't care less. 我(现在这一次)才不管呢。</div><br><br>也就是说，如果主语代表的人或事物，不是本身可以在这个形容词的性质范围内高低移动的，而是对外同另一人或事物相对比的，则“couldn't + 比较级”就保持字面上“不可能(比另一人或事物)更如何如何”的意义。例如美国前总统奥巴马推动医疗制度改革，要加强政府的作用，有人认为政府管医疗只会搞得更糟，但也有人认为不见得会比私营医疗保险企业更糟。一篇文章的标题是：Health Care: Government Couldn't Do Worse (Richard Cohen, in The Daily Gazette, July 14, 2009, A5)乍一看来，意思可能是“政府一直管医疗，现在搞得糟糕到无以复加”(政府本身内部现在与过去去比)，也可能是“政府过去一直不管医疗，如果现在管，不会比私营搞得更糟”(政府与私营两个本身内部假定不变的实体互相做外部的比较)。这就需要诉诸事实上的知识。客观事实是：政府迄今为止没有管过医疗保险，一直是私营企业经营的，所以谈不上“政府过去搞得如何”和“政府今后会搞得如何”的比较。所比较的是政府为一方与私营企业为另一方。因此，这个标题的意思是“医疗事业由政府来管不会搞得更糟”。<br><br>顺便补充一句：couldn't care less 这个习语，后来 not 有时候脱落，成了 could care less，但意思不变，仍然是“管不了那么多”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They're not her children. She could care less (= couldn't care less). 他们不是她的孩子。她才管不着呢。</div><br><br>因此，Oil business couldn't be better. 应该理解为“石油业的状况现在(与别的时候相比)好极了”。也就是说，oil business 应该被理解为一个“内部变量”。但是如果 oil business 被理解为一个“外部比较”的内部固定实体，同其他行业比较，这句话也可以理解为“石油业不可能比别的行业更被看好”。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> could 如果结合比较级但是肯定而非否定，可以表示“本来可能更加如何”，亦即“现状已经算不太如何了”。例如一篇综述经济不景气当中各个报业公司财务情况的文章，大标题就是 It Could Be Worse，然后副标题是 Although not nearly as profitable as in the past, the newspaper industry is still making money (报业的利润尽管远不如过去，但仍然赚钱)。文章最后的结论是：Overall, the beleaguered newspaper industry's financial health has been weakened but remains healthy by most measures. In this environment, that is an achievement. (总的来说，陷于困境的报业，财务上的健康状况削弱了，但是就大多数指标来说仍然是健康的。在这样的环境下，这是一项成就了。)大标题可以译成“还算不错”。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> Could I call you? 是不愿意即时多谈，建议晚些时候通电话再谈。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I can't talk to you right now. Could I call you? 我现在不能同您谈。我回头给您打电话怎么样？这句话也可以用于打算加深关系，问对方可否互通电话(可以用 can 或 may 代替 could)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>— I had a marvelous time. — Could I call you? — Sure. —我过得很棒。—我能给你打电话吗？—可以。</div><br><br>
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counsel 与 council
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>counsel 与 council</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 两者发音相同，但意义有区别。前者是“咨询，劝告，献策”；后者是“议事机构，地方议会”。有趣的是：这两个不同的英文名词，都源自拉丁文的 consiliu，唯有到了英文，才在书写上发生了差别。counsel 还可以指人，是诉讼中的一方的律师或法律顾问，此时它的复数形式与单数相同(但是复数形式只用来指诉讼一方的律师团多名成员)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The counsel were able to agree. 律师们达成了一致意见。</div><br><br>但是，作“咨询，劝告，献策”解时，可以是不可数名词或可数名词，作为可数名词时复数加 s。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>More moderate counsels prevailed. 更为温和的意见占了上风。此外，美国遇到有涉及政府要员的重大案件(例如克林顿总统的性丑闻)，往往指派一名“独立稽查员”(independent counsel)负责调查，此时 counsel 就是单独一个人，如果是复数，要加 s。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 从 council 派生的 councillor (美式英语是 councilor)，是 council 的成员。要注意的是：council 如果前面还有形容词，这个形容词可以直接搬到 councillor 前面。如香港特别行政区的立法会，英文叫作 Legislative Council，它的议员，就叫作 Legislative Councillor，不必啰里啰唆叫 Member of the Legislative Council，更不要叫 Councillor of the Legislative Council。有关这个语言形式问题，请参见 gold medalist 条。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> councillor 有一个容易混淆的同音词 counsellor (美式英语是 counselor)，指的是在专业上提供咨询意见的顾问人员，而不是某个 council 的议员。外交使馆的“参赞”，也不是某个 council 的成员，而是使节的参谋人员，所以不叫 councillor，而叫 counsellor，尽管发音是一样的。<br><br>
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counterpart
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>counterpart</b></div>指另外一方对等的人或物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Canada's drug industry is dwarfed by its U.S. counterpart. 加拿大的制药工业，同美国的相比，犹如小巫见大巫。/ The U.S. Secretary of State paid a visit to her British counterpart. 美国国务卿拜访了英国外交大臣。/ He compared British teenagers with their American counterparts. 他把英国的十几岁少年同美国的做了比较。/ Older British citizens are healthier than their U.S. counterparts, despite the fact that the U.S. spends twice as much on health care per person annually. 尽管美国每年平均花在每人身上的医疗费用是英国的两倍，但是英国老人的健康状况比美国老人的好。/ This literary genre has its counterpart in painting. 这种文学体裁，在绘画中也有与之相当的。</div><br><br>
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country
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>country</b></div>如果 country 第一次出现时就带定冠词 the，指的就是“乡下，农村”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Some time in the country would be good for her. 在乡下待一段时间对她有好处。此外，country 作为名词修饰名词，也有“乡下”的意义。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>schools in country areas 乡村地区的学校</div><div class="ex-item">a country boy 一个乡下男孩。</div><br><br>
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country, nation 与 state
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>country, nation 与 state</b></div>在中文中都是“国家”，但英语中有所区别：country 指的主要自然地理意义上的；nation 指的主要人文、民族意义上的；state 则着重政治方面的。<br><br>
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couple
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>couple</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 后面的可数名词应该用 of 引入，但是美式英语仿效 dozen，常常略去 of。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a couple dollars 两三美元</div><div class="ex-item">a couple months 两三个月</div><div class="ex-item">... Mr. Shaw himselfstill operated a couple wagons for hire ... (Garrison Keillor, Lake Wobegon Days)……萧先生仍然经营几辆大车……这是不规范的。不过，如果作为数量比较的差额，就不用 of。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Bring a couple more chairs. 多拿几张椅子来。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> couple 指一对夫妻时，代词应该用 they、them、their 之类，不能用 it。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The couple will spend their (*its) honeymoon in the Bahamas. 这对新婚夫妇将到巴哈马群岛去度蜜月。作主语时，谓语动词通常要用复数。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The couple remain friends and share custody of their four children. (People, May 10, 1982)他们两人还是朋友，共享对四个孩子的抚养权。/ The couple were married on April 21. (Current Biography, March 1966)他们这一对是 4 月 21 日结的婚。但如果一对夫妻看作一个整体，也可以用单数。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The couple has three children. (Current Biography, February 1967)这对夫妻有三个孩子。</div><br><br>
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court
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>court</b></div>这个名词，可以指“宫廷；法庭，法院，”也可以指“运动场，球场”。作“运动场，球场”解时，可以指比赛双方场地共同组成的赛场。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a tennis court 网球场</div><div class="ex-item">a badminton court 羽毛球场。但是也可以专指比赛一方的场地。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The ball is in his court. 球现在在他的场地上。转义是：问题要由他来解决。有时候，说了 court，甚至可以不明说 ball 也还仍然有“球”的意思。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But what happened yesterday threw it back into his court. 但是昨天发生的事，又把皮球踢到了他那里去了。</div><br><br>
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courtesy
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>courtesy</b></div>原意是“礼貌，殷勤”。许多印刷的图片往往带有 (by) courtesy of 的字样，表示“蒙(版权所有者的)许可在此转载”。但是这个用法也有转义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The air was fresh, courtesy of three holes in the roof. 多亏了屋顶上的三个洞，空气是新鲜的。/ As millions will have seen, by courtesy of the slow motion re-runs, the referee made a mistake. 靠慢镜头重放录像，千百万人都可以看见，是裁判弄错了。</div><br><br>courtesy 的意义和用法，可以扩大到“负责接待；护送，保护”，这是一般词典上没有的 (courtesy of 前面不必用 by，本身成了个介词短语)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He had actually visited the enemy beach in Normandy, courtesy of British commandos. 他曾经在英国特攻队的护送下察看过诺曼底的敌军海滩。</div><br><br>还可以扩大到“拜……之赐”或“托……之福”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He read all of these novels, courtesy of his father's vast library. 他拜他父亲的大量藏书之赐，看遍了所有这些小说。/ The words "Munich" and "appeasement" have been re-interjected into the 2008 political debate, courtesy of President George W. Bush, who still entertains dreams of a Churchillian legacy. (Newsweek, June 23, 2008, p. 24)多亏了小布什总统仍然在做着继承丘吉尔伟业的梦，“慕尼黑”和“绥靖”这两个词又放进了 2008 年的政治论战之中。/ Nor can the rival Fatah party risk returning to Gaza courtesy of Israel's tanks. (The Economist, Jan. 17, 2009, p. 13)同它(=哈马斯)竞争的法塔赫党，也不能冒风险依靠以色列坦克的保护回到加沙地带。</div><br><br>courtesy of 可以作为一个介词短语，表示“由于”，可以引入正面甚至负面的原因。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Rick lost his job at a transport company recently, courtesy of the recession. (Reader's Digest, August 2010, p. 150)由于经济衰退，里克不久前失去他在一家运输公司的工作。</div><br><br>
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cousin
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>cousin</b></div>这是表示亲戚关系的一个不分男女的名词，可以是男性的“表兄弟”或“堂兄弟”，也可以是女性的“表姐妹”或“堂姐妹”。如果要指明性别，可以加上 male 或 female。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... I am informed that she lodged with a female cousin. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman)我听说她寄住在一个表姐妹家。</div><br><br>everyone and his cousin 是修辞用语，表示“无论任何人”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Today, everyone and his cousin supports the "freedom agenda." (Charles Krauthammer, "From Freedom Agenda to Freedom Doctrine", Nov. 2, 2011)今天，“自由议题”是张三李四全都赞成的。</div><br><br>
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cover
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>cover</b></div>这个动词词义十分广泛复杂。这里只指出两个值得注意之处：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 各种福利保障以及保险行业中，cover (延续状态动词)指的是保障或保险的范围。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The policy covers you against all risks. 保单保证了你的一切风险都得到赔偿。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> cover (瞬间动作动词)常常用于新闻事业，是“报道”的意思，不要误解为“掩盖，隐瞒”(cover up)，反而是“掩盖，隐瞒”的反面，即“报道”。<br><br>
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cow, ox, bull 与 buffalo
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>cow, ox, bull 与 buffalo</b></div>cow 是“母牛”，给人的主要印象是“奶牛”。<br><br>ox 是公牛，给人的主要印象是“强壮力大”，所以有 a blow that would fell an ox (简直可以把牛打翻的一拳)和 as strong as an ox (像公牛那样强壮)的说法。<br><br>bull 也是公牛，给人的主要印象是“鲁莽，野性”，所以有 like a bull in a china shop (如同公牛闯进瓷器店)的说法。股市上相对于“熊市”的“牛市”的“牛”，就是 bull。<br><br>buffalo 则是“水牛”，一般对英美人来说象征意义不大。<br><br>
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crawl
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>crawl</b></div>原意是“爬”(不及物动词，第二类动词，延续动作)，主语当然是指有活动能力的人或物。但是，同 swarm 之类的动词相似，crawl 也可以以“场所”为主语，“爬”的主语用 with 引入，表示该场所到处有许多这些人或物在爬来爬去。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The human body is crawling with microbes. 人体有许多微生物。</div><br><br>
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crazed 与 crazy
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>crazed 与 crazy</b></div>两个形容词都有“疯狂的，疯癫的”或“狂热的”之意。但是：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> crazed 偏重一时由某原因造成的状态，crazy 则偏重状态本身的持续。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>crazed with grief 伤心欲狂</div><div class="ex-item">They were crazed by the famine and pestilence of that last bitter winter. (American Guide Series: Washington)他们由于去年寒冬的饥荒和疫病而心烦意乱。/ You're not crazy and you never were and you're not going to be, unless you keep on making such a commotion about nothing. (Nancy Hale)你并不疯，从来都不，将来都不疯，将来也不会疯，除非你一直这样无事生非。/ ... (she) works fine, but goes crazy if she hears Murdoch's voice—just sweats and trembles all over. (Gerald Beaumont)……她干活干得不错，但是，只要听到默多克的声音，她就发疯，满头大汗，浑身发抖。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 复合词 X-crazed 的 X 是造成 crazed 的原因。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a drug-crazed killer 一个因为服用毒品而变得疯狂的杀手。</div><br><br>X-crazy 的 X 则是 crazy 的对象。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a drug-crazy tramp 一个发狂追求毒品的流浪汉</div><div class="ex-item">The kids were Nintendo-crazy. 孩子们玩任天堂电子游戏玩疯了。</div><br><br>
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credentials
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>credentials</b></div>本来是“委托书，证件”；但是已经转义，可以指“资历”，但不一定是写在纸上的证明。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The candidate seemed to lack the credentials they value. 候选人似乎缺乏他们所重视的资历。</div><br><br>
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credible 与 creditable
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>credible 与 creditable</b></div>credible 是“可信的，靠得住的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>credible testimony 可靠的证词。</div><br><br>creditable 则是“声誉好的，值得赞扬的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>creditable behaviour 良好的行为表现。</div><br><br>
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credit
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>credit</b></div>这个单词，可以是名词，也可以是动词，意义和用法都比较复杂。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 在金融上，credit 是“贷方”，与“借方”相对。be in credit 是“账上有余款”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has $500 to his credit. 他账上有 500 美元的余额。/ He entered/placed a sum to somebody's credit. 他将一笔款项记入某人的贷方。总之，credit 是某人正面的资产而不是负面的债务。</div><br><br>作为动词，credit 作“记入贷方”解，具体的搭配，可以是 credit somebody/somebody's account with a sum 或是 credit a sum to somebody's account。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>$2,000 will be credited to your account.</div><div class="ex-item">We will credit your account with $2,000. 2,000 美元将记入阁下账户。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 某人在金融活动中，即使账上没有余款，但凭他自己过去一段时间形成的信誉，也可以提前使用日后才会得到的钱。因此，credit 的意义就扩大，连信誉（即“信用”）也包括在内。美国许多推销信用卡的广告就有：Bad credit? No matter. (信用不佳吗？没关系。) 从而 credit 也表示“赊账”。give/allow/grant credit 或 sell on credit 是“赊售”；give credit to somebody 是“向某人赊售”；buy on credit 是“赊购”。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 由此引申，在金融领域之外，某人的有利资源，无论有形无形，也是 credit。但这个 credit 一般不是原先固定拥有的资源，而是当前发生变化而增添的资源（这与(1)中 credit 的金融意义是一致的）。如果谈的是精神领域，往往就是新增添的声誉、功劳。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I can't take all the credit for it. 这件事不全是我的功劳。/ We should give her credit for what she has achieved. 她做出的成绩，我们应该记她一功。/ Much of the credit for this upgrading of human rights should be given/go to nongovernmental organizations. 人权这次得到提升，很大部分功劳应该归于非政府组织。/ The Smiths have 127 publications to their credit. 史密斯夫妇发表了 127 部著作。/ To its credit, the World Bank in particular has supported more government-reform projects in recent years. 说句公道话，世界银行近年来支持的政府改革项目有所增加。/ But credit where credit is due, he single-handedly built Stanford Enterprises into one of the biggest privately held conglomerates in the world. 但是，公道话该说还是要说，他单枪匹马把斯坦福公司建设成了世界上最大的私有企业集团之一。/ The bank could then claim a lot of credit if things go well and just blame the IMF if the economy collapses. 如果事情进行得顺利，银行就可以把诸多功劳归于自己，而如果经济崩溃，就可以责怪国际货币基金组织。/ He is a credit to his family. 他替家里争气。/ I think that children never give parents enough credit. 我觉得孩子对父母的辛劳总是认识不足。/ Do you give Republican credit for anything? (U.S. News & World Report, May 19, 2008, p. 18) 你觉得共和党人也有点功劳吗？/ President Bush wants credit for steering the economy out of recession. 布什总统想得到引导经济脱离衰退的功劳。</div><br><br>credit 的意义之广，甚至可以指“将功赎罪”中的“功”或者“减轻刑罚”的微小理由。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Al-Arian, 48, was sentenced to four years and nine months, but he will get credit for the three years and three months he has already served while being held before and after his trial. 48 岁的阿尔-阿里安被判处四年零九个月有期徒刑，但是他在审判前后被羁押的三年零三个月将计算在内。</div><br><br>do credit to somebody (也可以 do somebody credit) 是“给某人增光”（但其主语往往是该人本人自己的言行，不是他人的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The teacher's fairness to all her students does her credit. 老师对所有学生一视同仁，这给她增了光。（这里后面的 her 是间接宾语。）</div>credit 的意义转到抽象的心灵领域，可以表示“好事，有利方面，增加好感”；它的反面就是 debit（“坏事，不利，增加恶感”）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>And let us start happily, with the credit side of the account... But we must now pass to the debit side of the relationship. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 让我们先高兴点，说正面的东西……现在，让我们回过头来谈谈两人关系中负面的东西。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> credit 作为及物动词（属第一类及第四类动词），如果直接宾语是人，就是“（把某事）归功于（某人），（把某言行）归于（某人）”（“某事”如果说出，可以用 with 引入）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Survival of the fittest. This phrase and concept were originated not by Charles Darwin, to whom they are generally attributed, but by Herbert Spencer, from whom Darwin took them up, not omitting to credit him. 适者生存。这句话和这个思想，尽管通常认为首创者是达尔文，但其实是斯宾塞，达尔文是从斯宾塞那里拿过来的，而且没有忽略说明出处。/ Submit a quote you like and its source at Quote. Newsweek.com. Next week, we'll print our favorite and credit the reader who sent it. 您如果看到有您喜欢的引言，请连同出处投递至 Quote.Newsweek.com。本刊将在下周刊登出选中的引言，并登出投递者姓名。/ I credit him with kindness. 我觉得他为人和善。/ He is credited with the victory. (= The victory is credited to him.) 胜利的功劳归了他。/ Experts credit former president (= Carter) with highlighting human rights. 专家们认为前总统在突出人权方面是有功的。也可以用 credit X to Y (把 X 归功于 Y)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He credits his career path to his father's love of the challenge of cooking over fire. 他把自己事业的历程，归功于他父亲喜欢不嫌麻烦在火上烧烤食品。</div><br><br>但是 credit 也可以以物为直接宾语，不再附加其他成分，意思是“表明某物出自何人之手”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The editor chose not to credit the photo out of concern for the photographer's safety. 编者由于担心摄影者的安全，没有刊登这幅照片摄影者的姓名。</div><br><br>take credit 是“出面，署名”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Companies have even hired writers to craft medical articles and then invited academic researchers to take credit as "author." (Reader's Digest, December 2010-January 2011, p. 25) 一些公司甚至雇用作者炮制医学论文，然后请一些学术研究人员署名充当“作者”。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> credit 作为及物动词，也可以有简单的相当于 believe 的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It seems hard to credit in Britain of all places, but apparently there has just not been enough rain and we are heading for a drought. (BBC, Mar. 17, 2006) 偏偏在英国出现这样的事，似乎难以相信，但是显然前一阵下雨量不够，我们将要遇到旱灾。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 由于 credit 作为动词有“（把某事）归功于（某人）”的意思，因而电影和电视剧的“片头”（或“片尾”）的一大串导演、演员、工作人员名单，就叫作 credits。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 在学校修的“学分”也叫 credit (可数名词)。如“英语修了 4 个学分”就是 get four credits for English。<br><br>
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crime 与 sin
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>crime 与 sin</b></div>crime 指尘世法律上的犯罪，sin 则指宗教上、道德上的犯罪或“罪愆”。sinner 是宗教意义上的“罪人”（有说法是人人都是“罪人”），criminal 则是法律意义上的“罪犯”（只有很少数人是“罪犯”）。<br><br>
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critical
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>critical</b></div>这个形容词有两个根本不同的词义：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> “持否定批评的态度”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He watched us with a critical eye. 他以批评的目光注视着我们。批评的对象，用 of 引入。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She is terribly critical of government policy. 她对政府的政策持激烈的批评态度。</div><br><br>但是，有时候，同中文一样，“批评”只是一般的“评论分析”，没有“指责”的含义（尤其是文艺批评）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The film enjoyed a critical success. 该影片在批评界大获好评。/ He received critical acclaim for his latest work. 他的近作得到批评界的喝彩。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> “至关重要的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The problem of food supplies is bound to be critical. 粮食供应的问题一定会变得十分重要。对谁重要，用 to 引入。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The twelve weeks of summer were critical to most of the restaurants. 夏季的 12 个星期，对于大多数饭馆来说，是至关重要的。</div><br><br>此外，critical 在物理学和化学上是“临界的”之意。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>critical temperature 临界温度。critical 单独用，可以表示“危急的”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a critical situation 危急的局面。</div><br><br>而且 critical 还可以用来指好事“重要的”关头。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—When is the wedding? —This Friday afternoon. —Oh my goodness. I'm sorry to be asking a favor at such a critical time. —你什么时候举行婚礼？—这个星期五下午。—哎呀呀。这个节骨眼上我找你帮忙办事，真对不起。</div><br><br>
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criticism of
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>criticism of</b></div>通常，由动词派生出的名词，后面的 of 介词短语引入的是动作的被动对象。这一点，中国人一般是习惯的，如 Saddam's treatment of the Shiites (萨达姆对待什叶派的做法)。但是 criticism 这个名词给人的第一个印象，不是动作，而是其内容，因而后面的 of 介词短语容易给人以主动施动者而非被动对象的感觉。其实，criticism of 后面的人或物通常是被批评的对象。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The issue has prompted sharp criticism of the president's proposals. 这个问题已经引起了对总统各项建议的尖锐批评。</div><br><br>
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criticism 与 critique
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>criticism 与 critique</b></div>criticism 同中文的“批评”基本上相等，有两个略微不同的含义，一个是负面的“指出其错误”，一个是中性的“评论其优点和缺点”（例如“文艺批评”）。critique 则是一个学术用语，是中性的，指对某一题目进行深入分析的学术著作、文章 (criticism 不是著作或文章，只是批评意见)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Critique of Political Economy 《政治经济学批判》</div><div class="ex-item">Critique of Pure Reason 《纯粹理性批判》。这里中文的“批判”，不是加以否定。</div><br><br>但是 critique 有时候也用来代替 criticism，表示负面的“批判”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Kant's critique of resistance is also misunderstood if one uses it to attack the legitimacy of civil disobedience. (Paul Guyer, The Cambridge Companion to Kant) 如果有谁用康德对抗的批判来攻击公民不服从的合法性，那也是对这种批判的误解。</div><br><br>critique 主要作为名词，但是也可以作为及物动词，词义同 criticize 有些区别。criticize 多是负面的“指出其错误”，critique 则倾向于“评论”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was standing in the lobby, critiquing whatever sports event had been on the tube that evening. 他站在门廊那里，评论着当天晚上电视里的那些体育盛事。</div><br><br>
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crocodile
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>crocodile</b></div><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>After while, crocodile. 回头见。参见 alligator 条。</div><br><br>
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crop
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>crop</b></div>作为名词，本来意义是“庄稼；收获；一次的收获量”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>industrial crops 经济作物</div><div class="ex-item">standing/growing crops 田间作物，青苗</div><div class="ex-item">gather/harvest a crop 收割作物</div><div class="ex-item">a rich/good crop 丰收</div><div class="ex-item">a bad/poor crop 歉收。</div><br><br>但是，从“一次的收获”转义，可以表示一批批陆续出现的人或物当中的一批。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a crop of new writers 一批新作家</div><div class="ex-item">the current crop of dropouts 当前的一批退学学生</div><div class="ex-item">a new crop of books 一批新书</div><div class="ex-item">The article is a crop of lies. 这篇文章满纸谎言。</div><br><br>
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crowd
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>crowd</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 同 crowd 并用的动词，要看它是作为一个整体还是作为一个个的个体而采取复数或单数形式。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The crowd was dispersed. 人群被驱散了。（是整群人而不是一个个的个人被驱散）/ The crowd were waving their flags. 人群挥舞着旗帜。（是一个个的个人）</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作为及物动词，crowd 的直接宾语通常是“空间”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Thousands of people crowded the narrow streets. 成千上万的人挤满了街道。但是直接宾语也可以是人（但通常采用被动语态，直接宾语转为主语），“空间”用介词 into 引入。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Guests were crowded into the few remaining rooms. 客人们挤在少数几个剩下的房间里。</div><br><br>
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crowd behavio(u)r
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>crowd behavio(u)r</b></div>参见 herd behavio(u)r 条。<br><br>
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crowded 与 packed
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>crowded 与 packed</b></div>这两个由动词过去分词转变成的形容词，都是“拥挤的”之意，通常可以互换，但也有细微的差别。crowded 给人以“人多乱哄哄（而且不规则地动来动去）”的印象；packed 则来自动词 pack (装载)，较多给人以“塞满的，填充满载的”（比较静止有序）的印象，例如惯用词组 play to packed houses (演出全场爆满)，表示所有座位都坐满了人（仍然是静止有序的，不是人山人海乱成一团的），此处的 packed 就不可以用 crowded 来代替。此外，crowded 主要指人多，如果不是人而是物，即使是移动着的物，也用 packed 而不用 crowded。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Route 1 is packed (*crowded) every morning with rush-hour traffic. 一号公路每天早上高峰时间都挤满了车辆。</div><br><br>
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cure of 与 cure to (cure for)
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>cure of 与 cure to (cure for)</b></div>参见 solution 条。<br><br>
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curious
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>curious</b></div>这个形容词，指人时意思是“好奇的，有好奇心的”，指事物时意思是“奇怪的”。但是指人时有时候也会产生歧义，a curious person 可能是“一个好奇的人”，也可能是“一个奇怪的人”。<br><br>
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curtain
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>curtain</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作“窗帘”解时，前面用动词 draw (大多数场合意思是“关上”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... whose (= the windows') murrey curtains are still not drawn, ... (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) ……窗户上挂着的紫红色窗帘尚未拉上，……但是 draw 也可以是“拉开”，依上下文和语境而定。有时候为了说清楚是“拉开”，可以用 draw back/aside/apart。表示“关上”的动词还有 pull 和 close；表示“拉开”的还有 pull back 和 open。上述用法，curtain 是单数；如果 curtain 是复数，表示相对称的两块窗帘，“关上”时还可以说 pull/draw together。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He pulled/drew the thick curtains together, leaving just a narrow gap. 他把厚厚的窗帘拉上，当中只留出窄窄的一道缝。把两块相对称的窗帘“拉开”，还可以用动词 part 或 pull aside。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He crossed to the window of the sitting-room and parted the curtains. 他走到客厅的窗口旁，把窗帘两边分开。/ He moved to the window and pulled the curtains aside. 他走到窗前，掀开帘子。如果 curtain 是上下拉的，“拉起”是 raise/lift the curtain；“放下”是 lower the curtain 或 pull/draw down the curtain。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 单数的 curtain 除了是“窗帘”之外，还可以是舞台的“幕布”。“幕启”和“幕落”的不及物动词分别是 rise 和 fall；动作发生时的场景用 on 引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The curtain rises on a drawing room. 幕启时是一个会客室。/ The curtain falls on the hero lying on his deathbed. 幕落时主角躺在临终的病床上。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> draw the curtain 是“拉上窗帘”，但 draw a curtain over 却是“让（某事）告一段落”（落下帷幕）。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> curtain 还可以指谈话双方都已经知道的某一表演或会议的开幕时间。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Tonight's curtain is at 7:00. 今晚 7 点整开幕。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 复数形式 curtains 还可以表示“完蛋”甚至死亡。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If you fail this time, it will be curtains for you. 你这一次如果失败，就是没戏了。</div><br><br>
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customer, client, guest 与 patron
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>customer, client, guest 与 patron</b></div>通常一家商店或超市的顾客叫作 customer。一个提供脑力服务的人（如律师、会计师）的顾客叫作 client。旅馆的客人叫作 guest。餐饮业的顾客叫作 patron；到剧院观看演出的观众个人也叫作 patron (集体不分听众还是观众都叫作 audience)；到图书馆看书、借书（包括其他活动）的读者个人也同样叫作 patron；到多家商店连成一片的商业中心（美国称 mall）逛商店或吃饭（不是专门上哪一家商店）的顾客也称 patron。但是 patron 也有文化慈善机构赞助人的意思。值得注意的是：在美国，找政府机关办事的老百姓个人也叫 customer 或 client，参见 client 条。<br><br>
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custom 与 habit
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>custom 与 habit</b></div>custom 更多指整个社会的风俗习惯，habit 则更多指个人的习惯。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>These tribes have strange customs. 这些部落有一些奇怪的风俗习惯。/ Nail-biting is one of her bad habits. 爱咬手指甲，是她的一个坏习惯。但是如果是生活规律，个人的也可以叫作 custom。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has a custom of getting up early and going for a walk. 他习惯早起散步。</div><br><br>
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cut my hair
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>cut my hair</b></div>中文往往把别人为自己做的事同自己亲自做的事不加区别，例如：“我去修车”其实是去找别人为自己修车。但是在英语中，这个区别有时候比较严格，如“我去剪发”英文就不习惯说 *I'm going to cut my hair. 而习惯说 I'm going to have my hair cut. D d
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'd
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>'d</b></div>附在作主语的人称代词后面，可以代替 would 或 had。究竟是代替哪一个，如果后面是个动词不定式，'d 代替的就是 would，例如 I'd say = I would say；如果后面是个动词过去分词，'d 代替的就是 had，例如 I'd said = I had said。但是，有部分动词（尤其是以 -t 结尾的），原形（不定式）和过去式及过去分词，都是同形的。此时就要注意上下文，加以判别，例如 I'd put 既可以是 I would put，也可以是 I had put。<br><br>
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damage
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>damage</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为名词，作“损害”解时，是不可数的，只能是单数，可以不加冠词或加定冠词 the，但不能加不定冠词 a。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The earthquake caused damage estimated at 300 million dollars. 地震造成的损失估计为 3 亿美元。/ An autopsy showed the damage done to the liver. 尸检显示了肝脏受到的损害。/ Many professional boxers end their careers with brain damage. 许多职业拳击手退出拳坛时都带有脑部损伤。不能说：*The typhoon caused an expensive damage to the city. (应该把 an 去掉)</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作“赔偿”解时，用复数形式 damages，也是不可数的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They were seeking damages stemming from anticompetitive practices. 他们在争取别人因妨碍竞争而应提供的赔偿。/ He was acquitted in court and damages were awarded. 他在法庭上被宣告无罪，而且获得了赔偿。但是 damage 可以用单数形式作表示“赔偿”的定语。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>their damage suits 他们要求赔偿的官司。</div><br><br>由于作“赔偿”解的 damages 虽然复数但不可数，所以它是作为一个内部不分个体的量出现的，因此它前面更多用 much 而少用 many。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How much damages could I ask for if I sue my landlord for not giving me my security deposit back? 如果我控告房东不归还押金，我能够要求多大数额的赔偿？/ The two states have been arguing their respective cases regarding how much damages Kansas is entitled to from Colorado ever since. (Colorado Attorney General John W. Suthers' website, June 11, 2001) 有关堪萨斯州从那时起应从科罗拉多州取得多大数额的赔偿，两个州一直在中述各自的理由。</div><br><br>如果 damages 前面用 many 而不用 much，则意义通常是“各种损害”而不是“赔偿”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The falling of trees caused many damages in the electric system. 树木的倒下，给供电系统造成了多方面的损失。/ There are many damages to a woman after an abortion. 堕胎会对妇女造成多种损伤。</div><br><br>
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dangerous
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>dangerous</b></div>dangerous 是自己会对他人或外界事物造成危害，而不是自己遇到或处于危险之中。抗日战争中，说“平津危急”要说 Beiping and Tianjin are in danger，不能说 *Beiping and Tianjin are dangerous. 如果这样说，就是留在平津有危险。<br><br>
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dare
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>dare</b></div>这个动词有点特别，既可以作为情态助动词，又可以作为实义动词。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为情态助动词，它只有时态变化，没有人称变化（这集中表现为它的现在时第三人称单数不加 -s)，一般不用于肯定句，只用于否定句、准否定句（包括句首有 only 的句子）或疑问句，后面的实义动词用不带 to 的不定式。否定或疑问时不借用助动词 do (does, did)（否定了的是“不敢”，不是“敢不”）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He daren't tell us. 他不敢告诉我们。/ Dare he fight? 他敢打吗？/ How dare you speak to me like that? 你怎么敢这样对我说话？/ We must now doubt what we dared not doubt. 我们从前不敢怀疑的，现在应该该怀疑了。/ He hardly dare ask. 他不怎么敢问。/ I only once dared cross a major road. 我只有一次壮胆穿过了一条主要干道。</div><br><br>I dare say 的语气没有字面上“我胆敢说”这样重，只相当于“我觉得大概是如何”或是带有让步语气的“不错，我承认（，不过……）”。有时 dare say 两个单词可以合成为 daresay，但必须与 I 连用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I dare say it'll rain soon. 我看快要下雨了。/ 英国的车辆是靠左走的。英国人到了靠右走的国家，仍然开车靠左走，被警察拦住，申辩说：But I drive on the left in England. 警察就说：I dare say you do, but we drive on the right here. 您说得不错，但是我们这里是靠右行驶的。（这里的 dare 已经完全没有“胆敢”的意义了）/ ... and if I were determined to get a rich husband, or any husband, I dare say I should adopt it. (Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice) ……我如果决心找个阔丈夫，或者干脆只要随便找个丈夫就算数，我或许会照你的办法去做。（这里的 I dare say 也有让步语气，为后面语气转折埋下伏笔。）</div>dare 的一般过去时，是瞬时性质的，在否定句中表示的是过去没有这个胆量而且事实上也没有做这件事情。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He dared not show that he was pleased. 他不敢表现出自己很高兴的样子。（没有这个胆量，而且的确没有这个表现。）</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作为实义动词，dare 可以用于肯定句、否定句及准否定句、疑问句。时态可以是一般现在时或一般过去时。时态是一般过去时的时候，是瞬时性质的，表示的是过去当时有此胆量而且也凭这个胆量把事情做掉了。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You mean they dared to publish that? 他们竟然胆敢发表这东西？（不是指可能性，而是指已经发生的事实）/ My grandmother, Mary Anne, alias Nell Pat, had told me once that she and Bill did not dare (*to) go back because if they did they would be shot. (Andrew M. Greeley, Irish Gold) 我的外祖母玛丽·安妮，又名内尔·帕特，她曾经告诉过我，她和比尔都不敢回去，因为如果回去，就会被枪杀。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> dare 同时作为补助动词或实义动词这种特殊情况，表现为在否定句中它后面的动词不定式不要 to (这是助动词的特点)，但是它还有如下两种情况：(a) 或则本身有变位（尤其是现在时第三人称单数加 -s，这是实义动词的特点）而且否定形式不借用 do not 而直接加上 not (这和动词不定式没有 to 一样是助动词的特点)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Even if he has his own point of view on any issue, he dares not oppose it to the "general opinion", being afraid to lose a feeling of solidarity with the majority. 即使他对某个问题有自己的看法，他也不敢拿出来同“大家的意见”唱反调，生怕会失去同大多数人保持一致的感觉。/《纽约时报》登载过一个消息，说一批原本在美国经营网上赌场的人，为了躲避美国许多州禁止赌博的法律，躲到加拿大的多伦多去开会。该报消息的标题是：An Industry that Dares Not Meet in the Country of Its Best Customers (The New York Times, May 17, 2004) 一个竟然不敢在自己最佳主顾的所在国聚会的行业。</div>(b) 或则本身不变位，否定时或疑问时借用 do (这是实义动词的特点)，但是后面的动词不定式可以没有 to (这是助动词的特点)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I didn't dare send it. 我没敢把它发出去。/ He doesn't dare (to) say anything. 他什么话都不敢说。/ Did he dare (to) criticize my arrangements? 他竟敢批评我的安排吗？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> dare 还有一个搭配用法比较特别，就是倒装句的 don't you dare inf. 表示劝阻，叫人家千万别做某事（这里 dare 也是“非驴非马”，用了 don't，似乎像实义动词，但是 dare 后面的动词不定式没有 to，又像情态补助动词。这里用 dare 并不带有威胁对方的口气，只是强调做此事不妥。如美国总统布什的下属向他说：Don't you dare let Army and Marine Corps tell you they can't do it. (Newsweek, Jan. 8, 2007, p. 27) (您千万别让陆军和海军陆战队告诉您他们干不了。) 美国有一本婚姻指导的小册子，书名叫作 Don't You Dare Get Married Before You Read This (《未看本书切勿结婚》)。<br><br>
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dark eye 与 black eye
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>dark eye 与 black eye</b></div>参见 black 条。<br><br>
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dark 与 darkness
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>dark 与 darkness</b></div>dark 本来是形容词，但也可以作为名词使用，此时它与 darkness 意义差不多，但是用法有些区别：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> dark 偏向于“在黑暗中的消极后果”（还可以转义，表示“不明情况”），darkness 则往往与“同黑暗相对应的行动或事物”相关（转义时，指“黑暗，邪恶”而不指“情况不明”）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The kids are afraid of the dark. 孩子们怕黑。/ They always kept you in the dark (<i>darkness). 他们一直把你蒙在鼓里。/ They're working completely in the dark. 他们完全是在盲目地工作。/ light shining in the darkness (</i>dark) 黑暗中照耀着的亮光</div><div class="ex-item">fly alone in the darkness (*dark) 在黑夜中单机飞行</div><div class="ex-item">the powers of darkness 黑暗势力。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> dark 表示原义与转义，通常都带特定冠词 the (原义用于“一天当中的天黑时”则无冠词)。darkness 表原义时也带特定冠词 the，转义表示“黑暗，邪恶”时则无冠词。此外，dark 通常前面只能放 morning、evening 之类的形容词，很少放表示程度强弱的形容词，而 darkness 则可以（此时无任何冠词）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>before dark 天黑前</div><div class="ex-item">after dark 天黑后</div><div class="ex-item">the morning dark 黎明前的黑暗</div><div class="ex-item">The building was in complete/total darkness. 那栋建筑物一片漆黑。</div><br><br>
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date
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>date</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为名词，固然最主要是表示一个日子，但也可以扩大为一个范围更广的时期。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a coin of the Roman date 罗马时代的硬币</div><div class="ex-item">What's the date of the building? 这幢大楼是什么时候（盖）的？/ Will you be free at some future date? 你将来会有空吗？ (2) 因此，作为动词，date 就既可以表示日子，并且有了更为广阔的用武之地。作为及物动词，它可以指“给某物标明日期”（瞬时动作，第四类动词）。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The letter was dated November 14, 1986. 信上标明的日期是 1986 年 11 月 14 日。也可以指“查明某物的年代”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The specialist can date many rocks. 这专家能鉴定许多岩石的年代。date X to Y 是“追溯 X 的渊源到 Y 处”或“查明 X 的最早年代为 Y”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Archaeologists have dated the fort to the reign of Augustus. 考古学家们鉴定该要塞是奥古斯都都在位时期留下来的。</div><br><br>作为不及物动词，date 如果表示年代起始（通常是延续状态，第一类动词），它的主语（通常是留传至今的古物）既可以放在今天的角度来说，也可以放在古代的角度来说。如果放在今天，后面就用“back to + 古代某时期”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This porcelain vase dates back to the Ming era. 这个瓷瓶是明代出品的。（也可以只说 dates to）如果放在古代，则后面就用“from + 古代某时期”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The monument dates from the 14th century. 纪念碑是 14 世纪的。如果指一封信件的“发出”，可以在地点前加 from，日期前加 on。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The letter dates from London on New Year's Day. 信件是元旦从伦敦发出的。</div><br><br>date 用作这样的不及物动词时，通常不因为主语事物是过去的而用过去时（如果是这样，那就是瞬时动态的第四类动词了）。这是因为所说的并不是过去发生了什么事，而是从现在的观点来看过去——发生的、平列在面前的事件。过去先后发生的事件，现在都好像列成了大事记，成了同时被观察（或处理）的平等项目（此时 date 是个延续静态的第一类动词）。另外一些动词，如 date 前面加上前缀 pre- 的 predate 和 predecease 等，独有这种情况。但是 predate 和 predecease 有时候还可以理解为“过去某时发生”的单纯叙述（第四类动词），用过去时态，而 date 则纯粹是一种从现在角度的主观描绘或说明，不是“发生了”什么。所以 date 单独使用时，通常不用过去时态。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 如果说某物 date 某人，意思是该物显示某人已经很老了（延续状态，第一类动词）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Remembering that song dates you. 你既然还记得那首歌，你年纪也够大的了。/ Gosh, that dates him! 噢，可见他年纪不轻了！</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 如果说某物自己 date，这个 date 是“过时，不时兴”的意思（瞬时变化，第三类或第四类动词）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He's a great fashion designer; his stuff doesn't date. 他是个了不起的时装设计师，他设计的东西不会过时。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> date 无论用作名词还是动词，还有另一个大范围的词义，就是“约会”。名词 date 是可数的一次约会。它和 engagement 与 appointment 有比较大的区别。engagement 的意义很广，“约会”只是其中的一个特殊意义，通常用于很正式的场合。appointment 多用于业务上的（例如医生约定时间诊断病人，机关约定时间接见来访者）。date 则通常只用于私人的约会，而且如果前后文或语境不交代清楚，通常的理解就是男女之间的谈恋爱，所以使用时要十分小心。但是如果前后文和语境间接说明了约会的内容，就没有问题，甚至具有业务性质的约会有时也可以使用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The band was forced to cancel a string of live dates. 乐队不得不取消了一连串的现场表演约定。</div><br><br>
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dead
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>dead</b></div>本来是形容词，但在若干场合可以当作副词使用，表示“完全地，十分地”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>dead ahead 正在前头</div><div class="ex-item">dead certain 确信</div><div class="ex-item">dead drunk 酩酊大醉</div><div class="ex-item">dead easy 易如反掌</div><div class="ex-item">dead right 十分正确</div><div class="ex-item">dead slow 慢吞吞</div><div class="ex-item">dead straight 笔直</div><div class="ex-item">dead sure 很有把握</div><div class="ex-item">dead tired 疲惫不堪</div><div class="ex-item">His parents were dead against the marriage. 他的父母坚决反对这门亲事。</div><br><br>反之，dead 加了后缀 -ly，反而成了个纯粹的形容词，意思是“致人死命的”或是“濒耗精传的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Cyanide is a deadly poison. 氰化物是一种致命的毒药。/ This past August and September were the two deadliest months on record for Iraqis, ... (Newsweek, Oct. 30, 2006, p. 49) 今年八、九两月是有记录以来伊拉克人丧生最多的月份，……</div><br><br>
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dead 与 die
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>dead 与 die</b></div>英语往往以表示状态的 dead 来代替表示变化的 die。如用 He is dead. (他死了。) 代替 He has died. 用 He has been dead for ten years. (他死了十年了。) 代替 He died ten years ago. 用 He was dead on arrival at the hospital. (他送到医院时已经死亡了。) 代替 He had died before arrival at the hospital.但是当句中有关于死亡的时间、地点、情状等附带说明时，不能用 dead，要用 die。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Two of them had died (<i>had been dead) during the rescue. 其中两人在抢救当中死去。累计死亡人数时也应该用动词 die。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the names of 1,622 U.S. soldiers who have died (</i>are dead) in Iraq (The Associated Press, May 24, 2005) 在伊拉克阵亡的 1,622 名美军士兵的名字。</div><br><br>
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deal
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>deal</b></div>a great/good/fair deal (of) 是“许多，大量”；但是 a big deal 却是“大事情，大麻烦”，前面有否定词时就是“没有什么大不了”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She made such a big deal out of choosing a hat. 挑选一顶帽子这样的事，她也弄得如此鸡犬不宁。/ It's no big deal. 没什么了不起。/ What's the big deal? 有什么大不了的？/ She wasn't making a big deal of it. (John Darnton, The Darwin Conspiracy) 她对此并不很在乎。/ To some people, it might not be a big deal. But to seniors, especially with their health care costs, it is a big deal. (The Associated Press, Aug. 23, 2009) 对某些人来说，这并不委紧。但是对老人来说，尤其是牵涉到医疗费用时，问题就大了。</div><br><br>big deal 单独出现，虽然前面没有否定词，但仍然有讥讽的否定意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—I walked sixteen miles yesterday. —Big deal! —我昨天步行了 16 英里。—那又怎样！/ A $5 token of their gratitude, big deal! 拿区区 5 美元来表示谢意，真亏他们做得出来！</div><br><br>a done deal 则是“（已成）定局”。<br><br>a good deal 是“多”；但是 a very good deal 或 a better deal 就不是“很多”和“更多”，而是恢复 deal 的本来意义“交易，协议，待遇，安排”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He got a very good deal when he left the company. 他从公司离职时得到了很好的离职安排。/ They got a very good deal out of the bank. 他们从银行得到了很好的对待。/ You'll get abetter deal if you shop around. 如果你货比三家，就能买得更划算。</div><br><br>
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deal with
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>deal with</b></div>后面是“事情”时，表示“办理，处理”，有延续性，不一定就是“办好了，处理掉了”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I don't know how to deal with this problem. 这个问题我不知道如何处理。/ They can deal with any kind of emergency. 任何紧急情况他们都能应付。/ The Finance Officer deals with all the finances of the university. 财务主任处理大学的全部财务事宜。</div><br><br>后面是“人”时，deal with 表示“应付，打交道”或者有点对立意义的“对付”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I know how to deal with him. 我知道如何对付他。/ I always have to deal with awkward customers. 我老是要跟艰难对付的顾客打交道。/ The judge dealt with her severely. 法官对她很凶。</div><br><br>deal with 的宾语不能是具体物件（而且 deal with 没有处理完成的意义），如果要表示把某物处理掉（又是瞬时动作），无论是削价出售还是对有害废料加以无害处理（瞬时动作），都是 dispose of。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She disposed of her shares three weeks ago. 她三周前把股票处理掉了。/ They had nuclear waste to dispose of. 他们有核废料要处理。如果是无害废料，简单扔掉就用及物动词 junk (也是瞬时动作)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>junk all the old furniture 把旧家具全处理掉。</div><br><br>
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dear
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>dear</b></div>这个形容词的真实意义，并不是通常所理解的“亲爱的”，而是“宝贵的，尊贵的”。在书信与口头称呼中，是对对方表示尊重，通常用这个形容词，只是预先假定对方是值得尊重的，没有任何自己与对方之间的私人感情内容，更谈不上“亲爱的”。<br><br>
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death
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>death</b></div>分别的、不一起发生的用复数；一次的用单数，同一次发生的多起单复数均可。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Reason for their death is known. 他们的死因已经清楚。（一起发生，reason 单数）/ Drug-related deaths hit 10-year low in Baltimore. 同吸毒有关的死亡人数在巴尔的摩降至 10 年来的最低点。（零星发生）/ Israel's prime minister on Sunday expressed regret over the deaths of seven members of a family at a Gaza beach on Friday that Palestinians say was caused by Israeli shelling. 以色列总理于星期日对星期五加沙海滩一家七口遇难表示遗憾，巴勒斯坦人声称他们是被以色列炮击身亡的。</div><br><br>但是如果说的不是已经发生而是可能发生的事情，即使是预计分别的不一起发生的也不用复数而用单数，因为在这里 death 仍然是一个抽象概念而尚未成为一件件可数的事件。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A minority of premature babies have birth defects, which may cause their death. 少数早产婴儿有出生缺陷，可能导致他们夭折。参见 life 条、upbringing 条。</div><br><br>
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debate
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>debate</b></div>这个动词原意是“辩论”，但是如果主语只是单独一个人，就不是“辩论”，而是“心中琢磨权衡”，后面通常接一个间接疑问句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Jack debated what to do. 杰克考虑了一下怎么办。/ I'm just debating whether to go or stay. 我正在琢磨究竟是去是留。也可以不接间接疑问句，用 debate with oneself 表示“犹豫权衡”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She debated with herself for a while, and then picked up the phone. 她犹豫了一下，于是拿起了电话机。</div><br><br>如果主语是多数的人，debate 可以指他们彼此进行辩论，也可以把这多个人看作一个整体，指他们共同“琢磨考虑”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We're debating whether or not to go skiing this winter. 我们正在琢磨今年冬天去不去滑雪。也可以后面不接间接疑问句，而接上动名词，往往表示有过这个打算但是经过考虑后打消。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I debated going back inside, but decided against it. 我考虑过要不要再回里面去，但是决定不回去。/ On several occasions he debated ignoring the light when there wasn't any cross-traffic, but he never did. 有好几次，没有横着开来的车子，他真想闯红灯，但是没有这样做。</div><br><br>也可以用 debate between 表示在两者之间踌躇。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was buying a purse for your mother and debating between two of them. (Mary Higgins Clark, I'll Be Seeing You) 他当时正要给你母亲买一个皮包，在两个包中挑哪一个打不定主意。</div><br><br>有时候 debate 可以单独出现，不需要补充成分，表示“犹豫琢磨”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>At first he decided to ignore the ringing of the phone, but when it relentlessly continued to peal, he debated. 开头他决心不理会电话的铃响，但是铃声一直响个不停，他就犹豫了。</div><br><br>
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debt
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>debt</b></div>中文说“债台高筑”，往高处说；英文则说 sink deep into debt，往低处说。但是其实这两中说法的道理是一致的。一个人陷入水里或是泥沼里，往下陷得越深，水面或泥沼表面对于他的身体来说就上升得越高。英文有一些只涉及双方相对状态而不涉及高低的说法。如 be head and heels in debt</div><div class="ex-item">be debt-ridden</div><div class="ex-item">get heavily into debt。此外，英文也有从高处说的 be up to one's ears in debt。<br><br>
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decadent
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>decadent</b></div>这个形容词本来表示负面的“衰落的，颓废的”之意。用于文艺上的“颓废派”，尽管是中性的，但在一般人心目中也有贬义。不过，decadent 也可以有褒义，指的是咖啡、巧克力、蛋糕点心的一种特殊的香味。这个意义，一般词典里不常见。<br><br>
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deceive
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>deceive</b></div>这个及物动词，通常是第四类动词，意义上主要是指“实行欺骗并且达到目的”，但个别情况下仍然可以只有“实行欺骗”的意义，不交代对方上当不上当。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 如果是泛指的一般情况，deceive 指“实行欺骗”而不交代是否达到目的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In my experience litigants nearly always deceive their solicitors. 按照我的经验，打官司的人几乎总是欺骗自己的律师。（但是律师不是那么容易受骗的）</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 如果采用进行时态，也不交代欺骗是否达到目的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He is deceiving his wife. 他在欺骗他妻子。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 凡是否定句中使用 deceive，都表示虽然欺骗但没有达到目的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His gentle, kindly appearance did not deceive me. 他虽然有着一副和蔼可亲的模样，但是这骗不了我。 (4) 凡是被动句中使用 deceive，都表示“受骗上当”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was deceived by her story. 他听了她这番故事，就信以为真。/ I thought he loved me, but I was deceived. 我当时还以为他爱我，但是我上当了。/ When I look at your testimony start to finish, I see nothing less than an attempt to deceive this committee and this great country. Well, we're not going to be deceived. 我从头到尾看了你的证词，看到通篇都是企图欺骗本委员会，欺骗这个伟大的国家。可是我们是不会上当受骗的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 凡是 deceive 前面有表示“能够”的词语，就是欺骗达到目的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Appearances can deceive. 现象是可以迷惑人的。/ The Senator has not been able to deceive the public. 参议员没有能够骗过公众。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 凡是 deceive 后面加上“into + -ing”或是“into + 名词”，都是欺骗达到了目的，使得受骗者去做某事。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He deceived me into coming here. 他把我骗到了这里来。/ She was deceived into handing over the money. 她被骗把钱交了出来。</div><br><br>
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decide
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>decide</b></div>这个动词（瞬时体动词，第四类动词）的搭配用法比较复杂。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 单独使用，没有补语，表示“做出决定，下决断”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—Where are you going on holiday this year? —I don't know. I can't decide. —你今年假期到哪里去度假？—不知道。我决定不了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 后面跟动词不定式，表示“决定做某事”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I've decided to learn karate. 我决定要学空手道。/ What made you decide to get married? 是什么使得你下决心结婚的？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 后面跟间接疑问句，表示“对某问题做出……的决定”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has a month to decide whether he's going to stay. 他有一个月的时间来决定是否留下。/ I can't decide which I prefer. 我更喜欢哪一个，决定不下来。/ You must decide what to do/when to act/where to go. 你必须决定干什么/何时动手/到何处去。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 后面跟 that 从句，表示“做出判断，认为……”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She decided that the children should stay at home. 她决定孩子们要留在家里。/ He decided that the doorbell was broken. 他断定门铃是坏了。/ In the end she decided that he was right. 终于她确定他是对了。这个 that 可以省略。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He decided she was praying. 他判定她是在祷告。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 主语是人，直接宾语是内容或方向尚未确定的事物，表示“决定某事物的内容或方向应该如何”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The Court did not decide any of the core legal questions, but ordered a lower court to decide the case on a wider range of First Amendment issues. 最高法院并不对任何核心的法律问题做出决定，而是命令一个下级法院就范围更广的有关宪法第一修正案的问题做出判决。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 主语是事物，直接宾语是人，表示“（该事物）使得（某人）决定去做某事”，这个“做某事”用动词不定式表示。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was this which finally decided me to come to India. 正是这一点，最后使得我决定来印度。也可以没有动词不定式。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>What finally decided me was the price. 使我最后下决心的，是价格。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 主语是事物，直接宾语是个间接疑问句（可以用一般现在时代表将来发生的事），表示“决定（答案）”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It will decide who wins the election. 这将决定谁当选。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> 主语与直接宾语都是事物，表示“（某事）决定（另一项的内容或结果）”或“（某事）决定（某结果的产生）”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Charlton's goal decided the match. 查尔顿进的一球，决定了比赛的胜负。/ Their advice decided his success. 他们提的意见，决定了他的成功。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(9)</span> 主语是人，decide 后面加上 on/upon something，表示“决定采取”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Bush has not decided on a course of action. 布什还没有决定采取某一方针。/ He decided on a career in the army. 他决定以从军为业。/ They decided upon adjourning the session. 他们决定休会。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(10)</span> 主语是人，decide 后面加上 on something 或 about something，表示“（就某问题）做出决定”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They finally decided on the date of departure. 他们最后决定了出发日期。/ We still have to decide about a date for the meeting. 我们还得定下开会的日期。/ His successor needs to be decided on. 他的接班人是谁，需要定下来。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(11)</span> 主语是人，decide 后面有不同的介词短语（或状语），说明所做决定的不同方向。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We must decide between the two. 我们必须在两者之间做出选择。/ We decided in favor of the cheaper one. 我们决定要那个便宜的。/ They decided against punishing him. 他们决定不惩罚他。/ But the boss decided otherwise. 但是老板却做出了另一种决断。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(12)</span> 被动语态，主语是问题或决策内容。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It has not yet been definitely decided. 事情还没有最后决定。/ It was decided to alter our strategy. 我们的战略已经定了要改变。</div><br><br>
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declare
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>declare</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 直接宾语是要实行的措施，或者是某一要公之于众的事实。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The company declared a dividend of 3%. 公司宣布发放百分之三的红利。/ The government has declared a state of emergency. 政府宣布了紧急状态。</div><br><br>也可以指个人向当局申报。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Nothing to declare? 没有要报关的东西吗？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> “宣布某人（或某物）为什么”，这个“什么”作宾语补足语直接放在宾语之后，不要 as。也可以在两者之间加上 to be。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They declared him (to be) the winner. 他们宣布他获胜。/ The manufacturer was forced to issue a callback of the toy when it was declared a choking hazard. 该玩具被宣布有窒息危险，于是制造商被迫发出召回通知。宾语补足语也可以是形容词或动词过去分词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The museum was officially declared open. 博物馆正式宣告开馆。/ The clerk declared her duly elected to the committee. 书记员宣布她合法入选委员会。</div><br><br>
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decline
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>decline</b></div>是推辞别人提供的东西或邀请。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has declined the invitation. 他谢绝了邀请。/ When he asked her to dance, she declined politely. 他请她跳舞，她礼貌地拒绝了。</div><br><br>本来 decline 不用于“自己拒绝做某事”，但是由于它语气比较婉转，不像refuse 那样强硬，所以也逐渐用来表示“婉拒做某事”（尽管有人认为不规范）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He declined comment. 他拒绝评论。/ They declined to comment on the judge's ruling. 他们拒绝评论法官的裁定。/ When the Court declined to review Knight and Moore's case, ... (The Atlantic Monthly, November 2005, p. 48) 当最高法院拒绝重新审理奈特和穆尔的案件时，……</div><br><br>
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dedicate
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>dedicate</b></div>dedicated to（“致力于”）后面接着的可以是个名词或者动名词，但要注意不能误将介词 to 用来当作动词不定式的 to。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We're also dedicated to keeping (*to keep) costs low. (Newsweek, Sept. 12. 2005, ad) 我们还致力于保持低廉的成本。</div><br><br>
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deep down
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>deep down</b></div>是“在内心深处”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Deep down he knew he was born to be a soldier. 他深知自己生来就该当军人的。</div><br><br>
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default
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>default</b></div>原先是一个法语名词，意思是“缺席”或“该做的事未做”（如未履行任务或责任、该出席时缺席、该付款时未付）。in default of 是比较正式的用语，意思是“在缺乏……的情况下”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... his being a retired merchant of great wealth and fine social position who, in default of possessing children of his own, had taken into his home two nieces, ... (Anna Katharine Green, The Leavenworth Case) ……他是个十分富有而且社会地位很高的退休商人，由于膝下没有亲生子女，就将两位侄女过继过来。</div><br><br>by default 在电脑技术中常表示“预设，缺省”，即已经预先定下一个常用的选项，唯有当需要别的选项时才另做选择。但是，这个用语也扩大到了用于其他日常的方面，意思是“由于双方之一缺席”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He won the match by default. 他由于对方未出场而赢了比赛。/ He lost the match by default. 他由于自己未出场而输了比赛。/ The election went by default. 选举在对方无人参选的情况下进行了。此外，还有“本来”的意思，即“不需要新的添加或改动”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In their native areas, coconut trees grow abundantly without much tending, and farmers often don't earn enough to afford chemical fertilizers. That's a boon for companies selling the "natural" appeal of coconuts, since prices can be low and many coconut estates are organic by default. (Time, Dec. 17, 2012, p. 47) 椰子树在其土生的地区，生长茂盛且不需要多少管理，而且种植者也往往收入不多，买不起化肥。这就正中那些拿椰子的“天然”吸引力来标榜的公司的下怀，因为价格又低廉，而且许多椰子园本来就是有机种植的。（这里的 by default 指“本来”就为了省钱不用化肥，现在反而成了一个优点。）</div>
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defense
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>defense</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> defense 是美式英语的拼法，英式英语中是 defence。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 除了一般的“防卫，国防”等意义之外，defense 还指法律上诉讼中的“辩方”，与“控方”相对。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Judge Berry is one of the most fair judges—for the defense or prosecution. 贝利法官是最为公正的法官之一，无论对辩方或是控方而言，都是如此。</div><br><br>
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defy
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>defy</b></div>这个动词，本身就有否定的“挑战，对抗，蔑视”的意思（在这个意义上是瞬时动作，即第四类动词），所以有时可以用于一般意义上的否定（在这个意义上是延续状态，即第一类动词）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The red hat was now sprinkled with enough gray to defy an accurate description. 原来红色的帽子现在沾满了许多灰点，已经无法准确说出它是什么颜色了。/ This helps explain many things that otherwise defy analysis. 这有助于解释一些本来难以分析的事情。/ The door defied all efforts to open it. 门怎么也打不开。/ This defies all logic. 这根本不合逻辑。/ Their attitude defies all reason. 他们的态度完全不合道理。/ His behaviour defies explanation. 他的行为是说不过去的。/ These problems defy solution. 这些问题是解决不了的。/ This word defies translation. 这个单词是无法翻译的。</div><br><br>
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degree
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>degree</b></div>作为可单数可复数的名词，是刻度上的“一度”，例如 37 摄氏度是 37 degrees centigrade。<br><br>但是，如果表示“程度”，则是个范畴词，只有单数，介词用 to。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the degree to which these foods raise blood sugar, or glucose, right after they are eaten 这些食物在摄入后使得血糖即葡萄糖即时升高的程度。</div><br><br>
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delay
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>delay</b></div>作为及物动词，可以是表示瞬时“做出延迟决定并开始延迟”的第四类动词，也可以是表示“在延迟中迟迟未完”的第二类动词。作为第四类动词，它发生的时间点，是“延迟开始”的时间点，不是“延迟结束”的时间点。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was told that the trial had been delayed indefinitely. 他被告知，审判已被无限期延迟。(delay 是在 tell 之前的瞬时动作，tell 之时 delay 造成的延续状态仍在继续中)但是如果作为第二类动词，则 delay 是一个无限延续的过程，可以同以 for 引入的不定时间段搭配。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Thousands of commuters were delayed for over an hour. 数以千计的上班族被耽搁了一个多钟头。</div><br><br>
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deliver²
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>deliver²</b></div>我们尝试对这个动词的各个词义及搭配成分进行分析，以看出其词义及搭配的基本脉络，从而提纲挈领地加深对错综复杂的词义和用法的理解和记忆。<br><br>先从基本词义来看，可以分成具体词义与抽象词义两部分。动词 deliver 的具体基本词义，就是“将应送之物（或人）送到应到之处”。动词 deliver 的抽象基本词义，就是“将应办之事（诺言、义务、责任）放到兑现落实的位置”。<br><br>有的情况直接符合具体基本词义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His new car was delivered yesterday. 他新买的车昨天送到了。/ We have our milk delivered every day. 我们的牛奶天天送上门。/ Leaflets were delivered to every household. 传单分送到各家各户。/ The bus delivered me to my doorstep. 公共汽车把我直接送到家门口。</div><br><br>从这两个基本词义出发，经过某些变换和强调加减，就引申出下列词义：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 具体词义：把某物送至某处，但“某处”的词义减弱甚至消失，只剩下“送出，发出”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He delivered a lecture on global warming. 他做了一个有关地球变暖的报告。/ She is due to deliver a speech in this hall. 她预定在这个大厅做一次演讲。/ deliver a warning 发出警告。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 具体词义：本来是应该送到应到之处，但是加上某个特别的介词，变成送到本不应到之处。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They delivered over/up the fortress to the enemy. 他们把要塞交给了敌人。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 具体词义转为抽象词义：物（或人）送到，传送之人交了差，解除了负担。本来物或人是 deliver 的宾语，此时传送之人转为宾语（主宾交错是词义演变中常有的现象）。deliver¹ 条中的(3)，产妇可以成为宾语，即为一例。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 抽象词义：满足不明言的他人的希望，取得（成功）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The team delivered a victory. 球队打赢了。/ This contract delivers several advantages. 这个合同有几个好处。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 具体词义：只剩下“发出，做出，施加”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>deliver a blow 施加打击。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 抽象词义：转为不及物动词，表示“兑现承诺”（同具体词义的“答应了就送货上门”相似）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He is full of big talk, but can he deliver? 他夸夸其谈，但是能兑现吗？/ He promised much, but delivered little. 他许诺很多，但兑现很少。/ He has not delivered on any of his promises. 他的诺言全都没有兑现。/ He will now have to deliver, though, and this is where the problem lies. (Francis Fukuyama, "Trump and the American Political Decay After the 2016 Election," in Foreign Affairs, Nov. 9, 2016) 但他现在就需要兑现了，而这就是问题所在。</div><br><br>
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deliver¹
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>deliver¹</b></div>这个动词，用于“分娩”意义时，搭配有点特别。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 通常的、中国人最容易接受的搭配，就是以产妇为主语，婴儿为直接宾语的搭配。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She delivered a son at midnight. 她午夜产下了一个男婴。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 但是也可以不以产妇本人为主语，而以助产的人为主语，宾语仍是婴儿。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Her husband delivered the baby. 她丈夫帮助她分娩。/ They delivered the child with forceps. 他们用产钳把孩子接生下来。/ Flight attendants handed the doctors rubber gloves, a clamp and scissors from an emergency medical kit as they delivered the baby in about 30 minutes. (eTurboNews, Jan. 4, 2009) 空乘人员从急救医药包中拿出了橡皮手套、一把钳子和一把剪刀，递给医生们，医生们就用 30 分钟左右的时间把婴儿接生下来了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 还可以以助产的人为主语，以产妇（而不是婴儿）作直接宾语，后面再用 of 引入婴儿。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The midwife delivered Mrs. Smith of a daughter. 助产士给史密斯夫人接生了一个女婴。夫人接生了一个女婴。这样的搭配可以有被动形式，此时就不用提到助产的人。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She was delivered of a healthy boy. (= She delivered a healthy boy.) 她生下了一个健康的男婴。/ Lady Hester was safely delivered this morning of a son. (William Chatham) 赫斯特夫人今天上午平安产下一个男婴。</div><br><br>
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denial
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>denial</b></div>这个名词，来自自动词 deny，所以它的主要词义也是瞬时的“否认”。但是它也可以转为一种延续的状态，指心理上对不愉快、不利的事实采取鸵鸟式的“视而不见，听而不闻”的态度，说某人 is in denial (或 is in denial about something)，说的就是这种心态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Why are people so often in denial? ... While in denial about global warming, people don't have to think about anything, inform themselves, change their consumption patterns, becoming actively involved in reforms, or alter their behaviour in any way. (Stephen Juan, anthropologist at the University of Sydney) 为什么人们常常不顾事实？……人们对全球变暖视而不见，就不需要考虑任何事情，不需要了解情况，不需要改变自己的消费模式去积极地参与改革，或是对自己的行为加以任何改变。2006 年，《华盛顿邮报》助理总编辑 Bob Woodward 出版了一本抨击布什总统不承认错误的书，针对布什多年的国情咨文，书名为 State of Denial。state of denial 也是一种拒绝承认现实、拒绝相信真相的心理状态。</div><br><br>
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denomination
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>denomination</b></div>本来意义是“名称，名目”，但常常转义为大群体当中采取某个特殊名目的小群体，相当于“派别”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>To Catholics and Lutherans, the Sixth Commandment prohibits adultery and the Seventh theft, while to most other denominations the Seventh deals with adultery and the Eight with theft. 对于天主教徒和路德教教徒来说，第六诫禁止的是通奸，第七诫禁止的是盗窃；而对于大多数其余的教派来说，第七诫针对的是通奸，第八诫针对的是盗窃。</div><br><br>
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deny
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>deny</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> deny 后面跟着表示瞬时行动的动名词或 having + pp.，两者都可以表示否认在此之前做过某事。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He denied stealing/having stolen the money. 他否认偷了钱。/ The prisoner denied conspiring/having conspired against the government. 囚徒否认阴谋反对政府。/ He denied ever meeting/having ever met her. 他否认曾经同她见过面。</div><br><br>许多含义为承认、否认、记忆、忘记、怀念等的动词，后面接上瞬时动作动词的动名词时，这个动名词往往用来表示过去(= having + pp.)的意义，参见 remember 条、admit 条、forget 条等。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 如果后面跟着延续状态动词(第一类动词)或延续动作动词(第二类动词)的动名词，则是否认当时(而不是过去)自己处于某种状态或正在进行某动作。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Both denied belonging to the guerrilla group but were sentenced to thirteen and six years in prison respectively. 两人都否认属于游击集团，但仍分别被判处 13 年和 6 年监禁。/ He denied being a politician. 他否认自己是个政客。/ He denied working for that company. 他否认自己是为那家公司工作的。但是，即使是第二类动词，也可能不是否认当时正在如何，而是否认过去曾经如何。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He denied working in the Nazi death camps. 他否认曾经在纳粹死亡营工作过。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 可以用“deny + 宾语 + to be”结构(后面只能用 to be，不能用别的动词)，表示“否认某人(或物)是什么”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They denied the rumor to be true. 他们说谣传不是真的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> deny 可以直接接直接宾语和间接宾语，搭配可以是“deny + 间接宾语 + 直接宾语”，也可以是“deny + 直接宾语 + to + 间接宾语”。意思是“拒绝给予某人某物”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He denies his son nothing. (= He denies nothing to his son.) 他对儿子有求必应。/ The government exploited their labour while denying them social equality. 政府剥削他们的劳动，同时又不给他们平等的社会地位。/ He has also denied you access to some information. 他还不让你接触某些信息。/ The governor has denied clemency to the gang leader. 州长拒绝了宽恕那个团伙头目。</div><br><br>既然是“拒绝”，也就有了否定的意义(此时 deny 就转为表示状态的延续动词，即第一类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The windows (of the car) were coated with dark plastic, which denied the casual onlooker (间接宾语) the sight (直接宾语) of the people inside. 车窗覆上了暗色的塑料膜，路人偶然张望也看不见车里的人。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 这种双宾语的结构，还可以变为被动态，直接宾语变为主语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Hope was denied to her. 她绝望了。(her 因为是代词，前面的 to 也可省略)</div><div class="ex-item">Justice has been denied us. 我们受到了不公正的对待。/ Estimates of the total amount of oil revenue denied the Iraqi government (间接宾语) range as high as $250 billion. (Foreign Affairs, July/August 2004, p. 97) 伊拉克政府没有得到的石油收入，据估计高达 2,500 亿美元。就是间接宾语也可以变为主语，直接宾语地位和位置不变(这是英语的一大特点)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>People there were denied even basic human rights. 那里的人民当时甚至享受不到基本人权。上面的例句 Justice has been denied us. 也可以转换为 We have been denied justice. 而且在英语实际使用中，以间接宾语转换为主语，比以直接宾语转换为主语用得更为频繁。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Almost 80,000 sick and disabled people a year are being wrongly denied benefits. 80,000 名病人和残疾人正在被错误地剥夺福利。/ Only people who have actually been convicted of a felony should have been denied the vote, not law-abiding citizens. 唯有确实被判定犯了重罪的人——而不是守法公民——才应该被剥夺投票权。</div><br><br>
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depend
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>depend</b></div>X depend on Y 是最典型的搭配，其中 Y 的变动决定 X 的变动。X 和 Y，其中一个可以是疑问从句，比较多的是 Y 为疑问从句。一般疑问从句(是非句)用 whether 引入，depend 后面的 on 可有可无。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The picnic depends (on) whether it rains or not. 是否去野餐，取决于是否下雨。特殊疑问句用相应的 wh-疑问词引入。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Success depends (on) what you know, not who you know. 成功与否，取决于知识，不取决于人际关系。但是有时候 X (主语)可以以疑问句形式出现，此时 Y 就比较短促，X 比较长，X 就不便放在句首(例如说 whether ... or ... depend on it 就有点头重脚轻)，就需要颠倒次序(on Y depend X)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The outcome of events there is of enormous significance to us, since on it depends whether we will fall prey to terrorism or overcome its destructive schemes. 那边事态的结局对我们有重大的意义，因为这关系到我们究竟会成为恐怖主义的猎物还是会打败它的破坏性阴谋。</div><br><br>
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dependable
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>dependable</b></div>动词 depend 是不及物的，“依赖、取决于”的宾语，要用 on 引入。但是从 depend 却可以引申出通常只有及物动词才能引申出的形容词 dependable (“可靠的，靠得住的”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Before it (= the Voting Rights Act), African-Americans inthe South depended on something undependable—the kindness of strangers. (Newsweek, Oct. 10, 2005, p. 70) 在《投票权法案》通过之前，南方的非裔美国人靠的是靠不住的东西，即陌生人的善心。</div><br><br>
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dependence 与 dependent
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>dependence 与 dependent</b></div>参见 independence from 与 independent of 条。<br><br>
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deprive
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>deprive</b></div>这个意义为“剥夺”的及物动词，直接宾语不能是所剥夺的东西，而应该是被剥夺的人。所剥夺的东西应该在直接宾语之后用介词 of 引入。要注意搭配方法同中文是不同的。例如 deprive someone of his rights (“剥夺某人的权利”)，不能照中文的搭配说成 *deprive someone's rights。同样，动词 rob (“掠夺”)的直接宾语也应该是人而不是物，物要用介词 of 引入。<br><br>
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deputy
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>deputy</b></div>这个单词，可以是名词，也可以是形容词。作为名词，在英语中主要是“副手”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The commissioner-elect is already accepting applications for a deputy. 当选的专员已经在受理其他人担任副专员的申请。也可以是临时的“代理(人)”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The boss left no address and no deputy. 上司没有留下地址和代理人。但是更多是作为形容词，表示“副”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>deputy governor 副州长</div><div class="ex-item">deputy speaker 副议长</div><div class="ex-item">deputy director 副主任</div><div class="ex-item">deputy mayor 副市长</div><div class="ex-item">deputy chairman 副主席，副系主任。中文的“副”，英文究竟说 vice- 还是 deputy，没有定律，要遵从习惯；有时两者均可，例如 deputy chairman 与 vice-chairman；但只能说 vice-president，不能说 deputy president。</div><br><br>此外，deputy 由于有“代理”的意思，在一些非英语国家，往往用来指下议院的议员(相当于美国的 representative)，例如法国的国民议会，英文名称就是 Chamber of Deputies。尤其是在拉丁美洲，许多国家的众议员都称为 deputy (diputado)。<br><br>
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derive
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>derive</b></div>作“来自”解，可以是延续体动词或瞬时体动词，可以是不及物动词(derive from something)，也可以是及物动词的被动态(be derived from something)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Wealth derives from political power. 财富产生于政治权力。/ Penicillin is derived from mold. 青霉素来自霉菌。但是前者(不及物动词)着重自然的发展，后者(及物动词被动态)则着重人为的加工。</div><br><br>
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desert 与 dessert
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>desert 与 dessert</b></div>两个单词完全不同。desert 重音在第一音节时是名词，即“沙漠”；重音在后面音节时是及物动词，即“出走，逃离，开小差离开”。dessert (重音在末音节)则是午晚餐最后的甜食。<br><br>
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deserve
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>deserve</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 可以指“值得得到(好的对待)”，也可以指“理应得到(不好的对待或遭遇)”(是个表示状态的延续体动词，即第一类动词)，要注意这个动词只是表示某人或某事物有此资格或性质，并不表示其“得到”了因此而应有的对待。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You deserve a rest after all that hard work. 你辛苦了一场，应该让你好好休息。(只是说“应该”，真正能不能休息，没有交代)</div><div class="ex-item">The report deserves careful consideration. 该报告值得仔细考虑。(有没有考虑，没有交代)</div><div class="ex-item">One player in particular deserves a mention. 其中一名球员特别值得表扬。(这个建议实行了没有，没有交代) You deserve a rest after all that hard work. 你辛苦了一场，应该让你好好休息。(只是说“应该”，真正能不能休息，没有交代)</div><div class="ex-item">The report deserves careful consideration. 该报告值得仔细考虑。(有没有考虑，没有交代)</div><div class="ex-item">One player in particular deserves a mention. 其中一名球员特别值得表扬。(这个建议实行了没有，没有交代)</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 但是 deserve 有时候也可以离开“值得”的状态，转而表示“立功”或“犯过”的行为，此时，它通常用完成时态，表示先于或开创这个“值得”的状态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Before leaving, Napoleon showed favor to the emperor, kings, and princes who had deserved it, reprimanded the kings and princes with whom he was dissatisfied, ... 出发前，拿破仑向皇帝、各位国王以及有功的各王侯表示好意，而对他所不满的那些国王和王侯则加以斥责……</div><div class="ex-item">If we're punished, it means that we have deserved it, it's not for us to judge. 如果我们受罚，那就是说我们该受罚，轮不到我们自己来评判。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 后面如果接上动名词，应该是以主动形式表示被动意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He deserves punishing. 他该受到惩罚。(不说 *deserves being punished) 但如果后面接上动词不定式，则应该以被动形式来表示被动意义。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He deserves to be punished.</div>
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desk 与 table
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>desk 与 table</b></div>参见 table 与 desk 条。<br><br>
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determine
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>determine</b></div>这个及物动词有几方面不同的词义和相应搭配：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为表示状态的延续动词，即第一类动词，主语和宾语都是事物，指“因素决定某状态”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Economic factors determine the progress which a society can make. 经济因素决定了一个社会能够进步的程度。/ Demand determines supply. 需求决定供给。/ The size of the rice crop is largely determined by the weather. 水稻收获量在很大程度上是由天气决定的。/ The size of the chicken pieces will determine the cooking time. 鸡块的大小将决定烧煮时间的长短。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作为表示瞬时行动的动词，即第四类动词，主语是人，宾语是事物，指“弄清楚某事物是怎样的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We should determine the causes of the accident. 我们必须查明事故的原因。/ Testing needs to be done to determine the long-term effects on humans. 需要进行试验，以明确在人体上的长效作用。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 作为表示瞬时行动的动词，即第四类动词，主语是人，宾语是事物，指“就某事项做出选择”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They still haven't determined the guidelines. 他们还没有决定采取什么方针。/ The date of the match is yet to be determined. 比赛的日期还没有定下来。/ The people have a right to determine their own future. 人民有权决定自己的未来。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 作为表示瞬时行动的动词，即第四类动词，主语是人，宾语是 that 从句或间接疑问句，指“明确某事是如何的或某问题的答案是如何的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has no greater right than her to determine how their money should be spent. 他并不比她更加有权决定他们的钱该怎样花。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 作为表示瞬时行动的动词，即第四类动词，主语是事物，宾语是 that 从句或间接疑问句，指“明确证实某事或对某问题给予答案”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>An X-raydetermined that no bones were broken. X 光片确定了没有骨折。/ Science has determined that the risk is very small. 科学已经明确，风险是很小的。/ The investigation will determine what really happened. 经过调查将可以确定到底发生了什么事。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 作为表示瞬时行动的动词，即第四类动词，主语是人，determine 后面加上动词不定式，指“决定去做某事”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He now determined to go it alone. 他于是决心一意孤行。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 作为表示瞬时行动的动词，即第四类动词，主语是人，宾语是人或物，后面再加上动词不定式，这个动词是延续状态，指“得出结论认为某人或某事是如何的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He determined the risk to be minimal. 他认定风险极小。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> 作为表示瞬时行动的动词，即第四类动词，主语是事物，宾语是人，后面加动态动词的动词不定式，指“使某人下决心去做某事”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This determined him to go. 他因此决定去。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(9)</span> 被语动态，后面加动词不定式，指“决心做某事”(determine to inf. 是瞬时的下决心，be determined to inf. 是已经下定了做某事的决心的状态)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But Sam still was determined not to have that happen. 但是萨姆仍然坚决不让那件事发生。</div><br><br>
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develop
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>develop</b></div>这个动词(及物与不及物)，中国人最熟悉的意义是“发展”。在这个意义上，应该是延续体的第二类动词(表示延续而无终点的活动)。但是其实它也可以是个表示瞬时动作的第四类动词，此时它的词义就不是“发展”(除非直接宾语是本已存在的已知事物)，而是：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> “开发，研发”(直接宾语是新创之物，不特指)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The company has developed a new product. 公司开发了一种新产品。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> “开发”某个区域、某片地皮，或“开采”某种资源。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>develop idle land 开发荒地</div><div class="ex-item">Shell signed a contract to develop oil and gas reserves near the island. 壳牌公司签订了在该岛附近开采油气资源的合同。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> “患上”某种疾病。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The test should identify which smokers are most prone to develop lung cancer. 应该通过试验来查明究竟是哪些吸烟者最容易得肺癌。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 机器“出现”某种毛病或故障。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The aircraft made an unscheduled landing after developing an electrical fault. 飞机出现了电路故障后，实行紧急降落。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> “构想出”某种想法、方案、理论。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We tried to develop plans for them to go on working. 我们设法订计划，让他们继续干下去。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 将胶卷“显影，冲洗”。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 派生的名词 development 也继承了 develop 的两个不同的“体”及其相应的词义(延续性的“发展”和瞬时性的“开发”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In fact, the U.S. government estimates that there are 36 billion barrels of undiscovered technically recoverable oil on federal lands currently closed to development. (U.S. News & World Report, Sept. 15-22, 2008, p. 17, ad) 事实上，美国政府估计，在目前封闭不准开发的联邦土地下，埋藏着技术上可以开发而尚未发现的石油达 360 亿桶。</div><br><br>
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diagnose
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>diagnose</b></div>这个及物动词，可以有双宾语(以患者为间接宾语，疾病为直接宾语)，而且可以从主动句转换为被动句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... a food service worker at the Route 9 restaurant was diagnosed the liver infection called hepatitis A. (The Daily Gazette, Aug. 21, 2004, B1) ……9 号公路上一家饭馆的餐饮工作人员被诊断患有一种被称为甲肝的疾病。</div><br><br>
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dictate
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>dictate</b></div>这个动词，从原意派生出一些看起来很不相同的转义。原意是“口述(让别人书面记下来)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>dictate a letter to a stenographer 口述一封信让速记员写下来</div><div class="ex-item">The French teacher dictated a passage from Victor Hugo. 法语老师读了雨果的一段文章让学生听写。</div><br><br>但是经过转义，成了“强加某事物于某人”(双宾语)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>dictate rules to the workers 向工人们定下规则。</div><br><br>也可以只有一个直接宾语(而且主语不是人)，意思就是“(不容分说地)决定(应该如何)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Policy dictated that the president should resign. 按照政策，总统应该辞职。/ This reality dictates an entirely new approach to diagnosis and treatment. (U.S. News & World Report, Nov. 3-10, 2008, p. 46) 这种新情况，决定了诊断和治疗必须采取一种全新的方针。/ The social code dictates how we should behave in public. 交际规范规定了我们在公众场合应该如何行事。/ That consideration dictates single authorship, despite all the difficulties that it poses. (Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs, and Steel) 该考虑决定了作者只能是单独一人，尽管这会造成一些困难。/ Your mattress will dictate your quality of sleep. (U.S. News & World Report, Nov. 4, 2002, p. 49, ad) 你的床垫决定了你的睡眠质量。</div><br><br>也可以只有一个间接宾语(指人)，意思就是“指挥，摆布”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She refused to be dictated to by anyone. 她不肯听从任何人的指挥。由于 dictate 有“(不容分说地)决定”的意思，所以也可以用来表示“大权在握，说一不二”，因此，派生的名词 dictator 就是“独裁者”，dictatorship 就是“独裁；专政”。</div><br><br>
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did
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>did</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 英语学习者使用以 did ... 开始的问句，如果学得不好，往往后面的动词仍然用过去式(应该用没有 to 的不定式)，这是根本不通的。虽然这个错误容易发觉，但往往仍然脱口而出，所以只有多练习才能避免。如 *Did you went to school yesterday? 是错误的，应为 Did you go to school yesterday?<br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 如果 did 后面的动词是变位的，那在正常情况下肯定不是以 did 为助动词，这个 did 肯定是代替前面一个实义动词的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>That should have been enough to halt Blair's career in his tracks. That it didn't testifies to a newsroom culture, imposed from above, that cherished diversity—not more than accuracy, but so much so that journalistic standards were bent. (The Daily Gazette, May 13, 2003) 本来这种毛病会使得布莱尔的职业前途受阻。没有受阻，就说明了有一种从上往下强加的新闻编辑室风气，它一味注重多种族用人才，尽管并不因此减轻对新闻准确性的重视，但也到了使得新闻业务标准遭受扭曲的程度。布莱尔的职业前途受阻。没有受阻，就说明了有一种从上往下强加的新闻编辑室风气，它一味注重多种族用人才，尽管并不因此减轻对新闻准确性的重视，但也到了使得新闻业务标准遭受扭曲的程度。这里的 didn't 后面是变位动词 testifies，就明确了两者不属同一个动词词组。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 但是，(2)有一个例外，就是 used to inf. 如果否定，用了助动词 didn't 之后，used 可以不还原为 use，而是仍然保持 used 这种过去形式。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I didn't used/use to like opera, but now I do. 我过去不喜欢歌剧，但是现在却喜欢。疑问句用了助动词 did 之后，used 也仍然可以不还原为 use。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>What did people used/use to do in the evenings before TV? 人们晚上在电视开始之前一般干些什么？</div><br><br>
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die
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>die</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 可以采取进行时态，不表示“死亡”，而是类似中文的夸张口气形容某种生理或心理状态，搭配是 be dying of。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm dying of thirst. 渴死我了。/ He was dying of boredom. 他烦得要命。</div><br><br>也可以根本脱离“死亡”的意义，表示正面良好的“渴望，急于要”，搭配可以是 be dying for 或 be dying to inf.。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I was dying for a drink. 我渴望喝点饮料。/ They're dying to meet you. 他们渴望同你见面呢。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 表示死因，疾病用介词 of。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>die of malaria 死于疟疾</div><div class="ex-item">die of illness 病死。饥渴也用 of。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>die of hunger 饿死</div><div class="ex-item">die of thirst 渴死。偶尔也有用 with 的。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Odalie and Bizette had died with pneumonia. (Lyle Saxon, Children of Strangers) 奥达莉和比泽特都死于肺炎。非内科疾病的肉体原因用 of 或 from 均可。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>die of/from wounds 伤重不治。</div><br><br>生活方式用 from。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>die from overwork 因劳累致死。</div><br><br>精神或思想方面的原因用 for。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>die for love 殉情</div><div class="ex-item">They had not come to the colonies to die for a creed. (Edith Wharton, The Old Maid) 他们到殖民地来，不是来为了一个信条而送命的。</div><br><br>
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diet
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>diet</b></div>作为名词，有两个范围大小不同的含义。它可以是某人或某人群经常习惯的“食谱”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the Japanese diet of rice, vegetables and fish 米饭加蔬菜和鱼的日本饮食。但是，缩小到一个个人，他的习惯食谱往往同他本人的健康状况有关。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Now bacon and eggs are off his diet. 现在，他的食谱已经去掉了煎猪肉片和鸡蛋。这就开始往“节食”这个词义过渡了。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a low-fat, salt-free diet 低脂肪无盐饮食</div><div class="ex-item">He decided to go on a diet. 他决定节食。</div><br><br>但是，单独的 diet，没有冠词，作为抽象名词，可以指笼统的、不分好坏的“饮食状况”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Diet is a major factor in the development and progression of colorectal cancer. 饮食状况是结肠直肠癌发生与发展的一个主要影响因素。</div><br><br>
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die 与 dead
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>die 与 dead</b></div>die 与 dead 在用法上的差别，参见 dead 与 die 条。<br><br>
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difference
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>difference</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 用英语问 X 和 Y 有什么区别，英语学习者常说 What is the difference between X and Y? 但是其实也可以说 How is X different from Y? 这样说，可以有两个好处，第一是避免用 difference 单数只有一个区别，第二是可以将重点放在 X 上，而不是 X 与 Y 平起平坐。例如谈到大学时，问它与高中有何不同，说 How is college different from high school? 比说 What is the difference between college and high school? 更为简洁而且明确。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 英语中 make a difference 是十分常用的词组(difference 前面可以有不同的定语)，意义基本上是“起作用，产生影响”，并不涉及不同事物或情况的“区别”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The federal government could make a large difference with a relatively modest sum. 联邦政府可以用一笔小钱做一件大事。对什么事情造成影响，用 to something 表示。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This made no difference to his judgment. 这并没有影响到他的判断。产生的影响，可以是正面的，也可以是负面的。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>None of that makes the slightest difference to our getting you a car. 这对我们要给你弄一辆车毫无影响。影响也可以是正负不明的。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Not that his family connections had made much, if any, difference to his career. 他的家庭关系对于他的职业生涯影响不大，甚至没有任何影响。/ What makes the difference among such people? (Mayo Clinic Health Letter) 这样的人，靠的是什么而有所成的呢？(这里的 among 不表示彼此的差异，而是表示这是一个整体，difference 不是“区别，不同”，而是“起的正面作用”。)</div>但是有时候如果列举出区别的不同对象， make a difference 仍然保留“有区别”的意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It makes no difference if you're 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80 ... in good shape, or average shape, or absolutely horrible shape. 不管您是 30 岁、40 岁、50 岁、60 岁、70 岁、80 岁……身体很好，身体一般，还是身体十分糟糕。</div><br><br>
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different
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>different</b></div>这是个“专门对外”的形容词，就是说，它不是描绘一件事物本身的质态如何，而是说明它同别的事物的对比。因此，说 This flower is red. 可以，但是孤立地说 This flower is different. 就会令人觉得莫名其妙。这个本质的特点，决定了 different 的句法搭配。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 为了表示同别的事物的对比，通常后面接介词 from。但是英式英语往往接介词 to；美式英语则往往接连词 than。三者都可用来引入名词成分，但必须用 than 才能引入非名词成分。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His opinion is very different from/to/than that of the majority. 他的意见同大多数人很不一样。/ The job was different than he had expected. = The job was different from/to what he had expected. 工作同他原先预料的不是一回事。/ What is really unacceptable to us is that different standards are applied to us than are applied to other countries. 我们确实无法接受的，是用于我们身上的标准，竟然不同于那些用于别的国家的标准。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> X 与 Y different，两者必须是可比的事物。中文往往说话省略，拿了不可比的事物来说 different。这在中文里可以，但英文则要求比较严格。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His opinion is different from mine (<i>from me). 他的意见同我的(的意见)不同。的事物来说 different。这在中文里可以，但英文则要求比较严格。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His opinion is different from mine (</i>from me). 他的意见同我的(的意见)不同。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> different 所修饰的名词，可以插在 different 与 from/to/than 之间。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This is a different picture from/to/than what was expected. 这个景象同预料的不一致。有时候 different 同 from 之间可以隔得比较远，阅读时不要让这个联系被打断。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Jennifer Lewis' life came to a different tragic ending from what her husband and police originally thought. 珍妮弗·刘易斯生命的悲惨结局，同她丈夫以及警方原先以为的不一样。/ Perhaps this is a different way of looking at his contributions from how Western scholars may evaluate them. 对于他的贡献，这种看法也许同西方学者可能做出的评价有所不同。/ He has written a different sort of books from his father's. 他写了一些同他父亲写的不同的书。有时候当中还可能隔着谓语动词和其他句子成分。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A different rule is involved in example A from that in example B. 甲例所涉及的规律，同乙例不同。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> different 如果修饰的是单数的名词成分，又不指出“同什么不一样”，则暗示“同前面说过或是对话双方都知道的那个不一样”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She's been a different person since the operation. 她动手术后现在变了一个人了。/ I'd prefer a completely different colour. 我倒喜欢一个完全不同的颜色。</div><br><br>但是如果前面有 each，则不需要暗示一个已经知道的“那个”来做对比，different 本身就可以同单数名词同用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Each individual's experiences and, consequently, the associations which he makes between words and ideas are necessarily different. 每个人的经历不同，从而字词与意念之间形成的联想也就必然不同。</div><br><br>不过，如果 different 所指的名词不能作为复数，而后面接着表示归属不同的主体，则 different 可以修饰单数名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The mix of shale oil and gas on either side of the (U.S.-Mexican) border may be different, too. (The Economist, May 3, 2014, p. 32) 页岩油气的成分在美墨边境两边也可能有所不同。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> different 如果修饰的是复数的名词成分，又不指出“同什么别的事物不一样”，则表示这些名词成分所代表的事物彼此之间不同。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Different things are made of different materials. 不同的东西是由不同的材料做成的。/ They're twins, but they are very different. 他们是双胞胎，但是彼此很不一样。但有时上文已经暗示了那个原有的比较对象，此时即使名词成分是复数，也不表示事物之间彼此不同，而是共同与原有比较对象不同，需要细心琢磨。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>What you're doing is strictly legal, but different rules are attached to national security matters. 你们的行为是严格符合法律的，但是，如果涉及国家安全事宜，就有另外不同的规则。/ Using the same principle, but different types of molecules, he's making water filters with pores just a nanometer in diameter. (Newsweek, Sept. 26, 2005, p. 55) 他正在运用同样的原理但是不同种类的分子制造孔隙直径只有一纳米的滤水器。/ Henry admitted to himself ... that under different circumstances he could come to appreciate the charms of the Monterey Peninsula and Cypress Point Spa. (Mary Higgins Clark, Weep No More, My Lady) 亨利心里承认……如果换一种境遇，他对蒙特雷半岛和柏树点疗养地的美丽景色是会动心欣赏的。欣赏的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 在肯定句中，different 可以用 very 修饰，但不能用 much，来强调其差别之大。在否定句中，则既可以用 very，也可以用 much。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The result was not much/very different from what I had expected. 结果同我先前预料的差不多。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 派生的副词 differently 后面也用介词 from，英式英语可用 to，美式英语常用 than。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Prescription Plavix works differently than other cholesterol and blood pressure medications. 处方药 Plavix 所起的作用，不同于别的降胆固醇和降血压药物。</div><br><br>
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differ from 与 differ with
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>differ from 与 differ with</b></div>两者都是延续体，表示状态。前者是“与……不同”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The petunia differs from the camellia. 矮牵牛花与山茶花不同。后者是“与……有分歧”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The defense counsel differs with the prosecutor. 辩护律师同检察官看法不一致。differs from the camellia. 矮牵牛花与山茶花不同。后者是“与……有分歧”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The defense counsel differs with the prosecutor. 辩护律师同检察官看法不一致。</div><br><br>
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difficult
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>difficult</b></div>说某人一时(不是经常)做某事遇到困难，往往在 difficult 后面加上 time，后面再加上动词的现在分词，形成 have a difficult time + -ing 词组。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They were having a difficult time getting to sleep. 他们难以入睡。</div><br><br>
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difficulty 与 形容词 difficult 相类似，“做某事往往遇到的困难”，可以在 difficulty 后面直接接上动名词，不必加上介词 in 再加动名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has difficulty understanding English. 他理解英文有困难。/ She had great difficulty walking. 她走路十分吃力。这个用法，往往是指经常的状态。如果是一时的状态，最好用 have a difficult time + -ing。参见 busy 条。</div><br><br><link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css">
<div class="entry"><h1>difficulty 与 形容词 difficult 相类似，“做某事往往遇到的困难”，可以在 difficulty 后面直接接上动名词，不必加上介词 in 再加动名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has difficulty understanding English. 他理解英文有困难。/ She had great difficulty walking. 她走路十分吃力。这个用法，往往是指经常的状态。如果是一时的状态，最好用 have a difficult time + -ing。参见 busy 条。</h1></div>但是也有加上介词 in 再加动名词的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The writer, an old man with a white mustache, had some difficulty in getting into bed. (Sherwood Anderson, Winesburg, Ohio) 作家是个留了白色胡子的老人，上床睡觉有点困难。/ ... and the reader is lost in a maze, from which he has great difficulty in extricating himself. (J. M. D. Meiklejohn, English translator of Immanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason, in "Translator's Preface" to the book) ……读者犹如堕入五里雾中，难以脱身。</div><br><br>
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dilemma
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>dilemma</b></div>是两个难题之间的困难选择，亦即所谓“两难”。两者应该都是不好的事情。如果是两件好事，或者一好一坏，dilemma 就不适用。<br><br>
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dimension
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>dimension</b></div>在数学和物理学上，dimension 是“维”。“点”是零维，直线是一维，平面是二维，立体是三维。但是如果前面没有数目，复数 dimensions 通常指某件物品的整体大小(即三维的长、宽、高)，也可以比较含糊地指其大小。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Do you know the dimensions of that desk? 你知道那张桌子的大小吗？/ It's a temple of vast dimensions. 那是一座宏伟的庙堂。含糊的复数也可以转义用来指某件抽象事物的规模、范围或重要性。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the dimensions of the problem 问题的规模</div><div class="ex-item">a crime of serious dimensions 滔天大罪</div><div class="ex-item">The dimensions of this crisis are such that any other consideration pales beside it. 这次危机如此严重，任何其他考虑都只能退居次位。</div><br><br>但是，dimension 如果以单数出现，一般可以指某件抽象事物某一个侧面的意义、内涵或作用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Very often, the focus of a fast is only on the dimension of self-denial. 往往禁食的重点仅仅在于自我舍弃这一点上。</div><br><br>
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dinner
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>dinner</b></div>是一天中主要的、比较正式丰盛的一顿饭，可以是午饭，也可以是晚饭。美国人由于工作关系，一般午饭很简单，所以 dinner 通常是晚饭。但是遇到周末或节日(感恩节、圣诞节、新年等)，则中饭就比较丰盛，dinner 就是中饭(约在下午一点钟)。如果被美国人邀请 have Sunday dinner with us，就不能傍晚才去。<br><br>
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dirty 与 soiled
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>dirty 与 soiled</b></div>通常日常穿脏了还没有洗的衣物，不说 <i>dirty (这个词的意思太重，有贬义)，要说 soiled。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She went into the bedroom to strip the soiled (</i>dirty) sheets. 她进卧室去掀掉脏床单。</div><br><br>但是，如果不打算排除贬义，甚至故意保持贬义，就用 dirty 而不用 soiled。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>wash one's dirty linen in public 家丑外扬</div><div class="ex-item">wash one's dirty linen at home 家丑不外扬。</div><br><br>
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disappeared
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>disappeared</b></div>通常只有及物动词的过去分词可以当作形容词来修饰名词，但是少数不及物动词的过去分词也可以有这样的功能。disappeared 就是其中之一。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a disappeared ancient civilization 一个业已消失的古代文明</div><div class="ex-item">the disappeared during the military dictatorship 军人独裁期间的失踪者</div><div class="ex-item">The Canary Islands are part of the Atlantis legend, a place known as the disappeared continent. 加那利群岛是亚特兰蒂斯传说的一部分，据称这个地方是一个失踪了的大陆。/ A wide street, now disappeared, was where he was born. 一条现在已经消失的宽阔的街道，是他的出生之地。类似这样的不及物动词过去分词还有 fallen、vanished、retired、escaped、faded、collapsed、returned 等。</div><br><br>
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disapprove 与 disapprove of
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>disapprove 与 disapprove of</b></div>用法与 approve 和 approve of 相对应。但是 disapprove 作为及物动词，是美式英语用法，英式英语不大流行。通常都是用 disapprove of (但加上 of 只能作为表示状态的延续动词，不能表示一时具体的“不同意”行为)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it. (Voltaire) 我不赞成你说的话，但是我誓死捍卫你说这话的权利。disapprove 可作为及物动词，使用被动语态。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His proposal was disapproved. 他的建议被否定了。</div><br><br>
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discovery
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>discovery</b></div>重大的发现才说是 discovery。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>discovery of America 发现美洲。</div><br><br>一般的、具体物质的发现是 find (名词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>archaeological finds 考古发现。</div><br><br>科学实验或调查工作的发现(细节性的，如各个具体数据)是 findings (通常为复数)。<br><br>
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discover 与 invent
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>discover 与 invent</b></div>一个是“发现”，另一个是“发明”，在中文中也是十分清楚、不容易混淆的。可以 discover a medicinal herb (发现一种草药)，但只能 invent a medicine (发明一种药物)。<br><br>
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disinterested 与 uninterested
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>disinterested 与 uninterested</b></div>两者意义上有差别。<br><br>uninterested 相当于 not interested。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... but the greater part of the young gentlemen having no particular parents to speak of, were wholly uninterested in the thing. (Charles Dickens, Nicholas Nickleby) ……但是这些年轻人大多都谈不上自己的父母，对这件事情完全不感兴趣。</div><br><br>disinterested 则是“不图实利的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Disinterested intellectual curiosity is the life-blood of real civilization. (G. M. Trevelyan, English Social History) 不图实利的求知欲，是真正的文明所赖的血脉。/ His choice is disinterested, at least, for he must know my father can give her nothing. (Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice) 至少他选中这个对象不是为了有利可图，因为他一定知道我父亲没有一点钱给她。</div><br><br>disinterested 也可以有“不置可否的，超然的”之意。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A clergymen cannot be disinterested about theology, nor a soldier about war. (Bertrand Russell, Education and the Good Life) 一个牧师不可能超然于神学，一个军人也不可能超然于战争。</div><br><br>但是 disinterested 有时候也向 uninterested 靠拢。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>When I grow tired or disinterested in anything, I experience a disgust. (Jack London, letter, Feb. 24, 1914) 当我感到疲倦，对任何事情都不感兴趣的时候，我就感到厌恶。/ Those spotted are usually taught so slowly they grow disinterested and quit. (The New York Times, June 25, 1967) 那些被注意的人，受到的教导往往很缓慢，因此就冷淡下来，退出了。</div><br><br>
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dislike
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>dislike</b></div>是 like 的反义词，但用法与 like 有些不同，它的直接宾语通常只用名词、代词、动名词，很少用动词不定式。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She disliked the theatre. 她不喜欢戏剧。/ I grew to dislike working for the cinema. 我从小就不喜欢干电影工作。</div><br><br>但是如果同 like 并列使用，则可以用动词不定式作共同的直接宾语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>What do they like and dislike to eat? 他们喜欢吃什么又不喜欢吃什么？</div><br><br>
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dis_posal 与 disposition
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>dis_posal 与 disposition</b></div>两个名词都派生于动词 dispose，但是各有各的意义和用法。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> disposal 一方面继承了 dispose 的瞬时动态意义(“处理掉，解决，干掉”)，另一方面又在 at the disposal of somebody (或 at somebody's disposal) 这个词组中新获得了延续状态的意义(但这是唯一的变化)。<br><br>表示瞬时动态意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... the disposal of 300 tons of solid waste ... (Annual Report, Eastman Kodak Co.) ……处理了 300 吨固体废料……</div><div class="ex-item">Arrangements were made for the disposal of the body. 做出了如何处理尸体的安排。</div><br><br>表示延续静态意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm at your disposal. 有何吩咐，请别客气。/ ... to place the facilities of both institutions at the disposal of graduate students. (Current Biography, December 1964) ……把两校的校舍交给研究生使用。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> disposition 基本上是静态的，表示人的“性格”、事物的“格局”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She is of a cheerful disposition. 她性格活泼。/ the disposition of furniture in the room室内家具的布置</div><div class="ex-item">the disposition of God 上帝的安排，天意。</div><br><br>
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dispose of
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>dispose of</b></div>作为瞬时体动词(第四类动词)，表示“处理掉，解决，干掉”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This merchandise is his, but I have resolved to dispose of it for the benefit of his family. (Andrew Lang, The Arabian Nights)货物是他的，但是我决定为了他家人的利益而处理掉。</div><div class="ex-item">He was glad he had disposed of the first question. 他很高兴解决了第一个问题。</div><div class="ex-item">The despot disposed of all his enemies. 暴君干掉了他的一切政敌。参见 deal with 条。</div><br><br>
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dissatisfied 与 unsatisfied
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>dissatisfied 与 unsatisfied</b></div>两者意义上有些区别。<br><br>unsatisfied 通常指“愿望，要求；好奇心”之类，而且往往经过一个过程后仍然得不到满足。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... a large unsatisfied demand for education at university level (The Times Literary Supplement, Feb. 5, 1970)……大量得不到满足的接受大学教育的要求。</div><br><br>dissatisfied 则是静态的“心怀不满的”，而且主要指人。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... the young adult is dissatisfied more often with the job than the older worker. (Dale B. Harris, Automation, Education and Human Values)……年轻人比老年一些的工人对工作更为不满意。</div><br><br>
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distance
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>distance</b></div>distance 与介词及冠词的搭配用法是：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 以某人或某事物为出发点，讲到在远处另一事物或人，用 in (the) distance。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We saw a light in (the) distance. 我们看到了远处有亮光。</div><br><br>如果是动态的“瞭望”，可以将静态的 in 改为 into。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>One could gaze far into the distance and often not see a single soul. 极目瞭望远处，常常一个人影都看不见。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 如果反过来以另一事物或人为中心，把感觉的主体理解为在远处，此时对感觉主体可以说他是 at a distance，也可以说“at a distance from + 另一事物”。如果 distance 还有距离说明，可以用“at/from a distance of + 距离”。这里的距离可以是空间的，也可以是时间的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The only way I can cope with him is at a distance. 我唯一能应付他的办法，就是保持距离。</div><div class="ex-item">Now I can look back on the tragedy from a distance of forty years. 经历了40年之后，现在我可以回头看看那场悲剧了。</div><br><br>from a distance 只是表示“离开一段或长或短的距离”，并不带有倾向性，不表示距离之远。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Police watched the peaceful protest from a distance but did not interfere. 警察隔开一段距离监视着和平抗议，但是没有干预。如果将 a 改为 the，则带有倾向性，表示距离之远。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the comet seen from the distance 远距离看到的那个彗星。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> a distance 后面可以接上“of + 长度”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a distance of two miles 两英里里的距离。如果后面是一段有明确空间位置的距离，就要用 the，不能用 a。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the distance between Beijing and Tianjin 北京和天津之间的距离。 (4) 可以用 within + -ing + distance 表示距离之近，就在动名词表示的这个行动的范围之内。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>within driving distance 开汽车可达</div><div class="ex-item">within walking distance 步行可达</div><div class="ex-item">within hailing distance 呼喊都听得见的距离内</div><div class="ex-item">within spitting distance 一口唾沫都能吐得到的距离内。</div>“可及”的出发地点，在后面用 of 引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>within walking distance of the supermarket 从超市步行可达</div><div class="ex-item">... the ship had passed within hailing distance of Madeira ... (John Darnton, The Darwin Conspiracy)……船经过了接近马德拉的地方，呼喊都能听见……</div><br><br>
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distant
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>distant</b></div>参见 far 条之(2)。<br><br>
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distinct, distinctive 与 distinguished
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>distinct, distinctive 与 distinguished</b></div>这三个形容词意义各不相同。distinct 是“清楚明确的”(本身对内)，扩大为“与众不同的”(对外区别，常用 from)。distinctive 单纯是“与众不同的”(着重对外区别，不注重对内)。distinguished 则是“杰出的，卓越的，高贵的”(意义原先是对外区别，转为本身对内)。<br><br>
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distinguish
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>distinguish</b></div>可以及物，也可以不及物。基本上是个瞬时动态动词，但也可以用作延续状态动词。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为及物动词，基本搭配是 distinguish X from Y，主语可以是认识到区别的人，但也可以是显示区别的客观事物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... permits us to distinguish the styles of the North American Indians ... from those of the better-known African, Mesoamerican and South Pacific primitive cultures. (Barbara Rose, New York Letter, Jan. 10, 1972)……使得我们能够将北美洲印第安人的风格同非洲、中美洲以及南太平洋一些原始文化的风格区别开来。</div><div class="ex-item">It had its stone wall ... to protect it, distinguishing it from an open village. (G. M. Trevelyan, English Social History)它有一堵石墙……保护住宅，使它和一个开阔的村庄区别开来。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作为不及物动词，基本搭配是 distinguish between X and Y，主语通常只能是认识到区别的人。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... a child under four will hardly distinguish between yesterday and a week ago. (Bertrand Russell, Education and the Good Life)……一个不满4岁的孩子，很难分清昨天与一周以前。</div><br><br>
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distribute
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>distribute</b></div>中文“分配(某人工作)”不能照搬为 distribute somebody。“他被分配到东北”译成 *he was distributed to the Northeast 是天大的笑话。应该改为 he was assigned to the Northeast。<br><br>
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distrust
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>distrust</b></div>distrust of somebody 中 somebody 是被动的对象，尽管 distrust 并没有强烈的动作意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In Europe, there's a basic distrust of Bush and his administration. 在欧洲，人们对于布什和他的政府抱有一种根本性的不信任。</div><br><br>
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divorce
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>divorce</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> divorce 作为名词，如果指的是笼统的一个制度，不带任何冠词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Divorce is the ending of a marriage before the death of either spouse. 离婚是配偶双方均在世时婚姻的结束。</div><div class="ex-item">Among the states in which divorce has become commonplace are the United States, R. O. Korea and members of the European Union. 离婚已经成为家常便饭的国家有美国、韩国和欧盟各国。</div><br><br>如果指的是具体的某宗离婚事件(但是没有定语说明是谁的)，第一次提及用 a divorce，再次提及用 the divorce。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Women often financially suffer as a result of divorce due to lower earning. 妇女由于收入低，离婚后常常在经济上吃亏。(笼统概述)</div><div class="ex-item">She has got a divorce. 她离了婚。(具体事件，第一次提及)</div><div class="ex-item">Now she suffers financially as a result of the divorce. 现在她离婚后在经济上吃亏了。(具体事件，再次提及)</div>还要注意的是：a divorce 用不定冠词 a，也许是因为这次离婚可能只是多次中的一次，但不见得真的强调一个人有多次离婚的可能，而只是指一次法定手续。如果交代清楚谁同谁的离婚(此时不大可能是多次之一)，就要说 the divorce between A and B。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> divorce 作为动词，最需要注意的是主动被动以及搭配的问题。中文习惯说“同某人离婚”，但英文不说 *divorce with somebody，而是用 divorce 作为及物动词，直接说 divorce somebody。不过，divorce somebody 也有点暗示主语主动、宾语被动的意思。用被动式 be divorced from somebody 则不说明谁主动谁被动。泛泛谈到双方离婚，可以用 divorce 作为不及物动词，说 they divorced，也可以用 divorce 作为及物动词的被动语态 divorced，说 they were/got divorced。而且，如果不是当作自己主动的行为，而是牵涉到法律手续，就往往带有一点被动的意味(如被询问，被登记，被公证，等等；请参见 marry 条、swear 条等)，所以此时一般还是用 be divorced 更合适。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The couple asked to be divorced. 那对夫妻要求离婚。如果指的不是“离了婚的状态”而是“实行离婚的行动”，则 get divorced 比 be divorced 更为清楚。</div><br><br>
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dog
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>dog</b></div>西方人对“狗”并不十分憎恶，有时甚至有好感，因此 dog 一词往往不带贬义。例如 watchdog 指主持正义监督某些机构或人是否有不当行为的团体，top dog 指竞争中占据有利条件居于上风者，underdog 指竞争中条件不利的弱势者。<br><br>
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do it 与 do so
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>do it 与 do so</b></div>两者都是用来代替前面提到过的一个行动。用法上的区别，有一种说法是：do it 是有意识的行动；do so 则可以是无意识的行为。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—When you chop off a chicken's head and it's already dead, it still kicks a few times. —Why does it do so? —你把一只鸡的头砍掉，它就已经死了，但它还踢几下脚。 —它为什么这样？(鸡已经死了，不可能是有意识的行为，所以不用 do it 而用 do so。)</div><div class="ex-item">The old man fell on his way to church. I'm sorry to hear that he did so/that. 老人在去教堂的路上摔倒了。我听到他出事心里很难过。</div><br><br>但是在实际语言运用中，无意识的行动也有用 do it 的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Of course I am going to misspeak, and I've done it on numerous occasions, and I probably will do it in the future. (John McCain, The Washington Post, Apr. 7, 2007)当然，我会说错话的，我曾经多次说错话，今后大概也会说错话。</div><br><br>
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done
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>done</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> do 的这个过去分词，前面加上 be，以人做主语，可以表示“已经把事情做完”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Man's work last till set of sun, woman's work is never done. 男人干活天黑完，女人干活没个完。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> done 有时候还被用来代替过去式 did。这个用法显然不规范，是 19 世纪末叶在一些文化水平不高的人群中开始流行起来的。20 世纪中叶美国一些侦探小说就统称为 who-done-it (罪案是谁干的)，又书写为 whodunit 或 whodunnit。<br><br>
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don't
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>don't</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 许多英语学习者一看见 don't，很容易马上想到这是叫对方“别做某事”(dos and don'ts 就是该做什么不该做什么的“须知”)。但其实有时候 don't 是指自己，略去了前面的主语 I。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Don't believe so. (= I don't believe so.)我看不是这样。</div><div class="ex-item">No, don't think so. (= No, I don't think so.)我看不会的。</div><div class="ex-item">Don't believe I've had the pleasure. 我觉得咱们是第一次见面吧。(直译是：我不觉得我曾经有幸见过您)</div><div class="ex-item">—Have some more coffee? —Don't mind if I do. (= I don't mind if I do.) —再喝点咖啡好吗？ —再要点也好。</div><br><br>don't bother 是叫对方“别白费力气了”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—Do you want me to save this spoonful of mashed potatoes? —Don't bother. —你要我把这一勺土豆泥留下来吗？ —别费这个劲了。</div><br><br>don't bother me 是叫对方“别打扰我”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Don't bother me. I'm busy. Can't you see? 别打扰我。我忙着呢。你没看见吗？</div><br><br>Don't bother me none. 则是 It don't bother me none. 省略了开头的 it (这本来是不符合语法的，按照语法 don't 应该是 doesn't)，也可以说 (It) don't make me no nevermind。意思是“我无所谓”(这是美国南卡罗来纳州的方言)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—Mind if I sit here? —It don't bother me none. —我可以坐在这里吗？ —我无所谓。</div><div class="ex-item">—Can I smoke? —Don't bother me none. —我可以吸烟吗？ —我无所谓。(不是“别打扰我”)</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 从上面可以看到，don't 在非正式的英语中有时候代替第三人称单数的 doesn't。甚至一些著名的作家也这样用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But never mind: —“God save the king!” and kings! For if he don't, I doubt if men will longer. (Lord Byron, Don Juan)但是不要紧的：——“上帝佑我王！”佑所有的王！因为如果上帝不佑，恐怕凡人佑不了多久。(拜伦在该作品中一律用 don't 代替 doesn't)</div><div class="ex-item">However, it don't matter if you've read the play. (George Bernard Shaw, letter, Dec. 24, 1897)不过，只要你看过剧本，那就不要紧了。</div><br><br>
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(Don't give up the) ship!
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(Don't give up the) ship!</b></div>由于历史关系，英语中有关航海的用语较多。Don't give up the ship!（不要弃船！）也可以用于同航海无关的场合，表示“要坚持，不要打退堂鼓”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—I'm having a devil of a time with calculus. I think I want to drop the course. —Keep trying. Don't give up the ship. —微积分把我弄得好苦。我想还是退出这一门课吧。—继续试试看。别打退堂鼓。</div><br><br>
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(don't hold your) breath
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(don't hold your) breath</b></div>直译是“别屏住呼吸”，但是实际意义是叫对方“不要耐心等待(事情不会马上发生的)”。因为如果等待的事情马上到来，通常人们就会屏住呼吸。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—The front yard is such a mess. —Bill's supposed to rake the leaves. —Don't hold your breath. He never does his share of the work. —前院乱得一塌糊涂。—应该是比尔把树叶扫在一起。—等着吧。他那一份活儿他是从来不干的。/ Don't hold your breath. You're dealing with a bureaucracy from another planet. 你就硬着头皮等下去吧。你碰上的是来自另一个星球的官僚集团。/ He said he would be in touch if anything came up but then told us we shouldn't hold our breath. (Michael Christopher Mahan, An Internal Affair)他说，有什么新情况可以联系他，但是又告诉我们不要以为马上会有什么结果。</div><br><br>
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door
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>door</b></div>表示“进入……的门户”，后面用介词 to。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You still wouldn't know which door is the door to heaven and which door is the door to hell. 你仍然不会知道，哪一道门是通向天堂之门，哪一道门是通向地狱之门。即使是抽象概念，也用 to。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Some people think of college as the door to success. 有些人以为大学就是通往成功之门。</div><div class="ex-item">Einstein's theory opened the door to the nuclear age. 爱因斯坦的理论，打开了核时代的大门。</div><br><br>但是，如果是“关闭”通往某目标的大门，就用 on。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The incident closed the door on his chances for promotion. 这次事故，使得他失去了获得升职的机会。</div><br><br>另外，如果 door 只是作为某建筑物的一部分，而不是作为进入的人口，后面用 of。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>On October 31, 1517, Martin Luther nailed his 95 Theses to the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg with hammer strokes which echoed throughout all of Europe. 1517 年 10 月 31 日，马丁·路德把他的 95 条论纲一锤一锤地钉到了维滕贝格城堡教堂的大门上，锤击的声音，在欧洲各地引起了共鸣。</div><br><br>
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dosage 与 dose
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>dosage 与 dose</b></div>dosage 是经常服用某一药物的规定剂量；dose 则是具体某次服用的剂量。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Last night, before going to bed, I took a large dose (<i>dosage) of castor oil. 我昨夜临睡前服用了大剂量的蓖麻油。</div><div class="ex-item">She took twice the prescribed dose (</i>dosage) of sleeping tablets. 她服用了双倍于处方剂量的安眠药。(虽然是 prescribed，但仍然是具体一次而不是普遍的剂量。)</div>
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do so
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>do so</b></div>do 除非作为助动词代替一个实义动词(如 Yes, I do.)，否则它自己就是个实义动词，而 do 作为实义动词通常是个及物动词(作为不及物动词只有“办事；日子过得好坏；合适，行；足够”等意义)，出现时要有直接宾语，名词和代词以外，只有副词 so 可以代替这个直接宾语(参见 do it 与 do so 条)。因此，在下面的例句中，so 这个副词不要误解为用来修饰后面另一副词(因为这一来 do 就会没有直接宾语)，而应该把 do so 连在一起理解。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>While Americans are spending, many are doing so cautiously. (The Wall Street Journal, Mar. 24, 2003, A3)美国人在花钱，而许多人却在量入为出。(不能把 so 与 cautiously 连在一起误解为“许多人在如此小心翼翼地办事”，doing so 在句中代替了 spending。)</div>
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(do) so
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(do) so</b></div>so本来是个副词，do本来在这里是个及物动词。但是so在这里代替了直接宾语，参见do it 与 do so 条及 do so 条。<br><br>
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double
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>double</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> double (前面不用任何冠词)直接加在一个特指(常常有 the)的数量前面，当中不需要再加介词；合在一起形成另一个双倍大的新数量，可以当作名词成分。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>China's share of world trade in 2002 was almost double the 2.7 percent of world trade China carried just seven years earlier. (The Washington Quarterly, Winter 2003-2004, p. 77)中国在世界贸易中所占的份额，到 2002 年竟双倍于中国短短 7 年前在世界贸易中所占的 2.7%。这个新数量，前面还可以加上介词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Both sets of laboratory animals had lived healthily for double their life-spans after receiving shots of the formula. 两组实验动物，在注射了制剂后，健健康康地活过了双倍于通常的寿命时间。</div><div class="ex-item">Peripheral Artery Disease (PAD) is often described as poor leg circulation, which puts you at double the risk of heart attack or stroke. (U.S. News & World Report, July 21-28, 2008, p. 7, ad)外周动脉疾病常常表现为腿部血流不畅，它使你心脏病发作或中风的危险提高一倍。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> double 还有副词 doubly，可以放在形容词前面表示该情状的加倍。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It (= Bush's veto of stem cell research funding bill) was doubly disappointing to advocates of embryonic stem cell research in New York ... 布什的否决，对于纽约州主张进行胚胎干细胞研究的人们来说，更是加倍地使人失望……</div><br><br>
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doubt
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>doubt</b></div>虽然是个抽象名词，如果脱离了固定词组(如 no doubt、in doubt)独立使用时，往往要用复数(哪怕只是在一点上的怀疑)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They have doubts about the war. 他们对战争有怀疑。</div><div class="ex-item">I must admit I have my doubts. 我必须承认我想不通。</div><br><br>
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doubtful 与 dubious
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>doubtful 与 dubious</b></div>均可以表示：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> (人)抱有怀疑态度的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm very dubious/doubtful about the whole idea. 我对整个主张十分怀疑。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> (事物)可疑的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is dubious/doubtful whether he'll accept. 他会不会接受很难说。</div><br><br>
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doubt 与 suspect
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>doubt 与 suspect</b></div>两者的区别十分重要。两者在中文里都译成“怀疑”，但是 doubt 是从反面对某事物加以怀疑，即认为它可能不真；suspect 则是从正面加以怀疑，即认为它可能是真的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I really doubt Tankado ever meant for it to go this far. I suspect he intended to be around to stop it. (Dan Brown, Digital Fortress)我真的怀疑丹角不见得有意把事情闹得这样大。我猜想他原来是打算亲自出马加以制止的。</div><br><br>但是，doubt 在较早期的英语里也可以有从正面加以怀疑而认为可能属实的含义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>“All is not well. I doubt some foul play. (Shakespeare, Hamlet)事情有些不妙。我想这里面一定有奸人的恶计。(现代文本则将这个 doubt 改为 suspect。)”</div><br><br>
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dove 与 pigeon
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>dove 与 pigeon</b></div>中文都是“鸽子”，但是在英文中两者的象征意义不同，不能混用。dove 羽毛雪白，是和平、善良的象征，所以“和平鸽”要说 dove of peace。pigeon 则羽毛黑白掺杂，一般用作信鸽，甚至供食用，在英语中它的象征意义是“傻瓜”，英语俚语 pigeon 是容易受骗上当的人。在赌博中，老千、骗子是 rook (乌鸦)，上当的傻瓜就是 pigeon (鸽子)。英国作家萨克雷(William Makepeace Thackeray)就写过一本小说——《乌鸦上尉和鸽子先生》(Captain Rook and Mr. Pigeon)。<br><br>因此，政治上的“鸽派”是 the doves，不是 the pigeons。“鹰派”是 the hawks，不是 the eagles，因为 hawk 象征着“好战”，而 eagle 所象征的主要悬“勇敢，不死”。这两个名词还派生出相应的形容词 dovish 和 hawkish，又再派生出抽象名词 dovishness (鸽派倾向)和 hawkishness (鹰派倾向)。<br><br>
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down
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>down</b></div>on the way down from London to Brighton (从伦敦到布莱顿的路上)，这里的 down 其实不是从地势高处往低处去，而是从较重要的城市往较不重要的地方去；即使去掉 from London，有了 down，也可以看出是从较为重要的地方或是(由于习惯看地图北在上面南在下面)从靠北边的地方出发。down 作为形容词，down train 在英国指的是从伦敦开往外地的列车，up train 则是外地开往伦敦的列车。go down to Oxford 是伦敦的人去牛津，go up to Oxford 则是考上了牛津大学的学生去牛津。<br><br>不一定首都就“高于”其他城市。有些城市很重要，就不见得“低于”首都。例如某小说谈到某人准备应聘，从纽约搬到首都华盛顿供职，打算把自己坐惯了的舒服的沙发也带去：If I go to Washington, I'll ship it down. (Mary Higgins Clark, While My Pretty One Sleeps) (如果去华盛顿，我要把它也运去。)这是因为纽约位于华盛顿以北，而且实际重要性甚至超过华盛顿，所以不好用 up。<br><br>
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downhill
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>downhill</b></div>作为形容词或副词，原意是“走下坡路”。但是这个词既可以指“顺利”，也可以指“每况愈下”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It should all be downhill from now on. 从今以后，会事事顺利。</div><div class="ex-item">When you get to forty, it's downhill all the way. 人到 40 就一直走下坡路。</div><div class="ex-item">It's a relationship that's been going downhill pretty much since 2002. (The Associated Press, Feb. 17, 2008)这个关系，自从 2002 年以来就一直走下坡路。</div><br><br>值得注意的是，反义词 uphill 只有“吃力，不顺利”的意义。<br><br>
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down South
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>down South</b></div>参见 out West 条。<br><br>
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down the road
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>down the road</b></div>原先意思是“顺着路走下去”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Suddenly they saw a traveller coming down the road, and the Sun said: “I see a way to decide our dispute.” (Aesop's Fables)忽然他们看见一个旅客一路走过来，于是太阳就说：“我找到了解决咱们争执的办法了。”</div><div class="ex-item">They had walked some way and it was now night, but they could see a large iron gate a little way farther down the road on their left. (Virginia Woolf, The Voyage Out)他们走了一些路，现在已经天黑了，但是他们还能够看到自己左边前面稍远处有一扇大铁门。</div><div class="ex-item">He walked down the road and went into one or two liquor shops, staying for nearly half-an-hour in the last of them. (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, A Study in Scarlet)他顺着路走下去，进去了一两家卖酒店，在最后一家停留了将近半个钟头。</div><br><br>但是 down the road 也可以从空间的意义转到时间的意义，表示“今后”(有对今后的发展不能预测的口气)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If ..., we will pay a terrible price down the road. 如果……的话，我们今后会付出可怕的代价。</div><div class="ex-item">We may at some point buy a house but that's down the road. 我们有朝一日会买一栋房子，但那是后话了。</div><div class="ex-item">This is a wonderful invention, but a marketable product is several years down the road. 这个发明很了不起，但是要成为能销售的产品，那是几年以后的事了。</div><div class="ex-item">I was asked to gather statistical data that could be useful down the road. 他们叫我收集统计数字，日后可能有有用。</div><div class="ex-item">The White House insists the package (of tax cuts) will stimulate the economy, but Democrats warn that consumers will pay down the road. (U.S. News & World Report, June 2, 2003, p. 13)白宫坚持说这套减税措施将刺激经济，但是民主党人提出警告，说今后要由消费者付出代价。(注意 pay 与 down 不能连起来)但是空间的意义仍然保留一些痕迹。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If ever, someplace down the road, you and I differ on a matter of judgment that's important, you have my permission to remind me of this incident, and that your judgment was right and mine wrong. 今后的某个时候，如果你我在一个重大的判断问题上意见相左，我允许你拿这个事件来提醒我，说明你的判断正确而我的判断错误。(这里用 someplace 而不用 sometime，但指的是时间，可见是借用空间来表示时间。)</div>
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(down the) road
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(down the) road</b></div>参见 down the road 条。<br><br>
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downtown
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>downtown</b></div>原先是名词，表示“闹市”，但也可以用作为形容词，表示“位于闹市的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a downtown restaurant 一家位于闹市区的饭馆。或是用来缩小地域范围。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>downtown New York 纽约闹市区。也可以用作副词，表示静态的“在闹市区”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>live downtown 住在闹市区。或是动态的“往闹市区去”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>go downtown。或是借用动态表示静态的方位。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>downtown two blocks 从此地朝闹市方向两个街区之处。</div><br><br>
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down your way
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>down your way</b></div>是口语，指说话对方的“你们那边”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Anything new down your way? 你们那边有什么新情况吗？</div><br><br>
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... do you think (suppose) ...
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>... do you think (suppose) ...</b></div>在 Why do you think we are in Iraq? 这个问句中，why 管的不是 do you think (不是“你为什么以为我们到了伊拉克？”)，而是 we are in Iraq。所以全句应该译成：“你认为我们是为什么到了伊拉克的？”这里比较容易“引人上当”的一个情况是本来同 why 没有关系的 do you think 用了倒装词序，而真正同 why 相连的 we are in Iraq 却反而用了正常词序。do you think 其实是中间插进去的，如果去掉，句子就是倒装的 Why are we in Iraq? 不过，如果问的事情是尽人皆知的事实，如“我们到了伊拉克”，理解错误的可能性不大。有些事情，还不十分确定，就有可能误解误译。例如 Why do you think global warming is being ignored? “全球变暖”的说法，目前还有争议，是否被忽视，也不见得意见一致。这一句就有可能误解为“你为什么认为全球变暖在受到忽视？”，其实应该理解为“全球变暖在受到忽视，你认为原因何在？”。<br><br>另外，在有些句子中，... do you think/suppose ... 后面的部分缺了一些成分，必须同全句开头处的疑问词结合才有意义(缺了 why 仍可以有意义，但缺了别的疑问词就不完全)，此时更可以判断句首的疑问词同 do you think/suppose 不相干。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>What do you think Jane's hair is like? 你觉得简的头发怎么样？</div><div class="ex-item">How do you suppose I'd look going back begging Congress to lift sanctions I could have vetoed in the first place? 对于制裁，我本来就可以加以否决，但是没有否决，到现在回过头来要我哀求国会取消，你看我如果这样做会成何体统？(这里的 look 不是“看”，而是“给别人一个印象”的意思，参见 look 条。什么印象，后面没有下文。原来 look 是同句首的 how 联系的，意义上相当于 how would I look ... )</div>同这一句一样，如果句首的疑问词同 do you think 显然没有语义上的联系，就不容易误解了。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How far do you think it is to the next town? 你觉得离下一个镇还有多远？</div><div class="ex-item">Who do you think is to blame? 你认为是谁之过？</div><br><br>值得注意的是：... do，后面的动词不定式的动词，通常是一个表示判断或看法的动词。如果是一个表示情绪的动词，由于情绪所涉及的内容不涉及疑问而只能是针对一个事实，因此句首的疑问词就不是管后面的从句，而是管以 you 为主语的主句了。试比较下面两句：Why do you think that Mary did it? (你觉得玛丽为什么这样做？) Why do you regret that Mary did it? (你为什么对玛丽这样做感到遗憾？)前一句的 why 管的是 Mary did it，后一句的 why 管的是 do you regret，这是因为 regret 不涉及对某一原因的判断。<br><br>有时候 ... do you 后面不是一个从句，而只是动词的补充成分(这个补充成分仍然包含尚待确定的内容)，但是 do you 前面的疑问词仍然不是同 do you 相联系，而是同这个补充成分相联系。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>And how do you propose doing that? (Jeffrey Archer, The Fourth Estate)那么按你的意思该怎么样做呢？(how 管 doing that，不管 do you propose)</div>有时候，... do you ... 可以转换为另外一个也是形式上颠倒的主句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Who is it time for John to visit? 现在是约输该访问谁的时候？</div><br><br>
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do²
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>do²</b></div>do 作为助动词，放在不带 to 的动词不定式之前，用来强调，这是语法书上有说明的。但是什么时候该用，仍然值得探讨。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> do 最基本的意义就是确认后面的动词确实发生。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>And yes, I did write the letter. 的确，那封信是我写的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 有时候前面刚刚谈到了某一动作(成为已知信息)，接着要表示这个动作果然发生(新知信息)，就可以把那个动词以不定式的形式放在前面，后面再加上 do。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She said she'd succeed, and succeed she did. 她说过她会成功的，她果然成功了。</div><div class="ex-item">In both cases, the perception of a strategic threat was slow to grow. But grow it did, and ultimately it led to war. (Newsweek, Aug. 24, 2009, p. 56)在这两件事上，战略威胁感的发展都是缓慢的。但是发展还是发展了，而且最后导致了战争。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> do 常常可以用来“争辩”，反驳实际的或想象中认为“并没有这样做”的说法。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—Since you didn't ask me ... —But I did ask you. —既然你没有问我…… —我问了你的呀。</div><div class="ex-item">You don't care what I think. But I do care. 我心里怎样想的，你不在乎。我却是在乎的。</div><div class="ex-item">You must admit, she did look ill. 你必须承认，她当时是有病容的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> do 也用于表示庄严郑重的行为。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I, Charles Brown, do solemnly swear that ... 本人查尔斯·布朗谨在此庄严宣誓……</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 在一连串的行动中，专门突出某一“画龙点睛”的行动，可以用 do。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>一家酒吧的告示：But of course, after half past ten we must stop serving completely. No special customers waiting for one more drink. And the police do check (*And the police check.) (Meet the Press, 1983—1984)不过，过了10点半我们就必须完全停止营业。各位顾客不可再等候多喝一杯，没有特例。警方到时要查核。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 在意义发生一正一反的转折时，后面部分需要加上一个 do 来使得“一反”站得住。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Hope this is helpful. Do ask if anything is not clear. 希望这番说明能对大家有所帮助。如有不清楚之处，请询问。(not clear 同 helpful 相反)</div><div class="ex-item">How they manage to subsist, he only who sees into all mysteries can tell; the subsistence of a Spanish family of the kind is always a riddle to me; yet they do subsist, and what is more, appear to enjoy their existence. (Washington Irving, Tales of the Alhambra: To Which Are Added Legends of the Conquest of Spain)他们是如何度日的，只有看透一切奥秘的人才能弄清楚；这样一个西班牙家庭如何度日，对我来说一直是个谜；但他们确生存着，而且看来还活得有滋有味。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 与前面的(6)相似但次序相反，表示“虽然……但是……”时，在前面的“虽然”部分加上 do (“的确”)，用“的确”隐约表达了“虽然”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A one-year special course at the Bramshill staff college does enable an especially bright constable to get rapid promotion ... But this is inadequate. (The Economist, July 4, 1981)在布拉姆希尔警察学院攻读为期一年的专门课程，的确可以使得一个特别优秀的警员获得迅速提拔……但这是不够的。</div><div class="ex-item">People do like to buy British but they're shocked by the price. (The Sunday Times, Oct. 31, 1982)人们的确是喜欢买英国国货，但他们被价钱吓呆了。</div><div class="ex-item">Admittedly they do bring the streets to life ... But surely their customers and the general public pay very dearly for the services they offer. 的确，他们使得市街有了生气。但是他们的顾客和公众却要为他们提供的服务支付高昂的费用。</div><br><br>
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do¹
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>do¹</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为实义动词，不及物，do 可以表示“能用，有用”(是个表示状态的延续体动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He gets up and brews fresh coffee at the kitchen and looks for a clean cup in which to serve a visitor. None in sight. Would a white soup bowl do instead? 他站了起来，到厨房里煮了新鲜咖啡，想找一只干净的杯子来招待客人。眼下找不到。用一只白汤碗来代替行不行？</div><br><br>但是要注意 do 作为不及物动词和及物动词，意义是大不相同的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It shows what $4 a gallon gas will do. (The New York Times, Sept. 12, 2008, A17)这表明了一加仑汽油4美元的高价能起多大的作用。这里的 do 是及物动词，以 what 为宾语；如果 what 改为 that, do 成了个不及物动词，意思就全变了，成为“这表明了一加仑汽油4美元就可以了”。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作为实义动词，不及物，do 也可以不表示主动的行为，而只是表示“日子过得如何”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How are you doing?</div><div class="ex-item">Are you doing okay?</div><div class="ex-item">Doing okay?</div><div class="ex-item">You doing okay? 你过得好吗？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> do 作为及物动词，意义十分广泛，常常取决于前后文和语境。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>do the dishes 洗盘子</div><div class="ex-item">do her hair 梳头，做发型</div><div class="ex-item">do her face 化妆</div><div class="ex-item">do the steak 烤牛排。do the living room 中的 do，可以是粉刷、打扫、整理。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> have something/anything/nothing to do with 表示主语同另一事物有或没有关系。这里的 do 是个表示延续状态(“有关系”)的第一类动词，无论主语是人还是物，都根本不表示“做”什么事情。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> do 常常用来代替前面出现过的一个实义动词(及物不及物均可)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Klemperer's conducting of the third movement shows the extreme strength of his interpretation, as does his earlier recording of the Mass in C. 克伦佩勒对第三乐章的指挥显示了他极强的表现力，正如他先前录下的《C大调弥撒曲》所显示的那样。(does 代替 shows)</div><div class="ex-item">But the quest to spend time the way we do money is doomed to failure, ... (Stefan Klein, in The New York Times, Mar. 7, 2008, OP-ED, A19)但是，如果企图像用钱一样来使用时间，那就肯定办不到，……但是要注意弄清楚代替的是哪一个。如 2006 年美国总统布什在国会中期选举中抨击民主党人时说：The Democrats believe they can spend your money better than you can. We don't. 前面一句很好懂：“民主党人以为他们花你们的钱能够比你们自己花得更好。”后面这个 don't 代替前面的哪一个动词呢？是 believe 还是 spend？由于 spend 已经有了助动词 can，如果再指，还是离不开 can 作为助动词；believe 则没有助动词，正好由 do 来代替。所以 We don't 代替的是 We don't believe。意思是“我们不以为”亦即“我们认为他们不能”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The 5-to-4 decision was a strong rebuke to the Bush administration, which has maintained that it does not have the right to regulate carbon dioxide and other heat-trapping gases under the Clear Air Act, and that even if it did it would not use the authority. (The New York Times, Apr. 3, 2007, A1)(最高法院的)这个5票对4票的裁定，是对布什政府的一个强烈斥责。布什政府曾坚持说自己无权按照《净化空气法》对二氧化碳和其他吸热气体加以管制，而且即使有权也不会动用。(这里的 did 代表了前面的动词 have，不是代表 regulate)</div><div class="ex-item">We need to know our history, and according to C. Wright Mills, we know we do. (James W. Loewen, Lies My Teacher Told Me)我们需要了解我们的历史，而根据 C. 赖特·米尔斯说的，我们知道我们需要。(这里最后面的 do 就代替了最前面的 need。)</div>此外，在许多英语学习者心目中，do 代替前面说过的表示主动动作的动词，是不成问题的。但是如果 do 代替前面的表示被动、所处状态、心态等意义的动词，就不大习惯，而其实英文 do 可以代替一切实义动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Like Carter, Obama faces an effective opposition from his own party's left wing as he does from an ardent but diminished GOP. (Matt Welch and Nick Gillespie, in The Washington Post, July 19, 2009)像卡特那样，奥巴马面对着自己本党左翼强有力的反对，也面对着共和党猛烈的但已经力不从心的反对。(这里 does 代替 faces，是一种并非主动的“所处状态”。)</div>
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do 与 make
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>do 与 make</b></div>弄清楚了该用 do 还是 make，不但自己写作、翻译、说话时可以用得正确，而且有时候也有助于正确理解，不至于发生理解错误。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Vice President Dick Cheney said the press had “made the job of defending against further terrorist attacks more difficult.” (Time, July 10, 2006, p. 6)这里的 made the job 是不是“做这个……工作”呢？不是的，同 job 搭配的应该是 do。这里用 made，一定另有文章。原来 made 是同最末的 more difficult 遥相呼应的，意思是“使得……更为困难”。全句可以译为：“迪克·切尼副总统说，新闻界‘已经使得今后防御恐怖袭击的工作更为困难’。”</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 如果通常说的是不确定的事情，或是某项工作，用 do。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>What shall we do? 咱们怎么办？</div><div class="ex-item">You can do what you want. 你想怎么办就怎么办。</div><div class="ex-item">I'm going to do the housework a bit later. 我稍晚一点要干家务活。</div><br><br>如果说的是创造某事物，用 make。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The performance made a great impression on me. 演出给我留下了深刻的印象。</div><div class="ex-item">You could have made a good profit. 你本来可以获得一大笔利润。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 有许多固定使用 do 的搭配。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Sarah is doing research on this topic. 萨拉正在对这个问题进行研究。</div><div class="ex-item">Helen does her best to help him. 海伦尽力帮助他。</div><div class="ex-item">Earthquakes do a lot of damage. 地震能造成巨大的损害。</div><div class="ex-item">James is authorized to do business in China. 詹姆斯获准在中国做生意。</div><div class="ex-item">It does more harm than good. 它弊多利少。</div><div class="ex-item">Louise does the shopping at weekends. 路易丝在周末上街购物。</div><div class="ex-item">Will you do me a favour? 您能帮我一个忙吗？</div><div class="ex-item">Please do this exercise now. 现在请做这个练习。</div><div class="ex-item">He was doing a documentary on the case. 他正在拍摄有关此案的一部纪录片。</div><div class="ex-item">I'm doing my doctorate in psychology at UCLA. 我现在在加州大学洛杉矶分校攻读心理学博士学位。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 有许多固定使用 make 的搭配。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I have to make three phone calls. 我要打三个电话。</div><div class="ex-item">She has made all the arrangements for the conference. 她已经为会议进行了一切安排。</div><div class="ex-item">Harry is expected to make the final decision. 预计要由哈里做出最后决定。</div><div class="ex-item">Did you manage to make a reservation for a room? 你预订好房间了吗？</div><div class="ex-item">Don't make noise! 别吵！</div><div class="ex-item">She is fond of making fun of her friends. 她喜欢开朋友们的玩笑。</div><br><br>We can make this work. 中的 make 是“使得”的意思，this 是不定代词，不是修饰 work 的指示形容词，work 也不是名词，而是不及物动词。“干工作”的“干”，应该是 do，不是 make。所以全句的意思是“我们能够让这件事办成”，不是“我们能够干这个工作”。<br><br>
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draft
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>draft</b></div>作“草稿，草案”解，本来是个名词，但可以放在文件名称之前起形容词作用，如某文件草案：draft ...。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>draft agreement 协议草案</div><div class="ex-item">draft constitution 宪法草案</div><div class="ex-item">draft treaty 条约草案(同中文词序相反)。</div><br><br>但也可以保持名词性质，即 draft of ×××。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I have made a rough draft of the letter. 该信我粗略地拟了一稿。</div><div class="ex-item">This is only the first draft of my speech. 这只是我演讲的初稿。</div><br><br>
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dreadful
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>dreadful</b></div>参见 awesome 与 awful 条、terrible 与 terrific 条中的相关内容。<br><br>
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dread 与 afraid
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>dread 与 afraid</b></div>参见 afraid 条之(3)。<br><br>
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dress
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>dress</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为不及物动词，既可以指总的穿着状况(延续体，表示状态，第一类动词)，也可以指穿衣动作(瞬时体，表示动作，第四类动词；或是延续体但有终点，第三类动词)。<br><br>可以指总的穿着状况。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She always dresses in green. 她总是穿绿衣服。(第一类)</div><div class="ex-item">He dressed in flashy bad taste. 他的穿着浮华俗气。(第一类)</div><div class="ex-item">She dressed and looked as if she graduated from high school the week before. 她的穿着和样子，活像上星期才刚刚高中毕业似的。(第一类)</div>可以指穿衣动作。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Get up and dress quickly! 快点起来穿上衣服！(第四类)</div><div class="ex-item">When he had shaved and dressed, he went downstairs. 他刮了脸，穿上了衣服，就下楼了。(第四类)</div><div class="ex-item">While she showered and dressed, he waited in the living room. 她淋浴和穿衣时，他在客厅等着。(第三类)</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 如果强调“穿好，穿整齐”的完成意义，就由普通的不及物动词 dress 改为及物被动的 get dressed (反义是 get undressed)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Get dressed and come downstairs at once! 赶紧穿好衣服下楼来！如果具体说明穿的是什么衣服，“穿”的动作就更多用 put on + 名词或 put + 代词 + on (反义是 take off + 名词或 take + 代词 + off)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I put on a sweater, but it was so warm that I had to take it off again. 我穿上了毛衣，但是太热，我只好又把它脱下来。</div><br><br>表示“穿着”的延续状态，可以用 be dressed in、wear/be wearing 或者(美式英语) have on 三种动词形成。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was dressed in a loose, embroidered shirt. 他穿着一件宽松的绣花衬衣。/ He was wearing/had on blue pyjamas. 他穿着蓝色的睡衣。</div><br><br>也可以说 dress oneself，表示瞬间的穿衣动作。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She dressed herself hastily, called the maid, and set off for the stables. (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes) 她匆匆穿上衣服，喊了女仆，动身往马厩去。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 作为不可数名词，dress (不带任何冠词)指笼统的“衣着”，但通常带有定语标明是哪一类的衣着。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>national dress 民族服装</div><div class="ex-item">evening dress 晚礼服。</div><br><br>如果作为可数名词，a dress 通常指的是一件连衣裙。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She was wearing a dress. 她穿着一件连衣裙。</div><br><br>
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dressmaker
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>dressmaker</b></div>参见 tailor 条。<br><br>
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drive
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>drive</b></div>指驾驶四轮以上的车辆，如 drive a car/truck 等等。<br><br>如果是要张腿跨着骑的，如马匹、自行车、小轮摩托车，或是不能坐着驾驶的，如踏板车(scooter)，都不能说是 drive，而应该说 ride。即使是机动的也不例外。<br><br>
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drown
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>drown</b></div>作为不及物动词(第三类或第四类动词)，是指在意外事件中自己淹死。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He drowned last year in the channel. 他去年淹死在水渠里。作为及物动词，则是把某人淹死杀害(第四类动词)，但被动式 be drowned 可以表示“被淹死杀害”，也可以表示“自己意外淹死”。get drowned 则多表示“自己意外淹死”。</div><br><br>drown 是个有时间段过程又有必然终点的趋成动词(即第三类动词)，就是说，一个人不慎落水，有一段挣扎的过程，如果挣扎无效或是救援不及时，就必然会淹死(这是过程自然发展的必然终点)。如果说 he was drowning，就是谈及挣扎的过程，过程的结果被掩盖起来。此时，drown 本来是个趋成动词，但经过时态(过去进行时)的“加工”，就以“未完成”的“貌”出现。如果说 he drowned，就是谈及整个事件(当然包括其不幸结局，而且这个结局自然而然占据突出地位，把终点之前的过程压到很不显要的地位)，drown 这个趋成动词，经过时态(一般过去时)的“加工”，就以“完成”的“貌”出现。<br><br>
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drug
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>drug</b></div>这个单词，无论作为可数还是不可数名词，用起来都要特别小心，因为它常常用来指麻醉药甚至毒品。<br><br>前后文明确表明是一般医疗用药时，它可以代替 medicine 或 medication。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>drug companies 制药公司</div><div class="ex-item">drug used in dermatology 皮肤科用药</div><div class="ex-item">conventional drug therapy 常规药物治疗</div><div class="ex-item">drugs available on prescription only 只能凭处方购买的药品。</div><br><br>在其他情况下，无论作为可数名词(复数形式)还是不可数名词(单数形式)，通常指的都是“毒品”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>drug/drugs trade 毒品行业(不是“药物行业”)</div><div class="ex-item">drug lord/baron 贩毒大王</div><div class="ex-item">drug pusher 毒枭</div><div class="ex-item">drug trafficker/dealer 毒贩</div><div class="ex-item">drug smuggler 贩毒走私者</div><div class="ex-item">drug courier 运毒者</div><div class="ex-item">Drug Squad 缉毒队</div><div class="ex-item">a drug district in New York 纽约一个毒品泛滥的地区</div><div class="ex-item">drug testing/drugs test 吸毒查验</div><div class="ex-item">drug rehab program 戒毒康复活动</div><div class="ex-item">drug-related offenses 与毒品有关的犯罪行为</div><div class="ex-item">drug-financed rebels 靠贩毒收入维持的叛军。</div><br><br>I don't do drugs. 我不吸毒。/ He is on drugs. 他吸毒。但 He is on drugs for his hypertension. 是“他服药治疗高血压”。如果没有前后文表明是治病的药物，最好不要说 drug。例如 *Could you please show me where to buy drugs?
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drunk 与 drunken
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>drunk 与 drunken</b></div>两者都是从动词 drink 的过去分词演变来的形容词，意义都是“喝醉了的”。<br><br>drunken 用作定语，放在名词前面，表示一时的状况。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a drunken driver 喝醉了的司机</div><div class="ex-item">drunken driving 醉酒开车。如果用作表语，则表示“常常酗酒的”。</div><br><br>drunk 用作表语，放在系动词后面，则表示一时的状况。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>get dead/beastly/blind drunk 喝得酩酊大醉</div><div class="ex-item">The policeman himself was drunk. 警察自己就是醉醺醺的。/ He came to work drunk. 他来上班时醉醺醺的。但在美式英语中，drunk 常常放在 driver 或 driving 前作定语，表示一时的状况。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... the Europeans are particularly tough on drunk driving ……欧洲人对醉酒开车处罚特别严厉</div><div class="ex-item">... about three Americans are killed and 80 are injured by drunk drivers every hour of every day. (Newsweek, Sept. 13, 1982) ……在美国每天每小时被醉酒开车者撞死的大约有 3 个人，撞伤的有 80 个人。</div><br><br>
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dubious
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>dubious</b></div>参见 doubtful 与 dubious 条。<br><br>
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due
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>due</b></div>作为表语形容词，意思是：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> (某事)到期该办理。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The rent is now due. 现在该交房租了。/ The payment becomes/falls due on the 5th. 付款期是 5 号。/ When is the next flight due? 下一班飞机什么时候到？/ When is the baby due? 孩子预产期是哪一天？/ You have three books due today. 您有三本书今天到期了。</div><br><br>有时候具体该如何办，可以在后面加上动词不定式或含 for 的介词词组加以说明。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The book is due to be published Tuesday. 该书定于星期二出版。/ She isdue for promotion. 该是提拔她的时候了。/ The movie is due out in August. 片子定于八月份上映。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> be due to somebody 是“(某种好处)照理应该给予(某人)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>That money is due to me and I have not had it. 钱应该是给我的，我还没有拿到呢。/ Ten dollars is due to you. 该给你 10 美元。/ The wages due to them should be paid as soon as possible. 欠他们的工资应该尽快付。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 可以将(2)的结构反转过来，把间接宾语(“某人”)变为主语，把原来的主语(“某种好处”)变为直接宾语，成为 be due something 的形式，意义是“(某人)应该得到(某种好处)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Do not forget to claim any additional pension you are due. 你如果应该得到更多的养老金，就别忘记去领。/ She is due some money from me. 我还欠她一些钱。这种句型的转换，类似于两种被动句型(如 a book was given to him 与 he was given a book)的关系。原来 due 源出于拉丁文动词 debēre，本来是个动词过去分词，所以(2)与(3)中的 due 其实是被动语气的过去分词。</div><br><br>
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during
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>during</b></div>during、for、in 后面都可以管一个时间段，但是意义不同。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> during 不能像 for 那样管一段有数量而无固定位置的时间段，也就是说，不能说 *during two years (但可以说 for two years)；但可以管一段有固定位置(有无明言数量均可)的时间段，也就是说，可以说 during that period 或 during those two years。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> during + 固定位置时间段所形成的时间状语，可以修饰的动词，包括：(a) 延续体动词(即第一类和第二类)；(b) 瞬时体动词(即第四类)；(c) 趋成动词(即第三类)。如果是(a)，during 表示这个延续动作或状态贯穿整个时间段的始终。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>During his lifetime he was relatively unknown. 他生前一直有点默默无闻。也可以特别说明只遍及该时间段的一部分而非全部。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It rained during the night for two or three hours. 夜里下了两三个钟头的雨。如果是(b)，则 during 表示这个瞬时动作发生在该时间段当中的某一或某些时间点。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I woke up during the night. 我夜里醒了过来。/ He had some strange experiences during that period. 他在那个时期有过一些奇特的经历。如果是(c)，则 during 表示这个趋成动词在该时间段当中的某一时间点开始，后来在另一时间点最终完成，不一定用掉整个时间段。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Several bridges were built during the same period. 同一时期内修起了几座桥梁。要注意：所谓固定位置时间段，不一定是明确特指的(即带有定冠词 the 或其他限定词的)，也可以是不特指但却是在历史长河中占据某一位置的(所以也可以带有不定冠词，但不能光是有长度数量)，例如可以说 during a recent period，但不能说 *during two years。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> during + 固定位置时间段所形成的时间状语，可以修饰一个表示“累计总数”的瞬时动词(经过句中语法“加工”，由第四类动词转变成第三类动词)，以表示在这个时间段从头到尾累计得出的结果。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Wages fell by more than twenty percent during the two months. 工资在那两个月当中下降了 20%。/ The number of meals served at the soup kitchen during that time went up by 6.4 percent. 施食处提供的快餐数目，在那个时期增加了 6.4%。 (4) during 后面的名词不一定要表示一个有固定位置的时间段。这个名词成分往往可以是一个有或没有固定时间段的行动过程。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was during his visit to the Far East that he first met her. 他是在访问远东期间初次见到她的。/ I met them during my stay in China. 我是在中国停留期间遇见他们的。/ He learned a lot during his military service. 他在服兵役期间学到了许多东西。因此，也可以用于不特指的表示状况的时间段。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They have to make up for ground lost during hard times. 他们要弥补艰难时期的损失。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> during 通常引入固定位置时间段，但是有时候也可以引入表面上不定位而只是表示时间数量的名词成分，此时 during 似乎接近于 for 或 in，但是其实有其特定的含义与作用：(a) 这个时间数量，不是空洞的，而是有其内容(或是动作，或是事件，或是状态)的，这个内容往往表现在时间数量之后(用 of 之类的介词短语修饰时间数量)或之前。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>during twenty-one days of sustained combat operations 在 21 天的持续战斗期间(等于倒过来说的 during sustained combat operations of twenty-one days，这就同(4)的情况接近)。只要有了内容，即使这个内容是不特指的(有不定冠词)，也可以用 during 来引入。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... during a residence of nine months in that empire. (Jonathan Swift, Gulliver's Travels) ……在那个帝国居留的 9 个月期间。</div>(b) during 可以表示在该时间段之内某一行动产生的积累总量；此时 during 同 in 意义接近，但是 in 往往表示一个过程已经告一段落，而 during 则可以表示这只是其中的一节片段。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>achievements of the Republic during ten years under the administration of President ×× 共和国在某某总统执政 10 年当中的成就(可能 10 年只是他执政的一个时间段，不是全部)。而且，用 in 时，通常只简单地表示“用了多长时间”，不再在后面加上 of ... 或其他介词短语表示其内容。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>During (*in) twenty-five years spent in Berlin Euler wrote many books on calculus. 欧拉在柏林度过的 25 年里，写了许多有关微积分的书。/ Duncan sang at least five thousand concerts in fifty countries during twenty-five years as a performer. 邓肯作为表演者，25 年间在 50 个国家演唱了至少 5,000 场。/ During three hundred years of witch hunts, the Church burned at the stake an astounding five million women. (Dan Brown, The Da Vinci Code) 在 300 年的女巫搜捕风潮中，被教会放在火刑柱上烧死的妇女，竟高达 500 万人。(这里的 of ... 也用来充实 three hundred years 的行动内容，如果没有，用 during 就不自然。)由于这里表示的是一个阶段达到的累计结果，for 更不能使用。</div>(c) 这里的时间段虽然表面上是不特指的，但是其实在历史长河中有其固定的位置，不是随便同样长的一段时间，说话者心中很明确，只是不明确说出，但有时也用补充的形式加以说明。例如一个叫 B. T. Finniss 的人，在 1886 年出版了一本书——The Constitutional History of South Australia During Twenty-One Years, From the Foundations of the Settlement in 1836 to the Inauguration of Responsible Government in 1867。这里如果把 from 前面的逗号去掉，就可以在 twenty-one years 前面加上定冠词 the 了。<br><br>
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Dutch
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>Dutch</b></div>参见 British 条。<br><br>
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duty 与 obligation
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>duty 与 obligation</b></div>两者都是“义务”，常常可以互换。<br><br>obligation 偏重按照法律、契约或世俗习惯眼前具体应该采取的行动(民法的“债”，用英文讲就是 obligation)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He is under the obligation of supporting his aged mother. 他负有供养年迈母亲的义务。/ Paying taxes is an obligation of citizenship. 纳税是一项公民义务。</div><br><br>duty 更多涉及职务、道义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>public duties 公务</div><div class="ex-item">on night duty 值夜班</div><div class="ex-item">As a doctor, it is my duty to preserve life. 作为医生，我的职责是救死扶伤。</div><br><br>
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dynamics
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>dynamics</b></div>原意是“动力学”，但是可以转义为“动态，变动中的态势”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>market dynamics 市场动态</div><div class="ex-item">electoral dynamics 选情</div><div class="ex-item">public opinion dynamics 舆情</div><div class="ex-item">popularity dynamics 人气的起伏。 # E e</div>
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each
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>each</b></div>each 所涉及的单复数问题，可以分述如下：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为代词，充当主语，each one 或 each 指同类多件事物中的每一件。如果多件事物并不是同类，就单用 each，不要 one (因为 each one 以前面存在一个复数名词为前提)。谓语动词通常用单数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Examine the rings: each one/each represents a year's growth. 观察一下年轮：每个年轮代表生长了一年。但偶尔也有谓语动词用复数的。</div><br><br>作为代词，each of Xs 充当主语，谓语动词通常用单数，Xs 如果是名词，后面出现的代词常用单数(也有用复数的)；但 Xs 如果是人称代词，后面再出现代词时往往由于人称关系只好用复数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... but each of the high roads has much to make its traverse exciting. (Alicia and Warren Hamilton, Ford Times, July 1954) ……但是每一条公路都有许多使得旅客感到刺激之处。/ Each (nation) is responsible for its home and foreign policy. (Lord Salisbury, British Information Services, Apr. 14, 1952) 每一个国家都对自己的内政和外交负责。/ And each of them was busy in arranging their particular concerns. (Jane Austen, Sense and Sensibility) 于是他们每个人都忙于安排各自关心的事情。</div><br><br>但是，谓语动词也有用复数的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He usually has about eight pupils, each of whom pay about $200 a month. (Time, June 3, 1946) 他通常带大约八个学生，每人每月交费约两百美元。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作为形容词，修饰单数名词主语，谓语动词通常也用单数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... a general belief that each person possesses four souls. (Sir James G. Frazer, Aftermath) ……有一个普遍的看法，认为每个人都有四个灵魂。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 作为副词，主语是个复数的名词或代词，each 放在主语后面，此时谓语动词要用复数，几乎从来不用单数；后面如果出现代词，也常用复数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If we and our Atlantic community partners each take our respective share ... (Dean Acheson, U.S. Department of State Bulletin, June 12, 1950) 如果我们以及我们的大西洋共同体伙伴们大家都各自分担自己的一份……</div><br><br>each 还可以离开名词，跑到句子的其他地方。此时需要注意它在语义上管哪一个名词。The visitors gave the children a dollar each. 这个句子可以是“来客们每人给(全体)孩子们一美元”，也可以是“来客们(全体)给每个孩子一美元”。但是 each 换个地方，就不会有歧义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The visitors gave the children each a dollar. 来客们(全体)给了每个孩子一美元。/ The visitors each gave the children a dollar. 来客们每人给了(全体)孩子们一美元。</div><br><br>
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each other
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>each other</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 用以表示来回方向的“互相”时，动词必须是双方有意识的双向动作，或是双向心态，不可以是客观外在的、无意识的事件或状态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>John agreed (with Mary) to sing a song on Mary's birthday, and Mary agreed (with John) to sing a song on John's birthday. 这一句可以用 each other 简化为：John and Mary agreed to sing a song on each other's birthday. 约翰和玛丽答应了在彼此生日时唱歌。但是，My grandfather died on my grandmother's birthday, and my grandmother died on my grandfather's birthday. 这一句就不能用 each other 简化为：*My grandfather and grandmother died on each other's birthday. 两句话的不同在于：sing a song 是有意识的行动，而 die 则是无意识的事件。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> each other 还可以不用于表示两个方向的“互相”如何，而表示同一方向的“分别各自”如何。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The lawyer explained to John and Mary each other's ever-worsening financial situations. 律师分别向约翰和玛丽解释了他们两人各自不断恶化的经济情况。(这里的 each other's 相当于 respectively their) 但是 each other 只能出现在 John and Mary 之后，不能出现在其前，例如不可以说：*The lawyer explained each other's ever-worsening financial situations to John and Mary.</div><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> They looked at each other's faces. 这样的句子，有两个疑难问题：(a) 第一个疑难问题：face 应该是单数还是复数？按照道理，each other 虽然涉及两个人，但是 each other 本身是分别就其中单独一个人而言的，既然是单独一个人，face 本来就应该是单数。但是，从语言习惯而言，如果这个名词代表比较具体可数的事物，还是应该用复数(因此：句中是 faces 而非 face)。但如果这个名词代表比较抽象不可数的事物，就用单数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Twins feed off each other's behavior (<i>behaviors), and so long as they're happy, they will simply ignore Mom. 双胞胎彼此依赖对方的一举一动，他们只要感到高兴，就会把妈妈忘掉。有时候，不是两个，而是两组人或物，以组为单位彼此如何如何，此时尽管不是单个对单个，而是多个对多个，还是仍然用单数的 each other。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Doctors and nurses should monitor each other's performance (</i>performances). 医生和护士应该互相监督彼此的工作。</div>(b) 第二个疑难问题：是 other's 还是 others'？前面已经明确，each other 是分别单独拿出两个中的一个来说的，按理不应该是 others'，但是如果后面的名词代表具体可数的事物，用了复数，复数事物的所有主也就应该是复数，而且 other's 与 others' 两者在读音上毫无区别，因而在书面上也往往分不清，甚至一些著名的作家，也写出 each others' 这样的文字。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Nobody, it may be said, proposes that Paris and Berlin should in future settle their disputes, like Rome and Alba Longa, by selecting three champions apiece and setting them to cut each others' throats. (H. G. Wells, The Idea of a League of Nations, February 1919) 可以说，不会有谁建议，巴黎和柏林将来就采取罗马和阿尔巴隆加解决争端的办法，各自挑选出三名选手，让他们去彼此割断对方的喉咙。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> each other 有时候还可以在句子中用于指代比其直接所指的层次更高的层次。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Physics, astronomy's dutiful daughter, suggests that the object that people call the universe, vast though it is, may be just one of an indefinite number of similar structures, governed by slightly different rules from each other, that inhabit what is referred to, for want of a better term, as the multiverse. (The Economist, Aug. 15, 2009, p. 12) 作为天文学的孝女，物理学给人们暗示说，大家称作宇宙的这个东西，尽管浩瀚庞大，说不定只不过是数量无限的类似结构体当中区区的一个，这些结构体由一些相互略为不同的法则支配着，充斥着一个无以名之只好称之为“多重宇宙”的东西。这里 each other 虽然在字面上指的是 rules (因为 each other 是补充说明 different 的)，但其实指的是 structures。</div><br><br>
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eagle 与 hawk
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>eagle 与 hawk</b></div>参见 dove 与 pigeon 条。<br><br>
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ear
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>ear</b></div>同 eye 一样，这个名词，用于表示肉体器官，通常根据实际情况决定其单复数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The ball dropped down past his right ear and into the neck of his shirt. 小球掉下，经过他的右耳，掉进他的衬衣领。/ He has big ears. 他耳朵大。</div><br><br>表示较为抽象的“听觉”，常常用单数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>pleasing to the ear 悦耳的</div><div class="ex-item">grate on the ear 刺耳</div><div class="ex-item">play an instrument by ear 靠听背弹奏乐器</div><div class="ex-item">have a good ear for music 有音乐鉴赏力</div><div class="ex-item">have a good ear for languages 有学语言的敏锐听力</div><div class="ex-item">lend an ear to somebody 倾听某人</div><div class="ex-item">have somebody's ear 使得某人言听计从。</div><br><br>但是，作“听觉”讲，也有用复数的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>come to somebody's ears 传到某人耳朵里</div><div class="ex-item">fall on deaf ears 石沉大海，说了没人听。</div><br><br>
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early
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>early</b></div>可以作为副词或是形容词，表示某一时期的早期或初期。作为形容词时，不是修饰整个名词，而只是把这个名词(通常是表示某个时间段的世纪、年代、年、月、日、早、午、晚，或者历史时期、过程等)的范围缩小到其早期或初期。更具体地说，有如下搭配用法：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 表示某世纪初叶，可以说 early in the 19th century 或 in the early 19th century，century 要有定冠词 the。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 表示某个年代，可以说 in the early 1980s 或 in early 1980s (无 the 亦可)或 early in the 1980s。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 表示某年的年初，可以说 in early 1922 或 in the early 1922 (有 the 亦可)或 early in 1922 (不可以有 the)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 表示某月的月初，可以说 early in June 或 in early June (当然不可以有 the)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 表示某个季节的初期，可以说 early in the spring 或 early in spring 或 in early spring 或 in the early spring (有无 the 均可，以上都是泛指年份不定的“初春”季节)。但 early in the spring of 1998 或 in the early spring of 1998 必须有 the。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 表示早、午、晚的前段，可以说 early in the morning/afternoon/evening 或 in the early morning/afternoon/evening (要有 the)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 表示人生阶段的初期，可以说：early in childhood 或 in early childhood (无 the，但 in the early childhood years 中要有 the)；in early life 或 early in life (无 the，表示在早年)；in early pregnancy 或 early in pregnancy (无 the，表示在怀孕早期)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> 表示历史某阶段的初期，可以说：in early Christianity (无 the，表示在基督教教的初期)；in early American history 或 early in American history 或 early in theAmerican history (通常无 the，表示在美国历史早期。不说 *in the early American history)。<br><br>
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early 与 soon
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>early 与 soon</b></div>early 与 soon 所管的，都是一个瞬时的动作、事件或变化，不是一个延续不变的固定状态(如果是一直存在的固定状态，就无所谓“早”与“晚”)。但是两者在同什么“时间”观念联系这一点上有所不同。early 联系的是“时间段”(就是在某时间段内的早期)；soon 联系的是“时间点”(就是在某时间点之后不久)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> early 所联系的“时间段”，更准确一点说，是“定位时间段”。也就是说，说话的人心中有了一个位置固定了的“时间段”，如“今天上午”“下个月”“某人的大学时代”。此时 early 起的作用，就是说明“(某事发生)在这个时间段的早期(或是这个时间段开始后不久)”。说是“联系”，其实这个时间段，可以明说出来，也可以“心照不宣”“你知我知”。<br><br>可以明说出来。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Voltaire perceived very early in life that to be needy was to be dependent. (John Morley) 伏尔泰十分年轻的时候就已经觉察到人穷就只好仰赖他人。</div><br><br>可以“心照不宣”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Early to bed and early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise. (Benjamin Franklin) 早睡早起，让人既健康、富裕，又聪明。(“晚上”和“早晨”这些时间段不必说出。)</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> soon 所联系的“时间点”，通常是更加前面的一个时间点，表示在这个较早的时间点之后不久，就发生 soon 所修饰的动作、事件或变化。同样，这个“时间点”，可以明说出来，也可以“心照不宣”。<br><br>可以明说出来。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>White Americans are far more likely than their black counterparts to die soon after the death of a spouse. 美国白人，在配偶去世后不久自己也去世的可能性远远大于黑人。</div><br><br>也可以“心照不宣”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I hope you will find your wallet very soon. 但愿你很快就能找到你的钱包。(“现在”这个时间点“心照不宣”)也可以从前后文推论出前一个“时间点”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I called, and he soon appeared. 我打了电话，他很快就来了。(called 隐含了前一个时间点。)</div><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 进一步观察 early 和 soon 的区别，可以拿医生同病人预约看病时间为例。医生请病人下一次 come early，是在“从几点钟到几点钟的门诊时间段”当中“早点来”(“来”就成了个“时间点”，作为随后看病的时间参照点)，这样，医生就可以 attend him soon (早来早看，“早”来是 early，“早”看是 soon)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> early 还有另外一个意义，是同“时间点”相联系的，就是“比预定或要求的时间点早”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We had dinner early. 我们晚饭吃得比平常早。/ The baby arrived two weeks early. 婴儿早产了两周。但即便如此，也隐含了一个时间段(通常晚饭自下午五六点钟到七八点钟这个时间段，以及怀孕后期的时间段，early 就是在这个时间段范围内的时间点。)。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> early 和 soon，作为副词，都可以有比较级(earlier 与 sooner)和最高级(the earliest 和 the soonest)，但是有一定的使用范围。earlier 可以自由使用做比较。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>earlier that night 那天晚上稍早的时候(相对于后来的某一时间点而言)</div><div class="ex-item">I mentioned that problem earlier on. 我早些时候提过这个问题了。(相对于现在而言，on 用来加强语气)最高级 the earliest 多用作形容词，用作副词时通常只出现在词组 at the earliest 中。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They won't be here till nine at the earliest. 他们最早也得 9 点才到这里来。</div><br><br>sooner 不能随便使用，通常出现在有 than 做比较的句型或 sooner or later 之类的固定词组中。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>No sooner said than done. 说时迟，那时快，事情就办了。no sooner ... than ... 译成中文，最好否定变为肯定，原先的“发生 X 不比发生 Y 早”要处理成“一发生 X 就马上发生 Y”。</div><br><br>由于人们心中以“此时此刻”为参照点或是以“此时此刻起到将来某时止的一个时间段”为参照范围，两者容易重合，所以 the earliest 与 the soonest 有时候也可以互换。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The earliest/The soonest I can arrive is 3 p.m. 我最早也得下午 3 点才能到达。除此之外，soonest 作为副词，很少使用。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> sooner 还有一个转义用法，即失去时间先后意义，变为好恶取舍。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Sooner you than me. 宁可是你而不是我。/ I'd sooner not go, to be honest. 老实说，我宁可不去。/ Sooner than go against her principles, she handed in her notice. 她不愿违背自己的原则，就提交了辞职信。</div><br><br>soon 的原级在词组 would as soon inf. as inf. 或 would as soon (that)中也有优劣取舍的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We'd as soon (that) you didn't tell our father. 我们希望你最好还是别告诉我们父亲。(didn't 是虚拟语气，不是过去时)</div><div class="ex-item">I'd as soon quit as work under a boss like that. 要我在这样一个上司的领导下工作，倒不如离开的好。/ I'd just as soon stay home (as go out). 我宁可待在家里(也不出去)。</div><br><br>
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earth
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>earth</b></div>作“地球”讲时，earth 可以有定冠词 the，也可以没有(此时要大写成 Earth)。大体上，就地球本身的范围来议论地球，或是稍扩大一点，谈论地球同月球(the moon)和太阳(the sun)的关系，通常要说 the earth 或 the Earth，以保持和 moon 与 sun 三者一致都用定冠词 the。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The Earth has to be directly in front of the sun and moon. The eclipse occurs when the shadow of the Earth is crossing the moon. (The Daily Gazette, Mar. 3, 2007, A3) 这需要地球直接转到太阳和月球前面。当地球的影子掠过月球时，就会发生月食。/ If the sun warms the Earth too dangerously, the time may come to draw the shade. (The Associated Press, Nov. 16, 2006) 如果太阳把地球晒得太危险，那就可能到了要把遮阳罩拉上的时候了。即便如此，也有宁可不一致，Earth 前面也不加定冠词 the 的情况。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The Moon circles Earth. Earth circles the Sun. 月球绕地球转。地球绕太阳转。</div><br><br>所有天体，专名一般首字母都要大写，无 the；只有 Sun、Moon 与 Earth 三者可大写可小写，其中 Sun 和 Moon 无论大小写都必须有 the，Earth 大写时可以有也可以没有 the，earth 小写作为星球则必须有 the。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Earth and the moon are closer to the sun than Mars. 地球和月球比火星更靠近太阳。</div><br><br>单谈地球时，也有不加定冠词的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Marine sediments reveal that themeteor hit Earth 300,000 years before the mass extinction. 海底沉积显示，该流星是在生物大量灭绝之前 30 万年撞击地球的。</div><br><br>地球与其他行星一起被谈及时，通常一律不加定冠词(其他行星本来就不要定冠词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Venus and Earth are very similar in size. 金星和地球的大小差不多。/ On average, Mercury is only about a third as far from the sun as Earth is. That makes the sun 11 times hotter at Mercury than at Earth. 水星离太阳的平均距离只有地球的三分之一。因此，水星上的阳光，比地球上热 11 倍。大体上可以说，如果视野限于地球或是地球周围(包括从地球的观点看日、月、地的关系)，较多用 the Earth。如果视线脱离地球，远入太空，就较多用没有 the 的 Earth (最末一个例子中，Earth 前面不用 on 而用 at，表示从太空的观点看，地球只是一个几何点而已)。</div><br><br>
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east 与 eastern
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>east 与 eastern</b></div>east、west、north、south 与 eastern、western、northern、southern 放在地名前面，往往含义不同。前者通常指比较明确范围的一个地域(例如界限明确的国家或行政区)，后者则较多指一个只有大体范围的地理区域。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>South Africa 南非(一个国家)</div><div class="ex-item">Southern Africa 南部非洲(地理概念，几个国家)</div><div class="ex-item">North Carolina 北卡罗来纳州(美国一个州)</div><div class="ex-item">Northern Virginia (美国)弗吉尼亚州北部</div><div class="ex-item">West Virginia 西弗吉尼亚州(美国一个州)</div><div class="ex-item">Western Europe 西欧。但也有相反的情况。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>East (*Eastern) Asia 东亚(地理概念，几个国家)</div><div class="ex-item">Northern Ireland 北爱尔兰(英国的一个行政区域)。</div><br><br>
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easy
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>easy</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 这个形容词在少数特定的句子中可以作为修饰动词的副词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Go easy! 别着急！/ Take it easy! 别紧张！/ Easy come, easy go. 来得容易去得快。/ Easier said than done. 说来容易做来难。/ With the Americans left reading Multitude, Dick Cheney can sleep easy. (The New York Review of Books, Nov. 4, 2004, p. 40) 如果美国人只能阅读《多方》，迪克·切尼就可以高枕无忧了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 要表示某人或物“容易出现或遇到某情况”时，不说 *easy，可以改用 susceptible、prone、liable、apt 等形容词，后面加上 to/of + 名词或动词不定式来说明所遇情况。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>be susceptible to illness 容易害病</div><div class="ex-item">be susceptible to flattery 容易受人吹捧</div><div class="ex-item">He is highly susceptible to flights of fancy. 他容易胡思乱想。/ These facts are not susceptible of proof. 这些事实是无法证明的。/ Woman are more prone to osteoporosis than men. 女性比男性更容易得骨质疏松症。/ The earlier model is liable to overheat. 以前的那个型号容易过热。/ Cars are liable to skid on wet roads. 汽车在湿路上容易打滑。/ The danger of confounding technique with art itself is not inconsiderable, since it takes a long time to develop a trustworthy technique; and this prolonged association with one subject is apt to give it supremacy over all others in one's mind. (Josef Hofmann, Piano Playing) 将技巧同艺术混为一谈，这样的危险不可低估，因为培养靠得住的技巧，需要很长的时间；长时间花在一个科目上，就容易在自己心目中把它摆在最高地位，高出其他一切。</div><br><br>
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(eat your) heart out
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(eat your) heart out</b></div>Eat your heart out. 这个句子的意义比较复杂：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 十分嫉恨。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Michael will eat his heart out when he hears about Jenipher's engagement. 迈克尔如果听到珍妮弗订婚的消息，一定会妒忌得要死。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 在祈使句中，声称自己比对方高出一筹。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—Wish I could afford anecktie like that. —Eat your heart out. —我也能弄到像那样的一条领带就好了。—那你就望穿秋水吧。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 如果这句话后面或前面加上一个名人的名字，就带有开玩笑的自夸意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Eat your heart out, Pavarotti. (一个歌唱家表演成功，开玩笑说)我赛过你了，帕瓦罗蒂。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 作为陈述句(加上主语)，意思是“某事使得某人妒恨得要死”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Her marriage will eat his heart out. 她的婚事会使得他妒恨得要死。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 这句话因为字面上的意思是“把你的心都吃出来”，所以还成了一些食品商和食肆招徕顾客的口号，用五花八门的美术装饰标出来，这时其意义已经大不相同了。<br><br>
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economics 与 economy
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>economics 与 economy</b></div>economics 是“经济学”，economy 是“经济”。但是“政治经济学”是 political economy。美国有的大学设有 political economics 课程，但同亚当·斯密及马克思那里的古典式的政治经济学(political economy)不完全相同。economy 本来是个不可数名词，但是可以用复数 economies 指多国或多地区的经济。<br><br>
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economic 与 economical
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>economic 与 economical</b></div>两个形容词译成中文都可以是“经济的”，但实际含义不同。economic 指“经济方面的，经济学上的”，而 economical 则是“经济节约的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>What has gone wrong with the economic system during the last ten years? 近十年来的经济制度究竟出了什么毛病？/ a period of economic crisis 一段经济危机时期</div><div class="ex-item">This system was extremely economical because it ran on half-price electricity. 这个系统极为经济，因为它使用的是半价电力。economical 也可以指人“节俭的”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She thought of herself as an economical housewife. 她自认为是个节俭的家庭主妇。</div><br><br>但是，economic 和 economical 有时候也互相“侵入”对方的领域。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the political, economical and cultural history of Europe (Geoffrey Bruun, in New York Herald Tribune Weekly Book Review, June 21, 1953) 欧洲的政治、经济、文化史</div><div class="ex-item">Each country was considered carefully for its economical and weather status. 对每一个国家，都按其经济与天气情况加以仔细的考虑。</div><br><br>economic 也可以指某一产业“有经济价值的，值得经营的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We have to keep fares high enough to make it economic for the service to continue. 我们不得不把收费维持在足够高的水平，以使得这项事业值得继续经营下去。</div><br><br>还要注意的是：economic 与 economical 的副词都是 economically，需要看整句甚至上下文来辨别其意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The region is extremely unevenly developed economically. 该地区经济发展极为不平衡。(来自 economic)</div><div class="ex-item">We live very economically. 我们的生活十分节俭。(来自 economical) 一个辨别的办法，就是看看 economically 能否前面加上 more、very 之类的副词，如果可以，就是从 economical 派生来的；如果不可以，原来的形容词就是 economic。</div><br><br>
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edge
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>edge</b></div>作为名词，原意是“边缘”，再转为“刀刃的锋边”，然后一方面转义为“锐利的锋芒力量”，另一方面转义为“一方相对于另一方的优势”。经过这些转义，edge 的词义和用法就比较复杂，大体上有如下词义：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> (物质的或抽象的)边缘。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>on the edge of a cliff 在悬崖的边缘</div><div class="ex-item">on/at the edge of starvation 处于饿死的边缘</div><div class="ex-item">They brought the country to the edge of ruin. 他们把国家带到了毁灭的边缘。</div><br><br>基于这个基本词义的一个习语 on the edge of one's seat，表示“不能好好地坐在座位的正中而只能坐在边上”亦即“心情紧张，提心吊胆”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This film will have you on the edge of your seat. 这部片子会让你看得提心吊胆。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> (物质的)锋芒。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>sharpen a knife's edge 把刀锋磨快。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> (刀刃的)锐利性。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>put an edge to a knife 把刀锋磨快。 (4) (抽象事物的)锋芒、尖锐性。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He'll get the edge of my tongue. = I'll give him the edge of my tongue. 我要好好地训他一顿。/ The sandwich took the edge off my hunger. 吃了那块三明治，我的肚子就不那么饿了。/ Her smile took the edge off her critical remarks. 她的微笑，使她的批评意见不那么尖锐了。/ His voice had a menacing edge to it. 他的声音带有一种咄咄逼人的调子。/ The performance lacked edge. 这场演出缺乏劲头。/ This article lacked critical edge. 这篇文章缺乏尖锐的批判性。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 优势。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has a definite edge over his rivals. 他相比自己的劲敌们有一个明显的优势。/ By doing so, they could stay on the leading edge of technology. 这样做，他们就能保持科技上的领先优势。</div><br><br>
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-ee
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>-ee</b></div>英文常用这个后缀来表示“被……的人，……的对象”，避免啰唆的说明(但有时候词典上也查不到)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>addressee 收信人，收件人</div><div class="ex-item">adoptee 被收养人</div><div class="ex-item">advisee 得到咨询建议者，受辅导的学生</div><div class="ex-item">amputee 动过截肢手术者</div><div class="ex-item">appellee (法律用语)被上诉人(与 appellant “上诉人”相对而言)</div><div class="ex-item">appointee 被指定者</div><div class="ex-item">awardee 获奖者，获拨款者</div><div class="ex-item">covenantee 契约受益方</div><div class="ex-item">declaree (法律用语)表意相对人(与 declarer 或 declarant “表意人”相对而言)</div><div class="ex-item">deportee 被驱逐出境者</div><div class="ex-item">detainee 被扣留者</div><div class="ex-item">devotee ……迷</div><div class="ex-item">draftee 被征召的士兵</div><div class="ex-item">employee 受雇者，雇员</div><div class="ex-item">enrollee 登记注册者，入学学生</div><div class="ex-item">evacuee 被疏散者</div><div class="ex-item">examinee 应考者，考生</div><div class="ex-item">exoneree 刑满释放人员</div><div class="ex-item">grantee (法律用语)被授予者，受让人</div><div class="ex-item">honoree 获奖者，获表彰者</div><div class="ex-item">indictee 被告</div><div class="ex-item">inductee 就任者，入会者，应召入伍者</div><div class="ex-item">interviewee 面试者</div><div class="ex-item">invitee 被邀请者</div><div class="ex-item">legatee 遗产承受人</div><div class="ex-item">lessee 承租人，租户</div><div class="ex-item">licensee 获许可者，持执照者</div><div class="ex-item">(wait) listee (排队等待名单上的)排名者</div><div class="ex-item">nominee 被提名者，提名人选</div><div class="ex-item">mortgagee 受抵押权人</div><div class="ex-item">payee 被付款人，收款人</div><div class="ex-item">referee 比赛裁判，介绍人，推荐人</div><div class="ex-item">refugee 被收容人，难民</div><div class="ex-item">retiree 退休人员</div><div class="ex-item">trainee 受训者</div><div class="ex-item">transferee 受让人，承买人</div><div class="ex-item">trustee 受委托者，董事，校董</div><div class="ex-item">vaccinee 受疫苗接种者。</div><br><br>也有个别表示主动意义的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>absentee 缺席者</div><div class="ex-item">attendee 参加者，到会者</div><div class="ex-item">escapee 逃亡者，越狱者</div><div class="ex-item">standee 剧院中的站立观剧者，公交车上的站票乘客。</div><br><br>以上是已经约定俗成，成了词汇的一部分的。有一些则是临时创造甚至杜撰的，或者是文字游戏。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I have ... a luncheon engagement for Friday which I am now trying to break. The lunchee is out of town. (Archibald MacLeish, letter, Nov. 24, 1931) 我……星期五有一个午餐约会，但是我现在打算取消掉。参加午餐会的那个入在城外。/ In times past I was the giver; now things are reversed, and I'm the givee. (Harry S. Truman, diary, Feb. 14, 1948) 以往，我是给予者；现在事情颠倒过来了，我成了个被给予者了。</div><br><br>但是也有个别以 -ee 结尾的单词不是指人而是指抽象事物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>repartee 巧妙的回答。</div><br><br>
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effect
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>effect</b></div>不一定是“效果”，可以指某文件或谈话的“内容”，前面加介词 to。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Iwant all our people briefed to that effect. 我要全体人员都知道那件事情。/ There are leaflets to this effect. 有些传单就是这样说的。/ The president issued a statement to the effect that he would resign. 总统发表了一个声明，(内容是)说他将辞职。/ Dr. James Mortimer, the friend and medical attendant of the deceased, has given evidence to the same effect. (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, The Hound of the Baskervilles) 死者的朋友兼医生詹姆斯·莫蒂默博士，也提供了内容相同的证词。</div><br><br>
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effective
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>effective</b></div>是个形容词，但是用法有点特别。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 表示“(自某时起)生效”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The appointment is effective July 1. 任命自 7 月 1 日起生效。</div><br><br>而且，effective 也可以不依附于任何一个名词，在句中起类似副词的作用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I shall resign the Presidency effective noon tomorrow. 我自明日正午时起辞去总统职务。/ Effective May 1, 2006, no more parking permits will be provided. 自 2006 年 5 月 1 日起，不再发放停车证。/ ... Helene told her she had quit her job, effective immediately. (Mary Higgins Clark, I'll Be Seeing You) ……海伦告诉她自己已经辞了职，即时生效。</div><br><br>如果要表明自何时至何时有效，可以用 effective ... to ... 的形式。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>effective May 1, 2006 to June 30, 2007 自 2006 年 5 月 1 日至 2007 年 6 月 30 日有效。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作为副词，也可以表示营业或办公时间(不是从何时起)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Effective 24 hours a day, 365 days a year. 一年 365 天，每天 24 小时接受办理。</div><br><br>
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egg
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>egg</b></div>本来是可数名词(“一个一个”的鸡蛋)，但是多个鸡蛋打碎了和在一起就不可分了，同面粉、牛奶一样成了不可数的物质名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Such ice cream defects are caused by too much egg. (*too many eggs) 这样的冰淇淋做得不好，是因为放的鸡蛋过多。同样的情况，也出现于 tomato 之类的可数名词上，参见 tomato 条。</div><br><br>
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either
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>either</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为形容词和代词，either 可以表示“两者当中任何一个”，而与 any 表示“两个以上多个当中任何一个”相区别。<br><br>前面有否定词时，any 表示所有多个均一一否定，either 则表示两个均否定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>without help from either of his parents 父母双方都没有给予帮助</div><div class="ex-item">That's not good for either of you. 这对你们俩都不好。/ He had not seen either since the accident. 自从发生事故以来，他们两人他都没有见过。/ Celia attempted to phone Juliet, then Juliet's husband, Dwight, but could not reach either. 西莉亚试图给朱丽叶打电话，然后又试图给朱丽叶的丈夫德怀特打电话，但是两个人都打不通。/ You know I have never been one to press either religion or superstition on you, and I remain a firm unbeliever in either. 你知道，我从来就不是那种要把宗教或者迷信强加到你身上的人，而且我对两者都是坚定不信的。</div><br><br>前面没有否定词，则 either 表示“两者当中任何一个”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>After the malpractice, he'd be removed as chief of medicine, God knows what would happen abouthis licence, and either way it would break him. 发生医疗事故之后，他也许会被免除内科主任的职务，而且他的行医执照会被怎么处理只有天晓得，反正这一切都会把他拖垮。/ Whether, inside his soul, he really cared about the poor, only he himself knew. Either way, he made good use of them. 他心灵深处究竟是否真正关心穷人，只有他自己知道。无论关心与否，他对穷人是好好加以利用的。/ One of the greatest dangers lies in the disintegration of the Greenland or West Antarctic ice sheets. If either of the two sheets disintegrates, sea level could rise nearly 20 feet in the course of a couple of centuries. 最大的危险之一，在于格陵兰或南极洲西部的冰层可能瓦解。如果两大冰层有一个瓦解，海平面就会在几个世纪之内上涨大约 20 英尺。</div><br><br>但是，有时候前面没有否定词，either + 单数名词在意义上可以相当于 both + 复数名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>on either side (= on both sides) of the road 在路两旁。</div><br><br>要注意：either + 单数名词，虽然是单数，但已经暗示有两个存在，即使 either + 单数名词甲 + or + 单数名词乙，仍然不能消除单数名词甲与乙所指事物均各有两个的误解。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Passengers are requested not to converse with either conductor or driver. 乘客请勿与售票员或司机交谈。这句可能使人误解为车上有两名售票员和两名司机。为了避免误解，最好在 conductor 与 driver 前加上定冠词：Passengers are requested not to converse with either the conductor or the driver.</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作为副词，either 通常用于两个否定句中的第二句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She can't cook and he can't either. 她不会做饭，他也不会。但是也可以用于准否定句。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She seldom goes, and I seldom do either. 她很少去，我也很少去。</div><br><br>但是，有时候第一句并不是否定句而是肯定句，只是其肯定意义同第二句否定的意义相同，此时第二句仍然可以用 either。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Writing a best seller is hard. But writing the next book is no picnic either. (Newsweek, Oct. 15, 2007, p. 8) 写出一本畅销书是很不容易的。不过再写一本也不是轻松愉快的事。</div><br><br>英语常常将从句的否定挪到表示看法的主句，结果从句形式上是肯定句，再由主句来加以否定，但是从句中的 either 可以保留。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They don't know anything about him, and I don't think you do either. 他们对他一无所知，我想你也不知道。(either 其实属于主句 I don't think。)</div>either 在否定句中支配全句(甚至凌驾于否定之上，表示“也不”)。但是如果是“不也”(即“不”凌驾在“也”之上，前面是肯定句)，即使是否定句，也要用 too 而不用 either。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If Monet was living in this house in 1893, Renoir can't have been living there too (*either). 如果莫奈 1893 年是住在这栋房子里的，那么雷诺阿就不可能也住在这里。(注意：“不可能也”与“也不可能”意义不同。)</div><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 无论 either 是作为形容词还是副词，either ... or ... 用于肯定句时，同没有 either 的 ... or ... 意义差不多。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You can (either) walk up or take the cable car. 你步行上去也行，乘坐缆车也行。但是有 either 时语气更强，可以有“限于两者，不是甲就是乙，不能有第三者”的意思。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Either be quiet or go! 你要么别吵，要么走开！/ Either you stop complaining or I go home. 要么你别再发牢骚，要么我就回家。/ Either you tell her or I will. 要么你告诉她，要么我告诉她。/ He is <i>either</i> drunk <i>or</i> mad. 他要么是喝醉了酒，要么是在发疯。也可以有“甲乙两者哪一个都可以”的意思，这一意思又分为“主观允许两者随便哪一个都行”和“估计客观两种情况哪一种都有可能”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Answer <i>either</i> Question 1 <i>or</i> Question 2, <i>or</i> both. 第一题或第二题试选一题回答，或两题都回答。/ I think she is <i>either</i> Russian <i>or</i> Polish. 我觉得她不是俄罗斯人就是波兰人。</div><br><br>但是 ... or ... 可以放在两者择一的疑问句中，either ... or ... 则不可。这是因为 ... or ... 比较倾向于“否定一个肯定一个”，而 either ... or ... 虽然也是“两者择一”，但在更高的层面有点“一视同仁”的意思包含在内(对两者都首先赋予平等的地位，然后再再选择)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>When is Mary arriving—Monday <i>or</i> Tuesday (<i>either</i> Monday <i>or</i> Tuesday)? 玛丽什么时候到达，是星期一还是星期二？/ Why did John resign—because (<i>either</i> because) he didn't like the job <i>or</i> because he has a better offer? 约翰为什么辞了职？是因为他不喜欢这个工作呢，还是因为他另有高就？</div><br><br>
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elder
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>elder</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> elder 与 eldest 主要指家中兄弟姐妹的排行，也可以用 older 与 oldest。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>my <i>elder/older</i> brother 我的哥哥</div><div class="ex-item">Her <i>eldest/oldest</i> boy is in the army. 她的大儿子在部队里。elder 后面不能加上 than 做比较，做比较时要用 older。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He is <i>older than</i> I am. 他年纪比我大。在口语中，eldest、oldest 与 youngest 往往指只有两个的兄弟姐妹之一。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His <i>eldest</i> boy's at school; the other is still at home. 他的大儿子在上学；小儿子还在家。尤其是后面没有名词时更是如此。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Tom is the <i>eldest</i>. 汤姆是(两个孩子中的)老大。(不是兄弟姐妹的一群人当中的年纪最大者)如果不止两个人，就不能说 <i>eldest，要说 oldest。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She's the </i>oldest* student in her year. 她是她那一年级年纪最大的学生。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> elder 加上专有姓氏，也可以指同一家族中辈分更高者。例如荷兰的勃鲁盖尔(Brueghel)家族出了多位画家，其中的 Pieter Brueghel 辈分最高，就称为 Brueghel the <i>Elder</i>，以区别于其后辈。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> elder 可以作为普通形容词，表示“资深的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>an <i>elder</i> statesman 资深政治家。</div><br><br>elder 也可以作为名词，表示“老前辈”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>an <i>elder</i> of the literary world 文学界的老前辈。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> elder 作为名词，前面加上物主形容词，表示“长辈”或“年纪比自己大者”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Their father had taught them to show respect to <i>their elders</i>. 他们父亲曾经教他们要尊敬长辈。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> elder 后面还可以加上 -ly，不是副词，仍然是形容词，表示“年纪老的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>my <i>elderly</i> uncle 我的老伯父</div><div class="ex-item">the <i>elderly</i> 老人(群体)。</div><br><br>
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eldest
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>eldest</b></div>参见 elder 条。<br><br>
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electric 与 electrical
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>electric 与 electrical</b></div>electric 主要指“靠电能工作的”或是“在电路工作范围之内”的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><i>electric</i> circuit 电路</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electric</i> current 电流</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electric</i> field 电场</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electric</i> resistance 电阻</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electric</i> charge 电荷</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electric</i> power 电能</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electric</i> cell 电池</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electric</i> plug 电插头</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electric</i> socket 电插座</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electric</i> heater 电热器</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electric</i> blanket 电热毯</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electric</i> razor 电剃须刀</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electric</i> towel 电热风烘手器</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electric</i> guitar 电吉他。</div><br><br>electrical 主要指“与供电或用电有关的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><i>electrical</i> engineer 电气工程师</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electrical</i> engineering 电气工程</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electrical</i> company 电力公司</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electrical</i> fault 电力故障。</div><br><br>但是两者的用法也有界限不清的地方。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><i>electric</i> bill 电费账单</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electrical</i> appliances 电气用具</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electrical</i> equipment 电力设备。</div><br><br>
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elevator 与 lift
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>elevator 与 lift</b></div>都是“电梯”，前者是美式英语，后者是英式英语。<br><br>
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else
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>else</b></div>这是英语中一个特别的形容词，它专门放在一些不定代词、疑问代词、不定副词、疑问副词以及 much 和 little 之后，表示：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 另一(不要原来的)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm too tired. Someone <i>else</i> will have to go. 我太累了。让别人去。/ I don't like it here. Let's go somewhere <i>else</i>. 这地方我不喜欢。咱们换个地方去吧。/ After all, how <i>else</i> could we watch the giant pandas? 说到底，咱们不这样又怎能观察大熊猫呢？/ The experience of China was unlike anything <i>else</i> that had ever happened to me. 中国之行的见闻，同我任何别的经历都大不相同。从这个意义出发，可以引申出否定的意义。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Some say it is unfair to hold disadvantaged children to rigorous standards. I say it is discrimination to require <i>anything else</i>. (George W. Bush)有人说，对于条件较差的孩子，用严格的标准来要求，未免太不公平。我却要说，如果不这样要求，那倒是歧视了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 再一(保留原有的)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Anything <i>else</i>? 还要点什么吗？/ What <i>else</i> do you want to know? 你们还想知道点什么别的吗？/ Who <i>else</i> was there living in the house? 此外还有谁住在这房子里？/ Everyone <i>else</i> is downstairs. 其余的人全在楼下。/ Her past medical history included hay fever but little <i>else</i>. 她过去的病历中包含花粉病，但其他的不多。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> else 后面可以加上 's (else's)，相当于形容词性物主代词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You're wearing somebody <i>else's</i> coat. 你穿的外衣是别人的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> else 前面的不定代词或疑问代词，都只能是单数的(即使实际上是复数事物)，它不能与任何复数形式连用。一定要用复数时，只能不用代词而改为名词，前面再加上 other 代替 else。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I didn't see any <i>other people</i>. 我没有见到别的人。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 本来中国人对于 else 就是不大容易接受的。以中国人的心理，用 other 更为直接顺当。但是最好养成提及地点(where)、时间(when)、方式(how)、原因(why)、不定人称(who、someone、anybody、nobody)、不定物(something、anything、nothing)时使用 else 的习惯。尤其是与副词连用，如 where else、somewhere else、nowhere else、when else、how else、why else 等等。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Websites must increase sales or reduce costs. <i>Why else</i> do companies have them? 有了网站，销售额应该增加，或者成本应该降低。要不然，各个公司要网站干啥？/ Excluding fossil fuel combustion, <i>how</i> <i>else</i> do humans affect the carbon cycle? 除了燃烧化石燃料之外，人类还以哪些方式影响到碳的循环？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> else 也可以作为副词，加在连词 or 后面，表示：(a) “或者甚至”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Lucrative contracts with longstanding clients were not renewed <i>or else</i> dropped. 同一些长期客户的利润丰厚的合同没有续签，或者甚至作罢了。</div>(b) “否则(会有不好的后果)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Either you stop drinking, <i>or else</i> the children and I will leave you. 要么你戒酒，要不然我和孩子们就要离开你。有时候只需要说 or else，后面的威胁不必说出。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Don't talk to me like that again, <i>or else</i> ... 别用那样的态度同我说话，要不然……</div><br><br>
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elusive
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>elusive</b></div>这个形容词现在用得很多，它的词义，可以从中文的“闪闪烁烁，出没无常，似有若无，可望而不可即”中体会。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The answer existed. It was there. Hidden, <i>elusive</i>, but waiting to be found. ... And Vincent Lord, after ten years' searching, believed he was close to that <i>elusive</i> answer. 答案是有的。它就在那里。似在非在，但是的确在等待人家找到它。……而文森特·洛德经过 10 年的探索，相信自己快要找到这个若隐若现的答案了。/ Failures are more finely etched in our minds than triumphs, and success is an <i>elusive</i>, if not mythic, goal in our demanding society. (Hugh Drummond)失败比胜利更加细致地铭刻在我们的意识里面，而成功在我们这个苛刻的社会里则是一个捉摸不定甚至是虚幻的目标。/ Despite a massive effort, stability in Iraq remains <i>elusive</i> and the situation is deteriorating. (Bipartisan Iraq Study Group, Dec. 6, 2006)尽管进行了大规模的努力，伊拉克的稳定仍然可望而不可即，局势正在恶化。</div><br><br>
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embarrassed to inf.
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>embarrassed to inf.</b></div>be embarrassed to inf. 中的动词不定式究竟是肯定的还是否定的，主要取决于这个动词究竟是有意识的主动动作，还是无意识的所处状态或被动事件。如果是有意识的主动动作，那么无论前面的 be 采取过去还是将来时态，都是“不好意思去做某事”(也就是否定的“不做某事”，动词不定式是被否定的)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I <i>was embarrassed to let</i> anyone else to hear it. 我不好意思让别人听到。/ 30 days, you will love your purchase or I <i>will be embarrassed to take</i> your money, 100% satisfaction guaranteed! 30 天内，如果您对所购货物不喜欢，商店将不收取货款，定将保证您百分之百满意！/ He really didn't know how to tie it (= the bow tie) and had <i>been embarrassed to ask</i> the salesclerk. 他的确不懂得如何打这个蝴蝶结，当时又不好意思问店员。</div><br><br>当然，如果 embarrassed 前面有 too，意义就更加明确是否定的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He felt <i>too embarrassed to</i> talk about it with his co-workers. 他不好意思同同事们谈这件事(所以也就没有谈了)。</div><br><br>但是如果 be embarrassed 采取一般现在时，表示即时的心情，动词不定式表示即时的动作，则虽然是有意识的主动动作，也并不表示否定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm <i>embarrassed to say</i> I can't remember the last time we spoke. 咱们上一次的交谈，我已经记不起来了，真不好意思。</div><br><br>如果动词不定式表示主观意识不能控制的状态或是被动的事件，则不被否定，整个意思是“对已存在的状态或已发生的被动事件感到难为情”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He <i>was embarrassed to be</i> the brother of the murderer. 他对自己是杀人犯的兄弟感到难为情。/ He <i>was embarrassed to see</i> his name supporting that guy. 他看到自己在支持那个人的名单上，感到难为情。</div><br><br>如果不是一次性的情况，而是习惯性的，则动词不定式所表示的有意识的主动动作是否发生，都有可能，更为可能的是有时发生，有时不发生。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I <i>was embarrassed to wear</i> my hearing aid. (BBC News, May 5, 2004)我不好意思戴着我的助听器。(有时戴，但不好意思，有时就不戴了)</div><div class="ex-item">Stephen <i>was embarrassed to have</i> friends over to his home and <i>have</i> them see cockroaches cross the floors. 斯蒂芬不好意思请朋友到家里来，看到蟑螂满地爬。(请来了不好意思，有时候就不请了)</div>被动事件的动词不定式通常也是肯定的(因为这不是主观意志所左右的)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They <i>were embarrassed to be seen</i> in close proximity to these idiots. 他们出现在那些傻瓜身边，给人家看见，很难为情。</div><br><br>但是 be embarrassed 后面如果不是动词不定式而是 that 从句，则这个从句没有否定意义，只是表示对这件事实感到“不好意思，抱歉”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I am <i>embarrassed</i>, Sister, <i>that</i> you were awaken on my behalf. (Dan Brown, <i>The Da Vinci Code</i>)修女，把您吵醒了，很不好意思。</div><br><br>
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emergency 与 emergence
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>emergency 与 emergence</b></div>意义根本不同。前者是“紧急状况”，后者是动词 emerge (显现，露出)的派生名词。emergency 作为抽象名词，可以是以不可数的抽象状态，也可以是可数的“一次紧急事件”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This door should only be used in <i>an emergency</i>. 这道门唯有遇到紧急情况才可以使用。/ The hospital will cater only for <i>emergencies</i>. 医院将只收急诊病人。此外，emergency 还可以放在另一个名词前面作其定语。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><i>emergency room</i> (<i>emergent room) 急诊室</div><div class="ex-item">The government had to take </i>emergency action<i> (</i>emergent action). 政府不得不采取应急行动。/ The Prime Minister has called an <i>emergency meeting</i> (<i>emergent meeting). 总理召开了紧急会议。/ The plane is carrying </i>emergency supplies<i> (</i>emergent supplies) for refugees. 飞机装载着给难民的救急物资。/ They escaped through an <i>emergency exit</i> (*emergent exit). 他们从一个紧急出口逃了出去。这是因为形容词 emergent 不是同 emergency 相对应，而是同 emergence 相对应。但是“新兴国家”就是 emergent nations。</div><br><br>
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emerge 与 immerge
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>emerge 与 immerge</b></div>这两个动词，发音完全相同，但是意思却截然相反。emerge 是“显现，露出”；immerge 却是“浸入，埋头，隐没”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The submarine <i>emerged</i> right before our eyes. 潜艇显现在我们眼前。/ The dog <i>immerged</i> into the darkness of the night. 狗钻到夜幕中消失了。</div><br><br>由于发音相同，一般英美人很少使用 immerge 这个词，改用 immerse，甚至许多词典都不收录 immerge 而只收录 immerse。作为英语学习者，最好不用 immerge 而用 immerse，尤其是在表示“埋头钻研”时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He <i>immersed himself</i> in academic studies. 他埋头从事学术研究。</div><br><br>
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emigrant 与 immigrant
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>emigrant 与 immigrant</b></div>中文都叫“移民”，但英文中前者含义是“迁出旧地的移民”，后者是“迁入新地的移民”。注意前者只有一个字母 m，后者有两个。<br><br>
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empress
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>empress</b></div>由于中外历史上很少出现“女皇帝”，所以 empress 一般只限于指“皇后”(这与 queen 有些不同，参见 queen 条；此外，俄国历史上有著名的女沙皇，但是另有 tsarina 一词，不叫 empress)。英文里两者是不分的，通常不会有误解。但是，如果要说“武则天是中国历史上唯一的女皇帝”，译成 Wu Zetian was the only <i>empress</i> ever known in Chinese history. 就不妥，因为外国读者会奇怪：中国历史上怎么只有一个“皇后”呢？可以考虑译成 ruling empress (也有译成 female emperor 的)。<br><br>
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end
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>end</b></div>作为表示“结束，终止”的名词，end 有两个相互关联的搭配问题值得注意：前面用定冠词还是不定冠词？后面用介词 of 还是 to？这两个问题交织在一起，出现了下面几种可能的情况：(a) the end of; (b) the end to; (c) an end of; (d) an end to。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 首先，按照情理，任何事物的 end (指的是“结束，终止”，不是“末端”)只能有一个，所以似乎只能说 the end 而不能说 an end。但是从事情的已发生或未发生来说，尚未发生或眼下刚刚发生的“结束”，仍然可以说 an end。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Fukuyama himself later conceded that his thesis was incomplete, but for a different reason: "There can be no end of history without <i>an end</i> of modern natural science and technology." 福山本人后来也承认他的论点不全面，但是不全面却是另外一个原因：“如果没有现代自然科学和技术的终结，就不可能有历史的终结。”/ Harkin calls for <i>an end</i> of wage discrimination against women. 哈金呼吁结束对妇女的工薪歧视。至于从回顾的角度看历史，则这个“结束”是已成的事实，用 the 是名正言顺的。英语中常有 <i>the end</i> of an era (一个时代的结束)的说法，这里说 an end of an era 反而不自然。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I will continue to press the Congress to make these tax cuts, including <i>the end</i> of the death tax, permanent. (George W. Bush, Jan. 7, 2003)我将继续敦促国会将这些减税措施包括取消遗产税的措施永久化。这是因为取消遗产税已经是个临时措施，但仍然有待永久化。另外，如果谈论的是一个热门的话题，the end 也比 an end 自然。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Is <i>the end</i> to employer-paid health care near? 雇主负担健康保险制度的末日是否已经临近？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> end 后面用 of 或 to 的问题：of 表示的主要本身由于内因而结束，to 则更多着重外力或外因(与 put an end to “制止”有关)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Scientists call for <i>an end to</i> water fluoridation. 科学家们呼吁停止向水中加氟。/ The scandal threatened <i>an abrupt end to</i> a promising political career. 丑闻有可能使得一个人大有前途的政治生涯戛然而止。/ At no small personal cost, Anucha Browne Sanders stood up and demanded <i>an end to</i> the kind of abuse African-American women regularly tolerate from some black men. (Newsweek, Oct. 15, 2007, p. 44)阿努查·布朗·桑德斯个人付出了不小的代价，挺身而出，要求制止非裔美国妇女常常忍受的那种虐待。如果不强调强烈的外力作用，用 of 比较合适。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Bill Weld, Republican candidate for New York governor, calls for <i>an end of</i> income tax for some in the middle class. 共和党纽约州州长候选人比尔·韦尔德呼吁停止向一些中产阶级征收所得税。但如果强调外力作用，则用 to 比较合适。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><i>an end to</i> the insurgency in Iraq 制止伊拉克的动乱</div><div class="ex-item"><i>an end to</i> world hunger 制止全球的饥饿</div><div class="ex-item"><i>an end to</i> identity theft 制止盗用身份。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 综合起来，an end to 作为通过强烈的外力结束某一状态的要求、主张、推测的意义较重；an end of 则外力作用较轻，但仍保持要求、主张、推测的意义；the end of 是感情色彩最轻的对事物本身终结的事后客观叙述。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Many reasons to celebrate <i>the end of</i> tobacco sponsorship. After October 1, 2003, tobacco companies will no longer be able to use arts and sporting events to advertise their cigarettes brands. 对于烟草公司赞助活动的终止，有好多理由应该加以庆祝。从 2003 年 10 月 1 日起，各烟草公司再也不能利用艺术和体育竞赛活动来推销自己各个品牌的香烟了。最后，the end to 仍然表示外力的作用，但却是对已成事实的客观叙述。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><i>the</i> abrupt <i>end to</i> his career 他职业生涯的戛然中断。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 最后，end 还可能有别的释义而不是“终止”，要注意看前后文加以判断。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Riches are not <i>an end of</i> life, but an instrument of life. 财富并不是人生的目的，而是人生的一种工具。(end 不是“终止”，而是“目的”。)</div>
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ended 与 ending
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>ended 与 ending</b></div>作为形容词，两者都可以加上补充说明，作定语放在名词后面。但是 ended 指“已经结束了的”，而 ending 则指“将要结束的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The report covers the decade <i>ended</i> in 1999. 报告涉及的期间，是到 1999 年结束的 10 年。/ He is enrolled in a course <i>ending</i> next year. 他参加了一个明年结束的课程。</div><br><br>
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endemic 与 epidemic
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>endemic 与 epidemic</b></div>前者是“地方病”，后者是“流行病，时疫”。此外，endemic 是医学用语“皮下的”。三者词义差别很大，不要混淆。<br><br>
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ending 与 ended
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>ending 与 ended</b></div>参见 ended 与 ending 条。<br><br>
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end up 与 end
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>end up 与 end</b></div>两者都是瞬时动词(第四类动词)。主要区别是：end 是“结束”，着重在末端的一瞬间，而且“结束”了，就告一段落，后来情况如何并不在意(信息重心就在 end 上)。不及物动词的主语或及物动词的宾语，所代表的事物，就此消失，没有下文。<br><br>end up 则是“经过了一段有意义的过程后达到某个对后来有重要性的结果”，实际上相当于一个类似 become 的系动词。它作为不及物动词时的主语，或是作为及物动词时的宾语，其所代表的事物并没有消失，而是达到了一个新的状态。<br><br>end 无论作为及物还是不及物动词，不要求任何补充说明(因为“结束”了就完了，后来如何无所谓)。end up 则必须要有主语补足语(有时候接近表语)作为其补充说明(达到什么结果，进入什么新的状态，留下什么后果，这是信息重心，所以不可或缺)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> end 可以作为及物动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He <i>ended</i> his own life. 他自杀了。(his own life 不复存在)</div><div class="ex-item">How about a cup of coffee to <i>end</i> the meal? 这顿饭最后来一杯咖啡好吗？(the meal 不复存在)</div><div class="ex-item">This scene <i>ends</i> the movie. 影片以这个场面结束。(the movie 在银幕上不复存在) end 也可以作为不及物动词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The concert <i>ends</i> at eleven. 音乐会 11 点结束。(concert 不复存在)</div><div class="ex-item">His career <i>ended</i> tragically. 他的事业可悲地结束了。(career 不复存在)</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> end up 不一定表示“最后的结局”，它可能只是总过程中的一个中间阶段，不排除以后还有“戏”。(a) 主语补足语最常见的形式是动词现在分词，这个动词可以是延续的，也可以是瞬时的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He <i>ended up marrying</i> his high school sweetheart. 他最后同高中时的恋人结了婚。(marry 瞬时)</div><div class="ex-item">I <i>ended up doing</i> it myself. 结果还是我自己做了。(do 瞬时)</div><div class="ex-item">Be thankful for what you have; you'll <i>end up having</i> more. If you concentrate on what you don't have, you will never, ever have enough. (Oprah Winfrey)有了多少都感恩，结果就会有更多。没有什么就耿耿于怀，那就永远不会足够。(have 延续)</div>(b) 主语补足语另一个常见的形式是动词过去分词，有被动意义，可以表示延续状态，也可以表示瞬时行动。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>No wonder the president <i>ended up</i> impeached. 怪不得总统受到了弹劾。/ A black teenager from Chicago allegedly whistled at a white woman and <i>ended up</i> beaten and shot to death by local bigots. (PBS, <i>American Experience: The Murder of Emmett Till</i>)一名来自芝加哥的黑人少年，据说是向一位白人妇女吹口哨，结果被当地的顽固分子殴打并开枪打死。</div>(c) 主语补足语是个形容词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I must be doing something to make them angry because they always <i>end up</i> furious at me. 我一定是做了什么惹他们生气的事，因为他们老是对我发火。</div>(d) 主语补足语另一个形式是介词短语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Many people <i>ended up</i> in the emergency room. 许多人后来只好去看急诊。/ More minorities <i>ended up</i> with high-cost mortgages. 更多的少数族裔，到头来只是背着高成本的房贷。/ A nine-foot alligator that blocked traffic on a South Florida highway will <i>end up</i> on the menu and on store shelves. (The Associated Press, Apr. 21, 2008)一条曾经阻断南佛罗里达高速公路交通的九尺长鳄鱼，将要上到菜单和商店货架上。/ We <i>ended up</i> behind another building that was deserted. 我们来到了另一座废弃的建筑物后面。</div>(e) 主语补足语是个名词(有时候前面加个 as)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Who would have thoughthe would <i>end up</i> (as) President? 当年谁曾料到他竟会当上总统？/ He <i>ended up</i> the big winner. 他成了个大赢家。/ Who'd have guessed that he'd <i>end up</i> such a big shot? (Mary Higgins Clark, <i>Nighttime Is My Time</i>)谁会猜想到他竟然会成为这样一个大人物？</div><br><br>主语如果不是人，end up 和后面的名词成分之间通常需要有 as。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A stolen Stradivarius cello almost <i>ended up as</i> a CD holder. 一把失窃的斯特拉迪瓦里大提琴几乎变成了一个 CD 盒子。/ The League of Nations <i>ended up as</i> debris. 国际联盟最终成为废墟。</div><br><br>
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endure
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>endure</b></div>作为及物动词，endure 属于第四类动词(瞬时体动词)；作为不及物动词，则属于第一类动词(延续状态)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为第四类动词，它可以有“经历(不利事件)”的不同。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The company <i>endured</i> heavy financial losses. 该公司遭受了重大的财务损失。/ FDR <i>endured</i> many political setbacks, but he never lost his ability to convey a sunny optimism. (U.S. News & World Report, Mar. 17, 2008, p. 29)罗斯福经历了许多政治上的挫败，但是他从未丧失他那种将艳阳天般的乐观主义传达给他人的本领。</div><br><br>也可以表示“(经历不利事件而)挺住了”，多用于否定句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He can't <i>endure</i> criticism. 他经不起批评。/ I can't <i>endure</i> to listen/listening to this poor music any longer. 这样蹩脚的音乐，我无法忍着听下去了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作为第一类动词，意思是“长久维持着”，可以用一般现在时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Somehow the language <i>endures</i> and continues to survive. 不知怎的，这种语言维持着，并继续生存下去。/ His works will <i>endure</i> for centuries. 他的作品将万古长青。/ His memory will <i>endure</i> forever. 人们将永远纪念他。/ ... an art ... which <i>endured</i> ... until man changed his attitude toward the universe (Henry Adams)……这种艺术……一直延续着，直到人类改变了对宇宙的态度。</div><br><br>
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end 与 ending
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>end 与 ending</b></div>作为名词，两者的区别是：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> end 是简单的“结束，末尾，停止”，不强调是“如何”结束的(也可以说是重其外延而不重其内涵)；ending 则是重其内涵，因而常用来指某个故事、小说、影片、剧本等的最后结局，而且往往在前面加上形容词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>happy <i>ending</i> (<i>end) 大团圆的结局</div><div class="ex-item">Anyone who has watched </i>Law & Order<i> over the years, as I have, knows that the </i>ending<i> (</i>end) must feel right ... in the <i>end</i> (<i>ending), most viewers are left feeling that some justice has been served. (Froma Harrop, in </i>The Daily Gazette*, Mar. 23, 2009, A5)任何一个同我一样这些年来看过《法律与秩序》的人都知道，结局必须令人觉得是妥当的。……到了最后，观众们都有一个感觉，觉得正义多少总算得到了伸张。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> end 的“结束”，是从本身孤立静止的状态来看待的，不着重其原先发展的过程；ending 则如果不重视“结局”的内涵(此时前面没有形容词)，也要重视原先发展的过程，是动态而非静态的。例如 the anniversary of the <i>ending</i> of the war (战争结束的周年纪念)，这里用了 ending，就使人想到 war 这个相当长的过程，而不仅仅想到 end 这是一个终点。<br><br>
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enemy
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>enemy</b></div>参见 adversary, enemy 与 foe 条。<br><br>
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engage
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>engage</b></div>这个动词(及物或不及物)和它所派生的名词 engagement，含义和用法都比较复杂微妙，不易捉摸，更不易翻译。从根本上说，engage 的基本意思就是“占用，占住”(使之不能顾及其他)，由此派生出许多分支词义：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> “占住”某人的时间、注意力、兴趣或心思(第二类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I have my time fully <i>engaged</i>. 我的时间全排满了。/ He couldn't <i>engage</i> his boss's attention. 他无法引起上司的注意。/ This policy will <i>engage</i> the hearts and minds of most people. 这个政策会争取到大部分的人心。/ Their estate was large, and their residence was at Norland Park, in the centre of their property, where, for many generations, they had lived in so respectable a manner as to <i>engage</i> the general good opinion of their surrounding acquaintance. (Jane Austen, <i>Sense and Sensibility</i>)他们的产业很广阔，他们的住处位于诺兰公园，就在他们地产的中心，在那里，他们世世代代居住，十分殷实可敬，周围的熟人普遍对他们有好评。这个词义，也可以连反身代词或者使用被动语态。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He <i>engaged</i> himself in every new project. 有什么新项目，他都下功夫去干。/ She is <i>engaged</i> in a new study. 她正在从事一项新的研究。这个用法又可以用 engage 作为不及物动词来表示。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She <i>engaged</i> in teaching for twenty years. 她从事教学 20 年。/ I have no time to <i>engage</i> in gossip. 我没空讲闲话。/ The United States is willing to <i>engage</i> in direct talks with Russia. 美国愿意同俄罗斯进行直接谈判。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> “雇用”(第四类动词)，直接宾语可以是人。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><i>engage</i> a servant 雇用仆人</div><div class="ex-item"><i>engage</i> a lawyer 请律师</div><div class="ex-item"><i>engage</i> someone as an adviser 聘某人为顾问。直接宾语也可以是租用之物。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><i>engage</i> a taxi 雇一辆出租车。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> “(预订)占用”(不给别人)(第四类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><i>engage</i> a table at the restaurant 在饭馆里预订一桌</div><div class="ex-item"><i>engage</i> a hotel room 预订一个旅馆房间。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> “占住(某人)在(某件事之中)”(第二类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This allowed him to <i>engage</i> the woman <i>in</i> further conversation. 这使得他能够继续同那个女人谈下去。转义是“使(某人)从事或参与(某事)”(失去排他性的“占住”之意)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>China will increasingly <i>engage</i> other countries <i>in</i> cooperative space activity. 中国将更多地寻找其他国家一起进行太空活动方面的合作。有时候这个“占住”也可以带有一点敌对的“纠缠，牵制，周旋”的意义。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They <i>engaged</i> enemy troops for three years of hard combat. 他们同敌军打了三年的硬仗。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 由“占用”转到“缠身”，转到“义务”，转到“担保，保证”(第四类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I <i>engage</i> that he is dependable. 我担保他是靠得住的。也可以用不及物动词 engage 加介词 for 再加名词表示。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I <i>engage for</i> her honesty. 我保证她是诚实的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 由“占用”转到“订婚”(不再找别人了)(第四类动词)，通常连反身代词或使用被动语态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Mary <i>engaged herself</i> to Tom. 玛丽同汤姆订了婚。(瞬时行动)</div><div class="ex-item">He is <i>engaged</i> to my sister. 他同我姐姐是有婚约的。(延续状态)</div><div class="ex-item">They got <i>engaged</i> last month. 他们上个月订婚了。(瞬时行动)在这个意义上，engage 不能像 marry 和 divorce 那样用作不及物动词。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 由于必须搭上了关系才能“占用”，意义又向“搭上关系”转移，失去排他性的“占用”意义。搭上的关系，不一定是友好的关系，也可以是敌对冲突的关系。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It could <i>engage</i> the enemy beyond the range of hostile torpedoes. 这军舰能在敌军鱼雷射程不及之处接触交战。为了避免冲突，双方军队各自后撤，“脱离接触”，就用反义词 disengage。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> 作为及物与不及物动词，表示两个机器部件彼此咬合(延续状态或瞬时动作均可)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><i>engage</i> this wheel with the other 使这个轮子同另一个咬合</div><div class="ex-item">The two wheels <i>engage</i>. (One wheel <i>engages</i> with the other.)两个轮子互相咬合。</div><br><br>
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engagement
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>engagement</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 词义同 engage 大体相同。但还有更加具体的“约会；战斗；待办事项；应聘工作”等新添的词义。表示这些具体词义时，engagement 是可数名词。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> engagement (可数名词)与 appointment 都是“约会”。但是 engagement 是熟人或朋友之间的约会。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He had an <i>engagement</i> at a restaurant downtown at eight. 他八点钟在城里一家饭馆有个约会。appointment 则是较为正式的“约见”，通常一方是官方或上级，或者是要安排日程的医生、律师等。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> engagement (不可数名词)在美国的对外政策中是个出现频率较高的用语，常常与 confrontation (对抗)相对而言，意思是不要一刀两断，拒绝来往，而是要来往，但又在来往中有斗争(动词 engage 本来就有对敌作战的重要意义)，所以，这个 engagement 的内涵很复杂，中文不易充分表达，暂时译为“接触”，口语中可以说是“打交道”。<br><br>
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engine 与 motor
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>engine 与 motor</b></div>通常两者可以互换，但是略有分别。用蒸汽推动的发动机是 engine (多说 steam engine，少说 steam motor)；用燃油推动的发动机是 engine 或 motor；用电力推动的电动机多称 motor，较少称 engine。原因可能是 engine (与 engineering 同源于拉丁文 ingenium “才智，灵巧”)是从机械结构的复杂巧妙着眼，刚发明蒸汽机时，人们主要是惊讶于其传动装置的巧妙。等到后来，人们的注意力就从机械结构转到了动力能源上面，而 motor 则主要是“动”的意思。<br><br>
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engrave
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>engrave</b></div>作为及物动词，engrave 的宾语可以是“雕刻出的花纹”，也可以是“上面雕刻着花纹的平面”(同 spray、sprinkle、litter 等的两种搭配相类似，此时花纹用 with 引入)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... their countless footsteps had <i>engraved</i> an enormous symbol on the floor. (Dan Brown, <i>The Da Vinci Code</i>)……他们留下的无数脚印，在地面上雕刻出了一个巨大的标志。/ Built by the Knights Templar in 1446, the chapel is <i>engraved with</i> a mind-boggling array of symbols from the Jewish, Christian, Egyptian, Masonic and pagan traditions. (ibid.)这座小教堂是圣殿骑士们于 1446 年兴建的，上面雕刻着多得令人目眩的来自犹太教、基督教、埃及神话、共济会和异教传统的标志。</div><br><br>
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enjoy
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>enjoy</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为无意识的延续状态(第一类动词)，可以不表示“欣赏”而表示“享有，有”，通常指比较舒适或有利的享受条件，在动词时态上不可以用进行时态(不能说 <i>I'm enjoying ...)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We all </i>enjoy<i> good health. 我们大家身体都很健康。/ They </i>enjoy<i> exceptional living standards. 他们享有不寻常的优越生活水平。/ The average German will </i>enjoy<i> 40 days' paid holiday this year. 普通的德国人今年将能享有 40 天带薪假期。/ Guests can </i>enjoy<i> free access to VIP lounges that offer small meals through the day. 来宾可以免费进入贵宾休息室，那里全天提供简易餐。/ The United States, Britain, China, Russia and France </i>enjoy<i> permanent membership on the 15-member Security Council. 美、英、中、俄、法五国在由 15 个成员组成的安全理事会中拥有常任理事国地位。/ Tokyo </i>enjoys* one of the best subway systems in the world. 东京的地铁系统在全世界属最好之列。</div><br><br>但是 enjoy 的意义逐渐扩大，也可以指并不太好的条件(当然不能是恶劣的条件)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He <i>enjoys</i> a moderate income. 他有一份中等的收入。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作为有意识的延续状态(仍然是第一类动词)，表示“欣赏，爱好，从中得到乐趣”，用一般现在时或一般过去时。作为有意识的“鉴赏，观赏”，则转为第二类动词，“在过程中”用进行时态，“过程已结束”用一般时态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I <i>enjoy</i> the mountains. 我喜爱山景。/ <i>I'm enjoying</i> the mountains. 我正在观赏山景。/ <i>I'm enjoying</i> doing what I'm doing. 我喜欢做我正在做的事。进行时态也可以表示“在享用着”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He's <i>enjoying</i> his holidays in the Bahamas. 他正在巴哈马群岛度假。一般时后加动名词，表示“喜爱做某事”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He <i>enjoys playing</i> the piano. 他喜爱弹钢琴。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> enjoy oneself 是“得到快乐，得到享受”的意思(仍然是第二类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I <i>enjoyed myself</i> very much. 我开心极了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> enjoy 也可以作为瞬时体的动态动词(第四类)，表示“发生”或“获得”某一良好的结果。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The market will <i>enjoy</i> a huge boom from the second half of this year. 今年下半年市场将会大为兴旺。/ The region will <i>enjoy</i> some cooling off from the high temperatures. 这个地区的高温将有所下降。/ In the process, Reagan not only won two terms as president but also <i>enjoyed</i> substantial success in implementing his agenda, ... (U.S. News & World Report, Mar. 17, 2008, p. 28)在这个过程中，里根不但赢得了两任的总统职务，而且在推行他的那一套方针中也获得了实质性的成功，……</div><br><br>
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enormity 与 enormousness
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>enormity 与 enormousness</b></div>前者指“大规模的邪恶”，后者指“庞大，巨大”。许多人往往把前者当作后者使用，但最好避免。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The <i>enormity</i> of this mass murder shocked the entire world. 这次大规模杀害，其性质之恶使得全世界震惊。/ The <i>enormousness</i> (*enormity) of our new college stadium made us gasp in delight. 我们学院的新运动场规模之大，使得我们心花怒放。</div><br><br>
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enough
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>enough</b></div>同充当表语的形容词或状语一起使用时，如果 enough 所修饰的只是一个形容词或副词，就放在这个形容词或副词之后。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>That's good <i>enough</i>. 足够好了。/ You will reach your school soon <i>enough</i>. 你到学校不会迟到的。但是如果表语是由两个或两个以上的单词组成的，enough 就不能放在它后面，而要放在前面。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The information is <i>enough</i> out of date. 信息够陈旧的了。同充当前置定语的形容词一起使用时，enough 也放在形容词和名词之间。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Women are still not entering politics in <i>large enough</i> numbers to make a difference. 妇女参政的人数仍然没有大到举足轻重的程度。</div><br><br>enough 如果作为形容词，就放在名词前面。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She made <i>enough sandwiches</i> for the guests. 她做了足够客人吃的三明治。如果名词当作形容词用，enough 作为副词，就放在其后面。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I told him that he should be <i>man enough</i> to admit he had done wrong. 我告诉他，他男子汉大丈夫，做错了就该承认。/ You were <i>fool enough</i> to borrow from him. 你向他借，真是太笨了。名词如果变为代词，则前面的 enough 与代词之间要加上 of。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Bad things can happen when we don't get <i>enough sleep/enough of it</i>. 如果我们睡眠不足，就会出毛病。</div><br><br>enough of 是否定的“不要再……了”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><i>Enough of</i> this spying and snooping, this childish play at investigating! (John Darnton, <i>The Darwin Conspiracy</i>)别来这套查根问底包打听的做法、这套调查侦探的儿戏了！</div><br><br>enough 往往不便单独出现，此时后面可以加上 go around 或 go round，这个加上部分实际上没有增添实质意义(或是只增添了“足以供所需”这一点意义)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Do you have <i>enough</i> cups <i>to go round</i>? 你们的杯子够不够大家用？</div><br><br>
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enough of a
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>enough of a</b></div>放在名词前面，表示完全足够称得上这个名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>John was <i>enough of a</i> fool to agree. 约翰竟然同意了，真是个傻瓜。/ He was <i>enough of a</i> crack shot to fire three bullets in five seconds at a moving target from about 100 yards. 他简直是个神枪手，能够在大约一百码之处外，用五秒钟向一个活动目标发射三颗子弹。</div><br><br>
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enough ... without ...
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>enough ... without ...</b></div>这样的句型，字面上是“没有……就够了”，但是实际上的意义是“即使不……，光是……已经不得了，更何况……呢”(通常都是负面的情况)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Mother's in rough <i>enough</i> shape <i>without</i> watching me do it at home. (Mary Higgins Clark, <i>I'll Be Seeing You</i>)我这件事不在家里干，妈妈就已经受不了，更何况要当着她的面干呢。/ Mom's upset <i>enough without</i> having to worry that I might have been an intended murder victim, ... (ibid.)妈妈还不知道我本来可能是人家谋杀的对象，她就已经很难受了，再让她知道了还得了？/ ... it's bad <i>enough</i> now <i>without</i> giving the media a fresh angle on all this, ... (ibid.)……现在情况已经够糟糕的了，不能再让媒体一波未平一波又起了，……</div><br><br>
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ensure 与 assure
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>ensure 与 assure</b></div>参见 assure 与 ensure 条。<br><br>
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enter 与 enter into
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>enter 与 enter into</b></div>enter 基本上属于第四类动词(瞬时动态动词)，可以及物，也可以不及物(enter into)。如何区别用法，大体上如下：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 表示具体的“进入”某空间，是及物动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><i>enter</i> the church (<i>enter into the church, </i>enter in the church)进入教堂。通常不能有被动语态，但是如果是静态的房屋布置描述或是习惯性的室内活动描述，可以以房间为主语，采取 be entered 这样的被动语态。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The treatment rooms <i>were entered</i> through these doors. (Mary Higgins Clark, <i>Weep No More, My Lady</i>)治疗室是从这些门进去的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 表示“进入”某组织或机构，也是及物动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><i>enter</i> the university 进大学</div><div class="ex-item"><i>enter</i> Parliament 进入国会当议员。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 表示“进入”某个活动领域，也是及物动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><i>enter</i> politics 进入政界</div><div class="ex-item"><i>enter</i> the priesthood 当牧师。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 但是，表示“参与”一时的活动(有时候 enter 可能有点“启动”的意思)，是不及物动词，要有 into。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><i>enter into</i> a discussion 争论起来</div><div class="ex-item"><i>enter into</i> negotiations 进行谈判</div><div class="ex-item"><i>enter into</i> an agreement 达成协议。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 表示“参加(比赛、考试)”，是及物动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><i>enter</i> a game 参加博弈</div><div class="ex-item"><i>enter</i> the competition 参赛。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 表示“进入”某一段时期，是及物动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I <i>entered</i> my second year at university. 我进入了念大学的第二年。/ The economy <i>entered</i> a period of low growth. 经济进入了低增长时期。/ The strike is <i>entering</i> its third week. 罢工正在进入第三周。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 在叙述中“进入”某一范围，是不及物动词，要有 into。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Nor shall I <i>enter into</i> details concerning the ensuing half-dozen nights. (Katherine Anne Porter, <i>Ladies' Home Journal</i>, August 1971)至于后来那几个晚上的情况，我也不一一细述了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> 表示“掺杂其中起作用，干预”，是不及物动词(可以转为延续静态的第一类动词)，要有 into。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My feelings didn't <i>enter into</i> my decision. 我做出的决定，并不掺杂感情上的成分。/ Money doesn't <i>enter into</i> it at all. 这里面根本没有金钱上的考虑。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(9)</span> 表示某一自然物“进入”另一自然物，是及物动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The sewage <i>enters</i> (*enters into) the sea untreated. 污水没有经过处理就流入大海。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(10)</span> 如果从上下文或语境中已经可以看出“进入”何处，单独一个不及物动词 enter 就已经足够，当然不用直接宾语，也不用 into。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We stopped talking as soon as we saw him <i>enter</i>. 我们一看见他进来，就停止交谈了。此时即使有其他介词短语，也不是 enter 所不可缺少的补充说明。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... he had come to America, probably <i>entering</i> at the port of Charleston, SC. (<i>Dictionary of American Biography</i>)……他到了美国，大概是从南卡罗来纳州的查尔斯顿港入境的。剧本中说“(某人)上(场)”，英文是 enter (*enters) + 某人。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Enter Othello. 奥赛罗上。主谓要颠倒，不能用第三人称单数动词(其实这是舞台导演的命令句)。</div><br><br>
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entitle
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>entitle</b></div>作为表示“赋予权利”的及物动词，entitle 是延续体的第一类动词，表示延续的状态，而非瞬时的动作。无论主动还是被动语气都可以有一般现在时。“权利”的内容用 to 加上名词或是动词不定式来表示。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This ticket <i>entitles</i> you <i>to</i> a free meal. 凭这张票，你可以免费享用一餐。/ The warranty <i>entitles</i> you <i>to</i> a replacement or refund. 有了担保，你可以换货或退款。/ There are 23 clubs throughout the United States, and your membership <i>entitles</i> you <i>to</i> enjoy all of them. 全美各地一共有 23 所俱乐部，你凭会员资格，全都可以享受。/ What <i>entitles</i> you <i>to</i> doubt his innocence? 你凭什么怀疑他的清白？/ I think she's <i>entitled to</i> a little respect. 我认为她值得受到一点尊重。/ I'm afraid you're not <i>entitled to</i> enter. 恐怕您没有权利进去。</div><br><br>
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entitlement
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>entitlement</b></div>原意指个人所享有的获得政府给予福利的权利，其实含义就是“福利待遇”。可以有复数形式，表示多种名目的福利待遇。<br><br>
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entrance
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>entrance</b></div>房屋或城镇的人口是 the <i>entrance to</i> a house/city。但是，建筑物的前端人口部分，作为建筑物的一部分，是 the <i>entrance of</i> a building。<br><br>
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environment
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>environment</b></div>指自然形成、不是人工特地安排的环境，包括气候、地理，也包括无意中形成的人际关系和氛围。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Friends of the Earth attacked the oil giant Shell which today announced half-year profits of £5.84 billion, saying the profits came at the expense of people and the <i>environment</i>. (Friends of the Earth, Press Release, July 28, 2005)“大地之友”抨击那个今天公布半年利润为 58.4 亿英镑的石油巨擘壳牌石油公司，说这些利润是靠牺牲人和环境得来的。/ Overall, the beleaguered newspaper industry's financial health has been weakened but remains healthy by most measures. In this <i>environment</i>, that is an achievement. 总的来说，陷于困境的报业，财务上的健康状况下滑了，但是就大多数指标来说仍然是健康的。在这样的环境下，这已经是一项成就了。/ Home was a conflicted political <i>environment</i>. His father was a Republican ... His mother was an ardent Democrat. (<i>Los Angeles Times</i>, June 9, 2007)家里的政治环境很复杂。他父亲是个共和党人……他母亲却是个热烈的民主党人。</div><br><br>自然形成的环境，如果规模较小(例如并非气候或地理景观)，可以用 surrounding。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We lived cheaply and ate a lot of interesting pasta, but I always wanted my <i>surroundings</i> to be beautiful. (Alexandra Penney, <i>The Bag Lady Papers</i>)我们生活过得很节俭，吃很多好吃的面食，但我总是希望自己周围的环境能美观。/ It (= the house) sat on at least twenty acres, which did not seem unusual for the <i>surroundings</i>. (David Rosenfelt, <i>Heart of a Killer</i>)房子占地至少 20 英亩，就周围的环境而言，这并不显得特别。</div><br><br>特意人为的环境，则是 setting。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We want them (= the students) to knowthat before they leave here (= the school), they will have been in a <b>setting</b> that's like one they'll go to work in. (<i>U.S. News & World Report</i>, May 2010, p. 52) 我们希望学生们懂得，他们在离校前，将会身处一个与出去工作时类似的环境。某一人为活动的地点（从其自然条件来看）也叫作 setting。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Hangzhou has been the <b>setting</b> for the G20 Summit. 杭州曾是 G20 峰会的举办地。但如果着重其复杂缤纷的环境对人为活动的影响，可以用复数 settings。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The Shanghai <b>settings</b> add to the film's realism. 上海的近景，增添了该影片的现实气氛。</div><br><br>
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envy
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>envy</b></div>作为及物动词（表示延续状态，第一类动词），可以有几种不同的搭配：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 只有一个直接宾语（人或事物）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I don't <b>envy</b> the young ones who've become TV superstars and know no other world. 对于那些成了电视超级明星，但除了这个就对外界毫无所知的年轻人，我并不羡慕。（宾语是人）/ She has always <b>envied</b> my success. 她一直都羡慕我的成功。（宾语是物）</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 以人作间接宾语，事物作直接宾语（常加上该该人的物主代词）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He <b>envied</b> Caroline <b>her</b> peace. 他羡慕卡洛琳的安宁。/ ... he <b>envied</b> Diggs <b>his</b> personnel more than anything. (<i>Tom Clancy, Executive Orders</i>) ……他最羡慕迪格斯的，是他有这样一批出色的人马。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 也可以以人作直接宾语，事物改为以 for 引入（仍然加上该人的物主代词）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Many countries <b>envy</b> R. O. Korea <b>for its</b> low level of national debt. 许多国家羡慕韩国国债水平低。/ It was another thing he <b>envied</b> Bob Koenig <b>for</b>. (<i>Mary Higgins Clark, Weep No More, My Lady</i>) 那是他羡慕鲍勃·凯尼格的另一点。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 事物可能是个动词，此时仍然以人为直接宾语，动词采取动名词形式。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I <b>envy</b> you <b>having</b> such a close family. 你一家人关系如此紧密，我很羡慕。</div><br><br>上面的(1)和(2)，如果否定，就往往不但是“不羡慕”，而且更进一层，意思是“因为自己不如此而感到庆幸”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's a difficult situation you're in. I <b>don't envy</b> you. 你的处境很困难。幸亏我还没有像你这样。/ I <b>don't envy</b> her that job. 幸亏我不干她那个活。</div><br><br>
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envy, envious, jealous 与 jealousy
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>envy, envious, jealous 与 jealousy</b></div>参见 jealous 与 jealousy 条。<br><br>
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equivalent
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>equivalent</b></div>作为名词，后面用 of 引入宾语；作为形容词，后面用 to 引入宾语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the <b>equivalent of</b> Boston's MIT 相当于波士顿麻省理工学院的院校</div><div class="ex-item">It's <b>equivalent to</b> Boston's MIT. 它相当于波士顿的麻省理工学院。</div><br><br>作为名词时，常用定冠词 the 而不用 an（有点类似形容词 wrong）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Basically, Gurdon, 79, and Yamanaka, 50, showed how to make <b>the equivalent</b> of embryonic stem cells without the ethical questions those very versatile cells pose, a promise scientists are now scrambling to fulfill. (<i>Nobel medicine, DG 10/9/12, A1</i>) 基本上，79 岁的格登和 50 岁的山中展示了如何做出相当于胚胎干细胞的东西而又避免这些十分多变的细胞所产生的伦理问题，而这个前景，是科学家们当前极力要实现的。</div><br><br>
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-er/-or
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>-er/-or</b></div>英文往往用动词 + -er/-or 来表示某个人的经常情况（作表语，其前面通常有系动词 be 之类，有时名词本身已能说明，有时名词本身是适用于所有人的，就还要再加一个形容词）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm an early <b>riser</b>. 我习惯早起。/ He is a fine/good <b>speaker</b>. 他的演说口才很好。/ I'm not a fast <b>runner</b>. 我跑不快。/ He is a slow <b>worker</b>. 他干起活来慢吞吞的。/ You're a good <b>sailor</b>. 您坐船不晕船。/ He was not a particularly good <b>driver</b>. 他开车并不特别好。/ Is your child a picky <b>eater</b>? 你的孩子挑食吗？/ What a shifty <b>arguer</b> he is, refusing ever to give a straight answer. 他这个人争辩起来真是滑头，总是不肯直截了当回答问题。/ She is a smart <b>dresser</b>. 她衣着讲究。/ Quick <b>learner</b>. A wooden <b>speaker</b> in 2000, Obama lost the starch in his style by 2004, and it soon paid off. (<i>Time</i>, May 19, 2008, p. 30) 学得快。奥巴马在 2000 年时发言谈吐还很木讷，到 2004 年就已经不那么刻板了，这很快就产生了良好效果。以上各例句的名词本身说明不了问题，要靠形容词来说明。但是，有的名词虽然本身已能说明，但加上形容词才更能说清。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You lead; I'm a born <b>follower</b>. 你领路吧；我天生是跟着走的。(follower 名词本身已能说明，但加上形容词才更能说清。)/ He is a big <b>drinker</b>. 他酒量很大。这同中文的语言习惯不同，如果掌握好了，英文可以比较地道。</div><br><br>有时候 -er/-or 所指的不是人而是物，但道理也是一样。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The Chinese automatic (umbrella) was the fastest <b>seller</b>, said the sales assistant. 售货员说，中国的自动伞最畅销。</div><br><br>
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escape
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>escape</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> escape (v.t.) 还是 escape (v.i.) from? 两者往往没有区别（但都是表示瞬时动作的第四类动词，而且表示“逃脱成功”）。但是 escape from 后面多是具体有形的负面场所，escape 后面则可以是比较抽象的某种负面处境。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>escape from</b> prison 越狱</div><div class="ex-item"><b>escape</b> prison 逃避监禁</div><div class="ex-item"><b>escape from</b> a sinking ship 逃离沉船</div><div class="ex-item"><b>escape</b> punishment 逃避惩罚</div><div class="ex-item"><b>escape</b> persecution 逃避追究。但是如果后面是具体场所也可以不用 from。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>escape</b> a Nazi concentration camp 逃出纳粹集中营。</div>“避开”某人也要说 escape from。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was unable to <b>escape from</b> her. 他无法躲开她。/ He <b>escaped from</b> his pursuers. 他摆脱了追踪者。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> escape 作为及物动词，还用于航天领域，指“逸出”某个范围（此时不能用 *escape from）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>escape</b> the earth's gravitational pull 逸出地心吸引力</div><div class="ex-item"><b>escape</b> the Solar System 逸出太阳系。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 往往中文的“某人没有注意到（瞬时事件）或理解不了（延续状态）某事物”，在英文中可以倒过来说“某事物 escape 某人”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Nothing <b>escaped</b> him/his eyes. 他什么事情都看在眼里。/ That detail had <b>escaped</b> my notice. 那个细节我没有注意到。/ The name <b>escapes</b> me. 这个名字我记不起来了。/ ... some of the eco-nuts were saying that global warming would cause an unprecedented cold winter this year. The logic of that <b>escaped</b> him. ……有些环境迷们在说，全球变暖会在今年引起空前的寒冬。这个逻辑他无法理解。/ The full significance of this fact seems to have <b>escaped</b> him at the time. 他当时似乎没有体会到这个事实的全部意义。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> escape 作为及物动词，不能有被动语气的用法。不能说：<i>The prison was escaped by the inmate. (</i>监狱被囚犯逃离了。) 也不能说：<i>He was escaped by the logic of that. (</i>他无法理解那个逻辑。) 过去分词 escaped，作为形容词使用，也只能是主动的意义，即“已经逃脱了的”，没有任何被动的意义。如果把 escape 看作不及物动词，则过去分词表示主动意义，也不乏其他例子（如 gone、fallen、disappeared 之类）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They are looking for an <b>escaped</b> convict. 他们在搜捕一个逃犯。</div><br><br>
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especial 与 special
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>especial 与 special</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> especial 作为形容词很罕见，一般都是 special (特别的，专门的，格外的)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a <b>special</b> offer 特别献礼（广告用语）/ a <b>special</b> price 特价</div><div class="ex-item">a <b>special</b> feature 特稿</div><div class="ex-item"><b>special</b> powers 特殊权力</div><div class="ex-item">a <b>special</b> edition 特刊</div><div class="ex-item">our <b>special</b> correspondent 本报特派记者</div><div class="ex-item">I wear this dress only on <b>special</b> occasions. 我唯有在特殊场合才穿这身衣服。/ My <b>special</b> interest is medieval poetry. 我特别感兴趣的是中世纪诗歌。/ Each contestant is tested on his <b>special</b> subject. 对每个参赛者都测试他本人的专业水平。/ Have you anybody <b>special</b> in mind? 你心目中没有具体的人选？/ Today is a very <b>special</b> day for me. 今天对我来说是很不平凡的日子。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 副词 especially 与 specially 常常同义，可以互换。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was not (<b>e)specially</b> cold. 当时并不特别冷。</div><br><br>但有时 especially 与 specially 仍然有区别。<br><br>especially 偏重程度上的“格外，尤其是”（往往用来修饰作状语的介词短语、从句，以及句中的名词成分）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We play a lot of tennis, <b>especially</b> on Sundays. 我们常打网球，尤其是在星期天。/ We go skiing quite a lot, <b>especially</b> in February. 我们常去滑雪，尤其是在二月份。/ I drink a lot of coffee, <b>especially</b> when I'm working. 我喝很多咖啡，尤其是工作的时候。/ The children are very noisy, <b>especially</b> when we have visitors. 孩子们很吵闹，尤其是我们来客人的时候。/ I like all kinds of fruit, <b>especially</b> apples. 我样样水果都喜欢，尤其是苹果。/ All my family like music. My father, <b>especially</b>, goes to as many concerts as he can. 我全家都喜欢音乐。尤其是我的父亲，凡是音乐会，他能去的都去。</div><br><br>specially 则偏重目的或对象方面的“特地，专门”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>These shoes were <b>specially</b> made for me. 这双鞋是为我特制的。/ The song was <b>specially</b> written for his birthday. 那首歌曲是特地为他的生日写的。/ I bought it <b>specially</b> for you. 这是我特地买给你的。/ Why did you choose that one <b>specially</b>? 你为什么偏偏挑中了那一个？</div><br><br>
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espouse
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>espouse</b></div>参见 spouse 条。<br><br>
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-est
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>-est</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 往往“最小”（如 the smallest、the slightest 等）用在否定之后，意思不是“没有最小的，有大一些的”，而是“连最小的都没有，根本没有，丝毫没有”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The skillful writer puts down nothing about whose meaning he has the <b>smallest</b> doubt. 高超的作者，如果对某一说法的意义有一丝一毫的怀疑，就不会下笔。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 形容词或副词（通常是表示远近的）的最高级，也可以在一种特殊的句型中名词化，充当主语、表语或句中其他名词成分。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The <b>closest</b> any of us get to farming is growing a few vegetables in the part of our property not easily seen from the front of the house. 我们当中，无论是谁，最接近于农耕的做法，也只不过是在我们的房子正面不容易看见的一片地上种点蔬菜而已。(作主语)</div><div class="ex-item">The <b>closest</b> we can come to that is studying the few existing hunter-gatherer societies and reading accounts of how other hunter-gatherers lived before industrial society changed them. 我们要这样做，充其量也只能对那些硕果仅存的少数狩猎采集社会进行研究，并阅读有关其他狩猎采集部落在被工业社会改变之前如何生活的记录。(作主语)</div><div class="ex-item">Perhaps the <b>remotest</b> we can be from today's Information Age is going back to the days of the Greeks. 我们如果想远离今天的信息时代，充其量也只能回到古希腊人的时代去。(作主语)</div><div class="ex-item">What evolutionists think is the <b>closest</b> we usually get to the notion of nature these days. 进化论者的想法，是我们今天通常对大自然的最为接近的认识。(作表语)</div><div class="ex-item">That was the <b>nearest</b> he came to discussing any aspect of the case. 对于这个案件的任何内容，如果说是讨论的话，他最多也只做到这一步为止。(作表语)</div>
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estimate 与 estimation
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>estimate 与 estimation</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 两者都有“评价，估价”的意义，有时候可以互换。但是 estimate 多用于对具体事物的“评估”，estimation 多用于对人或对抽象事物的“评价”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His <b>estimate</b> of the storm-related damages ran into the billions. 暴风雨造成的损失，他估计有数十亿元之巨。/ In the <b>estimation</b> of his countrymen, he was a great man. 在他本国同胞的心目中，他是个伟人。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> estimation of 后面是主动者还是被动者？如果 in the estimation of 后面是人，则这个人是主动者（“按照某人做出的评价”）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>In the estimation of</b> Picasso's friends, it acts like a memorandum for him. (<i>Janet Flanner, in The New Yorker, Mar. 9, 1957</i>) 在毕加索的朋友们看来，那像是给他的一份备忘录。但是如果 the 改为物主代词，则这个代词所代表的人是主动者，of 后面无论是人还是事物，都是被动者。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>his</b> own <b>estimation of</b> certain modern composers (<i>Warwick Braithwaite, The Conductor's Art</i>) 他本人对当代某些作曲家的评价。至于 of 后面不是人而是事物，那就更不可能是主动者。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>To divert interest from the poet to the poetry is a laudable aim: for it would conduce to a juster <b>estimation of</b> actual poetry, good and bad. (<i>T. S. Eliot</i>) 把注意力从诗人那里转移到诗本身那里去，是一个值得称道的目标：因为这一来，就有可能对真正的诗歌，无论好的坏的，都做出更为公正的评价。（参见 aggression 条）</div>
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etc.
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>etc.</b></div>这个常用的缩写是“等等”的意思，但是使用起来，有几点值得注意：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> etc. 后面必须有表示简略的点号(.)，而且如果句子还没有结束，还必须有逗号(,)接下去。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I read science fiction, modern literature, <b>etc.,</b> but not biographies. 我看科幻小说、现代文学等等，但不看传记作品。 (2) 前面列举时不能加 and，因为这个缩写词来自拉丁文 et cetera (相当于“and other things”)，其中的 et 已经相当于 and。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 如果列举之前说明了这是举出其中一部分为例，比如说 such as 或 for example，后面就不能用 etc.，否则意义重叠。<br><br>
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even
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>even</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为副词，even 可以起两个相反方向的进一步强调作用，一个是正面方向的“甚至这个也如何”，一个是负面方向的“甚至连这个也没有”。<br><br>正面的进一步强调。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's warm there <b>even</b> in December. 那里甚至十二月也暖和。/ <b>Even</b> a child could do it. 这样的事情连一个小孩都能做。/ It would be madness <b>even</b> to attempt it. 哪怕这样试试也是发疯。/ The next day was <b>even</b> colder. 次日更加寒冷。/ He seemed indifferent, <b>even</b> hostile. 他的样子很冷淡，甚至带敌意。</div><br><br>负面的进一步强调。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He can't <b>even</b> sew a button on. 他连一个扣子都不会缝。/ Don't <b>even</b> think about it. 这件事情，你想也别想它。/ I am tasting happiness never <b>even</b> dreamt of before. 我正品尝着从前连做梦也想不到的幸福。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 英语中往往有些本来在从句中的成分“跳”到了主句中。如 I <b>don't</b> think you're right. (= I think you <b>aren't</b> right.)，但有时候则本来在主句中的成分“跳”到了从句中。even 作为一个负面极性项，就通常出现在表示否定、怀疑或假设的从句之中，此时千万不要把 even 理解为加强从句的肯定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The Sun's gravity holds this solar system together. In fact, the Sun's gravity is why we <b>even</b> have a solar system. (= In fact, the Sun's gravity <b>even</b> is why...)(<i>Kids Discover</i>) 太阳的引力使得这个太阳系合在一起。实际上，就连太阳系之所以存在，也是由于太阳的引力。/ ... and Dr. DeBakey <b>denying</b>—implausibly, many say—that there <b>even</b> was a feud. (= ... and Dr. DeBakey <b>even</b> denying...)(<i>The New York Times, Science, Nov. 27, 2007, F1</i>) ……德贝基大夫甚至否认——许多人说这个否认是很勉强的——彼此有什么不和。/ <b>Before</b> she had <b>even</b> (= <b>Even before</b> she had...) buckled herself in, the craft was airborne, banking hard across the Virginia woods. (<i>Dan Brown, Deception Point</i>) 她还没来得及扣好坐稳，直升机就离地升空，斜斜地掠过弗吉尼亚的森林。/ Some question <b>whether</b> the sunken ship has <b>even</b> been found. (= Some <b>even</b> question whether the sunken ship has been found.) 有些人连该沉船是否已被发现也提出质疑。/ <b>Only</b> 3 percent of Americans were <b>even</b> aware such an agency existed. 哪怕仅仅知道有这个机构存在的美国人，也只有百分之三。/ The question is whether those forces are the right tool for the job at hand—can any number of U.S. troops stop what has become a Sunni-Shiite civil war? —Not to mention <b>whether</b> they're <b>even</b> available. (<i>Newsweek, Jan. 8, 2007, p. 26</i>) 问题在于这些兵力是否就是适合当前任务的工具——是美国军队的数量够多，就能制止一场已经发展成为逊尼与什叶两派内战的战争吗？更何况这些兵力能否弄到还是个问题。/ A promising model has emerged in Brooklyn, where District Attorney Charles Hynes started his re-entry program long <b>before</b> other jurisdictions <b>even</b> realized they were necessary. (<i>The New York Times, Nov. 29, 2007, A30, editorial</i>) 一个有发展前途的(防止重新犯罪的)模式已经出现在布鲁克林，当地的区检察长查尔斯·海因斯甚至早在其他司法辖区意识到有采取这些措施的必要之前，就开始推行他的“回归社会”方案了。/ It <b>wasn't</b> until women won the right to vote, well into the twentieth century, that they were <b>even</b> allowed to attend the shareholders' meeting. (<i>Stieg Larsson, The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo</i>) 直到进入了 20 世纪之后很久，妇女获得选举权之时才获准参加股东大会。（不是“妇女甚至还获准参加股东会”）/ My brother's wife offered to host a baby shower for me <b>before</b> I <b>even</b> had a chance to tell my friends I was pregnant. (<i>Reader's Digest, June/July, 2011, p. 76</i>) 我甚至还没有来得及告诉朋友们我怀孕了，我的嫂子就已经提出要给我开一个迎婴送礼会。/ She probably had <b>no</b> idea how beautiful she was or that she was <b>even</b> beautiful—an innocent child from the bogs. (<i>Andrew M. Greeley, Irish Gold</i>) 她也许感觉不到自己是多么的漂亮，甚至连自己漂亮也不知道——她真是来自爱尔兰沼泽的一个天真的孩子。</div><br><br>从上面例子可以看出，只要句子中有否定词或是准否定词，even 无论出现在主句还是从句，都对否定或准否定起“甚至”的修饰作用，即使这个 even 在结构上乍看之下同否定词或准否定词并不相干。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Certainly the cops had <b>no</b> reason to <b>even</b> think about the contents of his trunk, ... (<i>Mary Higgins Clark, While My Pretty One Sleeps</i>) 警察们对他车子的后备厢里面装了什么，肯定连想也不会想，……（是“甚至没有理由想一下”，不是“没有理由甚至想一下”。）</div><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> even 尽管既可以用于加强肯定，也可以用于加强否定，但是如果用于一般疑问句中，它的意思按照语境或前后文，也可能不是加强肯定，而是减弱肯定，加强否定的可能性。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Did the mayor <b>even</b> read the report? 市长甚至看了报告吗？（市长会不会连报告也没有看过？）/ Did he ever laugh? Did he <b>even</b> smile? 他笑过吗？哪怕是微笑一下有没有过？（前面 laugh，后面 smile 是退了一步）/ Did she <b>even</b> have a reason? 她难道还有什么理由吗？（有 reason 是最起码的要求，不可能是进一步的要求“甚至还有理由”。）奥巴马当选美国总统后，有人不服气，提出种种质疑，其中之一是对他是否真的出生在美国表示怀疑(美国宪法规定总统必须是出生于美国的美国公民)，说：Was he <b>even</b> born in the United States? 这里的 even，就不是加强肯定的“甚至”，而是减弱肯定、加强否定的“难道，甚至连……也成问题”。</div><br><br>但是如果问句不是一个一般疑问句，而是一个特殊疑问句，句中动词的内容就是谈话双方都肯定了的，even 就是加强肯定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Why did God <b>even</b> place such a tree in the garden if he didn't want Adam to consume its fruit? 上帝既然不想亚当吃树上的果实，那么他为什么还把这样一棵树放在伊甸园里呢？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> even 最常用的是作为副词，大家也习惯它作为副词的用法。但是 even 也可以作为形容词，意思是“平整的，齐平的；均衡的，平均的，均等的；打成平手的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>even</b> ground 平地</div><div class="ex-item">an <b>even</b> coastline 平整的海岸线</div><div class="ex-item">The floor is not <b>even</b>. 地面不平。/ plane the boards down to make them <b>even</b> 把那些木板刨平</div><div class="ex-item">He kept his voice <b>even</b>. 他的声音平稳。/ an <b>even</b> game 难分输赢的比赛</div><div class="ex-item">After four rounds they're <b>even</b>. 经过四个回合，他们打成了个平手。/ He stands an <b>even</b> chance of winning. 他输赢的机会各半。/ So now we're <b>even</b>. (= So that makes us <b>even</b>.) 现在咱们谁也不欠谁的了。/ Before Tuesday's voting, the two were <b>even</b> among white males this year. (<i>The Associated Press, Feb. 13, 2008</i>) 在星期二的投票之前，他们两人今年在白人男性当中势均力敌。/ break <b>even</b> 不赢不亏</div><div class="ex-item">He's itching for a chance to get <b>even</b>. 他渴望有机会能够报一箭之仇。/ ... and McCain's revival has not been robust enough to bring him <b>even</b> with Barack Obama. (<i>George Will, in The Sunday Gazette, Aug. 18, 2008, F2</i>) ……麦凯恩的卷土重来，势头并不够猛，不足以使他同奥巴马平分秋色。/ They appeared like two workmen on a legitimate errand. They entered the treeline separating the two neighboring homes and were soon <b>even</b> with the backs of the houses. (<i>Robin Cook, Crisis</i>) 他们两人装成光明正大上门干活的修理工，走进了那一行分隔两座邻宅的树丛，很快就挨着房子的后墙了。</div><br><br>有时候，even 本来作为形容词用，但是后面还有副词成分，此时容易把 even 误认为副词（“甚至”）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Estrada sighed with relief, knowing he was closer to breaking <b>even</b> for the day. (<i>The Washington Post, Feb. 24, 2008, A15</i>) 埃斯特拉达松了一口气，他知道他今天的收支是相抵了。（这里不能把 even for the day 连在一起，因为 even 在此是个形容词，break even 是“收支相抵”。）</div>
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event
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>event</b></div>除了表示“事件”（如果是一段时间中陆续发生的事件的总称，常用复数），还可以指(事先安排的)活动(如比赛、集会，单独一次用单数)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Events</b> proved us right. 事件的发展证明了我们是正确的。/ the <b>events</b> of the night 夜里发生的事情</div><div class="ex-item">charity/charitable <b>event</b> 慈善活动</div><div class="ex-item">the sporting <b>event</b> of 2002 2002 年的体育盛会。</div><br><br>in the event that 或 in the event of 都可以有“如果”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>In the event of</b> the reactor becoming overheated, ... 如果反应堆过热，……</div><div class="ex-item"><b>In the event that</b> I can't come back by seven, you can eat without me. 如果我七点钟之前回不来，你就可以不等我先吃。/ What should I do <b>in the event that</b> my bags are lost/damaged? 如果我的行李丢失/破损了，我该怎么办？/ <b>In the event that</b> the Congress should fail to act, and act adequately, I shall accept the responsibility, and I will act. (<i>Franklin Delano Roosevelt</i>) 如果国会没有采取行动而且是充分合适的行动，我将负起责任，我将采取行动。</div><br><br>
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ever
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>ever</b></div>作为副词，ever 可以修饰动词，也可以修饰形容词、另一副词或某个副词短语。它的用法，英语学习者较难掌握。现分述如下：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 修饰动词。所修饰的动词，基本上是瞬时体动词，即使个别场合是延续体的静态动词，也是临时借用，赋予动态意义的。ever 表示过去或将来可能涉及的任何一个时间点发生某事。如果是过去，表示过去曾有的经历，在中文里大体上相当于“曾经，过”。但是 ever 在语法中是一个负面极性项。所谓“负面极性项”，是“极性项” (polarity item) 当中的一种。“极性项”是句中必须依赖另一个语义成分的出现才能出现的成分；其中“负面极性项”除了 ever，还有 yet、any (包括 anything、anyone、anybody、anywhere 等等)，只能出现在否定句(与否定词一起相当于 never)、一般疑问句、条件从句以及其他带有疑问或否定语气的句子中，一般不出现在肯定句中，但是在本来不要求有 ever 的叙述过去事实的肯定句中，加进 ever，可以表示不满、愤怒，中文可以译成“竟然”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was shocked at the thought that the material might <b>ever</b> be used in such a way. 他一想到这一材料竟然可能被拿来做这种用途，就感到震惊。/ I was a fool <b>ever</b> to marry her. 我当时竟然同她结婚，太愚蠢了。</div><br><br>ever 在肯定句中也可以相当于 always。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>his <b>ever</b> open notebook 他那本老是打开的笔记本</div><div class="ex-item">The pendulum swings backwards and forwards. The circle is <b>ever</b> travelled anew. (<i>Somerset Maugham, The Moon and Sixpence</i>) 钟摆摆过来又荡过去，这一旅程永远反复循环。</div>(a) 在否定句中：由于 ever 表示在某一段时间当中某一不确定的时间点上发生的某事(又在句中被否定)，因此，实际生活中最常见的事例，就是从现在这个时间点(或是过去一个特定的时间点)，回顾以往一段有限或无限的时间段，表示在这整个时间段当中一直没有发生某事。表现在动词时态上，就是现在完成时或是过去完成时，这是最为常见的与 ever 一起在否定句中出现的动词时态。其次的动词时态，就是一般将来时(被否定后相当于 never，既表示“永不”，也表示“绝不”)。再其次的动词时态，是一般现在时以及一般过去时。用后面这两个时态的时候，ever 的时间意义减弱，而增添了加强否定的语气意义。(a1) 与现在完成时或过去完成时一起。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I haven't <b>ever</b> been there. 我从来没有到过那里。/ Nothing like it had <b>ever</b> been built before. 以前从来没有兴建过类似这样的东西。</div>(a2) 与一般将来时一起。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I don't think I'll <b>ever</b> be homesick here. 我觉得我到了这里不会想家的。</div>(a3) 与一般现在时一起，增添了一点加强否定的语气。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Nothing exciting <b>ever</b> happens to me. 我没有什么觉得兴奋的事。/ Nobody <b>ever</b> comes to see us in this out-of-the-way village. 谁也不到这个偏僻的小村来看我们。</div>(a4) 与一般过去时一起，这个过去时，可以是就过去的语境说过去。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>To Let To Let To Let To Let, glared at me from empty rooms, as if no new wretches <b>ever</b> came there, ... (<i>Charles Dickens, Great Expectations</i>) “出租”“出租”“出租”的字样，从空空如也的房间那里注视着我，仿佛再也没有新的落难人到此地来了，……</div><br><br>也可以是就现在的语境说过去。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>For no prophecy <b>ever</b> came by the will of man... (<i>2 Peter 1:21</i>) 因为预言从来没有出于人意的……</div>(a5) 也可以 ever 在从句而否定在主句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Neither</b> she <b>nor</b> her friend had believed they would <b>ever</b> be invited. 她和她的朋友原先都以为自己不会被邀请。/ John told <b>nobody</b> that he had <b>ever</b> been to Paris. 约翰没有告诉任何人他到过巴黎。/ I <b>don't</b> think the unemployment rate <b>ever</b> tells us much about the future. 我认为失业率不能向我们预告多少将来的情况。</div>(a6) 也可以与否定形容词并用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It would be <b>unrealistic</b> to expect such a process <b>ever</b> to be completed. 期待这样一个过程能够完成，那是不现实的。 (b) 在疑问句中：</div>(b1) 最常出现的动词时态，仍然是现在完成时或过去完成时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Have you <b>ever</b> been to Naples? 你到过那不勒斯吗？值得注意的是：第一，这个 ever 在疑问句中的使用是正确的。但是正面说明时用的是陈述句，就不可以套用疑问句的 ever 了：*I have <b>ever</b> been to Naples. 第二，同 ever 相呼应，动词时态使用现在完成时，没有明确的时间范围。如果有一个时间范围，动词时态就不能用现在完成时，而要用一般过去时，尽管乍看同 ever 所要求的动词时态不符。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Did you <b>ever</b> visit Naples while you were in Europe? 你在欧洲时有没有去过那不勒斯？</div>(b2) 一般将来时，其意义可以是问是否“有朝一日(在某一个未定的时间点，放在一个界限不明的时间段中)”会发生某事。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Shall we <b>ever</b> meet again? 咱们还会再见面吗？(指将来不知何时) 也可以是问是否“在当前已经涉及的这个单独的将来场合”会发生某事(也是个时间点，但却是已定的，没有放在一个界限不明的时间段中)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Will we <b>ever</b> get there? 咱们到得了那里吗？(指当前这一次)</div>(b3) 一般现在时：这样的问句，肯定时 ever 给句子增添一点“偶尔(不止一次，但不作为日常生活或工作的重要内容)”的口气。例如 Do you <b>ever</b> go to the movies? (你有时候看看电影吗？)就比 Do you go to the movies? (你是否经常看电影？)语气缓和一些。但有时候也带点“讥讽”的口气，表示“大概总会如此吧”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Do your neighbors <b>ever</b> sleep? 你的邻居们总要睡觉的吧？如果是否定的一般疑问句，则增添一点“难道不”的语气。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Kids often ask me: How do you write so many books? Don't you <b>ever</b> run out of ideas? (<i>Mary Pope Osborne</i>) 孩子们常常问我：你怎么能写出这么多的书呀？你难道不会才思枯竭吗？/ Don't you <b>ever</b> feel like it's a waste of time for you to keep on doing so? 你难道不觉得，继续这样干是白费时间吗？如果是否定的特殊疑问句，也带有质问(“为什么”)的语气。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Why don't you <b>ever</b> say something about the price? 你为什么不谈谈价格？</div>(b4) 一般过去时：较少使用，用时往往带有预先表示怀疑或否定的“反语”语气。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Did he <b>ever</b> tell you? 他真的告诉了吗？/ Did you <b>ever</b> see such big ears? 这样的大耳朵，你恐怕从来没见过吧？类似后面一句这样的句子，可以简缩为 Did you ever?</div>(b5) 以上谈的都是一般疑问句。至于特殊疑问句中的 ever，也同样有强调其“竟然如此”的含义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I would give the world to get that letter back unread. <b>Why</b> did I <b>ever</b> write it? (<i>Herman Wouk, War and Remembrance</i>) 我真恨不得赶信还没有被拆开看把它弄回来。我怎么竟然写了这样的信？/ <b>How</b> will I <b>ever</b> repay you? 我怎样才能报答你呢？/ It's a Catch-22 situation here. Nobody wants to support you until you're successful, but without the support <b>how</b> can you <b>ever</b> be successful? 这是一个无法解脱的矛盾局面。你尚未成功之时，没人肯支持你，但是，得不到支持，你又怎能成功呢？ (c) 在祈使句(必须是否定的)中，ever 起着加强劝阻语气的作用。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He is a good man. Don't <b>ever</b> lose him. 他是个好人。千万别失去他。/ Don't <b>ever</b> (= Never) do that kind of thing again. 那样的事情千万别再做了。</div>(d) 同准否定词连用，表示“很少”：最常见的准否定词是 hardly、scarcely、unlikely、few、only 等。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the <b>only</b> customer who <b>ever</b> demanded it 唯一要求这个的顾客</div><div class="ex-item">This is the <b>only</b> brand I <b>ever</b> serve my guests. 这是我唯一拿来招待客人的品牌。/ He <b>hardly/scarcely ever</b> smokes. 他很少抽烟。/ The temperature <b>hardly ever</b> fell below freezing. 气温很少会降到冰点以下。/ He's <b>unlikely ever</b> to leave the psychiatric hospital. 他不大可能从精神病院出院。/ <b>Few</b> doctors <b>ever</b> take the time to examine these muscles. 很少有医生肯时间去检查这些肌肉。/ You had the moral courage to resign on principle, which <b>few</b> people <b>ever</b> do. 你有道义上的勇气因为原则问题而辞职，这是很少有人能做到的。/ I <b>only ever</b> use that on special occasions, so it's as good as new. 我只是遇到特殊场合的时候用它一下，所以它还是崭新的。/ <b>Only</b> the two of them <b>ever</b> knew it. 只有他们两个人知道。</div><br><br>一些表示困难、怀疑、区别的词，也可以同 ever 连用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is <b>difficult</b> to imagine how the North and South could <b>ever</b> agree on a formula to unite the divided country. 难以想象南北双方如何能够共同商定一个把分裂的国家统一起来的方案。/ When Reagan announced SDI, many leading American scientists were <b>skeptical</b> that it could <b>ever</b> be made to work. 当里根宣布“战略防御方案”时，美国许多顶尖的科学家都怀疑这个方案能否行得通。/ And it's a <b>different</b> kind of threat than we've <b>ever</b> faced before. (<i>Dick Cheney, in Newsweek, Jan. 23, 2006, p. 48</i>) 这是同我们以往遇到的不同的另一类威胁。</div><br><br>另外，在一些表示惊讶的动词或形容词后面，引起惊讶的事情可以用 ever 修饰，相当于中文的“竟然”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She was <b>surprised/amazed</b> that he <b>ever</b> drank vodka. 看到他竟然喝伏特加酒，她感到惊奇。</div><br><br>但是，还有一些别的准否定词，乍看之下似乎没有否定的意思，容易被忽视。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I knew he was angry, <b>before</b> I <b>ever</b> entered his room. 我还没有进他的房间，就知道他在生气。这里的 before 就带有一点否定的意思(参见 before 条之(3))。但是 until 就与 before 不同，没有否定的意思，不能同 ever 并用。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'll sleep in the living room <b>until</b> you (<i>until you ever) quit snoring. 我要睡在客厅，睡到你停止打呼噜为止。all 有时候也有一点否定、排除的意思(参见 all 条之(4))。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>All</b> they <b>ever</b> do is just complain. 他们只是一味地埋怨。很特别的是：甚至 every，由于与 all 意义接近，也借用 ever 来强调其包揽范围之齐全(“无所不包”也就有了点否定的语气)(但是 all 与 ever 都只能用于修饰“every + 名词”的后置定语从句，不能用于主句)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Every</b> boy who <b>ever</b> petted a rabid dog got (</i>ever got) bit. 凡是拍打过疯狗的男孩子都被咬了。/ <b>Every</b> student who has <b>ever</b> been to Rome bought (<i>ever bought) some postcards there. 去过罗马的学生，都在那里买了一些明信片。/ She sold (</i>ever sold) <b>everything</b> she'd <b>ever</b> bought in order to support herself through art school. 她把自己买来的东西统统卖卖掉，来筹集攻读艺术学校的费用。至于一些否定意义很明显的动词，如 deny、prevent 等，后面加上 ever 可以加重否定的意思。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He tried to <b>prevent</b> the news from <b>ever</b> reaching his parents. 他设法防止消息传到他父母那里去。在带有否定意义的动词或动词词组后面，也是加重其否定力度。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They all <b>denied ever</b> having seen her. 他们全都否认见过她。/ What a shifty arguer he is, <b>refusing ever</b> to give a straight answer. 他这个人争辩起来真是滑头，总是不肯直截了当回答问题。/ Many financial planners now <b>recommend against ever</b> paying off your home loan. 现在很多财务计划专家主张不要将购房贷款还清。</div>(e) 在 if 从句(无论是表示“如果”还是“是否”)中，由于 if 含有不确定性、不肯定性，所以可以在 if 从句中使用 ever 来进一步加重这个不确定性。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I wonder <b>if</b> I can <b>ever</b> visit England again. 我真不知道能不能再去英格兰。/ All 25 EU countries must ratify the treaty <b>if</b> it is <b>ever</b> to come into force. (<i>The Economist, June 10, 2005, p. 47</i>) 文本如果真的要生效，就需要 25 个欧盟国家全都予以批准。/ He seldom, <b>if ever</b>, eats meat. 他很少吃肉。/ Once you lost one of these ice sheets, there's really no putting it back for thousands of years, <b>if ever</b>. (<i>The Washington Post, Jan. 29, 2006, A16</i>) 这些冰层一旦失去一块，即使能够恢复，也不是几千年能办到的事。/ She could feel renewed inside when she met the right man, <b>if ever</b>. 有朝一日，等到她遇到如意郎君，她的内心是能够重新活跃起来的。</div>(f) than 对后面的成分也有一些否定的含义，所以在这成分中也可以用 ever 来突出对比的强烈。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... it will require a great deal more evidence <b>than</b> is <b>ever</b> likely to be available, thank God, to persuade me that Tiberius was as blameless a monarch as King George V. (<i>Somerset Maugham, The Moon and Sixpence</i>) ……谢天谢地，哪怕你找遍了一切可能找到的证据，都不足以说服我相信提比略作为一个君主同乔治五世国王一样是无可指摘的。</div>(g) 同形容词的原级、比较级或最高级连用，用来表示最高级。同原级连用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She has <b>as</b> fine a figure <b>as</b> I have <b>ever</b> seen. 她的身材，是我所看到过的最苗条的。（参见 as ... any 与 as ... ever 条）与比较级连用。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm <b>happier than</b> I have <b>ever</b> been. 我从来没有像现在这么高兴过。与最高级连用。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This is the <b>best</b> novel <b>ever</b> written by a young girl. 这是一个小女孩所能写出的最好的长篇小说。/ He was the <b>greatest</b> pianist that <b>ever</b> lived. 他是有史以来最伟大的钢琴家。/ This was the <b>closest</b> we <b>ever</b> came to finding the truth. 这是我们最接近于发现真相的时候。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 修饰形容词或副词：(a) 作前置定语修饰比较级或表示逐步变化的动词现在分词，表示“越来越”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the <b>ever</b> growing threat of war 日益严重的战争威胁</div><div class="ex-item">the <b>ever</b> worsening unemployment 每况愈下的失业现象。</div><br><br>如果 ever 在 than 之后，则表示“比以往任何时候都更……”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She looked <b>frailer than ever</b>. 她看起来比以往任何时候都虚弱。</div>(b) 与形容词的原级一起，表示“一直”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The danger is <b>ever</b> present. 危险是一直存在的。/ <b>Ever</b> helpful, he offered to drive me there. 他这个人一直是助人为乐的，这次又主动要开车送我到那边去。/ You are <b>ever</b> present in my thoughts. 我老是惦记着你。</div>(c) 与形容词的比较级一起，表示“越来越”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>At the other end of the academic spectrum, however, are the stellar students who are doing <b>ever</b> more difficult work at <b>ever</b> younger ages. (<i>Laura Poppano, "The Incredible," in The New York Times, Jan. 7, 2007</i>) 但是，在学业成绩光谱的另一端，则是那些年龄越来越小而学的东西越来越难的高才生。</div>(d) 同形容词或副词的最高级一起，ever 放在该形容词之后与被修饰的名词之前，或放在该名词之后，表示一种“历来之最”甚至“有史以来之最”的意义(也就是取其历时意义，排除其共时意义)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>These are our <b>best ever</b> results. 这些是我们历来获得的最好结果。/ It was the <b>most</b> awful film <b>ever</b>. 那是历来最糟糕的影片。/ The A380 from Airbus would be the <b>largest</b> commercial jet <b>ever</b>, with potential seating of 555. 空中客车公司出品的 A380 可能是有史以来最大的商业喷气客机，最多可以有 555 个座位。/ An oxygen generator on the international space station overheated and spilled a toxic irritant Monday, forcing the three-men crew to don masks and gloves in the <b>first</b> emergency <b>ever</b> declared aboard the 8-year-old orbiting outpost. (<i>The Associated Press, Sept. 18, 2006, headline: Toxic Leak Causes First-Ever Space Station Emergency</i>) 周一，国际空间站的一个氧气发生器过热并泄漏出有毒刺激物，迫使三人工作组戴上面具和手套，这是那个前哨站在轨道上运行八年以来第一次宣布紧急事件。/ ... scientists and diplomats warned Friday in their <b>bleakest</b> report <b>ever</b> on global warming. (<i>The Associated Press, Apr. 6, 2007</i>) ……科学家和外交官们星期五在他们有史以来最惨淡的有关全球变暖的报告中发出警告。</div><br><br>注意：the <b>first</b> secretary of the committee 是“委员会的第一书记”，the <b>first</b> secretary <b>ever</b> of the committee 则是“委员会的第一任书记”。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> ever so 表示“十分，非常”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Let him be <b>ever so</b> rich. (<i>Emerson</i>) 就让他腰缠万贯吧。/ The result was that the son's Y chromosome, usually an exact copy, varied <b>ever so</b> slightly from the father's. (<i>National Geographic, October 1999</i>) 儿子的 Y 染色体，通常同父亲是一模一样的，结果现在却有了非常细微的差别。</div><br><br>
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-ever
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>-ever</b></div>放在几个疑问词后面作为后缀，形成 however、whatever、whoever、whichever、whenever、wherever 等(但没有 *whyever)。这几个词的词类和作用互有异同。详细参见 whatever 条。<br><br>
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every
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>every</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> every 与 not 连用，无论次序孰先孰后，都是局部否定而非全部否定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Tragedies happen <b>every</b> day. But <b>every</b> tragedy is <b>not</b> a crime. 惨剧天天都发生。但是并非所有惨剧都是犯罪。/ <b>Every</b> mistake is <b>not</b> a lie; <b>every</b> failure is <b>not</b> a copy. (<i>Newsweek, Aug. 21-29, 2006, p. 60</i>) 并非所有失误都是撒谎，并非所有败北都是阴谋。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> every 与 any 的差别是：every 强调多个全体当中的每一个，也就是以读及“多个”为前提，而 any 则只是强调单个，不以“多个”为前提，即使是只有一个也可以。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Those years are hardest on <b>anyone</b> living with an Alzheimer's victim. 那些岁月，对于任何一个同阿尔茨海默病患者一起生活的人来说都是最艰苦的。由于同阿尔茨海默病患者一起生活的人为数甚少，在这里用 everyone 就不合适。至于 any 倾向于同否定或疑问相联系，这个特点更是 every 所根本不具备的。</div><br><br>即使 any 不同否定或疑问相联系，any 同 every 仍然有一个区别，就是 any 可以修饰可数名词单数形式和不可数名词，而 every 则只能修饰可数名词(当然这个名词也只能是单数形式)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Any</b> (*Every, 但可以说 Every bit of) progress towards full employment is welcome. 朝向充分就业的任何进步，都是值得欢迎的。（这里的 progress 是不可数名词。）</div><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> every 还有一个特殊的搭配用法，就是前面可以加上物主代词，这一点与 each 不同。例如 each 只允许有 each of my books 的搭配，但是 <i>every of my books 是不通的，只能说 my <b>every</b> book (不能说 </i>my each book)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> every (以及 everything、everybody 等)还有一个很独特的语法特点，就是它虽然没有否定意义，却在某些场合可以同一些通常只能用于否定、疑问的单词或词组(如 any、at all、ever 等)搭配(这些单词或词组放在修饰 every 的定语从句之中)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She sold <b>everything</b> she'd <b>ever</b> bought in order to support herself through art school. 她把自己原来购置的东西统统变卖，来筹集念艺术学校的费用。/ <b>Every</b> student who had <b>ever</b> read <b>anything</b> on Chinese poetry attended the lecture. 凡是看过点有关中国诗词的材料的学生，都参加了讲座。/ <b>Everyone</b> who ate <b>any</b> fish developed a rash. 凡是吃过鱼的，全都出现了皮疹。这是因为 every 的含义是多个“全部包含”，加上定语从句，规定了包含的条件。这样的句子要能够成立，就暗示全部符合这条件的个体都经过了一一审查，所以这些个体范围是明确的。如果范围模糊(例如不用 every 而用 some)，就无从审查，any、ever、at all 等就不能使用。例如不可以说：<i>Some people who ate <b>any</b> fish developed a rash. 单独一个时也可以(因为没有“一一”审查)。例如不可以说：</i>One man who ate <b>any</b> fish developed a rash.</div><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> every 出现在句首或句末，可能有细微的意义差别。例如 <b>Every</b> student admires some professor. 这一句可能有两种意义。主要的意义是“所有的学生都有自己钦佩的教授，但可能是甲钦佩这位教授，乙钦佩那位教授”，这里的 every 接近于 each，不是把所有学生都找到一起来说明，而是在包揽了“全体”之后仍然保持对“个体”特点的注意。次要的意义是“所有学生都共同钦佩某一位教授”，但这样的理解不太自然。反之：Some professor is admired by <b>every</b> student. 意义就偏向于后一种。不过，前一句中放在句末的 some professor 是个不明确的对象，如果改成明确的对象，句首的 every 也就失去了 each 的暗含意义，而成为一个笼统的集体：<b>Every</b> student admires Professor Higgins. 所以 every 放在句首，还要看后面的整个谓语成分是否容许“各干各的”，才能看出 every 是否带有 each 的含义。<br><br>Who did you introduce to <b>every</b> guest? (你向每个客人介绍了谁？)主要的意思是“向所有的客人介绍的都是同一个人或同一些人”，次要的意义是“向张三介绍了甲，向李四介绍了乙，向王五介绍了丙”。由于 every 位于句末，以前一种理解为主。这个“全体一致”或“各自区别”的问题，也适用于 everybody、everyone 等。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Every few months</b> (可以 every two months 但不可以 <i>every several months) some miracle drug or therapy is rolled out with bells and confetti, but only once or twice in a generation does the real thing come along. (</i>The New York Times, Oct. 5, 2010, D1*) 每过几个月，就有某种神药或疗法被捧出来大吹大擂，但其实在一代人中间只有一两次情况属实。</div><br><br>
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everybody
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>everybody</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> everybody 或 everyone，语法形式上是单数，但是语义上却是复数，这是它们“与生俱来”的矛盾。说了 everybody 或 everyone 之后，再用一个人称代词时究竟要用 he 还是 she? 或是按照 everybody 的实际复数词义(“人人”)用 they? 这个问题早已引起人们的注意。18 世纪的语法学者洛思(Robert Lowth)和默里(Lindley Murray)曾主张代词用单数。但是究竟用 he 还是 she，是个难题。即使在绝对男权主义的社会，实际语言中 everybody 也不可能只是指男性。所以后来许多语法学者，尤其是作家和实际语言使用者，纷纷使用 they 来代替。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... <b>everybody</b> had <b>their</b> due importance. (<i>Jane Austen, Mansfield Park</i>) ……人人都有自己本身的重要性。/ ... <b>everybody</b> might have been born idiots, instead of having <b>their</b> right senses. (<i>George Eliot, The Lifted Veil</i>) ……人人原本可能生下来就是白痴，没有自己正常的判断。</div><br><br>但是，everybody 或 everyone 如果作主语，它的谓语动词仍然保持单数，尽管后面的代词用 they。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... <b>everybody has</b> to take <b>their</b> chances in this world. (<i>James Stephens, The Crock of Gold</i>) ……在这个世界上，人人都要碰运气。/ Experience is the name <b>everyone gives</b> to <b>their</b> mistakes. (<i>Oscar Wilde, Lady Windermere's Fan</i>) 所谓经验，无非是人们犯了错误，给它取个名字。</div><br><br>比较老的英语，后面仍然用 he。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>No one</b> ought to feel surprised at much remaining as yet unexplained in regard to the origin of species and varieties, if <b>he</b> makes due allowance for our profound ignorance in regard to the mutual relations of all the beings which live around us. (<i>Charles Darwin, The Origin of Species</i>) 任何人如果有合理的谅解，知道我们对于自己周围的一切事物的彼此关系仍然是十分无知的，那么，对于各种物种与变异的来源，仍然有许多尚未得到解释之处，就不应该感到惊讶了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 在一个人(如教师、教练、军官)对一群人(如学生、受训者、士兵)的讲话中，常常有提问如“大家都听懂了没有？”“有谁要提问题？”之类，此时英文通常说：<b>Everybody</b> understand (<i>understands)? <b>Anybody</b> have (</i>has) questions? 其实这里的 everybody 与 anybody 前面省略了助动词 does，后面的 understand 和 have 不是一般现在时，而是不定式。扩大到一般的文体，也可以用这样的结构。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Anybody</b> here want (*wants) to join our team? 这里有谁想参加我们球队的？/ <b>Anybody</b> hear a gunshot? 有谁听到枪声吗？(这里其实是：Did anybody hear a gunshot?)</div>
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everybody 与 everyone
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>everybody 与 everyone</b></div>意义与用法完全相同，但 everyone 稍微正式一些。<br><br>
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everyday 与 every day
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>everyday 与 every day</b></div>前者是形容词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>an <b>everyday</b> occurrence 每天常见的事情，家常便饭。</div><br><br>后者是状语词组。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It happens <b>every day</b>. 这是天天都发生的。</div><br><br>
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everyone 与 every one
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>everyone 与 every one</b></div>前者专门指人，即没有范围限制的“任何人”。后者必须即时或先前交代一个范围，而且这个范围可以是人，也可以是事物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In this small office, <b>everyone</b> knows <b>everyone</b>. 这个小办公室，人人都互相认识。/ <b>Every one</b> of these ties suits me fine. 这些领带都适合我。注意：无论前者还是后者，作主语时，谓语动词都要用单数，但意义是指全体。</div><br><br>
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every -th
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>every -th</b></div>意思是“每若干个……其中就有一个如何如何”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Every eighth</b> dollar coming into Poland is American. (<i>U.S. News & World Report, Nov. 17, 2003, p. 42</i>) 每八美元流入波兰，就有一美元来自美国。</div><br><br>
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every time
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>every time</b></div>既可以是副词词组，也可以是连词词组。在口语中，可以这样分辨：如果只有 time 一个词重读，是副词词组；如果两个词都重读，就是连词词组。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How to Argue and Win <b>Every Time</b> (adv.) 《如何每次争论都得胜》/ Using the laws of physics, it's possible to make a jumpshot in basketball <b>every time</b> (adv.). 运用物理学规律，每次打篮球都有可能跳起投篮。/ <b>Every time</b> (conj.) I went to see her, she was not at home. 我每一次去看她，她都不在家。/ <b>Every time</b> (conj.) you take something away you add something. 你每次拿走一些，都放进一些。/ <b>Every time</b> (conj.) he comes we fight. 他每次来我们都吵架。/ ... America has grown <b>every time</b> (conj.) the Census Bureau has taken a measurement, starting in 1790, ... (U.S. News & World Report, Oct. 2, 2006, p. 48) ……从 1790 年开始，人口统计局每一次进行调查，美国人口都是增长了的，……</div><br><br>同样，<b>next time</b> 如果只有 time 一个词重读，是副词词组；如果两个词都重读，就是连词词组。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Better luck <b>next time</b> (adv.). 祝您下次好运。(对竞赛失败者的安慰语)</div><div class="ex-item"><b>Next time</b> (conj.) he approaches her, things will be different. 下次他找她时，情况就会不一样了。</div>
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evidence
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>evidence</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 表示“证据”。参见 proof 与 evidence 条。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 表示“明显可见的状态”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A lot of military was <b>in evidence</b>. 明显可以看见有许多军人。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 表示“(与当前话题有关的)明显事实”(必须有 the)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>The evidence</b>, however, is that they cannot. (<i>The Economist, Dec. 20, 2008, p. 127</i>) 但是明显的事实却是他们不能够。</div><br><br>
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evidence 与 proof
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>evidence 与 proof</b></div>参见 proof 与 evidence 条。<br><br>
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evolution
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>evolution</b></div>这个名词，自从达尔文提出“进化论”以来，成了一个通行用语。它的含义，主要是表示缓慢的演进。但是译成中文的“演变”，意义的重点就在“变”上了，引起了一些希望永远保持现状的人们“谈虎色变”。其实这是个翻译不够准确的问题。<br><br>
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exaggerate
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>exaggerate</b></div>这个动词的词义，由于同 overemphasize、overestimate 之类一样，都有“过分”的意思，所以同 cannot/could not 一起出现时，不应误解为“不可以夸大”，而应该理解为“无论如何描述也不算夸大”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The awful toll exacted on the soldiers and citizens <b>cannot</b> be <b>exaggerated</b>. 军民所付出的可怕代价，难以形容。</div><br><br>
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example 与 instance
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>example 与 instance</b></div>参见 instance 与 example 条。<br><br>
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except
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>except</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 本来是个动词，后来演变成为介词，但仍然保留一些动词的痕迹，例如在 always excepting ... 或 not excepting ... 等词组中。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> except 虽然是个介词，但是它后面可以不是名词成分而是另一个介词短语或是一个状语成分。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I hardly see her these days except at work. 除了在工作中，这些天我很少看见她。/ He does not study except under compulsion. 他除非是被强迫，否则是不学习的。/ He was always cheerful except when he was penniless. 除非是身无分文的时候，平常他总是高高兴兴的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> except 也可以用作并列连词，相当于 but，但是意思往往表示前一句的内容遇到障碍或限制(有点像“夕阳无限好，只是近黄昏”中的“只是”，此时后一句的语气没有用 but 那样重)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I like this car very much, except I don't have enough money. 这辆车我很喜欢，只是我的钱不够。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> except 与 except for 的区别是：except 是同类事物中除去例外；except for 是大范围中除去小类事物作为例外。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Everybody was invited except me. 除了我，人人都获得了邀请。(me 属于 everybody 之列)</div><div class="ex-item">Except for one old lady, the bus was empty. 除了有一位老太太之外，公共汽车是空的。(bus 是大范围，one old lady 是小类事物)</div><div class="ex-item">Except for emergencies I have found it easier not to expect any help from my children. 我已经发现，除非遇到紧急情况，不期待我的孩子们来帮忙，就更加轻松一些。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 但是 except for 还可以表示“要不是因为”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Except for you, I think I would have failed. 要不是有了你，我想我本来会失败的。/ He would have got away with it except for that one mistake. 要不是有那一步之差，他本来是可以得逞的。</div><br><br>放在句末时也可以引入表示转折的一个从句(意思相当于“可是”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'd tell you, except for the fact that ... 我本来会告诉你，可是……在这个意义上，也可以用 except that ...。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We would stay longer except that we have no more money. 我们本来要多停留一些时间，可是我们的钱花光了。</div><br><br>不过 except 也可以作连词，引入从句，意思也是“要不是……”。主句用虚拟语气，从句则用陈述语气。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I would never have phoned you directly except this man made a comment which makes me now fear for your safety. (Dan Brown, The Da Vinci Code) 要不是这个人说了这么一句话让我现在担心你的安全，我本来是不会直接打电话找你的。</div><br><br>
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excess 与 excessive
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>excess 与 excessive</b></div>首先，excess 可以是名词或形容词，而 excessive 只能是形容词。excess 作为名词时指其超出或多出的那部分。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You can throw away any <b>excess</b>. 多余的你可以扔掉。excessive 则指某一数量或某一抽象对象过多，其整体超出了某个原有的量或标准。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>excessive price 过高的价格</div><div class="ex-item">excessive praise 过誉</div><div class="ex-item">excessive demand 过高的要求。excess 作为形容词时，指“多出的部分”，而 excessive 则指“应有 + 多出”的整体。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>excess luggage (英式英语为 baggage) 超重行李，即行李当中超出免费携带的那部分</div><div class="ex-item">excessive luggage 免费与超重行李的总和</div><div class="ex-item">trim the excess (<i>excessive) fat off the meat 将肉上多余的肥油去掉</div><div class="ex-item">the excess (</i>excessive) million dollars 多出的那 100 万美元。</div><br><br>
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excuse me
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>excuse me</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> excuse 作为动词，原意是“原谅”或“豁免”，后面的直接宾语，可以是人，也可以是事情。后面只有指人或事的直接宾语，没有其他成分，是“原谅；提出理由为之辩解；解除某一义务；允许离开或者不到现场”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Please excuse the bad handwriting. 写得很潦草，请原谅。/ Please excuse the long delay in replying. 久未奉复，请谅。/ The Vice President admitted taking bribes, excusing it as momentary weakness. 副总统承认受了贿，但又辩解说那是一时意志薄弱所致。/ Please may I be excused? (学生对老师说)我可以上个厕所吗？</div><br><br>如果直接宾语是人，“原谅”的事可以用 for 引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Excuse my interrupting, but ...</div><div class="ex-item">Excuse me for interrupting, but ... 请原谅我打断一下，不过……</div><div class="ex-item">I could never excuse him for his rudeness. 我永远不能原谅他的粗暴。</div>“解除、取消”的事则用 from 引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She asked to be excused from acting that evening. 她提出那天晚上她不参加演出了。</div><br><br>如果宾语是“自己”，又没有其他附带成分，则是表示“有事要离开现场”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She excused herself and left. 她说了一声对不起，就走了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> excuse me 与 sorry (或 I'm sorry/I beg your pardon) 的意义和用法大不相同。excuse me 如果后面不带其他成分，是个惯用语，用于提请对方注意自己马上要提出的问题或要求，是“向前看”的，而 sorry 则是用于请求对方原谅自己过去做过的某事，是“向后看”的。不能从字面上以为 excuse me 是“对不起”就用来请求对方原谅已经做了的事。例如不能说：<i>Excuse me, did I step on your foot? 而要说：Sorry, did I step on your foot? (对不起，我踩了您的脚吗？) 不能说：</i>Excuse me, I hope you haven't been waiting long. 而要说：Sorry, I hope you haven't been waiting long. (对不起。没有让您久等吧？) 如果是“向前看”的，就要用 excuse me 而不用 sorry。例如不能说：*Sorry, could you tell me the way to the station? 而要说：Excuse me, could you tell me the way to the station? (对不起，请问到车站的路怎么走？) 不过，这个“向前看”和“向后看”的区别，在一些美国人那里也有点模糊，也有用 excuse me 事后表示歉意的，但这并不规范。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> Now if you'll excuse me. 是“对不起，我有事失陪了”。<br><br>
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expect
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>expect</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> expect 是对客观上会发生什么事的“预期，预料，事先估计”，没有主观的好恶，与 hope、wish 等不同。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'll do my best, but don't expect miracles. 我一定尽力而为，但是别以为会出现什么奇迹。/ I expected to fail the exam, but I passed after all. 我原先以为考试会考砸，结果还是及格了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 可以指对现在情况的估计。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I expect I look a mess. 我猜想我现在样子一定很狼狈。/ I expect you're all tired after your journey. 我看你们经过旅途颠簸，一定很疲倦了。甚至可以指对过去情况的估计。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Did you take a lot of photos? I expect you did. 我想你一定拍了许多照片，是不是？</div><br><br>You expect that from ... 是个常用句型，表示某一现象(that)是某事的常态，不足为怪。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You expect that from a guy like him. 像他那样的人，做出这样的事情不足为怪。/ You expect that from a campaign. 这是竞选活动的常态。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 如果是对他人或外界事物将会如何的预测，或是按照已有的规定或义务认为某人应该如何，可以以该人或事物作宾语，后面再加动词不定式。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We expect Jupiter to have basically the same composition as the sun. 我们估计木星的构造成分基本上同太阳一样。/ People expect revolutionaries to be bearded and unkempt. 在人们的想象中，革命者一定是留着大胡须、不修边幅的。/ The doctors expected the girl to remain a vegetable. 医生们预测这个女孩子会一直是个植物人。后面加的也可以不是动词不定式而是动词过去分词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>One did not expect flags flown at half-mast for Anna Nicole Smith. (Froma Harrop, in The Daily Gazette, Feb. 17, 2007) 大家并未指望会因为安娜·尼科尔·史密斯之死而降半旗。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 但是，expect 也可以有“(按照预定)要求(某人做某事)”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>What do you expect me to do about it? 你要我对此做什么？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> expect 也可以变为被动语气，此时被预测或被要求如何如何的人或事物成为主语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Walmart is expected to appeal. 预计沃尔玛将提出上诉。/ He is expected to put his work before his family. 人家要求他把工作放在家庭之前。/ You're expected to pay. 你应该付款。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 如果 expect to inf. 或 be expected to inf. 用的是过去时或过去完成时，则往往有“结果与原先预料的不同”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Eight of ten reported having a successful relationship with their roommates, 10% lower than had expected to do so. 10 个人当中有 8 个表示与室友关系良好，这比预期低了 10%。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> expect 本来意义是主观无法左右的一种对未来的预测，因此本来不能用现在进行时或过去进行时，但是如果转义为某种有意识的行为“等待”，则可以用进行时态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm expecting a letter. 我在等着一封信到来。/ She's expecting a baby in May. 她五月份要生孩子。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> expect 的一般过去时，后面如果接上 to have + pp. 或 to have been + pp.，则表示“预计落空”。参见 hope 条之(4)。<br><br>
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expense
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>expense</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> at the expense of，参见 cost 条中的 at the cost of。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> expense 的复数 expenses，既可以表示可数的“多项支出”，也可以表示不可数的“支出总量”，此时它就相当于一个以复数形式出现的不可数名词，前面用 less 而不是 fewer，用 much 而不是 many。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Less expenses, more profits. 减少开支，增加利润。/ Avoid too much expenses. 避免开支过多。</div><br><br>
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expensive
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>expensive</b></div>只能指商品本身，不能指其价格。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The average man found the price pretty high (*expensive). 价格对一般老百姓来说太高了。参见 cheap 与 inexpensive 条。</div><br><br>
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experience
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>experience</b></div>作为不可数名词，是“经验”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>three years' experience in teaching 三年的教学经验</div><div class="ex-item">learn by experience 从经验中学习</div><div class="ex-item">get his experience in writing 获得写作经验。</div><br><br>作为可数名词，是一次次的“经历”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>have a pleasant experience 有一次很愉快的经历。 “经验”(不可数的 experience)通常是正面的“财富”，而“经历”(可数的 experiences)则可以是正面的，也可以是负面的、不愉快的。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In 1999, during his first run for president, McCain released 1,500 pages of medical and psychiatric records that detailed his POW experiences and found him in good physical and mental health. (U.S. News & World Report, May 19, 2008, p. 22) 1999 年麦凯恩第一次竞选总统时，公布了 1,500 页的医疗与精神状态纪录，详细介绍了他作为战俘的经历，并表明他身心健康状况良好。</div><br><br>
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expire 与 mature
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>expire 与 mature</b></div>都是“到预定期限”的意思，但是有些不同。<br><br>expire 是“到期失效”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My passport is due to expire in three months. 我的护照再过三个月就要失效了。/ The lease on the house had expired. 房子的租约已经到期了。</div><br><br>mature 则恰恰相反，是“期满生效”，例如一笔定期存款到了期，就可以按照预定利率提取。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>These bonds mature in 2020. 这些债券 2020 年期满兑现。</div><br><br>
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explain
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>explain</b></div>不但是说明内容是什么，而且主要是说明其原因是什么。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Ambivalence also explains the fracturing of the Democratic Party into so many foreign policy factions that its voice can barely be heard. 态度含糊，也说明了为什么民主党竟然分成了这么多的对外政策派别，以至于该党的声音难以被人听到。(译文增补“为什么”)</div>从 explain 这个动词派生的名词 explanation，甚至可以译成“原因”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The most important explanation for the oil curse, however, has to do with the role natural resources play in impeding the development of a society's economic and political institutions. (Foreign Affairs, July/August 2004, p. 81) 但是，有油反被有油累，其最重要的原因，就同天然资源对一个社会的经济与政治体制发展所起的妨碍作用有关。(explanation 干脆不译成“解释”而译成“原因”)</div>
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exposed to
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>exposed to</b></div>直译是“暴露”，但也可以表示非自己主动的“接触”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was later established that both children were exposed to cocaine during the pregnancy. 后来查明，两个孩子在母胎期间都曾经接触到可卡因。</div><br><br>
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extension
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>extension</b></div>extension of X 是指 X 这个时间或空间的总长度得到延长的事件。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>extension of the copyright for a further 45 years 版权延长 45 年。</div><br><br>extension to X 则是 X 这个总体或主体延长的部分。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a new extension to the library 图书馆新扩建的部分。</div><br><br>
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eye
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>eye</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 用于解剖学意义时，依情况用单复数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has blue eyes. 他的眼睛是蓝色的。/ Close the right eye. 闭上右眼。</div><br><br>用于表示“视力，视觉；注视”时，依抽象的程度，用复数或单数。抽象程度低的(“眼睛”)用 eyes，抽象程度高的(“注意；眼光”)用 eye。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I couldn't believe my eyes when I saw her. 我看见她时简直不能相信自己的眼睛。/ It happened before her very eyes. 那就是在她眼前发生的。/ The carpet caught my eye. 地毯引起了我的注意。/ Everything was under the watchful eye/eyes of the teacher. 一切都在老师的严密注视下。/ Keep an eye on those two guys. 留神那两个人。/ Reading with an expert eye, she made minor changes. 她以专业的眼光浏览一遍，做出一些小修小改。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> dark eye、black eye、green-eyed，参见 black 条、green-eyed 条。<br><br>
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face 与 confront
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>face 与 confront</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 这两个动词意义和用法都大致相同，都是“面对”的意思，属第一类或第二类动词。但是 face 可以用于具体物件(主语、宾语均可)，confront 则多用于抽象事物，而且通常要有人参与，很少用于物对物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The wall faces (<i>confronts) the square. 墙对着广场。/ He was sitting facing (</i>confronting) the wall. 他面壁坐着。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 从中文来看，“面对”可以是“无意识地面对”(第一类动词，延续状态)或“有意识地面对”(第二类动词，延续活动)。face 和 confront 都可以用来表示“无意识地面对”或“有意识地面对”，但是搭配有些不同：(a) 表示“无意识地面对”，通常不用人作主语、事物作宾语，而是以事物作主语、人作宾语(confront 比 face 正式，都是第一类动词，表示延续状态)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A new problem faces us. 我们面对一个新的问题。/ Defeat faces us unless we act at once. 除非立即行动，否则我们就要失败。/ Can you think of some typical problems that confront Chinese learning English? 你能想到中国人学英语所遇到的某些典型问题吗？/ These hazards confront the miners every day. 矿工们天天都面临这些危险。</div>(b) face 所包含的主观意志比 confront 弱，因而在现代英语中已经可以以人作主语、事物作宾语，表示“无意识地面对”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Researchers still face a difficult issue. 研究人员仍然面临一个难题。/ I face that problem every day. 我天天都遇到那个问题。</div><br><br>但是有时候用 confront 时，也可以用人或事物作主语、事物作宾语，来表示“无意识地面对”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>And the U.N., already coping with a 55 percent rise in food aid costs, now confronts a new crisis, as it ships food to Myanmar. (U.S. News & World Report, May 19, 2008, p. 36) 联合国本来就在应付着粮食援助费用上涨 55% 的问题，现在要运送粮食到缅甸去，又面对着一场新的危机。</div>(c) face 在表示“无意识地面对”时，还有一个 confront 所没有的意义，就是“遭遇(某种不利的未来前景)”(仍然是延续性的状态)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Hundreds of tree species face extinction. 数以百计的树种面临灭绝。/ If homeowners can't keep up the payment, they face foreclosure. 购房户如果做不到按期付款，就会面临房屋拍卖。/ Customers who arrange overdrafts will face a monthly charge of €5. 顾客如果透支，可能每月罚款 5 欧元。</div><br><br>但 face 以人作主语、事物作宾语时，也可以表示“有意识地面对”。如何判别，要看上下文。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Face your problems boldly. 勇敢面对你的困难。/ He accused the government of refusing to face facts about the economy. 他指责政府拒绝面对经济实情。</div>(d) 表示“无意识地面对”，也可以采取 face 或 confront 的被动语态(仍然是第一类动词，表示延续状态)，此时人作主语，抽象事物多用 with 引入，具体事物(但象征着困难)多用 by 引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>As teachers we are now faced with a dilemma. 我们做老师的现在左右为难。/ I was confronted with the task of designing and building the new system. 我面临着设计并建构新系统的任务。/ When I am confronted by a microphone, my mind goes completely blank. 我一对着麦克风，脑子里就一片空白。/ Police were confronted by a group of demonstrators. 警察遇到一批示威者。</div>(e) 以人作主语、事物作宾语，这样的结构，似乎专门留给了“有意识地面对”(除了(b)与(c)中的 face 外)，此时动词就不再是第一类(无意识地延续状态)，而是第二类动词(表示有意识地延续活动)了。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I don't understand your refusal to confront reality. 你这样拒绝面对现实，我真没法理解。/ Let's face it, we have no alternative. 咱们别无他策，就认了吧。/ I have grown up now and I have to face up to my responsibilities. 我已经长大成人了，我应该面对自己的责任。</div>(f) 以人作主语、他人作宾语，表示“有意识地对抗”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Defendants have the right to confront their accusers. 被告有权同原告对质。</div><br><br>
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fail
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>fail</b></div>作为及物动词，其直接宾语可以是“做坏了；做得不及格”的某一事项。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You would fail a dorm inspection. 如果检查宿舍，你会不及格的。</div><br><br>
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failing
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>failing</b></div>本来是动词 fail 的现在分词，但是已经转化为一个介词，意义接近于 without。但是 without 可以指“没有”是事实，也可以指“没有”只是个假设(“如果没有”)，而 failing 则专门指“没有”只是个假设，带有“如果”的意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Ask a friend to recommend a doctor or, failing that, ask for a list in your local library. 请一位朋友介绍一位医生，如果办不到，就到你的当地图书馆要一份名单。/ In general, a series of events reported in the simple past is understood as sequential ..., failing an indication to the contrary. (Rod Ellis, Form Focused Instruction and Second Language Learning) 通常，如果没有相反的指示，用一般现在时表示的一系列事件，就理解为是先后相继的。</div><br><br>
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fail to inf.
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>fail to inf.</b></div>fail 本来的意思是“失败”。因此 fail to inf. 可以有“本来想做某事而做不成”之意。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I fail to see what business it is of yours. 我看不出你跟这件事情有什么相干。/ In fact, I fail to see the slightest reason for bringing these points up. 实际上，我看不出有丝毫理由把这几点拉出来。但是，fail to inf. 更多是表示“本该做而没有做”，而且不表示本人原本有此意图，反而暗示本人的责任。后面的动词不定式，可以是延续的动词，也可以是瞬时动作的动词，fail 本身的“体”，也就随着后面动词不定式的“体”而不同。</div><br><br>后面的动词不定式如果是表示延续状态的第一类动词(或是借用来表示习惯反复行动的第四类动词)，fail 也就是第一类动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Real wages fail to match the rise in productivity. 实际工资赶不上生产率的提高。/ The various elements of the novel fail to cohere. 小说的几个部分不紧凑。</div><br><br>但是后面的动词不定式往往是个表示瞬时动作的第四类动词，此时 fail 也跟着成为第四类动词，表示“本应做某事而没有做”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Effective drugs, held back by American regulatory delays, are failing to reach the patients in their time of need. 有效的药品由于被美国法规所耽误，未能在病人急需的时候送到病人那里。(药品是复数形式，表示多种，耽误有先有后，瞬时就反复延续了，故可以用现在进行时。)/ NASA troubleshooters have solved individual tanks' problems but have failed to find a comprehensive solution. 美国国家航空航天局的故障检修人员已经解决了个别燃料舱的问题，但仍未找到全面解决的办法。</div><br><br>但这个词组有时被滥用于单纯表示“没有做某事”(并无“本来应该”之意)，这是不正确的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><i>Buckingham Palace failed to confirm the story. 白金汉宫没有证实这个消息。/ </i>The weekend of rain failed to affect the river level. 周末下雨并没有影响到河的水位。另外，fail to 本身就带有否定意义，它后面的不定式，如果也是个否定意义的动词，则本来应该是“否否得正”，但如果 fail 前面再加上一个否定，成为三重否定，按理最终意义应该是否定的，但是反复多次否定了，说话的人和听的人都常常弄糊涂，三重否定最终成了肯定。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Although his attendance at school was still very poor, Stanley never failed to miss a movie at the local theaters. 斯坦利尽管在学校的出勤率很差，当地电影院放电影他却一次也不落。(本来应该说 never missed。)</div>
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failure
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>failure</b></div>这个名词本身的含义是“失败”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The plan is doomed to end in failure. 计划注定要以失败告终。但由于 fail to inf. 表示“该做而没有做”，因而 fail 派生的名词 failure 在后面加上动词不定式也有这样的含义，而与“失败”离得很远了。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Failure to follow these instructions can result in death, fire or electrical shock. 如果不遵守这些用法说明，可能引起死亡、火灾或触电。/ They were criticized for their failure to protect their clients' interests. 他们由于没有保护自己客户的利益而受到批评。/ Failure to submit this form will disqualify you from applying for financial aid. 如果不提交这个表格，你就会失去申请经济补助的资格。</div><br><br>failure of + 抽象名词，表示缺少某种良好的素质。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... he had detected with a critical eye more than one failure of perfect symmetry in her form, ... (Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice) 他带着挑剔的眼光，发觉她的身段这儿也不匀称，那儿也不匀称，……</div><br><br>
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fairly 与 rather
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>fairly 与 rather</b></div>两者都可以用来修饰形容词或另一副词，表示“有相当高的程度，但并不很高”。但是：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 通常 fairly 用来修饰正面意义的形容词或副词，而 rather 则用来修饰负面意义的形容词或副词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Tom is fairly clever, but Peter is rather stupid. 汤姆相当聪明，但是彼得却相当傻。/ I walk fairly fast but he walks rather slowly. 我走得相当快，但是他却相当慢。</div><br><br>两者也都可以用来修饰形容词化了的动名词和过去分词，也是有正负面之分。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a fairly interesting film 一部很有意思的影片</div><div class="ex-item">a rather boring book 一本相当乏味的书</div><div class="ex-item">He was fairly relaxed; she was rather tense. 他相当放松；她却相当紧张。 (2) 说 a rather heavy box 或 rather a heavy box (一个相当沉重的箱子)均可，但只能说 a fairly light box，不能说 *fairly a light box。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 有些形容词或副词，本身的意义无所谓正面或负面，但是用 fairly 修饰时表示主观喜欢，用 rather 修饰时表示主观不喜欢。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The soup is fairly/rather hot. 用 fairly 时表示说话者喜欢喝热汤，用 rather 时表示说话者嫌汤太热。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> rather 也可以用于某些正面意义的形容词或副词，此时它的意义有了变化，从“相当”变为“很，十分”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She is rather clever. 她很聪明，赞扬的语气比 fairly 更强。例如说 it is a rather good play，意思就可能是推荐这出剧；而说 it is a fairly good play，意思只是“这出剧还可以”。有时候 rather 甚至可以表示一种出人意料的正面评价。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>— I suppose the house was filthy. — No, as a matter of fact it was rather clean. — 我猜想那栋房子当时一定很脏。— 不，其实它挺干净的。</div><br><br>
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fall
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>fall</b></div>这个动词，除了“落下，跌落”的意义(瞬时动作的第四类动词)之外，还可以有“归类”(延续状态的第一类动词，可以有一般现在时)以及“就位”(瞬时动作的第四类动词)的意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Which heading does it fall under? 它属于哪一栏目？/ Christmas falls on a Thursday this year. 今年圣诞节是星期四。/ It falls outside the scope of this paper to investigate reasons behind this phenomenon. 研究这一现象背后的原因，不属本文的范围。/ The minute you understand the structure everything falls into place. 你一了解它的结构，一切就都了如指掌了。</div><br><br>说“某事 fall to 某人”，意思是由于某种原因，决定了要某人来承担做某事的责任。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>"The Preface is the most troublesome part of a book," I have often heard my dear Father say; and now it falls to my unaccustomed pen to write a preface for him. (Daniel Wilson, The Lost Atlantis and Other Ethnographic Studies, Preface by his son Sybil Wilson) “序言是一本书最难写的部分，”这是我昔日常常听我父亲说的话；而现在，要我这支秃笔来替他写一篇序言了。</div><br><br>
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falls
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>falls</b></div>复数形式表示“瀑布”。falls 用于地名时虽然有 -s，却作单数处理。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Niagara Falls is the second largest falls on the globe next to Victoria Falls in southern Africa. 尼亚加拉瀑布是地球上仅次于南部非洲维多利亚瀑布的第二大瀑布。Niagara Falls 和 Victoria Falls 等地名前面可以有 the，也可以没有 the，但都作单数处理。</div><br><br>
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fancy
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>fancy</b></div>这个单词可以是名词、动词和形容词，作为及物动词时意义比较复杂。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 延续状态，第一类动词，中国人比较熟悉的意义是“想象，设想，仿佛感觉到”。用于这个意义时，通常后面接上 that 从句(that 可以省略)或间接疑问句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She fancied she saw his face in the crowd. 她觉得自己仿佛在人群中看到了他的脸。/ I rather fancy that he's got other plans in mind. 我感觉到他心目中另有计划。/ You can hardly fancy what a capital hand she is at embroidery. 你真难以想象她是多么了不起的刺绣能手。 (2) 中国人不太熟悉的另一个意义是“喜欢”(直接宾语特指)、“想要”(直接宾语不特指)。用于这个意义时，直接宾语通常是个名词或是动名词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I really fancy an ice-cream. 我真想吃冰淇淋。/ I rather fancy the idea. 这个主意我看真不错。/ Do you fancy going to see a movie? 你想不想去看一部电影？</div><br><br>直接宾语可以是人，此时 fancy 指两性之间的“爱慕，看上”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I fancy her like mad. 我对她喜欢得入了迷。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 中国人不太熟悉的另一个意义是“看得很高”(也是第一类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I don't fancy his chances of getting that job. 我认为他得到那个工作的机会不大。/ You have to fancy Bath because they are the most consistent team in England. 要重视巴斯学联足球队，因为他们是英格兰成绩最稳定的队伍。/ Which horse do you fancy? 你看上了哪匹马？/ His horse is fancied to win. 他的那匹马，大家看好会赢。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 中国人更不容易理解和掌握的一个用法是 fancy 放在句首，后面接上动名词，表示对某一做法感到惊讶。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Fancy her coming! 她居然来了！/ Fancy meeting them here! 没想到竟然在这里碰到他们！</div><br><br>
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far
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>far</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> far 单独使用时，大多限于否定句和疑问句(这一点与 long 相似，参见 long 条)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How far did you walk? 你走了多远？/ I don't live far from here. 我住处离这里不远。但如果前面加上 too 或 so，则也可以用于肯定句。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You've gone too far. 你走得太远了。/ — Any problems? — Not so far. — 有什么问题吗？— 到目前为止还没有。如果没有 too 或 so，则通常在肯定句中用 a long way 代替 far。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We walked a long way. 我们走了很远。(较少说 We walked far.)</div><div class="ex-item">She lives a long way from here. 她住得离这里很远。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 谈到距离时，只有在问句中或在距离无明确数量时可以用 far。如果距离有明确数量，就要在这个数量后面放上 away 来代替 far。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How far is it to the seashore? 这里离海岸多远？/ The seashore is only five miles away (*far). 海岸离这里只有 5 英里。(注意：这里的 far 是不带标记的，远近均可。)</div>如果加上“距离某地多远”，可以说 ... miles away from ...。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>30 miles away from Chicago 离芝加哥 30 英里。也可以去掉 away，只说 from，也可以说 distant from (也是不带标记的，很远或很近的距离都可以)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a book held six inches distant from the eyes 在离开双眼 6 英寸之处执着的一本书</div><div class="ex-item">The sun is about 93,000,000 miles distant from the earth. 太阳离地球约 9,300 万英里。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> far 作为形容词，放在名词前面，表示“遥远”，只用于较古老的或是文学性的英文。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a far country 遥远的国度</div><div class="ex-item">take a far view in planning for future needs of the city 规划城市日后的需要时要从长远来看。</div><br><br>在日常的英文中谈到物质上的距离时则改为 far away，放在名词后面。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a town far away (*a far town; 稍正式的则说 a distant town)。</div><br><br>如果有 the，far 作为形容词，放在名词前面，意义就转为两端中远处的一端。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>at the far end of the room 在房间的另一端</div><div class="ex-item">on the far bank of the river 在河的对岸</div><div class="ex-item">She lives in the far north of the country. 她居住在该国的最北方。/ Far East 远东。 (4) far from 可以对后面的成分加以强调的否定。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>However, this is far from the first time he has said such nonsense these past six months. 不过，他过去这半年来这样胡说八道，这远不是第一次了。(不要误解为“距离他第一次这样胡说八道已经很远了”。)</div>
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far be it
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>far be it</b></div>far be it from me to inf. 是个习惯词组，表示“我并不是要如何如何”，往往用来预先为自己下面要说的话做一番铺垫，而其实后面的话恰恰就是这个意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Far be it from me to criticize her. I just think she's behaved extremely badly. 我不是要批评她。我只是觉得她的做法极为恶劣。/ Far be it from me to spoil the fun. 我并不是要煞风景。(后面说出“煞风景”的话。)</div>
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far between
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>far between</b></div>可以作为后置形容词，所修饰的名词必须是复数，far between 表示这个名词所代表的事件是“前后彼此相隔很久的；不常有的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They (= the prosecutors) agree that a single person wrongly convicted is an injustice that can't be tolerated, but see the problems as few, far between and fixable. (The Associated Press, Apr. 23, 2007) 检察官们承认，即使只有一个人被错误地定了罪，也是不公正的，不可以容忍的，但是，他们认为这样的问题是很少的、个别的，而且是可以纠正的。</div><br><br>
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far from
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>far from</b></div>尽管作为介词的 from 通常后面应该是名词成分，但是 far from 后面却可以是形容词或其他定语成分，表示“远不”。此时，不必拘泥于正规的句法结构而画蛇添足，在 from 与形容词之间加上 being。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His hands are far from clean. 他的手一点也不干净。/ He looks far from happy. 他看起来很不高兴。/ The investigation is far from over. 调查远远没有结束。far from 甚至可以代替 not 放在所谓动词词组之中。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>For all the heady changes, he has far from abandoned his antecessor's vision of molding into a powerful, industrialized nation. 尽管做出了种种大刀阔斧的改革，他远远没有放弃他前任那个缔造强大的工业化国家的设想。</div><br><br>即使 far from 后面是名词成分，far from 仍然保持否定意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Daniel was far from his favorite person. 丹尼尔远远不是他所喜欢的人。</div><br><br>
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fat envelope
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>fat envelope</b></div>在美国指接到申请学校的录取通知书。一般如果不录取，通知书只有一张纸，很薄，叫作 skinny envelope。录取通知书附有大叠的种种“入学须知”，很厚。通常收到通知时，只消看其厚薄，就可以知道是否被录取。<br><br>
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fauna
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>fauna</b></div>谈论某一地区或某一历史时期的动植物状况时，通常不说 *animals and plants 而说 fauna and flora。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Convention Relative to the Preservation of Fauna and Flora in Their Natural State 《保护动植物自然生态公约》。</div><br><br>
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favor
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>favor</b></div>英式英语中为 favour。这个词作为名词时，值得注意的是谁对谁的 favor。his favor 可能有歧义，可以是“他”对别人的 favor，也可以是别人对“他”的 favor。 (1) 大体上可以肯定，如果 somebody's favor 前面没有介词，这就是 somebody 对别人的 favor。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He (= Cardinal Thomas Wolsey) maintained the king's favor until he failed to secure an annulment of Henry's first marriage. (Britannia History, Henry VIII) 他一直享受着国王对他的宠信，直到他未能废止亨利国王的第一次婚姻时才失宠。/ Fragmented noble factions involved in the Wars of the Roses found themselves reduced to vying for the king's favor in court. (ibid.) 各个卷入玫瑰战争之中的四分五裂的贵族集团，此时又彼此在宫廷中争夺国王的宠信。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 如果 somebody's favor 前面有介词 in，则通常这个 somebody 不是给予别人 favor 的人，反而是得到 favor 的人。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Madame de Montespan had done everything she could, to dispose him (= father La Chaise) in her favor. (Félix Bungener, The Preacher and the King) 孟特斯潘夫人千方百计地博取拉歇兹神父的好感。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 但是如果前面的动词不是 dispose，而是 be，成为 be in somebody's favor，或是前面是别的动词，则可能有歧义，这个 somebody 可以是得到 favor 的人，也可以是给予 favor 的人。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Luck turned in my favor. 我时来运转了。/ The odds are in her favor. 情况对她有利。/ The jury found in her favor. The EEOC found in her favor. The law was in her favor — until the Supreme Court overturned it. (C-Span Congressional Chronicle, Apr. 22, 2008) 陪审团支持了她。平等就业机会委员会支持了她。法律支持了她——直到最高法院推翻了原案。以上几个例子，in somebody's favor 中的 somebody 是得到 favor 的人。但是，也有相反的情况。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Everyone wants the king's attention. Everyone wants to be in the king's favor. Everyone will do anything for His Majesty. 人人都想得到国王的垂青。人人都想得到国王的宠信。人人都愿意为国王尽力。(这里的 king 就不是得到 favor 而是给予 favor 的人了。)</div>但是如果用 of，成为 in favor of，则 of 后面不大可能是 favor 的给予者，而只能是得到 favor 者。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The court ruled in favor of the defendant. 法院判决被告胜诉。/ They came forward to form a political party in favor of the king. 他们出面组成一个拥护国王的政党。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> in favor of 前面如果说的是一件带有否定意义的事情或行动，那么 in favor of 就表示相反的正面意义的事情或行动，翻译成中文时往往译成一对意义相反的动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The Prime Minister resigned in favor of a better candidate. 总理辞职，让位给更好的人选。(不要译成“总理辞职，以利于更好的人选”。)/ What they may never learn is how many candidates like themselves have been passed over in favor of wealthy white students with lesser credentials—children of alumni, big donors, or celebrities. (Daniel Golden, The Price of Admission) 他们也许一直不会知道的，有多少像他们那样的候选人被刷掉，而条件较差但富有的白人学生——校友们的、豪爽的捐款者的，或是名人的孩子被录取了。/ ... orchestras pick the very best players, through blind auditions in order to avoid favoritism, and would never turn down a top violinist "in favor of a second-rate one with a screeching bow because his father had played in the orchestra himself." (Richard D. Kahlenberg, The Century Foundation) ……管弦乐队是通过不记名的试奏来挑选最优秀的乐手，以免有所偏袒，从来不会刷掉一个顶尖的小提琴手，而对“一个拉弓吱吱响的二流乐手因为他父亲曾在乐队演奏过而录取他”。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> in favor with 意义同 in favor of 完全不同。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was in favor of the government. 他支持政府。/ He was in favor with the government. 他得到政府青睐。/ Our plan is not in favor with the boss. 我们的计划得不到上司的支持。</div><br><br>
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fear
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>fear</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> fear 无论是作为名词还是作为表示延续状态的第一类动词(及物)，意义同 afraid 和 dread 都有细微的差别。<br><br>fear 主要指对客观情况(发生了什么事或将要发生什么事)缺乏了解而感到“担惊受怕”，后面接上名词或 that 从句(that 可以省略)表示担心某客观情况，接上动词不定式表示因害怕而不做某事。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>fear the worst 担心最坏的事情会发生</div><div class="ex-item">The child fears the dark. 孩子怕黑。/ I fear we've lost our way. 我担心咱们已经迷路了。/ My son fears to touch a dog. 我儿子害怕摸狗。/ He feared to break the sad news to his wife. 他不敢把噩耗告诉他妻子。/ Fools rush in where angels fear to tread. (Alexander Pope, An Essay on Criticism) 天使不敢涉足之地，愚人一哄而往。</div><br><br>afraid 则主要指对某一比较确实的客观的不利情况感到不安(可能可以设法避免)(参见 afraid 条)。<br><br>dread 则指对肯定的客观不利情况感到强烈的恐惧(但无法避免)。参见 afraid 条之(3)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作为及物动词，fear 的直接宾语通常是主语所害怕的对象。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He fears nothing. 他无所畏惧。/ She was the woman he disliked and feared. 她是他既讨厌又害怕的那个女人。但是，如果采取被动语态而且后面加上补充说明成分，则所害怕的对象就不是由直接宾语变来的主语，而是主语加上补充说明成分一起所代表的情况(仍然是延续状态，可以用一般现在时)。这个补充说明成分可以是个形容词或过去分词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Thousands are feared dead in New Orleans. = It is feared that thousands might be dead in New Orleans. 恐怕新奥尔良有数千人死亡。/ Two mountaineers are feared frozen to death. 两名登山运动员恐怕已经冻死。</div><br><br>也可以是动词不定式。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Hydro electricity dams are feared to flood in Central America. 中美洲一些水力发电堤坝恐怕会漫洪水。/ These substances are feared to be harmful (*feared harmful) to human health. 这些物质恐怕对人的健康有害。/ Some students were feared to be in the rubble. 有些学生恐怕已被压在瓦砾里面。/ Fisheries are feared to threaten sea lions. 捕捞作业恐怕威胁到海狮。</div><br><br>也可以是介词短语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Chemical plants are feared as targets in terrorist attacks. 恐怕一些化工厂会成为恐怖袭击的目标。</div><br><br>也可以是没有主语(其实主语与 be feared 的主语重合)的 might ...。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>These chemicals are feared might become the source of the production of crops and livestock harmful to human life. 这些化学药品恐怕有可能成为危害人类健康的作物与牲畜的生产来源。</div><br><br>
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feature
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>feature</b></div>这个单词在现代英语中出现得日益频繁，既可以是名词，又可以是及物和不及物动词。词义也日益复杂，难以一笔概括。下面按其词性分别介绍它最主要的词义。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为名词：(a) 人的相貌特征或物的特点。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a man of handsome features 相貌英俊的男子</div><div class="ex-item">the geographical features of the region 该地区的地形特点</div><div class="ex-item">The bell was a common feature in these halls. 挂钟是这些厅堂的共同特征。</div>(b) 面容。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A smile lit up his features. 他的脸上露出了一下笑容。</div>(c) 某事物的突出(有时也不一定很突出)方面或部分。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The most important feature of our work must be parental involvement. 我们工作最重要的方面应该是家长参与。/ Agriculture remained the predominant feature in European economy. 农业仍然是欧洲经济的主要部分。</div>(d) 产品的功能。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>safety features like airbags and anti-theft devices 例如气袋和防盗装置之类的安全功能</div><div class="ex-item">DVD players add features to address changing needs. DVD 机增加功能以适应需求的变化。</div>(e) 报刊上的特写报道或文章。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Local newspapers ran a feature on drug abuse. 地方报纸刊登了一篇特写文章，谈论吸毒问题。/ Out of this interview I got a feature article. 我根据这次采访谈话，写出了一篇特写报道。</div>(f) the feature 是与新闻短片或广告片相对而言的电影“正片”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>After a rooster crowed to end the newsreel, the screen went dark, the curtain closed and then opened again to start the feature. 出现一声公鸡啼叫，宣告新闻短片结束，银幕黑了，幕布拉上了，然后又拉开，正片开始。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作为及物动词：(a) 突出表现(某个演员或运动员)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This film features two of my favorite actors. 这部片子有我喜欢的两位演员登场。/ He will be featured on the new TV program Monday evening. 他将在星期一晚间的电视节目上露面。/ These Olympic events for the women will also feature dueling world record holders. 这些奥运女子项目中，还会有互为对手的世界纪录保持者出场。</div>(b) 突出显示(某一标志)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The statue features Lincoln and Tad (his son) sitting on a bench, both looking somewhat contemplative. 塑像表达的是林肯和他儿子塔德坐在一张长椅子上，两人的神情有点像在沉思。/ The data featured in the figure highlight another trend that reinforces the country's dependence on foreign investment. 表中的数据显著表明了另一个使得该国对外国投资更加依赖的趋势。/ Two gold earrings adorned one ear, while the other featured a small diamond stud. 一只耳朵装饰有两个金耳环，另一只则戴着一个小小的钻石耳钉。</div><br><br>在这个意义上，feature 的过去分词 featured 已经成为形容词，意思是“具有突出地位的”或是“面容如何如何的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>featured items at a sale 展销精品</div><div class="ex-item">(Hillary) Clinton was the featured speaker of the second night of the convention, ... (TheAssociated Press, Aug. 26, 2008) 希拉里是大会第二天晚上的主要发言人，……</div><div class="ex-item">sharp-featured 轮廓分明的</div><div class="ex-item">plain-featured 相貌平平的。</div>(c) 不一定突出表现，只是一般地有此表现。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Most U.S. movies feature smoking. 美国电影大都有吸烟的镜头。</div>(d) 登载，发表。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The paper featured an article on feminism. 该报刊登了一篇关于女权主义的文章。</div><div class="ex-item">The state visit was featured on the television news. 国事访问在电视新闻中得到了报道。</div>(e) 以某物为其主要作用的要素。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Tomorrow's biological weapons may well feature engineered pathogens not found in nature. 明天的生物武器所使用的很可能是自然界找不到的经过加工的病原体。</div>(f) 配备有某一装置。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The new product features high-speed roller brushes which whirl at 6,500 rpm. 新产品配备有高速辊子刷，每分钟 6,500 转。</div><div class="ex-item">Our watch features a variety of practical and convenient features to fit your lifestyle. 我们的手表具备多种实用而方便的性能以适应您的生活方式。</div><div class="ex-item">The new church will feature a large sanctuary. 新教堂将有一个大圣殿。</div><div class="ex-item">The main entrance featured three arched doors. 正面入口有三座拱形门。</div>(g) 包含某成分。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Tuesday will feature a mixture of clouds and sunshine. 星期二将是时晴时多云。</div><div class="ex-item">It was the first tobacco trial featuring a sequestered jury. 那是第一宗陪审团要隔离的有关香烟的审判案。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 作为不及物动词，表示“出现”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>feature on a list 名单上有名</div><div class="ex-item">Rice features prominently in their diet. 大米在他们的饮食中占据重要地位。</div><div class="ex-item">This is not the first time he has featured in allegations of violence. 他涉及有关暴力行为的指控，已经不是第一次了。</div><div class="ex-item">A picture of it features on the cover of the 1985 book. 这样的一张照片，出现在 1985 年那本书的封面上。</div><br><br>
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FedEx
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>FedEx</b></div>原是 Federal Express (联邦快递公司) 的简称，当然是个名词，而且是专有名词，但也扩大为及物动词 (仍然保留大写)，相当于 send by Federal Express。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He FedEx'd them some photos he had just developed. 他通过联邦快递公司的特快专递向他们寄出了他刚洗出的一些照片。</div><div class="ex-item">We asked them to FedEx us the suspect's photo from a New York driver's license. 我们请他们将嫌疑人的纽约州驾驶执照照片通过联邦快递公司用特快专递寄给我们。(参见 Xerox 条) 要注意过去式和过去分词不加 *ed 而加 'd。</div><br><br>许多大写的专有名词，以及大写或缩写成大写的非专有名词，在英文中常常可以由名词转换为动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... had RSVP'd online to attend the panel. (The Pennsylvanian, Nov. 22, 2011, p. 6) ……在网上回复了将参加小组会。(RSVP 是 répondez, s'il vous plaît 的简写，是英文邀请信上常用的法文简写句子，等于 reply, please。)</div>
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feed
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>feed</b></div>作为及物动词，它的宾语可以是得到“喂养；供应”的对象，也可以是“被提供，放进去的材料”。供，放进去的材料”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The bird had to be fed by the hand. 鸟儿要用手来喂养。</div><div class="ex-item">The patient had to be fed intravenously. 病人要静脉注射喂养。</div><div class="ex-item">The couple have four hungry mouths to feed. 这对夫妻有四个孩子嗷嗷待哺。</div><div class="ex-item">I fed the card into the slot. 我将卡片塞进开口处。</div><br><br>
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feel
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>feel</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为不由自己的“自我感觉”，feel 后面有形容词，此时它的时态可以用一般现在时或一般过去时 (此时它是第一类动词)，也可以用现在进行时或过去进行时 (此时它是第二类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—How do you feel?</div><div class="ex-item">How are you feeling? —I feel better.</div><div class="ex-item">I'm feeling better. —您感觉怎么样？—我觉得好了些。</div><br><br>但是“感到他物如何” (第一类动词)，就不能用进行时态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Don't you feel (*Aren't you feeling) the house shaking? 你不觉得房子在摇晃吗？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> feel 还可以表示有意用触觉 (手) 去感知外界，此时它就是第二类或第四类动词，可以用一般现在时或一般过去时，也可以用现在进行时或过去进行时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The doctor felt my arm carefully. 大夫细心地触摸我的胳膊。</div><div class="ex-item">The doctor was feeling my arm carefully. 大夫细心地触摸着我的胳膊。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> feel for 是“摸索寻找” (第二类动词)，也可以用进行时态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was feeling for the keyhole in the dark. 他在黑暗中摸索寻找钥匙孔。</div><br><br>如果直接宾语是人，feel for 则是“同情” (第一类动词)，不可以用进行时态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I really felt for her when her husband died. 她丈夫去世，我当时的确对她十分同情。</div><div class="ex-item">I do feel for you, honestly. 说真的，我十分同情你。</div><br><br>feel bad for 不是对某人反感，而是心中怜悯某人。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You just feel bad for this guy. 你只不过是可怜这个人罢了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> feel 还可以表示“觉得，认为” (第一类动词)，此时不能用进行时态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I feel you are wrong. 我觉得你错了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> feel 也可以以物品为主语，表示它给人某种触觉，此时也是第一类动词，不能用进行时态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My skin feels rough. 我的皮肤摸起来很粗糙。</div><div class="ex-item">The water feels cold. 水摸上去很冷。</div><div class="ex-item">The air felt caustic in her windpipe. 她感到气管里空气火辣辣的。</div><div class="ex-item">The art of politics is to design a solution that feels painless to all. (The Atlantic Monthly, Nov. 2005, p. 42) 政治这门艺术，就是要设计出一个谁都不感到痛苦的解决方案。类似这种情况的感觉动词，还有 look、taste、smell 等。</div><br><br>
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feel like
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>feel like</b></div>参见 like 条。<br><br>
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fellow
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>fellow</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为形容词，表示“同为……的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>fellow students 同学们</div><div class="ex-item">fellow workers 工友们</div><div class="ex-item">fellow sufferers 难友</div><div class="ex-item">fellow countrymen 同胞</div><div class="ex-item">fellow passenger 旅伴。这样的结构，前面可以加上形容词性物主代词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>my fellow countrymen 我的本国同胞</div><div class="ex-item">Franklin's objective was an ironic one: he had to convince the French monarchy to support a revolutionary war of independence against a fellow European monarchy. 富兰克林的目的是十分讽刺的：他需要说服法国王室去支持一场独立战争，去反对同类的另一个欧洲王室。争，去反对同类的另一个欧洲王室。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作为名词，通常指人，但实际使用中也可以指非人的同类事物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We understand a "rather cold day" to be a chilly but not unendurable one, colder than its fellows but not remarkably so. 我们所理解的“相当冷的一天”是指，寒气袭人但并不冰冻难忍的一天，比一般的日子冷，但并不是冷得很厉害。</div><br><br>一个学术团体的成员，也是 fellow。my fellow fellows at the National Museum of American History (James W. Loewen, Lies My Teacher Told Me, Acknowledgments) 中，第一个 fellow 是形容词 (所以没有复数形式)，第二个 fellow 就是“研究员”，这句话意思是“我在美国国家历史博物馆的研究员同僚们”。<br><br>
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fetch
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>fetch</b></div>这个及物动词，主要是在英式英语中使用。美式英语更多使用 go and get。<br><br>
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few
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>few</b></div>用于可数名词 (与用于不可数名词的 little 相对)。前面没有 a 时，有否定意义 (“没多少，几乎没有”)；前面有 a 时，有肯定意义 (“有一些”)；前面有 not a 时，这个 not 不是否定，而是加强肯定 (“不少”)；前面有 quite a 时，肯定意义进一步加强 (“有许多”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He had few kind thoughts about his former employer. 他对他从前的雇主没什么好感。</div><div class="ex-item">He had a few kind thoughts about his former employer. 他对他从前的雇主有点好感。</div><div class="ex-item">He had not a few kind thoughts about his former employer. 他对他从前的雇主很有好感。</div><div class="ex-item">He had quite a few kind thoughts about his former employer. 他对他从前的雇主非常有好感。</div><br><br>此外，few 前面如果有 every，这时 few 的意义其实相当于 a few，是肯定意义的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>every few weeks 每过几个星期。</div><br><br>
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fewer 与 less
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>fewer 与 less</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> fewer 是 few 的比较级，修饰可数名词；less 是 little 的比较级，修饰不可数名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Because fewer people attended the convention this year, there was a lot less noise. 由于今年参加大会的人少了，嘈杂的声音就小多了。但是，在实际使用中，许多人往往在可数名词前用 less 代替 fewer。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I've got less problems than I used to have. 我现在遇到的问题比以前少了。不过，这种用法，有人认为不正确。尤其是当用于人时，多说 fewer people 而少说 less people。(参见 less 与 fewer 条)</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> fewer 与 less 后面的名词如果没有限定词，就直接放在 fewer 或 less 之后。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Fewer people make their own bread these days. 现在，自己做面包的人更少了。</div><div class="ex-item">If you want to lose weight, eat less food. 想减轻体重，就少吃点。</div><br><br>但是，如果这个名词是有限定词的，或者是个代词，fewer 或 less 后面要加上 of 才能接上这个名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'd like to spend less of my time answering letters. 我真想少花点时间写回信。</div><div class="ex-item">At the college reunions, there are fewer of us each year. 我们回大学参加返校活动的人一年比一年少。</div><br><br>
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few 与 little
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>few 与 little</b></div>两者除了前者与可数名词一起而后者与不可数名词一起之外，意义是一样的。a few 与 a little 有肯定的正面意义，表示“有若干”；few 与 little 则有否定的负面意义，表示“没有多少”或“几乎没有”。如果 few 与 little 前面不是不定冠词 a 而是定冠词 the，则表示正面肯定的意义，但数量很少。few 与 little 的否定意义，理论上比较容易理解，但在实际语言中有时候不容易看出来，需要加以熟悉。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Such a proposal might seem extraordinary today, but at the time it clearly raised few eyebrows. (The New York Review of Books, Nov. 4, 2004, p. 34) 这样的一个主张，拿到今天来看，可能显得很出格，但是在当时却显然没有多少人对之表示惊讶。</div><br><br>有一些集合名词，形式上是单数，实际意义上是复数，也可以用 few 来修饰。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a few personnel 一些人员。</div><br><br>
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fill
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>fill</b></div>作为及物动词 (第三类或第四类动词)，它的直接宾语是容器，不是放进容器中的物质。所以不能说 *Fill up water in the canteen. 而应该说 Fill up the canteen with water. 这种情况，不同于 strew、spray、sprinkle、pile 之类的动词。<br><br>
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find²
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>find²</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 要注意 find 不一定仅仅加上直接宾语作“找到” (瞬时动作) 解，往往还有宾语补足语加以补充说明，作“对某事物有何观感” (延续感觉，带主观色彩，第一类动词) 或“看到 (情形如何，客观情况)” (瞬时或延续感觉，第一类或第四类动词) 解。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How do you find the music? 你觉得这音乐如何？ (延续感觉，主观，可以用一般现在时)</div><div class="ex-item">I woke up to find him gone. 我醒过来，发现他已经走了。(瞬时感觉，客观)</div><div class="ex-item">I hope this letter finds you well. 我希望这封信到你手中时你一切安好。(瞬时感觉，拟人化，客观)</div><div class="ex-item">He believed that he would find things just as he had left them fifteen years ago. 他相信他会看到情况同 15 年前他暂离时一样没变。(瞬时感觉，客观。注意：这里的 just as ... 是 find 不可缺少的补语，说明“发现”情况如何，不能单独把 find 仅仅理解为“找到”。)</div><div class="ex-item">I found him (to be) a genius at chemistry. 我发现他是个化学天才。</div><div class="ex-item">You'll find it impossible to live there. 你会发现，在那里是无法生活的。(瞬时感觉，客观)</div>这种搭配，有时候 find 同后面的宾语补足语会相隔很远，当中甚至会插入从句，阅读或听时容易“断线”，需要注意呼应。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Particularly in these trouble times, people who have no religion or philosophy to sustain them find the idea that life ends only in oblivion extraordinarily distressing. 尤其是在这种乱世时期，人要是没有宗教或哲学来作为依托，一想到人生一场最后只是在遗忘中结束，就觉得非常苦恼。</div><br><br>find 原意是“发现”，但是如果有宾语补足语，则不一定是真的“发现”了某个客观事实，而只是主观地“认为”如何如何。说话的人不一定同意这是事实，而只不过是客观叙述某人“认为”如何而已。如一个美国历史学家在 2008 年回顾 1951 年的“罗森堡夫妇间谍案”时，认为其中有冤枉之处，说：They took somebody who they basically felt was guilty and by hook or crook they were going to get a jury to find him guilty. (The New York Times, Sept. 12, 2008, A16) (他们只要大体上认为某人有罪就抓住他，然后千方百计让陪审团认为他有罪。) 这里的 find 不能译为“发现”，因为说话者并不认为当时“发现了”什么事实。为某人有罪就抓住他，然后千方百计让陪审团认为他有罪。) 这里的 find 不能译为“发现”，因为说话者并不认为当时“发现了”什么事实。(find 在法律审判用语中作为及物或不及物动词，往往相当于“判决”，find him guilty 是“判他有罪”，find in his favor 是“判他胜诉”。)<br><span class="seq">(2)</span> find 作为第一类动词 (延续状态) 的另一个用法，是后面加上反身代词。从字面上看，意思应该是“发现自己 (如何如何)”，但是真正的意思已经同“发现”无关，而只是表示“处于 (某种状态)”。“发现”这个瞬时动作变成了延续状态，因此可以用一般现在时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... in the climate in which we find ourselves today, violence—or implied violence—of any kind cannot be tolerated. (Quoted by Mona Charen, in The Daily Gazette, May 3, 2008, A9) ……在我们今天所处的气氛中，任何暴力，即使是暗示的暴力，也是不能容忍的。</div><div class="ex-item">One Sunday morning, while the family is at church, Master Wolfgang finds himself in the kitchen. (George Henry Lewes, The Life of Goethe) 某个星期天的上午，当家人们在教堂做礼拜时，沃尔夫冈却在厨房里。另外英文这个用法稍微接近中文“发现自己 (如何如何)”，有时也带有轻微的“意外惊讶”的意思。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> find (作为第四类动词) 可以有双宾语 (搭配参见 buy 条)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He found us a room. 他替我们找到了一个房间。(或：He found it/a room for us.) 但是要注意，有时候不是双宾语而是直接宾语加宾语补足语。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I found him a disappointment. 我觉得他令人失望。此外，这里的间接宾语 (因为所省略的介词其实不是 to 而是 for) 不可以变为主语来构成被动句，例如不能说：*We were found a room. (但可以说 We're given a room. 作为 He gave us a room. 变成的被动句，因为这里省略的介词是 to 而不是 for。)</div><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> find (第四类动词) 与 find out 的区别是：find 可以是无意中偶然的发现，而 find out 则是有意经过一番寻找或研究的功夫才得到的发现。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They found there a gold mine. 他们在那里发现了一个金矿。</div><div class="ex-item">She found that he had lied to her. 她发现他向她撒了谎。</div><div class="ex-item">They found out the missing book. 他们找到了那本丢失了的书。</div><br><br>find out 的宾语往往是一个事实，如果是一件物品，则通常是一时找不到的已知事物。但是往往情况不容易分清楚，所以有时候用 find 或 find out 都可以。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I found/found out that I had made a mistake. 我发现自己犯了个错误。</div><br><br>
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find¹
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>find¹</b></div>这个动词 (第四类动词) 的过去式和过去分词是 found，而另有一个动词的原形也是 found (“建立”)，过去式和过去分词是 founded。两个动词不要混淆。<br><br>
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fine
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>fine</b></div>作为及物动词 (“罚款”)，fine 的搭配是 fine somebody some money，其中 somebody 是间接宾语，some money 是直接宾语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They fined him 100 dollars. 他们罚了他 100 美元。句子也可以转为被动句，以间接宾语改作主语，直接宾语地位不变 (以直接宾语改作主语就很不自然)<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was fined 100 dollars for speeding. 他因为开车超速被罚 100 美元。</div><br><br>但是无论主动句还是被动句，都可以不说罚多少钱。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They fined him for speeding.</div><div class="ex-item">He was fined for speeding. 他因为开车超速而被罚款。此时就不好说 him 是间接宾语了。应该说，fine 可以有单宾语 (指人)，也可以有双宾语 (间接宾语是人，直接宾语是钱，无 to 的间接宾语先于直接宾语)。</div><br><br>
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fine print
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>fine print</b></div>又作 small print。往往一些广告甚至一些有法律效力的文书，用大号字体写出比较笼统一般的内容，而一些具体的细节，甚至隐藏的伏笔，却用小号字体 (fine print、small print) 写出。有些意图诈骗的人，也常常用这个手法。例如商店为了招徕顾客，登出“大减价”的广告，说一切商品 up to 60% off (最高可以打四折)，但是 60% off 用大号字体，up to 则用小号字体。不细看，就以为所有商品都打四折了，其实说不定许多只打九五折 (5% off)。<br><br>fine print 或 small print 可以指合约的细则。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Never sign a contract until you have read the small print. 在把条文细则看过之前，千万别随便签署一个合约。也可以转义为“不明显但却至关重要的不利迹象”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The mass hypnosis reminds them (= the centrists) of the mortgage frenzy—all these people buying into a dream and not caring about the fine print. (Froma Harrop, in The Daily Gazette, Feb. 20, 2008, A9) 这种大批人如痴如醉的状态，在中间派看来，就像是前一阵次级房贷的狂热一样，这些人把一切都当真，放进梦幻当中，毫不理会乐极生悲的迹象。</div><br><br>
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finger
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>finger</b></div>只指二到五指，不包括大拇指 (thumb)，单数时不能指大拇指。但 toe 指所有五个脚趾。参见 toe 条。<br><br>
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finish
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>finish</b></div>本来是个及物动词 (当然是第四类动词)，人是这个主动动作的主语，事情是直接宾语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>When do you finish work? 你什么时候干完？</div><div class="ex-item">He was in a hurry to get things finished. 他急急忙忙忙要把事情办完。</div><br><br>也可以用 finish 的被动式 (过去分词) 来说明某人 (第一类或第四类动词，可以表示“事情办完了之后的延续状态”，或者“刚进入这状态”这一变化)。此时，意思可以是“把事情办完”，也可以是“没戏了，完蛋了”，要看语境和上下文。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The plumber was finished by 4 p.m. 水暖工下午四点钟干完了。</div><div class="ex-item">Will you be finished in time? 你能及时做完吗？</div><div class="ex-item">The short survey will only take two minutes. When you are finished, just pop it in the mail—the postage is on us. 这个短短的调查表只要花两分钟。您填完了，投邮就是，邮费我们负担。</div><div class="ex-item">He's finished as a politician. 他的政客生涯完蛋了。</div><br><br>如果后面有 with，则可以表示“做完；不再需要；洗手不干；断绝关系”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She's finished with her latest novel. 她最近的一部长篇小说脱稿了。</div><div class="ex-item">I'll soon be finished with this job. 这个工作我很快就会干完。</div><div class="ex-item">I'm finished with the scissors. 我不需要剪刀了。</div><div class="ex-item">He may be finished with boxing. 他可能不再打拳了。</div><div class="ex-item">She is finished with him. 她同他吹了。</div><br><br>
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first
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>first</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 现在一般认为，first 与数词连用，要先说 first。例如 the first three chapters (头三章)，不说 *the three first chapters，据说是因为不可能有三个第一章。the first two guests 是第一个与第二个到来的客人，但 the two first guests 是最早两个同时到来的客人。但是，这种主要以逻辑推理为根据的规定并不一定处处行得通，实际语言中不遵从这个规定的例子很多。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the seven first years of his pacific reign (Daniel Defoe, The True-Born Englishman) 他平平安安统治的头 7 年</div><div class="ex-item">the sixty-four first years of the present century (Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire) 本世纪的前 64 年。同样，last、next 等与数词连用，也有先后问题，而且也有数词先行的现象。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The two last days were very pleasant. (Jane Austen, letter, Sept. 8, 1816) 最后两天过得很愉快。中不遵从这个规定的例子很多。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the seven first years of his pacific reign (Daniel Defoe, The True-Born Englishman) 他平平安安统治的头 7 年</div><div class="ex-item">the sixty-four first years of the present century (Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire) 本世纪的前 64 年。</div><br><br>同样，last、next 等与数词连用，也有先后问题，而且也有数词先行的现象。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The two last days were very pleasant. (Jane Austen, letter, Sept. 8, 1816) 最后两天过得很愉快。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 通常 first 由于是“唯一”的，所以前面总是有 the 或是其他限定词 (如 my 之类)。但有时候 first 只是说明事物的一个内在性质或临时情状，并不是把事物单独孤立出来，此时可以不用 the 之类的限定词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There are four first violins in the orchestra. 管弦乐队有四个第一小提琴。</div><div class="ex-item">He got a first in French. 他的法语得了个甲等。</div><div class="ex-item">Our horse was first. 我们的马跑了个第一。</div><div class="ex-item">He won first prize. 他得到了一等奖。</div><div class="ex-item">He is first in his class. 他在班里是第一名。</div><div class="ex-item">He was appointed First Secretary of the Committee. 他被任命为委员会第一书记。</div><br><br>其他顺序数词也有同样的情形。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a Fifth Column 一支第五纵队</div><div class="ex-item">a third party 一个第三方。</div><br><br>成了专有名词的一部分时，序数词就不要 the 了。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Fifth Avenue (纽约的) 第五大道。但是 the Fifth Avenue of Paris (巴黎的“纽约第五大道”，即香榭丽舍大街 Champs-Élysées)，这里用 the，并不是因为 fifth 这个序数词，而是由于 of Paris 限制了 Fifth Avenue 在这里特别缩小的范围，需要 the 来把这个范围固定下来。</div><br><br>此外，如果不是事先把数量已经确定的多件事物排好队，而是说了“第一”之后还不知道后面跟着会有多少 (甚至还不知道后面还有没有)，此时也说 a first 而不说 the first。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a first step toward automation of the process 走向过程自动化的第一步</div><div class="ex-item">A First Course in Linear Algebra 线性代数初阶</div><div class="ex-item">a first impression 初步印象</div><div class="ex-item">a first step in fixing the problem 初步处理该问题</div><div class="ex-item">The book offers young readers a first glimpse into wetlands habitats. 这本书让青少年读者初步窥探认识 (野兽保护) 湿地的生存空间。同样，second 如果是临时增添的，也说 a second 而不说 <i>the second。例如对一位医生的诊断感到不一定可靠，再去找另一位医生请他提个意见，这就是 a second (</i>the second) opinion。最后临时增添的一个，是 a last 而不是 the last。(参见 last 条)</div>试看下面例句：Whether it's a first trip or the thousandth, I don't know anyone who isn't captivated by the beauty of that vista. (无论是第一次还是第一千次到那里，我觉得谁看见这样秀丽的景色都不会不心旷神怡。) 这里 first 前用 a，是因为这是“初次”，不一定有第二、第三次，还没有既成次序；反之，thousandth 用 the，是因为前面已经排好了九百九十九次，这个第一千次也排好了位置，次序已成事实。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> first 作为副词，可以表示“第一次” (for the first time)，但是也可以表示与次序无关的“当初”。如丈夫对妻子说：When we were first married ..., 这并不是说他们结了几次婚，现在回想的是第一次，这里的 first 只是“想当初”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I saw he was drunk when he first came into the room. (Charles Dickens, ThePickwick Papers) 一开始他走进房间的时候，我就看到他是喝醉了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 行文中列举几点时，当然可以简单地列出 First, ... Second, ... Third, ...，也可以列出 Firstly, ... Secondly, ... Thirdly, ...，但是英国学术界和教育界则常常加上 -ly 只从 Second 开始，First 保持不加，通用 First, ... Secondly, ... Thirdly, ...。<br><br>
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first time
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>first time</b></div>英文中提到 first time 及意义类似的话，要注意一些惯用的句法结构：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 说 the first time 后面可以跟一个从句，此时 the first time 不是名词短语，也不是副词短语，而是起着主从连词的作用，引入时间状语从句 (注意：只是从句，另外还有主句)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The first time (*At the first time) (that) I met you, you were only a baby. 我第一次看见你的时候，你还是个婴儿呢。</div><br><br>而 for the first time 则与 the first time 不同，是个副词短语，不引入从句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>For the first time in our lives something really exciting has happened. 我们生平第一次发生了的确使人激动的事。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> Is this your first time to visit Beijing? 或 Is this the first time you have visited Beijing? (注意虽然主从句时间同时但从句中用完成时) 或 Is this your first visit to Beijing? 您是第一次访问北京吗？主句凡是 This/It is the first time ...，从句就一定要用现在完成时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This is the first time (that) I've heard her sing. 这是我第一次听她唱歌。</div><div class="ex-item">This was the first time he had attended an auction. 这是他第一次参加拍卖。甚至主句是一般将来时，从句动词是瞬时性的，这个瞬时动词仍然用现在完成时。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm flying to New York tomorrow. It'll be the first time I've traveled by plane. 我明天飞纽约去。这将是我第一次乘飞机旅行。但是如果主句的动词是一般将来时，而从句的动词是延续性的，则两者都用一般将来时。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This will be the first time that we will have European space equipment permanently in space. 这将是我们第一次在太空永久装设欧洲的太空设备。</div><br><br>即使不是 the first time 而是 the first 别的什么，但只要是在时间顺序上排最先的，那么，尽管从句中的事情与 to be the first ... 同时，而且尚在进行中，还未结束，仍然要用过去完成时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Mrs. Sweetman quickly discovered that this was not the first news-agent's shop the young man had worked in, ... (Jeffrey Archer, The Fourth Estate) 斯维特曼夫人很快就发现，这个年轻人并不是第一次在一家报纸代销店工作，……</div><br><br>而且，主句是一般现在时或一般过去时，则不一定是 first time，只要是序数词，从句都用完成时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This is the fifth time you've asked me the same question. 你向我问同样一个问题，这已经是第五次了。</div><div class="ex-item">It was the third time he had been in love that year. 他坠入情网，已经是那一年的第三次了。</div><br><br>
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fit, fitted, suitable 与 suited
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>fit, fitted, suitable 与 suited</b></div>这几个形容词，意义都是“适合的”，在大多数场合可以互换。但是除了相同点之外，也有些差别。 (1) fit 可以指人、物、抽象情况，后面可以用 for 引入另一名词，也可以用动词不定式 (该名词是动词不定式的逻辑主语，如果是被动通常要说 to be + pp.，如另有逻辑主语则要用 for 引入)。(a) fit 可以用于人。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a fit nominee 一个合适的提名人选</div><div class="ex-item">fit for the position 适合担任此职位</div><div class="ex-item">He is fit to carry out the plan. 他适合实施该计划。</div><br><br>be fit to inf. (inf. 是个瞬时动词) 还有“马上要如何如何”的负面意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She was fit to cry. 她马上要哭起来了。</div><div class="ex-item">I walked and walked till I was fit to drop. 我走呀走，直到马上要倒下来。</div>(b) fit 可以用于物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a feast fit for a king 一场适合国王享用的盛宴</div><div class="ex-item">water not fit to drink 不适宜饮用的水</div><div class="ex-item">a seaside town fit for old people to live in 适合老年人居住的海滨小镇</div><div class="ex-item">a car only fit for the scrapheap 一辆只适合扔到废铁堆去的汽车</div><div class="ex-item">fields fit to be planted 适宜耕种的田野</div><div class="ex-item">a wooden image movable and fit to be carried in procession (George Santayana) 一个可移动的、适合在迎神赛会上抬着的木制神像。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 以上的 fit，可以用 suitable 来代替，但是 suitable 后面不习惯用动词不定式，通常只用 for 或 to 加名词或 for 加动名词。<br><br>可以指人。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>suitable for the job 适合干这工作的。</div><br><br>可以指物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>books suitable for children 适合儿童阅读的书</div><div class="ex-item">disposable diapers suitable for babies up to 8 pounds 适合 8 磅以下婴儿使用的一次性尿布</div><div class="ex-item">These shoes are not suitable for walking (*to walk). 这些鞋子不适合走路。</div><br><br>可以指抽象事物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His conduct was not suitable to the occasion. 他的行为，同这个场合不适应。</div><div class="ex-item">The problem is suitable for class discussion. 这个问题适合进行课堂讨论。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> fitted 同 fit 一样可以指人的素质和条件适合某一角色，但是 fitted 通常不用来指具体物件或是抽象事物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She is well fitted for this job. 她很适合干这个工作。</div><div class="ex-item">Those best fitted to the work will be chosen. 最适合这工作的会被选上。</div><br><br>suited 的意义和用法，同 fitted 差不多。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He doesn't seem suited for the role. 他似乎不适合这个角色。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> fit 除了派生出 fitted 形式外，还有一个 fitting 形式。fitting 的意义通常限于对一件事的看法尤其是做法，认为它“恰如其分”或是“理所当然”。fitting 通常用于 it is fitting that ... 的句型 (that 可以略去)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... given that I have acted wrongly, it is fitting that I suffer the unpleasant experience of remorse. (Ramon M. Lemos, Rights, Goods, and Democracy) ……我既然做错了，那我遭到悔不当初的不愉快经历，就是理所当然的。</div><div class="ex-item">It is fitting that we honor the life of a great American in a church who derived his inspiration from the church. It is fitting that we honor this great American in a church because, out of the church comes the notion of equality and justice. (George W. Bush, honoring Martin Luther King, Jr. Jan. 20, 2003) 我们今天到教堂来缅怀一位从教会获取灵感的伟大的美国人，这是合适的。我们到教堂来缅怀这位伟大的美国人，其所以合适，是因为平等与正义的观念是来自教会的。fitting 也可以作前置定语放在名词前面。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We should offer fitting thanks to God. 我们应该向上帝表示应有的感恩。</div><br><br>要加强语气时，除了说 it is very fitting that ... 之外，还可以说 it is only fitting that ...。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>So it was only fitting that county Democrats would return the favor Tuesday night. (The Daily Gazette, Feb. 6, 2008, A1) 本县的民主党人星期二晚上表示报答，那是题中应有之义。</div><br><br>it is fitting that 有时候还可以有“恰巧对应”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is fitting that 500 years after Augustus built this port, his empire would end here. 奥古斯都建立起这个港口后 500 年，他的那个帝国恰巧在这里结束。也可以有“并非偶然”的意思。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is fitting that the most sublime works in all of Europe would come from such a dynamic life. 全欧洲最了不起的作品，来自此人动荡的一生，这并非偶然。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 与 it is fitting that 相类似，形容词 fit 也有同样结构的用法 (这是 suitable、suited、fitted 都没有的)，但不能光说 it is fit that，要在 fit 前面加上 only 或 quite；如果是否定句，则可以不加，径直说 it is not fit that (从句中的谓语动词用虚拟式的 should，没有“应该”之意，或者用动词原形作为虚拟式)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is not fit that you should stay here. (= It is not fit for you to stay here.) 你留在这里是不合适的。</div><div class="ex-item">It is very important that we pursue space travel, and as Mars is our next-door-neighbor, it is only fit that we go there first. 我们进行太空旅行是十分重要的，而由于火星是我们的近邻，我们先到火星去是很合适的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 在 fit 前面加上及物动词 see、find 或 think，可以略去形式宾语 it (只有 see、find 与 think 后面可以略去 it)，再在后面加动词不定式作真宾语，表示“觉得 (做某事) 是合适的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He didn't think/see fit to recognize me. 他觉得认出我不合适。</div><div class="ex-item">Do as you think/see fit. 你觉得怎样合适就怎样办。</div><div class="ex-item">He saw fit to go to the ball without his fiancée. 他觉得，不带未婚妻，自己一个人去舞会，是合适的。如果不用 fit 而用 suitable，则形式宾语 it 就不能省略。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We found it suitable to upgrade the interface. 我们觉得，把界面升级是合适的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> fit 前面加上系动词 feel 或 keep，意义就从“合适的”变为“身体健康的；精力充沛的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He felt fit to travel. 他觉得自己有精力去旅行。</div><div class="ex-item">The team was fit for the game. 球队精力充沛地备战。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> 作为动词，fit 更多指某衣物或其他物件“合 (某人的身材)”，suit 则更多指某抽象事物“合 (某人的状况或需要)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A 58 bike frame will fit me perfectly. 五八的自行车架子就完全合我身材。</div><div class="ex-item">The dress fits me perfectly. 这套衣服完全合我身。</div><div class="ex-item">Sitting in the middle of the row will suit me perfectly. 坐在一排的中间，对我再合适不过了。</div><br><br>
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fix
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>fix</b></div>在美式英语中，动词 fix 的词义和用法十分广泛，可以分成两大部分来说明：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 基本词义是“使固定”：(a) 宾语是具体的事物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The planks were fixed together with two screws. 木板用两颗螺丝固定住了。</div><div class="ex-item">We fixed the pole in the ground. 我们把木柱固定在地上。 (b) 宾语是抽象的事物。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>fix something in one's memory 将某事牢记在心</div><div class="ex-item">The belief had been fixed in him from an early age. 这个信念，从他早年时起，就已经在他的心中牢牢地扎下了根。</div><div class="ex-item">They fixed the blame on her. 他们诿过于她。</div><div class="ex-item">Everybody's attention was fixed on her. 大家的注意力都落到她身上。</div><div class="ex-item">They fixed her with a stony gaze. 他们冷眼看了她一下。</div>(c) 表示“预定”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Her arrival was fixed at three p.m. 她定于下午三点到达。</div>(d) 表示“安排”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I've fixed it so we'll be in the same hotel. 我已经安排好，咱们大家都住同一家饭店。</div><div class="ex-item">How are you fixed for next week? 你们下周是怎样安排的？</div>(e) 表示“明确其位置”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>fix the ship 明确了船所在的位置。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 其他词义有：(a) 表示“修理” (宾语一般是器皿、用具、钟表、车辆)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I must take this watch in to be fixed. 我必须把这块表拿去修一下。</div><div class="ex-item">I learned how to fix radios in the Army. 我在部队里学会了修理收音机。</div><br><br>由此转义为“整顿” (宾语是抽象事物)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... the legal system, which they said was too seriously flawed for a legal services program to fix ... (David Riley, The Washingtonian, November 1970) ……他们认为这个法律制度问题太严重，难以靠一个法律服务方案来整顿好……</div><div class="ex-item">It's going to take time for Obama to fix this mess. (Susan Estrich, in The Daily Gazette, Jan. 19, 2009, A7) 奥巴马需要时间才能收拾好这个烂摊子。</div><br><br>也可以转义为“处理，解决”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Fixing the Food Crisis (U.S. News & World Report, May 19, 2008, p. 36, headline) 处理粮食危机。</div>(b) 表示“加工饮食 (做到能食用或饮用)”。可以有双宾语 (搭配参见 buy 条)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She fixed him a cup of coffee. = She fixed it/a cup of coffee for him. 她给他调了一杯咖啡。</div><div class="ex-item">What are you fixing for dinner? 你晚饭弄点什么吃的？</div>(c) 表示“美化使之能见人”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We'll go as soon as I've fixed my face. 我一化好妆，我们就马上上去。</div><div class="ex-item">She went to the restroom to fix her hair. 她到洗手间去把头发整理一下。</div>(d) 表示“对……耍小动作”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>fix the election 在选举中搞小动作</div><div class="ex-item">fix the jury 做拉拢陪审员的工作。</div>(e) be fixing to inf. 表示“马上要做某事”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We're fixing to go fishing on Sunday. 我们准备星期天去钓鱼。</div><br><br>
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flag 与 banner
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>flag 与 banner</b></div>两者的区别，参见 banner 与 flag 条。<br><br>
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flammable 与 inflammable
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>flammable 与 inflammable</b></div>尽管后者有前缀 in-，但这个 in- 没有否定的意思。两者都是“易燃的” (科研用语似乎多用 flammable，工业用语似乎多用 inflammable，但是美国一些换液化气罐的地点在告示牌上常用 flammable 而不用 inflammable)。只有 inflammable 可以转义为“易发火的，易怒的；冲突一触即发的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There was an inflammable confrontation between the two countries. 两国彼此对峙，冲突一触即发。为“易发火的，易怒的；冲突一触即发的”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There was an inflammable confrontation between the two countries. 两国彼此对峙，冲突一触即发。in- 没有否定意义的情况，又参见 inhabitable 与 habitable 条。</div><br><br>有时候，in- 有否定意义，但是有 in- 和没有 in- “殊途同归”。例如 valuable 是“宝贵的”，invaluable 是“宝贵得无法估价的”，结果实际意义又重合了 (当然，invaluable 意义似乎更重一些)。<br><br>
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flatter
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>flatter</b></div>是个及物动词，属第二类动词 (延续动作)，主要意义和用法是：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 吹捧，阿谀。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I don't like intellectuals who flatter those with political power, expecting to be offered a comfortable position as a reward. 有些知识分子，对掌握着政治权力的人阿谀奉承，指望博得一个舒适的地位作为奖赏，我对这些人是不喜欢的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 讨好，拉拢。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>What really flatters a man is that you think him worth flattering. (George Bernard Shaw) 最能讨好一个人的，是你认为他值得讨好。</div><div class="ex-item">Some politicians try to flatter us with promises to give us a token amount of money. 有些政客向我们许诺说要给我们一点象征性的钱，以此来讨好我们。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 夸奖 (无贬义)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>As I was sitting by Sir Godfrey Kneller one day, whilst he was drawing a picture, he stopped and said, "I can't do so well as I should do, unless you flatter me a little, pray flatter me, Mr. Pope! You know I love to be flattered." (Joseph Spence, Anecdotes, Observations, and Characters, of Books and Men) 有一天，戈德弗雷·内勒爵士在画画，我坐在他旁边，他忽然停了下来说：“除非你称赞我几句，要不然我本来应该画好的也画不好了，波普先生，就劳驾您称赞我几句吧！您知道我是很喜欢人家称赞我的。”</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 值得注意的是：听到对方的恭维话之后，礼貌的回答是 you flatter me，相当于中文的“过奖了”。此时 flatter 没有“吹捧，阿谀”的贬义，但 flatter 总有点“言过其实”的意义，有时候也可以加上“太过”的状语来补充。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You flatter me beyond belief! I really appreciate it. 您太过奖了！真不敢当。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 使高兴。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I am flattered that they should be so supportive. 他们如此支持，令我深感欣慰。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 悦目，悦耳。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The beauty of the stone flattered the young man's eyes. 宝石如此美妙，使得那个青年大饱眼福。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 衬托得更好看。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Orange and khaki flatter those with golden skin tones. 橘黄色和土黄色很衬金色皮肤。</div><div class="ex-item">Her clothes flatter the silhouette. 她的那套衣服，把身段衬托得更好看。</div><div class="ex-item">Sunglasses will flatter the face. 墨镜会把脸衬托得好看。</div><div class="ex-item">The photograph flatters its subject. 相片把人照好看了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> 虚假的美化。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The portraitist flatters his sitter to the detriment of his art. 肖像画家把自己的画画对象美化，这就损害了艺术。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(9)</span> 被动式，感到高兴 (无贬义)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I was very flattered to be given the commission. 我很荣幸，受委托办理此事。 (10) 加 oneself，表示自己高兴 (无贬义)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I flatter myself I'm the best dressed man here. 我真高兴，我是这里穿衣服穿得最好的男子。</div><div class="ex-item">I flatter myself that this campaign will put an end to the war. 我很高兴，这个运动将会使得战争结束。</div><div class="ex-item">... and tho' I flatter myself with being a tolerable proficient in Geography, I know not how it happened ... (Jane Austen, Love and Friendship) ……我虽然自问对地理学也算够精通的了，但是这件事是怎样发生的，我也不知道……</div><div class="ex-item">Your restoration to peace will, I doubt not, speedily follow this act of filial obedience, and I flatter myself with the hope of surviving my share in this disappointment. (Jane Austen, Lady Susan) 你既然这样孝顺，遵从了父母的意旨，我深信你的内心一定会恢复安宁，我也满怀希望，但愿我原先的一份沮丧也成为过去。</div><br><br>
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flesh 与 meat
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>flesh 与 meat</b></div>两者的区别，参见 meat 与 flesh 条。另外，flesh 还有几个特别的意义和用法：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 虽然不能指食用的动物肉，但是可以指食用的植物果实中的肉质。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Cut the avocado in half and remove the flesh. 把鳄梨切成两半，把里面的肉拿掉。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> “灵” (soul) 与 “肉” (flesh) 在哲学和宗教中常常是一对对立的概念。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> flesh 还有“肉体感官 (享受)”的意义，甚至指色欲。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the comforts and pleasures of the flesh 肉体的舒适和享乐。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> flesh and blood 可以表示：(a) “骨肉至亲” (注意英文不用“骨”而用“血”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How can I do it? They're my flesh and blood! 我怎能这样做？他们是我的亲骨肉啊！</div>(b) “血肉之躯，凡胎” (注意在这里中英文都用“血”和“肉”，但英文先“肉”后“血”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm only flesh and blood after all. 我终究是个血肉凡胎呀。</div><div class="ex-item">Even metaphorical wars can have flesh-and-blood casualties. (The New York Times, Nov. 27, 2007, F5) 即使是打比方的战争，也可能有真正血肉的伤亡。</div>(c) “活生生的，有鼻子有眼的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a flesh-and-blood princess 一个活生生的公主。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> pound of flesh 有个典故。莎士比亚戏剧《威尼斯商人》中放高利贷者夏洛克借给巴萨尼奥一笔款，条件是到期不能归还就要割他身上的一磅肉。后来 pound of flesh 成了惯用语，指苛刻的报复。要注意的是，extract one's pound of flesh，这个 flesh 不是 one 身上的，而是 one 所索取的。<br><br>
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flight
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>flight</b></div>这是一个从动词派生出来的名词，但是它有两个不同的动词来源。一个是人们熟知的 fly (飞行)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>flight 210 第 210 次航班。另一个则是 flee (逃走)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We need stress in order to stimulate our fight or flight response. 我们需要有精神压力来激发自己或则应战或则躲开的反应。犯罪者的畏罪逃跑也是 flight。</div><br><br>
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floor 与 storey
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>floor 与 storey</b></div>两者都是指“楼层”，一般可以互换 (storey 在美式英语中为 story)。不过，说建筑物内部具体的第几层，用 floor 比用 storey 多些，如 on the fifth floor。说楼层的数量或几层楼 (尤其是从建筑物外部的角度来说)，则较多用 storey。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the upperstoreys of the building 大楼的上面几层</div><div class="ex-item">a multi-storey building 一幢多层的大楼</div><div class="ex-item">a billboard several stories in height 有好几层楼高的广告牌。但这并不是绝对的，也可以说 the upper floors of the building 和 a multi-floor building。</div><br><br>此外，楼层的编号，英美有差别。美国的排法同中国相同，底层是一楼 (first floor)，上一层是二楼 (second floor)，以此类推。英国则底层是 ground floor，上一层是一楼 (first floor)，再上一层是二楼，以此类推，总之，比美国和中国少算一层。<br><br>
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flora
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>flora</b></div>参见 fauna 条。<br><br>
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flourish
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>flourish</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 原意是“兴旺，繁荣”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Sculpture flourished in ancient Greece. 古希腊的雕塑艺术很繁荣。</div><div class="ex-item">Grass-eating animals flourish in this region. 这个地区繁殖有大量的食草动物。</div><div class="ex-item">He is flourishing in his new job. 他现在的新差事干得很得心应手。</div><br><br>也可以稍为减弱，只是指一个人在公众当中活跃，起影响。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Aristotle flourished in the fourth century B.C. 亚里士多德活跃于公元前 4 世纪。</div><br><br>略为加强一点语气，可以加 well。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The plant flourishes particularly well in slightly harsher climes. 这种植物在气候条件略为严酷一点的地区长得特别好。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> flourish 通常同 well 的比较级 better，尤其是最高级 best 连用，此时意义有点扩大冲淡，往往指“过得好些 (最好)”或“处境好些 (最好)”或“更为 (最为) 顺利”，往往没有“繁荣，昌盛”这样重的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>People who have active imaginations flourish better in remote regions where there is lacking a steady stream of sensory stimulation. 想象力活跃的人，如果处于缺乏感官刺激的偏僻地区，他们会更能发挥想象力。但是通常要同 than 一起，表示比较。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Invasive plant species can flourish better in their new homes than in their place of origin. 侵袭性的植物品种，到了新的地方，可以比在它们的原生长地长得更好。</div><br><br>flourish best 已经成为英语的一个惯用词组，中文翻译时要灵活表达。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>People flourish best among other people, provided those others do not thwart their freedom. (Tibor R. Machan, Libertarian Justice) 人们身处他人当中时，是过得最遂意的，只要他人不破坏他们的自由。</div><div class="ex-item">The communities where magazines flourish best are those which support libraries, and the libraries themselves, by the accompaniment of reading-rooms, render magazines accessible to many who do not subscribe for them individually. (Every Saturday: A Journal of Choice Reading, Volume I, January to June, 1874, p. 362) 杂志最起作用的社区，是那些对图书馆采取支持态度的社区，而图书馆本身，加上阅览室之搭配，又使得许多没有单独订阅杂志的人看到杂志。</div><div class="ex-item">Research in the pure sciences certainly seems to flourish best when there is an interplay between students and teachers, each invigorating the other. (J. R. Killian, Jr., "University Research", in Proceedings of the Academy of Political Science, Vol. 30, No. 1) 纯科学的研究，看来在师生彼此互动、相得益彰的时候最能见效。</div><div class="ex-item">We flourish best out of the harsh glare of media light. 我们唯有躲开媒体刺眼的聚光灯，才能过得舒服。</div><br><br>
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focus
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>focus</b></div>作为动词，可以及物 (主语是人，宾语是物)，也可以不及物 (主语是物，但也可以是人)，两者通常都要求有 on something 作为补充说明，否则意义落空。<br><br>作为及物动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He focused his binoculars on a yacht in the distance. 他把双筒望远镜的焦点对准了远处的一艘游艇。</div><div class="ex-item">Tom tried to focus his attention on reading. 汤姆设法使自己的注意力集中在阅读上。有时候也可以没有 on something 这个补充说明。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The drunken man couldn't focus his eyes. 醉汉无法使目光聚焦。也可以用其他介词短语。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>focus the sun's rays through a convex lens 通过凸透镜把太阳光聚焦。</div><br><br>作为不及物动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The meeting should focus on reform. 会议应该以改革为重点。</div><div class="ex-item">His eyes slowly began to focus on what looked like a small dark ball. 他的眼睛开始慢慢地聚焦到一个像是小黑球的东西。</div><div class="ex-item">The author focuses on a young Jew's life in London. 作者集中描写一个犹太青年在伦敦的生活。</div><br><br>
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foe
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>foe</b></div>参见 adversary, enemy 与 foe 条。<br><br>
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follow
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>follow</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 除了通常的词义“跟随”之外，还可以有“能一直听下去”亦即“听得懂”的意思，属于表示延续静态的第一类动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm not sure I follow. (Dan Brown, The Da Vinci Code) 您所说的，恐怕我听不懂是什么意思。</div><div class="ex-item">I don't follow your logic. (Estelle Ryan, The Gauguin Connection) 你的逻辑我理解不了。(不是有意不想听下去。)</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> as follows 的 follows 必须是第三人称单数，即使前面所指的项目是多个也不影响。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The tools used by the mason are as follows: the trowel, the plumb line, the level, and the groover. 泥瓦师傅用的工具如下：泥铲、铅垂线、水平仪、夹扁铲。</div><br><br>
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following
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>following</b></div>作为形容词，与基数词一起出现时，要放在基数词前面。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the following three (*three following) paragraphs 下面三段。</div><br><br>
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fool
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>fool</b></div>作为及物动词，是“蒙骗成功，哄住” (第三类或第四类动词)，不光是“蒙骗” (第二类动词) 而已。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He doesn't fool me. 他是骗不了我的。(我能看穿他的骗局) (用一般现在时表示经常状态)。</div><div class="ex-item">Don't be fooled. 别上当。(有自己的意志在起作用。人家要不要引你上当，是你自己控制不了的。但是上不上当，是你自己可以控制的。)</div>
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foot
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>foot</b></div>作“英尺”解时，用于一般的长度和距离，复数是正常的 feet；但是用于人的身高时，复数可以与单数同形为 foot。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She's five foot eight inches tall. 她身高 5 英尺 8 英寸。有时候用于其他长度也单复数同形。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>So that by digging a canal to it of six foot wide and four foot deep, I brought it into the creek, almost half a mile. (Daniel Defoe, Robinson Crusoe) 这一来，我给这艘独木舟挖出了一道 6 英尺宽、4 英尺深的水渠，把它引进了小湾，差不多有半英里。宽、4英尺深的水沟，把它弄到了差不多半英里外的小湾那里去。在书面语言中，美式英语多用 feet，英式英语多用 foot；但是在口语中则两者都多用 foot。</div><br><br>
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football 与 soccer
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>football 与 soccer</b></div>前者是美国以外对足球的叫法，在美国则专指美式足球。美国以 soccer 称普通足球。soccer 一词来自英国 1863 年制定足球规则的足球协会(Football Association)。为了与其他足球种类相区别，从 association 中取 soc 三个字母，形成 soccer 一词，传入了美国，英国反而不用。<br><br>
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for all that
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>for all that</b></div>前面说了一句话，马上加上 but ... for all that 来表示转折，这个 for all that 只是用来缓和 but 对前面的话的转折，表示前面说过的仍然有效；后面这一句往往是否定句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I love dogs, <b>but</b> I do not hate cats <b>for all that</b>. 我喜欢狗，但是也不讨厌猫。but 也可以和 for all that 连在一起。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Her writing is odd, even eccentric, <b>but for all that</b> it's not particularly interesting or intelligent. 她的文笔离奇甚至古怪，但是并不特别引人入胜，也不见得多么有见地。后面一句也可以是肯定句。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I am religious, <b>but</b> I am human <b>for all that</b>. 我笃信宗教，但我仍然是个凡夫俗子。</div><br><br>for all 后面也可以不是 that 而是某个名词成分，此时 for all 相当于 in spite of，但语气较缓和(对反面的说法予以某种承认然后才反驳)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>For all</b> her beauty and talent, she was only a teenager from ... from where? (Andrew M. Greeley, <i>Irish Gold</i>) 她尽管美丽聪慧，但只是一个十几岁的小姑娘，来自……来自什么地方？/ Calculus is one of the most fruitful strategies for analyzing our world ever devised. Yet <b>for all</b> its computational power, calculus is the exploration of just two ideas ... (<i>The Great Courses</i>, ad) 微积分是有史以来设计出来的对我们世界加以分析的最有效的战略之一。不过，微积分尽管有强大的计算能力，它只探索两个思想……</div><br><br>
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forbid 与 prohibit
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>forbid 与 prohibit</b></div>参见 prohibit 与 forbid 条。<br><br>
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forecast
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>forecast</b></div>许多英语学习者对这个单词很熟悉，但其通常是作为名词，较少理解为动词，更少注意到这个动词的过去式和过去分词都有 forecasted 与 forecast 两种形式。往往遇到 forecast，就总是当作名词来理解，结果解释不通。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>With the trade deficit <b>forecast</b> at $130 billion for the year, ... (<i>The Washington Quarterly</i>, Winter 2003-2004, p. 78) 在本年贸易赤字预测达 1300 亿美元的情况下，……(这里的 forecast 就是个动词过去分词，不是名词。)</div>
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foreign
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>foreign</b></div>这个形容词，可以表示：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 源自外国或属于外国的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a <b>foreign</b> language 一门外语</div><div class="ex-item"><b>foreign</b> goods 外国货</div><div class="ex-item"><b>foreign</b> currency 外币。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 涉及对外关系的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>foreign</b> policy 对外政策</div><div class="ex-item"><b>foreign</b> affairs 外交事务</div><div class="ex-item"><b>foreign</b> trade 对外贸易</div><div class="ex-item"><b>foreign</b> service 外交工作</div><div class="ex-item"><b>Foreign</b> Secretary (英国)外交大臣，外相</div><div class="ex-item"><b>Foreign</b> Office (英国)外交部。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 可以指某国的“对外”，也可以指“外来”，取决于从哪个角度来看。例如 foreign aid 可以是“援外”，也可以是“外援”；美国国内谈论 foreign aid 时，指的通常是“援外”；但谈论非洲国家时，通常指的就是“外来援助”了。但 Foreign Minister 在各国都是“外交部部长”(不可能是“外国的部长”)，foreign correspondent 是“驻外记者”(不是“外国记者”)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> foreign 还有“无关的，陌生的”之意。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Yet when it comes to relationships, the notion of financial compatibility (between the man and the woman) is <b>foreign to</b> most Americans. (<i>The Daily Gazette</i>, Feb. 13, 2011) 不过，在夫妻关系上，两人财务拉平的观念，对大多数美国人来说，仍是陌生的。</div><br><br>
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forever
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>forever</b></div>这个副词，可以修饰表示延续状态或动作的动词(第一类与第二类动词)，也可以修饰表示瞬时动作的动词(第四类动词)(修饰第三类动词较为罕见)。前者意思是状态或动作的永远延续。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Nothing lasts <b>forever</b>. 万物无恒。/ His name will live <b>forever</b> in our memories. 他的英名将永远留在我们的记忆之中。后者意思是瞬时动作造成永远保持的结果。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In the latter half of the 19th century, Japanchanged <b>forever</b>. 日本在 19 世纪后半叶发生了永久性的变化。/ Tomorrow we shall walk out of this place and leave it all behind us <b>forever</b>. 明天我们就要离开这个地方，把它整个永远留在身后。</div><br><br>
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for every
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>for every</b></div>for every ... 意思是“每有一个……，就有若干个……与之对应”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>For</b> <b>every</b> great invention that ultimately found a use, there're countless other that did not. (Jared Diamond, <i>Guns, Germs, and Steel</i>) 每有一件巨大的发明最终找到用途，就有无数剧的发明找不到。/ According to SUNY, <b>for every</b> dollar in state support it receives, its campuses return eight dollars to their respective communities. ... Imagine that <b>for every</b> dollar cut from SUNY, this economic return evaporates. (<i>The Sunday Gazette</i>, Dec. 14, 2008, F1) 据纽约州立大学称，它每得到一美元的州补助款，它的各个校区就向相应的社群回馈八美元。……想象一下，每给州立大学削减一美元，这个经济上的回馈就蒸发了。</div><br><br>
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(for) every
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(for) every</b></div>参见 for every 条。<br><br>
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forget
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>forget</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> forget to inf. 与 forget + -ing 意义是不同的。前者表示忘记了本来要做的事；后者表示忘记了过去做过的事。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Jack <b>forgot to buy</b> sugar although I reminded him twice about it. 尽管我两次提醒杰克要买白糖，他还是忘掉了。/ Jack <b>forgot buying</b> two pounds of sugar the day before. 杰克忘记了自己前一天买过两磅白糖。</div><br><br>forget 的反义词 remember 也有同样的情况，remember to inf. 表示记得将来要做某事；remember + -ing 表示记得过去曾经做过某事。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I must <b>remember to meet</b> him at the station next Saturday. 我必须记住星期六要同他在车站见面。/ I <b>remember meeting</b> him for the first time five years ago. 我记得五年前同他初次见面。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 说 I forgot 可能是原先忘记了，但现在记起来了，也可能是原先忘记了，现在仍然想不起来。说 I have forgotten 则多半是现在也想不起来。不过美式英语较少说 I have forgotten，而以 I forgot 代之。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> forget 本来是瞬时性质的第四类动词，但有时也可以作为延续状态的第一类动词，表示“处于遗忘状态”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I <b>forget</b> how much they paid for it. 他们为此付了多少钱，我记不起来了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> “忘掉带上(某物)”可以简单说 forget 即可，不必说 forget to bring。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I've <b>forgotten</b> my purse. 我忘记了带钱包。但是如果表示“留在何处”，就不能用 forget 而要用 leave。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I've <b>left</b> (*forgotten) my purse <b>at home</b>. 我把钱包落在家里了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> Forget it! 是“算了吧(勾销了)”的意思，可以是善意的，也可以是拒绝的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>“I owe you for the meal.” “<b>Forget it!</b>” “我欠了您这顿饭的人情。” “算了吧，别提了。”</div><div class="ex-item">“I'm sorry.” “<b>Forget it!</b>” “真对不起。” “没关系。”</div><div class="ex-item">If it's money you want, (you can) <b>forget it</b>. 如果你想要的是钱，那就免开尊口。</div><br><br>
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forgive
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>forgive</b></div>这个及物动词(“原谅，宽恕；免除(债务)”，属瞬时体，第四类动词)的搭配，可以是 forgive somebody/something (即单宾语，人或事)，forgive somebody something (即双宾语，指人的间接宾语在前，指事的直接宾语在后)，或 forgive somebody for something (即单宾语，指人，加上 for 引入人事)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Julie would never have <b>forgiven</b> him. 朱莉本来怎么也不会原谅他。/ Sins cannot be undone, but only <b>forgiven</b>. 罪孽无法消除，但是可以赦免。/ I <b>forgave</b> him everything. 我原谅了他的一切。</div><br><br>在 forgive somebody for something 中的 for something 不是“原谅”的原因，而是得到“原谅”的错事。这个 something 可以是名词，也可以是动名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'll never <b>forgive</b> him <b>for</b> what he did. 他做的事我绝不原谅。整句结构可以转成被动语气。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Do you think Judas should <b>be forgiven for</b> betraying Jesus? 你认为犹大出卖耶稣应该得到原谅吗？可以由主动语态改为被动语态，原来的间接宾语和直接宾语都可以转成主语(但以间接宾语转成主语的更为常见)。例如 They <b>forgave</b> him his offenses. (他们原谅了他的冒犯。)可以改为 His offenses <b>were forgiven</b> him. 或者 He <b>was forgiven</b> his offenses. <span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We all want to <b>be forgiven</b> our sins. 我们大家都希望自己的罪孽得到赦免。但通常原有的主语不再出现(很少用 by ...)。</div><br><br>
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(for that) matter
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(for that) matter</b></div>这个词组，通常可以用来代替前面说过的一个肯定或否定的动词，避免重复。通常的用法是：前面说了一句“主—谓—状”结构的句子，后面一句放一个同前句的状语不同的另一个状语，句末在逗号后 (或没有逗号) 加上 (或在句中插入) for thatmatter，表示“在另一种情境下做前面的事，也是一样”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's fun to play in the mud, but not so fun to get stuck in it. Or anywhere else <b>for that matter</b> (= Or to get stuck anywhere else). (STP ad) 在泥地里玩耍是很有趣的，但是陷在泥地里可就不那么有趣了。陷在任何别处也都不那么有趣。</div><div class="ex-item">You can have it with rice or pasta; or both, <b>for that matter</b> (= or have it with both). 这可以伴着米饭或者面条吃；也可以两样同时伴着吃。</div><div class="ex-item">I wouldn't tell you; or anyone else, <b>for that matter</b> (= or tell any one else). 我不会告诉你，也不会告诉任何其他人。</div><div class="ex-item">I know that I shall have some fuss with wife about that; and, <b>for that matter</b>, about Tom, too. (Harriet Beecher Stowe, <i>Uncle Tom's Cabin</i>) 我知道，我一定会同老婆因为这件事，也因为汤姆的事，闹得有点不愉快。</div><div class="ex-item">Also, I've been reading Spencer's <i>Philosophy of Style</i>, and found out a lot of what was the matter with me or my writing, rather, and <b>for that matter</b> with most of the writing that is published every month in the magazines. (Jack London, <i>Martin Eden</i>) 而且我一直在看斯宾塞的《风格哲学》，找出了我自己的问题或是我写作中的问题，而且同样也找出了杂志上每个月刊登的大多数文章的问题。</div><br><br>但是有时候后面一句可以不略去前句的谓语，再重复一次，此时 for that matter 就只有强调“同样”的状语意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He's shaking with the cold. So am I, <b>for that matter</b> (= So am I). 他冷得发抖。我也是。</div><div class="ex-item">Plus there are some parts that really bug me. How does Holmes make a living? Never once does he actually charge these people for his services. Where does his cash come from? And <b>for that matter</b> (= likewise) where does Watson get his money from? 小说中有些地方简直让我莫名其妙。福尔摩斯是靠什么过活的? 他一次也没有向人家索取过服务费用。他的钱是从哪里来的? 同样，华生的钱又是从哪里来的?</div><div class="ex-item">I don't know why she wanted to fly to Salt Lake City in this weather, or why she wanted to fly at all <b>for that matter</b>. 我不知道这样的天气，她为什么还想飞到盐湖城去，而且本来往哪里飞都不合适嘛。</div><br><br>
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for ... to inf.
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>for ... to inf.</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 这个结构在英语中有点特殊，往往用来代替一个名词从句(尽管通常以介词开始的词群不能成为名词成分)，主语变成 for 所支配的介词宾语，谓语动词变成 to 后面的动词不定式，所指的往往是尚未做的或打算做的事情。这种独特的句法结构，是从 to inf. 这个结构发展出来的。to inf. 可以当作名词参加句法构成，但这个动词不定式的无形主语是泛指的或是模糊的，如果要明确主语，就要在前面加上 for 再加有关名词(或代词)，而同时整个结构的名词性质保持不变，尽管最前面有了介词 for。<br><br>本来，it is ... for somebody to inf. 的原意是“对于某人来说，做某事是……”的”，也就是说，对事情的评价，利害关系人是这个某人。但是，经过不断地变化，往往这个某人已经不是利害关系人，而只不过是动词不定式的逻辑主语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We don't think it's fair <b>for</b> you <b>to</b> search our bags. 我们觉得，让你们来搜查我们的行李，是不公平的。(这里的 fair 根本不是对 you 而言，而是恰恰相反，对 we 而言)</div><div class="ex-item">Is it in our national interest <b>for</b> all these issues <b>to</b> take a backseat to terrorism? (E. J. Dionne, in <i>The Daily Gazette</i>, Feb. 20, 2008, A9) 难道要所有这些问题统统都退居次位，让位给恐怖主义问题，才符合我们的国家利益吗？(这里的 for 也没有“对于”或“为了”的意思。)</div>再进一步，干脆就把 for ... to inf. 当作一个普通的名词成分，但通常表示一件尚未发生的事情(for 在中文中常常可以译作“由”，引入动作的主动者)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>What they would like is <b>for</b> you <b>to</b> describe some of your experiences. 他们所希望的，是你介绍一下自己的一些经历。/ It was unheard of <b>for</b> an unmanned plane <b>to</b> pound targets with missiles. 由无人驾驶飞机来发射火箭箭轰击目标，这是闻所未闻的。/ She said <b>for</b> you <b>to</b> call her immediately. 她叫你马上给她打个电话。/ I really doubt they ever meant <b>for</b> it <b>to</b> go this far. 我的确不大相信他们有意把事情闹得这样大。/ It was enough <b>for</b> them merely <b>to</b> get on stage and goof around a little bit <b>for</b> them <b>to</b> be rapturously applauded by their parents. 他们只消登上舞台稍为胡闹一下，就能得到自己家长热烈鼓掌喝彩。(注意第二个 for them to 与第一个 for them to 语法作用不同)</div><div class="ex-item">It might seem disrespectful to his memory <b>for</b> me <b>to</b> be in good terms with (his enemy). (Jane Austen) 我如果同(他的仇人)关系良好，这可能显得对他任天之灵有所不敬。这个 for ... to inf. 结构，甚至可以干脆当作名词成分，放在句首充当主语。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>For</b> a man <b>to</b> tell how human life began is hard... (John Milton, <i>Paradise Lost</i>) 很难由一个人来说明人类生命如何开始……</div><div class="ex-item"><b>For</b> the project <b>to</b> be successful requires that the experts clear some very high hurdles. 方案要成功，就需要专家们排除某些很大的障碍。有时甚至 for 后面不是名词而是作形式主语的 it，此时句子的结构就略为复杂化，解读的困难有所增加。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>For</b> it <b>to</b> get out <b>that</b> Sam has a prison record would only add to his problems. 如果传出萨姆有监狱服刑记录，这就只会给他带来更多麻烦。(for it to inf. 整个形成一个名词成分，是全句的主语，其中 it 是这个主语内部次一层次的一个形式主语，引入后面真主语 that... 从句，然后 for it to ... 的谓语 would only ... 接上，全句完成。)</div>有时候在 to inf. 之前加上了 for ...，动作的主体会发生比较突兀的转折。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... he couldn't afford <b>for</b> them <b>to</b> have a cabin. ……他无法供得起让他们有一座木屋。(本来 afford to inf. 是自己供得起让自己享有某物，但这里加了另外的享有者。)</div><div class="ex-item">Do <b>you</b> think that you can afford <b>for</b> your children <b>to</b> miss out on such an opportunity? 让你的孩子们错过这样一个机会，你觉得你担当得起吗？(不是自己错过，是孩子错过，所以加进了“孩子”作为主体。)</div>在美国的中西部，for ... to inf. 往往成为句子中的宾语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I would like <b>for</b> you <b>to</b> meet Miss Donahue. = I would like you <b>to</b> meet Miss Donahue. 我想让你见见多纳休小姐。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 但是要注意，for ... to inf. 如果在句首出现，就有两个可能，一个是 for ... to inf. 如上所述作为名词成分并充当全句主语；另一个则是它仍然作状语成分充当目的状语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>For</b> the American threat to disarm Saddam <b>to retain</b> any credibility, State should have to hang on to three elements of the current U.S. draft resolution. 要使美国扬言要解除萨达姆武装威胁的说法能保持一点可信性，美国国务院就需要咬定当前美国提出的决议草案中的三点。(注意这里的 for 与 to retain 相呼应，而不是与修饰 threat 的 to disarm 相呼应。)</div><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 有时候 for 与 to inf. 相隔很远，要注意保持其呼应关系，不要断线。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is past time <b>for</b> all those who wish to think about world politics in moral categories <b>to learn</b> that same lesson. (Commentary, July-August, 2003, p. 55) 凡是打算从道德角度来思考世界政治的人，现在早就该吸取同样的这个教训了。</div><br><br>
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forward
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>forward</b></div>要注意 look forward to 中的 to 是个地地道道的介词，后面要跟名词或动名词，不能把 to 当作动词不定式的 to。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm looking <b>forward</b> to <b>reading</b> (*to read) your answer. 伫候回音。</div><br><br>
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for²
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>for²</b></div>如果句子以 for 开始，有两种可能的情况：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> for 是通常的介词，此时它后面的名词或代词就是 for 的宾语，组成介词短语(这个介词短语的后面还可能有一个 to inf.)，后面还应该有句子的主语和谓语出现。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>For</b> him the survival of his people has always been the most important thing. 对于他来说，他本国人民的生存，一直是头等重要的大事。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> for 不是介词而是表示“因为”的连词，此时 for 后面的名词或代词就不是它的介词宾语，而是句子的主语。这样的句子严格说来是不完全的，不是独立句，只是一个并列句分句以独立句的形式出现；这样的句子，只要看到 for 后面的名词成分后面马上紧接着出现一个谓语动词，就可以辨别出来。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The men's andthe women's shops are indistinguishable from each other. <b>For</b> the women's shop windows display masculine shirts, while the men's windows are full of scarlet mini-underpants. 男士服装店和女士服装店彼此无法区别。因为女士服装店的橱窗展示有男士的衬衣，而男士服装店的橱窗则摆满了鲜红色的短小内裤。/ <b>For</b> their fortune, independent of what might arise to them from their father's inheriting that property, could be but small. (Jane Austen, <i>Sense and Sensibility</i>) 因为这几个姊妹假若不依赖父亲继承这笔家业可能给她们带来的收益，她们的财产使得微乎其微。</div><br><br>如何鉴别，要看 for 后面的名词或代词后面究竟是再跟一个名词或代词(此时 for 就是通常的介词)，还是没有别的名词或代词，而是一个限定动词，亦即谓语动词(此时 for 就是连词)。<br><br>
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for¹
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>for¹</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 同许多英语学习者对 for (“为了”) 的固定印象不同，for 可以指付出的代价而不一定是得到的东西。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>At that time you could buy lunch <b>for</b> under five cents. 在那个时候，买一顿午饭吃，花不了 5 分钱。/ I bought a book <b>for</b> five dollars. 我花 5 美元买了一本书。这里的 for 都是指付出的代价。</div><br><br>不过要注意：for 后面应该是支付的具体价格数目。如果是一般规定的单价，就不用 for 而用 at。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I cannot buy it <b>at</b> (*for) such a price. 这样的价钱，我不能买。/ They bought it <b>for</b> $2,000 (<b>at</b> $2 a piece). 他们以 2,000 美元(单价 2 美元)买了下来。但是说明单价的后置定语，则仍然用 for。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a book <b>for</b> $10 一本 10 美元的书</div><div class="ex-item">five stamps <b>for</b> ¢42 五张 42 美分的邮票。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> for 还可以用来表示为了看看某物有没有或者有多少而进行检查或察看。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>test blood <b>for</b> bacteria 验血看看有没有细菌</div><div class="ex-item">check all hotels <b>for</b> a suspect 查查各家旅馆看看有没有一个嫌疑犯</div><div class="ex-item">He leveled his gaze and searched the alley <b>for</b> his assailant. 他抬起头来细看那个袭击他的人是否还在小巷里。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> for 还可以用于引入一个本来的标准，按照这个标准来衡量，某个情况已经算是难得的了。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>For</b> someone you dislike so much, you seem to know an awful lot about him. 你这么不喜欢他，可又对他这样了解，真是不简单。也可以表示按照这个本来的标准来衡量，某个情况很不寻常。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... the room was surprisingly quiet <b>for</b> a crisis room during a real crisis. (Tom Clancy, <i>Executive Orders</i>) ……这个房间本来是个危机处理室，可现在明明是真正发生了危机的时期，房间里反倒安静得令人惊讶。/ You don't look too bad <b>for</b> someone who survived the incident. 经历过这次事故，你的气色算是不错的了。</div><br><br>
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for 与 in
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>for 与 in</b></div>“for + 时间段”与“in + 时间段”分别与第二类动词和第三类动词搭配。“for + 时间段”同第二类动词一起出现时，意思是“进行某无终点的动作一段时间”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He <b>swam for</b> half an hour. 他花了半小时游泳。“in + 时间段”同第三类动词一起出现时，意思是“用多长时间将某事做完”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They <b>built</b> the house <b>in</b> five months. 他们用五个月把房子盖了起来。</div><br><br>但是第二类动词，如果加上了数量限制，就向第三类动词靠拢。例如 run 是第二类动词，但是 run a mile 就靠拢第三类动词。可以说 run <b>for</b> half an hour，但是不能说 <i>run a mile for half an hour，要说 run a mile <b>in</b> half an hour。第二类动词和第三类动词，大多数是区别清楚、容易分辨的。如 run 是第二类动词，run a mile 接近于第三类动词。但是有时候两者之间的界限，在很大程度上取决于人们对客观世界事物的知识。有些行动，具有一定的完成界限，可以明确归入第三类动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He <b>saddled</b> the horse <b>in</b> (</i>for) five minutes. 他用五分钟给马上子鞍。另一些则完成界限不明确，就归入第二类动词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She <b>warmed</b> her hands by the fire <b>for</b> (*in) a few minutes 她把手放在火边烘了几分钟。有些则模棱两可，例如 Susan <b>watered</b> the garden <b>in/for</b> an hour. 中，in 和 for 都可以，也就是说 water 可以是第三类动词，也可以是第二类动词，要看人们心目中究竟给花园浇水是浇多点少点都可以(water 是第二类动词)，还是有一个“浇够了”的标准(water 是第三类动词)。</div><br><br>此外，原先在肯定句中修饰第二类动词的 for 介词短语，在否定句中 for 可以改为 in (这个 in 同第三类动词要求的 in 不是一回事)，但也可以仍然用 for。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He had <b>not</b> been seen in public <b>in</b> years. 他好几年一直没有公开露面。/ ... he <b>hasn't</b> conducted Friday prayers <b>for</b> years ... (<i>U.S. News & World Report</i>, Dec. 25, 2006, p. 48) ……他已经好多年没有主持星期五的祈祷了……</div><br><br>可以说，in + 非特指时间段：(a)配合瞬时动词的将来时态，表示“从现在起再过多长时间之后”就将要做某件事或发生某件事(例：He will <b>arrive in</b> a few minutes.)；(b)配合瞬时动词的过去时态，表示“从过去的某个参照时间点起过了多长时间之后”发生了某事(例：The police <b>arrived in</b> a few minutes.)；(c)配合趋成动词(即第三类动词)的过去时态(包括完成时态)，表示“某一有终点的过程用了多长时间到达了终点”(例：The house was <b>built in</b> six months.)；(d)配合临时加了量化限制的活动动词(即第二类动词)的过去时态(包括完成时态)，表示“这个有量化限制的活动用了多长时间达到量化极限”(例：He <b>wrote three letters in</b> an hour.)；(e)配合无限的延续动词的任何时态，表示“用了多长的时问之后达到这个状态”(例：<b>In</b> a few minutes she <b>was</b> sound asleep.)。<br><br>而 for + 不特指时间段，则：(a)配合延续动词(第一类与第二类动词)的现在或过去完成时，表示“某一无终点的行动过程或状态延续多久到达某一时间点(不说明是否继续延续)”(例：I'<b>ve lived</b> here <b>for</b> ten years.)；(b)配合瞬时动词(第四类动词)的任何时态，表示“实行这个瞬时行动，准备保留其后果多长时间”(例：He'll <b>go</b> to London <b>for</b> two weeks.)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A Grade 3 concussion, the most severe, occurs when a player <b>loses</b> consciousness <b>for</b> anywhere from a few seconds to several hours. (<i>Time</i>, Oct. 9, 2000) 三度脑震荡最为严重，运动员失去知觉，持续几秒钟至几小时不等。(这里的 lose 是瞬时行动，但是后果波及几秒钟至几小时。)</div>此外，for + 特指时间段，动词如果是瞬时的，表示预计这个瞬时行动所造成的结果在该时间段全程一直保留。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We're <b>sending</b> him to London <b>for the</b> summer. 我们送他到伦敦去过夏天。(这里 send 是瞬时行动，但是结果遍及整个夏季。)动词如果是延续的，采用一般现在时、一般过去时或一般将来时，表示延续动作或状态遍及该特指的时间段全程。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He'll <b>be</b> in London <b>for the</b> summer. 他夏天会待在伦敦。(这里 be 是延续状态，遍及整个夏季，如果 for 改为 in，则不一定遍及整个夏季。)如果前面一个例句中用 send 又用 in，则只能表示该瞬时动作将发生在夏季中的某一特定时间点。for + 特指时间段，动词如果是延续的，采用现在完成时或过去完成时，则表示该延续动作或状态一直继续到参照时间点，尚未结束。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'<b>ve had</b> flu <b>for</b> the last week. 我流感已经持续一周了。/ He'<b>s been living</b> in their apartment <b>for</b> the last month. 他一个月来一直住在他们的公寓里。</div><br><br>
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for 与 until
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>for 与 until</b></div>首先看看两组句子，每组两句，一个错误，一个正确：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> *I've <b>come</b> here <b>for</b> three years.I've <b>been</b> here <b>for</b> three years.<br><span class="seq">(2)</span> *I <b>received</b> his letter <b>until</b> yesterday.I <b>stayed</b> there <b>until</b> yesterday.每一组中，两个句子，结构相同，时态相同，只是用了不同的动词。可见这里决定正误的唯一因素就是用了什么动词。那么，两个动词的区别何在呢？在于其体。come 是瞬时体动词(第四类动词)，也就是说，这个动作必然是做了就结束，不能无止境地做下去的；而 be (“位于某地”)则是表示状态的延续体动词(第一类动词)，也就是说，这个状态(有些动词如 sleep 则是行为)按其性质(尽管客观物质世界和人的耐受力对此有限制)可以一直保持下去。“for + 时间段”这个状语结构使用时，只能配合延续体的第二类动词，不能配合瞬时体的第四类动词。(如果是瞬时体的第四类动词，“for + 时间段”的 for 与动词的体不符，可以改为 by。)<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I've successfully <b>quit</b> smoking <b>by</b> (*for) six months. 我戒烟成功已有半年。同样，“until + 时间点”这个时间状语，与之搭配的动词，也必须是延续体的(即第一类与第二类动词，表示某一状态或延续行为到了该时间点就结束)，不能是瞬时体的第四类动词，因此在(2)组的例句中，用瞬时体的 receive (第四类动词)就是错误的，用 stay 就可以。这里讲的动词的体，是就动词本身固有的词义而言的，与语法中的动词时态(如现在完成时或过去进行时等)无关，因而很容易辨别的。</div><br><br>还有，与“for + 时间段”相搭配的延续性动作、状态或事件，只说到 for 所指的时间段之内有效，往后如何，是否延续下去，取决于动词采用什么时态。请看：I'<b>ve lived</b> here <b>for</b> three years. (今后可能继续在这里住下去，也可能明天就搬走，但只说到今天为止。未完成貌。)I <b>lived</b> here <b>for</b> three years. (我曾经在这里住过三年，三年到头，live 的行为就结束了。完成貌。)的确，live 在后一个例句中显示了“完成貌”，但是，仔细看下去，这个“完成貌”是 live 原来的“延续体”经过句子中的“加工”变成的。句子中 for three years 把 live 延续的时间长度限定了，增加了个终点。“完成貌”同动词本身的“延续体”分属两个不同的层次，并不冲突。就动词本身固有的“体”而言，live 与 receive 有本质上的不同。live 行为的结束，是人为外力造成了过程的中断，live 本身并没有内在必然的终点(这里暂不顾及自然规律和人类寿命与耐力的极限)，它还可以一路延续下去。如果改用一个有过程完成终点的动词(趋成动词，即第三类动词)，则一切都改变，for 就不能使用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They <b>built</b> the house <b>in</b> six months. 他们用六个月时间盖起了那房子。(这里的 built 是个有过程完成终点的动词，in 是指 “用了”多长时间使这个过程“到达”它的终点。这个意思是 for 所不能表达的，因为 for 只是表示一个不知何时完成的过程在到达某个时刻时已经过了多长时间，并不表示这个过程到达了它内在固有的必然终点。)</div>延续动词采取现在完成时的时候，for + 不定时间段可以表示该延续动作或状态一直继续到现在，不交代今后是否继续(I'<b>ve lived</b> here <b>for</b> three years.)。如果现在完成时改为一般过去时，就表示过去有过一段时期进行过这个延续动作或是存在过这个延续状态，但是现在已经不了(I <b>lived</b> here <b>for</b> three years.)。但是，如果将时间坐标向过去移动一格，两个句子都会变成时态相同的 I <b>had lived</b> here <b>for</b> three years. 这样的句子，就可能有两种不同的时间意义：(1)直到过去的某一时间点，我都一直住在这里；过了这个时间点之后，我是否仍然住在这里，不加说明(相当于 I've lived 变为 I had lived)；(2)在过去的某一时间点之前，我已经不住在这里了(相当于 I lived 变为 I had lived)。<br><br>如果以现在为参照点，表示过去曾经有过某一延续动作或状态，延续了多久，现在已经不了，此时中国人从“曾经”这个概念出发，比较容易选用现在完成时 (I'<b>ve lived</b> here <b>for</b> three years.)，但其实这个时态会使人以为延续到现在，所以应该用一般过去时。<br><br>此外，for 除了可以引入一段不定位时间段表示某一延续状态(第一类动词)或延续活动(第二类动词)延续多久之外，还可以从时间转为空间，引入一段空间距离，表示某一延续状态或延续活动延续多长的空间距离。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The hansom moved on. There <b>was</b> a silence <b>for</b> a hundred yards or more. (John Fowles, <i>The French Lieutenant's Woman</i>) 马车继续前进，走了一百多码，两人都沉默着。</div><br><br>
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foster
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>foster</b></div>这个及物动词可以是正面的(“促进”)或负面的(“助长”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The club's aim is to <b>foster</b> better relations within the community. 该俱乐部的宗旨，是促进改善同社群的关系。/ Anti-Obama fervor is <b>fostering</b> racism. (<i>The Daily Gazette</i>, Aug. 16, 2010, A5, headline) 反奥巴马的狂热在助长种族主义。</div><br><br>
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found
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>found</b></div>这个动词形式，可以是 find 的过去式或过去分词，也可以本身是个动词原形(表示“成立”)，过去式和过去分词都是 founded。参见 find 条。<br><br>
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free
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>free</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> free 前面加上一个名词，表示“没有(什么的)”，在英语中已经极为常见。本来当中还放上一个连字符，保持句法结构的清楚；后来这个连字符也多半消失。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>cholesterol <b>free</b> 不含胆固醇的</div><div class="ex-item">sugar <b>free</b> 无糖的</div><div class="ex-item">tax <b>free</b> 免税的</div><div class="ex-item">duty <b>free</b> shop 免税商店</div><div class="ex-item">maintenance <b>free</b> 不需保养的。有时候前面也可以放上形容词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>nuclear <b>free</b> 无核的。一般前面的名词或形容词都是指负面的事物，没有了它就成了正面的。但有时也无所谓正面负面。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a synagogue <b>free</b> Jew 一个不上犹太教堂做礼拜的犹太人。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> free 可以有“免费的”之意，但是副词 freely 只有“自由地”的意思，不能表示“免费地”。表示状语“免费”，要说 for free。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I got it <b>for free</b>. 这个我是免费拿到的。不过，有时 free 也可以转为副词，代替 for free。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Children are admitted <b>free</b>. 儿童免费入场。也可以用 gratis、without charge 来代替副词短语 for free，但 for free 更为常用，尽管有人说这是俚语，但已经约定俗成。</div><br><br>
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free love
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>free love</b></div>英语学习者乍一看，容易以为这就是与“包办婚姻”相对的“自由恋爱”。但是在西方，“包办婚姻”早已经不存在，因而“自由恋爱”已经不言而喻。free love 不是正面意义的“自由恋爱”，而是带有贬义的“滥交”。
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free 与 flee
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>free 与 flee</b></div>要注意发音和意义的不同。前者是形容词，后者是动词(“逃走，逃离”)。另外，与 flee 同音的 flea 是名词(“跳蚤”)。有一个拿 free 与 flea 发音相近来开玩笑的例子，说一家商店非常肮脏，蚊虫跳蚤到处都是，门口贴了告示：Buy one get one <b>flea</b>. 这是仿效 Buy one get one <b>free</b> (买一送一)，但却成了“买一奉送跳蚤一只”。<br><br>
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French
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>French</b></div>参见 British 条。<br><br>
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freshman
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>freshman</b></div>一般有 -man 的名词，如果用于女性，往往改为 -woman，例如 chairwoman (女主席)、congresswoman (女众议员)。但是 freshman (大学一年级学生)兼用于男女。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She is a <b>freshman</b> in college. 她是大学一年级学生。没有 *freshwoman 这个单词。</div><br><br>
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friend
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>friend</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 说“我是约翰的好朋友”，可以是 I'm a <b>good friend</b> of John. 或是 I'm a <b>great friend</b> of John. 这里的 great 没有自称“伟大的”之意。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 涉及两个人的相互动作，有关的名词往往要用复数而不是单数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He became <b>friends</b> with my brother. 他同我弟弟交上了朋友。/ He was not <b>friends</b> with his political colleagues. 他同他的政治伙伴没有朋友关系。</div><br><br>如果 friends 前面有形容词，通常这种特殊的复数用法就不可以使用，而要恢复 He is a ... friend of ... 的通常用法。但是有少数几个形容词可以直接放在复数 friends 前面，就是最常用的 good 和 great，还有 childhood、family 等名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm childhood <b>friends</b> with John. 我是约翰小时候的朋友。/ I'm family <b>friends</b> with John. 我同约翰是世交。</div><br><br>除了 good 与 great，还有一两个刻画友情的形容词，偶尔也用于 friends 的复数形式。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm bosom <b>friends</b> with John. 我是约翰的知心朋友。/ I'm genuine <b>friends</b> with John. 我是约翰的真朋友。但这种用法不大自然。</div><br><br>类似 friend 之类的名词，用作表语时，也有不用单数而用复数的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He'd somehow found out that his niece had become <b>lovers</b> with Alec Breve, ... (Pascal Mercier, <i>Night Train to Lisbon</i>) 他多少发觉自己的外甥女已经成了阿列克·布雷韦的情人，……</div><div class="ex-item">Country A is <b>allies</b> with country B. 甲国是乙国的盟国。</div><br><br>与 friends 相类似，涉及两件同类事物的动作时，表示该事物的名词也常常用复数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>shake <b>hands</b> with somebody 同某人握手</div><div class="ex-item">change <b>trains</b> 换乘火车</div><div class="ex-item">change <b>shirts</b> 换衬衣</div><div class="ex-item">One out of five respondents said he had switched <b>religions</b> as an adult. 回答者中每五个人就有一个说他成年后改变过宗教信仰。/ <b>Shifts</b> changed at four o'clock. 四点钟换了班。</div><br><br>经过发展，即使没有 with ... 在后面，friend 也可以用复数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He will never be <b>friends</b> again. 再也没法同他做朋友了。</div><br><br>
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friendly
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>friendly</b></div>fire 是误伤己方(不一定是友军)部队的火力。
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friendly
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>friendly</b></div>这个形容词近年来在英语中用得日益频繁，从“友好的”(现在中文也仍然常常这样直译)转义为“方便……的；对……有益的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>environmentally <b>friendly</b>/eco-<b>friendly</b> products 无污染/环保的产品。</div><br><br>更多的是前面加上名词，或者再加上连字符。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>user-<b>friendly</b> 方便使用者 的</div><div class="ex-item">pet-<b>friendly</b> hotels 允许带宠物入住的旅馆</div><div class="ex-item">disability-<b>friendly</b> college 方便残疾人就读的大学</div><div class="ex-item">Windows-<b>friendly</b> Macs 能兼容微软操作系统“视窗”的苹果电脑。</div>
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from
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>from</b></div>如果是描绘景象，from 后面的名词成分所指的地点，可能不是景象之所在地点(“出发点”)，而是他处观察者所在的地点(“接收点”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The Hong Kong towers are very beautiful <b>from</b> the sea. 香港的高楼，从海上看去，十分漂亮。/ Rivers perhaps are the only physical features of the world that are at their best <b>from</b> the air. (Anne Morrow Lindbergh, <i>North to the Orient</i>) 从空中俯瞰，河流也许是地球上最好看的地物了。</div><br><br>
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from ... to ... to ...
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>from ... to ... to ...</b></div>一头一尾，如果只列举两件事物，当然就是 from X to Y。但是往往列举的不止两件，此时可以用一个 from 但多个 to。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>From</b> those leaves in the park <b>to</b> textbooks <b>to</b> highway bridge maintenance <b>to</b> food safety inspections, money is dwindling because so much has been diverted to the ... (David Cay Johnston, <i>Free Lunch</i>) 从公园里的落叶，到教科书，到公路桥梁维修，到食品安全检查，经费都越来越少，原因是太多的钱被挪用至……</div><br><br>但是也可以不用 from A to B to C to D ... to N 的结构而用 from A, B, C, D, ..., and N-1 to N。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Hess's workbook is a must for the incoming administration. He touches on everything <b>from</b> decorating the Oval Office, dodging cabinet nomination fights, <b>and</b> penning a memorable inaugural address <b>to</b> firing bumbling aides. (<i>U.S. News & World Report</i>, May 19, 2008, p. 10) 赫斯的办事指南，对于即将上任的一届政府来说，是一本必读书。他涉及的事项包罗万象，从如何布置总统办公室，如何避免内阁人事任命的纷争，如何起草一份留诸史册的就职演说，到如何把蹩脚的助手解职。</div><br><br>
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from ... to ... 与 between ... and ...
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>from ... to ... 与 between ... and ...</b></div>两者的区别，参见 between ... and ... 与 from ... to ... 条。<br><br>
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from 与 in/on
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>from 与 in/on</b></div>take a plate <b>from</b> the drawer 与 take a plate <b>in</b> the drawer 都是说得通的，语义相同，但是句法构造有差别。用 from 时，from the drawer 是个状语，修饰动词 take (“从抽屉里拿出一个盘子”)；用 in 时，in the drawer 是个后置定语，修饰名词 plate (“拿出抽屉里的一个盘子”)。take a book <b>from</b> the shelve 与 take a book <b>on</b> the shelve 也有同样的区别。<br><br>
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from 与 since
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>from 与 since</b></div>参见 since 与 from 条。<br><br>
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fundamental
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>fundamental</b></div>这个形容词与它派生的副词 fundamentally，同 basic 和 basically 一样，有两个不完全相同的含义，一个是比较弱的“基本的”(中文“基本上”也可以是弱意的“大体上，不完全”的意思)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She seems hard but <b>fundamentally</b> she's good hearted. 她的样子看起来很严厉，但是基本上她的心地还是善良的。另一个意思是“根本的”(甚至是“彻底的”)，是比较强的。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a <b>fundamental</b> difference 根本的差异</div><div class="ex-item"><b>fundamental</b> changes 根本的变化</div><div class="ex-item">I disagree <b>fundamentally</b> with his policies. 我根本不同意他的政策。需要从上下文和语境来辨明其不同含义。</div><br><br>由于 fundamental 和 basic 有时候有这样的歧义，所以中文中的“根本”译成英文时往往不用这两个形容词或其派生副词，而改用别的说法，例如“从根本上解决问题”译作 tackle the problem <b>at the root</b>；“根本原因”译作 <b>root</b> cause；“根本问题”译作 <b>root</b> problem；“根本变化”译作 <b>radical</b> change；“根本分歧”译作 <b>essential</b> differences；“根本原则”译作 <b>cardinal</b> principle；“根本不同”译作 <b>radically/entirely/totally</b> different；“根本对立的学说”译作 doctrines <b>diametrically</b> opposite to each other；“从根本上改变该地区的落后面貌”译作 <b>thoroughly</b> overcome the backwardness of the region；“从根本上否认”译作 <b>flatly</b> deny；“从根本上拒绝”译作 reject <b>outright</b>。如果“根本”用于强调否定，就更不要用 fundamental、basic 之类的形容词或副词(反而会减弱语气)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I've <b>never</b> made such remarks. 我根本没有说过这样的话。/ I don't know him <b>at all</b>. 我根本不认识他。(参见 basic 条) </div>
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fun 与 funny
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>fun 与 funny</b></div>fun 本来是名词，当作形容词用时基本上保留了名词的全部意义，尤其是积极正面的意义：“有趣的，让人快乐的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's <b>fun</b> to play in the mud, but not so <b>fun</b> to get stuck in it. (STP ad) 在泥里玩耍是有趣的，但是陷在泥里可就不那么有趣了。</div><br><br>funny 则从“好玩的，有趣的”有时候转为“奇怪的，离奇的，不正常的；不严肃的”，从而兼有正面和负面的两种意义。负面意义的例如：Don't be <b>funny</b>. 别乱开玩笑。/ I'm not being <b>funny</b>, but ... 我可不是开玩笑，但是……<br><br>又例如一本小说中某男子追忆亡妻时的内心独白：<b>Funny</b>, the thought, she's burried in Gate of Heaven Cemetery, but for me it's as though her body is always here. (Mary Higgins Clark, <i>While My Pretty One Sleeps</i>) (奇怪，她埋葬在天堂之门坟场，但我总是觉得她的遗体是在这里。)书中另一处谈及一个可疑人物：So when I saw him sneaking around last Thursday afternoon, I thought something was <b>funny</b>. (ibid.) (上星期四下午我看见他在那里鬼鬼祟祟地徘徊，我就觉得有点蹊跷。)这两个例句中，funny 都丝毫没有“有趣的，好玩的”之意。书中另一处谈到“有趣的”时，就用 fun 作为形容词，不用 funny: Last night was <b>fun</b>, wasn't it? 昨天的聚会很带劲吧？<br><br>因此，早在 1936 年，Ian Hay 在他的小说 <i>The Housemaster</i> 中，就有一句：What do you mean, <b>funny</b>? <b>Funny peculiar</b> or <b>funny ha-ha</b>? 这就将 funny 的意义区分为 funny peculiar (奇特)和 funny ha-ha (逗人哈哈大笑)。后来这个区别为许多人所沿用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They might be men: they certainly were <b>funny</b> (<b>funny peculiar</b> not <b>funny ha-ha</b>). (Madison Bently, review of <i>Statement on Race</i>, in <i>The American Journal of Psychology</i>, Vol. 65, No. 1, 1952) 他们可能是男子汉：他们的确很好玩(是奇特古怪的好玩而不是有趣好玩的好玩)。美国还出了一部喜剧片子就叫 <i>Funny Ha-Ha</i>。这些事例，都说明了 funny 词义的两重性，而这是形容词 fun 所没有的。</div><br><br>由于 funny 有“离奇的，不正常的”的负面意义，所以以 Funny how ... 开始的句子，可以用来反驳自己认为荒谬的见解。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Funny How</b> Focus Is Always on Israel (Title of Mona Charen's article, in <i>The Daily Gazette</i>, Jan. 16, 2009, A7) 眼睛总是盯着以色列，多离奇。(为以色列辩护，认为大家对以色列责备过多)但是 Funny how ... 也可以用来表示说话者对某一奇异但却真实的情况表示惊讶但加以接受或承认。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Funny how</b> you can tell if something is good news or bad just by the sound of the voice. (Anna Salter, <i>Fault Lines</i>) 说也奇怪，是好消息还是坏消息，听听说话的声调，就可以分辨出来。</div><br><br>
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garbage, rubbish 与 trash
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>garbage, rubbish 与 trash</b></div>三个词大体上都是指“垃圾”，但是美式英语 garbage 指的是潮湿容易变坏的厨房废物如蛋壳、菜帮子、骨头之类，trash 则专指废纸和其他干燥的废品。rubbish 则两者都包括在内。<br><br>
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genial 与 genius
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>genial 与 genius</b></div>genius 是“天才”，但是 genial 却与“天才”无关，表示“宜人的，舒适的；亲切的，和蔼的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a <b>genial</b> climate 温和的气候</div><div class="ex-item">a <b>genial</b> smile 和蔼的笑容</div><div class="ex-item">He's a <b>genius</b> of a composer. 他是个天才的作曲家。(不说：*He's a <b>genial</b> composer.)</div>
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get
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>get</b></div>这是英语中最常用的动词之一，一般只用于非正式场合，主要是作为及物动词，但也可以作为不及物动词。它的各种意义以及同介词或副词的搭配十分复杂，一般在比较大型的词典中都有相当详细的介绍。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 尽管 get 的各种意义十分复杂，但贯穿其中的一个意义内容，就是“在外界客观条件或他人的协助或容许下达到自己的某个目的”。它与 put 或 set 之类的动词的不同之处，就在于“外界客观条件或他人的协助或容许”这个意义成分。掌握了这一点，进一步去掌握 get 的各种意义，也许就能收到“抓纲”的效果。例如某个及物动词，如果采用过去分词的形式，作为 get + 宾语后面的宾语补足语，就可以加强“达到完成某事的目的”的“完成”意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>get</b> his benefits <b>restored</b> 恢复他的福利待遇(比较 restore his benefits)。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> get 主要是个及物动词，但也可以不及物。它主要是个表示瞬间动作的动词(第四类动词)，但在少数情况下也可以作为延续性的第一类或第二类动词，尤其是 get to inf.、get on、get along、get by 这几个词组。<br><br>get to inf. 意思是“(靠某种外在条件而)能够，得以(处于某状态)”(后面的动词不定式也是延续状态动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Just the fact that you <b>get to</b> live and breathe and interact with the world—that's pretty marvelous. 你能够活着，呼吸，同外部世界互动，单单这一点，就已经够神奇的了。/ That's why you <b>get to</b> live in this big house. (David Rosenfelt, <i>Heart of a Killer</i>) 你之所以能够住在这座大楼，正是靠了这个。/ As a diplomat, he <b>gets to</b> meet many politicians. 作为外交官，他常常见到许多政界人士。</div><br><br>get on (这里的 on 是副词)意思是“(靠某种外在条件而)处境良好”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His one aim is to <b>get on</b> in life. 他唯一的目标是好好过日子。/ She doesn't <b>get on</b> with her sister. 她同她妹妹合不来。</div><br><br>get along 意思是“处于相处良好的状态”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They had always <b>gotten along</b>, even when they sparred. 他们即使争吵，也总是相处得不错。/ My kids and their cousins really <b>get along</b> with each other. 我的孩子同他们的表兄弟们相处得很不错。/ It is impossible to <b>get along</b> with him. 同他无法相处。/ There you have to goalong to <b>get along</b>. 在那里，妥协和迁就，才能搞好关系。</div><br><br>get by (这里的 by 也是副词)意思是“(靠某种外在条件而)能维持，过得去”(靠什么用 on 或 with 引入)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She <b>gets by</b> on just a few dollars a week. 她只靠每周几个美元勉强度日。/ We have to <b>get by</b> with what we have in stock. 咱们只好靠存货来维持了。/ I can <b>get by</b> on six hours' sleep a night. 我每晚只睡六个钟头勉强顶住。</div><br><br>
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gift
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>gift</b></div>许多英语学习者一看见这个单词往往只想到“礼物”，但是它(多用复数)常常有“天赋，才能”的意义(原意是上帝给每一个人的礼物)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Her <b>gifts</b> for description make this a wonderful read. 她的描写才能使得这篇文章读起来很精彩。/ Bush's appearances at the ceremonies will, for many, raise a fundamental question about that most elusive and essential of <b>gifts</b>: war leadership. (<i>Newsweek</i>, May 31, 2004, p. 41) 对于许多人来说，布什在这些仪式上的露面，将会引起一个根本性的问题，就是领导战争这个最难以捉摸而又最关键的能力问题。</div><br><br>
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give as good as (one) gets
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>give as good as (one) gets</b></div>是“打个平手，毫不逊色”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>When you are a woman working with a lot of men, you have to be able to <b>give as good as</b> you <b>get</b>. 作为女人，你如果同许多男子一起工作，你就要干得毫不逊色。/ He had a black eye and a couple of bruises, but he <b>gave as good as</b> he <b>got</b>, or better. 他被打肿了眼睛，几处负伤，但是他不落下风，还占了点上风。</div><br><br>
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glad to inf., glad to be + -ing 与 glad to have + pp.
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>glad to inf., glad to be + -ing 与 glad to have + pp.</b></div>be glad to inf. 是“乐于做某事”(只是一种意向，尚未实行)；be glad to be + -ing 则是“正在做某事，对此感到高兴”(正在实行)；be glad to have + pp. 则是“已经做了某事，对此感到高兴”(已经实行，事后高兴)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm <b>glad to help</b> you. 我很乐意帮助你。/ I'm <b>glad to be helping</b> you. 我现在在帮助你，对此感到很高兴。/ I'm <b>glad to have helped</b> you. 我帮助了你，对此感到很高兴。但 glad to see you 是“很高兴现在看见你”。</div><br><br>
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glance 与 glimpse
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>glance 与 glimpse</b></div>glance 无论作为名词还是动词，都是人做出的主动行为，表示“一瞥”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>shoot a <b>glance</b> at 瞥见</div><div class="ex-item">She <b>glanced</b> up from her book. 她把目光从书上移开。/ Take a <b>glance</b> at the morning paper. 你把早报浏览一眼吧。</div><br><br>glimpse 则无论作为名词还是动词，都是非主动的“瞥见”或“一瞥”所看到的景象。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I <b>glimpsed</b> the bird as it flew past me. 那只鸟飞过我身旁时我瞥见一眼。/ Unfortunately, parents still see only a <b>glimpse</b> of the world in which their teens live. (<i>Newsweek</i>, Oct. 15, 2007, p. 39, ad) 可惜，父母对于他们青少年儿女所生活的世界，仍然只看到一鳞半爪。</div><br><br>glance 和 glimpse 作为动词，都属于瞬时的第四类动词。<br><br>glimpse 偶尔也有当作主动行为的(因为有时候主动、不主动界限不太分明)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... this helps them, I think, <b>glimpse</b> around the next corner of history. (Jack Newfield, in <i>Evergreen Review</i>, June 1967) ……我觉得这有助于他们去观察历史的下一个转角。</div><br><br>
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gleam
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>gleam</b></div>gleam (名词) 是“亮光”，但 gloom (也是名词) 却是“黑暗”。<br><br>
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glimpse 与 glance
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>glimpse 与 glance</b></div>参见 glance 与 glimpse 条。<br><br>
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glorious
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>glorious</b></div>除了用于人的“光荣的”之外，还可以表示景色的“美丽灿烂的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a glorious sunset 灿烂的黄昏</div><div class="ex-item">Autumn is a glorious season, ... (Robin Cook, Crisis) 秋季是个金灿灿的季节，……</div><br><br>
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go
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>go</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 英文更多用 go and inf. 而较少用 go to inf.。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Go and tell him the news. 去把消息告诉他。/ She thought of going and getting him. 她想到要去找着他。(参见 come 条、hurry 条之 (5)、try 条之 (1)、sure 条之 (7))。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 但是美式口语 go 在祈使句中，后面的动词不定式往往前面既不加 and 也不加 to。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Go help your friend. 去帮你的朋友吧。/ Go buy a bottle of milk. 去买一瓶牛奶吧。不过，inf. 如果是 sleep 则要加 to。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Go to sleep! 睡觉去！</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> go + -ing 通常用来指出门做某件休闲的事情，特别是体育、游览、购物之类。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>go camping 野营</div><div class="ex-item">go climbing 爬山</div><div class="ex-item">go dancing 跳舞</div><div class="ex-item">go fishing 钓鱼 (带有休闲性质，不是渔业的捕鱼)</div><div class="ex-item">go shooting 射击</div><div class="ex-item">go shopping 购物，逛商店</div><div class="ex-item">go skating 溜冰</div><div class="ex-item">go skiing 滑雪</div><div class="ex-item">go walking 散步。</div><br><br>如果 go 由于谈话双方的位置 (参见 come 条) 要改为 come，这样的结构仍然可用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Come swimming with us tomorrow. 明天同我们一起去游泳。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> go + 形容词，表示经历某种变化 (通常是不好的变化) (属第三类或第四类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>go blind 瞎了眼睛</div><div class="ex-item">go deaf 耳朵聋了</div><div class="ex-item">go crazy 发了疯</div><div class="ex-item">go pale 脸色发白</div><div class="ex-item">go sour 变酸了</div><div class="ex-item">Her face went red. 她的脸变红了。/ The bread's gone hard. 面包硬了。</div><br><br>近年来也常用于一些比较正式的场合，也不一定都是负面的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>go public (股票) 上市</div><div class="ex-item">Wall Street is going green. 华尔街也注意环保了。/ I worked for a building company until the end of 1999, then I went freelance. 我曾经在一家建筑公司供职到 1999 年年底，然后改为从事自由职业。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 美式口语 to go 可以表示“打包带走”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Two burgers to go. 两份汉堡包外带。“当场吃”说 here 即可。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>For here or to go? 在这里吃还是带走？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> have gone to 带有“一去未回”的含义。例如 He has gone to London. 就是说“他去了伦敦，还没有回来”；如果要说“他去过伦敦”，要改为 He has been to London.
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go a long way
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>go a long way</b></div>参见 (go a) long (way) 条。<br><br>
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(go a) long (way)
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(go a) long (way)</b></div>go a long way 可以有正面与负面的意义，取决于它前面说的是“能够”还是“必须”。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 如果是“能够” (前面有助动词 can、may 或表示将来时的 will)，意思是“能够用很长一段时间；能够起相当大的作用”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A little will go a long way if it's used sparingly. (Charles Dickens, <i>The Life and Adventures of Nicholas Nickleby</i>) 省着点用，一点点也能用很久。/ Ah, if I could give it a name it might go a long way toward solving the case. (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, <i>The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes</i>) 啊，我如果能给它取个名称，那么离破案也就不远了。/ Your example would go a long way. (Anna Sewell, <i>Black Beauty</i>) 你的范例将会起很大作用。/ A compliment can go a long way in easing a woman's anxiety over her looks. 一个妇女，如果对自己容貌不满 意，恭维她一句，就可以对缓解这种忧虑起很大作用。/ You'll go a long way with ideas like that. 你有那样的想法，一定可以大有作为。</div><br><br>但前面也可以没有任何助动词，也是表示“(已经) 起着相当大的作用” (但通常不用进行时 <i>is going a long way)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Soap and water go a long way in preventing avian influenza. 肥皂和水对预防禽流感用处很大。/ ... Hollywood's portrayal of the U.S., in a thousand films like this one, goes a long way toward creating that anti-American sentiment in the first place. (Mona Charen, in </i>The Daily Gazette*, Nov. 20, 2008, A9) ……好莱坞在千百部类似这样的影片中对美国形象的刻画，本来就对于制造那种反美情绪起着很大的作用。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 如果是“必须”，意思就是“要走很长的路”，转义为“要进行许多的工作，要克服许多麻烦”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He had to go a long way before he came to the river, ... (Andrew Lang, <i>The Yellow Fairy Book</i>) 他走了很长的路，才走到河边，……</div><div class="ex-item">The rules and regulations associated with receiving the fund are complicated and students have to go a long way to prove their financial position. 领取款项的规章条例很复杂，学生们要办许多手续，才能证明自己的经济状况。/ We would have had to go a long way to find a nicer place to live, where the mountains meet the sea. 我们要是想另找一处更适宜居住的依山靠海的地方，那就会大费周章。</div><br><br>至于 have a long way to go，由于它的意思是“必须”，所以意义当然是属于负面的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>(Hillary) Clinton has a long way to go to outrun her husband's shadow. (<i>The Sydney Morning Herald</i>, May 25, 2006) 希拉里要走出她丈夫的阴影可不容易。</div><br><br>但是如果不用于 go 而用 come，则意思是对已经发生的事情的一种回顾，就不可能表示“必须”，因而意义就不是负面而是正面的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This kind of surgery has come a long way. 这种外科手术已经起过很大的作用。</div><br><br>
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(go) along 与 (get) along
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(go) along 与 (get) along</b></div>两者相似，但意义有些不同。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> go along 原来的意义是“前往(已知的某处)”(瞬间体的第四类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I went along to the meeting. 我前去开会。/ You should go along and have a look. 你应该去瞧一下。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 但是 go along 也可以指“继续进行本来正在做的事情”(延续体的第二类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Learning how to become a parent takes time. It's a skill you learn as you go along. 学习如何当父母，是要费时间的。这是一种边干边学的本领。/ It's fine to ask questions as we go along, but it's better if you wait until we have finished. 我们边讲，大家也可以边提问题，不过最好等到我们讲完之后再问。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 如果主语是事情而不是人，go along (延续体的第二类动词)表示“进行得如何”(必须有副词表示“如何”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My life is going along nicely. 我的日子过得很好。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> go along 还可以表示“同意或接受(某一已知的主张)，答应(某一已知的要求)”(瞬间体的第四类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The agreement will make them the highest-paid pilots in the industry, if union members go along. 按照协议，只要工会会员们答应，他们会成为本行业工资最高的飞行员。/ He had only gone along out of concern for his two grandsons. 他之所以答应，仅仅是为了两个孙子着想。</div><br><br>通常只需说 go along 即可，但也可以加上 with ...，说明“同意什么”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The president has announced a plan to cut taxes, and Congress is likely to go along with it. 总统宣布了一项减税计划，国会大概会同意。</div><br><br>如果不是自己“同意”或“接受”，而是“使得别人同意或接受”，就可以说 bring somebody along (with)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>bring France and other Security Council members along with the resolution 使法国和安理会其他理事国接受这个决议。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 与 go along 不同，come along 只有(非预料中的)“前来”与“发生”的意义(都是属于瞬间体的第四类动词)，也可以表示事情迄今“顺利进行中”(属于延续体的第二类动词)，但没有“同意，接受”的意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was lucky you came along. 幸亏你来了。/ She always thinks some guy is going to come along and fix her life. 她总是觉得，会碰上一个小伙子，安排好她的一生。/ Pentagon spokesman Williams says the talks are coming along quite well. 五角大楼发言人威廉姆斯说，谈判进展良好。</div><br><br>此外，come along 还可以用于催促。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Come along. No sense in your standing around. 走吧。你待在这里没什么意思。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> get along 的意义与 go along 不同。首先，go along 倾向于指一时的“同意，接受，答应”，而 get along 虽然用了通常是瞬时体的 get，但是却主要是延续体的“相处融洽”(因此可以用一般现在时)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They had always gotten along, even when they sparred. 他们即使争吵，也总是相处得不错。/ My kids and their cousins really get along with each other. 我的孩子们同他们的表兄弟相处得很不错。/ It isimpossible to get along with him. 同他无法相处。/ There you have to go along to get along. 在那里，要随和将就，才能搞好关系。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 如果不涉及同他人的关系，get along 表示“过正常日子”(也是延续体的第二类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You can't get along without water. 没有水是没法生活的。</div><br><br>
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go back to inf. 与 go back to + -ing
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>go back to inf. 与 go back to + -ing</b></div>前者 的含义包括了位置的移动 (“回去做某事”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He went back to take a shower. 他回去洗了个澡。</div><br><br>后者 的含义则是比较抽象的“重新恢复做某事”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Catherine went back to studying the accounts. (Mary Higgins Clark, I'll Be Seeing You) 凯瑟琳又重新核查账目。</div><br><br>
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gold medalist
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>gold medalist</b></div>意思是“(竞赛中的) 金牌获得者”。不是先把 medalist 作为一个中心语再拿 gold 来修饰它 (人不可能是有黄金造成的)，而应该是 (gold + medal) + -ist。类似这样的结构，还可以举出一些例子。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>fifth grader 五年级学生</div><div class="ex-item">original sinner 原罪罪人</div><div class="ex-item">first timer 新手</div><div class="ex-item">East Ender 伦敦的东区居民</div><div class="ex-item">New Englander 新英格兰地区居民</div><div class="ex-item">New Yorker 纽约市或纽约州人</div><div class="ex-item">New Havenite 纽黑文市人</div><div class="ex-item">Hamilton Countian 汉密尔顿县居民</div><div class="ex-item">New Zealander 新西兰人</div><div class="ex-item">baby boomer 美国婴儿潮时期出生者</div><div class="ex-item">high schooler 高中生</div><div class="ex-item">Ivy Leaguer 美国常春藤名校学生</div><div class="ex-item">National Guardsman 国民警卫队队员</div><div class="ex-item">think tanker 智库学者</div><div class="ex-item">social scientist 社会科学家</div><div class="ex-item">atomic scientist 原子科学家</div><div class="ex-item">particle physicist 粒子物理学家</div><div class="ex-item">civil libertarian 民权活动家</div><div class="ex-item">generative grammarian 生成语法学者</div><div class="ex-item">used bookstore 旧书店</div><div class="ex-item">hard worker 工作勤奋者</div><div class="ex-item">criminal lawyer 刑事案律师</div><div class="ex-item">electric boatbuilder 电船制造商</div><div class="ex-item">two-thousand-pounder 两千吨的船</div><div class="ex-item">out-of-towner 外地人。</div><br><br>
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good
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>good</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 参见 as good as 条。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> feel good 是“自我感觉健康状况良好”；look good 是“外表样子好看”或“给别人好印象”。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> good and (快读 /gu'dn/) 后面跟一个形容词，对这个形容词起加强的作用 (与 nice and 不同，虽然有 good，但不一定是正面意义)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'll let you know when I'm good and ready. 我准备得妥妥当当就会通知你的。/ He was good and drunk. 他酩酊大醉。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> for good 与瞬时性的动词连用 (不可与延续性状态动词连用)，表示这个动作的后果永远保留。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She said she was moving to Europe for good. 她说她要永久移居欧洲。虽然有 good，但这个动作可以是负面意义的。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>All Iraqis must go back now or else we will lose Iraq for good. (U.S. News & World Report, Jan. 14, 2008, p. 31) 所有伊拉克人现在都应该回去，否则我们就会永远失去伊拉克了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> do good 与 do well 意义有很大的区别。do good 通常主语是事物而不是人，意思是“有效，起作用”，而且可以有人作获益的间接宾语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Do you think these latest changes will do any good? (Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary) 你觉得最近的这些变动会起作用吗？/ I'm sure a few days off would do you a power of good. 我相信你如果休息几天会有大好处。(ibid.) 但是偶尔也可以以人为主语。例如 Do Well or Do Good? We Can Do Both. (Time, Sept. 12, 2016, p. 35) 这是一篇短文的标题，其中 do good 由于改为以人为主语，意思就变为“(对他人) 行善，做好事”；do well 则保持其通常以人为主语的含义“(自己) 过得好，有成就”。</div><br><br>
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(good) luck + -ing
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(good) luck + -ing</b></div>这样的结构，可以不是对“已经有了这样的好运气”表示祝贺，而是一个假设，即“假如能如何如何，就算好运气了”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Another (research) predicts that by 2009, the average worker will spend 41 percent of his or her day dealing with e-mail. Good luck keeping up. (<i>Reader's Digest</i>, October 2007, p. 21) 另一项研究预计，到了 2009 年，一般的工作者每天将要花 41% 的时间来处理电子邮件。能跟得上，算你运气好。(参见 lucky 条之 (2))</div>
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go on
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>go on</b></div>有两类含义：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 普通字面的含义：(a) “继续往前走”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Don't turn here. Go on. It's the next corner. 这里别拐弯。继续往前走。下个拐角才是。</div>(b) “中途暂停后重新出发”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They went on without us. 他们不等我们一起就自己继续上路了。</div>(c) “(走路以外的事) 继续进行”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Their affair has been going on for years. 他们俩的事已经有好些年头了。/ The party went on into the small hours. 联欢会一直进行到清晨。</div>(d) “正在发生”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A lot of cheating goes on during the exams. 考试中作弊的情况很多。</div>(e) “把原先正在做的事继续做下去”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>— I guess I should stop here. — No. Don't stop talking. I'm very interested. Go on. — 我觉得我说到这里就应该打住了。— 不。别停住。我很感兴趣呢。说下去。/ If you go on like this, you'll have no money left. 你如果再这样下去，就不会有钱剩下来。</div>(至于 go on 后面加上 -ing 或 to inf.，参见 go on + -ing 与 go on to inf. 条)<br><span class="seq">(2)</span> “瞧你说的 (你说得不对)” “哪里的话”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>— Gee, that looks like a snake there in the path. — Go on! That isn't a snake. No snake is that big. — 咦，路上像是有条蛇。— 哪里！那不是蛇。蛇不会那么大。</div><br><br>
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go on + -ing 与 go on to inf.
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>go on + -ing 与 go on to inf.</b></div>这两个不同的搭配，意义也大不相同。<br><br>go on + -ing 是原来在做某事，现在继续做下去 (现在分词的动词必须是延续体的)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She went on reading. 她继续看她的书。/ You can't go on being a student forever. 你不可能永远当学生。go on to inf. 则是前面某事做完了，下一步去做另一件事 (动词不定式的动词通常是瞬时体的)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She went on to explain that ... 她接着又解释说……</div><br><br>
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go through 与 go through with
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>go through 与 go through with</b></div>两者用法和意义都有些不同。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> go through 是个短语动词，但可以及物或不及物。如果 through 作为介词，go through 就相当于及物动词；如果 through 作为副词，则 go through 相当于不及物动词。<br><br>作为及物的短语动词，go through 的直接意义是“穿透；查遍；耗尽”，属于第三类或第四类动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The nail went through all three boards. 钉子把三块板全都穿透了。/ He spent quite a while going through his desk, looking for the papers. 他花了好长时间翻遍办公桌，找那些文件。/ We have gone through all the aspirin again! 我们的阿司匹林又用光了！</div><br><br>用于抽象转义，则大体上有点“过一遍”的意思，比较着重“从头到尾经历某个过程”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I always start the day by going through my email. 我每天一开始总是先检查一遍电子邮件。/ She went through the company's accounts, looking for evidence of fraud. 她从头到尾查遍了公司的账目，寻找舞弊的证据。/ The pickles went through a number of processes before they were packed. 泡菜经过了若干工序，然后才包装。/ I would like to go through it again, so I can be sure to understand it. 我打算再温习一遍，这样就有把握能理解。/ You can't believe what I've gone through. 我的遭遇，你真的难以相信。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> go through 中的 through 如果是副词，整个短语动词就相当于一个不及物动词，此时它是个第四类动词，意义就是“获得通过，走通”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I sent the board of directors an proposal. I hope it goes through. 我向董事会提交了一份建议书。希望能被采纳。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> go through with 本来是不及物的短语动词 go through 加上介词 with，又回过头来成为一个及物的短语动词，但是有了新的意义，是“(不顾一切地) (把某事) 干到底” (属于第三类或第四类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I have to go through with it, no matter what. 无论如何我都要把事情办成。/ I hoped he wasn't really going through with the plan. 我当时希望他不是真的在把计划推行到底。</div><br><br>
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government
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>government</b></div>在美国，government 的概念包括立法部门 (the legislative branch，即国会 Congress)、行政部门 (the executive branch，即政府 Administration) 和司法部门 (the judiciary branch)。在各国语言中，“政府”有时候的语义范围同 government 一致，但有时候又指行政部门，不包括立法和司法部门。如果说“美国政府”时专指其行政部门，通常不说 *government 而说 Administration，如 the Bush Administration (很少说 the Bush government)。<br><br>
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go 与 come
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>go 与 come</b></div>参见 come 条。<br><br>
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grace
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>grace</b></div>这可以是个瞬时体动词 (第四类动词)，意思是“惠予”，句法结构是：(1) 作为单宾语动词：X grace Y (X 给予 Y 好处)；(2) 作为双宾语动词：X grace Y with Z (X 与 Y 都可以是人或物，Z 是 X 惠予 Y 的好处或行动)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She is one of the players ever to have graced the game. 她是曾经使该运动会增色的选手之一。作为在计划之中的行动，可以用将来进行时。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Will you be gracing us with your presence tonight? (Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary) 阁下今晚可否光临？</div><br><br>
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graduate
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>graduate</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为名词，graduate 是“(已经毕业离校的) 毕业生”。但是在英国和美国，所指的范围有所不同。<br><br>在英国，只有大学或其他高等学府的毕业生方可叫作 graduate。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a metallurgy graduate from Birmingham 伯明翰大学的金属学专业毕业生。</div><br><br>在美国则中学毕业也可以叫作 graduate。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>On June 8, 2002, Phillips Academy honored former President George Bush, a graduate of the Class of 1942, with a surprise announcement of the establishment of a new scholarship in his name. 2002 年 6 月 8 日，菲利浦斯高中向该校 1942 届毕业生前总统乔治·布什致敬，出其不意地宣布设立一项以他命名的奖学金。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作为名词，graduate 的“毕业生”身份是终身的，不单指毕业的一刹那，因此，毕业了多年以后，仍然是某某学校的 graduate。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm (<i>I was/</i>I've been) a Harvard graduate, a husband of 17 years and the father of two girls under the age of 11. (Ben Mattlin, in U.S. News & World Report, July 24, 2006, p. 19) 我是哈佛毕业生，结婚 17 年，是两个未满 11 岁的女孩的父亲。因此，如果说的是刚刚毕业的毕业生，最好加上形容词 recent。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>recent high school graduates 刚毕业的高中毕业生。 (3) 英美两国的这个差别，也表现在作为动词的 graduate 上。在英国，中学毕业用 leave school、finish/complete the course of 之类的说法。但在美国，中学毕业就可以说 graduate。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She graduated from high school in 1979. 她 1979 年高中毕业。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> graduate 如果作定语放在 school 或 student 之前，就指比大学本科更上一层楼的“研究生院”或“研究生”。要注意：graduate (名词) 是“毕业生”，是已经毕业的，不是在毕业班即将毕业的；即将毕业的毕业班是 graduating class，即将毕业的毕业生是 graduating student；刚刚毕业的毕业生是 recent graduate。但是 graduate student 则是大学中正在学习的“研究生” (简称 grad student)，拿到硕士或博士学位后就不是该校的 graduate student 了。另外，本科生叫作 undergraduate student，或 undergraduate (简称 undergrad)。加拿大也采取美国 graduate 的用法。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the Graduate School of Business at McGill University 麦吉尔大学商科研究生院。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> graduate 作为动词，可以是不及物动词，也可以是及物动词。作为不及物动词，就是自己毕业，如 graduate from a school。而作为及物动词，就是“让 (某人) 毕业，授予 (某人) 学位”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Even though he had not completed the eighth grade, Mr. O'Connor graduated him after he passed a test so that he could enroll in high school. 虽然他八年级没有念完，奥康诺尔先生还是在他一次考试及格后让他毕业，使得他能够上高中。而被动时意思也就变为“自己毕业”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A total of 59 students were graduated from Sullivan County High School at an indoor ceremony on Friday. 在星期五的一个室内仪式中，沙利文县高中一共有 59 名学生毕业。(由于涉及具体的仪式和资格的授予，用被动语态更为恰当，参见 swear 条中有关就职宣誓的主被动问题。)</div>口语中偶尔有 graduate 作为及物动词，以学校作其宾语 (不用 from) 的。这种用法也见诸书面。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I was a lawyer, I had graduated law school. (Harper's, July 1972) 我是个律师，我是法学院毕业的。/ ... as Toby ... graduates Cambridge ... (The New York Times Book Review, Sept. 28, 1975) ……托比……是剑桥毕业的…… 但这是不足为训的。</div><br><br>
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grain
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>grain</b></div>作为可数名词，它的词义是：(1) 颗粒。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a few grains of wheat 几粒小麦</div><div class="ex-item">a grain of sand 一粒沙子。(2) 谷物的一种 (例如：大米、小麦、玉米等)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Since grains are substituted all over the world, they say corn's rise has indirectly contributed to the rise of other grains. (U.S. News & World Report, May 19, 2008, p. 37) 由于全世界都拿谷物来代替 (燃料)，他们声称玉米的涨价也间接引起了其他谷物的涨价。</div><br><br>作为不可数名词，指笼统的“谷物”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a field of grain 庄稼地</div><div class="ex-item">The farmers harvested the grain. 农民收割谷物。/ grain elevator 圆筒形谷仓</div><div class="ex-item">grain alcohol 谷物制造的酒精。</div><br><br>
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grape
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>grape</b></div>本来是可数名词，表示“一粒葡萄”，但是一大堆葡萄在那里，就成了几乎不可数的物质名词，类似于“面粉” (flour)、“白糖” (sugar)，前面可以加 much。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>1,000 litres of wines of soils producing much grapes ... (Henry Watts, A Dictionary of Chemistry and the Allied Branches of Other Sciences) 从大量生产葡萄的土壤得出的 1,000 升葡萄酒……还出现了像下面的古怪句子：How much grapes are required to make 1 liter of wine? 酿一升葡萄酒需要多少葡萄？这里用了本来用于单数不可数名词的 much，但是谓语动词却又用了复数的 are。这种“非驴非马”的现象，原因就出在 grape 本身可数又不可数的矛盾上。另外一些根本难以一一计数的复数名词，如 oats，面对这个问题矛盾就更加尖锐。</div><br><br>但是也有说 many grapes 的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How many grapes does it take to make a bottle of wine? 要多少葡萄才能酿一瓶葡萄酒？不过这里所问的 how many grapes 肯定不是问“多少粒葡萄”，而是问“多少重量或体积的一堆葡萄”。</div><br><br>grapes 是“鲜葡萄”，晒干了的“葡萄干”是 raisin，也是个可数名词。raisin 同 grape 一样，也有复数前可能用 much 或 many 的问题。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Is it okay to eat too much raisins? 吃葡萄干过多好不好？/ Is eating too many raisins bad for you? 吃葡萄干过多对你有坏处吗？</div><br><br>
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grateful 与 thankful
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>grateful 与 thankful</b></div>参见 thankful 与 grateful 条。<br><br>
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great price
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>great price</b></div>这里的 great，看对谁而言。可以是“高 (价)”，也可以是“相宜的 (价格)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Thousands of Iraqi police officers have been wounded or killed over the last two years. The police have "paid a great price," said Maj. Gen. Joseph Paterson. 近两年来，已经有数以千计的伊拉克警察受伤或被杀害。约瑟夫·帕特森少将说，伊拉克警察“付出了巨大的代价”。</div><br><br>但是，许多广告常常以 great price 招徕顾客，这就是“低廉的价格”而非“巨大的代价”了。great 不但指价格的低廉，也可以在广告中指各种对顾客有利的条件。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>such a great hotel, with a great price and great location 这样一家价格相宜、地点适中的好旅馆。</div><br><br>
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green-eyed
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>green-eyed</b></div>相当于中文“眼红的 (嫉妒的)”，但不说 *red 而说 green。“眼红”是 be green with envy。参见 red eye 条。<br><br>
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grow
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>grow</b></div>可以作为系动词，表示变化，但不一定是与其字面上的意义相当的“变大，成长”，也可以有相反的意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They helped those whose chances had grown slim. 他们帮助那些机会已很渺茫的人。</div><br><br>
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guarantee
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>guarantee</b></div>作为及物动词，可以有如下搭配：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为表示延续静态的第一类动词，后面有单宾语 (表示某个好处)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Diligence guarantees success. 勤则功成。可以转换为被动语气，是延续状态。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Their defeat is almost guaranteed. 他们几乎肯定要失败。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作为表示延续静态的第一类动词，或是作为表示瞬时动作 (提出保证) 的第四类动词，后面有双宾语，直接宾语表示某个好处，间接宾语表示得到好处的人；可以“guarantee + 直接宾语 + to + 间接宾语”，也可以“guarantee + 间接宾语 + 直接宾语”，可以是瞬时动作，也可以是延续状态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>guarantee a position to a person/guarantee a person a position 保证某人得到某个职位</div><div class="ex-item">An extra $2 will guarantee you a seat. 额外多付 2 美元，就可以保证您有座位。/ The company recruiter guaranteed us an income of $40,000 a year. 公司的招聘负责人保证我们能够得到一年 40,000 美元的收入。这个用法还可以转换为被动语气，通常转换为主语的是间接宾语，较少是直接宾语，是延续状态，可以有一般现在时。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Our customers are guaranteed prompt service./Prompt service is guaranteed to our customers. 我们保证顾客能够得到迅速的服务。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 可以以动词不定式为直接宾语，此时 guarantee 是第四类动词，但可以作为即时表态采用一般现在时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I guarantee to take over his responsibilities. 我保证接过他的各项责任。/ I can't guarantee to have it finished by then. 我不可能保证到那个时候一定能做完。后面的动词不定式通常也是第四类动词，指将来要做的事，而不是说话时所处的状态。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 直接宾语后面可以加上动词不定式，此时 guarantee 是第一类或第四类动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The watchmaker guarantees this watch to keep perfect time. 钟表制造商保证这块表走得准。/ The jeweler guaranteed the diamond (to be) genuine. 珠宝商保证那颗钻石是真货。可以有被动语态，表示“一定，必然”，是延续状态 (第一类动词)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's guaranteed to rain. 一定会下雨。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 以 that (可以省略) 引入的名词从句作直接宾语，此时 guarantee 是第四类动词，但可以作为即时表态采用一般现在时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I guarantee (that) I will pay my debts. 我保证债款一定偿还。</div><br><br>
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guess
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>guess</b></div>可以表示“猜测但不一定猜中” (第二类动词)，也可以表示“猜中” (第四类动词)。大体上，可以从它的搭配上加以区别。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 在下列情况下是“猜测但不一定猜中”：(a) 祈使句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Guess who she brought with her! 你猜猜她把谁给带来了！/ Guess what? 你猜猜看 (我要告诉你什么)？间接的祈使也一样。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Ask the children to guess what's in each container by dipping their hands in. 叫孩子们把手伸进每个容器里而沾一下，猜猜容器里面盛着什么。</div>(b) 第一人称的一般现在时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I guess I must be going now. 我想我该走了。/ I guess I got the news a day or so late. 我想我收到这个消息晚了一两天。</div>(c) 任何时态后接间接疑问句或以 that (可省略) 引入的名词从句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They'd already guessed who was going to be appointed. 他们已经猜到谁会得到任命。/ She guessed that she was fifty yards from shore. 她推测自己离岸 50 码远。</div>(d) 进行式。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I suggest that you keep her guessing. 我建议你让她摸不透。</div>(e) guess 后面有介词 at 或 about。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>What went on in Townsend's mind at that point could only be guessed at. 汤森此时有什么心事，只能靠猜测。/ She likes to keep them guessing about her age. 她喜欢让他们摸不透她的年龄。</div>(f) 用在 can only 之后。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She could only guess what might be going through his mind. 他心里打些什么主意，她只能猜测。(Merrillee Whren, Hometown Promise)</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 在下列情况下是“猜中”：(a) 现在将来时或过去将来时 (肯定或否定)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You'll never guess what he said. 你永远也猜不出他那时说的是什么。/ He was twenty-six, but no one would ever guess. He looked nineteen. 他已经 26 岁了，但是谁都猜不出来。他看起来像 19 岁。/ He would immediately guess their true intent. 他会马上猜出他们的真正意图。</div>(b) 现在、过去或将来完成时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Someone might have guessed our secret and passed it on. 可能有人猜出了我们的秘密，传了出去。/ He should have guessed what would happen. 会发生什么事，他本来应该猜得出来。/ You will no doubt have guessed the truth. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 不用说，读者也可以猜到实情。</div>(c) 前面有 can (could) 或 happen to。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I can guess what's going through your mind. 你心里想些什么，我都猜得出来。/ No one can guess the true reason. 真正的原因，谁都猜不出来。/ Most of the students happened to guess the right answer. 大多数学生猜中了正确的答案。</div>(d) 后面有名词宾语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>guess a riddle 猜一个谜 (比较 guess at a riddle 猜一个谜)</div><div class="ex-item">I had guessed the identity of her lover. 我猜出了她的情人是谁。</div>(e) 过去时后面没有下文。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How did you guess? 你是怎么猜出来的？</div>(f) 前面或后面有表示难易、正误等意义的词语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His age is hard to guess. 他的年龄很难猜得出来。/ He guessed right about some things. 他猜中了某些事情。/ She guessed wrong. 她猜错了。</div>(g) 一般过去时 (否定)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But still he did not guess. Nor did he—but in this case, how could he? —guess what had happened to Sarah when she left him the previous afternoon. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 尽管如此，可他并没有猜到。同样，他也并没有猜到前一天下午莎拉离开他后碰到了什么事——在这种心情下，他怎么可能想到那种事呢？</div>(h) 还可以从前后文的语义判断是“猜中”而不是推测。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... however obliquely Mrs. Poulteney approached the subject, she guessed what was coming. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 不论波尔蒂尼夫人怎样旁敲侧击地接近这一问题，她马上就可以猜到她的心思。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 有时候 guess 既不是“设法猜测”，也不是“猜中”，而只是“忖度” (即自已有定论，认为自己猜中了，但对于猜得对不对却不置可否)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The bishop's son was notoriously short of money and Charles guessed it was not Ernestina's looks he was envied. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 主教的儿子穷困潦倒，查尔斯心想，他嫉妒的绝不是欧内斯蒂娜的容貌。</div><br><br>
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guest
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>guest</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 旅馆的住客叫作 guest。参见 customer, client, guest 与 patron 条。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> be my guest 直译是“做我的客人吧”，但是往往用于对方并非自己客人的礼貌场合，例如请对方自便 (相当于 help yourself)，请对方先走 (相当于 after you，参见 after 条)，或是吃东西时礼让。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>— Here's the door. Who should go in first? — Be my guest. I'll wait out here. — 这就是门了。谁先进去？— 您先请。我在这外面等一会儿。/ — I would just love to have some more cake, but there is only one piece left. — Be my guest. — 哎真想再吃点蛋糕，但是只剩下一块了。— 你请便。— 好啊！谢谢你了！</div><br><br>
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guy
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>guy</b></div>口语中单数通常指男子，没有不尊重的意思，但正式书面语中较少用。复数则可以指有男有女的一群人。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>As for Mr. Symons' readers, they can't tell the good guys from the bad. (Mary Cantwell, in The New York Times Book Review, Mar. 20, 1983) 至于西蒙先生的读者们，他们是分不清好人与坏人的。尤其是 you 指复数的“你们”时，常说 you guys。偶尔单数时也有指一个女子的。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>“... I'm just a normal guy here,” she says. (Andrea Chambers, in People, Aug. 16, 1982) 她说：“……我只是这里的一个正常人。”</div><br><br>
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habit 与 custom
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>habit 与 custom</b></div>参见 custom 与 habit 条。<br><br>
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(had) better
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(had) better</b></div>had better inf. (注意不定式没有 to)是很常用的结构，但是它的用法和含义比较微妙。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 如果主语是 you，口气就比较强硬(比 should 和 ought to 重，但比 must 轻)，有点居高临下的“规劝，忠告，正告”的意思，甚至可能有点强制或威胁。使用时要小心。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You'd better do exactly as I say. 你还是一五一十照我说的办好。/ You'd better not complain! 你还是别埋怨的好!</div><div class="ex-item">You'd better help me. If you don't, there'll be trouble. 你还是给我帮帮忙好。你不帮，事情就麻烦了。</div><br><br>另外，在形式上，往往 you had 或 you'd 略去，只剩下 better。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Better do your homework right now. 你最好还是现在就做功课。主语是第一人称或第三人称时不可以省略，但 had 或其缩写形 'd 可以省略。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 以 I 为主语时，表示自己打算马上或者很快要做某事(不用于长远的计划)，是自言自语，但带有求对方理解或支持的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'd better go. 我该走了。/ It's seven o'clock. I'd better put the meat in the oven. 已经 7 点钟了。我该把肉放进炉子里去了。/ I'd better introduce myself. 让我来自我介绍吧。</div><br><br>但是要注意的是：这件“某事”如果是不特指的(用 a 来表示)，就不是客观已经存在的，而只是主观寻求或假设的。例如双方在打电话，甲觉得谈得太长了，不耐烦，就说 I have to go to a meeting now. It starts in five minutes. 但不可以说 <i>I'd better go to a meeting now. It starts in five minutes. 这是因为 had better 表示一种“寻求”，后面的 a meeting 并不是真正的客观存在(所以说“五分钟内开始”就不真实，听起来像是说谎)，而 have to 则表示这里 a meeting 是真正的客观存在。主语是 we 时，是建议对方和自己一起做某事。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We'd better go now. 咱们还是现在就走吧。此时可以加一个“附加疑问”(tag question)缓和语气：We'd better go now, hadn't we? 回答同意，可以说 Yes, we had. (不能说 </i>we'd) 或 Yes, we'd better. <span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We'd better not be late for the Ambassador's party. It would be unforgivable to arrive late. 大使的招待会咱们千万别晚到了。如果迟到，就是不可原谅的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 以第三人称为主语，表示说话者认为主语所指的人应该如何如何。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He'd better take his medicine regularly. 他应该准时服药。/ Lisa decided she'd better smile back. 丽莎决定还是报以微笑为妥。同第一、第二人称作主语的情况不同，以第三人称作主语时，可以把主动句转换成被动句。也就是说，第一、第二人称作主语时，had better 属于“主语意向”(subject orientation)；而第三人称作主语时，had better 可以属于“话语意向”(discourse orientation)，亦即这个“最好如何如何”可以“替主语所指的某人着想，对主语所指的某人提出强烈要求”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They'd better buy me a Christmas present or I shall never forgive them. 他们识相就买一件圣诞礼物给我，要不然我永远不会原谅他们。也可以转换为被动式，原来的直接宾语变为主语，此时就不是专门替某个人着想(即不再是“主语意向”)，只是泛泛指出“最好如何如何”(即变成了“话语意向”)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We conclude that agriculture had better be included in the goods chapter. 我们的结论是，农业最好列在商品一章中。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> had better 没有“比……更……”的意思，不能用来做比较。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>*I had better rest at home than go out in the rain. 我宁可待在家里，也不冒雨出门。这一句应该改为 I would rather rest at home than go out in the rain. 或者 I had better rest at home instead of going out in the rain.</div><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 也有不用 better 而用 best 的，但是这个用法带有一点古旧气息(同中文的“最好”倒是不谋而合)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You had best go home early. 你最好还是早点回家。否定形式是 had best not go; 疑问形式是 "had/hadn't + 主语 + best go ..."。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> had better inf. 的否定形式通常是 had better not inf.，也就是说，had better 这个表示“应该”的意义不受否定，而只是否定后面的 inf.。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You had better not go today. 你今天最好别去。有人用 hadn't better inf.，这在一般情况下是不正确的；但是，如果对方先说了 had better inf.，你要纠正他，说他说得不对，却可以采用 hadn't better inf. 的结构，意思是对 had better 加以否定，一直否定到动词不定式。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—We'd better leave now. —No, we hadn't better leave now—we've still got a lot of work to do. ——咱们现在最好走吧。——不，咱们现在走不好。还有许多活要干呢。如果说 We had better not leave now. 那就是双方都一致认为有必要采取某种行动，只是在采取什么行动这一点上双方相反，一个是耍走，一个是不走。</div><br><br>had better inf. 如果又是否定又是疑问句，就有“建议(做某事)”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>And now had we better not descend? (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 咱们现在是否可以下去了?</div><div class="ex-item">"Had we better not go and see who it is?" said she, "the servants are out." "I think we had," replied I. (Jane Austen, Love and Friendship, in Jane Austen's Complete Novels) “咱们去看看是谁好吗?”她说，“仆人们都已经走了。”“我看咱们该去一下。”我回答说。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> wonder 之类的动词(参见 wonder 条)，有时候后面的 whether 或 if 从句形式上是否定而实际上是肯定。此时可以说 hadn't better inf.，实际意义是 had better inf.，此时反而不能用 *had better not inf.，因为形式上的否定应该落在 had better 上。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I wonder if we hadn't better call him before we leave. 我觉得咱们是不是走之前最好给他打个电话。</div><br><br>
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hadn't + pp. before ...
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>hadn't + pp. before ...</b></div>中文“发生 X 事之时，已经发生了 Y 事”，但是英文可以反过来说“发生 Y 事之时，X 事尚未发生”。Y 事之发生，是全句的核心信息，放在句末，顺理成章；中文如此，其实英文也如此 (before ... 也放在 hadn't pp. 之后)。只是中文句子中，“发生 X 事之时”明显只是个区区的时间状语，而英文却把 hadn't + pp. 提升为句子的主句，作为核心信息的 Y 事却只占时间状语从句 (before ...) 的次要语法地位。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Your Majesty had not spoken before I was aware that I was addressing ... (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes) 陛下还未开口之时，我就已经知道，我面前对话的这位，是……</div><div class="ex-item">It (= the landau) hadn't pulled up before she shot out of the hall and into it. (ibid.) 马车还未停住，她就从厅堂冲了出来，登上马车。</div><br><br>
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had + pp.
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>had + pp.</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> had + pp. 是动词过去完成时的标志。这个时态的动词 (动词甲) 在时间上，相对于另一个过去的时间参照点 (表示事件或状态的动词乙的一般过去时)，可以有几种不同的意义：(a) 动词甲是个瞬时动态动词 (事件而非状态)，表示甲事件发生在乙事件或状态之前，两者之间有一段或长或短的时间距离。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>When I arrived she had just left. 我到达时她刚走了。/ He had lost his case and had to borrow Tom's pyjamas. 他丢了箱子，只好借汤姆的睡衣穿。本来，表示事件的现在完成时不可以同表示确切时间点的时间状语连用 (不可以说 *He has left at 4:00 p.m.)，但是过去完成时却可以。说 He had left at 4:00 p.m. (因为 he had left 既可以是 he has left 向过去移动一格，也可以是 he left 向过去移动一格，而后者可以加上明确的时间)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The present storm had been born five days ago in the ice of the Colorado mountains. (Arthur Hailey, Airport) 当前这场暴风雪是五天前从科罗拉多山脉上的结冰处那里发源的。动词甲由于是瞬时动作，所以不可以同表示时间段的 for 或 since 连用。</div>(b) 动词甲是个延续的状态动词 (第一类动词) 或延续的活动动词 (第二类动词)，表示甲状态或动作一直延续到乙事件或状态之时，而且此后可能继续下去，继续与否可以交代，也可以不交代 (动词甲可以同表示时间段的 for 或 since 一起连用)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Bill was in uniform when I met him. He had been a soldier for ten years (since he was seventeen), and planned to stay in the army till he was thirty. 我结识比尔时他穿着军服。他参军已经 10 年了 (他从 17 岁起就参军了)，还计划留在部队里一直到 30 岁为止。</div>(c) 动词甲是个延续状态动词 (第一类或第二类)，但是甲状态刚刚延续到乙事件或状态出现之时就结束了 (动词甲可以同表示时间段的 for 或 since 一起连用)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The old oak tree, which had stood in the churchyard for 300 years (since before the church was built), suddenly crashed to the ground. 那棵在教堂院子里耸立了 300 年的 (早在教堂兴建之前就一直耸立在那里的) 老橡树，猛然倒塌到地面上。/ Peter, who had waited for an hour (since ten o'clock), was very angry with his sister when she eventually turned up. 彼得等了一个钟头 (从十点钟起就在等候)，等到他妹妹终于来到时，他生气得很。</div>(d) 动词甲是个第一类或第二类动词，但是甲状态或动作早在乙事件或状态出现之前就结束了，两者之间有一段时间距离 (由于有时间距离，只能用 for，不能用表示“直到某时仍不止”的 since)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He had served in the army for ten years; then he retired and married. His children were now at school. 他在部队服役了 10 年，然后退伍结婚了。他的孩子们当时都上学了。而且，如果时间坐标轴往现在移动一格，His children were now at school. 变为 His children are now at school. 则前面的 had served 不能变为 has served，只能变为一般过去时 served。整个例子要改为：He served in the army for ten years; then he retired and married. His children are now at school.</div>(e) 动词甲表示对客观情况的“估计”或主观的“计划，打算，表态”，动词乙 (本来应该以一般过去时出现) 则往往不明言出现。动词甲的过去完成时态，表示这个估计、打算或表态由于事态后来的发展，已经失效 (中文可以用“本来”来表示没有实现)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I had thought in my life I had witnessed all things. (Khartoum, a film on British TV, 1972) 我本来以为自己这一辈子什么都看见过了。(其实想得不对，如果将 had thought 改为 thought，则表示可能想得对也可能想得不对。)<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>“You promised (*had promised) to tell me your history, you know,” said Alice. (Lewis Carroll, Alice in Wonderland) “你答应过要讲你的故事，你知道。”艾丽丝说。这里的 promised 不能改为 had promised，因为到说话时为止对方并没有食言。/ “I had planned to introduce him tonight by sharing his impressive curriculum vitae. However ... An audience member has just handed me a far more, shall we say ... intriguing introduction.” (Dan Brown, The Da Vinci Code) “我本来计划今天晚上介绍他时宣读他那份了不起的简历。但是……一位听众刚刚递给我一份，怎么说呢，一份更为引人入胜的介绍材料。”</div>(f) 上述 (e) 项中的动词乙，是一个表示后来变化的动态动词 (第四类动词)，假如出现的话，要采用一般过去时。但是还有一种情况是：动词乙所表示的不是瞬时的变化，而是后来新出现的、一直到现在还保持着的延续状态 (或反复动作)，它的出现，否定了动词甲 (had + pp.) 原先所表示的状态。此时，动词乙就同 (e) 中所说的不同，不以一般过去时，而是以一般现在时的时态出现。这时候就形成动词甲以过去完成时而动词乙以一般现在时出现的特殊搭配现象。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I often go to the club with my friends. We have lunch there and play billiards. I had never played (*I have never played) billiards because in my country women are not allowed to do so. 我常常同朋友们一起到俱乐部去。我们在那里吃中饭，打弹子球。我原先从来没有打过弹子球，因为在我的国家，妇女是不能打的。</div><br><br>有时候动词乙也可以以一般过去时的时态出现，对动词甲起否定作用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>2009 年 2 月，美国某个生产花生酱的公司宣布破产，原先曾考虑援引《破产法》第 11 章，减少债务并继续营业；但是经过考虑，知道问题严重，只好援引该法第 7 章，最终彻底倒闭。有关的消息说：The board had considered a Chapter 11 bankruptcy but decided on an outright liquidation. 董事会原先曾考虑采取该法第 11 章的破产方式，但是后来决定彻底清算。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> had + pp. 如果与一个表示具体时间点的时间状语一起出现，有两种不同的意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He had arrived at six o'clock. 这里的 at six o'clock 可以是修饰 had arrived 的时间状语 (另一相对的后来时间点或事件没有明言)，此时全句意义是“他原先六点钟就到达了”。但是 at six o'clock 也可以是同 had arrived 相对作为参照的另一个 (后来的) 时间点，此时全句意义是“六点钟之前他就已经到达了”。后一种情况，也可以理解为这个 had arrived 不知何时造成并留下一种“延续状态”，而到了六点钟这个时间点时，这个状态仍然存在着 (先前不知何时起开始存在，后来也存在到不知何时)。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 一般语法书关于过去完成时的用法是：以某个过去的事件 (用一般过去时表达) 为准，如果另一事件发生在它之前，就要用过去完成时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>When I arrived, he had already gone home. 我到达时他已经离开回家了。但是如果不需要如此强调一先一后，往往可以不用过去完成时而用一般过去时。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He asked me when we came (*had come). 他问我们是什么时候来的。法国小说家莫泊桑的小说《皮埃尔和让》中一个人对另一个人说自己是医生。既然说了，这个“说”就成了过去，对方说“你原先没有告诉我”，就是“过去的过去”，但是英译本却仍然用一般过去时：You never told me. 而没有译为 You had never told me. 这样也不至于造成误解，因为谁都不会明明刚刚听到又马上说对方没有说，这个“没有说”只是就对方告知此事之前而言。</div><br><br>类似的情况还有：谈到一个重访波士顿，说 He hadn't been in Boston for a long time. (他很久没有到过波士顿了。) 其实他现在已经身在波士顿，“没有到过波士顿”的状态刚刚已经结束。如果他这次没有来波士顿，而是停留在别处，也同样是 He hadn't been in Boston for a long time. 可见刚刚结束的状态，往往在说话中反映不出这个“结束”来。这在中英文中都有相同之处。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> had + pp. 可以在用一般过去时叙述了一段事情的经过之后，用来总结其结果。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was thus that a look unseen by these ladies did at last pass between Sarah and Charles. It was very brief, but it spoke worlds; two strangers had recognized they shared a common enemy. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 就这样，莎拉和查尔斯终于在她们不注意的当口交换了一下目光。那是短暂的一瞥，但却包含了千言万语。两个陌生人终于发现，他们有着共同的敌人。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> had + pp. 可以以倒装形式出现在条件从句的句首，不用 if，表示对过去违反事实的假设。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Had he (= Al Gore) ... been elected president in the first place in the year 2000, and then gotten a second term—he would be there as the outgoing President of the United States. (ABC News anchor Charles Gibson, Jan. 20, 2009, at Barack Obama's inauguration) 假如他 (阿尔·戈尔) 2000 年就当选了总统然后连任，他参加这个就职典礼，身份就会是卸任的美国总统了。</div><br><br>如果否定，not 要放在 had 之后、主语之前。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But perhaps his deduction would have remained at the state of a mere suspicion, had not his hostess delivered herself of a characteristic Poulteneyism. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 不过，要不是他的女主人表现了典型的波尔蒂尼主义，他的推理便会仍旧停留在猜测阶段。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> had + pp. 在语速较快的口语中，常常不单独清楚地说出，而是往往失去辅音 /h/ 而同前面的主语 (尤其是疑问词) 合在一起。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Dan had /dænəd/ already left. 丹已经走了。/ The cars had /'kɑːzəd/ stopped. 那些车子停住了。/ Who had /huːd/ already left? 谁已经走了？/ What had /'wɒtəd/ you been doing? 你在干什么？</div><br><br>
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had to inf.
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>had to inf.</b></div>had to inf. 是 have to inf. 的过去时，但是意义有些变化。have to inf. 由于是现在时，只能表示一种“必须” (主要是外加的，不同于 must)，事情肯定还没有真正实行 (此时 have to 是表示延续状态的第一类动词)。如 I have to go to bed. 只是表示要去睡觉，但是还没有真正上床去睡觉。过去时 had to inf. 就有些不同，它可以仅仅是一个必要性的表述 (此时它是 have to inf. 的纯粹过去对应)，但也可以是“有此必要而且事实上也做了” (此时 had to 就是表示瞬时动作的第四类动词，这就同现在时的 have to inf. 不完全对应)。<br><br>如果放在 that 从句中，主句是一个表白或看法，通常 had to inf. 是延续状态的“有此必要但尚未实行”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I realized I had to make a change. 我认识到自己应该做出一个改变。/ By Jove! He had to hurry if he was going to catch that train home. (Katherine Mansfield, The Man Without a Temperament, in Collected Stories of Katherine Mansfield) 哎哟！他得赶紧，要不然就赶不上回家的火车了。(有了 if，表明这是一个判断句，不是叙事句，事情尚未发生。)</div>但是如果没有提到任何表白或看法，had to inf. 通常就是瞬时动作的“有此必要而且实行了”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Yet that's just what Congress had to do recently, when it passed an unprecedented financial stabilization plan ... (Sen. Mitch McConnell in KyPost, Oct. 10, 2008) 但这正是国会最近不得不做的事，它通过了一个史无前例的金融稳定计划……</div><div class="ex-item">But if I think about how I have been able to navigate some pretty tricky situations in my life, it has to do with the fact that I had to learn to trust my own judgment; I had to learn to fight for what I wanted. (Barack Obama, in Newsweek, Aug. 23, 2008) 但是如果想到我自己是如何在生活中应付一些十分棘手的局面的，这就要牵涉到一件事实，就是我不得不学会相信自己的判断；我不得不学会为自己所想要得到的东西去努力争取。</div><br><br>有时候，可以从动词时态或事件的先后对比，看出事情究竟实行了没有。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Since he had to (尚未实行) finish the work quickly, he stepped up the pace. 由于他必须迅速把工作做完，他就加快了进度。/ He was tired, since he had to (已经实行) run up to the house. 他很累，因为他不得不快步跑到那栋房子去。/ I know the girl in question. I had to (已经实行) dismiss her. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 那姑娘我是有数的，我不得不辞退她。</div><br><br>但是下面的例子，可以从前后文看出 had to 只是主观意愿而非实际发生的动作：I know about rejection letters. When I was 17, I simply had to go to Yale. I sent a blizzard of short stories to the admissions office. I even talked my way into a weeklong internship at the Yale Daily News. ... When I was accepted at Brown and not Yale, I couldn't believe I had to settle for the "doormat of the Ivy League," as some unkind soul dubbed it. (U.S. News & World Report, September 2009, p. 48) 对于拒信，我是深有体会的。我 17 岁的时候，一心一意要去耶鲁。我给招生办公室寄去了一大堆短篇故事。我甚至凭自己三寸不烂之舌挤进《耶鲁每日新闻》当了一个星期的实习生。……我被布朗大学录取了，但是耶鲁没有录取我，当时我简直不能相信，自己竟然只好屈居“常春藤联盟的门前擦鞋垫” (这是好事者给布朗大学起的绰号)。<br><br>
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hair
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>hair</b></div>通常是不可数名词，只用单数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His hair is black. 他的头发是黑色的。但是也可以作为可数名词指一根根的头发。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>So why has he got two blonde hairs on his jacket? 那么为什么他外套上有两根金色头发呢？</div><br><br>
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half
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>half</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 整数再加一半的量，例如三个半月，可以说 three months and a half，也可以说 three and a half months。有一种说法，认为不可以说 three months and a half，只可以说 three and a half months，但是实际语言中似乎没有这样的禁忌。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>three pounds and a half of butter 三磅半的黄油</div><div class="ex-item">It is more than three centuries and a half since Ferdinand Magellan observed that the moon, during a solar eclipse, was not perfectly opaque. 麦哲伦早在三个半世纪之前就已经观察到，在一次日食中，月球并不是完全晦暗的。</div><br><br>如果前面的整数是一，则 half 放在名词前时这个“一”用 one 来表达 (名词用复数，整个数量在句中作复数处理)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>One and a half years have passed since we last met. 距离我们上次见面，已经过了一年半了。half 放在名词后时这个“一”用 a 来表达 (名词用单数，整个数量在句中作单数处理)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A year and a half has passed since we last met. 距离我们上次会面，已经过了一年半了。/ Even an ocean and a half away, you are with me always. 尽管相隔一个半大洋，你依然与我同在。但是偶尔也有不用 a 而用 one 的。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>one year and a half 一年半。甚至有在 half 前不用 a 而用 one 的。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>three and one half centuries 三个半世纪。如果是特指的，前面的整数词前加 the，但后面的 half 前仍然用 a。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the year and a half of their marriage 他们结婚的一年半。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> half of + 名词成分，of 可以略去。如果名词是不可数的，整个 half 词组当作单数处理。如果名词是可数的复数形式，整个 half 词组当作复数处理。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Half (of) the money has been spent. 钱已经花掉了一半。/ At least half (of) her remarks were uncalled for. 她提的意见起码有一半是不必要的。但是这个名词成分必须是特指的，例如不能说 *Half money has been spent.</div>half 后面是代词，也可以没有 of。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Just over half that went toward initialcosts for Homecare California. (<i>Money</i>, Mar. 2012, p. 42) 该款项的一半以上用作加州家庭医疗公司的创办费用。</div><br><br>除了 half，凡是表示几分之一的名词成分，它后面接上另一个名词成分时，当中都可以不加 of。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a quarter (of) the time otherwise needed 本来所需时间的四分之一</div><div class="ex-item">one fifth (of) the money paid 所付金额的五分之一。倍数一律不加 of。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>three times (*of) what is necessary 所需的三倍时间。但是如果是百分比，of 则不可以省略。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>twenty percent of the original amount 原先数量的 20%。</div><br><br>某个量本身的一半，half 后可以有 of 也可以没有；但如果不是本身分出的一半而是“相当于”另一个量的一半，则不可以有 of。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>For less than half (<i>of) the budget of the other summer movies, we're making a first-class motion picture with a better or equal quality of visual effects. (</i>Film Scouts, Spawn: About the Production*) 我们只用了别的暑期档影片预算的一半不到，但我们正在摄制的这一部一流影片视觉效果更好或者相等。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 可以说 “a half + 可数名词单数” 或 “half a + 可数名词单数”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a half hour 或 half an hour 半个小时</div><div class="ex-item">a half loaf 或 half a loaf 半条面包。(前者更好些，但是不能说 *a half of a loaf。)</div><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 把一件东西一切为二，按照逻辑，本来应该说 cut something in halves，但是实际语言中通常却说 cut something in half。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 把一个数量减去一半 (剩下一半)，是 reduce by half。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> not half + adj. 是 “一点也不……” 的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The players are not half bad. 选手们一点也不差。要注意：否定只能用 not，放在 half 之前。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The sherry isn't half bad. 雪利酒一点也不差。但不可以说：<i>None of the sherry is half bad. 或是 </i>I doubt that the sherry is half bad.</div>
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hand
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>hand</b></div>hand 前面加上表示 “好” “坏” 等的形容词，可以构成一些习语：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> play/have a good/fine hand of 是 “玩得一手好……” 或 “做得一手好……”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He plays a good hand of bridge. 他打得一手好桥牌。/ He had a fine hand of writing. 他写得一手好字。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> have a good/bad hand of 也是赌场或游戏中拿到一手好牌或坏牌。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A Danish proverb says that "Life does not consist in holding a good hand of cards, but in playing a poor hand well." 有句丹麦谚语说：“生活并不在于手里掌握着一手好牌，而是在于牌不好但玩得好。”</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 还可以表示售卖价钱的高低。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You buy things at the best hand. 你买的东西价钱最便宜。/ He always buys things at the worst hand. 他买的东西，价钱总是最贵的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> be in good/capable hands 是 “正在得到良好的/可靠的照顾”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The patient is now in capable hands. 病人现在已经得到良好的治疗。</div><br><br>
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hang
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>hang</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作 “悬挂” 解，过去式和过去分词都是 hung；作 “吊死；绞死” 解，过去式和过去分词都是 hanged 或者 hung。式和过去分词都是 hanged 或者 hung。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作 “悬挂” 解，还有及物与不及物之分。(a) 作为及物动词，表示主语 (某人) 将某物悬挂在某处，是表示瞬时动作的第四类动词，悬挂所着力的依靠由 from 或 on 引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>hang a lamp from the ceiling 把一盏灯挂到天花板下</div><div class="ex-item">hang the coat on a hook 把外套挂在钩子上</div><div class="ex-item">He hung his raincoat up behind the door. 他把雨衣挂在门后面。/ Please hang the calendar on that nail. 请把挂历挂在那颗钉子上。如果直接宾语是多件事物，动作可能变成延续的，转为第二类动词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She is in the garden, hanging the washing out. 她正在花园晾衣服。此外，“悬挂” 的动作也可以延长为一段时间，然后最终完成，此时 hang 也可以转为第三类动词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It took them just a few minutes to hang the signboard over the entrance. 他们花了几分钟，就把招牌挂到了大门上方。</div>(b) 但是 hang 作为及物动词，还有一个意义和用法 (也是表示瞬时动作的第四类动词)，就是以地点为直接宾语，悬挂的东西改为用 with 引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>hang curtains on a window 或 hang the window with curtains 在窗上挂上帘子</div><div class="ex-item">They hung Chinese lanterns on the trees. 或 They hung the trees with Chinese lanterns. 他们在树上挂上了灯笼。</div><br><br>这个用法，常常采取被动语态，此时谓语不表示 “发生了什么被动变化” (即第四类动词)，而是表示 “处于什么状态” (第一类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The streets were hung with flags. 街道上悬挂着旗子。/ The room is hung with pictures. 房间里挂着一些相片。</div>(c) 作为不及物动词，hang 通常表示延续状态，属于第一类动词 (但如果是一时而非永久的悬挂，可以有进行时态)。主语是悬挂着的物件。悬挂所着力的依靠，用介词 on 或 from；不是着力依靠的位置，按通常的表示位置所在的情况使用介词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Her pictures are now hanging in several art galleries. 她的画悬挂在好几个美术画廊内。/ Thick curtains hung at the window. 窗口挂着厚厚的帘子。/ Thick curtains hung over the window. 窗口上方挂着厚厚的帘子。/ Sparkling jewels hung from her ears. 她的耳朵上戴着闪闪发亮的宝石。</div><br><br>也可以颠倒词序 (地点状语 + hang + 主语)，形成 “存在句”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>On the back wall hung the room's only picture—a photograph of the current justices. (Brad Meltzer, <i>The Tenth Justice</i>) 最里面的墙上挂着房间唯一的一张相片，是现任全体大法官的合影。</div>(d) 作为不及物动词 (仍然是表示延续状态的第一类动词)，hang over something 可以表示 “高悬在某物之上”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The branches hung over the fence. 树枝高悬在篱笆上方。/ A huge rock hung over the stream. 溪水上方高悬着一块巨石。</div><br><br>转作抽象意义，可以表示 “笼罩；萦绕”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The danger of a coup d'état still hangs over the country. 政变的危险仍然笼罩着这个国家。/ There's a problem hanging over me. 我有一个伤脑筋的问题。</div><br><br>
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happen
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>happen</b></div>这个动词本身是瞬间的，它只可以叙述瞬间事件，不能叙述延续状态。所以不可以说：<i>John was sick. This happened while he traveled to Chicago. 这是因为 was sick 是个延续状态。要改为：John got sick. This happened while he traveled to Chicago. 约翰病倒了。那发生在他去芝加哥的途中。可以说：</i>John was sick. This happened while he traveled to Chicago. 这是因为 was sick 是个延续状态。要改为：John got sick. This happened while he traveled to Chicago. 约翰病倒了。那发生在他去芝加哥的途中。<br><br>
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happen to inf.
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>happen to inf.</b></div>这个 happen，在意义上实际相当于一个副词，对动词不定式加以修饰，增添一点 “恰巧” 的色调。此时，后面的动词不定式可以是一个表示瞬时动作的第四类动词，也可以是一个表示延续状态的第一类动词或是表示延续动作的第二类动词，而 happen 的 “体”，也就随着后面的动词不定式而定，或是第四类动词，或是第一类、第二类动词。也就是说，前后两个动词，“体” 都是一致的，以后一个动词为准。<br><br>前后都是第四类动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I happened to bump into him in the hallway. 我恰巧在走廊同他面对面碰着了。/ Did you happen to see her leave Wednesday? 你星期三看见她离开了吗? (see 本来不一定是第四类动词，但被后面的第四类动词 leave 所决定，也 “同化” 为第四类动词，再往前一步把 happen 也 “同化” 为第四类动词。)</div>前后都是第一类动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I happen to be an aficionado of the opera. 我又恰巧是歌剧爱好者。/ He happens to own half the land round here. 恰巧他又拥有这一带一半的土地。(这两个例句 happen 都用一般现在时，说明了它在这里是个第一类动词，因为后面的 be 和 own 都是第一类动词。)</div>前后都是第二类动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The message made him so angry on first reading it that he threw a glass he happened to be holding against the nearest wall and shattered it. 这个通知，他一看见就气上心头，把手上拿着的玻璃杯往最近处的墙上一扔，摔得粉碎。</div><br><br>
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hard
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>hard</b></div>既可以表示软硬的 “硬”，也可以表示难易的 “难”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... it's a hard pill to swallow. (<i>U.S. News & World Report</i>, Dec. 24, 2007, p. 54) 这里的 hard，不是 “硬”，全句不是 “这是一粒要吞下去的硬药丸”。hard 不是说 pill，而是说 to swallow，真实意思是 hard to swallow (难以咽下)，但是 hard 放到了 pill 前，尽管它同 to swallow 的关系是难解难分的。英语这样的句法结构，语言学上称为 tough construction (“难易” 结构)。</div><br><br>
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hardly
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>hardly</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> hardly 最基本的意义是准否定 (“几乎不”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Hardly a day goes by without her paying us a visit. 她几乎没有哪一天不来看看我们。/ I could hardly believe my eyes. 我几乎不能相信自己的眼睛。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 但是从这个意义出发，又延伸出 “勉强” (差一点就几乎达不到) 这个意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's hardly ten minutes since you came in. 你进来还不到十分钟呢。</div><br><br>再进一步延伸，就出现时间先后上的 “刚刚，仅仅” 的意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It seemed to him that he had hardly arrived. (John Fowles, <i>The French Lieutenant's Woman</i>) 可是他觉得才来了一会儿。再延伸为前后呼应的结构 hardly ... when/before ...，是 “……就……” (可以理解为 “当后面这件事情发生之时，前面那件事情刚刚发生”)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She had hardly come home when/before she started to complain. 她一回到家，就马上开始发牢骚。hardly 如果在句首，主语和谓语要颠倒。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Hardly had she left when John arrived. 她刚离开，约翰就来到了。凡是用这样的结构，信息中心总是在 when 引导的从句而不在 hardly 所在的主句中 (这个主句只不过提供一个时间上的参照点)。</div><br><br>但是有人误以 than 代替 when/before，可能是受到了 no sooner ... than ... 的影响。这种误用，连一些大作家也难以避免。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Hardly had she brought one gentleman into the little pantry behind the office on the ground floor and helped him off with his overcoat than the wheezy hall-door bell clanged again ... (James Joyce, <i>The Dead</i>) 她刚刚把一位先生带进楼下办公室后面的配餐室，帮他脱下大衣，大门那个门铃就又丁零零响起来了……</div><br><br>
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hard-pressed
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>hard-pressed</b></div>作定语，按照词典的解释是表示 “处境困难的”，尤其是资金短缺、周转不灵。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Hard-pressed hotels are lowering their prices. 周转不灵的旅馆在降低价格。</div><br><br>在实际语言运用中常常指一般的 “难以达到某目的的”，尤其是作表语，后面加上动词不定式，对这个动词不定式有否定意义 (不要按照字面意义理解为 “被迫使劲去做某事”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You'd be hard-pressed to get there by five o'clock. 你会很难在五点钟以前赶到那边。/ This year the airlines will be hard-pressed to make a profit. 今年各航空公司将难以获得盈利。</div><br><br>但是，作表语的 hard-pressed，后面如果没有动词不定式，则与作前置定语时同义 (“处于困境的，周转不灵的”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The American farmers in our county were quite as hard-pressed as their neighbours from other countries. (Willa Cather, <i>My Antonia</i>) 我们县的美国农民，几乎同来自其他国家的邻居们一样手头拮据。</div><br><br>要注意：不能把 hard-pressed 理解为动词 hard-press 的过去分词，因为 hard-press 这个动词是不存在的。hard-pressed 没有被动意义，也没有瞬时意义，纯粹作为一个形容词起作用，所以 be hard-pressed 可以有一般现在时，用于判断句 (带有否定意义) 而非叙事句。<br><br>动词短语 press hard 却是存在的，意思是 “大力推动，努力敦促”，同形容词 hard-pressed 的意思相差较多。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... the U.S. is pressing hard to conclude the 6th round of talks. (<i>Chiangmai Mail</i>, June 24-30, 2006) ……美国正在努力促早日结束第六轮谈判。/ As with Georgia's western-oriented leader, Yushchenko has infuriated Moscow by pressing hard and very publicly for his country to join the NATO alliance. (<i>U.S. News & World Report</i>, Sept. 15-22, 2008, p. 32) 同格鲁吉亚那个向西方靠拢的领导人一样，尤申科大力而且十分公开地推动他的国家加入北约联盟，这激怒了俄罗斯政府。</div><br><br>
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hare 与 rabbit
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>hare 与 rabbit</b></div>参见 rabbit 与 hare 条。<br><br>
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has-been
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>has-been</b></div>是个从变位动词转变而成的名词 (复数 has-beens)，意思是 “得意者，成功者”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><i>Broadway Danny Rose</i> is about the has-beens and never-wases of showbiz to whom, in spite of his success, Woody Allen still feels close. (<i>The Guardian Weekly</i>, Aug. 26, 1984) 《百老汇的丹尼·罗斯》是关于演艺业曾经的得意者和失意者的电影，而尽管伍迪·艾伦自己是个成功人物，对于这些人他仍然感到亲切。</div><br><br>
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... has it that ...
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>... has it that ...</b></div>这个惯用词组，前面是个无冠词的单数名词，最常见的是 rumor (谣传)、legend (传说)、word (传闻) 等，也有其他一些表示信息来源的名词，意思是 “有谣传说” 之类。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Rumor has it that the director is going to resign. 谣传主任要辞职了。/ American agricultural history has it that Louisiana's sugar industry began in 1794. 据美国农业史记载，路易斯安那地区的制糖工业发轫于 1794 年。</div><br><br>
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haste 与 hurry
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>haste 与 hurry</b></div>这两个同义词，意义相近，都可以表示 “匆忙” 甚至 “草率”。但是 haste 除了负面的 “草率” 之外，还可以表示中性的 “连忙”，hurry 则通常带有 “草率” 的贬义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I was in such haste (<i>hurry) to be here before you went to bed. (John Fowles, </i>The French Lieutenant's Woman*) 我是急着在你睡觉前赶回来呀。</div><br><br>
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hate
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>hate</b></div>宾语是人时，表示 “恨”，是比较强烈的反感。但是用于日常事务时，则只是一般的 “不喜欢，讨厌”，到不了 “恨” 的地步。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I hate spinach. 我不喜欢吃菠菜。/ He hates being laughed at. 他讨厌人家笑他。</div><br><br>要注意的是：hate 后面可以是动名词，也可以是动词不定式，但是用动名词时，通常是指习惯性的 “不喜欢做某事”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I hate waiting in line. 我很讨厌排队。如果不是习惯性而是一时的事，就最好不要用动名词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I hate to think (*hate thinking) what would have happened if you hadn't been there. 我真不敢设想，假如你当时不在那里，会出现怎么样的情况。但是如果后面又出现另一个不定式时，hate 后面可以不用动词不定式而用动名词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I hate having to ask you to keep silent. 我本来不想请您保持沉默。</div><br><br>hate to inf. 常常用来表示 “自己本来不想向对方提出某要求，但仍然不得不提出”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I hate to ask you for money yet again ... but could you lend me $10? 我本来不愿意再向您要钱了……不过您能借给我 10 美元吗?</div><div class="ex-item">I hate to say it, but I don't think their marriage will last. 我本来不想说，不过我还是觉得他们这场婚姻长不了。</div><br><br>此外，如果 “经常讨厌” 的对象是某个情况，这个情况可以用 it when ... 引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I really hate it when she talks to me in that tone. 我很不喜欢她拿那样的腔调对我说话。/ I hate it when people phone me so late at night. 我很讨厌人家半夜三更给我打电话。如果 “经常讨厌” 的对象是某个地点或某个时节，也可以用 it 来作宾语，加上该地点或时节的状语。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I hate it on that island. 我不喜欢那个岛。/ I hate it in winter. 我不喜欢过冬天。</div><br><br>另外，hate 后面可以有名词成分再加动词不定式或动名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'd hate anything to happen to my friend. 我不希望我的朋友出什么事情。/ He hates anyone parking in his space. 他很讨厌任何人占用他的停车位。anything to happen to my friend. 我不希望我的朋友出什么事情。/ He hates anyone parking in his space. 他很讨厌任何人占用他的停车位。</div><br><br>
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hatred
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>hatred</b></div>后面接 of 表示讨厌的对象。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>hatred of foreign troops in the country 对驻在本国的外国军队的讨厌。</div><br><br>有时候后面也可以用 for。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>hatred among the local people for the occupation troops 当地人民对占领军的讨厌。</div><br><br>
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(have a) heart
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(have a) heart</b></div>是央求对方通融的话。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Have a heart, officer. I wasn't going all so fast. 警官，通融一下吧。我并没有开这么快。</div><br><br>
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have got
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>have got</b></div>参见 have³ 条。<br><br>
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(have got) another thought coming
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(have got) another thought coming</b></div>have got another thought coming 是一个来历很复杂的说法。最原先是 have gotanother <b>thing</b> coming，意思是“得到与所追求的大不相同的结果；大失所望”。例如 20 世纪 40 年代的电影描写黑社会帮匪互相争夺地盘的对白：You got away with it this time, but if you think you're gonna keep stealing from Mr. XX, you <b>got another thing coming</b>. 这次你是得逞了，但你如果以为可以一直偷 XX 先生的东西，那你就大错特错了。但是有人认为 thing 意义不明确，就改为 think (作名词用)，意义是“产生另一种想法，由于发现情况与所追求的相反而产生另一种想法；大失所望”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Young man, if you think I'm not aware of what you did last night, you'<b>ve got another think coming</b>. 年轻人，如果你以为我不知道你昨天夜里干了些什么，那你就大错特错了。但是有人指出，think 作为名词很不自然，所以就有人把 think 改为 thought。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They cannot hold the president of the United States hostage. If they think they're going to rewrite this bill and Barack Obama is going to walk away from what he is trying to do for the American people, they'<b>ve got another thought coming</b>. 他们不能劫持美国总统。他们如果以为自己可以改写这个法案，以为奥巴马会放弃自己力图为美国人民造福的措施，那么，他们就大错特错了。</div><br><br>
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(have) got (to)
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(have) got (to)</b></div>have got to 其实是在 have to 当中加了一个 got，意义同 have to 是一样的：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> “必须”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We've all got to get up early tomorrow. 我们大家明天都要早起。(后面的动词不定式是瞬时的动态动词)</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> “一定是”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You've got to be kidding. 你一定是在开玩笑吧。/ It's got to be there! 它一定在那那边！(后面的动词不定式是延续的状态动词) (参见 have 条)</div>
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have + pp.
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>have + pp.</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 动词的现在完成时，通常表示新知信息，而且很重要的一点是这个新知信息重心正落在动词本身上面。如果该动词本身所指的动作或事件是已知信息，新知信息的重心不在此而落在其他成分上，通常就不要用现在完成时，而改用一般过去时。例如如果已经知道某人受了伤，此时问他如何受的伤，新知信息的重心就在 “怎样” (how) 上，而不是在已经知道的 get a bruise 上，就不要说 <i>How have you gotthat bruise? 而要说 How did you get that bruise? 但是如果 how 的情状同发生事情的动词在意义上连成一体，这个动词单独说明不了情况，则新知信息落在这个整体意义上，how 疑问句仍然可以用现在完成时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How have you contributed to the Katrina relief effort? 你对卡特里娜飓风救灾工作有何贡献? 又例如看见一幅画，既然画已经存在，“画” 的动作 (to paint) 就必然是已经发生过的事，如果有所提问，问的当然不可能是 “画了没有”，而只能是 “谁画的” “怎样画的” “何时画的” 等等，所以下面这个疑问句中，动词 paint 只能用一般过去时，不能用现在完成时: That's a nice picture. Did you paint it yourself? (那幅画很好看。是你自己画的吗?) 如果说 Have you painted it yourself? 意思就变成 “你自己把画画了没有?” 用 it 作引词 (anticipatory) 的强调句型 (断裂句) 中，原先的谓语动词如果是现在完成时，变换后由于已经由新知信息变为已知信息，就要由现在完成时变为一般过去时。例如 I have seen him recently. 中，新知信息 (强调重心) 在 have seen，但 It was only recently that I saw (</i>have seen) him. 中，新知信息转移到了 recently。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 这里又牵扯到另一个问题。通常语法书都认为，一个过去的动作或事件，如果其后果延续至今，就用现在完成时。按照这个道理，前面有关画的句子似乎还是应该用现在完成时才对。但是需要指出的一点是：后果延续至今的那个动作或事件，必须是新知信息，才可以用现在完成时。试比较：Look what John's given me! (你瞧瞧约翰送了什么给我?) 这是谈话的对方本来不知道约翰会送东西，更不知道会送什么。如果谈话对方本来已经知道约翰会送东西，只是不知道会送什么，那么说话人就会改说 Look what John gave me! (你瞧瞧约翰送给我的是什么?) 也就是说，尽管过去的动作或事件留下了延续至今的后果，但是，如果这个后果的存在，本身就使得该动作或事件成为必然的已知信息，则不能用现在完成时，而要用一般过去时。但如果该动作或事件并不是该后果必然具有的，就可以用现在完成时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>That's a nice picture. Have you shown it to any expert? 那幅画很好看。你给专家看过没有? 这里 “给专家看” 就与 “画” (paint) 不同，并不是一幅画所必然经历过的动作或事件，所以可以作为新知信息出现。正如一个人现在的存在，是他 “出生” (was born) 延续至今的后果，但不能以此为理由说 has been born，还是应该说 was born。(参见 born 条。)</div>同样，This house was (<i>has been) built by Inigo Jones. 既然 house 用了特指的 this，它的存在就是已知的事实，动词 build 也随之同样是已知的事实，唯一的新知信息是 by Inigo Jones，如果去掉，说 This house was built 通常就是废话，说 This house has been built 也是废话。另外有一些动词，与 build 不同，直接宾语的所指并不是词动动作的创造物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Tobacco was (</i>has been) brought to England by Sir Walter Raleigh. 乍一看来，has been brought 似乎也说得通，但是，这里就涉及人们的常识 (英国吸烟的人很多，而且是多年的传统，因此 “烟草传入英国” 已经是人所共知的事，不是 “新闻”)。如果说 has been brought，就是把一件旧闻当作一件新鲜事，告诉一个无知者。</div><br><br>但是，如果发生的已知事件是十分新近的 (甚至是眼前刚刚发生的)，而且正是当前谈话所直接涉及的，虽然是已知信息，谓语动词也可以用现在完成时，表示其重要性，并且提醒对方注意这个已知的事实。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I've come here to put an advertisement in your paper. 我到这里来，是要在你们报上登一份广告。/ Remember that your doctor has prescribed this medication because he or she has judged that the benefit to you is greater than the risk of side effects. 要记住，您的医生给您开这种药物，是因为他或她认为，这对您的好处大于副作用的风险。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 另一方面，谈及后果延续至今的过去动作或事件时，如果言外之意是说明现在的后果 (从语境或上下文推论出业已存在) 为何存在，则虽然该动作或事件也是新知信息，但是着重点在于当时发生的事，不在于目前的后果，也用一般过去时 (它可以表示已知或新知两种信息)，不用现在完成时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—Why are you crying? —Johnny hit (<i>has hit) me. —你干吗哭? —约翰尼打了我。/ The Chinese invented (</i>have invented) paper. 是中国人发明了纸张。(纸张的存在是人尽皆知的事实。)</div><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 此外，如果前面一句用现在完成时谈及了过去曾经有过的经历，那么接着说下去就不能继续用现在完成时，而要用一般过去时。这是因为前面虽然没有交代具体时间，但事实上已经划定了时间框架，后面再说下去，在时间上已经不是漫无边际的 “曾经” 了。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—I've been to London as a tourist. —Did you see (<i>Have you seen) the Queen? —我到过伦敦旅游。—那么你看见了女王没有?</div><div class="ex-item">Two prisoners have escaped from Dartmoor. They used (</i>have used) a ladder which had been left behind by some workmen, climbed (<i>have climbed) a twenty-foot wall and got (</i>have got) away in a stolen car. 有两名囚犯逃出了达特莫尔监狱。他们用工人们留下的一把梯子爬过了 20 英尺的高墙，坐上一辆偷来的汽车扬长而去。/ The Dean himself has asked me that question, and I gave (*have given) him the same answer. 教务长本人也问过我这个问题，我给他的回答也是一样的。</div><br><br>同样，主句用了现在完成时，在作间接引语或表示想法的从句中，动词也要用一般过去时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>People have long groused that they were (<i>have been) swamped by information. (</i>The Economist*, Feb. 27, 2010, p. 4) 很长时间以来，人们一直埋怨铺天盖地的信息把他们淹没在泥沼之中。</div><br><br>现在完成时不可以同明确的时间点状语一起出现 (不能说 *I've come here last week.)，但是过去完成时则可以 (可以说 I told him I had come here last week.)，原因是在于过去完成时有一种 “两面性”，既可以作为现在完成时向过去移动的一格，也可以作为一般过去时向过去移动的一格。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 句中的主语，如果是已故的人，通常谓语动词不能用现在完成时 (虽然结果保持到现在)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Shakespeare wrote (<i>has written) </i>Hamlet<i>. 莎士比亚写了《哈姆雷特》。乔姆斯基 (Noam Chomsky) (</i>Deep Structure, Surface Structure, and Semantic Interpretation<i>, 1971) 和麦考莱 (J. D. McCawley) (</i>Tense and Time Reference in English<i>, 1971) 两人都认为 Einstein has visited Princeton. 这句话是错误的，因为爱因斯坦已经逝世，只能说 Einstein visited Princeton. 至于已故的人在句中不是主语，而是直接 “现身” 作为其他成分，那么，对于指发生在其生前的事件的谓语动词，是否可以用现在完成时这个问题，意见不一。有人认为不可以。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Did you ever see (</i>Have you ever seen) Ulanova's Swan Lake? 你看过乌兰诺娃演的《天鹅湖》吗？上面有关爱因斯坦的例句，如果转换为被动句，乔姆斯基和麦考莱二人却认为可以：Princeton has been visited by Einstein. 因为普林斯顿直到今天仍然存在，爱因斯坦虽然已故，但在句中已经不是主语或主题。不过也有人不同意这个看法。至于已故者如果不是直接而是间接“现身”，则事件可能发生在其生前或身后，没有限制，肯定可以用现在完成时。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I've read Shakespeare's Hamlet. 我读过莎士比亚写的《哈姆雷特》。</div><br><br>上面说过，已故的人所做的事，不能用现在完成时来表示。但是如果所做的事直到如今仍然有效，就可以用现在完成时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Newton has explained the movement of the moon. (Otto Jespersen, The Philosophy of Grammar) 牛顿阐明了月球的运动。/ Newton believed (*has believed) in an omnipotent God. (ibid.) 牛顿信仰万能的上帝。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 按理，现在完成时(have + pp.)不能同表示明确时间点的时间状语一起出现。但是有时候其实不是时间状语，而是时间定语，所修饰的是主语，此时两者当然可以一起出现。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Two large, unrelated studies last month have renewed the focus on prostate health and nutrition ... (Newsday, June 2, 2007) 上个月的两份互不相关的大规模研究材料，使人们又一次注意到前列腺健康和营养的问题……</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 有时候，即使出现明确的时间点状语，如果这个时间点状语被认为是对某一行动留下影响至今的后果有决定意义的，则表示这个行动的动词仍然可以“例外地”采用现在完成时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They have married on Friday the 13th! 他们是13号星期五结婚的呀！此时 on Friday the 13th 就不是普普通通的一个时间点状语，而是全句的信息中心，由于这个“不吉利”的日子，marry 这个行动留下的后果直到现在。但是，抱这种迷信心理的人，即使是在结婚的次日，也不能将这句话中的 on Friday the 13th 改为 yesterday，不能说 *They have married yesterday! 因为 yesterday 没有表现出“不吉利的日子”这个概念。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> 另外，有些时间点状语，其实在时间长河中的位置并不明确，可以有多个不同的位置，如果用来表示某一行动在时间上的特点，以突出这个经历的性质，而不是指某个唯一的明确时间点，则动词也可以用现在完成时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Peter has been in Harvard Square at 6 a.m. 彼得曾经早上六点钟到过哈佛广场。（这里的“早上六点钟”并没有明确是哪一天。）/ John has arrived at five o'clock before, you know. 你也知道，约翰从前也曾经五点钟到达过。（这里的五点钟，也没有明确是哪一天。）其实，(7)中的 on Friday the 13th 也不是明确具体的哪一天，而可以是任何一个恰巧是13号的星期五(可能是是有多个的)，所以同(8)这里的情况也有点类似。反之，说 yesterday 倒是只能明确具体的一天，所以不能用现在完成时。</div><br><br>
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(have the) nerve to inf.
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(have the) nerve to inf.</b></div>这里的 nerve 不是“神经”，是“勇气，颜面”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>And he <b>had the nerve to</b> call his failure a victory! 他还有脸把自己的失败称作胜利！</div><br><br>
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have to inf.
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>have to inf.</b></div>参见 have⁵ 条。<br><br>有时候 have to inf. 不是“一定要做某事(不可以不做)”，而是“必须某人做某事，另一事才能生效(某人做不做某事，有他自己的自由)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Of course the next of kin will have to agree. 当然，必须经过近亲的同意。（不是“近亲必须同意，不可以不同意”。）/ The President has to sign a bill for it to become a law. 法案必须经过总统签署，才能成为法律。（不是“总统必须签署法案(不可以不签署)，使之成为法律”。） 不可以不同意”。）/ The President has to sign a bill for it to become a law. 法案必须经过总统签署，才能成为法律。（不是“总统必须签署法案(不可以不签署)，使之成为法律”。）</div>must 也有同样的情况。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The next of kin must give the authorization. 必须经过近亲的授权。（不是“近亲必须授权，不可以不授权”。）</div>
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have²
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>have²</b></div>词组 have something (somebody) + 动词不定式或现在/过去分词，是许多英语学习者不太习惯的一个结构。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 后面是没有 to 的动词不定式：(a) 自己有意使某人或某事物实施某行为。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She had me retype it. 她叫我把它再打一遍。/ I'll have him call you back as soon as he arrives. 他一来，我就叫他给你回电话。</div>(b) 不是自己主动但是客观发生与自己有关的事件或状态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We'll be very glad to have you spend the holiday with us. 我们将很高兴你来同我们一起过节。/ They were also used to having him reappear without much in the way of warning. 他们对于他常常事先没有说一声就出现，也习以为常了。/ One should not like to have Sir Thomas find all the varnish scratched off. (Jane Austen) 可不能让托马斯爵士发现所有的油漆都给刮掉了。have Sir Thomas find all the varnish scratched off. (Jane Austen) 可不能让托马斯爵士发现所有的油漆都给刮掉了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 后面是动词现在分词：(a) 自己主动造成某个局面。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He had them all laughing. 他把他们全都逗笑了。/ The novelist, for example, who had Queen Victoria watching television would have committed an anachronism. 例如有个小说家把维多利亚女王描写成在看电视，那就是时间错位。</div>(b) 不是自己主动但是客观正在发生与自己有关的事件。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I have people coming for dinner tonight. 今天晚上我有客人来吃晚餐。/ I do not think we should have the President taking a position on a disputed scientific issue of this sort. 我认为，这样的一个有争议的科学问题，不必让总统来表态。</div>(c) 主语不是人，表示造成某情况的原因 (“使得”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If your electricity bills have you longing for the good old days, you might take a look around your home. Many of the home appliances we consider essential these days didn't even exist not long ago. 你如果看见电费账单就想念从前的好时光，那就请你瞧一下你的家吧。没多久以前，那些我们现在认为必不可少的家用电器，许多根本就是不存在的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 后面是动词过去分词：(a) 自己有意使他人 (这个他人可以也可以不明言) 去对某人或某事物施加某行为。许多在中文中不明言的不是自己亲手做而是叫别人代劳的事，在英语中往往可以采用这个结构。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>have his hair cut 他理发了 (注意这个 cut 是过去分词)</div><div class="ex-item">He had his car washed. 他洗了车。/ They had a new house built. 他们盖了一座新房子。/ Children everywhere love to have stories read to them. 各地的孩子都喜欢人家给他们读故事。(注意这个 read 是过去分词。)</div>(b) 不是自己有意使某事发生，但是允许它发生。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She refused to have her private life discussed in public. 她拒绝让人家公开议论她的私人生活。</div>(c) 自己无意遇到某事发生 (这件事可能对自己有利，也可能不利)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Those who win the game will have their names engraved on the cup. 比赛获胜者的名字将刻在奖杯上。/ He had his driver's license revoked. 他的驾照被吊销了。/ She had some money stolen. 她被偷了一些钱。(注意：She had stolen some money. 则是 “她偷了别人的一些钱”。) 这个结构的一个实际用处，是可以让原有的主语 (事物的所有主) 保持不变，不必改为以该事物为主语。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He told the police he had his apartment broken into. (= ... his apartment had been broken into.) 他告诉警察，他的公寓房被人撬了门。用于这个意义，可以以 get (英式英语) 代替 have (美式英语)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He got his left arm broken in a fight. 他在一次打斗中左臂被打断了。/ I got my shoes stuck in the mud. 我的鞋子陷到泥里了。</div>(d) 但是有时候是否有意主动，可能有歧义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He had all his paintings sold at an auction. 可能是 “他设法 (通过别人) 把自己的画作全部拍卖掉”，也可能是 “(别人不经过他同意) 把他的画作全部拍卖掉了”。</div>(e) 主语不是人而是物，直接宾语是该物的一部分，过去分词表示该部分遇到了什么事情。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... two guns recovered in the shooting had had their serial numbers scraped off. (<i>The Associated Press</i>, Apr. 17, 2007) ……两支在枪击中找到的枪编号都被刮掉了。</div><br><br>值得注意的是：有时候后面的动词过去分词 (少数情况下是现在分词或不定式) 可以由于前面的直接宾语很长而 “姗姗来迟”，此时特别要注意抓住呼应关系。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... every man in the unit had the terrain and their way through it committed to memory. (Tom Clancy, <i>Clear and Present Danger</i>) ……小分队的每个人都把地形和路径记在心里。</div><br><br>
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have³
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>have³</b></div>have 既可以作为助动词，也可以作为实义动词。而作为实义动词，它的意义可以是简单的 “拥有，占有” (是表示延续状态的第一类动词)，也可以是 “享用；举行；经历” (是表示延续动作的第二类动词；也可以是表示瞬时动作的第四类动词)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> have 作为表示 “拥有，占有” 的实义动词，虽然是实义动词，但是在较早的英式英语中，句法安排仍然带有助动词 have 的痕迹，就是说，在否定句或疑问句中，不需要加上另一个辅助动词 do。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Have you any reservations? (= Do you have any reservations?) 您有没有保留意见?</div><div class="ex-item">I haven't any reservations. (= I don't have any reservations.) 我没有保留意见。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 但是这个用法，即使在英国，也比较陈旧，很少有人使用，只保留在少数比较固定的词组中。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I haven't the faintest idea. 我毫不了解。代之而起的，是两个不同方向的做法。一个是英式的，干脆把 have 当作助动词，后面加上 get 的过去分词 got (前面的 have 往往缩写为 've，甚至略去)。一个是美式的，干脆剥夺 have 的最后一点助动词 “特权” (即否定与疑问时不加 do 的 “特权”)。其中英式的做法其实从逻辑意义上来看，就是把瞬时动作 (have got 即 “取得”) 造成的后果 (“拥有，占有”) 延续化，状态化。这个用法不但在英国普遍，而且也普及到了美国，同加 do 的美式一起，并列为美式英语通用的两种表示 “拥有，占有” 的句法形式 (美式英语 get 另一个过去分词 gotten，是 17 世纪时从英国传入美国的，但英国已经不用了，它使得 have gotten 仍然保持 “取得了” 的瞬时动态含义，从而腾出来 have got，跟随英式)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>(英旧式) Have you a lighter? = (英美式) Have you got a lighter? = (美式) Do you have a lighter? 你有打火机吗?</div><div class="ex-item">(英旧式) I haven't my keys. = (英美式) I haven't got my keys. = (美式) I don't have my keys. 我没带钥匙。需要说明的是：所谓 “美式”，也广泛地 “侵入” 了英国，其实应该说是 “美英式”。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 乍一看来，如果不是否定句或疑问句，而是肯定句，have got 同没有 got 的 have 似乎没有任何区别了。但是仔细看来，还是有一些区别的。have got 通常指个别场合下的 “拥有” 或 “占有”，而不是指反复发生或者经常存在的 “拥有” 或 “占有”，have 则两种情况都可以使用。例如 I have got stomach ache. 只能是 “我当前胃痛”。I have stomach ache. 可能只是当前临时胃痛，也可能有胃痛的慢性病。如果加上 often，就不能用 have got，只能用 have: I often have (<i>have got) stomach ache. (我常常胃痛。) 又例如：Do you have earthquakes in your country? (你们国家有地震吗?) 不能改为：</i>Have you got earthquakes in your country?但是，如果 you've got 中的 you 是个泛指的人称代词，此时 you've got 就相当于 there is 或 there are，got 就可以放进去，尽管说的不是当前特定的一次，而是经常存在的状态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You got (= You've got) liberals in the North and conservatives in the South. You got New Age intellectuals in the West, labor guys in the Midwest, along with farmers and subsidy protectionists. (Stephen J. Cannell, <i>The Plan</i>) 有北方的自由派和南方的保守派。有西部的新时代知识分子和中西部的吃工会饭的，还有农场主和赞成补贴的贸易保护主义者。</div><br><br>需要注意的是：由于 have got 是通过将 have 彻底助动词化而成的，have 本身已经是助动词，所以在否定句和疑问句中，不能再加另一个助动词 do。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Have you got (<i>Do you have got) a headache? 你头痛吗?</div><div class="ex-item">The apartment hasn't got (</i>doesn't have got) a proper bathroom. 这套公寓没有一个合适的浴室。同理，简化的回答句，或者附加疑问句，照例一个助动词足矣，不应画蛇添足在后面加上 got。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—Have you got the key? —No, I haven't (<i>I haven't got). —你有钥匙吗? —我没有。/ She's got a bike, hasn't she (</i>hasn't she got)? 她有一辆自行车是吗?</div><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 前面已经说过，have got 原来是表示瞬间的 “取得”，转为延续的 “占有”。但是，英语中很常用的一个词组 have to inf. 也借用了这个 got，形成 have got to inf.，这里就完全失去 “拥有，占有” 的意思了。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>People have got to be on time if they want to get a seat in the crowded theater. 人们如果想在那拥挤的剧院里找到一席之地，就必须准时到达。但是，有两点需要注意。第一，在疑问句中，问 Have you got to inf.? 只能是问一个特定的场合是否必须这样做，不能用来问通常是否必须这样做。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Have you got to go to the dentist's today? = Do you have to go to the dentist's today? 你今天要去看牙医吗? 但是，Do you often have to go to the dentist's? 不可以改为 <i>Have you often got to go to the dentist's? 第二，have got to inf. 不可以放在另一个助动词后面，例如不能说 </i>You may have got to go. 要改为 You may have to go. 你也许必须去。</div><br><br>值得注意的是：have got to inf. 不但可以同 have to inf. 一样表示 “应该，不得不”，而且还获得了本来 have to inf. 所没有的对客观估计 “一定是” 的意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You've got to be kidding. 你一定是在开玩笑吧。/ It gotta (= It's got to) be there. 一定是在那里。(must 也是兼有 “应该” 与 “一定” 两种意义。) 但是动词不定式的动词必须表示延续状态或过程；如果是表示瞬时动作的，have got to 就只能是 “应该，不得不” 的意思。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> have got 能否以一般过去时的时态出现，这个问题是有争议的。例如，可以说：He'd got some money. 但是许多人认为不可以。也有人认为，如果是间接引语，等于把现在的 He's got some money. 向过去移动一格，就可以说 He said he'd got some money. 但是，have got 用于一般过去时肯定不是人人都能接受的，最好还是用简单的 had，不要加上 got。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> have 作为实义动词，除了 “占有，拥有” 这个意义之外，还有 “享用；举行；经历” 等意义。have got 只在 “占有，拥有” 这个意义上才可以同 have 通用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We have (<i>have got) lunch at one. 我们一点钟吃中饭。/ Did you have (</i>havegot) trouble with Customs? 你过海关遇到麻烦了吗?</div><div class="ex-item">Have (*Have got) a good time! 玩得开心!</div>
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have¹
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>have¹</b></div>have 往往可以代表 have + pp. (但是略去后面的 pp.) 出现。过去分词的动词就在前面出现过，但是不一定以过去分词的形式出现。看到这个 have，要注意考虑是省略了一个过去分词，还是 have 作为实义动词 (“有”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Despite the computer-controlled machinery, to the untrained eye the maelstrom of fiery furnaces looks much as it might have (= have looked) when the plant was built a century ago. (<i>U.S. News & World Report</i>, June 7, 2004, p. 38) 尽管有电脑操纵的机器，但是在未经训练的人看来，炉子里波涡似的熊熊烈火，同这座工厂一个世纪前新建时的样子差不多。/ We're talking about government playing a different role than it has (= has played) over the past decade or two. 我们谈论的是要政府起一种与以往一二十年不同的作用。/ But at McDonald's, we work closely with our suppliers to develop and implement the highest standards, and have (= have worked) for over 50 years. (McDonald's Corp. CEO Jim Skinner, <i>The Associated Press</i>, May 26, 2006) 但是我们麦当劳却是同供应商密切合作，以开发并执行最高的标准，而且这样做已经有 50 多年了。/ Cheney doesn't want to upstage his boss and never has (= has upstaged him). (<i>Newsweek</i>, Jan. 23, 2006, p. 47) 切尼并不想要抢他老板的镜头，他也从未这样做过。/ The first sight of the visitor surprised her as much as it had (= had surprised) her father. 她第一眼看见来访者，就同刚才她父亲一样感到惊讶。这里还要注意一点：如果动词相同，宾语也相同，用一个 have 就够了，不用再出现宾语，例如第 4 个例句中，两处 upstage 的宾语都是 his boss。但如果只有动词相同，而宾语不相同，像第 5 个例句中，一个是 her，一个是 her father，第二个宾语就必须出现，交代清楚，但是动词的完成时态仍然可以简化为 have。</div><br><br>
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have⁴
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>have⁴</b></div>have 作为实义动词 (“拥有，占有”)，是个第一类动词 (延续状态)，但是也可以用作第四类或第三类动词，此时表示的多个动态意义当中可以包括：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> “生育”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Ovary transplants will let women have babies at any age. 妇女实行卵巢移植，任何年龄都能生孩子。(既然是 at any age，可见 have 不是指延续的 “有”，而是瞬时 “分娩” 的动态行为。) 但是在下面的例句中，have 即使作为实义动词，也有第二类和第四类之分：She had her baby at the clinic. 如果 have 是第二类动词 (延续状态 “拥有”)，这句话意思是 “她带着孩子，在诊所那里”。如果 have 是第四类动词 (瞬时行为 “分娩”)，意思就是 “她在诊所生下了孩子”。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> “饮食”。例如家喻户晓的英文儿歌 “Mary Had a Little Lamb”，这里的 lamb 是可数名词，a little lamb 是一头活生生的小羊；但是有人开玩笑在后面添加了一些词，成了 Mary had a little lamb, some rice and vegetables，这一来，lamb 就成了不可数名词 “羊肉”，a little 的意义也从 “一头幼小的” 变成不定数量的 “一点”；而同时，had 的意思也从延续状态的 “占有” 变成瞬时动作的 “吃了”。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 一些表示延续动作的第二类动词，可以变为名词，组成 have a X 的词组，表示瞬时的 “做一下某事”，此时 have 就是个第四类或第三类动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>have a swim 游一下泳</div><div class="ex-item">have a smoke outside 到外面抽一下烟</div><div class="ex-item">have a look 瞧一眼。</div><br><br>
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have⁵
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>have⁵</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> have to inf. 与 must inf. 的区别，通常的解释是：have to inf. 指来自外部所加的 “必须”，而 must inf. 则是自己自觉的 “必须”。例如 I must stop smoking. 是自己觉得有必要戒烟，I have to stop smoking. 则是不得不已只好割爱戒烟 (或是因为医嘱，或是因为经济困难等)。但是如果主语不是人，而且采用了被动语气，则两者没有多大区别。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Every voice has to be heard. Every idea must be considered. (Barack Obama on health care reform, <i>The Associated Press</i>, Mar. 5, 2009) 对每一个声音都需要倾听。对每一个想法都必须加以考虑。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> have to inf. 通常就是 “必须，不得不” 的意思，但是在一些句子中 (当 have 的直接宾语提到 have 之前时) 这个 have 不是助动词而是表示 “拥有” 的实义动词，后面的动词不定式是用来表示 “拿来做什么用”，此时就容易发生误读。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The following morning Lubji set up his box near the entrance to the market. He quickly found that many more people stopped to consider what he had to offer, ... (Jeffrey Archer, <i>The Fourth Estate</i>) 次日早上，鲁比在集市进口处架起了他的箱子。他很快就发现，停下脚步观察他所提供的货物的人多得多了，…… (had 和 to offer 没有直接关系，had 是 “拥有”，不是 “不得不提供”；to offer 是 “用以提供”。)</div><div class="ex-item">He had enjoyed the sea voyage because it was one of the rare opportunities he had to escape from his fans. (Sidney Sheldon, <i>The Other Side of Midnight</i>) 他很喜欢那次海上旅行，因为那是少有的一次躲避追星族们的机会。(同样，had 是实义动词，had to 不可以合在一起；to escape from his fans 是修饰 opportunities 的定语，与 had 无关。)</div>
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have 与 “有”<br><br><link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css">
<div class="entry"><b>have 与 “有”</b>通常中文的 “有” 相当于英文的 have。但是需要注意的是，英文的 have 一般只用于下列场合。(a) 比较固定的占有关系。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has a new car. 他买了一辆新车。/ The house has four windows. 这座房子有四扇窗。(b) 整体对于局部的不可分割的占有关系。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has broad shoulders. 他肩头宽。这样的占有关系在中文中也常常不用 “有” 来表达。</div><br><br>如果是下列场合，就最好不要简单地用 have 来表示 “有”，而可以采取其他表达方式：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 只是一时的占有，此时用了 have 之后还要在直接宾语后面加上短短的一个介词短语来表示占有的临时性：(a) 如果主语是人，就加上 “with + 主语代词” (此时中文也不习惯说 “有”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—Does he drink? —Well, he has a bottle with him. —他喝酒吗? —是呀，他拿着一个酒瓶。/ She had a flower with her. 她拿着一朵花。在这类句子中，没有后面的 with ... 就不很自然。</div>(b) 如果主语和直接宾语都是具体事物，就加上 “in/on + 主语代词”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My sock has a hole in it. (= There is a hole in my sock.) 我的一只袜子破了一个洞。或者在句末加上另外一种介词短语。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... a lot of wealthy retired people including physicians, who, like him, had time on their hands. (<i>U.S. News & World Report</i>, Oct. 14, 2002, p. 61) ……许多富有的退休者，其中有医生，都像他一样有空闲。如果是非物质的，可以不用 in 或 on，而用 to。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It has a nice sound to it. 它响着一个悦耳的声音。</div><br><br>即使不是 have，有 “具有” 词义的介词 with，也需要后面加一个介词短语，才显得自然。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>White shirts, shoulder boards with stripes on them. (Tom Clancy, <i>Executive Orders</i>) 白衬衣，肩章上面有条纹。/ ... carried a heavy stick with a knob to it. (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, <i>The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes</i>) ……拿着一根上面有镍头的沉重的手杖。</div>(c) 如果主语是具体或抽象事物，而直接宾语则是比较抽象的事物，就加上 “to/about + 主语代词”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It has a nice ring/sound to it. 这听起来还很不错。(to 表示一时的现象)</div><div class="ex-item">The place has a certain charm about it. 这地方有点吸引人之处。(不是一时，而是经常的属性，用 about)</div><div class="ex-item">The Constitution has the aura of the sacred about it. (<i>Time</i>, July 6, 1987) 宪法带有一种神圣的光环。(about 表示本质的属性)</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 表示 “拥有，占有”，不一定非用 have，可以区别 “有 (正面的东西)” 和 “有 (负面的东西)”，分别采用各种不同的其他动词。例如：(a) 说某个人有某种情况或性质，不一定要用直接的 “某人 + have + 某情况” 这种句型，而是可以用 “there is + 某情况 + about + 某人” 句型，这样似乎更合乎英文的习惯。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There was much to admire about this man, but so much also to merit disdain. (Tom Clancy, <i>Clear and Present Danger</i>) 这个人有许多令人钦佩之处，也同样有许多值得鄙视之处。有时候 “某人” 也可以改为某抽象载体。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... if there's anything about an economy, it's that it's constantly in transition. (<i>U.S. News &</i> <i>World Report</i>, June 7, 2004, p. 38) 如果说经济有什么特点，那就是经济是经常不断地处于过渡状态之中的。更多的例句，参见 about 条。</div><br><br>如果双方都是比较抽象的事物，就用 “to + 较大的一方 (也是载体，但更为笼统)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There was some truth to that, she thought. 她觉得那里面也有真实之处。/ And there seems to be an upside to all this. (<i>Newsweek</i>, July 16, 2007, p. 16) 看来这一切也有好的一面。/ Yet there are virtues to living here. (<i>Newsweek</i>, Sept. 11, 2006, p. 13) 住在这里有这里的好处。</div><br><br>如果占有关系是比较固定的，只要较小的一方是比较抽象的性质，则较大的一方，即使是比较具体的事物，也用 to 来引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There is a soul to an army as well as to the individual man, ... (<i>U.S. News & World Report</i>, Oct. 28, 2002, p. 44) 军队同人一样，也是有灵魂的，……</div>(b) 如果说的是某个人 “有” 某种比较抽象的性质，而且指的是说话者得到的一时的印象，就用 about 而不用 to。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There's something different about her. 她显得有点异样。/ There was a defiant manner about this young man. 这个青年带有一种桀骜不驯的神情。/ There's something so selfish and insincere about him. 他给人一种自私和虚伪的印象。</div>(c) 表示 “有” 好的比较具体的东西，可以用 boast 或 be blessed with。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The city boasts a population of 1.3 million. 该市有 130 万人口。/ These enterprises boast the country's best research and development capability. 这些企业拥有国内最好的研发能力。</div>(d) 表示 “配备有” 某一具体事物，可以用 be supplied/provided with。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The lungs are supplied with a dense network of capillaries. 肺具有密密麻麻网络状的毛细血管。/ The plane is provided with eight emergency exits. 该飞机备有八处紧急出口。如果该具体事物是有突出地位的，可以用及物动词 feature。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The exhibition featured some new products. 展览会有一些新产品展出。</div>(e) 表示 “有” 好的比较抽象的东西，可以用 enjoy 或 possess。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Thus, Eurasian societies in the time of Columbus enjoyed big advantages over Native American societies in food production, germs, technology (including weapons). (Jared Diamond, <i>Guns, Germs, and Steel</i>) 在哥伦布时期，欧亚大陆的各个社群，在粮食生产、微生物、科技 (包括武器) 方面，比之美洲的土著社群，具有巨大的优势。/ Sean McMeekin's account possesses the large merit that it tells a story little known to Western readers, drawing extensively upon German sources. (<i>The New York Review of Books</i>, Dec. 9, 2010, p. 44) 肖恩·麦克米金的说辞，其一个巨大的优点，就是它大量引用德文材料，说出了西方读者所不熟悉的一个故事。但是 possess 也可以转换为被动语态 (其实意义仍然是主动的)，改为 be possessed of。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... and his enormous limbs showed that he was possessed of unusual strength of body and of character. (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, <i>The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes</i>) ……他那粗壮的四肢，显示出他具有不寻常的体力和意志力。</div>(f) 表示 “有” 负面的比较抽象的性质，可以用 suffer from、be fraught with、be riddled with 等。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Such an approach is fraught with danger. 这样的做法有危险。/ Such narrowly focused accounts of world history suffer from three disadvantages. (Jared Diamond, <i>Guns, Germs, and Steel</i>) 对世界历史做出如此范围狭窄的陈述，这样做，有三个不利之处。/ The project, although clearly successful in limited areas, is still bedeviled with so many problems. 方案尽管在一些有限的领域显然成功，但是仍然有这么多的问题。/ Both Democrats and Republicans have argued that our tax code is riddled with wasteful, complicated loopholes that punish businesses investing here, and reward companies that keep profits abroad. (Barack Obama, State of the Union, Jan. 28, 2014) 无论民主党人还是共和党人，都曾经声称，我们的税则有一些浪费的、复杂的漏洞，惩罚了在国内投资的企业，而奖励了那些把利润留在国外的公司。</div>(g) 表示 “包含有” 某一比较具体的事物或因素，可以用 carry。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>One book carried a reference to the curious fact that in 1866 ... (John Darnton, <i>The Darwin Conspiracy</i>) 有一本书里面提到 1866 年的一件怪事……</div><div class="ex-item">It's legal, but carries risks you should know about. 这是合法的，但是有风险，你需要知道。/ Johns Hopkins carried a lot of prestige. (Tom Clancy, <i>Executive Orders</i>) 约翰斯·霍普金斯大学很有声望。</div>(h) 表示 “有” 某一可正面可负面的比较抽象的性质，可以用 hold、present 等及物动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It held some special meaning for her. 它对她有某种特殊的意义。/ The discussion presents considerable theoretical interest. (Otto Jespersen, <i>The Philosophy of Grammar</i>) 讨论有很深的理论意义。</div>(i) 表示 “触及，遇到有” 某一客观条件或状况，可以用 know 或 see (但是通常用于否定句)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Love knows no borders. 爱是没有界限的。/ Their greed knows no limit. 他们贪得无厌。/ The government sees no reason to comply with such a demand. 政府没有理由答应这样的要求。/ Some programs, including foreign aid, are expected to see big reductions in Trump's proposal. (HuffPost, Feb. 28, 2017) 有些项目，包括援外项目，预计在特朗普的建议中会有很大的削减。</div>(j) 有时候可以主宾对调而避免单调地用动词 have 来表示 “具有”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If these qualities describe you (= you have these qualities), we encourage you to take the next step and apply to Bucknell. (Bucknell University admissions statement) 你如果具备这些品质，我们就鼓励你走出下一步，申请到巴克内尔大学就读。/ ... only five cars graced its parking lot. (Marta Perry, <i>Restless Hearts</i>) ……停车场只有五辆车。</div><br><br>
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having + pp.
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>having + pp.</b></div>可以放在一个名词后面作后置定语，表示“(曾经)做过某事的”。但是这个名词不可以是特指的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>*The girl having won the race is my sister. 那个赛跑赢了的姑娘是我的妹妹。名词如果不是特指的，则可以用这个结构。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Any man having witnessed the attack is under suspicion. 凡是目击这次袭击事件的男子，都有嫌疑。</div><br><br>
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hawk 与 eagle
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>hawk 与 eagle</b></div>参见 dove 与 pigeon 条。<br><br>
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head
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>head</b></div>作为名词，意义和用法被许多词典都收录了。但是作为动词，它有一个意义是“朝向(某目的地或某个结果)”(第四类动词)。在这个意义上，它可以是及物动词，也可以是不及物动词。作为及物动词，是“导向”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>head a boat north 把船驶向北边</div><div class="ex-item">Perhaps you could head me toward the nearest bank. 请你告诉我怎样样到最近的银行去。</div><br><br>但是被动式 be headed (第一类动词，这里其实没有被动的意思，只是说明本身移动的方向)用得更为广泛，此时 be headed 与基于不及物动词的 be heading (第二类动词)几乎完全同义，可以互换(但是 headed 着重方向的延续状态，heading 着重移动的延续过程)，后面加上表示方向或目的地的状语成分(用 for 引入)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We were headed/heading in the direction of Princeton. 我们朝普林斯顿进发。/ I think we're headed/heading in the right direction. 我觉得我们的方向是对的。/ It's time we were heading back. 是咱们回头的时候了。/ The ship was headed/heading for Barcelona. 船向着巴塞罗那驶去。/ The car was heading straight for me. 车子径直向我开过来。/ It's getting late, let's head (瞬时变化) for home. 天色不早了，咱们回家吧。/ The audience was heading for the exit. 观众纷纷向出口走去。</div><br><br>谈及某个前景时，用 headed 或 heading 都可以(但美式英语用 headed 较多，而且两者仍然多少有动与静的区别)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They're headed/heading for bankruptcy. 他们正在走向破产。/ They're heading/headed for a confrontation with the police. 他们将要同警察发生对抗。/ We should be heading/headed for world peace. 我们应该以世界和平为目标。</div><br><br>
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headquarters
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>headquarters</b></div>如果是指总部所在地，当复数处理。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The headquarters are in Nashville. 总部设在纳什维尔。但如果是指总部这个机构，当单数处理。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Headquarters has issued new orders. 总部发出了一些新的指令。</div><br><br>
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healthy 与 healthful
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>healthy 与 healthful</b></div>healthy 表示人的健康状况良好。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>healthy people 健康的人们</div><div class="ex-item">a healthy baby 一个健康的婴儿</div><div class="ex-item">healthy skin 健康的皮肤</div><div class="ex-item">healthy appetite 好胃口。</div><br><br>healthful 则指“有益于健康的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>healthful foods 健康食品。</div><br><br>但是，healthy 这个形容词越来越多地被用来代替 healthful。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>healthy seaside air 有益健康的滨海空气</div><div class="ex-item">a healthy diet for a healthy baby 用健康的饮食抚养健康的婴儿</div><div class="ex-item">Hard beds are healthier than soft ones. 硬板床比软床更有益于健康。尤其是涉及气候的时候用 healthy 的现象更多。healthy climate (有益健康的气候)这样的说法已经约定俗成。这个单词，在旅游广告上用得特别多。不过，最好还是注意两者的区别。</div><br><br>
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health 与 body
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>health 与 body</b></div>参见 body 条。<br><br>
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hear 与 listen to
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>hear 与 listen to</b></div>hear 本来是人的一种不自主的感觉状态，是第一类动词；转义为被动的瞬时感受，是第四类动词。listen to 则是自主的感觉活动，本身可以无限延续，是第二类动词。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> hear 与 listen to 的区别，一般都认为无意与有意的区别。hear 是不管你愿意不愿意，耳朵里总是要听到的。listen to 则是自己注意去倾听。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I heard a loud noise downstairs. 我听到楼下嘈杂的声音。/ He is listening to a tape. 他正在听一盘录音带。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 问 Can you hear me? 是问对方(例如打电话的对方)听得清楚不清楚。Do you hear me? 则是问对方是否在注意听着(有提醒对方注意的意思，但比较委婉，还是有意停留在听觉范围，不单刀直入地质问 Are you listening to me? )。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 打电话时，如果听不清楚，就说 I can't hear you. 但是如果听得清楚，用不着 can，说 I hear you clearly. 即可(hear 不用进行时)。如果前后对比，现在听清楚了，可以把 hear 用进行时来表达，即 I'm hearing you better now. 这是因为如果通话质量一直良好，hear 就处于一贯无变化的静态，所以不用进行时；而如果通话质量时好时坏，hear 就处于暂时状态，所以用进行时。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 除了有意和无意的区别之外，hear 和 listen to 还有一个很重要的区别，就是 listen to 所着重的是“倾听”的这种感官作用，而 hear 所着重的是所“听到”的内容(这一点同 speak 与 talk 的区别相仿)。因此，涉及所听内容而不单是“听”这个生理感官活动时，原则上就用 hear 而不用 listen to。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>All the relatives were gathered to hear (<i>listen to) the lawyer read the will. 所有亲属都集合到一起，听律师宣读遗嘱。/ Don't believe everything you hear (</i>listen to). 你别听到什么就信什么。/ When she arrived, I was listening to (*hearing) a record of Brendel playing Beethoven. 她来时，我正在听着一张布伦德尔弹奏贝多芬乐曲的唱片。（着重点在当时进行中的“听着”这一活动，而不是所听到的内容。）/ I once heard Brendel playing all the Beethoven concertos. 我曾经听过布伦德尔弹奏贝多芬的所有协奏曲。（着重点在所听到的内容，而不是当时“听”的活动。）</div><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 但是，并非所有涉及听的内容的句子都用 hear 而不用 listen to。有时候反而用 listen 而不用 hear。区别就在于：如果“听到”的内容是客观情况的描述，用 hear。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I hear (= I have heard) you changed your job. 我听说你调换工作了。/ I hear (that 常省略) he has been ill since last month. 我听说他自从上个月起就病倒了。/ I hear (= I have heard) you've seen Blanche. (Somerset Maugham, The Moon and Sixpence) 我听说你见过勃朗什。</div><br><br>如果“听到”的内容是对自己的建议或劝告，就用 listen (to)(包含有“倾听，听从”甚至“照办”的含义，可以参考中文的“听话”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I told him but he wouldn't listen (<i>hear). 我跟他说了，但是他听不进去。/ If only I'd listened to (</i>heard) my mother! 我要是当时听妈妈的话就好了！有时候，listen to 的意义(按照上下文)没有“听从，照办”那样重，只是“不拒绝听一下”某个意见。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I can't promise anything, but I'll listen to what he has to say. 我不能许下任何诺言，不过他有什么话要说，我也会听。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 由于 hear 着重听到的内容，所以“聆听，听取”他人的申述，都用 hear 而不用 listen to。而且，hear 本来通常不用进行时态，但是在这个意义上可以用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The court is hearing evidence this afternoon. 法院今天下午听取证词。“听证会”或是“申诉面谈”都采取 hear 的动名词 hearing 而不用 listening。</div><br><br>但是，如果强调专业性的“聆听(并且加以分析做出结论)”而不是“(偶然听来)道听途说”，则仍然用 listen to 而不用 hear。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Now, Mr. Jabez Wilson here has been good enough to call upon me this morning, and to begin a narrative which promises to be one of the most singular which I have listened to for some time. You have heard me remark that the strangest and most unique things are very often connected not with the larger but with the smaller crimes, ... (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes) 这位贾贝兹·威尔逊先生今天上午首先来访问了我，他讲了一件事情，这肯定是我这一段时间以来所听过的最独特的事情之一。你曾经听我说过，那些最离奇最独特的事情，往往与之联系着的，不是一些大的，而是一些小的犯罪案件，……(前面用 listen to，是因为福尔摩斯对来客谈的情况总是细心聆听分析，而后面用 hear，是因为福尔摩斯谈到华生听他发表议论，要自我谦虚，不便说 listen to。)</div><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> hear 还有一个意义用进行时态(只能用现在完成进行时或将来进行时)，就是一次或陆续“收到音信”或“得知情况”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I've been hearing all about your accident. 关于您的事故，我一直都有得到消息。/ You'll be hearing about the new scheme at our next meeting. 咱们下一次开会，你就会听到有关新方案的情况。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> Did I hear (somebody) say ...? 这样的句型，意思是“我听说……，是真的吗？”，并不是对自己是否听到产生疑问，而是要核实自己原先听到的消息。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Did I hear Juliane say she knew you in college? (Merrillee Whren, Hometown Promise) 我听朱莉安说她在大学认识你，是吗？</div><br><br>
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heated
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>heated</b></div>heated discussion 或 heated argument 是相反意见的激烈辩论，不是各抒己见、取长补短的“热烈”讨论(lively discussion)。有时候即使是阐述自己一方的见解，用 heated 也间接表示激烈反驳对方的论点。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>(Bush) heatedly defending his record on disasters in Iraq and at home ... (The Associated Press, Jan. 12, 2009)(布什)激烈地为自己在伊拉克和国内的灾难纪录辩护……</div><br><br>
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heaven 与 sky
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>heaven 与 sky</b></div>参见 sky 与 heaven 条。<br><br>
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heck
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>heck</b></div>参见 hell 条之(7)。<br><br>
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hell
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>hell</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作“地狱”解，不加任何冠词，相当于专有名词(只是不大写)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They were afraid of going to hell when they died. 他们害怕死后下地狱。/ The path/road/way to hell is paved with good intentions. 通向地狱的道路是用善意铺成的。(往往好心反而办成坏事。)</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 转义为“苦难”，则相当于不可数名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It took us eight days of unspeakable hell to walk to the border. 我们经过了八天无法形容的艰难困苦，才徒步走到边界。/ This tooth is giving me hell. 这颗牙齿把我害惨了。/ They made life hell for the people next door. 他们把隔壁的邻居害得没法过日子。/ He knew that these past months since she'd thought her father was dead had been hell for her. (Mary Higgins Clark, I'll Be Seeing You) 他知道，自从她认为父亲已经不在人世以来的这几个月，她的日子过得苦极了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 加上定冠词 the，可以放在一些特殊疑问句的疑问词之后，加强不满、困惑、惊讶的语气，不属于句子的基本成分。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How the hell do these pieces fit together? 这些小块怎么能拼凑在一起？/ Why the hell didn't you tell me? 你当时干吗不告诉我？/ Who the hell do you think you are? 你以为自己是什么人？/ What the hellhell are you doing? 你到底在干吗？如果 what 作为疑问形容词使用，后面有名词，则 the hell 甚至可以插在 what 与名词之间。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>What the hell time is it? 现在是什么鬼时间了？但是疑问词如果是 which，则通常不插进 the hell。例如不习惯说：*Which the hell book do you like? (你喜欢哪一本书？) the hell 在句中也可以用 in hell 来代替。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Where in hell have you been all night? (你一整夜到底到哪里去了？)</div>单独一个 hell 可以在回答时代替强意的否定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—Did he give you the money? —Did he, hell! —他把钱给你了吗？—他哪里会给！</div><br><br>不是疑问句，也可以插入一个 the hell，此时要注意 the hell 不属于句子的基本成分。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Ask your questions, and then you and Harvard can get the hell out of here. (David Rosenfelt, Heart of a Killer) 问你的问题吧，到时你和那位哈佛高才生就可以离开此地了。(注意这里 the hell 不是 get 的宾语，get out 是不及物动词。)</div><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> one hell of 或 a hell of 后面加上不定冠词和名词，表示加重语气，强调这个名词所代表的事物的特性。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a hell of a noise 刺耳的噪音</div><div class="ex-item">a hell of an attractive woman 一个漂亮动人的女子</div><div class="ex-item">a hell of a guy 一个帅哥</div><div class="ex-item">That's one hell of a problem you've got there. 你这一下子可遇到难题咯。/ That's a hell of a price to pay for a coat. 一件外衣，竟然要这么高的价钱。</div><br><br>a hell of a lot 表示大量。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There was a hell of a lot of traffic on the roads. 公路上交通非常繁忙。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 某些及物动词(延续的和瞬时的均可)和它的直接宾语(通常是人)之间插入 the hell out of，就大大加强了这个动词的力度。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It annoys the hell out of me. 这烦死我了。/ I love the hell out of her. 我爱她爱得要命。/ They beat/knocked the hell out of him. 他们狠狠地揍了他一顿。/ Apparently you impressed the hell out of them. (Sidney Sheldon, The Stars Shine Down) 你给他们的印象好极了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> the hell with 后面接上名词成分，是“管它的什么……”，常常是假设站到对方的立场，对一件重要的事物表示轻蔑(句子没有谓语)，从而加强对对方的指责。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Bush still doesn't get the fact that his views on the war do not represent American citizens' views. The hell with the people getting blasted to bits in the desert, the hell with the families who lost loved ones, the hell with the taxpayer that funds this madness. (美国反战人士的宣传品)布什仍然不明白一个事实，就是他对这场战争的看法并不代表美国公民的看法。那些在沙漠里粉身碎骨的人算得了什么，那些失去亲人的家庭就算得了什么，那些为这件荒唐事掏腰包的纳税人又算得了什么。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> hell 的一个委婉的形式是 heck。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I had to wait a heck of a long time. 我只好等了好久。/ The heck with his constituents, who live with some of the foulest coal-burning plants in the country. The heck with the United States, trying to free itself from foreign oil. The heck with the planet, threatened by global warming. (Froma Harrop, in The Daily Gazette, Feb. 2, 2008)(一篇文章批评参议员爱德华·肯尼迪曾投票反对开发某风力能源工程)他自己的选民们靠着国内最简陋的燃煤发电厂过日子，这算得了什么。美国在力图摆脱对国外石油的依赖，又算得了什么。地球面临着全球变暖的威胁，又算得了什么。</div><br><br>
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hello
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>hello</b></div>尽人皆知，是见面时打招呼的用语。但是要注意的是：这是“见面”的招呼，不是“分别”的招呼，所以多少有“很高兴见到你”的欢迎之意。有一个广告，声称预防糖尿病可以不必戒食糖类，放心吃甜食，标题是：Say Goodbye to Sugar-Free Sacrifice and Say Hello to the Sweet Life! (告别戒糖的苦恼，迎接甜美的生活！)这里正面的 say hello to，恰恰与负面的 say goodbye to 形成对比。<br><br>
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help²
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>help²</b></div>作为及物动词，有如下情况：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> help somebody to do something 与 help somebody do something (无 to) 的区别现在已经模糊。但是有些语法书认为，前者只是从旁协助某人自己去做某事。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This book helped me to see the truth. 这本书帮助我看到真相。而后者则是直接代替某人做某事。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Will you help me clear the table? 你能替我把桌子收拾干净吗？但是，如果 help 的主语不可能做出动词不定式所代表的动作，或是该动词不定式使用被动语气，则“越俎代庖”就不大可能，此时动词不定式没有 to 也是“从旁协助”的意思。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Help your student get the best grade (学生用品广告) 帮你家学生拿到最好的分数吧</div><div class="ex-item">Getting to sleep fast and staying asleep helps you wake up and get ready for the day. 迅速入睡并且保持入睡状态，有助于使你一觉醒来精力充沛地迎接新的一天。/ But now she (= Jenna Bush), along with her sister, Barbara, volunteered to help their father get re-elected. 但是现在她(詹娜·布什)和她的姐姐芭芭拉一起自告奋勇协助她们的父亲争取连任。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 这个及物动词有一些中国人不习惯的特殊搭配：(a) help somebody with something，这个 something 可以指帮助的方面或提供的帮助内容及物品。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>help somebody with the ironing 帮助某人熨衣服</div><div class="ex-item">help impoverished communities with their fuel needs 帮助贫困的社区解决燃料之需</div><div class="ex-item">help somebody with the books 帮助某人处理账目</div><div class="ex-item">help somebody with a problem 帮助某人解决问题</div><div class="ex-item">help somebody with heating bills 帮助某人偿付暖气费账单</div><div class="ex-item">help the reader with the names of organizations whose abbreviations are relatively familiar 帮助读者查出缩写名称比较熟悉的组织名称</div><div class="ex-item">help the boss with background data 向上司提供背景数据</div><div class="ex-item">help him with his English 帮助他学英语。</div><br><br>with 后面甚至可以是人，意思是“帮忙在某人面前疏通”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But Mrs. Talbot's patent laxity of standard and foolish sentimentality finally helped Sarah with Mrs. Poulteney; they set her a challenge. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 可是，塔尔博特夫人这种不过于苛求的态度和愚蠢的感情还是帮了莎拉一点忙，因为这等于向波尔蒂尼夫人提出了挑战啊。</div><br><br>help 的直接宾语可以省略。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I depended upon my oldest son the most to help with chores around the house. 我主要依靠大儿子帮忙做家里的杂活。 (b) help somebody out 表示不但帮助了某人，而且这个帮助是成功的。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This calculus assignment is impossible. Can you help out? 这个微积分作业做不出来。你能帮忙做出来吗？</div>(c) help out + prep. + some place 表示帮忙做某一地点的特有工作或事务。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I have to help out at home on the weekends. 我每周末都要帮忙干点家务活儿。/ I'll come over and help out before the party. 我会过来帮忙干点准备聚会的活儿。/ Would you be able to help out in the kitchen? 你能帮忙干点厨房的活吗？</div>(d) help out with something 表示帮忙对某事物施加某动作。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Would you please help out with the dishes? 请你帮忙洗洗盘子行吗？</div>(e) help somebody off with something 表示帮助某人脱下某衣物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We helped the children off with their boots. 我们帮孩子们脱下了靴子。/ He helped her off with her coat. 他帮她脱下外套。也可以说 help somebody out of something。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Juliane took off her coat and helped Dot out of her coat. (Merrillee Whren, Hometown Promise) 朱莉安脱下外套，又帮多特脱下外套。</div>(f) help somebody into/on with something 表示帮助某人穿上某衣物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>help her into her coat 帮她穿上外衣</div><div class="ex-item">help her on with her hat 帮她戴上帽子。</div>(g) help somebody over something 表示“帮助某人克服某困难”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Bed rest may help you over the flu. 卧床休息可以有助于你治愈流感。</div>(h) help somebody + 表示位置的副词或介词短语，这个副词或介词短语可以代替一个动词，表示以此位置为方向的动作。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The courier helped everyone out of the coach. 导游扶大家下了长途客车。/ Nobody can help me out of this dilemma. 谁都无法帮我摆脱这个两难局面。/ I helped him inside. 我搀扶他进去。/ Help him to his feet. 扶他站起来。/ I helped him down to the end of the pier. 我扶着他往下走到码头的最边上。</div>(i) help oneself to something 可以表示：1) 吃或喝东西。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Help yourself to the cake. 请用糕饼。2) 自己取用(不由他人递过来)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—Can I borrow a pencil? —Yes, help yourself. —能借铅笔一用吗？—请自便。3) 擅自拿来，甚至偷来。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He's been helping himself to the contents of the till again! 他又一直在偷钱柜里面的东西！</div><br><br>help oneself 是“自己得到好处”(重结果)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They don't help themselves by insulting their creditors. 他们辱骂债主是没有好处的。有时也可以是“控制住自己”的意思，通常采取否定形式。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I can't help myself sometimes. 我有时候不能自制。</div>(j) can't/couldn't help + 疑问词/名词/动名词，表示对某问题无法控制或不能不去做某事(注意此时 help 已经完全没有“帮助”的意思)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You can't help who you fall in love with. 爱上谁，是自己也左右不了的。/ —You must stop thinking like that. —But I can't help it! —你不应该再这样想了。—可是我无法控制自己。/ I can't help feeling that it was a mistake to let him go. 我总是觉得，放过了他，是个错误。也可以用 can't help but inf. (无 to) 表示“不能不”(英文当然不能照搬中文说 *cannot not)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I cannot help but think that is very important. 我不能不认为那是十分重要的。</div><br><br>can't help + -ing 主要是英式用法，can't help but inf. 主要是美式用法。20世纪90年代以来，后一个用法在美国更加通行，但前一个用法仍然在英国保持阵地。help 之所以有这个意义和用法，是因为它本身也可以有“避免”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I can't help the way I look. 我就是这副样子，没办法。/ They can't help being poor. 他们穷，怪不了他们。/ Don't cough more than you can help. 你能忍住就忍住，尽量别咳嗽。/ Can I help it if he's always late? 他老是迟到，怪得了我吗？/ Oh, well, it can't be helped. 算了吧，没办法。</div>(k) help inf. 这种用法，比不用 help 而直接用一个动词，意思来得更为婉转间接，表示并非一人一事之功，是人们在行文中很乐于采用的结构。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Some marchers called for boycotts of American products, claiming U.S. multinationals illegally helped finance the ruling party candidate's campaign. (The Associated Press, July 16, 2006) 有些游行者号召抵制美国货物，声称美国的跨国公司非法地参与资助执政党候选人的竞选。/ Discoveries by Roger D. Kornberg, 59, have helped set the stage for developing drugs to fight cancer, heart disease and other illnesses. (The Associated Press, Oct. 4, 2006) 59岁的科恩伯格的多项发现，有助于打下基础来研发对付癌症、心脏病和其他疾病的药物。</div><br><br>
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help³
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>help³</b></div>help 还可以作为不及物动词，而且不要任何补充成分，表示“有帮助，有好处，起作用”。例如《纽约时报》2009年3月31日一篇文章说各大学录取新生又开始偏向于录取家境富裕、不需要助学金的学生，副标题说：In the bid for a fat envelope this year, it may help, more than usual, to have a fat wallet. 在争夺录取通知书的大战中，钱包厚，可能比任何时候都有用处。这时候 help 后面的动词不定式就不是 help 的补充成分，不能误解。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It always helps to be prepared for class. 备好课总是有好处的。(it 是形式主语，to be 是真主语，不是 help 的补充成分，全句不是“这有助于备课”。)</div>
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help¹
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>help¹</b></div>喊“救命”可以说“Help!”(中国人可能觉得说得太轻，其实在英语喊 help 是很严重的)。<br><br>
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hence
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>hence</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> hence 后面可以直接放上一个名词成分，形成一个没有谓语动词的特殊句型，表示“因为前面说过过的缘故，所以有了……”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Hence my surprise. 所以我感到惊讶。/ Hence my letter. 所以我就写了这封信。/ Hence the fact that ... 因此，…… 这个名词成分也可以是一个保持动词搭配关系的动名词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Hence my putting the word in its plural form. 所以我将这个单词用复数形式标出来。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 但是 hence 也可以作为一个普通的副词(表示“因此，由此”)放在正常的句子中起作用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>These cars have become cheaper, and hence affordable to more people. 这些汽车变得更为便宜，因而更多的人买得起。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> hence 还有“从现在算起”的副词意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The property must be vacated 12 days hence. 该不动产应该自现在起在12天内腾出。</div><br><br>
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her
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>her</b></div>这个单词值得特别注意，因为它既可以是 she 的宾格(充当直接或间接宾语)，也可以是 she 的物主形容词(表示“她的”)，阅读时需要加以辨别，尤其是要避免把作间接宾语的 her 误当作物主形容词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Uncle John often bought her gifts. 约翰叔叔常常买礼物给她。(不是“买她的礼物”；her 是 bought 的间接宾语，gifts 是直接宾语。)/ An hour later, Hugh walked her home. (John Darnton, The Darwin Conspiracy) 一小时后，休就步行送她回家了。</div><br><br>这个问题只有 her 才有，因为 me/my、you/your、him/his、us/our、them/their 的区别都是很明显的，只有 her/her 是同形。<br><br>
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herd behavio(u)r
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>herd behavio(u)r</b></div>指蔓延性的人群心理造成的起哄现象。例如抢购商品、银行挤兑等等，又称 crowd behavio(u)r。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In a panic, fear takes control. Herd behavior swiftly triumphs. (Newsweek, Oct. 15, 2007, p. 45) 在恐慌中，恐惧感占据了人心。起哄现象就迅速一统天下。</div><br><br>
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here
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>here</b></div>here 与 there 是地点副词，不能作为名词成分表示“这地方”和“那地方”，需要补上 it 来使之成为名词成分。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She's followed me from one camp to another for almost twenty years, and finally to Moscow. She likes it there. (Tom Clancy, The Cardinal of the Kremlin) 她跟着我，从一个军营到另一个军营，快20年了，最后到了莫斯科。她喜欢那地方。</div><br><br>
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he who ...</div><div class="ex-item">he ... who
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>he who ...&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="ex-item"&gt;he ... who</b></div>要注意这里的 he (同 who 之间没有逗号)不是“他”，而是“任何人”的意思(he 本身并不需要再加任何限制性定语，而 he 与 who 之间没有逗号表明 who 从句是限制性的，按理就不能加在 he 后面)，加上 who ... 就是“凡是……的人”。这种句型，多用于格言谚语之类。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He who dares, wins. 勇者赢。/ He who hesitates is lost. 犹豫者必败。/ He who has a thousand friends has not a friend to spare, and he who has one enemy will meet him everywhere. (Ali ibn Abi Talib) 交友千人，无一多余；树敌一人，处处狭路。/ He who sows the wind, reaps the storm. 闯祸者自作孽。/ He who knows not, and knows not that he knows not, is a fool. 不知而又不知己之不知者为愚。/ He who laughs last laughs best. 谁笑在最后，谁就笑得最开心。/ He who waits to do a great deal of good at once will never do anything. (Samuel Johnson) 等待将来一下子把许多事一起做好，势必一事无成。</div><br><br>有时候 he 与 who 当中可以隔开。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How they manage to subsist, he only who sees into all mysteries can tell; ... (Washington Irving, Tales of the Alhambra: To Which Are Added Legends of the Conquest of Spain) 他们是如何度日的，只有看透一切奥秘的人才能弄清楚；……</div><br><br>有时候 who 引入的从句可以移到后面，同 he 分隔开。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He is lost who hesitates. 犹豫者必失。/ There was excellent wild-duck shooting in the fens, remarkably good fishing, a small but select library, taken over, as I understood, from a former occupant and a tolerable cook, so that he would be a fastidious man who could not put in a pleasant month there. (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes) 那里的沼泽，是很好的打野鸭的去处，还可以钓鱼，还有一批数量不大但是精选的藏书，据我了解，是从先前的那位主人那里接管过来的，另外还有一个还过得去的厨师，所以，一个人如果在这里不能愉快快过上一个月，那么，这个人就未免太挑剔了。</div><br><br>有时候(但较罕见)也可以用 he that 代替 he who。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He that is without sin among you, let him first cast a stone at her. (New Testament, John 8:7) 你们中间谁是没有罪的，谁就可以先拿石头打她。among you, let him first cast a stone at her. (New Testament, John 8:7) 你们中间谁是没有罪的，谁就可以先拿石头打她。</div><br><br>he who 的这个泛指功能，甚至适用于 he 变为 him 的场合。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Everything comes to him who waits. (谚语) 耐心等候者凡事必成。/ It may hate him who dares to scrutinise and expose—to raise the gilding, and show base metal under it—to penetrate the sepulchre, and reveal charnel relics: but hate as it will, it is indebted to him. (Charlotte Brontë, Jane Eyre) 世人也许憎恨那个敢于探究和暴露、敢于刮去镀金展现下面劣质金属、敢于进入坟墓展现里面的尸骸的人，可是，恨尽管恨，世人还是受惠于他。</div><br><br>有时候，he who 还可以有复数形式 they who，但很少用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Ah, blessed they</div><div class="ex-item">Who leave completed tasks of love to stay</div><div class="ex-item">And answer mutely for them, being dead, ... (Caroline Norton, The Lady of La Garaye) 他们有福了，/ 离开人世，却留下了已竟姻缘</div><div class="ex-item">冥冥中默默替它承担，……</div><br><br>
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hide
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>hide</b></div>这个动词(及物或不及物)有两个体。一个是作为第四类动词，表示瞬时动作，即“从没有躲藏转入躲藏状态”这个变化(可以作为及物动词或不及物动词使用)；另一个是作为第一类动词，表示“处于躲藏状态”(不及物)或“使之保持躲藏状态”(及物)这个延续意义。(如果是后者，也可以作为第二类动词，采用 be hiding 或者 hide out。)<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 表示前一个意义(即瞬时动作)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>At their approach, the little boy scurried away and hid. 他们走近时，那个小男孩就匆忙走开，躲藏起来。/ She hid her face under the collar of his jacket and started to cry. 她把脸藏在他的外套衣领下，开始哭起来。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 表示后一个意义(即延续状态)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Mladic hid in Serbia until last year. 姆拉季奇直到去年一直躲藏在塞尔维亚。/ Her father didn't know she hid in the trailer. 她父亲不知道她躲在拖车里。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 用 be hiding 表示延续状态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I was hiding underneath a bush, facing forwards with my hands behind my back. 我躲在灌木丛下面，脸瞧着前方，双手放在背后。/ A boy lost in Krasnoyarsk was hiding in friends' apartment for a whole week. 一个在克拉斯诺亚尔斯克失踪的男孩在朋友们的公寓里躲了整整一个星期。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 用 hide out 表示延续状态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The gangsters hid out in a remote cabin until it was safe to return to the city. 帮匪们躲在偏僻的小木屋里，一直等到能安全返回城里为止。要注意的是，一般是一个原来表示延续状态的动词，加上一个像 in、out、off、up 之类的副词，就从原来的延续状态变为瞬时动作。但是 hide 有点特别，本来是个瞬时动词，加了个 out 反而成了个延续动词。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 用被动式表示延续状态(不表示瞬时的躲藏动作)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Much of his face was hidden by a beard. 他的脸大部分被胡须遮盖着。/ After traveling about 80 feet, the left front tire struck a concrete culvert that was hidden in the tall grass. 车刚走了约80英尺，左前车轮就碰到了一条藏在高高的草丛中的混凝土暗渠。</div><br><br>
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high school
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>high school</b></div>不等于中国的高等学校(高等学校是 institution of higher learning)，而是：(1) 在英国，相当于中国的包括初高中在内的中学；(2) 在美国，相当于中国的高中(但是第一年相当于中国的初三，学制共四年)。参见 middle school 条。<br><br>
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high 与 higher
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>high 与 higher</b></div>higher 如果用来修饰生物、器官、教育、学科，就不是 high 的比较级，也不是真正进行比较，只是表示“高级，高等”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>higher education 高等教育</div><div class="ex-item">higher algebra 高等代数</div><div class="ex-item">Man is a higher animal. 人是高等动物。/ “Higher animals” is a catch-all term for vertebrates other than than fish. “高等动物”是除了鱼类之外所有脊椎动物的统称。与此相类似的形容词，还有 lower、upper、younger 等。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Ameba is a lower (*low) animal. 变形虫是一种低等动物。/ lower school (英国的)初中</div><div class="ex-item">the Lower Danube 多瑙河下游</div><div class="ex-item">Lower Egypt 下埃及</div><div class="ex-item">the upper classes 上层阶级</div><div class="ex-item">the upper reaches of the Yellow River 黄河上游</div><div class="ex-item">the younger generation 年轻一代。</div><br><br>从这些例子，可以领悟到，英语对于“比较更如何”有一种“偏爱”，这是其他欧洲语言所不常见的。例如有名的《简明牛津词典》英文是 The Shorter Oxford Dictionary，“小安的列斯群岛”英文是 the Lesser Antilles，“莱茵河上游地区”英文是 the Upper Rhine。<br><br>甚至一些副词，英语也偏爱比较级。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You're better informed when you read The New York Times every day. You get more Washington news, more foreign news. 如果你每天阅读《纽约时报》，你将会获得很多信息。你会了解到更多的美国政府的新闻和国外的新闻。</div><br><br>
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historic 与 historical
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>historic 与 historical</b></div>前者偏重“有历史意义的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a historic building 一座有历史意义的建筑物</div><div class="ex-item">a historic expedition 一次具有历史意义的探险</div><div class="ex-item">a historic change 一次历史性的变革。但是有时候 historic 也可以指“历史上由来已久的”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>their historic fear of invasion 他们历史上由来已久的害怕外敌入侵的心理。</div><br><br>后者偏重“历史方面的，与历史有关的，历史上的，昔日的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>historical research 史学研究</div><div class="ex-item">the historical process 历史进程</div><div class="ex-item">historical events 历史事件</div><div class="ex-item">a historical figure in a work of fiction 一件虚构作品中的一个真实的历史人物。</div><br><br>
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hit
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>hit</b></div>这个及物动词(瞬时动作，第四类动词，过去式和过去分词也是 hit)，除了有“击中”的意思之外，还有“使(某人)灵机一动”的意思，主语是“灵机”的内容，可以把形式主语 it 提前。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It hit me that with a few changes, the new device could work for us instead of against us. 我想起来，只要略加修改，新的装置就可以为我们所用，而不是用来对付我们。/ It suddenly hit me where I'd seen him before. 我忽然想起来从前在什么地方见过他。</div><br><br>也可以以人为主语，用 hit on/upon，表示“(灵机一动)想出(某一主意)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He hit on/upon a solution to the problem. 他灵机一动想出了解决问题的办法。</div><br><br>
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hold
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>hold</b></div>作“举行(集会)”解时，其动词体可瞬间也可延续。瞬间的表示“开始举行”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The meeting will be held at 3:30 p.m. 会议下午3点半开始。延续的表示“在进行着”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The meeting will be held from 9 a.m. to 3 p.m. 会议自上午9点开到下午3点。/ The center is holding a free cancer screening day. 该中心正在开展一个免费癌症筛查日。动词体也可模糊。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The meeting will be held on Monday. 会议定于星期一举行。</div><br><br>
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(hold ... in) contempt
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(hold ... in) contempt</b></div>contempt (抽象名词)是“鄙视”的态度。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He felt nothing but contempt for them. 他对他们只是感到鄙夷。/ They treated him with contempt. 他们用鄙视的态度对待他。</div><br><br>hold somebody in contempt 原意是“对某人持鄙视态度”(延续状态)。“藐视法庭”这项罪名，英文叫作 contempt of court，认定某人藐视法庭，是 hold somebody in contempt of court。但是这一来，hold somebody in contempt 中，本来这个 somebody 是被鄙视的对象，后面一加上 of court 后，这个 somebody 却反而成了藐视法庭的主体。更有甚者，有时候行文连 of court 也省略掉了，结果出现了怪事，hold somebody in contempt 变成了具有两个相反意义的词组，一个是“鄙视某人”，一个是“认定某人藐视法庭”；而某人如果被认定藐视法庭(be in contempt 或 be held in contempt)，就可能被罚款或判刑。两个意义相反的 hold in contempt 如何鉴别？初步看来，法庭(还有国会)认定某人对它藐视，这是一个做出决定的行动，所以是瞬时的；而对某人持鄙视态度，则是延续的状态。因此，如果动词 hold 作为瞬时动词(第四类动词)，就是认定某人藐视法庭或藐视议会。如果动词 hold 作为延续动词(第一类动词)，那就是他人(主语)鄙视某人。<br><br>hold 作为第四类(瞬时动作)动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The House voted Thursday to hold two of President Bush's confidants in contempt for failing to cooperate with an inquiry into whether a purge of federal prosecutors was politically motivated. (<i>The Associated Press</i>, Feb. 14, 2008) 众议院于星期四表决认定，布什总统的两名心腹，由于没有配合调查一次对联邦检察官的清洗是否出于政治动机，因而犯有藐视国会的罪名。</div><br><br>hold 作为第一类(延续状态)动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Till then I hold them in contempt and feel they cannot be trusted. 直到那时，我都一直看不起他们，觉得他们不可信任。(hold 是延续状态。)/ Does it make me upset that some moms don't even try it before they put it down? Yes. Do I hold them in contempt for their choice? Not usually unless ... 有些妈妈，连试都不试一下，就放弃这个办法，我看见了会很不舒服吗？是呀。我会因为看到她们做出的选择而看不起她们吗？通常是不会的，除非…… (hold 是延续状态。)</div>
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holiday
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>holiday</b></div>不能从该词中的 day 望文生义，以为一定只是有一天的假日。其实也可以是连续多天的假期(在英国尤其如此，美国则较多用 vacation)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She talked me into taking a week's holiday. 她说服了我去度一周的假。/ The company offers a pension scheme and three weeks' paid holiday. 公司提供一个养老金计划和三周带薪假期。/ They had only to smell damp in a basement to move house, only to have two days' rain on a holiday to change districts. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 他们因为嗅到底层有潮湿气味便搬了家。有一次在外面度假时，因某个地方一连下了两天雨，他们就赶紧离开了那儿。当然，也可以只有一天。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>New Year's Day is a national holiday. 元旦是国家法定假日。</div><br><br>
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home
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>home</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为名词，home 本来更多表示“家园，温暖的家”(着重一家人的人际关系)，如 Home, sweet home. 家庭居住的房子本应是 house，但是在流行的美式英语中，只作为物质载体的“家庭住房”，通常不叫 house 而叫 home。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>homeowner 自己有房子居住的人</div><div class="ex-item">buy a home 买房</div><div class="ex-item">falling home values 下跌的住房价格。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作为副词，主要表示动态的“回家”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's time to go home now. 现在是回家的时候了。/ He's bringing her home. 他正在带她回家。/ She was on her way home. 她正在回家途中。/ I had to send home for some dry clothes. 我不得不托人回家替我拿些干衣服来。/ I haven't written home yet. 我还没有写信回家。</div><br><br>如果要表示静态的“在家”，通常用 at home。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'll be at home after six. 过过6点我会在家。/ If anybody calls, I'm not at home. 有谁打电话来，就说我不在家。但也有单用 home 表示静态的(英语本来就有用静态形式表示动态结果的习惯)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Here we are, home at last. 咱们终于回到家了。/ I'll be home after six. 过了6点我会在家。/ Be home on time for dinner. 准时回家吃晚饭。/ He stayed home last night. 他昨夜留在家里。但是有人认为省略 at 是不对的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> home 前面没有任何冠词，后面加 to ...，意义从“……的家”转为比较抽象的“……的容身之地”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>North America is home to more species of grape vines than any other continent in the world. 北美洲的葡萄品种，比世界上任何一个洲都多。/ California is home to nine of the ten areas where housing prices have fallen the most. (Los Angeles Times, Dec. 28, 2008) 房价下跌最厉害的十个地区，加州就占了九个。/ Arkansas is home to the nation's fastest-growing Hispanic population. 阿肯色州的西班牙裔人口增长是全国最快的。</div><br><br>如果 home 后面加 of，则 home 保留“家”或“住宅”的原义，前面要按照情况加上冠词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Monticello, the mountaintop home of Thomas Jefferson 托马斯·杰斐逊的山顶之家蒙蒂塞洛。</div><br><br>
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hono(u)rable
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>hono(u)rable</b></div>作为代替职务或爵位的尊称，放在姓名前面，要有 the，而且首字母大写。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the Honourable William R. Gladstone 威廉·R. 格莱斯顿阁下。</div><br><br>也可以缩写为 Hon'ble 或 Hon.。同样的情况，参见 reverend 条。<br><br>
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hope
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>hope</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> hope 与 wish 都有“希望”与“祝愿”的意思，但是有时有区别：hope 是真的希望如此，而且有可能实现。如果是根本不可能实现的事情，或者是已经过去、不可能改变的事情，不能用 hope，只能用 wish。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I hope you're well. 希望你身体健康。/ They hoped for a better life for their children. 他们当时希望自己的孩子能过更好的生活。/ I wish I hadn't come. 我要是没有来就好了。</div><br><br>如果过去抱此希望时本来有可能实现，只是后来没有实现，则可以用 hope 的过去完成时，这和 wish 在说话当时或过去当时本来就不可能实现是根本不同的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I had hoped that Jennifer would study medicine, but she didn't want to. 我本来希望珍妮弗学医，但是她不愿意。</div><br><br>动词 hope 后面可以用简单的 so 或 not。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Was he remembering the same thing? She hoped not. (Merrillee Whren, Hometown Promise) 他也是同样回想起那件事吗？她希望不是的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> hope 与 expect 意义差别较大，参见 expect 条。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> hope 后面作直接宾语的名词从句，其谓语动词的时态，在形式上可以同 hope 本身的时态(一般现在时或一般过去时)一致，但是实在意义是指未来(现在将来或过去将来)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I hope she likes the flowers. 我希望她喜欢这些鲜花。/ I hope she doesn't wake up. 我希望她别睡醒。/ They hoped nothing was wrong. 他们希望不出什么毛病。</div><br><br>不过，从句中也可以用一般将来时或过去将来时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I hope (that) you will pass/pass the exam. 我希望你考试能通过。/ They hoped (that) the rain would stop/stopped before noon. 他们希望中午前雨就能停下来。</div><br><br>此外，也可以用 hope 来表示对过去已经发生但自己仍然不知道结果如何的事抱有某种希望。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I hope he won. 我希望他赢了。/ I hope I got a promotion. 我希望我升职了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> hope 的一般过去时，后面如果加上 to have + pp. (主动)或 to have been + pp. (被动)，意思是“曾经希望如何，但是希望落了空”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I hoped to have been helped. 我当时本来希望有人帮我(但是没有人来帮)。这里动词不定式的完成形式，并不表示 have been helped 先于 hope，其实两者是同时的，甚至 be helped 可以迟于 hope，但是如果不用 have been helped 而用 be helped，则只能表示“当时有此希望(后来实现了没有不交代)”，表达不出“希望落空”的意思。与此相类似，违反事实的虚拟式条件从句 if I had been 中的 had been 代替 was，并不表示“过去的过去”，在时间上只是表示一般的过去，不用 was 而用 had been，完全是为了表示违反了事实，这同“希望落空”的逻辑意义是相通的。与 hope 这种状况相类似的动词，还有 expect、intend、mean 等，后面的 to have + pp. 或 to have been + pp.，事实上都是没有实现的，而且也都是前后两个动词的动作同时发生甚至后面的 have + pp. 或 have been + pp. 比前面动词更晚。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She expected to have been called. 她本来以为人家会喊她(结果预想落空)。/ They intended to have come earlier. 他们本来打算早点来(结果没有做到)。/ I meant to have invited them. 我本来有意邀请他们(但结果因故没有这样做)。</div><br><br>hope 作为名词时，是不可数的。“一线希望”是 a faint touch of hope、a clutch of hope 等。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Our client appeared to have taken fresh heart at the little glimpse of hope which had been presented to him. (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes) 我们的主顾似乎因为他面前出现的一线希望又心宽了些。</div><br><br>
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hopeful 与 hopefully
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>hopeful 与 hopefully</b></div>hopeful 主要意义是指某人自己抱有希望，主语是人。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Don't be/get too hopeful. 别想得太美了。/ I don't feel at all hopeful about our future. 我对我们的前途一点也不乐观。/ They're hopeful of getting it done. 他们觉得有希望办成。</div><br><br>有时主语也可以不是人而是事物，是使得人抱有成功的希望。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a hopeful way of tackling the problem 一个也许可以解决这个问题的办法。</div><br><br>此外，hopeful 还可以作为名词，指“有希望当选者”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Walmart stores is hitting back at some leading Democratic presidential hopefuls who have joined with the company's critics recently. 沃尔玛连锁超市对一些最近参与对该公司提出批评的主要民主党总统角逐者加以反击。</div><br><br>hopefully 从事情“有希望”或“希望较大”派生出副词 hopefully，有两方面的意义。一方面是指某人(通常是句子的主语)自己抱有希望。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He smiled hopefully in their direction. 他满怀信心地向他们那边微笑。另一方面是作为说话者对全句内容的一个结果估计，既表示自己希望如此，又表示前途相当有希望。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Hopefully, Jim will have remembered. 吉姆大概会记起来的。/ These methods, hopefully, will speed up production. 这些方法大概会加快生产进度吧。/ Hopefully, this plane will get in on time so I can make my connection. 但愿这班飞机准时到达，我就来得及转机了。用于后一个意义时，hopefully 通常用逗号(如果插在句子中间就用前后双逗号)隔开。</div><br><br>但 hopefully 本来并不用来表示单纯的“但愿如此”。如果光是表示自己希望如此而实际上不大可能实现，用 hopefully 就很勉强。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Hopefully, the treaty willbe ratified. 希望条约能批准。但后面如果接着说 but it isn't likely，听起来就令人感到突兀，前面最好改为 I hope</div><div class="ex-item">We hope</div><div class="ex-item">It is hoped the treaty will be ratified.</div>
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hopeless
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>hopeless</b></div>可以指自己不抱希望。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was hopeless of his future. 他对前途绝望。也可以指某人或某事物的情况不太妙，使得某人对之不能抱什么希望。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's a hopeless case. 这件事已经没希望了。/ He's a hopeless case. 他不堪造就。/ It's hopeless trying to explain to him. 向他解释也白搭。</div><br><br>但是在日常用语中，hopeless 指人时，语气并不像字面那样重（“不堪造就的，不可救药的”），只是指在某一件具体的事情上本领不大。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You're hopeless. Give me the scissors. 你不行。把剪刀递给我吧。/ As a singer, she's absolutely hopeless. 她根本不是歌唱的料。/ I'm hopeless at languages. 我没有学语言的本事。</div><br><br>
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hospital
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>hospital</b></div>如果作为泛指的医疗机构起其作用，hospital 在英式英语中不加定冠词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>go to hospital 上医院（看病）/ I used to visit him in hospital. 我那时常常到医院探望他（因为他是病人）。/ She was sent to hospital, accused of false pretenses, and finally dispatched to prison. (John Fowles, <i>The French Lieutenant's Woman</i>) 她被送入医院检查，被指控犯了欺骗罪，最后被投入监狱。</div><br><br>在美式英语中泛指时要加定冠词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>go to the hospital 上医院看病（或是到某特定医院的建筑物内去办一件与医疗无关的事）。</div><br><br>
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hostage
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>hostage</b></div>扣留某人作为人质（瞬时动作），英语可以说 take somebody hostage。一直扣留着（延续状态），就是 hold somebody hostage。值得注意的是：即使是多个人，hostage 仍然保持单数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Four people were held hostage. 有四个人被扣留作为人质。但是如果离开这个固定的格式，采取自由的组合，例如 take/hold somebody as hostage，此时 hostage 就恢复了“自由之身”，如果是多个人被扣留，hostage 就变成复数 hostages。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They also took other political leaders as hostages. 他们也扣留了其他政界领袖作为人质。</div><br><br>
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hot
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>hot</b></div>可以是“热的”，也可以是“辛辣的”，取决于它所修饰的名词是什么事物。例如说咖啡，hot 表示“热的”（正常情况下不可能有“辛辣的”咖啡）；说咖喱，在通常情况下表示“辛辣的”，但也不排除在特定场合是“热的”。如果一个 hot 形容两种事物，就不可以作双重用途，只能同一词义用于两者。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The curry and the coffee were both hot. 咖喱和咖啡都是热的。这个 hot 就不可以表示“热的”用于咖啡，同时又表示“辛辣的”用于咖喱，而只能有一个两者通用的词义。同样，hot 在下面的例句中都只能表示“热的”：The curry was hot, and so was the coffee.（咖喱是热的，咖啡也是热的。）/ The curry was hotter than the coffee.（咖喱比咖啡热。）</div>
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household
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>household</b></div>这个名词，可以当作形容词用，意义是“家喻户晓的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Beyond the small roster of nationally renowned schools lie many that aren't household names but havefirst-rate programs and strong reputations. (<i>U.S. News & World Report</i>, September 2009, p. 80) 除了那一小批全国知名的学校之外，另外还有许多学校，校名并不家喻户晓，但却有一些一流的课程项目，而且声誉卓著。</div><br><br>
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how
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>how</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 中国人需要注意的是：问某人或某事物的情况，如果是固定经常的情况或性质，不能套用中文说 *how is ...，应该用 what is ... like。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>What is your boss like? 你的上司是怎样的？（如果说 How is your boss? 则是问候“你的上司身体好吗？”）/ What's the food like at the hotel? 旅馆的伙食好不好？/ She has known what it is like to be poor. 她尝过贫穷的滋味。</div><br><br>只有在三种情况下，可以用 how 来提问：(a) 问与从前相比较的情况。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How are prices now? 现在物价怎样了？(b) 问一个单独的事件。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How was the flight? 航班一路好吗？(c) 问对方对某事物如何评价。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How was the film? (= How did you find the film?) 你觉得这部电影怎么样？</div><br><br>how ... look 与 what ... look like 都可以问当前的情况或性质，但是含义不同。例如 How does he look? 所问的是他这个人的外表，如发型、衣着、谈吐，而且是比较表面的，非内在本质的；而 what ... like ... 则涉及本质，What does he look like? 所问的是透过表面能看出他的内在本质，如体格、性格、风度、脾气等等。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 以 how + adj. 为句首的感叹句，后面不能接上没有不定冠词的名词（无论这是不可数名词，还是可数名词的复数）。例如可以说 How nice a restaurant!（多好的饭馆！），但是不能说 <i>How nice restaurants! 也不能说 </i>How pretty clothes she wears!（她穿的衣服多好看！）或是 *How strange music it is!（这是多古怪的音乐！）<br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 在感叹句中，用 what 往往比用 how 更为自然。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>What a tall boy he is! 比 How tall a boy he is! 自然。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 在一些疑问句（直接或间接疑问句）中，用 what 也往往比用 how 更为自然，尤其是当有关的动词是个及物动词（要求有直接宾语或宾语补足语）时，用 how 会使得句子不完整。此时要注意不要受中文常用的“怎样，怎么”影响而用了 how。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They were at a loss what (<i>how) to do next. 下一步怎么办，他们茫无头绪。(do 要求有宾语)</div><div class="ex-item">What (</i>How) do you call this in English? 英文中这是怎么叫的？(call 要求有宾语和宾语补足语)</div><div class="ex-item">What (*How) do you think about it? 你对此有什么看法？(think 要求有宾语)</div><div class="ex-item">What do you think of the idea? 您对这个主意有什么看法？(think 一般现在时表示“看法”，是及物动词。)</div>但是，How do you feel about it? 与 What do you feel about it? 都是正确的，也许是因为 feel 这个动词可以及物也可以不及物。<br><br>此外，如果及物动词已经有了直接宾语而不要求有宾语补足语，再用 what 反而不对，要用 how。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How (<i>What) do you like this? 您觉得这个怎么样？/ How (</i>What) would you like your coffee? 您的咖啡要怎么样的？（要不要加糖和牛奶等？）/ How (<i>What) do you like living in Beijing? 您在北京住得惯吗？或者动词本来就是不及物的，也只能用 how 而不能用 what。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How (</i>What) do I look in this dress? 我穿这身衣服好看吗？ (5) how 有时候（与 like 一起）不用于特殊疑问句（“怎样，如何”）而用于一般疑问句（“是否”）。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There's a bigger one over there. How do you like that? 那边有一个大一些的。你喜欢吗？/ Here's one without pleats. How do you like it? 这是一件不带褶的。您看好吗？/ How do you like this weather? 您觉得天气怎么样？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 用 how 来表示“如何”（没有主语和谓语），通常用于间接疑问句或是标题。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Could you please show me how to get to the railway station? 您能告诉我如何去火车站吗？/ When you have been notified that your claim has been denied, your plan administrator also must tell you how to submit your denied claim for a full and fair review. 如果你得到了通知，说你提出的要求被拒绝了，那么，负责处理你这件事的计划主管也同时必须告诉你如何将你被拒的要求提出来进行一次全面公正的重新审议。/ <i>How to Clean Almost Anything</i> 《万物清洗指南》。</div><br><br>用于直接疑问句就不自然。例如：*How to spell this word? 通常应该加上泛指的主语 you 以及相关谓语，成为 How do you spell this word?（这个单词是怎样拼的？）<br><span class="seq">(7)</span> How do you inf.? 可以是真的问“你是如何……的？”，也可以是一种表示某事不可能办到的反问，需要从上下文以及语调来判别。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How do you arrive at a point where you get any sort of overall bigger picture? (<i>Reader's Digest</i>, January 2008, p. 78) 你哪能够做到那样的地步，看得见更大的全面景象呢？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> 在句末的 how's that for ...? 表示对后面的事感到惊讶。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Here comes the bus: how's that for timing? 公共汽车来了：时间安排得真准啊！/ It turned out she knew my cousin: how's that for a coincidence? 原来她认识我表妹，真是无巧不成书！</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(9)</span> And how! 表示“对呀，是呀”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—Wasn't that a great game? Didn't you like it? —And how! —那场比赛真精彩啊！你喜欢吗？—当然啦！</div><br><br>
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how about
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>how about</b></div>提出建议时可以在 how about 后面加上有关的名词、代词或动名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How about a drink? 喝一杯好吗？/ Thursday's no good; how about Friday? 星期四不行，星期五怎么样？/ If there isn't a playgroup locally, how about starting one? 如果当地没有托儿所，办一个怎么样？</div><br><br>但是在美式英语的口语中，这个结构有了发展：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 它后面可以直接跟句子，此时介词 about 后面的名词或代词是主语而不是 about 的宾语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How about you take her to London a few weeks? 你带她到伦敦去过几个礼拜好吗？/ How about we go out somewhere cozy and grab a bite? 咱们出去找处舒服的地方吃点东西好吗？/ How about we go to the bar at Holiday Inn? 咱们到假日酒店的酒吧去好吗？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 后面也可直接跟介词短语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How about with your wife-to-be? 带着你的未婚妻一起怎么样？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 后面也可以跟“名词 + 介词短语”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How about two of you on watch outside the door day and night? 你们当中两个人日夜守住门口好吗？ (4) 后面也可以跟 if 从句。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How about if you wait in the car? (Dan Brown, <i>The Da Vinci Code</i>) 你留在车里等候好吗？</div><br><br>how about ... 与 what about ... 有时都表示建议。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How/What about going to the picture tonight? 今天晚上去看电影怎么样？其区别参见 what about 条。</div><br><br>
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how come
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>how come</b></div>how come 后面接上不颠倒词序的问句，有“怎的，为什么竟然”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How come the door's locked? 门怎么竟然是锁着的？/ How come you know my name? 你怎么知道我的名字？</div><br><br>how come 单独作问句，可以表示惊讶于对方告诉的事情。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—I don't like him at all. —How come? —我一点也不喜欢他。—怎的？</div><br><br>
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however²
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>however²</b></div>在 although 条中已经说过，用了 although 就不能用连词 but，但是可以用副词 however。however 作为副词在使用上有一些规则：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 如果前面用了 although/though 从句，主从句之间用逗号分开，however 可以在逗号后面，再加逗号，然后是主句；或者 however 可以插在主句当中，前后加逗号。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Although this month seemed to be a very quiet month, however, there were a number of activities that had far reaching consequences. = Although this month seemed to be a very quiet month, there were, however, a number of activities that had far reaching consequences. 虽然本月似乎十分宁静，但是也有过一些影响深远的活动。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 如果前面不用 although/though，原来的原因从句就变成了独立句，此时它同后一句之间要用分号隔开。后一句的 however，也是既可以放在句首，后加逗号，也可以插在句子当中，前后加逗号。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This month seemed to be a very quiet month; however, there were a number of activities that had far reaching consequences. = This month seemed to be a very quiet month; there were, however, a number of activities that had far reaching consequences.</div><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 如果干脆不用 however 而用 but，则两个句子成了一个并列句的两个分句，彼此之间不用分号隔开，而用逗号（但是用分号也可以）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This month seemed to be a very quiet month, but there were a number of activities that had far reaching consequences.</div>
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however¹
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>however¹</b></div>要分辨两个不同的意义，一个是作为副词表示“但是”，一个是作为连词表示“无论”（引入方式状语从句）。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 分辨的标志是，凡是表示“但是”的意思，however 总是单独出现，后面一定要有逗号，读时有停顿，如果放在句中，则前面也有逗号。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>That is one reason their economic policies are unlikely to restore full employment. It is not, however, the only one. 这是他们的经济政策不大可能恢复充分就业的一个原因。但这并不是唯一的原因。如果 however 所在的句子是并列句的第二分句，它前面应该有分号。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I wanted to study; however, I was too tired. 我想学习，但我太累了。</div><br><br>如果 however 放在句子的中间，要注意这是一个统一的句子，不是以 however 为分界线的两个句子。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Schenectady police would not comment on what precipitate the Friday incident, however, in the hopes of keeping outside accounts from tarnishing witness interviews, ... (<i>The Daily Gazette</i>, Feb. 28, 2013, B1) 但是，斯克内克塔迪的警方不肯评论是什么原因促成了星期五的事件，为的是希望能够不让外界的论述打乱对证人的访谈，……</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 凡是表示“无论”的意思，however 就不能“独来独往”，后面必须有形容词或副词，或是后面接一个从句（但从句中的谓语动词 be 有时可以省略）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The important point is that, however the recording is done, the playback is high fidelity. 重要的一点是：无论用哪种方法来录音，播放出来总是高保真的。/ However Pluto is classified, it is an object on the edge of the immediate solar system that scientists want to study up close. 无论冥王星分到哪一类，它都是科学家们想近距离考察的太阳系边缘物体。要注意，如果 however 从句中有“无论”所指的形容词或副词，都要提前放在 however 后面。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... however successful he is on the international stage ... 无论他在国际舞台上多么成功……</div><div class="ex-item">She could not remember, however hard she tried, the first time they had met. 她无论怎样努力回忆，都想不起来他们第一次见面是怎样的。/ She loved flying. It always gave her a thrill, however many times she'd done it. 她喜欢飞行。不管已经坐过多少次飞机，她每次都会感到一种兴奋刺激。</div><br><br>however 是副词（“但是”）还是连词（“无论”），从上面的分析看来，是容易辨别的，但是实际上容易看错。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>However little known the feelings or views ofsuch a man may be on his first entering a neighbourhood, this truth is so well fixed in the minds of the surrounding families that ... 这条真理还真够深入人心的，每逢这样的单身汉新搬到一个地方，四邻八舍的人家尽管对他的心思想法一无所知…… 这里的 however 后面没有逗号，而是紧接一个形容词成分 little known，可见它应该是个连词，而且从 however 直到 neighbourhood 并不构成一个独立句，而只是一个让步从句。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>However nearly one came upon the arsonist, his identity was never discovered. (John Fowles, <i>The French Lieutenant's Woman</i>) 无论有人多么接近于找到纵火犯，谁也弄不清楚纵火者究竟是谁。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 但是 however 也可以作为句中一个较为复杂的名词成分内部的一个修饰限定语的状语，此时 however 不是引入让步状语从句，而只是一个副词，这个副词不是以“但是”的意义修饰全句，而是以“无论”的让步意义仅仅修饰句中的一个形容词。而且要注意，此时“however + 形容词”要放在“a/an + 名词”之前。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Traveling on however humble a scale is expensive in Scotland. 无论多么节省，在苏格兰旅行总是昂贵的。</div><br><br>
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huh
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>huh</b></div>是个疑问惊叹词，表示：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 附在一个句子后面，相当于一个附加疑问短语 (tag question)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—You been away, huh? —Yes. —你到别处去了吗？—是的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 单独出现，表示没有听清楚对方说的是什么。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—Let's go. —Huh? —Let's go. —咱们走吧。—什么？—咱们走吧。 (3) 对对方刚说的话表示不在乎或不以为然。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—I ran six miles today. —Huh, I do twice that much every weekend. —我今天跑了六英里。—嘿，我每个周末跑的都比你多一倍呢。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 自己先说出一句话，然后后面用 huh 表示疑问或保留。2008 年的总统大选中，竞争激烈，但是直到四五月份，人们的注意力还是放在候选人的个人情况上（黑人、女性……），经济问题还没有提到主要议程上，所以 <i>U.S. News & World Report</i> 的评论员在 4 月 1 日的该刊上撰文，文章最后说：It's less "the economy, stupid" than "the economy, huh?"（与其说是“问题在于经济嘛”，倒不如说是“问题在于经济吗？”）(参见 stupid 条)
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humanities
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>humanities</b></div>美国大专院校和学术研究机构中，谈及 humanities（“文科”）时，经常不包括历史和地理。语言学有时候也不包括在内。<br><br>
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human 与 human being
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>human 与 human being</b></div>两个名词都是指“人”，但是前者偏重生物学意义上的“人类”，后者则偏重“人文”方面的“人”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Dogs can hear much better than humans. 狗的听觉比人灵敏得多。/ Although avian influenza A viruses usually do not infect humans, rare cases of human infection with avian influenza A viruses have been reported. 尽管甲型禽流感病毒通常不会感染人类，但是也有一些罕见的病例报告过人类受到甲型禽流感病毒感染。/ As of March 2009, no other celestial body has been visited by human beings (<i>humans). 直到 2009 年 3 月为止，没有人类到过其他任何一个天体。/ Interpol aims to end the abuse and exploitation of human beings (</i>humans) for financial gain. 国际刑警组织力图制止那种为了经济利益而残害与剥削人的行径。/ (被奴役的人发出呼声) We are not horses. We are human beings (<i>humans). 我们不是马，我们是人。其所以用 human beings 而不用 humans，是因为这里“马”和“人”不是从生物学角度，而是从人道主义的角度来对比的。也可以从生物学角度来对比。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If we humans shared a common ancestry with apes—and if we got here by dint of the same trial-and-error slog as every other species on Earth—then... (Rick Weiss, in </i>The Sunday Gazette*, Feb. 15, 2009, C1) 如果我们人类同猿猴有同一祖先，而且如果我们之所以有今天，同地球上所有其他物种一样，靠的同样是那个千辛万苦的试错过程，那么……</div><br><br>
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hunt
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>hunt</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为及物动词，hunt 表示“追猎”的延续过程，而不表示“猎获”的瞬时结局。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They hunted him as a tiger stalks his prey. = As a tiger stalks his prey, so they hunted him. 他们像老虎追踪猎物一样追捕他。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 但是作为及物动词，hunt 后面可以加上副词 (注意：不是介词) up/down/out，这就由表示延续活动的第二类动词转变成为了第三类或第四类动词，表示经过一段过程达到了目的，或是一下子达到了目的。<br><br>hunt down 的直接宾语可以是人或物，如果是人，一般有贬义，表示“被抓获”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>hunt down a criminal 抓获罪犯。如果是动物，表示“被猎获”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span> hunt down a fox 猎获一头狐狸。如果是抽象事物，表示“被发现并掌握”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The International Cancer Genome Consortium will hunt down the genetics of cancer. 国际癌症基因组协作组将查明癌症的遗传因素。</div><br><br>hunt up 和 hunt out 主要是英式英语的用法，直接宾语通常不是人，指“找出”或“筹足”某物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>hunt up some money to repay one's debts 筹足一些钱来还债。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 有时候 hunt 保持本身是不及物动词，加上一个介词 for 或 after，从而可以接一个宾语。此时 hunt 仍然保持是表示延续状态的第二类动词，hunt for/after 与 hunt (v.t.) 都是延续动词，但它们的区别是：hunt 的直接宾语通常是具体的人或动物（不习惯以抽象事物作直接宾语），而且有负面意义；hunt for 的直接宾语如果是人，也同样有负面意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Detectives are hunting for thieves who broke into a warehouse yesterday. 侦探们正在搜捕一些昨天闯进一座仓库的小偷们。但如果 hunt for 的直接宾语是抽象事物，则没有贬义。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>hunt for/after a definite answer 寻求明确答案。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 作为名词，不一定指敌意的“追猎”或“追捕”，也可以指善意的“寻找”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the hunt for possible survivors and bodies continues (<i>The Associated Press</i>, May 7, 2007) 寻找可能的幸存者和尸体的工作仍然在进行。</div><br><br>
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hurry
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>hurry</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> hurry to inf. 两个动词都是第四类动词，意思是“赶紧去做某事”。要注意的是：由于后面的动词不定式是个瞬时动词，hurry to inf. 是指本来某事还没有做，现在赶快动手做，不是某事已经正在做了（作为一个延续动作过程），现在半途加快速度。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The government should hurry to come up with measures to prevent a repeat of the unfortunate incident. 政府应该赶快拿出防止不幸事故重演的办法。(come up with 是瞬时动作)</div><div class="ex-item">Bob hurried to join Arthur, and they rode together home. 鲍勃赶忙同阿瑟会合，两人一起乘车回家。中文“咱们走快点，要不然会迟到的”译成 *Let's hurry to walk, or we'll be late. 就有问题，问题出在 walk 上，它是个延续性质的第二类动词，hurry to 后面要求的却是第四类动词 (瞬时动作)，因此 hurry 不能同 walk 搭配 (不能用动词 hurry 来表示对正在进行的延续动作予以加速)。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> hurry 本来属于第四类动词，同后面的动词不定式合成一个瞬时动作。后面那个动词的动作，大多数情形下是随着 hurry 而实现了的。但是也可能 hurry 和后面的动词不定式分成两个阶段，hurry 实现了，但后面的动作实现了没有，不做交代。例如 I hurried to catch the train. 就可能是我连忙赶去，赶上了，也可能是虽然赶去，但是没有赶上。(这个例句中，hurry 可以单独使用，表示“赶路”，此时后面的 to inf. 相当于 in order to inf.；而 hurry to inf. 这个连成一体的结构，则把 hurry 在本质上当作是动词不定式的一个状语，形容其匆忙。)<br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 但是 hurry 也可以从瞬时转为延续（虽然后面的动词不定式仍然是瞬时的），表示正处于一种着急的状态，要急于采取某瞬时动作（后面这个瞬时动作应该理解为尚未实现的）。此时可以将 hurry 变为名词，形成 be in a hurry to inf. 的结构。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>So far, no coalition partner has been in a hurry to defect. 迄今为止，还没有一个联盟伙伴急于退盟。/ The company was in a hurry to expand its overseas businessignoring cost factors. 该公司当时正急于扩大其海外业务，而不顾成本因素。试比较：The government hurried to declare that ... 政府连忙宣布……（已经宣布）/ The government was in a hurry to declare that ... 政府正在急于要宣布……（尚未宣布）否定形式可以是 be in no hurry to inf.。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm in no hurry to get to my room. 我并不急于要回我的房间去。</div><br><br>in a hurry 则是一个单纯的副词短语，用于否定句，意思是“轻易地，随便地”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You won't find a better house than this in a hurry. 比这处更好的房子，是不容易找到的。/ I shall not ask again in a hurry. 我再也不随便提问了。/ I won't accept his new plan in a hurry. 我不会轻易接受他的新方案的。/ No one will call on him in a hurry. 谁都不会随便访问他的。</div><br><br>但是 in a hurry 如果作后置定语，意思是“办事大手大脚的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Garnett was a woman in a hurry: she translated some 70 Russian books into English—but what she gained in speed, she lost in subtlety. (<i>Newsweek</i>, Oct. 15, 2007, p. 82) 加内特是个大手大脚的女人：她曾经将大约 70 本俄文书译成英文，但是速度有余而精细不足。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> hurry 可以加上副词 up (英式英语用 on) 和介词 with，引入一个名词 (这个名词代表一个不是瞬时而是延续的动作过程)，整体意思变成“对正在进行的延续动作加快速度，使之赶快结束”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Hurry up with your coffee, will you? 快点把你的咖啡喝完好吗？/ Hurry on with your bath. 洗澡洗快点。</div><br><br>如果没有 up 或 on，只有“with + 名词”或是“into + 动名词”，则后面的动作仍然是瞬时而非延续的，通常与 hurry 合成一体表现为一个动作。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The government should not hurry with an official declaration ...</div><div class="ex-item">hurry into officially declaring ... 政府不应该匆匆忙忙正式宣布……</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> hurry up to inf. 在口语中更多说 hurry up and inf.。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Hurry up and open the door. 赶快去开门吧。即使 hurry 和后面动词的形态发生了变化，也可以这样用（这一点与 try to inf. 和 wait to see 的情况有所不同）。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He hurried up and opened the door. 他连忙开了门。(参见 go 条、come' 条的相关内容。)</div>在祈使句中，敦促对方赶紧去做某事，常常用 hurry and inf. 代替 hurry to inf.。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Hurry and open your present. I want to see what it is. 赶紧打开你的礼物。我想看看是什么东西。</div><br><br>
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hurry 与 haste
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>hurry 与 haste</b></div>参见 haste 与 hurry 条。<br><br>
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hurt
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>hurt</b></div>hurt (过去式与过去分词均为 hurt) 与 wound、injure 的区别，参见 injure 与 wound 条。但是：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 感情上施加伤害，更多用 hurt。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Their remarks hurt me deeply. 他们这些说法，我听了很难受。注意：这是一个瞬时的动态动词 (第四类动词)，通常不用一般现在时，例句中的 hurt 是过去式。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 虽然 hurt 和 wound、injure 都可以指肉体的受伤，但 hurt 的过去分词 hurt 不能作前置定语。例如可以说 a wounded soldier 或 an injured passenger，但不能说 *ahurt worker。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> hurt 不但能够作为及物的第四类动词指“伤害”的瞬时事件，还可以作为不及物的第一类动词 (主语是身体疼痛的部位或是人本身) 指“疼痛”的延续状态 (不一定是因为“受伤”而疼痛)，这是 wound 和 injure 所没有的意义和用法。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My back still hurts. 我的背还在痛。/ Doctors advertise and encourage the sick and hurting to come into their offices. 医生们登广告鼓励有病有痛者前来他们的诊所。要注意：这是第一个一类动词，表示无限的延续状态，不用动词的进行时态。如果作为第二类动词，就用进行时态，通常表示心理上的痛苦状态。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was still hurting after the divorce. 他离婚后仍然很痛苦。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> hurt 还有一个 wound 与 injure 所没有的意义和用法：hurt 作为及物的第二类动词可以表示“(轻微的) 弄痛”，但远不到“伤害”的地步。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>"You're hurting me, Martin," she said, disengaging herself from his embrace. “马丁，你把我弄痛了，”她一边说，一边挣脱了他的怀抱。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> hurt 还有一个 wound 与 injure 所没有的意义和用法，就是作为不及物的第一类动词，以造成肉体或精神上痛苦的事物为主语 (延续状态)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My shoes hurt. 我穿这双鞋子脚痛。/ We must face the truth even though it hurts. 尽管事实令人难过，我们也必须面对。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> hurt 作为及物或不及物的第一类动词或第四类动词，用于否定句中，本来意义是“不造成损失，无伤大雅”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It won't hurt to pay a cent or two more. 多付一两分钱，无伤大雅。在实际语言中，它的意义有时候比“无害”更进一步，表示“有点好处”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Shall we try again? It can't hurt. 咱们再试一次好吗？不妨试试看。/ It won't hurt to postpone it for a while. 暂时搁置一段时间也好。/ I don't think it hurts anybody to get up early. 我觉得早起对谁都有好处。/ It won't hurt most politicians if they tried using their brains. 大多数政治家们，如果试试动脑筋，一定有好处。 # I i</div>
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identify
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>identify</b></div>这个动词来自名词 identity，而 identity 来自形容词 identical，最原始的意义就是“同一”，并且不是两件事物性质相同，而是本来就是一件事物。比如说，张三和李四可能同年同月同日生，并且相貌举止可能完全相同，但张三就是张三，李四就是李四。张三的儿子绝不会叫李四为爸爸。严格说来，他们不是 identical。只是在日常不严谨的语言中，性质相同就算 identical 了。近年来，人能不能克隆，在全世界成了一个话题。但即使克隆出了一个同原来的人完全一样的人，他们之间还是没有达到 identical。因此，identical 应该是自己同自己的同一，比如一个人有他的身份证，上面有他的一切主要情况，他本人站在一边，身份证放在另一边，两者就在个人情况这一点上是 identical 了。所以“身份”在这里就是 identity。(现在西方一种叫作 identity theft 即“身份盗窃”或“冒名撞骗”的犯罪行为十分猖獗，从这里也可以体味 identity 的意义。) 但是，identity 是“自己同自己的同一”这个意义，在实际语言使用中并不那么严格。往往一个人的职业、职务、地位，尽管并不等于他这个人，别人也可以有一样的，但也算作是他的 identity。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Mr. Sabin, although he had registered at the hotel under his accustomed pseudonym, had taken no pains to conceal his identity, ... (E. Phillips Oppenheim, <i>The Yellow Crayon</i>) 萨宾先生尽管在旅店用他常用的假名登了记，但并没有努力设法隐瞒自己的真面目。(这里的 identity 就是“他是谁”而不仅仅是“他是干什么的”。) 问题也许可以这样来看：如果是何人尚未知道，说 identity 就是把范围缩小到一个个人，就用得上“自己同自己同一”这个意义；如果已经知道是谁了，再说 his 或 her identity 就反而是扩大范围，说明他或她的职业、职务、地位，而这是别人也可能同样具有的，此时，“自己同自己同一”的意义就用不上了。而动词 identify，最原始的意义就是“确定其 identity”，从这里再引申出其他一些意义。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为第四类动词，指辨认出某人确是某人而不是别人，某物确是某物而不是他物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The device can identify its owner through his fingerprint pattern. 该装置能通过指纹辨认出主人。/ There would be no way the guard at the reception desk could identify him. 问讯处的警卫员不可能认出他来。/ The man was identified as Carl Bottinger. 那个人被辨认出是卡尔·伯丁杰。/ Her parasol was identified by its color. 她的阳伞靠颜色来辨认。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作为第四类动词，确认某物属于某人。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>identify handwriting 鉴定笔迹</div><div class="ex-item">identify fingerprints 鉴定指纹</div><div class="ex-item">I identified my wallet by asking what was in it. 我问清楚钱包里有什么东西，从而确认了是我的钱包。/ The corpse could not be identified. 尸体无法辨认。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 作为第四类动词，认清 X 同 Y 是一回事或至少在一个意义上是一回事。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Children learn to identify objects with words. 儿童学习把事物同单词对应起来。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 作为第四类动词，已经知道而且说出某人是谁。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The police chiefrefused to identify the suspects. 警察局长拒绝说出疑犯们的姓名。/ Four officials familiar with intel-policy discussions, who asked not to be identified because the subject matter is sensitive, say ... (<i>Newsweek</i>, Oct. 10, 2006, p. 8) 四名对情报事项讨论很熟悉但因为相关问题十分敏感而要求不被说出姓名身份的官员说……</div><br><br>如果是 identify oneself，则是“自报姓名身份”或“证明自己的姓名身份”（要注意，不光是身份，因为可以多人有相同身份）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Please identify yourself. 请自报姓名身份。/ He had no means of identifying himself. 他拿不出什么东西来证明自己是谁。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 作为第四类动词，经过转义，不一定是一开头就弄清楚某人或某物的 identity，而只是在茫茫大环境中发现某人或某物符合某个原先存在的标准 (当然，发现了之后，对 identity 就咬住不放了)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>identify and nurture bright students 发现并培养高才生</div><div class="ex-item">Scientists claim to have identified natural substances with cancer-combating properties. 科学家们声称发现了一些有抗癌性能的天然物质。/ The World Bank ... has embarked on a global program to assess restoration efforts and to identify tactics to combat their (= the corals') decline. (<i>The New York Times</i>, May 1, 2007, F1) 世界银行开展了一个全球性的工作项目，要对恢复珊瑚所做的工作加以评估，并且要找出制止珊瑚减少的方法。/ Even if enemy warship sensors identify the missile, no warship can escape from this missile because of its high speed. (<i>The Associated Press</i>, Apr. 3, 2006) 即使敌方军舰的遥感器发现了这枚导弹，也会由于它速度很高，没有军舰能够躲开。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 作为不及物的第二类动词，加上 with，表示在想象中把自己同某个人物 (尤其是虚构的人物) 等同起来，身在其中，参与这个人物的喜怒哀乐和跌宕沉浮。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She always identifies with the heroine of a TV drama. 她总是把自己同一部电视剧中的女主角等同起来。在这个意义上，也有人把 identify 作为及物动词加上 oneself，但更常见的仍然是作为不及物动词。此外，也可以表示同某现实存在的他人有了融洽的关系。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The surviving elites could easily identify with their occupiers. 生存下来的精英们，能够很容易地同占领者建立起认同感。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 作为第二类动词，identify oneself with 或 be identified with 加上某个公共性的事业、主张、组织、运动，是参与或给予支持。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He didn't want to be identified with the program. 他不愿意同这个项目搭上关系。/ She identified herself with Women's Lib. 她参与了妇女解放运动。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> 作为第二类或第四类动词，identify X with Y 还可以表示在认识上或言论上把 X 同 Y 看成一回事。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Don't identify appearance with reality. 别把表象当作现实。</div><br><br>
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(I don't) suppose
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(I don't) suppose</b></div>十分客气提出请求时的用语，后面可以接上 I could inf. 或者 that you would be kind enough to inf.。亲朋好友之间，或是尊对卑，除非开玩笑，不要使用，因为带有装模作样的语气。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I don't suppose I could possibly ask you for a room, could I? 我能问您要一个房间吗？/ I don't suppose that you would be kind enough to read my novel and give me your professional opinion? (Jeffrey Archer, The Fourth Estate)不知道您能否过目一下我写的这本小说，给我提出您的专业意见？</div><br><br>
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if
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>if</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 以 if 引入的条件状语从句，可以修饰主句全句，但也可以仅仅修饰主句当中的一个成分，尤其是一个能代表事件或行动的名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Many had predicted violent street protests if the vote was too close to call. (<i>The Associated Press</i>, July 3, 2006) 许多人预言，如果双方得票接近，难以决出胜负，就可能发生街头暴力抗议。(if 只管 violent street protests，不管 predicted。)</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 在真实条件状语从句中，谓语动词的时态要比主句时态“早一个单元”，也就是说，如果主句是一般将来时，从句应该是一般现在时 (例如：If all goes well, the plan will be fulfilled on time.)，这一一般是人们比较容易理解和熟悉的；但如果主句是过去将来时，从句应该是一般过去时，而由于人们通常理解，一般过去时往往意味着事情已经确实发生，不大习惯理解这只是一个可能的预测，因此需要心理上的一点调整才好理解和使用这个时态，例如上面 (1) 的例句中的 was，就只是一个预测。<br><br>但是，如果 if 从句中的事实是明确地 (从现在的观点看) 预料在将来某时发生的，则从句的谓语动词还是可以采取将来时态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If you will be a high school junior or senior next fall, we invite you to join our contact list. 如果你预计今年秋季就是十一或十二年级生，我们就请你加入我们的“联络表”。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 在非真实条件句的主句和从句中，谓语动词的时态 (虚拟语气) 都要比真实条件句“朝过去提前”，也就是说，如果原先真实条件句的主句谓语动词是一般将来时 (例如 will be)，到了非真实条件句就要改为过去将来时 (would be)；原先的过去将来时 (例如 would be) 要改为过去将来完成时 (would have been)。相应地，从句动词也要发生由 is 变为 were (was)、was 变为 had been 的变化。这有点像解析几何中的坐标整体移动。对于这样的变化，英语学习者需要多做练习，分辨正误。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If they had lived (<i>they lived) ten years longer, everything might (</i>may) be different today. 假如他们多活了十年，今天的情况本来会大不一样。/ If they had been (<i>were) more thoughtful, they might have helped (</i>might help) us in our time of need. 他们要是多关心一点，本来会在我们急需的时候帮助我们的。/ If Tom had asked (<i>Tom asked) his boss, he would have been (</i>would be) given leave time. 汤姆要是求求上司，本来是会得到假期的。另外，在非真实条件句中，would、should 等辅助动词，无论是 would inf.、should inf. (除非 should 表示“应该”或“万一如果”) 还是 would have + pp.、should have + pp. 都只能用于主句，不能用于 if 从句。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>*If she would have written (应改为 If she had written) to me, I should have replied immediately. 她要是给我写了信，我本来就会马上给她回信的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 要区别 if 两个不同的用法。一个是“如果”，这是人们熟知的最普通的用法，引入一个条件状语从句。另一个则相当于 whether，引入一个名词从句 (“是否……”)。如何区别，首先要看上下文，尤其是主句的动词是否及物动词表示疑问而又缺乏直接宾语 (如果不是及物动词，或者不表示疑问，或者虽然是及物动词表示疑问但已经有了直接宾语，则 if 肯定不是“是否”的意思)。其次就要看从句中动词用什么时态。例如：Please let me know(,) if he comes. 主句动词表示疑问 (let me know 可以有直接宾语，也可以没有)。然后再看从句谓语动词的时态。从句谓语动词使用了一般现在时，就不可能指过去、现在或将来的任何事实，而只能表示一种假设 (一般现在时不能用于瞬时动词指现实正在发生的事件，除非改为 is coming；也不能用来指将来必然发生的事件，如果以一般现在时表示将来，则唯有当 if 作“如果”解时方有可能)。由此可见，这一句中的 if 是“如果”的意思。如果再加上逗号，意思就更清楚：即使没有逗号，意思也是清楚的。但是如果 if 从句的谓语动词是延续的，用了一般现在时就可能使得 if 产生歧义，例如：Please let me know if you hear anything. 由于 hear 是延续性动词的，所以它在这里可以起三种不同的作用：(a) 以现在形式表示将来意义，此时 if 就是“如果 (将来)”的意思，表示“你 (将来) 如果听到什么声音请告诉我”。(b) 以现在形式表示现在意义，if 是“如果 (现在)”的意思，表示“你 (现在) 如果听到什么声音请告诉我”。(c) 仍然以现在形式表示现在意义，但 if 是“是否 (现在)”的意思，表示“请告诉我你 (现在) 是否听到什么声音”。<br><br>再回头看看瞬时体。Please let me know if he will come. 从句谓语动词使用了一般将来时，这就排除了 if 表示“如果”的可能 (要是“如果”的话，就只能说 if he comes，以一般现在时表示将来意义)。此时 if 前面就不可以加上逗号。Please let me know if he has come. 这一句则有两种可能 (“请告诉我他是否已经来了”或“他如果已经来了，就请告诉我”)，要看上下文才能辨别。同样，Please let me know if he came yesterday. 这一句也可以有两种可能。再深究一下，为什么这里会有两种可能，是因为 let me know 可以有直接宾语 (if 引入名词从句作直接宾语) 也可以省略直接宾语 (if 引入条件状语从句)。但这应该说是一种比较特殊的情况。在另外一些场合，就可以看主句的谓语动词是否已经有了不可缺少的直接宾语来判别 if 究竟是引入名词从句还是引入条件状语从句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I wonder if you'd give the children a bath? 不知您可否给孩子们洗个澡？(wonder 需要直接宾语，所以 if 从句不可能是条件状语从句，而只能是名词从句。)</div><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> if 从句和主句重复同样的內容，如果句子用一般过去时，意思就是“既然已经这样，就算了吧”“既来之则安之”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If you paid, you paid. 钱已经付了，要不回来，就算了吧。/ If you told him, you told him. 你既然告诉了他，那就算了。/ If he met Grogan, he met him. (John Fowles, <i>The French Lieutenant's Woman</i>) 见过了格罗根又能怎样！</div><br><br>也可以用一般过去时来表示过去当时对未来的打算。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We decided we wanted kids so if it happened, it happened. 我们决定了要孩子，既来之则安之吧。</div><br><br>也可以用一般过去时来描述现在和将来的事情。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's just one of those things that if it happened, it happened. It doesn't bother me so much to keep me up at night. 这是一件发生了就发生了的事。我不那么在乎，也不会在夜里辗转反侧。</div><br><br>但是如果对现在或将来的未定发展采取“听天由命”的态度，就用一般现在时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If it happens, it happens and I'll feel the same. 发生什么事我都无所谓。</div><br><br>
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if anything
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>if anything</b></div>相当于中文的“倒是”，用来说出一个相反的判断。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'd say he was more like his father, if anything. 我倒是觉得他更像他父亲。/ She's not thin—if anything she's onthe plum side. 她可不瘦，她倒是偏胖的。</div><br><br>在问句中，if anything 用来在对方有了一番表示之后追问对方“究竟”有何主张或原因何在，或是自己一番议论之后来一个转折。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>What, if anything, ought we to do? 那么，咱们该怎样做才对？/ What is distracting you from studying, if anything? 究竟是什么原因使你学习分心？</div><br><br>
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(if) anything
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(if) anything</b></div>这个状语用于表示对前面一个有否定或负面意义的说法加以纠正，相当于中文的“倒是”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She's not thin—if anything she's on the plump side. 她并不瘦，她倒是有点偏胖。(Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary) 有时候前面那个否定或负面的说法是隐含的。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'd say he was more like his father, if anything. 我倒是说他更像他父亲。(ibid)</div><div class="ex-item">Many Americans... complain that Uncle Sam has if anything been hyperactive since the financial crisis of 2008. (The Economist, Feb. 20, 2010, p. 25) 许多美国人……埋怨“山姆大叔”自从 2008 年金融危机以来倒是过分积极。/ Ifanything, we have too much food rather than too little. 咱们倒是食物过多，而不是过少。/ That is why the BP spill is not even close to being "Obama's Katrina." If anything, it is George W. Bush's second Katrina. 因此，英国石油公司漏油事件甚至也谈不上像“奥巴马的卡特里娜飓风灾难”。它倒是小布什的第二次卡特里娜飓风灾难。(责任不在奥巴马，而在其前任小布什留下的恶果。)</div>
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if not
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>if not</b></div>本来的意义是“如果不是”，但实际意义往往是“甚至是……”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He bullied his opponents and impugned their integrity, if not their patriotism. 他威吓对手们，否定他们的正直，甚至否定他们的爱国心。/ Their behavior was reproachable, if not criminal. 他们的行为是恶劣的，甚至是罪恶的。/ They're likely to sell WMD to terrorists, if they haven't already. 他们很可能把大规模杀伤性武器卖给恐怖分子，甚至也许已经这样做了。(注意：由于后面的 not 其实没有否定意义，所以这句中不用 yet 而用 already。)</div>if not 也可以改为 not to say，意义相同。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is hard, not to say impossible, to tell exactly where the boundary has to be drawn. 很难，甚至不可能说清楚界线应该划在哪里。</div><br><br>
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if only
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>if only</b></div>表示充分条件，即“只要……”，不是“如果只有……”，这个 only 也不是限制后面的从句主语的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In the 19th century, British textile makers salivated at the thought of the money to be made if only the empire's representatives could persuade every Chinese to lengthen his shirttail by a foot. 19 世纪时，英国的纺织业厂商们盘算，只要中国的官吏们能说服每个中国人把各自的衣裾放长一英尺，他们就能够多赚不少钱，每念及此，他们就不垂涎欲滴。(only 不是管 representatives 的)</div>有时候 only 可以离开 if 而放在稍后的地方，不要误解为管别的成分。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Such a wonderful world was much better than fame or money or power, if those involved only appreciated their unique good fortune. 这样一个美妙的世界，远胜过名利权势，只要有关的人懂得珍惜自己这种独特的好运气就可以了。(不是“如果有关的人只珍惜……” ) 如果只有 if 从句，没有主句，意思就是“但愿……”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If I could only escape, if I could only escape... he murmured the words to himself a dozen times; ... (John Fowles, <i>The French Lieutenant's Woman</i>) 要是我能摆脱这一切该多好……他反反复复地说着这句话，说了不下十余遍；……</div><br><br>if only ... 是逻辑上的“充分条件”(“只要……就……” )；换个顺序，only if ... 则是逻辑上的“必要条件”(“唯有……才……” )。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I will pass the course only if I get 70% or better on the final exam. 我期末考必须起码拿到 70 分，这一门才能及格。同 if 与 only 可以隔开一样，only 与 if 也可以隔开。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The hammerhead is the most aggressive but even they only attack if they mistake a person for food or are being bothered. 双髻鲨是最凶猛的，但是连它们也唯有把人误认为是食物，或者受到打扰的时候，才会攻击人。参见 only 条之 (2)。</div><br><br>没有 if，但是从句谓语动词的 operator 提前到主语之前，此时从句中的 only 也可以表示充分条件“只要”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... and had they only got the whole of the note and paid a little more attention to detail in the accessories, it is very possible that suspicion might never have been aroused. (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, <i>The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes</i>) 本来他们只要拿到整张字条，对相关的情况多注意一下细节，这个怀疑就根本不会产生。</div><br><br>但有时候 if only 的 only 却是用于限制后面的名词成分，此时 if only 没有充分条件 (“只要……” ) 的意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My personal view is that hiring is like musical chairs, and if only the people who are already on the dance floor are playing, then the long-term unemployed can't get in the game. (<i>The Daily Gazette</i>, Feb. 23, 2013, A5) 我个人的看法是：求职就业就像是抢椅子游戏，如果只有那些已经在舞场上的人才参加游戏，那么那些长期的失业者就没有份儿了。</div><br><br>
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(if) only
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(if) only</b></div>参见 if only 条。<br><br>
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(if only) because
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(if only) because</b></div>这个词组很常见，意思比单独的 because 宽，表示这是原因之一，但不一定是唯一的原因。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Still, the new discovery should accelerate progress—if only because with the ethical issues seemingly out of the way, more scientists and money will be drawn to the field. (The New York Times, Nov. 27, 2007, F1) 不过，新的发现还是会使得进程加快，原因之一是：既然伦理上的问题看来似乎排除了，就会有更多的科学家和金钱投入这个领域。</div><br><br>
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if 与 whether
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>if 与 whether</b></div>参见 whether 与 if 条。<br><br>
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ignore
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>ignore</b></div>着重在“有意地置之不理或忽视”。如果是“无意的”，就属于延续体的状态动词 (第一类动词)；如果是“有意的”，就属于延续体的活动动词 (第二类动词) 或是瞬时体的达成动词 (第四类动词)。因此，ignore 可以作为延续体的活动动词而采用进行时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You're ignoring a very important point. 你忽视了很重要的一点。也可以作为瞬时体的达成动词而采用一般时。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He ignored my presence. 他不理会我当时在那里。</div><br><br>
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ill
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>ill</b></div>基本上是否定的意思，但这个否定是着重在“不相称”的差距上。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>ill-fitting shoes, clothes 不合身的鞋子、衣服</div><div class="ex-item">ill-gotten gains 不义之财</div><div class="ex-item">ill-mannered behavior 失态的举止</div><div class="ex-item">I can ill afford (to buy) another TV set. 我没钱再买一台电视机了。/ The Soviet Union's struggling economy, hard hit by falling oil revenue, could ill afford another arms race. (<i>The New York Review of Books</i>, Nov. 4, 2004, p. 26) 苦苦挣扎中的苏联经济，因为石油收入下跌而受到沉重打击，再也经不起又一次军备竞赛了。/ Furthermore, the government's habit of promoting particular businesses sit ill with its purported aim of withdrawing from business altogether. (<i>The Economist</i>, June 1, 2003, p. 41) 此外，政府的那种对特定企业加以扶持的习惯，同它所宣称的索性撤出产业界的宗旨南辕北辙。</div><br><br>
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illiterate
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>illiterate</b></div>作“文盲”解，名词与形容词均可。中文“盲”还扩大用于“科盲”“法盲”“电脑盲”，英文也可以将 illiterate 扩大用于 science-illiterate、law-illiterate、computer-illiterate，当中的连字符可以有也可以没有，但英文中这些单词多用作形容词，少用作名词。<br><br>此外，去掉了表示反义的前缀 il-，名词 literacy 原意是“识字”，转义为“基本常识”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>financial literacy 基本金融常识</div><div class="ex-item">IT literacy 信息技术基本常识</div><div class="ex-item">health literacy 保健基本常识。</div><br><br>形容词 literate 前面加上一个名词或是表示领域的副词，表示“具备该领域的常识”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Kids should be financially literate. 孩子们应该懂得一点理财常识。</div><br><br>
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imagine
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>imagine</b></div>作为及物的第一类或第二类动词，imagine 的含义比较广泛。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 最基本的含义是“想象，设想”（第二类动词）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's difficult to imagine anything worse. 很难想象有什么情况会比这个更糟糕的了。/ Two weeks in Hawaii, imagine! 到夏威夷去玩两个星期，你说美不美？/ I can't imagine not having a car. 没有车子，简直不堪设想。但是，You're imagining things. 意思是“你是在胡思乱想”。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 后面的直接宾语可以加上动词不定式(动词是延续性的)，作为“猜想”的内容。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I imagine her to be a lot of fun. 我猜想她这个人一定很风趣。/ I don't imagine him to be a very good cook. 我估计他做菜不见得十分棒。</div><br><br>有时候动词不定式可以改为现在分词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I can just imagine her saying that. 我猜想她会那样说的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 如果直接宾语是动名词，则意思是“设想自己如何如何的情景”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I can imagine skiing down those mountains. 我可以想象自己从那些山上滑雪下来的情景。/ I can't imagine living with him. 我无法设想怎能同他一起生活。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 后面接上 that 名词从句(that 可省略)，可以表示“假想，幻觉”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He imagined he was Napoleon. 他幻想自己是拿破仑。/ She keeps imagining that she's being followed. 她一直神经过敏，以为有人在跟踪她。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 但是后面接上 that 从句，也可以不是“幻觉”而是有根据的“推测，想象”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I imagine she's very tired. 我猜想她一定很疲倦。</div><br><br>
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impact
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>impact</b></div>比 influence 强烈，而且是一下子的 (influence 则可以是细水长流的)。所以 impact 往往可以译成“冲击”，或至少从“冲击”这个角度来理解。不过，经过多年的使用，impact 也逐渐向 influence 看齐，但是力量仍然比 influence 强。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>For years scientists have recognized the impact of the immense Greenland icecap on the North Atlantic climate. 多年来，科学家们一直承认，巨大的格陵兰冰冠对北大西洋的气候有影响。/ The full impact of today's mortgage restrictions and tight money won't be felt until next spring or summer. 目前对按揭的限制和银根紧缩，其全部影响要到明年春季或夏季才能看得出来。</div><br><br>
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imply 与 infer
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>imply 与 infer</b></div>两者(都是第二类动词)都是表示“从某个意思引申到另一个未明言的意思”，但是主体不同。imply 是说话者做出暗示或影射；infer 则是听者做出推论。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He didn't say that, but he did imply it. 他没有明说，但是他暗示了。/ What are we toinfer from their absence? 他们没有来，咱们从这里可以看出什么问题呢？许多英语为母语者也常常误用 infer 代替 imply。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><i>Do you mean to infer (应该改为 imply) I'm all wrong? 你的意思是不是说我全错了？/ </i>What are you inferring (应该改为 implying) by that? 你这样说，是什么意思？</div><br><br>
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impose
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>impose</b></div>这个动词可以以三种搭配形式出现，各有各的意义：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 人们最熟悉的一个搭配形式和用法，就是 impose something on somebody。这里的 impose 是个及物动词，有其直接宾语，还另有 on somebody 作为其补充成分，意思是“将某事强加于某人”。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 另一个用法，是作为不及物动词，本身已经没有宾语，但是因为仍然保留了 on somebody，所以结合起来，成为一个短语动词，还是有及物的性质，不过意思有些改变，有“(给某人)出难题；打扰(某人)；欺骗(某人)；过分利用(某人的好意)”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I think I've imposed on him enough already. 我觉得我给他带来的麻烦已经够多的了。/ They have imposed on his hospitality. 他们滥用了他的殷勤好客。/ Don't let your simplicity be imposed upon. (Richard Brinsley Sheridan, The Rivals) 别太天真，被人作弄。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 作为不及物动词，单独出现，没有附带成分 on somebody，意思是“让他人为难，出难题；打扰”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—You must stay for lunch. —Well, thanks, but I don't want to impose. —你该留下来吃中饭。—谢谢了，我不想打扰了。/ I don't want to impose, but ... 我不想找麻烦，但是……</div><br><br>imposing 作为形容词，许多词典只收录“宏伟的”之意。但是其实也有“强人所难的，勉强的”之意。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'd like to have you stay here for dinner, if it is not too imposing. 如果不太勉强的话，我很想你能留下来吃晚饭。</div><br><br>
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impossible
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>impossible</b></div>可以说：The fruit is impossible to eat. 这水果不能吃。(相当于 It is impossible to eat the fruit. 不是“水果”“不可能”，是“吃”“不可能”。) 但是不能说 <i>The fruit is possible to eat. 同样，可以说 He is impossible to beat. 他是打不败的。但是不能说 </i>He is possible to beat. 凡是“不能被如何”，可以用 impossible to inf.，但是“能被如何”却不可以说 *possible to inf. 这种句法结构(tough construction)，是英语的一个突出现象。只有数目有限的若干形容词可以用于这种结构，impossible 是其中之一，但是 possible 却不在内。<br><br>
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impression
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>impression</b></div>给予某人以某种印象，是 make a adj. impression on somebody。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Lukas Frey was making a whole new impression on her. (Merrillee Whren, Hometown Promise) 卢卡斯·弗雷正在给她一个焕然一新的印象。</div><br><br>
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I'm... (This is...)
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>I'm... (This is...)</b></div>打电话时一开始互相通报是谁，通常不能像中文那样直接用“你”“我”。如果双方已经认识，自我介绍“我”是谁，通常就不单刀直入地说 I'm ...，而说 This is ... 或 This is ... speaking. 互相通报过了之后，就可以“恢复正常”，用“我”“你”，同平常交谈一样。但如果对方并不认识自己，也可以一开头就自我介绍说 I am ...。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Good morning. I am Tom Edwards. 早上好。我是汤姆·爱德华兹。</div><br><br>
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in
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>in</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 如果是肯定的延续状态，自过去的某时间点延续到现在，用“for + 多长时间”。但是如果是否定的延续状态，自过去的某时间点延续到现在(对瞬时动作加以否定从而形成的一直无此动作发生的时间段)，就用“in + 多长时间”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Hehad not been seen in public in years. 他好几年一直没有公开露面。/ The floor of the laboratory had not been cleaned in some time. 实验室的地板，已经有一段时间没有清扫了。</div><br><br>本来“in + 多长时间”是用来表示“用多长时间来完成某一有自然终点的过程”，如 build the house in six months (用半年时间把房子盖好)，但是在否定句中，“in + 多长时间”可以不表示过程的完成，而只是表示否定状态延续的时间段。但是，否定句中也可以不用 in 而仍然用 for。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... he hasn't conducted Friday prayers for years ... (U.S. News & World Report, Dec. 25, 2006, p. 48) 他已经好多年没有主持星期五的祈祷了……</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 遇到 in 后面接上表示时间段的名词成分，有三种可能：(a)如果动词是第三类动词(即“趋成动词”)，表示“用了多长时间达到过程的完成”，如上面(1)中的例子：build the house in six months。(b)无论是过去还是将来，指在某一标准时间点之后多长时间的另一时间点(动词是第四类动词，表示在该时间点发生某瞬时事件，或是表示状态的第一类动词，用来表示在该时间点存在某状态，或借用来表示某状态的瞬时开始)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He came back in two months. 他两个月后又回来了。/ I'll be back in a minute. 我马上就回来。尤其是如果这个时间段用 's time 的形式来表示，更是这个意思。(c)表示否定的状态延续多长，如上面(1)所述。</div><br><br>in 的这三种不同的意义，需要注意分清楚。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But I thank Mother Nature I shall not be alive in fifty years' time. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 不过我倒也感谢大自然母亲，我不会再活五十年。be alive 是延续的状态，不可能是第三类动词，所以(a)的可能被排除。作为对时间段的否定(即(c)的情况)也不合情理(不可能“有五十年的时间将不会活着”)。所以唯一的可能，就是“从现在算起再过五十年，到了那个时间点我就不会处于活着的状态”。</div><br><br>in 可以表示“经过(多长时间或若干事件)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In only two trips, I was feeling just as much at home as I did at Carlson, Miller, and Timmerman. (David Rosenfelt, Heart of a Killer) 经过两次外出，我就感到自己就像在卡尔逊、米勒、蒂默曼事务所一样如鱼得水。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 在新闻报道中，在叙述发生事件的具体内容之前，尤其是之后，往往用 in ... 对这起事件做出进一步的或概括性的评语。中文不能直译成“在……之中”，而要灵活处理：在句末出现时，可以译成“这是……”；在句首出现时，可以先把它译成叙述句，同后面的叙述句并列。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>AdMart, an online retailer that found it was unable to change shopping habits in Hong Kong, ceased operations on Monday in the largest closure to date in the territory's ailing dotcom sector, with 334 jobs to be lost. (South China Morning Post) 网上零售商“苹果速销”看到香港的购物习惯无法改变，星期一停止了营业，这是该地区风雨飘摇的网上商业迄今为止最大规模的一次停业，有 334 人因而失去工作岗位。/ In what is supposed to be the company's biggest product launch, Microsoft has unveiled in Hong Kong its "arsenal" of nine .NET server software products geared to help businesses become more agile in today's Internet-enabled marketplace. (South China Morning Post) 微软进行了据说该公司最大的一次产品发布，在香港公开了它九种 .NET 服务器软件产品的“武库”，可以用来使得企业能更加灵活地在今天靠互联网支持的市场行动。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> in 还可以表示同位关系，in 的宾语通常是明确的某人，而前面的则是笼统的描述，用这样的语法结构来表示此人符合此描述(有时候不是人而是事物，但彼此的关系也是这样)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Instead, so distorted were their features that, save for his black beard and stout figure, we might have failed to recognize in one of them the Greek interpreter who had parted from us only a few hours before at the Diogenes Club. (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes) 反之，他们的容貌已经大为变形，只有其中一个人的黑胡须和壮实的身材还依旧，要不然我们本来还会认不出他们当中的这个人正是几小时前在戴奥吉尼斯俱乐部离开了我们的那个希腊译员。(one of them 是笼统的描述，the Greek interpreter who ... 是明确的某人。)/ It took a while to find a third person who could meet their strict requirements to join their club, but Churchill finally found him in Lampley. (David Rosenfelt, Heart of a Killer) 要找到第三个能符合他们严格要求的人来参加他们的俱乐部，需要费些时间，但是丘吉尔终于找到了这样的人，就是蓝普利。(him 是笼统的描述，Lampley 是明确的某人。)/ We're losing a first-rate editor in William. 我们现在正在失去威廉这样一位头等的编辑。</div><br><br>
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in charge of
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>in charge of</b></div>这个词组的意义可以是双向性的，即某人可以 in charge of 某人/物，某物也可以 in charge of 某人。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A nurse is in charge of the children. 一位保育员负责照料孩子们。/ The children are in charge of a nurse. 孩子们由一位保育员负责照料。后一种说法，也可以用某人/物 in the charge of 某人。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The children are in the charge of a nurse.</div>
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(in) charge of
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(in) charge of</b></div>参见 in charge of 条。<br><br>
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in check
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>in check</b></div>参见 (keep ... in) check 条。<br><br>
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include
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>include</b></div>这里被“包括”的事物，应该只限于全部事物的一部分(即另有未包括在内的)；如果是全部，就不能用 include，而要用 comprise。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The U.S. Senate comprises (*includes) 100 members. 美国参议院由 100 名议员组成。因此，用了 include，就不能在列举了之后再说 and others 或者 etc.，因为这样加在一起又是全体了。</div><br><br>
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including
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>including</b></div>后面可以不是名词成分而是状语成分(介词短语或副词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The witnesses said gunfire was exchanged in the melee, including from people shooting from rooftops. (The Sunday Gazette, May 8, 2011, A5) 证人们说，斗殴中有人开了枪，并且有人从屋顶射击。</div><br><br>
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income
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>income</b></div>作“收入”解，通常只能用于个人的劳动所得或商务所得的笼统整体，或是私营企业营业所得的整体。政府税收所得是 revenue (或复数 revenues，都作为不可数名词)。一次出售或一次活动得到的收入不叫 income，叫 proceeds (复数，但却是不可数名词，参见 proceed 条)。<br><br>
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indeed
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>indeed</b></div>这个语气副词，中国人理解和使用都有些困难。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 在“very + 形容词或副词”之后，起加强语气的作用，中文可以略去不译。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Thank you you very much indeed. 非常感谢您。/ She was very late indeed. 她迟到了很久。/ He's painted it very well indeed. 他画得非常好。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 起强调作用，中文可以译成“的确”，这一点中国人容易掌握。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This is indeed a great privilege. 这的确是少有的好机会。/ This is indeed bad news. 这的确是个不好的消息。/ That's praise indeed. 的确过奖了，不敢当。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 对对方的提问或意见表示肯定或赞同。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—What a lovely evening! —Yes indeed. —今天的晚会开得真好！—的确是好。/ —Do you like champagne? —Indeed I do. (= I do indeed.) —你喜欢香槟酒吗？—我当然喜欢啰。/ —Are you Miss Hunt? —Indeed I am. —您是亨特小姐吗？—我就是。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 表示与原先估计一致(“的确，果然，真的”)<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I checked, and the wheel was indeed loose. 我检查了一下，轮子果然是松了。/ —I really think Charles is here at last. —He had indeed arrived. —我相信查尔斯终于到这里来了。—他的确到了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 表示进一步的“甚至”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This was a rare, indeed unique, example. 这是一个罕见的甚至是空前绝后的例子。/ Most of the staff, and indeed most of the managers, were involved. 大部分职工，甚至大部分管理人员，都牵涉进去了。/ The situation hasn't improved; indeed it has worsened. 情况没有好转，反而恶化了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 与 if 或 may 之类表示“或许”的单词一起出现，突显“可能如此也可能不如此”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I may indeed return one day. 我说不定有一天会回来。/ If indeed he is right, ... 要是他真的说对了，……</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 反问或对对方的信息表示惊讶。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—I hear she's getting married. — Indeed? — 我听说她要结婚了。— 真的？/ —He asked us for a pay rise. —Indeed! —他要求我们给他涨工资。—好家伙！</div><br><br>
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independence from 与 independent of
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>independence from 与 independent of</b></div>形容词 independent 后面通常用介词 of。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>judges independent of the popular will 独立于大众意志之外的法官们。</div><br><br>但是名词 independence 后面通常用介词 from (可能是因为名词后用 of 会产生“属于”的误解)。如果用了 from，则 from 之前还可以以有 of ... 表示是“谁的”independence。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the independence of the colonies from the metropolis 各个殖民地独立于宗主国。但是，也有在 independence 后面用介词 of 代替 from (只要不产生误解)，以及在 independent 后面用介词 from 代替 of 的。</div><br><br>independence 可以指一种延续的状态，但也可以指“宣布独立”或“实行独立”的瞬时事件。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... since its independence in 1948 ... 自从它 1948 年独立以来。</div><br><br>至于 dependent 与 dependence，则后面通常都用介词 on 或 upon。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the economic dependence of Tahiti on France 塔希提在经济上对法国的依赖。</div><br><br>
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industry
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>industry</b></div>不光是“工业”，也可以指其他经济行业甚至根本不生产或制造任何物质产品的经济行业。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>whaling industry 捕鲸业</div><div class="ex-item">financial/finance industry 金融业</div><div class="ex-item">mortgage industry 按揭业</div><div class="ex-item">airline industry 航空运输业(不是飞机制造业)</div><div class="ex-item">tourist industry 旅游业</div><div class="ex-item">banking industry 银行业</div><div class="ex-item">service industry 服务业。</div><br><br>
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infamous
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>infamous</b></div>famous 是“著名的”；但是 infamous 并不是 famous 的反义语，意思不是“默默无名的”，而是“恶名昭著的，心狠手辣的”；甚至读音也不是在 famous 前简单加一个轻读的 in-，而是 /'infəməs/。infamous 同 notorious 的区别是：前者着重本人(及其思想言行)的恶劣素质，后者则着重其恶劣名声。<br><br>
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inflammable 与 flammable
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>inflammable 与 flammable</b></div>参见 flammable 与 inflammable 条。<br><br>
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influence
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>influence</b></div>通常是个名词，但是也可以是个及物动词，此时它的直接宾语可以是个“兼语”，既充当 influence 的宾语，同时又是后面动词不定式的主语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... and who, seeing in Strickland the possibilities which himself had wasted, influenced him to forsake all and follow the divine tyranny of art. (Somerset Maugham, The Moon and Sixpence) ……这个老人在思特里克兰德身上看到了自己荒废掉的才能，就对他施加影响，使得他舍弃一切，一任神圣的艺术所驱使。</div><br><br>
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information
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>information</b></div>是个不可数名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We have very little information about this company. 关于这家公司，我们知道的情况很少。“一条信息”要说 a piece of information (*an information)。</div><br><br>
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in, for 与 during
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>in, for 与 during</b></div>参见 for 与 until 条及 during 条。<br><br>
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(in) front (of)
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(in) front (of)</b></div>in front of 表示静止的“在其前面”。动态的“在其前面”要说 ahead of。所以 <i>She was walking a few steps <b>in front of</b> me. 应该改为 She was walking a few steps <b>ahead of</b> me. (她走在我前面几步。)。但是 behind 可以用于动静两态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I was walking a few steps <b>behind</b> her. 我走在她后面几步。另外，表示空间位置，用 before 不如用 in front of 自然。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>In front of</b> (</i>Before) our house stands a large maple tree. 我家门前有一棵很大的枫树。</div><br><br>
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ingenious, ingenuous, ingenue 与 ingenuity
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>ingenious, ingenuous, ingenue 与 ingenuity</b></div>这几个单词拼写很相似，容易混淆，但其实意义很不相同(几百年前 ingenious 与 ingenuous 常常混用)。<br><br>ingenious 是“机灵的，足智多谋的；精巧的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>an ingenious idea 妙计</div><div class="ex-item">an ingenious machine 精巧的机器。</div><br><br>ingenuous 则是“直率的，坦白的，老实的，天真的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His expression was frank, ingenuous and engaging. 他的表情很坦诚、老实、动人。</div><br><br>ingenue (来自法文)专门指“纯真少女”，多见于文艺作品。<br><br>特别要注意的是：ingenuity 是来源于 ingenious 的名词，意思是“智慧，机智”，同 ingenuous 毫不相干。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It should not be beyond our ingenuity to secure his support. 争取得到他的支持，这不应该是我们的智慧办不到的事。/ Ingenuity in varying tactics depends on mother wit. 策略运用之妙，存乎一心。有些人鉴于 ingenuity 同 ingenuous 形式上相通而意义迥异，主张将 ingenuity 改为 ingeniety，但只是主张而已。</div><br><br>
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inhabit
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>inhabit</b></div>第一类动词，是及物动词，后面没有介词，直接宾语就是所住的地方，这与中文不及物动词“住(在)”不同。而且它还可以有被动语态(表示延续状态)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Fishermen inhabited (*inhabited in) the coastal village ... 渔民居住在这个海边的村子里……</div><div class="ex-item">The tribe inhabited the desert all year round. 那个部落一年到头居住在沙漠里。/ The city is inhabited by three million people. 这座城市有 300 万人居住。/ The tree was inhabited by a family of squirrels. 树上住着一窝松鼠。</div><br><br>
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inhabitable 与 habitable
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>inhabitable 与 habitable</b></div>同 inflammable 和 flammable 的情况相似，这里的前缀 in- 没有否定的意思，有没有都表示“可以居住的”。但是 inhabitable 用来指一片地区可供人类或禽兽居住。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Most persons feel that the Sahara Desert is not inhabitable. 人们大都觉得撒哈拉沙漠是不能住人的。habitable 则主要指建筑物可供人类居住。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This house is so flimsy that it is hardly habitable. 这栋房子太不结实了，不好居住。</div><br><br>
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inherit 与 succeed
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>inherit 与 succeed</b></div>这两个及物动词(瞬时体，第四类)都作“继承”解，但是搭配不同。inherit 的直接宾语是“所继承之物(具体财富或抽象特性均可)”；succeed 的直接宾语则是“所继承的先人”，如果是“所继承之物”，就要用 to 引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She inherited a fortune from her father. 她从她父亲那里继承了一笔家产。/ He has inherited his mother's patience. 他继承了母亲的耐心。/ Son succeeded father as head of the business for many generations. 好多代都是儿子继承父亲担任企业的主管。/ The eldest son succeeds to the title. 长子继承封号。</div><br><br>inherit 的直接宾语即使是人，也不是留下遗产的人，而仍然是“被留下给后人的人”。例如一位老医生退休了，他原先长期负责看病的病人，留给了一位年轻的医生负责，此时可以说年轻的医生 has inherited these patients，但并不是说他继承了这些病人的遗产。<br><br>
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inhuman 与 unhuman
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>inhuman 与 unhuman</b></div>inhuman 是“惨无人道的，灭绝人性的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Nero was an inhuman emperor. 尼禄是个残暴的皇帝。</div><br><br>unhuman 则没有道德上的贬义，只是指“不属于人类的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The sounds issuing from the wounded man's throat were unhuman. 伤者喉咙里发出的声音，简直不像人声。/ To make mistakes is human; not to make a mistake is unhuman. 犯错误是人之常情；根本不犯错误却是不近人情了。</div><br><br>
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initiative
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>initiative</b></div>这个名词，意义不大容易把握，中文有时候也不容易译得恰到好处。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 原先最基本的意义，是“主动”。如果第一次出现时就有定冠词 the，意思就是双方博弈或斗争中的“主动权”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was evident that he had recovered the initiative. 他显然夺回了主动权。/ They lost the initiative. 他们丧失了主动权。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作为表示性质的抽象名词(不可数)，表示笼统意义使用时不加任何冠词，表示“首创精神，主动性”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She's got initiative. 她很有首创精神。/ If you act responsibly and show that you have initiative, you will sooner or later be promoted. 你如果工作负责，显出有创新精神，你就早晚会得到提拔的。/ You'll have to use your initiative. 你需要发挥自己的独创性。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 加上表示所有者的限定词，表示某事是某人自己独立发动或主动去做的，不是被他人所推动的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They're acting on their own initiative. 他们是自己主动这样干的。/ He went to see the headmaster on his own initiative. 他主动去见校长。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 加上表示所有者的限定词，也可以表示是某人首先发起或倡议的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>At the initiative of Paul Ehrenfest, a special chair in Leiden was created for Albert Einstein. 经保尔·埃伦费斯特提议，莱登大学特地为爱因斯坦设立了一个讲席。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 作为可数名词，表示一个个带有崭新首创性质的行动方案，也可以理解为不单是“方案，计划”，更是“行动”本身。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I don't think the government is likely to support such a private initiative. 我觉得政府不见得会支持这样一个私人办的事业。/ Moreover, the Bush administration simply dislikes spending money on many domestic initiatives, in contrast to its open-ended attitude toward military outlays and expeditions. (The Atlantic Monthly, November 2005, p. 38) 况且，布什政府根本就不喜欢在许多国内事业上花钱，却反而对一些军事开支和远征采取有求必应的态度。</div><br><br>
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injure 与 wound
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>injure 与 wound</b></div>injured 是在意外事故中受伤；wounded 是在打仗或搏斗中受伤(对方有意造成的)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was injured by falling rocks. 他被落石砸伤了。injure 的主语可以是受伤的人，此时 injure 不是“(有意)伤害自己”，而是被动受伤。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He injured his shoulder playing football. 他踢足球伤了肩头。另外，与 wound 不同，injure 还可以指非外科意义上的损害。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Smoking injures your health. 吸烟损害健康。/ Crops were injured by the flood. 庄稼遭到了洪灾。/ The scandal severely injured his reputation. 丑闻严重损害了他的声誉。</div><br><br>wound 虽然也可以指无形的损害，但主要用于精神和感情上的损害。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Hisremarks wounded/injured her feelings deeply. 他的话深深伤害了她的感情。此外，由于 wound 对于肉体的伤害(如战斗伤害)是看得见的，所以内脏的伤害不用 wound 而用 injure 或 hurt。参见 wound 条与 hurt 条。</div><br><br>
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injury to insult
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>injury to insult</b></div>参见 (add) insult to injury 条。<br><br>
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(in) luck 与 lucky
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(in) luck 与 lucky</b></div>in luck 和 lucky 都是“运气好”的意思。但是 lucky 可以指一时的“交上好运气”，也可以指长时间的“运气好”；而 in luck 则偏向于指一时的 (而且多少有点碰巧的) “交上好运气”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We are in luck. The bank's video camera has captured the crime on video. 我们运气好。银行的监控摄像头拍到了犯罪现场的画面。</div><br><br>
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(in one's own) right
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(in one's own) right</b></div>原意是“某人的身份是靠自己的权利得来，而不是靠别人的身份得来的”。例如：英国的贵族，如果父亲是公爵(duke)，长子就凭父荫享有侯爵(marquis)的头衔(父亲死后再继承公爵)。这就不是 in his own right，而是 by courtesy。如果这个长子靠自己的功勋获得爵位，就是 in his own right。但是，这个词组的适用范围，从“权利”扩大到了职业和技能的范围。例如一个诗人的妻子，如果也是诗人，就是 poetess in her own right (不是爵位或权利的问题)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Mr. Brown was chairman of the committee that invited the orchestra from Prague to open the festival. A violinist in his own right, he said that ... 布朗先生是那个邀请布拉格的乐团前来参加开幕仪式的委员会的主席。他本人也是个小提琴家，他说……</div><br><br>这个词组不但可以指人本人如何，还可以指事情本身如何(不取决于别的事)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His presence is significant in its own right. 他的到场，本身就很有意义。</div><br><br>
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in order to inf.
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>in order to inf.</b></div>也与 <b>to inf.</b> 一样可以表示“能够”(而不是“以便”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You <b>don't</b> have to know how coal was made <b>in order to mine</b> it. 要开采煤，用不着懂得煤是怎样生成的。</div><br><br>有时候前面有否定或 only 时，后面的动词不定式不是“就可以”，而是“就实行”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>McCain <b>did not</b> have to consult his advisers <b>to instantly identify</b> the aggressor. (Charles Krauthammer, in The Daily Gazette, Oct. 27, 2008, A5) 麦凯恩根本用不着咨询他的顾问们，就马上点出了谁是侵略者。/ Her mother and father were convinced she was consumptive. They had <b>only</b> to smell damp in a basement <b>to move</b> house, <b>only</b> to have two days' rain on a holiday <b>to change</b> districts. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 父母深信她患了肺结核。他们因为嗅到底楼有潮湿气味便搬了家。有一次在外面度假时，因某个地方一连下了两天雨，他们就赶紧离开那儿。</div><br><br>要注意的是：不一定是正面的意图，负面的后果也可以用这种强意的动词不定式来表达，此时千万不能逐字照搬。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You would have to ingest something <b>to be at risk</b>. (The Washington Post, Nov. 26, 2006) 本来要咽下一点什么东西，才会有(中毒的)危险。(不能照字面理解为“你本来应该咽下一点什么东西，以便冒(中毒的)危险”)</div><div class="ex-item">You would have to be in a madhouse <b>to say</b> that we're isolated. 唯有疯子才会说我们是孤立的。(不能理解为“你本来应该到疯人院去以便说我们是孤立的”)</div>但是，有时候一个动词不定式究竟是弱意的还是强意的，单凭一句并不足以判明，要看上下文和语境。如 She had to go into the forest <b>to get</b> strawberries. 这一句既可以译成“她只好到森林里去采草莓”，也可以译成“为了采草莓，她只好到森林里去”或“她只好到森林里去，才能采到草莓”。至于充当后置定语(如 the order to fire)、形容词补充成分(如 glad to see you)和宾语(如 like to see)的动词不定式，一般都是弱意的，只有充当状语时，才有弱意强意之分。<br><br>下面的一个例句中，前面的 to hate 是强意的，后面的 to hate 则是弱意的，只能斟酌上下文才可以判别，如果判别错了，意义甚至会相反：People <b>must learn to hate</b>, and if they <b>can learn to hate</b>, they can be taught to love, for love comes more naturally to the human heart than its opposite. (Nelson Mandela, Long Walk to Freedom) (人们要经过学习，才会恨，而既然他们可能学会恨，那也就可能教导他们去爱，因为爱比起其对立物，更为容易到达人的心灵。)前面的 must learn to hate 千万不要误以为“必须学会恨”，后面的 can learn to hate 则是“可能学会恨”。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 另一个强意的动词不定式，常常出现在疑问句的末尾，用来表示前面所问的事情现在造成的现实结果(结果可以是正面，也可以是负面的)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>What did they do <b>to be indicted</b>? 他们何罪，竟被起诉？</div><div class="ex-item">What did I do <b>to make</b> you hate me? 你这样恨我，我哪里得罪了你啦？</div><div class="ex-item">What did you do <b>to be so lucky</b>? 你哪里修来的这样一份福气？</div><div class="ex-item">What did I do <b>to deserve</b> such a good wife? 我何德何能，竟然有这样一位贤妻？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 由于动词不定式的形式在英文中用得极为广泛，每一个动词不定式的作用和联系都需要弄清楚，以免产生误解。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The Patriot Act makes it a crime for the person or organization ordered <b>to produce</b> records <b>to tell</b> anyone about the request. (The New York Review of Books, Nov. 18, 2004, p. 57) 按照《爱国法案》，一个个人或是团体得到命令提供记录，如果将这件事告诉任何人，都属犯罪。(这句中有一个形式宾语 it，因而就需要期待后面出现真实宾语(to inf. 或 that 从句)，但是后面接连出现了两个 to inf.，究竟哪一个是真实宾语？如果 to produce records 是真实宾语，则前面的 ordered 后面没有进一步的说明，意义落空，所以这个 to inf. 不是真实宾语，后面的 to tell ... 才是真实宾语。)</div><div class="ex-item">It's far easier <b>to talk</b> about an overloaded system than <b>to tell</b> those without health insurance that they will have <b>to wait</b> a few more years, or <b>to be</b> honest in saying that balancing the budget long-term will require raising taxes. (E. J. Dionne, in The Daily Gazette, Mar. 23, 2009, A5) 谈论福利制度不堪重负，这样说说，是很容易的，但是，如果要告诉那些没有医疗保险的人们，叫他们再多等待几年，或是要老老实实地说清楚，长期预算要平衡，就得增税，这样说，就困难得多了。</div><br><br>
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(in) question
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(in) question</b></div>in question 不是“成问题的”，而是“当前涉及的；这个，这些”，前面所修饰的名词应该是特指的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the areas in question 有关地区。</div><br><br>但是如果 in question 不作后置定语而作表语 (包括句中游离状语成分中的无系动词表语)，它就仍然保持更为实质的语义，是“成问题，无把握，不确定”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It wasn't clear whether there would be unanimous support (for the resolution), with the votes of Russia, China and Qatar still in question. (The Associated Press, Dec. 22, 2006) 但是，由于俄罗斯、中国和卡塔尔这几票仍然不确定，所以 (该决议案) 能否得到全体一致的支持，尚不明朗。</div><br><br>
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inside
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>inside</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 参见 outside 条。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> have seen the inside of 字面上是“看见过……的内部”，实际意义是“走进过某建筑物”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has never seen the inside of a church. 他从未进过教堂做礼拜。/ I wonder if you've ever seen the inside of an acoustics testing chamber. 我不知道你是否进过声学测试实验室。</div><br><br>
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insist
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>insist</b></div>这个动词(属第一类动词，但亦可当作第四类动词)可以及物，也可以不及物。它的词义和搭配用法是：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> “坚持认为”或“坚决表示”。表示这个意义时，“体”可以是瞬时的，也可以是延续的，搭配可以是“insist on/upon + 名词”，或者“insist that + 谓语动词为直陈式的从句”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He insisted on his innocence. 他坚决表示自己是无罪的。/ I insisted upon the impartiality of my report. 我当时坚持说，我的报告是不偏不倚的。/ She insists (that) she has nothing to do with it. 她坚持说自己与此无关。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> “坚持要做某事”或“坚持某一要求”。表示这个意义时，“体”可以是延续(第一类)或瞬时(第四类)的，搭配可以是“insist on + 动名词”，或者“insist that + 谓语动词为虚拟语气的从句”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He insisted on paying. 他坚持要付账。/ I insist on seeing the manager. 我非要见经理不可。/ The unions insisted that she be reinstated. 工会坚决要求恢复她的职务。/ While searching for a hotel a few weeks ago, they insisted that its business center have Internet access. (The Sunday Gazette, Sept. 25, 2005, H8) 几周前物色旅馆的时候，他们坚持旅馆的商务中心必须能够上互联网。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 综上所述，要注意的是：insist (无论作为延续的第一类还是瞬时的第四类动词)后面的事情，可以是一个客观的事实，也可以是一个主观的要求。英文对此加以区别的办法是：如果是客观的事实，insist on/upon 后面用名词来表示这个客观事实，或者 insist that 后面的谓语动词用直陈式；如果是主观的要求，insist on/upon 后面就用动名词来表示这个主观要求，或者 insist that 后面的谓语动词用虚拟式。而由于英语的虚拟形式有时候同直陈式相同，insist that 后面的从句，其谓语动词究竟是直陈语气(表示“坚持认为某事是事实”)还是虚拟语气(表示“坚持主张应该做某事”)乍看起来似乎不容易分辨。例如 They insist that we go. 这里的 go 本身可以是直陈语气，也可以是虚拟语气，似乎不好区别。但是这里如果是直陈语气，go 又是个瞬时的动态动词，一般现在时在这里就不能用，所以一定是虚拟语气(“他们坚持要我们去”)。遇到这种情况，一定要注意动词的体(是第四类动词的话，能不能用一般现在时，如果看起来像是一般现在时，就一定不是直陈语气而是虚拟语气)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 还要注意，如果表示主观要求的 insist on/upon 后面的动名词的逻辑主语同insist 的主语不相同，可以在动名词之前加上一个表示“物主”的名词或代词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She insisted on my going with her. 她坚持要我同她一起去。</div><br><br>
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insofar as
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>insofar as</b></div>也可以分开写成 in so far as，是个主从连词词组，字面上的意思是“与之一样远”“范围与之一样大”。但是在书面语言中，它的意义相当灵活，不易把握，也不易翻译。<br><br>最原始的意义是“在……的范围之内，在……的限度之内”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We agree only insofar as the budget is concerned. 我们只是在预算这件事上达成一致。/ Insofar as I know, things are going fine. 就我所知，事情进展顺利。/ We kept our heads low, insofar as possible, and waited. 我们尽量低着头等候着。</div><br><br>但是还可以有进一步的转义，“限制”的意义减弱甚至消失：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 可以用来把前半句和后半句的内容并列为同等有效。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Insofar as a straight couple has the right to adopt a child, a homosexual couple should have that same right. 既然普通的夫妻有权领养孩子，同性恋夫妻也应该该有同样的权利。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 有时表示有点逆势的“既然……但又……”，有时又表示有点顺势的“既然……那就……”的意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... but insofar as it (= the will) is capable of being determined by reason, it is free. Insofar as the will is free, it is determined by reason. Insofar as the will is itself reason, it obeys its own law by complying with the moral law, it is autonomous. Insofar as it is autonomous, self-determining by use of its reason, it is an authentic self. Insofar as it is an authentic self, it compels will, and it can compel will insofar as it is a causality. (Eric Voegelin, Published Essays) ……但是，意志既可以为理性所左右，它又是自由的。意志既是自由的，它又是为理性所左右的。意志本身既然是理性，它就由于遵守道德规律而服从自己的规律，那它就是自主的。它既然是自主的，是靠运用自己的理性而自主自决的，那它就是一个真正的自我。它既然是一个真正的自我，它就推促着意志，而它之所以能推促意志，是出于一个因果关系。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 可以用来对前半句内容从另一个角度加以阐述或发挥，此时中文可以译成“因为”，甚至不译，采取表面上并列的“意合”形式。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We are entering a period of less danger insofar as the threat of nuclear war between the superpowers is less. 由于超级大国之间爆发核战争的威胁减弱了，我们正在进入一个危险较小的时期。/ Looking back helps insofar as it helps you learn from your mistakes. 回顾过去是有益的，可以使你从错误中吸取教训。</div><br><br>
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inspire
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>inspire</b></div>这是一个及物动词，体可以是瞬时(第四类)或是延续(第二类)。但是它的直接宾语有时候是人，有时候可以是某种精神或心态，而同时以此配合的其他成分也相应地发生变换。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 只有直接宾语(是人)，不加其他补充，意思就是“鼓舞”或“给予灵感”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His speech inspired the crowd. 他的演说鼓舞了人群。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 表示“使某人产生某种心态”。要表示这个意思，搭配可以是：(a) inspire + 某种心态”，单宾语，没有介词短语作为补充说明，对象是不明言的“人们”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He inspired old-fashioned hero-worship. 他使人们产生一种老式的英雄崇拜。(b) “inspire + 某人 + with + 某种心态”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The news inspired us with new hope. 消息使得我们产生了新的希望。(c) “inspire + 某种心态 + in + 某人”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>inspire dislike in a person 引起某人对自己的嫌恶</div><div class="ex-item">The bribe had inspired nothing but fright in the old man. (Irving Wallace, The Plot) 贿赂在那个老人的心中，只是引起了恐惧。</div><br><br>注意：如果 inspire 的主语是人，所产生的心态如果是有对象的，这个对象就正好反过来是这个主语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He doesn't inspire me with confidence. = He doesn't inspire confidence in me. 我信不过他。(直译是：他在我心中引起不起信任。不是：他不使我产生信心。这里 confidence 是针对 he 的，in me 不是 confidence 的定语，而是管 inspire 的，尽管 confidence in somebody 单独用时可以表示“对某人的信任”。)</div><div class="ex-item">The officer inspired respect in his soldiers. 军官受到士兵们的尊敬。/ He inspires affection and respect as a man of unquestionable integrity. 人们爱戴和尊敬他，并认为他是个道德操守毫无问题的人。(affection and respect 的对象就是 he。)</div>搭配也可以改为 inspire somebody with something。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>inspire a person with admiration 引起某人对自己的钦佩</div><div class="ex-item">He inspired me with confidence. 他使我感到他很可靠。</div><br><br>如果这种心态是没有对象的，则不针对主语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The orator inspired new hope in the audience. 演讲人使得听众产生了新的希望。(这里 hope 在意义上不针对任何人)</div><div class="ex-item">The message inspired enthusiasm in the staff. 那份通告激起了员工们的热情。(这里 enthusiasm 在意义上不针对任何人)</div><div class="ex-item">The baseball coach inspired the team with courage. 棒球教练激发起全队的勇气。(这里 courage 在意义上不针对任何人)</div>如果 confidence 前面不用 inspire 而用 instill，则 confidence 不是对主语的信任，而是空泛的“有信心”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You have to reassure people. Your have to instill confidence. (Tom Clancy, Executive Orders) 你需要让人们放心。你需要使人们有信心。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> inspire 可以表示“给予启发，给予思想根据”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A graphic representation was often the only way to make a point; a single plummeting graph usually aroused ten times the reaction inspired by volumes of spreadsheets. 用图表来表示意，常常是把问题说清楚的唯一办法；一张曲线骤然下降的图表，比起大批的表格，能引起十倍的反应。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> inspire 可以有“兼语式”，也就是可以有“inspire + 某人 + to inf.”的搭配，意思是“鼓舞某人去做某事”，或是“启发某人去做某事”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My parents inspired me to make more effort. 我的父母鼓励我再加一把劲。有时候后面的 to inf. 也可以改为 to/for + 名词成分。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His mother's words inspired him to a better life. 他母亲的一番话，鼓舞了他去过更好的生活。</div><br><br>
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instance 与 example
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>instance 与 example</b></div>举例时说 for example 与说 for instance 没有什么区别。但是 example 带有更强的 “典型，范例”(正面负面均可)的意义，可以用来说明更为普遍的道理，而 instance 只是着重本身内部性质的一个“事例”，不一定足以作为典型。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Children will follow the example (<i>instance) of their parents. 儿童会仿效父母的行为。/ Let his failure be an example (</i>instance) to you. 但愿他的失败给你敲响警钟。instance 则更加接近于 case，往往可以用来将一个抽象的概念具体化为当前的一个事例(有时中文略去“事例”，但是英文要加上 instance)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>an instance (<i>example) of high treason 一种叛国行为</div><div class="ex-item">This is again an instance (</i>example) of Nash equilibrium. 这又是一个纳什均衡(的例子)。/ There are, however, instances in which different languages do not agree, ... (Otto Jespersen, The Philosophy of Grammar) 但是，有一些事例表明，不同的语言并不一致……</div><br><br>此外，还有 case in point，也是“例子”的意思，但多作为从某一大类事物中拿出来说明其普遍特性的一个例子。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The "green revolution" in agriculture is a good case in point. 农业的“绿色革命”就是很好的一个例子。</div><br><br>
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instead
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>instead</b></div>可以是“反而，反倒”的意思，但与 actually 有些区别，actually 多用于提出与前面估计相反的推论或假设，instead 则可以用于叙述与前面估计相反的事实。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Success at last! But why do I not savour my triumph, feeling instead a hollowness inside? (John Darnton, The Darwin Conspiracy) 终于大功告成了！但是，我为什么尝不到胜利的美味，反倒感到内心空虚？</div><br><br>
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instead of
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>instead of</b></div>instead of 后面通常是接上名词成分；有时候也可以接上介词短语、形容词，甚至动词的过去分词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It hit me that with a few changes, the device could work for us instead of against us. 使我惊讶的是，只做了一点变动，这个装置就不是用来麻烦我们，而是为我们工作了。/ Some adjectives come immediately after the noun, instead of before it. 有些形容词直接放在名词后面，而不是放在前面。/ The air was hot and clotted with dock odors, and made matters inside her stomach worse instead of better. 空气是热的，同码头的气息凝结在一起，使得她胃里的感觉更加难受而不是好受点。/ The treaty allows the weapons to be stored instead of destroyed. 该条约允许武器不被销毁而是储存起来。/ Our customers would have gained from dollar devaluations instead of lost. 我们的顾客，本来不至于因为美元贬值而吃了亏，反而会获利。</div><br><br>
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instead 与 stead
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>instead 与 stead</b></div>参见 stead 条。<br><br>
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institute
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>institute</b></div>可以指性质很不相同的机构，包括：(1) 学会、协会(社会团体)；(2) 研究所(研究机构)；(3) 专科学院(学校)；(4) 讲习所、训练班。<br><br>
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institution
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>institution</b></div>这个名词，中国人比较熟悉的词义是比较具体、可以捉摸的“机构，馆所”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>financial institution 金融机构</div><div class="ex-item">public institution 公共机构(如医院、学校等)</div><div class="ex-item">institutions of higher learning 高等学府，高等院校。但是，它还有比较抽象、不易捉摸的“约定俗成的制度，社会习俗”的意义，中国人就不一定很习惯。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Baseball is an institution in the United States. 打棒球在美国已经是一项生活习惯。/ The siesta is a real institution in Spain. 午睡在西班牙简直是一个习俗。/ They're not opposed to the institution of marriage. 他们对于婚姻这个制度并不反对。/ The institution of divorce began to redound against men, because in recent years women are more likely to initiate divorce than men. 离婚这个制度，开始对男方不利了，因为近年来自动提出离婚的女方比男方更为常见。</div><br><br>作为复数的不可数名词，institutions 又可以表示“一套体制”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They're discussing how domestic political institutions affect the way states interact in international crises. 他们在讨论国内政治制度对各国在国际危机中如何互动有什么影响。/ They argue that institutions promoting accountability and competition tend to increase the political risks associated with waging war. 他们声称，凡是促进问责制和竞争的体制，都会增加与发动战争有关的政治风险。</div><br><br>
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instruct
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>instruct</b></div>可以有兼语式，也就是可以有 instruct somebody to do something 的结构。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She was instructed to immediately phone these newest deletions. 她被吩咐立刻将这些最新删除的部分打电话通知出去。</div><br><br>
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intended to have + pp.
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>intended to have + pp.</b></div>参见 hope 条之(4)。<br><br>
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intent 与 intention
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>intent 与 intention</b></div>两个名词的意义相同，都是“意图，打算”，只是在使用上有些区别。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> intent 比较正式，适用范围有限，不能自由搭配，通常只能用于一些比较固定的结构。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>with good/evil intent 出于善意/恶意</div><div class="ex-item">with criminal intent 以犯罪为目的</div><div class="ex-item">letter/declaration of intent 意向书</div><div class="ex-item">loitering with intent 蓄意徘徊。</div><br><br>intent 后面可以加上动词不定式表示其内容。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>with (the) intent to iron out differences 以便消除分歧</div><div class="ex-item">The conference declared its intent to organize a nation-wide movement. 会议宣布打算组织一个全国性的运动。</div><br><br>intent 还可以作为形容词，表示“专心的”或“决心的”，后面可以加上“on + 名词或动名词”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He gazed at their intent faces. 他注视他们全神贯注的脸庞。/ He was silent, intent on the meal. 他一声不响，埋头用餐。/ They were intent on keeping what they had. 他们决心保住自己的所得。/ ... the author is so intent on beingclever that he usually forgets to be anything more. (Babette Deutsch, in The Yale Review, December 1953) ……作者一心一意要显示聪明，因而往往忘掉别的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> intention 搭配比 intent 自由一些，用得也比较广一些(但是 intent 后面可以加上动词不定式表示其内容；intention 则通常不如此，要用 of + 动名词形式作定语，动词不定式只作为其表语)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was not my intention to cause trouble. 我的本意并不是要惹麻烦。/ I have every intention of going. 我一心一意想去。/ I did it with the best (of) intentions. 我这样做，纯粹出于一番好意。/ If I offended you, it was quite without intention. 如果我得罪了您，那完全是无意的。</div><br><br>派生的形容词 intentional 和副词 intentionally，都是“故意”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm sorry, it wasn't intentional. 对不起，那不是有意的。/ We didn't do it intentionally. 我们那样做不是有意的。</div><br><br>
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interest
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>interest</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 这个名词，以及相应的动词 interest、形容词 interested 和 interesting 等等，如果指的是心态，中文一般都译“(有)兴趣”，但其实不能普遍适用，因为有时候说“兴趣”似乎不够严肃(不光是“消闲，好玩”)。甚至对于非常不愉快的事情，也可以感到 interested，如果说是“(有)兴趣”，就很不妥。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>their academic interest in the Holocaust 他们从学术角度对于纳粹大屠杀问题的关注。</div><br><br>同样，形容词 interesting 实际的意义是“吸引人注意的”，同时又带有一点正面的“引人入胜”的色彩，但也可以指负面的“值得注意的，值得关心的”甚至“需要警觉的”，译成“有趣的”不一定妥当。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is interesting that no one noticed that mistake. 很成问题的是谁也没有觉察到那个错误。/ The most interesting thing to us about this earthquake so far is it is the first one we've had in a populated area for quite a long time and people have forgotten what earthquakes feel like. (The Associated Press, July 29, 2008)对于我们来说，这次地震迄今最值得注意的是这是相当长时间以来第一次在人口稠密地区发生地震，而人们对于地震是怎么样的，已经淡忘了。</div><br><br>如果说 interesting 有时还可能带有某些程度的赞许语气，of interest 则含义更为中性，只是“值得注意”。例如某地发生了一件工程师一家被杀害的案件，警方发现有两个人在事发前到过他们家，就认为这两个人是 persons of interest，要加以盘问。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 就语法性质而言，interest 如果指的是心态，应该是个不可数的抽象名词。在很多场合，它也的确以这种性质出现(其标志是没有不定冠词 an)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm doing this out of interest. 我干这个是出于兴趣。/ The girl in the next seat was studying him with interest. 邻座的姑娘好奇地打量着他。/ They were beginning to lose interest. 他们开始失去兴趣了。</div><br><br>但是有时候即使如此，interest 仍然作为单数可数名词出现，加上不定冠词 an。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>take/develop/show an interest in poetry 对诗词感到/产生/表现出兴趣。如果前面有形容词，就更要加上 a/an。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>People here have taken an active interest in the project. 这里的人们对这个工程有强烈的兴趣。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 如果指的是某种“具体的爱好”，interest 就是普通的可数名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Histwo great interests in life were poetry and philosophy. 他一生中两大爱好，就是诗词和哲学。/ His research interests are sociolinguistics and anthropology. 他的研究领域是社会语言学和人类学。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 如果指的是“利益”，通常要用复数 interests，但是意义同中文的“利益”有些细微差别。interests 通常是中性的“利害关系”，它偏向于“利”而离“害”稍远，但并不向“利”一边倒。而且，interests 是指某人或某群体的“利益”的整体，而不是某个独特的“利益”或“好处”。因此，如果说的是一边倒的、某个局部具体的“好处”(“利益”)，就不能说 <i>interests，而要改用别的纯粹表示好处的名词如 benefit、profit、gain、good、advantage 等。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>profit maximization 利益最大化</div><div class="ex-item">share benefits (</i>interests) equally 利益均沾</div><div class="ex-item">transfer of benefits (<i>of interests), benefit funneling 利益输送</div><div class="ex-item">ill-got gains (</i>interests) 不正当利益</div><div class="ex-item">He should quit for the good (*interests) of the company. 为了公司的利益，他应该辞职。</div><br><br>此外，interests 必须有“主人”(表明“谁的利益”)，如果是尚无所属的“利益”，也不能说 <i>interests。因此，中译英时，不能随意“对号入座”，把“利益”一律译成 interests。《毛泽东选集》第四卷“对被领导者给以物质福利，至少不损害其利益”译成英文，“福利”和“利益”(前一个事先并无主人，后一个事先已有主人；前一个是个别特定的“好处”，后一个是利益的整体)的译法就不同：Bring material benefits (</i>interests) to those who are led or at least not damage their interests. 这是一个很有力的例证。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> interest 无论是单数还是复数，都可以表示“利益”，但是习惯上用复数指较为笼统一般的利益，用单数指某项具体特殊的利益(但不是“得益”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>in the interests of peace and good will 为了和平与善意</div><div class="ex-item">He was then acting in the interest of the other party to the suit. 他当时是替诉讼的另一方谋利益的。但是，这个“笼统”与“特殊”，界限并不是很分明。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Is it in our national interest for all these issues to take a backseat to terrorism? (E. J. Dionne, in The Daily Gazette, Feb. 20, 2008, A9)难道要所有这些问题统统都退居次位，让位给恐怖主义问题，才符合我们的国家利益吗？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 复数的 interests 还可以指“利益集团”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Also like Obama, Reagan billed himself as an outsider eager to take on the entrenched interests of Washington. (U.S. News & World Report, Mar. 17, 2008, p. 28)里根也同奥巴马一样，标榜自己是个热衷于对华盛顿的既得利益集团下手的局外人。</div><br><br>
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interested
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>interested</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 对好的事情或一个问题加以注意，是 be interested in something；对不利的事情感到担心，是 be interested about something。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The doctors were interested about the complications associated with a cancer diagnosis before or during pregnancy. 医生们对于怀孕前或怀孕期间的癌症诊断可能引起的并发症感到担心。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> interested in + -ing 与 interested to inf. 有时候意义差不多，都是有兴趣、有愿望去做某事。interested in 后面通常是已知的做法或普遍性的行为。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm interested in learning languages. 我喜欢学习各种语言。interested to inf. 则后面通常是个别独特的行为。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Interested to live, study and migrate in Australia? 你有意到澳大利亚生活、学习和移民吗？但是两者区别不大。此外，interested to inf. 还有“当……之时感到奇怪”的意义（此时这个动词不定式不是自己有意想去做某事，而是一种被动的感受）。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If you've been told that ..., that ..., and that ..., you might be interested to learn that all are false. 如果你听说过……，……，……，结果知道了这些全都是错的，你一定会感到奇怪。（不是你自己有意想去知道，而是无意中人家告诉你，此时你产生 interested 的反应。）</div><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 关于 interested 与 interesting 的主动与被动问题，参见 bored 与 boring 条。<br><br>
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(in) terms of
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(in) terms of</b></div>词组 in terms of 或 in ... terms，在英文书面上极为常用。译成中文有多种译法，要灵活掌握。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 最常用的意义，是“就……而论，在……方面”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In terms of competitiveness, China's capital was ranked fourth out of 200 Chinese cities by a latest report. 就竞争力而言，中国首都最近一次报告中排在中国 200 座城市当中的第 4 位。/ In terms of quality, his is the best report. 就质量而言，要数他的报告最好。/ September was fifth safest on record in terms of traffic deaths. 就交通事故死亡人数而言，9 月份是有记录的第五安全的月份。/ Of the top 10 magazines in terms of readers' household incomes, five were airline publications. 按照读者家庭收入排列的前 10 种杂志，就有 5 种是航空公司出版物。/ How do the two techniques compare in terms of application? 两种技术在应用方面相比如何？/ Basically I think he would be someone who complemented me in terms of character. 我基本上认为，他在性格方面可以补我之不足。/ Our goods compete in terms of product quality, reliability and above all variety. 我们的产品参与竞争，靠的是质量、可靠性，而且最主要的是靠品种。/ Wikipedia comes close to Britannica in terms of the accuracy of its science entries. 维基百科科学条目的准确性，接近《大英百科全书》。/ They have found that, in terms of both salary and career success, the sky is the limit. 他们发现了，在薪酬和事业有成方面，没有任何限定。/ These resorts remain unbeatable in terms of price. 这些旅游点收费低廉，是其他地方无法比得过的。/ Paris has played a dominant role in France, not just in political terms but also in economic power. 巴黎不但在政治上，而且也在经济实力上，在法国起了主导作用。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> “从……角度来衡量，折算成……”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The cost of air travel should be measured in terms of pollution, not just in dollars. 航空运输的成本不应该光是用钱计算，还应该从环境污染的角度来衡量。/ In absolute terms British wages remain low by European standards. 按绝对值计算，英国的工资按欧洲标准来看仍然是低的。/ In real terms the cost of driving is cheaper than a decade ago. 按实际价值计算，驾驶汽车的费用比 10 年前低廉。/ House prices have tumbled by almost 30 per cent in real terms since mid-1989. 房屋价格，按照实际价值计算，从 1989 年年中以来，下跌了几乎 30%。/ Iran must be seen in terms of its oil resources. 看伊朗要着眼于它的石油资源。/ The English aristocracy saw life in terms of duty and honor. 英国贵族是从义务和荣誉的角度来看待人生的。/ in terms of dollars (= in dollar terms) 折合成美元计算</div><div class="ex-item">a good job in terms of money (= in money terms) 从金钱角度衡量的好差事。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> “用……的语气”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Beth spoke of Dr. Hammer in laudatory terms. He abused the Admiral in the grossest terms. 贝斯对哈默博士说了很多称赞的话。对那位海军上将则痛骂了一通。/ She recounted in very general terms some of the events of recent months. 她非常简单扼要地介绍了近几个月来的某些事件。/ She told him in no uncertain terms to go away. 她用斩钉截铁的口气叫他走开。/ Not every judge, however, has the ability to explain the law in simple terms. 但是，并非每个法官都有本领通俗地解释法律。/ The video explains in simple terms how the new tax works. 视频通俗地解释了新税目是如何运作的。/ It turns out Levy is talking in metaphoricalterms. 原来列维是在打比方。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> “就……意义而说”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In broad terms, this means that the closer you live to a school, the more likely it is that your child will get a place there. 广义上来说，意思就是：你住得离一所学校越近，你的孩子在那学校得到一个名额的可能性就越大。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 从上面各项看，in terms of 的意义和用法比较广泛，往往不够明确。因此，用得相当滥。例如介绍某种文学，就是 in terms of + 它的社会作用；介绍某一作者，就是 in terms of + 他对某种体裁的影响；介绍一段历史，就是 in terms of + 该时期的经济背景；介绍某个地区的地理状况，就是 in terms of + 贸易和交通。但是，有些用 in terms of 的地方，其实改用别的说法更为妥当。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The seating arrangements, while excellent for music, are far from ideal in terms of the drama (可改为 for the drama). 座位的安排，虽然对于音乐是很好的，但对于话剧就很不理想。/ Hardships have been diminished in terms of food and clothing (全句可以改为 Shortages of food and clothing have been reduced.) 食物和衣服方面的困难已经得到缓解。/ Industrialization programs are showing results in terms of (改为 in 即可) factories going up and in terms of (同样改为 in 即可) actual production. 工业化方案正在兴建中的工厂和实际产量上显示出效果。/ The president today named a committee to evaluate the U.S. military aid program in terms of how to strengthen (可以改为 as a means of strengthening) national security. 总统今天任命了一个委员会来评估美国的军事援助项目，以使设法加强国家安全。/ In terms of (可以改为 Compared to 或 In contrast to) television's much-publicized impact on the American mind, the potentiality of its negative influence is not often mentioned. 电视对美国人心的影响得到了广泛宣扬，相形之下，它潜在的消极影响却不常被提到。</div><br><br>
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internalize
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>internalize</b></div>字面上的意义是“内化”，也就是将某一原来不属于自己的看法或态度吸收成为自己的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Over time she internalized her parents' attitudes. 天长日久，她潜移默化地吸收了父母的态度。</div><br><br>如果是否定的，也可以指“不受其影响，不在意”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... I don't internalize criticism anymore. (Arianna Huffington, in U.S. News & World Report, May 19, 2008, p. 18) ……我再也不在乎人家的批评了。</div><br><br>
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interview
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>interview</b></div>可以作为名词或动词。作为及物动词时，主语是面试官，宾语是应试者，面试的目的用介词 for 介入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How many applicants did you interview yesterday for the manager's job? 你昨天面试了几个申请经理职位的人？作为不及物动词（多用于美式英语）时，主语则是应试者。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Those who interviewed well were more likely to get the job. 面试表现好的人，较为可能拿到那份工作。</div><br><br>interviewer 是面试官，interviewee 则是应试者。<br><br>
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(in the) air 与 (on the) air
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(in the) air 与 (on the) air</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> in the air:(a) 在空中，在飞行中。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In the air, health emergencies rise quietly. (USA Today, Mar. 11, 2008) 空中的紧急医疗案例逐渐增多。</div>(b) 令人感到在酝酿中。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Revolution was in the air. 到处都令人感到有革命的气息。/ Spring is in the air. 春意袭人。/ There's a rumour in the air that they're going to sell. 有谣传说他们要出售了。</div>(c) 悬而未决的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The project is still very much in the air. 这个项目八字还没一撇。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> on the air 是广播电视的“在播出”(前面加动词 be 是延续动作)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>be on the air 正在播出</div><div class="ex-item">He's on the air twice a week. 他每周上两次电视(电台)节目。/ The station is on the air 24 hours a day. 这个广播站每天 24 小时播放。</div>“开始播送”或是“播了出去”(瞬时动作)则是 go/come on the air。反过来，“不播送了”(瞬时动作)是 go off the air。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The transmission went suddenly offthe air. 播送忽然中断了。(英文 on 与 off 是一对反义词)</div><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> air 还可以作为及物或不及物动词，表示“播出”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They elected not to air (v.t.) it for legal reasons. 由于法律原因，他们决定不播出。/ The documentary was scheduled to air (v.i.) on Sunday. 纪录片预定星期日播出。</div><br><br>
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in the first place
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>in the first place</b></div>常常相当于中文的“本来”，可参见 begin 条之(6) 中有关“本来”的部分。它与 to begin with 在“本来”的意义上可以互换。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>"Rehabilitation" indicates that the person was never a criminal in the first place. “平反”表示这个人本来就不是罪犯。/ Although arresting a drug ring was a police success, arresting a spy ring was seen as a failure because of the existence of a spy ring in the first place. 虽然抓获一个贩毒集团说是警察的一项成绩，但是抓获一个间谍集团却被看作一次失败，因为间谍集团本身就不应存在。/ Carol should never have married Noah in the first place. 卡罗尔本来就不应该嫁给诺亚。/ —Where are you going? —Home. It was a mistake for me to come in the first place. —你往哪里去呀？—回家。我到这里来，本来就是个错误。</div><br><br>
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(in the) first (place)
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(in the) first (place)</b></div>参见 in the first place 条。<br><br>
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into
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>into</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 这个介词后面加上一个名词或是动名词短语（瞬时动作或延续状态均可），前面有一个表示对某人施加影响的动词（通常是表示瞬时动作的第四类动词），加在一起就表示影响某人使之做某事。前面的动词只要是表示施加影响的就可以，因此几乎可以自由搭配。如果前面的动作是完成了的，后面的动作通常也就是完成了的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They deceived you into signing these documents. 他们骗了你签署这些文件。/ He tried to intimidate them into cooperating with him. 他试图恫吓他们去同他合作。/ Saturation advertising and sales promotion brainwashed physicians into believing the drug was a panacea for everything. 铺天盖地的广告和促销活动给医生们洗了脑，使得他们相信这种药是包治百病的万灵神药。/ Current 3-D displays, which show each eye a piecemeal image and trick the brain into combining them, can cause headaches and nausea. 目前使用的三维显示，向每只眼睛提供一个不同的图像，然后哄骗大脑把图像综合起来，这可能引起头疼和恶心。/ They inveigled the customers into looking more favourably on the product. 他们蒙骗顾客，使之对产品产生更好的好感。/ The local tyrants coerced the population into executing their orders. 土豪们强迫居民执行他们的命令。/ They hounded people into joining the army. 他们赶人们加入军队。/ The robber scared his victims into coughing up whatever he demanded. 劫匪恐吓受害人拿出他所要的一切。/ This trick fooled outsiders into thinking that everything there was real. 这个障眼法蒙骗了局外人，使他们以为那里一切都是真的。/ They will never be starved into submission. 他们绝不会因饥饿而屈服。/ Your pituitary has to produce more TSH in an effort to stimulate your thyroid gland into producing more thyroid hormone. 你的垂体只好产生更多的促甲状腺激素，以便刺激甲状腺产生更多的甲状腺激素。/ Clergymen, like psychiatrists, often flatter themselves into believing that their magic has turned around the hardest cases. (Froma Harrop, in The Daily Gazette, Jan. 2, 2008, A7) 神职人员像心理医生一样，常常自我陶醉，相信自己的魔法能够将最不利的事态扭转过来。/ They brainwashed, bribed and blackmailed him into testifying in their favor. 他们对他洗脑、收买、胁迫，使他替他们做了证。</div><br><br>在前面同 into 搭配的动词，包容性十分广，甚至可以拿名词来借用为动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He brushed off worries about inflation, strong-arming businesses into freezing prices and ordering an underling to doctor the consumer-price index. (The Economist, May 3, 2008, p. 46) 他丝毫不顾及通货膨胀，用铁腕手段强迫企业冻结价格，并命令一位下属去篡改消费物价指数。/ The goal is to blitzkrieg the bad stem cells into nonexistence in a few days. 目的是要在几天之内以闪电战的方式把坏的干细胞消灭掉。</div><br><br>有时候前面的那个动词可以是不及物动词而借用作为及物动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She tried to talk him into taking a week's vacation. 她力图说服他去度一个星期的假。/ They reasoned him into agreeing to the plan. 他们以理说服了他同意那个计划。</div><br><br>有时候后面不是动名词而是名词，但前面仍然可以将不及物动词借用为及物动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But we were supposed to be looking for WMDs! Where are they? We were lied into war! 我们本来是要找大规模杀伤性武器的呀！在哪儿呀？我们是被骗进战争之中的！</div><br><br>后面的动词用 to inf. 还是用 into + -ing，有时候意义不同。例如 pressure somebody to inf. 可能是“施加压力但结果未明”，而 pressure somebody into + -ing 则是“施加压力达到了结果”。详见 pressure 条。<br><br>反之，如果不用 into + -ing 而用 out of + -ing，则是相反的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His doctor tried to talk him out of smoking. 他的医生力图说服他别抽烟。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> into 同前面的动词相搭配，可以产生出新的意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He talked himself into the job. 他争取到了那个职位。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> into 还有时间上的意义，表示从前面一段时间延长到后面一段时间之中。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They talked far into the night. 他们一直谈到深夜。/ Through the remainder of 1960, and into 1961, she immersed herself in teaching the sales force how to sell. 从 1960 年的下半段直到 1961 年，她一直埋头于教推销人员如何去推销。/ The antagonism between them persisted into the future. 他们之间的对立，一直延续到后来。</div><br><br>也可以只是表示某事发生在某时间段（相当于“多长时间 after the beginning of”）开始后多久的一个时间点。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She died just two years into their marriage. 他们婚后两年，她就去世了。/ Ten minutes into the debate, he wondered how he could havebeen worried at all. 辩论开始后十分钟，他就感到自己原来的担心是没有必要的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> into 还有一个背离了“进入里面”的原义的意义，是“碰到，碰撞”（都是外部对外部的），此时它常同动词 bump、jump、crash、knock、go、run 等一起使用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He turned on the lamp so that he could find his way without bumping into anything. 他把灯打开，这样就能够看清路，不会碰到什么东西。/ The man bumped into me as he came out of the shop. 那个人从店里出来的时候同我撞了个满怀。/ I ran into your aunt yesterday. 我昨天碰见了你的姨妈。</div><br><br>
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intrigue
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>intrigue</b></div>这个单词，可以是名词（重音在前在后均可），也可以是动词（重音在后）。意义可以有正面与负面的巨大区别（也可以是不正不负的中性）。作为名词，主要意义是“阴谋”，也可以是小说、影片的“纠葛，伏线，曲折情节”（不正不负）。但是，由于“阴谋”或“曲折情节”有扣人心弦的“谜”的意义，于是转作及物动词时逐渐变成了“令人好奇，引人入胜”的正面意义（延续体的第一类动词）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The plan intrigues me, but I wonder if it will work. 我对这个计划很感兴趣，但不知能不能行得通。/ ... a problem that intrigued the seventeenth-century mind as fully as it does our own ... (Noam Chomsky, Columbia Forum, Spring 1968) ……一个无论是对 17 世纪的人们还是对今天的我们都有吸引力的问题……</div><br><br>派生的现在分词 intriguing，作为形容词使用，也是“令人好奇的，引人入胜的，扑朔迷离的，奇特的”（总之，是“不寻常的”）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>An intriguing item on the news pages caused me to raise an eyebrow over my morning coffee. 我早餐喝咖啡的时候，看到报上的一则奇怪的新闻，惊讶得眉毛都竖起来了。</div><br><br>但是，作为不及物动词，intrigue 仍然是“搞阴谋”的意思。<br><br>作为名词，intrigue 在许多词典中都只有负面的“阴谋，私通”以及中性的“伏笔，曲折情节”的意义，但是其实也有类似动词的“令人好奇之处，引人入胜之处”的正面意义（此时是个不可数名词）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This season of racing is filled of intrigue. 这个赛季扣人心弦。</div><br><br>
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in truth
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>in truth</b></div>有转折的“(但是)其实”的意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In truth, I'm innocent. 其实我是清白的。(与中文的“的确”意义不同)</div>
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(in) truth
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(in) truth</b></div>参见 in truth 条。<br><br>
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(in) turn
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(in) turn</b></div>in turn 这个词组，有两个相近但方向不同的含义：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> A 施动作于 B，B 又反过来施动作于 A（即 A→B→A，是循环反复的），中文可以说“又”或“反过来又”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Theory comes from practice and in turn guides practice. 理论来源于实践，反过来又指导实践。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> A 施动作于 B，B 又施动作于 C（即 A→B→C，是连环套的），中文也可以说“又”，但不可以说“反过来”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We got the idea from a hospital in Edinburgh, they in turn got it from a hospital in Leeds. 这个办法，我们是从爱丁堡的一家医院那里得来的，他们又是从利兹的一家医院学来的。/ They frequently sell their fruit to middlemen, who in turn sell it to factories that produce dried coconut meat, coconut husk, coconut oil and—more and more—coconut water. (Time, Dec. 17, 2012) 他们常常把果实出售给中间人，中间人又转卖给工厂制作干椰肉、椰子壳、椰油以及越来越多的椰子水。</div><br><br>有时候 in turn 可以改为 in (its、his、their) turn。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Every genius in art has demonstrated in his works the feeling of new laws, and every succeeding one has done by his precursors as his successors have in their turn done by him. (Josef Hofmann, Piano Playing) 凡是艺术天才，总是在自己的作品中显示出对新规律的预感，而每一个后继者也总是像自己的后继者对待自己那样去对待前面的天才。(do by somebody 是“对待”的意思)</div>要注意：有时候 in turn 究竟是“循环”还是“连环套”，要看语境和上下文。如 She, in turn, needs our help. 这里的意思，可能是“我们需要她的帮助，她反过来也需要我们的帮助”，但也可能是“某人需要她的帮助，她又需要我们的帮助”。但 in its/my/your/his/her/their turn 则常是“连环套”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Height and distance (from the keyboard) of your chair—which should never have arms—you should decide for yourself and once for all time; for only then can you acquire a normal hand position, which, in its turn, is a condition sine qua non for the development of your technique. (Josef Hofmann, Piano Playing) 你的椅子（椅子绝不可以有扶手）离键盘多高多远，应该由你自己决定，而且应一次性决定；因为唯有如此，你的手才可以放在正常的位置，而这又是提升你的技巧的必要条件。/ This chief word is defined (qualified, modified) by another word, which in its turn may be defined (qualified, modified) by a third word, etc. (Otto Jespersen, The Philosophy of Grammar) 中心词受到另一个单词所界定（说明，修饰），而这另一个单词又受到第三个单词所界定（说明，修饰），如此往复。</div><br><br>此外，in turn 还有“(主语或宾语)逐一（即‘连环套’），轮流（即循环）”的意思，此时就没有上述 AB 或 ABC 的相互关系。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Two men were working, hitting the anvil in turn. 两个人在干着活，轮流打着铁砧。（主语轮流）/ She went round the ward, talking to each woman in turn. 她走遍病房，同妇女们逐个交谈。（宾语逐个）</div>
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invaluable 与 valuable
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>invaluable 与 valuable</b></div>参见 flammable 与 inflammable 条。<br><br>
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invasion
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>invasion</b></div>后面如果有“of + 名词”，后一名词通常是被“入侵”的对象而非“入侵者”。参见 aggression 条。<br><br>
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investigation
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>investigation</b></div>无论是对事还是对人的调查，都可以在后面用 into 引入对象。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the FBI investigation into ex-national security advisor Michael Flynn 联邦调查局对前国家安全顾问弗林的调查。</div><br><br>
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invite
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>invite</b></div>这个及物动词，除了常见的意义“邀请”（直接宾语是人）之外，还有一些转义（直接宾语是事物）：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 可以表示“触发（人们去做）某事”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The study of the aging of plantsinvites comparison with the aging process in man. 研究植物的老化，触发人们去同人类的老化做比较。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 可以表示“招引（不利的后果）”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His big hat invited laughter. 他的那顶大帽子引得人们发笑。/ Careless driving invites danger. 开车漫不经心会招致险情。</div><br><br>
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involved
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>involved</b></div>这是个由动词过去分词演变而来的形容词。它有一个特点，就是如果放在名词前面，表示“复杂的”，如果放在名词后面或是作表语，表示“牵涉在内的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We had long, involved discussions. 我们进行了长时间复杂的讨论。/ We never managed to get anything done, simply because of the large number of people involved. 我们一直一事无成，原因就是涉及的人太多。/ The involved problem concerns all people involved. 复杂的问题使得有关的人全都感到关切。get involved 可以是主动的“参与”，也可以是非主动的“被卷入”。</div><br><br>这个形容词还可以在后面加上以 in 引入的介词短语，表示“涉及，参与”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>More women should be involved in decision-making. 应该有更多的妇女参与决策。</div><br><br>
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involve 与 entail
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>involve 与 entail</b></div>两者意义相近（“涉及”，基本上属表示事物关系的第一类动词），都是书面英语中很常用的动词，但是有细微的差别。entail 指某种必然的“由因及果”或“有甲必然有乙”的关系，involve 则指比较松散的、不一定是因果也不一定“有甲必然有乙”的关系。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Expanding the police force would entail raising taxes. 扩大警力，就要牵涉到增税。（这里的 entail 表示必然的后果，改为 involve 就不合适。）/ A successful sales campaign usually involves the distribution of samples. 要进行成功的促销活动，往往需要分送样品。（这里促销和分送样品之间并没有必然的条件关系，改为 entail 就不合适。）</div>此外，由于 entail 带有必然性，所以如果说 necessarily entail，这里的 necessarily 就是多余的。如果说 usually entail，有人认为这是自相矛盾，但也可以认为 usually 是对 entail 的“必然”意义的一种减弱。<br><br>
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ironclad
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>ironclad</b></div>这个形容词，同中文“铁打的”或“铁定的”几乎一模一样。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>ironclad guarantee 铁定的保证</div><div class="ex-item">ironclad prices 铁定的价格</div><div class="ex-item">ironclad proof 铁证</div><div class="ex-item">ironclad follower 铁杆支持者</div><div class="ex-item">Ironclad pensions are disappearing. Health insurance evaporates like a breath of wind. 本来铁定可靠的养老金无影无踪了。健康保险像一阵风似的化掉了。</div><br><br>
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*irregardless
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>*irregardless</b></div>英文中根本没有这个词，应该是 regardless 之误。这个怪词的出现可能是受到了意义相同的 irrespective of 的影响，产生出 *irregardless of。<br><br>
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island
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>island</b></div>前面的介词应该是 on 而不是 in。涉及一些岛屿的专有地名，有时 on 与 in 都使用。偏重地理上的岛屿地位就用 on，作为一个地区就用 in。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Much deforestation occurred on Taiwan. 台湾许多树林遭到了砍伐。/ Teachers of English asa Second Language (ESL) are in great demand in Taiwan. 英语作为第二语言的教师，在台湾需求量很大。/ the two communities on/in Cyprus 塞浦路斯的两族。</div><br><br>美国最小的一个州罗得岛 (Rhode Island)，虽然名称是个岛屿，其实大部分领土在大陆。它应该是个地区(州)的名称，而不是个岛屿的名称，所以前面用 in 而不用 on。如果用 on，那是别的意思，不是“在”而是“关于”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>statistics on Rhode Island 有关罗得岛的统计数字</div><div class="ex-item">Primary Review: All Eyes on Rhode Island 初选概览：罗得岛备受瞩目。</div><br><br>mainland 前面通常用 on。<br><br>
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issue
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>issue</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为及物动词（第四类），issue 可以只有直接宾语，表示“发出，发表”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>issue an order 下命令</div><div class="ex-item">The magazine is issued on Wednesdays. 该杂志每星期三发行。也可以有直接和间接宾语，但必须直接宾语在前，间接宾语用 to 引入在后，即 issue something to somebody。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The teacher issued library cards to the pupils. 老师向学生们分发了借书证。不能说 *issue somebody something。如果一定要人在前，物在后，也要把人当作直接宾语，物用 with 引入，即 issue somebody with something。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We can issue you with the necessary documents. 我们可以发必要的证件给你们。（这种既可以说 v.t. something to somebody 又可以说 v.t. somebody with something 的两可搭配，也适用于像 provide 和 present 之类的动词。）</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作为及物动词，issue 可以用于被动句。指人的间接宾语可以转换成主语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Hiking through a pine forest high in Wyoming Teton Mountains, I felt as if I'd been issued a pass to a secret world. (Smithsonian, June 2007, p. 68) 徒步旅行穿越怀俄明提顿山脉高处的一座松林，我仿佛觉得自己拿到了一张进入秘密世界的通行证。也可以加上 with（此时是指人的直接宾语转换为主语）。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We were all issued with rations. 我们大家都分到了口粮。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> at issue 是英语常用的词组，主语是事物时，表示“处于争论或争夺的焦点，是症结所在”。有时中文也可以译成“牵涉到”或“关系到”（中文的“关系到”不容易译成英文，be at issue 不失为一个译法，但是中文有主语，英文在这里的主语反而是中文的宾语，中文的主语在英文中无法表达）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>At issue is the reputation of the company. 事关公司信誉。/ At issue are five governorships. 争夺的对象是五个州长席位。/ Her competence is not at issue. 她的能力是不成问题的。</div><br><br>有时主语可以是人，此时 at issue 指“在争论中”或“在争夺中”（同谁争论或争夺，用 with 引入；争论或争夺什么，用 over 引入）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We have been at issue with them over this matter for decades. 我们同他们争论这个问题已有几十年了。</div><br><br>at stake 和 at issue 意义相近，但 at stake 比较侧重“利害”，at issue 则偏重“争议”；通常“争议”多与“利害”分不开，所以两者常常可以互换，甚至可以加在一起。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The issue at stake is a change to the Constitution. 争议的问题就是对宪法的一项修正。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 由于 issue 常常可以相当于“问题”，make an issue of something 可以表示“拿……来大做文章”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Obama's emphatic statements came as someRepublicans and conservatives were gearing up to make an issue of his relationship with Wright before the primaries in North Carolina and Indiana on May 6. (USA Today, May 1, 2008) 奥巴马措辞强烈的声明，正是当某些共和党人和保守派在 5 月 6 日北卡罗来纳州和印第安纳州预选之前拿他同赖特的关系大做文章之时做出的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> issue 作为名词，还可以指“发给、供应的用品或劳务”，如服装、饮食、理发等等。美式英语 government issue 表示由政府公费供应一切装备与生活必需品，因而转义为“军人”（但通常限于普通士兵），不用全称，书面和口头都必须用缩写体 GI；一个士兵就是 a GI，两个士兵就是 two GIs。issue 的这个用法，又进一步转义，可以指供应品甚至自备用品的规格类别。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Their heavy binoculars, however, weren't exactly tourist-issue. 但是他们拿着的重型双筒望远镜，就不是地道的旅游用品。</div><br><br>
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it
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>it</b></div>遇到以 it 开头的句子，要特别注意几点：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 要辨别这个 it 是真主语（代表前面谈到过的某事物）还是形式主语。如果 it 是形式主语，后面（尽管可能隔得很远）通常有动词不定式、动词的现在分词，that 引入的名词从句或间接的特殊疑问句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The demise of Europe's constitution is no reason to celebrate. But sometimes it takes a disaster to produce change. 没有理由为欧洲宪法的寿终正寝庆祝。但是有时候需要一场灾难才会发生改变。(it 是形式主语，真主语是 to produce change)</div><div class="ex-item">It's good to eat. 这吃起来是好的。(it 是真主语)</div><div class="ex-item">It's lovely weather to go fishing. 是钓鱼的好天气。(it 虽然是无人称代词，但仍是真主语。)</div><div class="ex-item">Think of our state government countenancing such a drain in the public treasure. It's enough to give me a health problem of my own, in the head. 我们的州政府竟然放任公帑这样流失。这足以使我自己出现健康问题了，脑子里的问题。(it 是真主语，代表前面整句的情况；to give 不是真主语，只是 enough 的附带成分。)</div><div class="ex-item">It was hard living/to live in that city. 住在那座城市是很不好过的。(it 是形式主语)</div><div class="ex-item">It makes a world of difference what is being reported out of Iraq. (U.S. News & World Report, Dec. 24, 2007, p. 40) 目前从伊拉克发出的报道，起着很大的作用。(it 是形式主语，真主语是 what ...)</div>it 后面的系动词在数上必须与 it 一致，保持单数，即使其后从句中的表语是复数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was the dynamics between these people that were important. (Estelle Ryan, The Gauguin Connection) 重要的是这些人彼此的互动情况。</div><br><br>有时候 it 是形式主语，后面的真主语动词不定式出现得很晚，或是前面有名词成分因而容易误将动词不定式看成该名词的后置定语，需要注意。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... it is no longer a mark of eccentricity to defend or of perversity to extol him. (Somerset Maugham, The Moon and Sixpence) ……替他辩护，再也不表明你古怪，赞扬他，也再也不表明你缺德了。</div><br><br>同样，有时候 it 是形式主语，后面的真主语 that 从句出现得很晚，此时如果前文找不到 it 所指代的名词成分，就可以判断真主语何在。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Thus Nicolas Sarkozy on his country's sclerotic universities. For an ambitious president, these mightseem modest goals. But it is a measure of the universities' dire condition that they seem revolutionary. (The Economist, July 7, 2007, p. 52) 萨科齐是这样描述他自己国家的大学的僵化状态的。对一位雄心勃勃的总统来说，这些目标看起来未免有点寒酸。但是，这样的目标都显得有革命性，各大学情况的糟糕也可见一斑。(后一句中 it 在前文没有所指，是形式主语，后面的 that 从句才是真主语。)</div>特别要注意的是：it 后面的动词不定式有时候可能是真主语（此时 it 就是形式主语），有时候可能是另一个单词（动词或形容词）的补充成分（此时 it 就是真主语）。例如《纽约时报》2009 年 3 月 31 日一篇文章谈到各大学又开始偏向于录取家境富裕、不需要助学金的新生时，副标题说：In the bid for a fat envelope this year, it may help, more than usual, to have a fat wallet. 在争夺录取通知书的大战中，鼓鼓的钱包，可能比平常更有用处。这个例句中，to have 本来也有可能是动词 help 的补充成分(to help to inf. 是常见的搭配)，但是这里的 help 不需要补充成分，所以 to have 是真主语，it 是形式主语。<br><br>如果 it 后面找不到动词不定式、动词现在分词或 that 引入的名词从句等可能作真主语的成分，而且前文找到了 it 所代替的名词，则这个 it 就是真主语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>From 1814 to 1818 Schopenhauer lived in Dresden, where his creative genius conceived and gave birth to a philosophical work which, for its depth and range of thought as well as for the clarity and brilliance of its style, was an outstanding achievement for so young a man. It was the more remarkable in that, during the forty-one years he was still to live after its publication, he did not consider it necessary to modify or recast in any way the basic idea underlying this work. (The World as Will and Representation, English version by E. F. Payne, Translator's Introduction) 自 1814 年至 1818 年，叔本华居住在德累斯顿，他以创造性的天才构思并且创作了一部哲学著作。这部著作，就这样的年轻人而言，思想深邃又广博，而且文笔明快优美，实属了不起的建树。更为了不起的是：著作问世后他还活了 41 年，但是他后来一辈子都不觉得有必要对著作的根本思想加以任何修改或重写。(这里 remarkable 后面是 in that，有了 in，that 就不可能成为 it 的真主语，所以这句话 it 后没有真主语，it 不是形式主语，而是真主语，代替前句的 achievement。)</div>有时候形式主语 it 后面的真主语除了是动词不定式、动词现在分词或 that 引入的名词从句之外，偶尔也可以是个名词成分。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It just scares me to death the amount of kids I see using chew tobacco. 看到这么多的孩子使用咀嚼香烟，真的把我吓死了。</div><br><br>有时候一个长句子中，it 可能在一处是真主语，在另一处却是形式主语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>What's around the corner is one of life's great questions. And while it (= the question) can never be answered with 100% accuracy, it helps to have a financial partner like Northern Trust. (The Economist, Feb. 20, 2010, p. 33, ad) 下一步会有什么情况，这是人生的一大问题。这个问题，固然不可能有百分之百准确的答案，但是，如果有个像“北方信托”这样的财务伙伴，是有好处的。(前一个 it 是真主语，指代 question；后一个 it 则是形式主语，引入真主语 to have a financial ...) it 作形式主语出现在句首，后面才出现动词不定式或 that 从句作真主语，这种句型，同那种不要 it，一开始就以动词不定式或 that 从句放在句首作主语的句型，客观的意义内容是相同的，但是在主述位切分上（亦即在交际目的上）有区别。以 it 开头作形式主语，后面的真主语动词不定式或 that 从句倾向于作为新知信息（即述位）；而一开始就以动词不定式或 that 从句作主语，它就倾向于作为已知信息（即主位）。例如 It is certain that prices will go up. 中的 prices will go up 倾向于是新知信息，表示“肯定物价要涨”；That prices will go up is certain. 中的 prices will go up 倾向于是已知信息，is certain 才是新知信息表示“物价要涨是肯定的”。</div><br><br>有时候要分清形式主语 it 与动词或介词宾语（尤其是在从句中）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There is, however, one further distinction which is rarely noted, but which it is important to draw attention to here. 但是，还有一个更进一步的区别，人们很少觉察到，但是在这里必须引起注意。这里的从句中如果去掉了 it，本来作为介词 to 宾语的 which 就会变为主语，以 important to draw attention to 为其表语，但这样的结构很不自然，所以还是需要 it 作形式主语。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> it 还可以不出现在句首而在句中，不作形式主语，而作形式宾语，它后面常常有动词不定式或 that 名词从句作真宾语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He wanted to make it clear (that) he was right. 他想说清楚他是对的。/ Cleve, after a few drinks, had let it slip that ... 喝了几杯之后，克里夫就吐露……</div><br><br>有时候 it 作为形式宾语，会出现在定语从句中，乍一看起来似乎多余，其实作形式宾语有其必要。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Trajan and Antonius were content to alleviate the burden, which they considered it impossible to remove. (Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire) 图拉真和安东尼都认为这个重担摆脱不了，能减轻就满意了。it 代表 to remove (which = the burden)，作 consider 的宾语；不以 which = the burden 直接作 consider 的宾语。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 要注意辨别这个 it 究竟是一个用于强调结构的引词，还是一个的确代表某个前文已提及的名词的代词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Passing the mayor's office, I saw people standing before the little bulletin board. For two years it was there that we received news of battles, of victories and defeats. (Alphonse Daudet, The Last Lesson) 经过镇公所的时候，我看见小小的布告板前面站着一群人。两年来，我们一直就是在那里看到战况的消息，有打赢的，有打输的。(这里的 it，乍一看，容易以为是代替 bulletin board 的代词，但其实它是个引词，组成强调结构，将 we received news of battles ... there 中的 there 抽出作为强调点。)</div><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 有时候 it 究竟代替的是什么，说不清楚，只是指一个含糊的概念。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>have it both ways 左右逢源</div><div class="ex-item">give it a try 试一下</div><div class="ex-item">fight it out 打到底</div><div class="ex-item">rough it 硬撑住</div><div class="ex-item">sweat it out 熬过去</div><div class="ex-item">Out with it! 你说出来呀！/ ... with the two bitterly arguing over who had it worse. (The Sunday Gazette, July 18, 2010, A3) ……两人剧烈吵着谁的遭遇更坏。/ We made a night of it. 我们快快乐乐玩了一整夜。有时候可以将一个名词临时改为及物动词来将所指不明的 it 当作宾语。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>bus it 坐公共汽车去</div><div class="ex-item">foot it 徒步走着去</div><div class="ex-item">cab it 打的</div><div class="ex-item">hotel it 住旅馆</div><div class="ex-item">lord it over somebody 主宰某人。有时候 it 虽然作形式主语，替后面的 that ... 从句“打前站”，但 it 以动词不定式为谓语时往往在 it 前面加上介词 for (这个 for 并不影响到 it 的逻辑主语的地位)，此时句子的结构就略为复杂化，解读的困难有所增加。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>For it to get out that Sam has a prison record would only add to his problems. 如果传出萨姆有监狱服刑记录，这就只会加重他的问题。get out (传出) 是 it (其实是 that ... 名词从句) 的谓语，for 表明 it 是逻辑主语。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> here 与 there 是地点副词，不能作为名词成分表示“这地方”和“那地方”，需要补上 it 来使之成为名词成分。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'd forgotten how beautiful it is here (*how beautiful here is). (Mary Higgins Clark, Nighttime Is My Time) 我都忘记了这块地方是多么的美丽。</div><br><br>
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it is ... for ... to ... 与 it is ... of ... to ...
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>it is ... for ... to ... 与 it is ... of ... to ...</b></div>这是两个不同的句型。它们的差别在于 it is 后面的形容词的词义究竟是指人还是指事。指事就用 for，指人就用 of。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 凡是使用评价人的道德品质（有时指理智）的形容词，如 brave、careless、clever、cowardly、cruel、foolish、generous、good、nice (指为人善良)、mean、rude、selfish、silly、wicked 等，而且所指的人也在句中出现，要用 of。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is foolish of you to do such a thing. 你干这样的事情太愚蠢了。/ It was brave of him to go into the burning house to save the child. 他奋不顾身冲进着火的房子救小孩，真勇敢。/ It's very kind of you. 承蒙您的好意。/ It's not nice of little boys to do such things. 小孩子这样做是不乖的。其中凡是指人的道德品质的形容词，后面的 of 短语都不能省略。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was kind of you to help him. 你帮助了他，真是好心。(这句话不能简化为 *It was kind to help him.)</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 如果既可以指人本身的理智，也可以指某一行动或态度的理智性质（不像 kind 那样单纯指道德品质），如 clever、foolish、intelligent、silly、stupid 等，可以不用 of 介词短语引入某人，而直接对某一行动或态度加以评价。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It would be foolish to do so. 如果这样做，就是愚蠢的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 凡是单纯描述事情性质而不可能指人的形容词，如 acceptable、important、impossible、mandatory、necessary、outrageous、unbelievable 等，即使所指的人在句中出现，也不能用 of 介词短语引入，要用 for。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was not necessary for you to go there. 当时你并没有必要非去不可。/ It was not necessary to go there. 当时并没有必要非去不可。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 形容词 good 和 nice，指人时意思是道德意义上的“善良的，好心肠的”，用于这个意思时必须有 of 介词短语说明是某人，如果没有这个介词短语（即人不出现），或是改为 for 介词短语引入该人，则 good 和 nice 的意义就变成指某事物在理智意义上“有好处的，有益的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was good of her to take care of the children during their mother's absence. 孩子们的妈妈不在家，她来照应，心地真好。/ It was good for them to do exercise every morning. 他们每天早上做体操很有好处。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 有时候可以对 it is ... of ... 的结构加以调整，把 it 从主语变为宾语，此时 is 就要变为不变位的 to be。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I meant it to be very honest of me. (John Fowles, TheFrench Lieutenant's Woman) 我那样做正是老实的表现。作主语的 it 还可以改为 this (指前面说过过的行为，但少用 that)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This was perceptive of Charles, ... (ibid.) 查尔斯还是很有眼力的，……</div><br><br>
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it is (Xs) that/who...
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>it is (Xs) that/who...</b></div>这是英文常用的强调句。值得注意的是：无论 X 是单数还是复数，it is 是单数不变，that/who 后面的谓语动词则随 X 的单复数来变化。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Among the British scholars it is especially Professors Sir Randolph Quirk, Sidney Greenbaum and Geoffrey Leech who have urged me to present such a synthesis. (Jan Firbas, Functional Sentence Perspective in Written and Spoken Communication) 英国学者当中，特别是奎可爵士、格林鲍姆和李奇这三位教授敦促我拿出这份综合材料。</div><br><br>
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itself
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>itself</b></div>前面用不同的介词，意义有所不同。<br><br>of itself 表示“单单凭本身的性质，不必依靠外加因素”(“本来就是”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>An innovation is new of itself. 革新本来就是新东西。/ The document does not of itself constitute a contract. 该文件本身并不构成一份契约。</div><br><br>by itself 是“自动地，自行地，不需要临时加上外力”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It switches off by itself. 它会自动断路。</div><br><br>in itself 是“本身就已经（有某种属性）”（不是由另一事物间接引起而产生某一属性）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Working with her was in itself fascinating. 同她一起工作，本身就很令人心旷神怡。</div><br><br>
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IV
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>IV</b></div>“静脉滴注”（俗称“打点滴”）是 intravenous drip，但是实际使用时美式英语常常只说 intravenous 的简称 IV，英式英语则常常只说 drip，但也仍然有说 IV drip 的。给某病人“打点滴”，开始动作（第四类动词）可以说 put/place/start him on an IV/on a drip/on an IV drip；延续状态（第一类动词）可以说 have him on an IV/on a drip/on an IV drip。病人“打点滴”（延续状态）可以说 to be on an IV/on a drip/on an IV drip。滴注注入的药物，其名词（不论特指还是不特指）可以用 of 或 with 引入，放在 IV 或 drip 之后。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>put him on an IV of/with glucose/a potent antibiotic 给他打葡萄糖</div><div class="ex-item">强力抗生素点滴。也可以去掉不定冠词，恢复 IV 的形容词性质，作药物名词的定语。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>put him on IV glucose。 <b>Jj</b></div>
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jealous 与 jealousy
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>jealous 与 jealousy</b></div>jealousy (n.) 和 jealous (adj.) 同 envy (n., v.t.) 和 envious (adj.) 在意思和用法上有部分重叠。但是：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 从含义来看，envy 和 envious 相当于中文的“羡慕，钦羡”，通常是一种良好的心态。jealousy 和 jealous 则有时是良好的“羡慕，钦羡”，有时则相当于中文的“妒忌”，此时就是一种不好的心态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His high school world was the envy of any teenager. 他念高中时的处境，是任何一个青少年都会羡慕的。(envy 要有定冠词 the，尽管并非唯一的羡慕对象) 但是这里不能用 jealousy 来代替 envy。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 从词性、搭配和用法来看，envy 可以是个带双宾语（间接宾语在前，无 to，直接宾语在后）的及物动词（第一类动词）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I envy Bill his education. 我羡慕比尔受到那么好的教育。形容词的搭配则是相同的，例如都可以说 be envious/jealous of somebody/something。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 另外，形容词 jealous 还有一个 envious 所没有的意义。除了“羡慕，妒忌，吃醋”之外，还可以表示“珍惜，看得紧，唯恐有失”。往往要看上下文和语境，才可以辨别是哪一个意思。如果 jealous 的后面的人或事物是别人的，意思就是“羡慕”或“妒忌”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He is jealous of his rivals. 他很妒忌他的竞争者。/ They may feel jealous of your success. 你成功了，他们会妒忌的。如果是自己的，意义则是“看得紧，很在意，珍惜，唯恐有失”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We are jealous of our freedoms. 我们珍惜自己的自由。/ He was jealous of his remaining resources. 他很小心维护自己仅存的一点力量。也可以说 jealous for。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They were like sons to him, he was jealous for their welfare, and was always available for advice and help. (Dictionary of American Biography) 他们就跟他的亲生儿子一样，他体贴关心他们的福祉，随时给他们指点和帮助。</div><br><br>至于 jealous to inf.，则是“热心于做某事”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The old legal system of the country gave him the whole judicial power, and William was jealous to retain and heighten this. (John Richard Green, The History of the English People) 这个国家古老的法律制度赋予了他整个司法权，而威廉也一心一意对此加以维护与提升。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 但是，更深一层，夫妇或情人之间，对方所有的，究竟是属于“他人”，还是属于“自己”，这就模糊两可。因而遇到这种情况，jealous of something 究竟是“妒忌”还是“珍惜，在意”，就出现歧义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Jonathan was jealous of Jennifer's continued affection. 乔纳森很珍惜珍妮弗对他重温旧情。这里由于有形容词 continued，说明了这是对他而不是对别人的，所以意义是“珍惜”。但是，如果说 He is jealous of his wife's affectionate glances. 那么，这些 affectionate glances 究竟是对他本人的，还是对别人的，就会有歧义。如果是对他本人的，那就是“他很在意他妻子对自己含情脉脉的目光”；但如果是对别人的，那就是“他看到他妻子对别人投出含情脉脉的目光，生出醋意”。</div><br><br>
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jewelry
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>jewelry</b></div>英式英语的拼法是 jewellery，但英美发音相同。是个不可数名词，化为可数时要说 a piece of jewelry 或 jewelry items。<br><br>
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job
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>job</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> do somebody's job，如果这个 somebody 是特指的，就是“代替他工作”的意思。如果这个 somebody 是不特指的，则又分成两种情况，一种是这个不特指的人确实存在(specific)，此时 do somebody's job 也是“代替他工作”的意思；另一种是这个不特指的人是虚指的(non-specific)，只是说明工作性质，此时 do somebody's job 则是“干某种性质的工作”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>do a driver's job 可以是“干司机的工作(即当司机开车)”，也可以是“代替某个司机工作”。但是 it is an offence to do a striker's job 则只能是“代替罢工者干活是违法的”，因为 striker 不可能是一个工种。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> do a adj. job of + -ing 是干某事干得如何的意思，信息的核心在形容词上。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is not so much that America is ungovernable, as that Mr. Obama has done a lousy job of winning over Republicans and independents to the causes he favors. (The Economist, February 2010, p. 12) 与其说美国不好管治，倒不如说奥巴马先生一筹莫展，未能争取共和党人和无党派人士过来支持他所主张的事业。</div><br><br>
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jobless
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>jobless</b></div>参见 unemployed 条。<br><br>
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join
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>join</b></div>作为及物动词，join 是瞬时的，表示动作(第四类动词)，但也可以是延续的，表示状态(第一类动词)。它的词义可以细分如下：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 将主语以外的多件事物连接起来，但是主语置身事外(可以是瞬时动作，也可以是延续状态)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The workman joined the two pipes together. 工匠把两根管子连接在一起。/ You should never join an electric wire to a water pipe. 千万不要把电线接在水管上。/ He joined the two boards with nails. 他用钉子把两块板钉在一起。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 主语作为连接的中介(可以是瞬时动作，也可以是延续状态)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There is a canal joining the Rhine and the Danube. 有一条运河将莱茵河同多瑙河连起来。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 主语同直接宾语汇合，隐含一起做某事的意思(但以直接宾语所指的人为主，只能是瞬时动作)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We're going for a drink, won't you join us? 我们要去喝一杯，你也一起吗？/ Charles is joining us after he's finished work. 查尔斯干完了工作就到我们这边来。</div><br><br>如果是被动语气，则在信息上以 by 后面的人为主(尽管事实上主要做这件事的是主语所指的人；可以是瞬时动作，也可以是延续状态)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Governments have been joined by a long list of private donors, topped by Bill and Melinda Gates and Warren Buffett, whose contributions to today's war on disease are mind-boggling. (Laurie Garrett, in Foreign Affairs, January/February 2007) 除了政府之外，还有名单长长的一批私人捐赠者，其中最领先的是比尔·盖茨夫妇以及华伦·巴菲特，他们对今天的反抗疾病之战做出了令人惊讶的贡献。也可以说出做什么，用 in 引入(可以是瞬时动作，也可以是延续状态，通常指已经在进行中的事，或肯定即将开始的事)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'd like you all to join me in a toast to our friendship. 我请诸位同我一起为我们的友谊干杯。(瞬时动作，即将开始)</div><div class="ex-item">My husband joins me in wishing you a speedy recovery. 我先生同我一起祝您早日康复。(延续状态)</div><div class="ex-item">Not a few of the composers and composerlings of the period joined the professional critics in their depreciation of Chopin's works. (Henry T. Finck, Chopin and Other Musical Essays) 不少当时的作曲家和末入流者也加入到专业批评家那里，一起贬低肖邦的作品。</div><br><br>如果要干的事尚未做(或是不一定能做成)，就不用 in 而用 for。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Join us for a live online chat now. 请现在就同我们一起进行网上现场交谈。/ She's going to join some mutual friends of ours for a cruise around the Greek islands. (Mary Higgins Clark, Where Are You Now?) 她要跟我们一些共同的朋友一起去乘船游览希腊岛屿。</div><br><br>可以有被动语态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Steep declines weren't confined to just one industry. Sony took the deepest dive, but it was joined by an investment bank (Morgan Stanley), a carmaker (Volkswagen), a jeans maker (Levi's), and a computer company (Hewlett-Packard). (BusinessWeek, Aug. 1, 2005, p. 88) 猛跌并不局限于单一一个行业。索尼摔得最厉害，但是同它一起掉的，还有一家投资银行(摩根士丹利)、一家汽车制造商(大众汽车)、一家牛仔裤制造商(李维斯)和一家电脑公司(惠普)。</div><br><br>但是，join 也可以是个不及物动词，加上 with 再加宾语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My mother joins with me in congratulating you. 家母同我一道向您表示祝贺。这个有 with 的结构，很适合中国人的语言心理，但还是以不用 with 的居多。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 直接宾语是一个经常的或临时形成的集体，join 是个瞬时动作(第四类动词)，即参加这个集体，成为其成员。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>join the Party 入党</div><div class="ex-item">join the team 参加球队</div><div class="ex-item">join a course 参加听课</div><div class="ex-item">join the queue/line 加入排队行列</div><div class="ex-item">They have joined the ranks of the unemployed. 他们加入了失业大军。/ He joined our staff in November. 他是 11 月成为我们的工作人员的。要注意：join a party 是加入某政党，come/go to a party 是参加一个联欢会，party 的含义，随着前面的动词不同而不同。</div><br><br>按照中国人的语言心理，容易用 join in 代替 join。但是 join in 的宾语通常不是一个集体，而是一个活动。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He took his coat off and joined in the work. 他脱下外衣，就加入了干活的行列。/ Parents should join in these discussions. 家长们应该参加这些讨论。</div><br><br>
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journey, trip 与 travel
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>journey, trip 与 travel</b></div>一般情况下，词义都是“旅行”。但是中文的“旅行”通常是指离开本市或本地的长途旅行，journey 与 trip 却可以指市内的交通(例如出租车的一次载客就是一个 trip)，甚至同一建筑物不同部位之间的移动(例如在停在门口的汽车与房子内部之间的步行来往)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The man made two more journeys between the VW and the house, each time carrying in two big cartons. 那个人在那辆大众牌汽车和房子之间往返了两次，每次都搬进两个大纸箱。</div><br><br>travel 则是个不可数名词，可以指离开本市的旅行，也可以指市内的来往。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His job involves a lot of travel. 他的工作要常常出差旅行。/ How much do you spend on travel to work? 你上下班的交通费要花多少？/ The cost includes travel to and from the airport. 费用包括往返机场的交通。关于 travel 的单复数问题，参见 travel 条。</div><br><br>
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junior
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>junior</b></div>参见 senior 条。<br><br>
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just
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>just</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 在祈使句的句首，表示恼火或失望。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Just sit down and be quiet. 你就坐下来安静点行不行？/ Just put that book away. 你就给我把那本书拿开。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> just 作为“只不过”解，同 only 和 alone 在意义上和用法上有同有异。only 有比较强烈的“数量上的对外排他性”(参见 alone 与 only 条)；just 则偏重于“质量上的对内满足”；alone 也偏重于“对内满足”，但是更多是在数量上指已知或已存在的事物，而且专门支配前面的名词成分，支配不了动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Assuming half of all video game consoles are left on all the times, Americans would save $1 billion a year if we just turned them off when we're not using them. (The Sunday Gazette, USA Weekend, May 31, 2009, p. 7) 假设所有的电子游戏机都是一直接通电流的，那么，只消不使用时就关掉，美国人一年就可以节省共 10 亿美元。(如果 just 改为 only，意思就变成“原先一直是关着的，现在改为只在不用时关掉，用时千万不可以关掉”。)</div><div class="ex-item">“Library” sounds impressive. It really isn't that pretentious. It's just (<i>only) a room with bookshelves and comfortable armchairs and a paneled area that opens to disclose a built-in bar. (Mary Higgins Clark, Where Are You Now?) 说是“藏书室”，听起来很了不起。其实并不那么气派。它只不过是一个房间，有些书架、几把舒适的靠椅，还有一个隔板区，可以通到一处固定在墙上的酒柜。(这里用 just，对 library 的实际内涵做一质量上的限定，不涉及数量上的限制)</div><div class="ex-item">Buying British isn't just difficult for the casual shopper, it's very nearly impossible. (The Sunday Times, Oct. 31, 1982) 对于临时购物的人来说，要买英国货，不但不容易，而且几乎是办不到的。(“不容易”与“办不到”之间是“质”而非“量”的差别)</div><div class="ex-item">Just (</i>Only) a single error could impact the entire mission to the International Space Station. (Time, May 27, 2013, p. 13, ad) 区区一个错误，都会影响前往国际空间站的整个飞行任务。</div><br><br>just 不一定表示“仅有的少”，也可以在表示“低于，不如”之前表示“仅仅低于”从而表示“多”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Today the place (= Shenzhen) has a population of just under nine million, a bit more than New York City ... (The New York Review of Books, Dec. 9, 2010, p. 36) 今天深圳人口差一点就达到九百万，比纽约市还略多。</div><br><br>和 only、alone 相比，just 如果放在动词前面，就是支配这个动词，不像 alone 那样只能支配前面的名词成分，也不像 only 那样支配对象不明确(如果 only 的支配对象在后面还可能有越过动词的“隔山打炮”现象)。<br><br>just 支配后面状语成分。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Could he not, just (<i>only) as a precaution, move to a place of safety? 他哪怕就是为了安全起见，难道不能搬到一处安全的地方吗？/ I never chose people just (</i>only) because of their looks. 我从来不以貌取人。/ I wrotethat song just to cheer myself up. 我写那首歌，只是为了让自己高兴高兴。</div><br><br>just 支配后面形容词成分。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm just (<i>only) curious. 我只是有点好奇。/ I wouldn't call it art. It's just (</i>only) stupid and tasteless. 这根本不能叫作艺术。它简直是荒诞乏味的。</div><br><br>just 支配后面名词成分的情况最为常见。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was probably just (<i>only) a joke to them, but it wasn't funny to me. 那对他们来说也许不过是开个玩笑，但我并不觉得有什么好玩的。/ Spelling mistakes are often just (</i>only) the result of haste. 拼写错误往往只不过是由于匆忙。/ There is more to eating than just (*only) bodily needs. 吃东西不光是出自身体的需要。</div><br><br>just 可以支配后面的动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We just (<i>only) want some information. 我们只是想知道点情况。/ Without particular interest and just (</i>only) to pass the time, I read a story. 本来就不是出于什么兴趣，只是为了消磨时间，我看了一本小说。/ I don't want to be really brown, just (*only) have a nice light golden color. 我并不想晒成地地道道的棕褐色，只要晒成浅浅的金黄色就可以了。</div><br><br>有一个例子很耐人寻味。一个意大利姓氏的美国女律师同另一个也是意大利姓氏的男律师交谈，谈到美籍意大利人的一些普遍问题时，这位女律师显得不甚了了，对方就觉得奇怪，问道：What kind of Italian are you, you don't know that? You just married one? (Lisa Scottoline, Dead Ringer) 最后的问句中，just 不是“刚刚”(不是“新婚不久”)，而是“仅仅”，意思是“你是不是仅仅因为嫁了个意大利丈夫才挂上意大利姓氏的？”而且这个“仅仅”，不是数量上的(不管 one，不是“只有一个”)，而是质量上的(间接地“通过婚姻关系”而不是直接地“通过血缘”)。这里的 just 就不能用 only 来代替(用了 only 就变成“只嫁过一个而不是多个意大利丈夫”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... the object that people call the universe, vast though it is, may be just (<i>only) one of an indefinite number of similar structures, ... (The Economist, Aug. 15, 2009, p. 12) ……人们称为宇宙的这个东西，尽管浩瀚庞大，但也只不过是无数类似结构当中的一个而已，……这里用 just 而不用 only，是因为着重点在“这一个”本身的局限性(“质”)，而不在它对于外界的“排他性”(“量”的单独性)。/ By going meatless for just (</i>only) one day a week, you can greatly benefit your family's well-being as well as that of the planet. 一星期只要一天不吃肉类，你就会大大增进你的家庭幸福感以及地球的福祉。(如果用 only，意思就变为“吃素的日子多了不好，应该缩减为每周只一天”。)</div>如果说“不但……，而且……”，英文说 not just ..., but (also) ... 或 not only ..., but (also) ... 都可以，但是用 just 较为着重质的方面，用 only 较为着重量的方面。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He didn't just/only command, but personally fought in several heavy battles. 他不光是指挥，还亲自打了几场硬仗。这里如果着重“指挥”同“打仗”的外部差别，可以用 only，但是如果着重两者之间的有机联系，就可以用 just。</div><br><br>但是，遇到 not just 时，还要注意它可能同 not only 有区别。例如现在许多人指责网络上的虚拟世界浪费了人们的时间，就有人辩解说：Virtual worlds are not just (End of transcription) time-wasters. 这里的 not just 同 time-wasters 的关系应该是：首先 just 离开 not，同 time-wasters 联结成为一个单位，然后再同 not 相连。这样一来，just 也是从质的方面来限定 time-wasters（“区区浪费时间的玩意儿罢了”），而 not 并不否定 just (not only 则是“何止浪费时间，还有别的害处”)，而是整个否定 just time-wasters（“并不是区区浪费时间的玩意儿，有它的好的一面”）。<br><br>
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(just) because
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(just) because</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 本来 because 引入的从句都是原因状语从句，但是在美国非正式英语中，because 从句在一种情况下可以当作名词从句，并且升格为整句的主语，那就是 just because ... doesn't ...。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Just because he thinks it a good idea doesn't mean it's a good idea. 他觉得是好办法，不见得就是好办法。/ Just because the person who criticizes you is an idiot doesn't make him wrong. 批评你的人是个白痴，不等于他就是错了。有时候 just because ... 仍然保持状语从句地位，另由一个 it 来充当整句的主语（有时是形式主语，有时是真主语）。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Just because he has lived in the U.S., it does not follow that he is good at English. 他在美国居住过，并不等于他的英语一定很好。（it 是形式主语，提前代表 that ...）/ Just because doctors can't find an "organic" cause—meaning that there's no evidence of a structural, biochemical, or infectious basis for the symptoms—it doesn't mean you're imagining things. 医生们找不到“器官性”的原因，也就是说，没有迹象表明这些症状有结构上、生化上或是感染上的原因，但是这并不是说这只是心理作用。</div><br><br>just because ..., it doesn't follow ... 这个句型，其实是 not ... because ... 句型（其中的“否肯肯”型）的变种，只是把被否定的 because 因果关系移到句首。参见 (not) ... because 条。<br><br>由于 just because 有“单单是这个原因（并不能造成……）”的意义，所以很容易转为“虽然……（但是……）”（这时候后面的主句甚至不必是否定句）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The exploitation is the same. Just because one perpetrator has more money the result is the same. (The Sunday Gazette, Mar. 16, 2008, A9) 剥削是一样的。尽管一方的犯罪人钱更多，结果还是一样的。</div><br><br>也可以用 merely 之类的副词代替 just。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But merely because this distinction is not significant to the physicist does not mean that it is not meaningful in other sectors of science. (Leslie A. White, The Science of Culture) 不过，这个区别，尽管对物理学家来说意义不大，但是这并不是说，在其他科学领域就没有意义了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> just 放在 because 前面，可以起一种特殊的作用，就是表示前面或后面的否定涵盖了 because 所代表的因果关系；也就是说，是否定管了 because（“不因为……而……”），而不是 because 管了否定（不是“因为……而不……”）。参见 (not) ... because 条之 (3) 与 (6)。<br><br>
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justify
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>justify</b></div>是“达到了证明其为正确的目的”，所以是个第四类动词，不是“力图证明其为正确但尚未达到目的”（第二类动词）。如果意思是后者，应该说 try to justify。... is justified (被动语气的一般现在时)意思是“是正确的，是有道理的” (justified 成了形容词)，表示判断、状态，不是“被证明正确”这一事件。K k
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just that
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>just that</b></div>放在句首，表示某种轻微的逆向语气(犹如“夕阳无限好，只是近黄昏”中的“只是”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Everything was going on perfectly. Just that one of the passengers felt dizzy. 一切进行顺利。只是有一名乘客感到头晕。</div><br><br>
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keep
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>keep</b></div>keep 的直接宾语后面往往还有宾语补足语，而且这个宾语补足语可能很后面才出现。要注意抓住呼应关系，不要“断线”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... keeping the stakes of a first military move by the other side extremely high ......如果一直使得对方先下手采取军事行动就要下极高的赌注。</div><br><br>
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keep ... in check
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>keep ... in check</b></div>参见(keep ... in) check 条。<br><br>
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(keep ... in) check
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(keep ... in) check</b></div>keep/hold something/somebody in check 是个惯用词组，意思是“控制住(使之不能扩大损害)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He held his anger in check. 他忍住怒火。/ We're keeping the enemy in check. 我们在牵制敌人。/ We've kept the disease in check for a year. 我们已经把这个疾病控制了一年了。put a check on/to something 也有类似的意思。</div><br><br>但是值得注意的是：keep/hold something/somebody in check 的结构中，keep/hold 同 in check 当中插进的宾语可长可短，结构可简单可复杂，容易使人眼花缭乱，使得 keep/hold 与 in check 的联系模糊，甚至断了线。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The country must keep resource and energy use enough in check so that it doesn't simply crash and burn. (Harper's Magazine, Dec. 2005, p. 51)这个国家必须牢牢控制资源和能源的使用，以免彻底崩溃。/ We should keep prices in rise in check. 我们必须控制住高涨中的物价。(这里又是 in rise，又是 in check，容易使人“迷路”，看不出 keep 和 in check 之间遥相呼应实为一体的关系。)</div><div class="ex-item">To keep those left behind in check, neighbourhood committees have been spurred into action. 为了管住那些留在后面的人，居委会动员了起来。(这里又是 left behind，又是 in check，也容易使人“迷路”，但是 those 如果没有 left behind 修饰就是没有意义的。)</div>
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(keep in) touch
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(keep in) touch</b></div>对别人说 keep in touch 其实后面略去了 with me/us，意思是“请同我/我们保持联系”。同样，I want you to stay in close <b>touch</b>. 是“希望你同我保持密切联系”。be in touch 也同样可以略去 with me、with us、with you 之类的补充说明，不言自明。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>(He) ended by telling him (= his bureau chief) that he would <b>be in touch</b> ( = be in touch with him) again as soon as he landed at Heathrow. (Jeffrey Archer, The Fourth Estate) 他最后告诉他的办公室主任说，他一到达希思罗机场，就同他联系。</div><br><br>
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key
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>key</b></div>这个名词用起来常常失去实体意义，接近于形容词，因此作表语时通常不加定冠词或不定冠词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>For some clients proximity is key. 对某些主顾来说，地点靠近，是最要紧的。</div><br><br>中文说“……的关键”，这个“的”在英文中应该是 to 而不是 of，后面可以是名词成分或是动名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Economic success is key to victory. 经济成功是胜利的关键。/ Diet is key to avoiding cancer. 饮食是防癌的关键。</div><br><br>
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kill
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>kill</b></div>不一定是“杀死”(中文“杀死”的主语总是人)，可以用被动语气泛指“死于非命”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His father was killed last year in a traffic accident. 他父亲去年死于交通事故。(不能说“被杀死”)</div>
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kind²
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>kind²</b></div>Would you be so kind as to inf.? 是有礼貌地请求对方做某事的说法。文字上看起来似乎有点矫揉造作，但其实还是比较平常的，中文译成“可否请您做某事?”即可，不必译成“您能否好意思好到做某事?”<br><br>
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kind¹
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>kind¹</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为名词时，kind of 后面接上的名词，如果是不可数名词，当然不能有不定冠词；如果是可数名词，也通常不带不定冠词。不过，在某些场合，有和没有不定冠词，意义上有细微的区别：有不定冠词更多注意事物内在的性质，没有则更多注意事物外部标志的分类。试比较：What kind of (a) motorcycle is it? 有不定冠词时主要问的是性能、大小之类；没有时主要问的可能是厂家、商标、型号之类。同样，What kind of (a) job are you looking for? 有不定冠词时主要问的是工作本身的性质；没有时主要问的是工种、行业等等。What kind of (a) lawyer is he? 有不定冠词时主要问的是这个律师能力的高低；没有时主要问的是类别，如“出庭律师”(barrister)或是“初级律师”(solicitor)等等。但是这个界限，即使在现实生活中也不是清晰划分的，所以有没有不定冠词往往差别不大。有时候，不用不定冠词可以略微强调分类上的界限。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A different kind of president would have ordered a Manhattan Project-style crash program to teach the difficult-to-learn language in schools. (Newsweek, Dec. 18, 2006, p. 44)如果是另一类的总统，就会下令进行一项类似当年研制原子弹的曼哈顿计划那样的应急计划，在学校里教授这种难学的语言。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作为名词，除了上条的情况外，还有进一步探讨的余地。<br><br>比较有趣的是 kind 作为名词，其最根本的原始含义就是“相同”，后逐渐演变出另一并列的含义“相似”。从这两个并列的含义出发，派生出了下面的含义和用法： (a) 表示“类别”：这个原始的意义及用法都很普通也很简单。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>What kind of house do you live in? 你住哪一类的房子?</div><div class="ex-item">We sell all kinds of meat. 本店售卖各种肉类。/ It's a difference in degree, not in kind. 这只是程度上而非类别上的差别。/ She isn't that kind of girl. 她不是那种女孩子。/ —You were drunk last night. —I was nothing of the kind. —你昨晚喝醉了。—我根本没有。</div>(b) 表示“相同”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They're two of a kind. 两个是一样的。/ He repaid their insolence in kind. 他对他们以牙还牙。/ He repaid their generosity in kind. 他对他们投桃报李。也有例外的用法。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>payment in kind 以实物而不以货币支付。</div>(c) 表示“相似，近乎”，有两个搭配。一个是 a kind of。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I had a kind of feeling you would come. 我隐约有点预感，觉得你会来。另一个是 of a kind。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's work of a kind, but only as a stopgap. 这也算能行，但只能治治标。/ They're making progress of a kind. 他们也算有进展吧。/ They served a meal, of a kind. 他们算是弄了一顿饭。</div>(d) kind of 演变成一个副词“差不多，有点”，可以放在句中任何成分之前起弱化作用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He seemed kind of stupid. 他样子有点傻里傻气。/ —Is she pretty? —Kind of, I suppose. —她漂亮吗? —我看有点。/ It was kind of interesting to watch how they did it. 看着他们怎样干的，多少有点意思。/ I kind of thought they would agree. 我当时有点觉得他们会答应的。</div><br><br>
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know
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>know</b></div>这个动词极为常用，同中文的“知道”似乎是“一对一”对应的，但其实还是有不少应该注意之处。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> know 是个延续状态，“知之为知之，不知为不知”，不是指“从不知到知”的变化(不是“得悉，获悉，弄熟悉”)。如果指的是变化，要改用 learn，或者说 get to know。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We got to know (<i>knew) each other. 我们彼此熟悉了。/ Only at that moment did we learn (</i>know) that she had already left. 到了那个时刻，我们才知道她已经动身走了。/ With the small classes, I really got to know my professors and the subject ... Also I got to know my classmates really well; we all know each other by name. 开了小班，我才真正认识了老师和科目。……我也真正地熟悉了同班的同学；现在我们都知道大家的名字。/ You should get to know/learn (*know) more about your own country. 你应该更多地了解自己的国家。(know 是“已经知道”的状态，而且是不能主动去做的事，不能劝告人家去做，但是祈使句 Know your enemy. 是个例外。)但是 know 偶尔也可以借用作第四类动词，表示“从不知到知”的变化，亦即“得悉”，相当于 learn 或 get to know。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Suddenly I knew. 我忽然知道了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 不可以仿效 I hope so 或 I think so 说 *I know so，而只能说 I know it 或 I know that。 (3) “know of + 某人、某物或某事”，是间接听闻或肤浅地认识；“know + 某人”是同某人见过面，有交情；“know about + 某事”则是对之有具体的了解。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I know of the mountain, but I've never climbed it. 我听说过这座山，但从来没有爬过。/ I know of him, but I don't know him personally. 我听说过他，但是我不认识他。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> know that ... 是知道某事；know + 间接疑问句，是对后面的疑问知道答案。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Do you know when we should go there? 你知道我们什么时候到那边去吗?</div><div class="ex-item">I don't know/I'd like to know whether he passed the examination. 我不知道/我想知道他考试是不是及格了。</div><br><br>know that 后面必须是说话者认为正确的事实，所以逻辑上不能说 <i>I don't know that ...，但可以说 I don't know whether ...。如果说话者知道 that 从句的内容是错误的，也不能说 know that，例如不能说：</i>John knows that the capital of Australia is Sydney. 但是可以说：John believes that the capital of Australia is Sydney. 不过，可以说 I don't know that ... 以表示“我不认为”而不是“我不知道”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I don't know that atheists should be considered as citizens, nor should they be considered patriots. 我说不准无神论者就是公民，也说不准他们就应该被认为是爱国者。/ I don't know that your assistant is not as remarkable as your advertisement. (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes)我觉得您的这位助手真的同您的这份广告一样离奇。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> know somebody to inf.，这个动词不定式只能是 to be 或表示“拥有”或“具备”的 to have，而且只能指经常的状态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I know her to be a reliable person. 我知道她是个可靠的人。/ I know him to be a liar. 我知道他是个好撒谎的人。/ I know him to have a keen eye for these things. 我知道他对这些事情很有眼光。如果是一时的状态，用这个结构就不大自然。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>*I know him to be ill. 我知道他病了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 但是，to know somebody 后面的搭配，如果不是动词不定式而是 to have + pp.，则这个动词就不局限在 to be 与 to have 这两个动词结构内，而且也不局限在经常的状态，甚至可以指一次的行动(第二、三、四类动词)或一时的状态(第一类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I know him to have been a very good chief. 我知道他曾经是个很好的领导。/ Everybody knows him to have been wrongly accused, and, in innocence, destroyed. 人人都知道他是被冤枉而且无辜被毁了的。/ We know them to have failed in business. 我们知道他们做生意失败了。/ I know him to have received an injury while shoeing a horse in the fall of 1863. 我知道他曾于 1863 年秋天给一匹马钉蹄铁时受了伤。/ I know him to have been born in 1931 in Chicago. 我知道他 1931 年生于芝加哥。</div><br><br>三种搭配：第一种是 know somebody/something to inf.；第二种是 know somebody/something as ...；第三种是 know that somebody/something is ...。三者的共同点是：虽然说的是“知晓某一客观情况”，但仍然带有一点主观看法的色彩。如果所知道的事不属于主观相信与否都是客观存在的事实，则第二种搭配就根本不能用 (<i>I know telephone calls as cheaper in France.)，第一种搭配用起来也不自然 (</i>I know telephone calls to be cheaper in France.)。只有第三种搭配是正确的 (I know that telephone calls are cheaper in France.)。反之，如果这个 know 带有一点主观印象的色彩，则三种都可以使用 (I know him to be honest.</div><div class="ex-item">I know him as honest.</div><div class="ex-item">I know that he is honest.)。telephone calls are cheaper in France.)。反之，如果这个 know 带有一点主观印象的色彩，则三种都可以使用 (I know him to be honest.</div><div class="ex-item">I know him as honest.</div><div class="ex-item">I know that he is honest.)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 另外，know 如果是过去时或现在完成时，作为“看到，得悉”的一个经验，就可以用 knew/have known somebody to inf. 的结构，而且后面这个不定式动词既可以是经常的状态，又可以是一时的状态甚至是暂时的一时的动作。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Did you ever know her to be unkind to any one? (Raymond Macdonald Alden, The Castle Under the Sea)你曾经发现她对谁凶过吗?</div><div class="ex-item">Ever since my son was born I have known him to be different. 自从我儿子出生以来，我就一直觉得他不寻常。/ However, I have known him to sit in his study with pencil in hand and paper before him, scarcely shifting his position for five or six hours. 但是，我就曾经知道他坐在书房里，手里拿着铅笔，面前摆着纸张，五六个钟头不改变一下姿势。/ I have known him to read forty-eight hours without stopping. 我就曾经知道他看书一看就是 48 小时不停。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> Did you know ...? 与 Do you know ...? 的区别是：Do you know ...? 是真正的提问，提问者真的想了解对方究竟知道不知道 (know 后面往往跟着 about 或是间接特殊疑问句)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Do you know what to do in case of fire? 你知道遇到火灾该怎么办吗?</div><div class="ex-item">Do you know when we should go there? 你知道咱们什么时候要到那边去吗? 而 Did you know ...? 可以说是个用来告诉对方某个新闻的开场白或幌子，后面往往是以 that 从句表示的现成答案 (常常是一些奇谈珍闻)。说 Do you know ...? 是单刀直入的，较少考虑对方的面子，而 Did you know ...? 则不好意思假定对方可能不知道，所以用过去时，暗示对方本来可能已经知道。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Did you know that the word "byte" is a contraction of "by eight" and "pixel" a contraction of "picture cell"? 你知道吗? byte 这个单词是 by eight 的缩略，pixel 是 picture cell 的缩略。/ Did you know? In North America, bats are the most endangered land mammal. 你知道吗? 在北美洲，蝙蝠是最濒临灭绝的陆地哺乳动物。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(9)</span> know better 有否定意义，意思是“心里知道不是这么一回事”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Although his female colleagues insisted the gray only accentuated his bookish appeal, Langdon knew better. (Dan Brown, The Da Vinci Code)尽管兰登的女同事们坚持认为灰色只会更加衬托出他的书呆子气质，但是他自己却心中有数。/ They think it's easy to be a woman, to be loved, but I know better. (Sherwood Anderson, Winesburg, Ohio)他们以为很容易当一个女人，被人爱，但我却对此心知肚明。如果认为某人对自己撒谎，就对这个人说 You know better. 意思就是“你自己心里知道不是这样的”。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(10)</span> know 后面还可以接上过去分词，表示“知道自己处于某种状态”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She knew offered good protection. (= She knew that she was being offered good protection. = She knew that someone was offering her good protection.)她知道人家给她提供了很周到的保护。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(11)</span> Don't I know it! 表面上是否定，其实是肯定，表示“我知道得一清二楚”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—You seem to be putting on a little weight. —Don't I know it! —你看来体重增加了些。—我哪会不知道! 体重增加了些。—我哪会不知道!</div><br><span class="seq">(12)</span> know 还可以在这个别搭配中表示“具有”(属第一类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His ambition knows no bounds. 他的野心永无止境。也可以表示“经历”(属第四类动词)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This area knows a shower only once every ten years. 这个地区每十年才有那么一场降雨。/ The country has never known an earthquake. 这个国家从未发生过地震。/ I have known both poverty and wealth. 穷困和富有我都经历过。/ She has known what it is like to be poor. 她尝过穷困的滋味。/ His uncle has known better days. 他的伯父现在潦倒了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(13)</span> know A from B 有“懂得 A 和 B 的区别”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The file wasn't terribly thick, though the truth is I wouldn't know a thick murder file from a thin one. (David Rosenfelt, Heart of a Killer)卷宗不太厚，虽然其实我也分不清楚厚的和薄的谋杀案卷宗。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(14)</span> I know. 是表示自己本来知道，不是现在被告知才知道的。如果被告知后表示“得悉”，口头可以简单地说 I see. 或者更进一步表示接受(或起码听进去)对方给予的信息，说 Oh, I see.
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knowledge
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>knowledge</b></div>不一定就是“知识”，Knowledge is power. (是培根某作品中一句拉丁文 Scientia potestas est 的英译)通常译成“知识即力量”(也是培根的原意)，鼓励人们去学习，去丰富自己的知识。但是其实 knowledge 不一定限于靠勤奋学习积累起来的知识，也可以指靠特殊地位或一时机遇获得的不公开信息的机会，此时 Knowledge is power. 就成了负面的“知内情则有权”(power 的意义也不一定是“力量”)。这个简单的例子告诉我们，对英语单词的意义不能简单化、一对一地理解，最好是“多长个心眼”。L l
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labor
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>labor</b></div>“劳方”，无任何冠词，与 management (“资方”，也无任何冠词)相对。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But labor was still holding its own. (Waverley Root, The Secret History of the War)但劳方仍然坚持。</div><br><br>
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lack
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>lack</b></div>作为动词，lack 基本的意思是“缺少，没有”，是个表示延续状态的第一类动词，但是搭配有些需要注意的地方。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> do not have (正式的英式英语是 have not)意思是一般笼统的“不拥有”；而及物动词 lack 则暗示“按正常情况本应拥有但却不拥有”。“不拥有”的主体(可以是人或事物)作主语，“没有被拥有”的事物(抽象或具体)作直接宾语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She lacks confidence. 她缺乏信心。/ He doesn't lack enthusiasm. 他不乏热情。/ Two out of five people lack a proper job. 五个人当中就有两个没有合适的工作。/ His music lacks depth. 他的音乐缺乏深度。/ They lack the necessary resources. 他们缺乏必要的资源。</div><br><br>但是 lack 作为及物动词时的直接宾语，通常只能是比较抽象的事物，如果是具体事物，特别是人，就不便当作直接宾语。此时英语有一个特别的结构来表示：lack not having (仍然是负面意义的“没有”，不是“负负得正”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The hotel room lacked not having a fridge. 旅馆房间里没有冰箱。/ ... but he bitterly lacked not having children to buy ponies and guns for. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman)……他可是膝下无子，买了骏马、猎枪卖给谁呢? 这里的 lack 可以看作是一个不及物动词，not having ... 作补充说明的状语。但有时候 lack not + -ing 的 lack 却是个及物动词，宾语在前面，not + -ing 仍然作补充说明的状语。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They felt that they needed to catch up on what they lacked not living in an English-speaking country. 他们觉得自己没生活在一个讲英语的国度是个缺陷，需要奋起直追来补救。由于 lack 是个表示延续状态的第一类动词，后面的 having 或其他动名词也必须是第一类动词。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作为不及物动词，lack 可以加上 for 或 in，相当于及物动词 lack (比较正式，也较少使用)，也是个表示延续状态的第一类动词，“不拥有”的主体作主语，“没有被拥有”的事物作直接宾语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They lack for nothing. 他们什么都不缺。/ She lacks in confidence about herself. 她对自己没有信心。/ Without the knowledge gained through a serious study of harmony and counter-point your conceptions will be pure guesswork and will lack in outline and definiteness. (Josef Hofmann, Piano Playing)如果没有通过认真学习和声学和对位法去获得知识，你的理解也只能是想当然，缺乏提纲挈领和明确性。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 但是，不及物动词 lack 如果采取 -ing 形式，就成为纯粹的形容词，此时有两种可能的搭配和用法：(a) lacking 所修饰或说明的对象仍然是那个“不拥有(某事物)”的主体，加上in 引入“没有被拥有”的事物(不特指，往往是抽象名词)作介词宾语，充当表语或是后置定语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My skin feels tight and lacking in moisture. 我的皮肤感觉太紧绷，缺乏滋润。/ But for a man who was so lacking in charisma and who inspired such animosity that his critics nicknamed him "Tricky Dick," he left behind solid achievements ... (U.S. News & World Report, Mar. 17, p. 28)但是，尽管他是个如此缺乏魅力的人，而且如此惹人反感，以至于批评他的人给他取了个外号，叫作“难对付的迪克”，他还是留下了一些踏踏实实的成绩……</div>(b) “没有被拥有”的事物成为主语，“不拥有”的主体可以出现(用介词引人，但特指)，也可以不出现。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The necessary resources are lacking. 缺乏必要的资源。/ Certain vital information is lacking in the report. 报告中缺乏某些至关重要的信息。/ A sense of responsibility is sadly lacking among the staff. 遗憾的是工作人员当中缺乏责任感。</div><br><br>
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lady
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>lady</b></div>除了泛指的“女士”之外，lady 在英国的贵族圈子里还有它的各种规范的用法。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 英国的爵士偕夫人一起，称为“Sir + 男方名 + and + Lady + 女方名 + 男方姓氏”。例如男方姓名为 James Galway，女方名字是 Jeanne，合在一起就是 Sir James and Lady Jeanne Galway。由于男方的姓氏放到了最后女方名字的后面，所以译成中文时要注意不要把这个姓氏弄成女方独有的(不宜译成“詹姆斯爵士和珍妮·加尔维夫人”)，而是先将男方的姓名和爵位交代清楚，再提及夫人的名字——詹姆斯·加尔维爵士及夫人珍妮(其实 Galway 是向前总揽 Sir James and Lady Jeanne 的)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 公爵(duke)和伯爵(marquess)的不继承爵位的其他儿子，也在姓名前加上 Lord 的头衔，而他们的妻子则取丈夫的名(不是自己的名)加丈夫的姓氏，前面再加上 Lady，例如 Lady John Smith。公爵和伯爵的女儿也称 Lady，但是用自己的名字再加上自己娘家的姓氏(例如 Lady Jane Smith)，这样一直保持到结婚。如果嫁给一个平民，就全部保存原有的称呼，不从丈夫姓氏。夫妇一起时，称 Mr. John and Lady Jane Smith。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 准男爵(baronet)和骑士(knight)的妻子，也有 Lady 的头衔，但由于爵位较低，Lady 后面只有丈夫的姓氏，不带女方本人的名字。和丈夫一起出现时，也只用丈夫的姓氏，例如 Sir John and Lady Smith。小说《傲慢与偏见》中的 Sir William and Lady Lucas，其中 Lucas 是男方姓氏(小说中说男方得到了骑士 knight 爵号)，整个应该译成“威廉·卢卡斯爵士和夫人”(不能译成“威廉爵士和卢卡斯夫人”，令人看不出是夫妻)。<br><br>
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lamb, goat 与 ram
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>lamb, goat 与 ram</b></div>中文山羊、绵羊、公羊、母羊、老羊、幼羊，都叫“羊”，英文却是分得很仔细的。lamb 是“小羊羔”，有“神圣；可爱”的意义。goat 则是公山羊，往往有“好色”的含义。ram 也是公山羊，有“好色；健壮”的含义。<br><br>
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landlord
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>landlord</b></div>不一定是“地主”，可以是“房东”。<br><br>
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landslide
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>landslide</b></div>原意是“山崩，塌方”，本来是灾难。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The 12-year-old boy was miraculously rescued after being buried in the landslide that hit his village. (Yonhap, Apr. 9, 2007)这个 12 岁的男孩，山崩袭击他的村庄时他被埋住了，但后来却奇迹般地被抢救了出来。</div><br><br>但是这个词的转义却是喜庆的，指选举中的压倒性胜利(当然也是对方“山崩”般的失败，但这个词一般是从胜利者的角度来使用的)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She won a landslide election in 1990 but was never allowed to take power. 她在 1990 年选举中获得了压倒性的胜利，但是一直没有被允许执政。</div><br><br>也有从失败者的角度来说 landslide 的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>McCain could easily lose in an electoral landslide. (Jim VandeHei and John F. Harris, in Politico, Aug. 30, 2008)麦凯恩可能很容易在一次一边倒的选举中落败。</div><br><br>landslide 还可以作为及物动词，仍然是从胜利者一方的角度说，表示“在……中取得压倒性的胜利”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We're sure to landslide the election. 我们肯定会在选举中大获全胜。</div><br><br>
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language
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>language</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 单数无冠词时泛指人类语言的整体，是不可数抽象名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Language is the immediate actuality of thought. 语言是思想的直接现实。特定的具体语言，如汉语、英语、日语等等，也叫 language，但却是可数名词：单数时，如果明确了是哪一种语言，前面要加上定冠词，不明确是哪一种语言，前面要加上不定冠词，如 the English language 与 a foreign language；复数时按是否特指而加定冠词或无冠词，如 the foreign languages 与 foreign languages。类似这种情况的名词还有 science、religion 等。</div><br><br>单数无冠词的 language，甚至可以暗示“语言不通的困难”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His travels taught him that language is no bar to friendship. 他周游列国，体会到了语言不通并不妨碍友谊。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 单数无冠词时还可以指同一种语言当中的“文笔，文风”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Some (of the channels of communication between serious writers and serious readers) have been clogged by unnecessarily obscure language. (Hugh MacLennan, "The Challenge to Prose," in Mémoire de la société royale du Canada, June 1955)(认真的作家和认真的读者之间交流的渠道)有一些被本来不必如此晦涩的文笔所堵塞住了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 特定的具体语言，如“英语”，必须说 the English language；如果去掉 language，同时也要去掉 the (也就是 in English = in the English language)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's translated from English (<i>the English) into Chinese (</i>the Chinese). 这是英译中的。但是要注意的是：翻译的文本如果是不明确的，没有 language 时 English 前不加 the；如果文本是明确的，没有 language 也要加 the。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Two poems (不明确), translated from (*the) Italian by Jennifer Scappetone. 两首由珍妮弗·斯卡佩通由意大利语译入的诗。/ Faust (《浮士德》，明确), translated from the German 《浮士德》由德语译入</div><div class="ex-item">the Magna Carta (《大宪章》，明确), translated from the Latin 《大宪章》由拉丁语译入。翻译书籍的版权页上常常可以看到：Translated from the ... by ... (由某某人自某某文译出)，这也是因为是哪一本书已经一清二楚。</div><br><br>但是一些“读者留言”之类的零星文字，不属于“作品”，虽然文本明确，翻译后说明时也不用 the。例如对于某些读者留言，标明 translated from Russian (*the Russian)。<br><br>至于 into，后面的语言名称如果是某一特定语言，如 English、French、German 之类，即使翻译的文本是明确的，也不能加 the；但如果不是某一指明的特定语言，则可以加 the (或 a)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>translated into German (*the German) 译成德语</div><div class="ex-item">translated into the local language 译成当地语言</div><div class="ex-item">translated into the following five languages 译成以下五种语言</div><div class="ex-item">translated into a special language 译成一种特别的语言。</div><br><br>
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last
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>last</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 既可以有“最后”的意义，也可以有否定的“最不”的意义(正面来说，是最后一个；反面来说，就是倒数的第一个，也就是“最不”了)。如何辨别呢? 如果涉及的事物是客观已经存在的或已经发生的，就是“最后”；而如果涉及的事物是尚未存在或尚未发生的，只是存在于人的主观愿望好恶或者主观估量之中的，就是“最不”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The last, it must be said, was a reasonable point. 最后一点应该说是有点道理。/ The last on the list was Potter. 名单上最后一个是波特。/ The last thing he wants is a public scandal. 他最不想发生的，就是一场公众丑闻。/ You are the last person I'd want to talk to about this. 你是我最不愿意谈这件事的人。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> last 前面有没有 the，意义有差别。没有 the，指的是日历上整个计算的时间单位，last week 是日历上的“上周”。如果说话时是星期五，last week 就是上星期日到上星期六(以星期日为一周起始的情况)。同样，last month、last year 也是这样按日历计算。有 the，指的是从前一天起向前倒数的时间长度(不顾日历)。如果说话时是星期五，the last week 就是上星期五起直到前一天(这个星期四)为止的一周长的时间段。<br><br>通常 last week、last month、last year 等前面不要加介词，但 the last week 等要加介词 for。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I've had a cold for the last week. I feel terrible. 我刚感冒了一个星期。现在难受得很。/ We've lived here for the last year, and we're very happy with the place. 我们在这里已经住了一整年，很喜欢这处地方。这个 last 也可以改用 past。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>for the past year and so 过去一年多当中。</div><br><br>但是，没有 the 的 last 指日历上按整个单位计算的前一个单位，是就单位“时间段”而言(一周、一个月、一年等等)。如果指的是某一时间点，则不受日历时间段单位的限制。例如在 4 月份说 last February，就不是去年 2 月，而是今年 2 月；last summer 就是去年夏天。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Last summer, the editors of Car and Driver conducted a comparison test of three sports cars, ... (Malcolm Gladwell, "The Order of Things," in The New Yorker, Feb. 14, 2011)去年夏天，《汽车与司机》杂志的编者们对三款跑车进行了比较测试，…… (3) 由于 last 有“最后”和“最近”两个不同词义，所以用起来要注意。例如谈到某个作家时，说 his last book，可能暗示他已经不在人世，这本书是他的绝笔之作，但是也可能指的是他最近的作品；谈到某份刊物时，说 its last issue，可能该刊物已经停刊，这是它的最末一期，但是也可能指的是该刊物的最近一期。所以如果是指最近的，最好还是说 his latest book 和 its latest issue。</div><br><br>last 如果有一个范围，例如 his 或 its，通常就有着“最近”和“最后”两种可能。如果不加以范围的限制，例如出现 the last 时，就往往由于没有范围而不可能有“最后一个”，所以多半是“前一个”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Security measures usually are designed for the last attack, not the next threat. 安保措施通常是为对付上一次袭击设计，而不是为对付下一次威胁设计的。/ Security tends to fight the last war—to be on the lookout for knives or guns used by the 9/11 hijackers, ... (Newsweek, Aug. 21-Aug. 28, 2006, p.49)安保机构倾向于照上一次战争的打法来打，就是注意检查“9·11”劫机犯们所用的那些小刀、枪支，……</div><br><br>如果某系列中的一件事物就是现在谈及的这件的前一件，则既然有了现在这一件，前一件就不可能是最后的，就可以大胆使用 last 了。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She thinks this new book is much better than her last one. 她觉得这本新书比她上一本好得多。/ He's enjoying his latest job. But it doesn't pay as much as his last one. 他很喜欢他最近的工作。不过这份差事的薪酬没有上一份多。</div><br><br>另外，年月日等日期名词，因为是无始无终的，不可能有“最后一个”，所以用 last 一定是“上一个”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>one of the biggest changes in our mental map of the universe in the last decade (Newsweek, Sept. 4, 2006, p. 48)最近十年间我们心中的宇宙图发生的最大变化之一。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> last 作“最后的”解时，前面通常要有定冠词 the，但是要注意以下几点例外情况。(a) 如果是强调“迫不得已的最后一招”而不是强调已知次序上的“最后一个”，last 前面可以不用 the 而用 a。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a last throw of the dice 孤注一掷</div><div class="ex-item">The procedure is invasive, however, and poses a risk for serious complications. Experts recommend this only as a last option. 但这个手术是侵入性的，有引发严重并发症的风险。专家们建议唯有万不得已才这样做。</div>(b) 如果意思不是“最后唯一的一个”，而是“最后若干个之一”，也用 a 而不用 the。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A Last Vestige of Civil Society Comes Under Attack (报纸标题)《公民社会的最后一点残留受到侵犯》。</div>(c) 如果意思是“临时增添的最后一个”，就不用 the，但也往往不用不定冠词 a，而用数词 one (带有“只增添这一个，到此为止”的口气)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He took one last look around the office and headed for the elevator. 他最后再环顾一下办公室，就径自往电梯走去。/ I beg you to see me one last time. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman)我请求最后跟您会面一次。</div><br><br>但是，如果不强调“到此为止，下不为例”，只是“临时增添的最后一个”，就仍然用 a 而不用 one。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She wanted to catch a last glimpse of her betrothedthrough the lace curtains ... (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman)她是想透过镂花窗帘再看一看未婚夫……</div><br><br>a last 是“临时增添的最后一个”，也就是说，这个排列次序是临时而非原来固有的。同样，系列中的任何一个，都可能是临时出现而非原来排定了位置的。因此，任何一个顺序数词，都不一定非带上定冠词 the 不可，而是可以带上不定冠词 a。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He moved around the table to get a second (*the second) look at the photos. 他绕着桌子转一圈，把那些照片再看一遍。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> last 不但是个形容词，还可以是个动词。有时候词性容易混淆，要注意区别。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Such a lengthy procedure was just the opening move in a process to last months. 这个冗长的手续，只不过是一个要持续数月的过程开头的一步。(这里的 last months 不是“最近几个月”；last 是动词，是“延续(多长时间)”的意思。)/ Make your money last. 让你的钱用得久一点。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> last 还可以是个名词，意思是“(某人或某事的)最后一次出现(以后就再也没有了)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>That was the last I saw of her. 我最后一次看见她就是那个样子。常常指的是不好的人物、言行或不良后果。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I hope that's the last we see of them. 我希望咱们今后也不会碰到他们。/ I'll never see the last of that! 这件事情我看还没完!</div><div class="ex-item">You haven't heard the last of this! 这件事情你等着吧，后面还有更不中听的呢!</div><div class="ex-item">I doubt that we've seen the last of that man. 我担心那个人会让我们后患无穷。/ ... I shan't be sorry to see the last of our mysterious passengers. (Sax Rohmer, The Quest of the Sacred Slipper)……我真担心咱们老是会没完没了遇到这些神秘的旅客。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 此外，last 还可以是个副词，表示“最末一次”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>When did you last see him? 你最后一次见他是什么时候?</div>
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last year 与 in the past year
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>last year 与 in the past year</b></div>last year 是日历上的“去年”，与之相搭配的谓语动词要用一般过去时。in the past year 则是迄今为止的 12 个月(可能跨两个自然年)。参见(in the) past year 与 last year 条。<br><br>
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late
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>late</b></div>可以是形容词或副词。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为形容词，充当表语，主语是人，后面接上 for + 某事或 to inf. 或 in + -ing (动词是第四类动词)，表示主语做某事为时已晚，此时后面的某事或动词起着事实上的谓语的作用，而前面的 be late 则起着事实上的状语的作用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I was ten minutes late for my appointment. 我赴约晚了十分钟。</div><br><br>比如两个人约会，甲按时赴约到达，但是乙迟迟未到。如果乙最后还是到了，事后说 he was late，这个 was late 就是表示一个“总结”(“他来晚了，有了结果”)。如果不是事后总结归纳，而是事后描述甲当时苦苦等候的情况(不知乙怎么样子了，来还是不来)，说 he was late，意思就是“他迟迟不来，结果未明”，此时 was late 就是一个无限延续状态。两者中文译文是很不一样的。如何区别，要取决于上下文和语境。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 如果是自己本来该做的事晚做了，late 后面用介词 with 加上有关名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You are always late with the rent. 你交房租总是超期。/ You're rather late with your apologies. 你道歉已经迟了不少。/ He was late with lunch today. 他今天中饭吃晚了。(自己晚吃了)</div><div class="ex-item">He was late for lunch today. 他今天吃中饭来晚了。(可能让别人久等了)</div><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> late in the day 不是字面上的“一天当中晚些时候”，而是以下两个相反的意思：(a)为时已晚。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's a little late in the day to start talking about policy changes. 现在才开始谈论改变政策，有点太晚了。(b)最后赶上，起了作用。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was the pensioners' vote late in the day which influenced the election of Mr. Simmons. 是领养老金者的投票，最后一刻促成了西蒙斯先生的当选。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 作为形容词，可以充当前置定语，修饰一个表示行动或事件的名词，说明这个行动或事件发生过晚。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I apologize for my late arrival. 很抱歉，我来晚了。/ We had a late lunch. 我们午饭吃晚了。/ Late applications will not be accepted. 过期申请，概不受理。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 也可以作前置定语修饰一个表示时期的名词，将这个时期缩短到它的末期。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This happened in late September. 这件事发生在九月底。(注意：英语中这个表达很简洁，说 in late September 就不用说 *at the end of September 了，下同。)/ The house was built in the late eighties. 房子是 80 年代末期盖的。/ He was in his late thirties. 他年近 40 岁。/ He wrote the book in late 1993. 他写这本书是在 1993 年年底。/ We'll go there late this month. 我们本月底到那边去。</div><br><br>late 后面如果是一天当中的早、午、晚，则 late 可以作为副词，前面不用介词，后面用介词 in，成为 late in the morning, late in the afternoon, late in the evening; late 也可以作为形容词，说 in the late morning, in the late afternoon, in the late evening。如果 late 后面不是日历时间单位，而是延续某一时间段的状态或是以某状态为标志的时间段，则 late 也作为副词，前面不能加任何介词，后面的名词前面放介词 in (这个用法，也适用于 early)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>late in pregnancy 怀孕后期</div><div class="ex-item">late in human evolution 人类进化后期</div><div class="ex-item">late in his school years 在他学生时代的后期。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 作前置定语修饰一个表示人的名词(即使是专有名词，late 前面也必须有定冠词或其他表示特指的限定词)，意思是“已故的(特别是去世不久的)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the late President Reagan 已故的里根总统</div><div class="ex-item">your late husband 你已故的丈夫。</div><br><br>但是，late 的这个用法，也引起了一些争论，主要围绕着以下两个问题：(a) 去世了多久的人用 the late ××? 年代很久远的，肯定不能用，例如不能说 *the late Confucius。但是刚刚去世的，由于人们对他的去世记忆犹新，也不能用。那么，究竟去世多久的人，可以用 the late ×× 来称呼? 就时间的上限来说，有人主张 50 年，有人主张 30 年，有人主张 10 年到 15 年。就所涉及的人而言，通常是有点名气的(或亲友之间熟悉的)，但是既然是有名气或是熟悉的，是否已经去世，似乎已广为人知或彼此心照不宣，不必再说 the late ××。因此，对于时间上限，只能见仁见智。对于所涉及的人，也只能看该人的去世造成的信息效应是否已经过去(人们刚刚开始记不清该人已经去世)。(b) the late 究竟是从说话时的角度说的，还是从当时的角度说的?<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Thebill was signed by the late President Johnson. 法案是已故的约翰逊总统签署的。有人就批评这不合情理。“已故”的总统，是个死人，怎么能签署法案? 经过争论，已经大体上达到一致，认为 the late 相当于 the now dead，也就是说，是从现在说话时的角度而不是当时的角度说的，所以这个句子是站得住的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 但是 late 也可以作为副词，“名正言顺”地起状语作用，而不是像(1)中那样以表语形式起实际上的状语作用，仍然是表示比通常的时间晚。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'll be home late today. 我今天要晚晚回家。/ The shops close late. 商店晚关门。/ He married late. 他结婚很晚。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> lately 也是副词，但是意义完全不同，指的是“近来，不久以前”，位置可以放在句末或是谓语动词词组之中，动词采取现在完成时或过去完成时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I haven't been to the theatre much lately. 我近来很少上剧院看戏了。/ I have lately received a number of letters about this. 关于这件事，我近来收到了好些来信。动词也可以采取一般过去时，表示不久之前某一时间点发生的事。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He lately moved into a new apartment. 他不久前搬进了一处新的公寓。</div><br><br>而且，lately 还可以指新近开始到现在还在继续的习惯行为，动词可以用一般现在时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He used to visit Chicago every two or three months, but lately he goes there about once a week. 以往他通常两三个月到芝加哥一趟，但是最近他差不多一个星期去一趟。</div><br><br>
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launder
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>launder</b></div>无论作为及物还是不及物动词，launder 只限于洗涤衣物(不及物动词可以以衣物为主语)；转义可以表示“洗钱”，即将非法所得的钱转换成为合法的。wash 则可以用于洗涤衣物，也可以用于洗涤身体各部位。《法国中尉的女人》第 49 章谈到查尔斯洗澡时说：Some fifteen minutes later you might have seen Charles stark naked and engaged in an unaccustomed occupation: that of laundering. (约莫十五分钟以后，你可能看到查尔斯裸着身子，忙着做一件他从来没有做过的事情：洗衣服。)他是个阔少爷，从来不自己洗衣服，这里用 laundering 而不用 washing，就是突出说明了他不光是自己洗身子，而且在洗澡的同时破例自己洗衣服。<br><br>
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law
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>law</b></div>这个名词的意义和用法都比较复杂。在其他几乎所有的主要欧洲语言中，“法律”都有两个词源完全不同的单词来表示，而且两者之间的词源和用法区别在这些语言之间惊人地一致，其中，毫无例外都使用相当于英文 right (“权利；右边；正确”)的一个词，同 law 相对。唯独英语是个例外，right 没有能够获得“法律”的含义，而只停留在“权利”上，表示“法律”的只有一个 law (这一点同中文只有“法律”这个单一的词相似)，词义和用法上的区别，往往要借助冠词来表示。作为一般概念的“法律”或是“法学”，英文就用无冠词的 law。如果要说“法律体系”如“罗马法”或是体系的分支如“国际法”，就在无冠词的 law 前加上形容词，如 Roman law 与 international law。一部部的具体法律，就按照具体情况加上定冠词或不定冠词。<br><br>其他欧洲语言中的“法律”，无论用两个名词中的哪一个，几乎都离不开冠词，唯独英文却巧妙地利用有无冠词，是定冠词还是不定冠词，使得单单一个 law 就能囊括丰富的词义内涵。(类似的情况，还可以参见 language 条。)
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lawful, legal 与 legitimate
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>lawful, legal 与 legitimate</b></div>lawful 不但是“符合法律的”，而且是“合情合理的，应该拥有一切有关权利的”，带有一种理直气壮、伸张权利的含义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>lawful heir 合法继承人</div><div class="ex-item">lawful wife 合法妻子</div><div class="ex-item">lawful act 合法行为</div><div class="ex-item">lawful age 法定年龄(例如可以有行为能力，可以结婚，可以驾驶)。</div><br><br>legal 则是法律意义上的“合法”，更多侧重符合法律规定，多少有点“冷冰冰”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Gambling is legal in some states. 在某些州，赌博是合法的。(尽管不道德，它是合法的，你也拿它没办法；这里不宜用 lawful。)</div>legitimate 本来主要指子女是合法婚生的，但扩大的意义泛指“拥有一切有关权利的”，但不带有 lawful 的那种理直气壮的语气。例如某国的政府是经过正式手续当选执政的，是合法政府(legitimate government)，但很少说 lawful government，更少说 legal government。另外，legitimate 还可以用于与法律关系不大的事情上。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A lie may be considered legitimate if a patient's restoration to health depends on it. 如果使病人恢复健康要对他说谎，那么说谎可以算作是合情合理的。</div><br><br>
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lay 与 lie
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>lay 与 lie</b></div>这是两个根本不同的动词，但是有些变化形式相同，容易混淆。主要容易混淆的就是 lie 的过去式 lay 与 lay 的动词原形相同。见下表(箭头表示容易混淆)：| 动词原形 | lay | lie || :--- | :--- | :--- || 过去式 | laid | -> lay || 过去分词 | laid | lain |此外，还要注意，lay 是及物动词，lie 则是不及物动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Leghorns lay large eggs. 莱亨鸡下的蛋大。/ Andrew lay in the hammock all afternoon. 安德鲁一下午都躺在吊床上。/ lay low 采取低姿态，不招摇。</div><br><br>lie 如果是指“说谎”，就是规则动词：lie, lied, lied。<br><br>
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learn
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>learn</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 可以有“学习”(延续过程，第二类动词)与“学会”(完成结果，第三类动词)的不同意义，往往取决于动词时态和上下文。<br><br>如果采取进行式，指的就是过程(进行式在第二类动词当然是指尚无结果的过程，即使在第三类动词也抹掉了结果，只取其延续过程)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm learning how to play chess. 我在学下棋。</div><br><br>如果采取一般过去时或现在完成时，指的就是结果。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I learned a lot as a college student. 我念大学时学会了许多东西。</div><br><br>但是如果是一般将来时或祈使语气，就两种意义都有可能，往往取决于上下文和语境，有时意义还介于两者之间。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>An old dog will learn no new tricks. 老狗学不会新本领。(“学会”而不是“学习”)</div><div class="ex-item">Never too late to learn. 活到老，学到老。（“学习”和“学会”的意义都可以）</div>否定的 learn，通常表示“学不会”，而不是“不去学”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... and you don't learn that sitting in this office. (U.S. News & World Report, May 12, 2008, p. 8) ……这是你坐在办公室里学不会的。</div><br><br>learn + -ing 通常指学习的过程而不是“学会”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She goes to college twice a week to learn typing. 她每周两次到学校去学打字。</div><br><br>learn to inf. 则大多指“学会”而不是学习的过程。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She learned to read German at school, but she learned to speak it in Germany. 她阅读德语是在学校里学会的，但讲德语是在德国学会的。/ Learn to walk before you run. 未学跑，先要学走。（“学会”的结果意义较大）/ By doing nothing we learn to do ill. 懒散生邪恶。（“学会”的结果意义较大）</div>而凡是 try to learn、begin to learn、start learning，当中的 learn 都是指延续的学习过程。凡是有 in + 时间段的，则一定是指“学会”这个结果 (learn 在此是第三类动词)；而如果是 for + 时间段，则一定是指“学习”这个过程 (learn 在此是第二类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He learned skiing/to ski in two weeks. 他花两周学会了滑雪。（本来 learn skiing 是个学习过程，但有了 in two weeks 表明了过程达到了结果。）/ He learned skiing/to ski for two weeks. 他学了两个星期的滑雪。(for two weeks 表明过程不一定达到本身应有的结果。)</div>被动语气也通常是指“学会”这个结果。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is claimed that using this technique this basic vocabulary can be learned in just 10 days. 据称，用这种技巧，这些基本生词 10 天就可以学会。</div><br><br>learn 前面有 can 或表示可能性的词语时，也指结果。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Any dog or horse can learn to associate one sound with one meaning. 任何一只狗或一匹马，都可以学会把一个声音同一个意义联系起来。(learn 是“学会”，不是“学习”。)</div><div class="ex-item">Chimpanzees can learn to order their symbols to get what they want. 黑猩猩能够学会把它们的符号排列起来，取得自己所需。/ It is impossible to learn everything by heart. 样样都记住是办不到的。(learn by heart 是表示结果上的“记住”，再加上 everything，更明确了 learn 是指结果。)</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> learn 作“获悉，得悉”(= get to know) 解时，就是瞬间动词，表示结果。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Click here to learn more. 请点击此处进一步了解。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 受法文 (apprendre = learn/teach) 影响，英语国家也有些人以 learn 代替 teach 使用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>That will learn you a lesson. 那件事会给你一个教训。这是不足为训的，尽管甚至一些有名的作家也这样用。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... having learned (= taught) him English so well that he could answer me. (Daniel Defoe, Robinson Crusoe) ……教他英语学得很好，所以他已经能够回应我了。</div><br><br>
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lease
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>lease</b></div>参见 rent 与 lease 条。<br><br>
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least
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>least</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为副词，虽然是最高级，但不用 the。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The poor farmers who benefitleast from the narcotics business are the target of the anti-drug campaign. (Newsweek, Jan. 9, 2006, p. 34) 那些从麻醉品行业中获利最少的贫苦种植者，却是反毒品斗争的目标。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作为代词，the least 没有 the last ... 的那种否定意义，反而是肯定的“最低限度”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Providing that opportunity is the least the federal government can and should do for debt-burdened college students. 提供那个机会，是联邦政府起码能够而且应该该为债务沉重的大学生们做的一件事。</div><br><br>
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least of all
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>least of all</b></div>参见 most of all 条。<br><br>
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leave
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>leave</b></div>这个及物动词往往相当于中文的“使得”（此时就完全失去“离开”的意义）。这样的用法，直接宾语后面有几种不同的搭配：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 后面加 to inf.，此时 leave 和后面的 to inf. 可能有时间差。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He left his secretary to make all the arrangements. 他让他的秘书去安排一切。/ We are left to wonder whether human beings are born evil or just pushed down the road to immorality due to environmental factors. 这使得我们要弄清楚，究竟人生下来就是邪恶的呢，还是只不过后来由于环境因素才被推到不仁不义的境地。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 后面加 -ing，此时 leave 和后面的 -ing 同时发生，或者 -ing 是延续的状态，由于 leave 而开始产生，leave 之后仍然延续。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Searing heat blasts through this desert city every summer, leaving its thousands of homeless residents searching for shelter from the torrid temperatures. 灼热的气流，每年都横扫这个沙漠城市，使得数以千计无家可归的居民到处寻找躲避炎热气温的避难所。/ Our time together always left me wondering about what he had been like before the dementia set in. (Newsweek, Nov. 21, 2005, p. 24) 我们在一起的时间，总是使我心生琢磨，他患上痴呆症之前，是什么样子的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 后面加形容词或动词的过去分词，此时 leave 是造成后面那种状态的原因，这种状态与 leave 同时开始，可能在 leave 之后仍然延续。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Writing this way might well leave the reader intolerably ill at ease. 这样的写法，会使得读者感到非常不舒服。/ ... programs (= FDR's New Deal and LBJ's Great Society) that by the late 1970s had left the U.S. economy caught in a stagflationary trap. (U.S. News & World Report, Apr. 21, 2008, p. 46) ……这些措施（即罗斯福的新政和约翰逊的大社会）到了 20 世纪 70 年代后期，已经使得美国经济陷入了滞涨的困境。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 后面加名词，表示“使之成为……”，此时 leave 是使宾语事物变为该名词事物的原因，变化后的结果可能在 leave 之后仍然延续。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My father always told me that the reason we were put on this earth was ... to leave it a better place than when we came into it. (Sidney Sheldon, The Stars Shine Down, p. 193) 我父亲经常告诉我，我们被送到这个人间来，其目的……就是离开时让这个人间比我们来时好一些。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 后面加 with 或 without 短语，此时 leave 是使宾语事物处于 with ... 或 without ... 状态的原因，但这种状态可能在 leave 之后仍然延续。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A rare earlyOctober snowstorm left parts of the Great Lakes and Midwest blanketed with 2 feet of snow Friday morning, ... The snow downed scores of tree limbs and toppled power lines, leaving more than 220,000 customers without electricity in western New York. (The Associated Press, Oct. 13, 2006) 一场罕见的十月早期暴风雪，使得五大湖区和中西部在星期五早上盖上了两英尺的雪，……大雪压倒了许多树干，压翻了电线杆，使得纽约州西部超过 22 万的用户停电。</div><br><br>主动语态时，通常是瞬间动作。被动语态时则可以是瞬间动作，也可以是延续状态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The reader is left with the impression that ... 读者于是得到一个印象，似乎……</div><div class="ex-item">One may be left with the suspicion the author is not all there. 人们可能产生疑问，是不是作者有点置身事外。/ You have until close of business today to repay the $50 million, otherwise I will be left with no choice but to place the matter in the hands of our legal department. 阁下务必在本日结账之前偿还该 5,000 万美元，否则到时敝人别无他策，只能将该事项移交敝处法律部门处理。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 后面加其他介词短语，此时 leave 是使宾语事物处于该介词短语所示状态的原因，这种状态可能在 leave 之后仍然延续。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The wording of the editorial leaves the reader in a fog as to what the author meant to say. 社论的措辞，使得读者对于作者究竟要说什么，如堕五里雾中。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 后面加上多种不同的成分。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A chance encounter between two teenage boys with a previous grudge Monday night left one dead and the other in jail. 两个先前闹过别扭的少年，星期一夜里偶然相遇，发生打斗，结果一个身亡，一个入狱。</div><br><br>值得注意的是：leave 后面的直接宾语可能很长，结构很复杂，因而在后面的宾语补足语同 leave 相隔很远，此时要注意呼应关系，不要断线。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The slayings left people of this once-peaceful mountain town and the university at its heart praying for the victims and struggling to find order in a tragedy of such unspeakable horror it defies reason. (The Associated Press, Apr. 17, 2007) 经过这次残杀事件，这个曾经一度宁静的山城和它中心的大学的人们只好为遇难者祈祷，设法在这场毫无理智且难以形容的可怖悲剧中平静下来。</div><br><br>
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left
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>left</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> left 本来是 leave 的过去分词，但又与形容词 left (“左边的”) 同形。说英语的人对这个分别本来是十分清楚的，但有时也拿这个相关意义来说风趣的话。参见 right 条。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 遇到 have left、had left (left 是动词 leave 的过去分词) 时，要弄清楚 have 究竟是完成时态的助动词，还是表示“有”的实义动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>All she had left of her mother's years on earth was a collection of old photographs and clippings. 她母亲在世时留给她的，只有一批旧照片和剪报。（这里的 had 是实义动词，不是助动词；left of 指“从……剩下来的”。）/ He could still do work in the time he had left. 他还可以利用剩下来的时间来进行工作。/ I lost such patience as I had left. 我本来还剩的一点耐心也失去了。判断的办法，是从事理来看究竟谁可以 leave 什么。第一句中，she 不可能是 leave 的主语。第二句中，he 也不可能是 leave 的主语。第三句中，such 和 as 是呼应关系，as 是关系代词，had left 如果是“我原来留下来的”，“我”就不可能把它“失去”，所以这个 had 不是助动词，而是实义动词。如果 left 前面不是 have 而是 there is 之类，就更加可以确定 left of 是“从……剩下来的”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She had seen all there was left of hope in her life. 她一生仅仅剩下的一点希望，她已经看到了。（参见 's 条）</div>但是如果不是 there 而是别的单词加上 's，则这个 's 既可能是 has 也可能是 is 的省略形式。如何分辨，要看后面有没有直接宾语，有，则 's 就是 has；没有，则 's 就是 is。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>All that's left are massive, empty niches in the sandstone cliffside. (The Associated Press, June 8, 2008) 剩下来的，只有砂石峭壁上巨大而空空如也的神龛。（这里 left 后面没有直接宾语，所以 's 是 is。）</div>
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legacy
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>legacy</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 原意是物质意义的“遗产”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Her father left her a legacy of $50,000. 她父亲留给了她五万美元的遗产。/ The money is a legacy from my aunt. 这笔钱是我姑姑留下的遗产。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 也可以是一般意义上“留下来的东西”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The cupboard is a legacy from the previous tenant. 柜子是先前房客留下来的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 也可以指抽象的事物，如“遗风，影响”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a program to overcome the legacy of inequality and injustice created by apartheid 一个对种族隔离所造成的不平等与不公正影响加以克服的方案。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 也可以指某件事的后果。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He had a false leg, a legacy of Dunkirk. 他有一条腿是假的，那是敦刻尔克大撤退留下的后果。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 人们常常会谈论美国历任总统的 legacy，也就是任内留下的政绩。可以是良好的政绩。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's FDR's legacy for senior citizens. 罗斯福遗福老人的政绩。也可以是不好的“流毒”。如美国语言学家乔姆斯基 2004 年 6 月 7 日对 Democracy Now! 节目发表猛烈抨击前总统里根的话，标题就是 Reagan's Legacy。</div><br><br>
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legal
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>legal</b></div>参见 lawful, legal 与 legitimate 条。<br><br>
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legion
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>legion</b></div>作表语，可以表示“很多”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The problems are legion. 问题成堆。/ The number of diseases linked to known genes is legion. (U.S. News & World Report, Dec. 2, 2002, p. 61) 同已知基因有关的疾病，数目大得很。</div><br><br>
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legitimate
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>legitimate</b></div>参见 lawful, legal 与 legitimate 条。<br><br>
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lend
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>lend</b></div>参见 rent 与 lease 条。<br><br>
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lengthy
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>lengthy</b></div>是形容词 long 的同义词，但是与 long 不同的是：(1) 多用于形容文章、演说、谈话、讨论的时间长度；(2) 有时候带有“过于冗长”的负面意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... the lengthy and histrionic discussions such television may invite ... (The New York Times Magazine, Sept. 12, 1954) ……这种电视可能引起的冗长而又戏剧性的辩论……</div><br><br>但是 lengthy 也往往用于其他事物，而且有时候只是表示占用时间长，没有“过于冗长”的贬义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a lengthy trip 长途旅行</div><div class="ex-item">a lengthy delay 长时间耽搁</div><div class="ex-item">a lengthy holiday 长假。</div><br><br>
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less
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>less</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 在一个否定句及逗号之后，even less、much less、still less 不是“更少，少得多”，而是“更不”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm not blaming anyone, much less you. 我不是责怪谁，更不是责怪你。/ The cloud of treason hanging over him was enough to guarantee that no one ever trusted, much less listened to him ever again. 悬在他头上的背叛乌云，已足以确保谁也不会再信任他，更不会再听他的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> no less 表示“同样”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The book is no less helpful. 那本书也同样有帮助。/ Lack of economic security is no less a threat than terrorism. 缺乏经济上的安全，其威胁不下于恐怖主义。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> no less 放在句末或句中，有表示惊讶的“竟然”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He won the Nobel prize, no less! 他竟然得到了诺贝尔奖！/ She married a millionaire, no less! 她居然嫁给了一个百万富翁！</div><br><br>放在句中时，后面要有 than。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has invited no less a person than the President himself. 他居然邀请了总统本人。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> no less 作为代词，表示“不折不扣的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The American people deserve no less from our leaders today. 美国人民今天有权要求他们的领导人不折不扣地做到上述要求。/ My readers expect no less. 我的读者们在等着看好东西呢。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> less than 放在形容词前面，有略微减弱的否定意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... and several of the Republican candidates seem less than eager to hire them as advisers. (Newsweek, Oct. 15, 2007, p. 36) ……好几个共和党候选人看来并不那么急于聘用他们来当顾问。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 表示“多一个”是“one more + 名词”；“少一个”是“one less + 名词”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Your daughter could become one less life affected by cervical cancer. 您的女儿可以成为又一个生活不受宫颈癌影响的人。/ One Less Car 少一辆汽车（美国马里兰州一个专门提倡骑自行车和步行的群众组织的名字）/ Well, this was one less submarine, twenty-six less missiles, and one hundred eighty-two less warheads. ... but like most of the people who thought about the subject, he wished for a better way. (Tom Clancy, The Cardinal of the Kremlin) 好了，少了 1 艘潜艇，少了 26 枚导弹，还少了 182 颗弹头。……不过他同多半想到这件事的人一样，还是觉得不这样干更好些。</div><br><br>但是如果着重点不在数目本身，或是数目只有比喻意义，也可以把名词放在 one 和 less 之间。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>One man less would be one soldier less. (Emile Zola, Germinal) 少了一个男人就等于少了一个士兵。/ If we have only one man less suffering from hunger, it is already a result. 我们只要做到少一个人挨饿，就已经算是取得成绩了。（参见 more' 条）</div><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> less (与 more 相反)，同 cannot/could not 或 never 一起出现时，往往表示强烈的否定：“不可能(比这个)更小”亦即“不可能(比这个)更不”，或者“从未(比这个)更小”亦即“从未(比这个)更不”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Most people could not care less about global warming. 大多数人根本不在意全球变暖。/ He had never felt less free. And he had never felt less sleepy. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 他从来没有觉得像现在这样不自由。他从来没有觉得如此不想入睡。</div><br><br>但是，couldn't care less 的 not，自 20 世纪 60 年代起在美式英语中有时省去，成为 could care less，但意义仍然是“根本不在乎”。这个 not 在英式英语中则仍然保留。<br><br>
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less 与 fewer
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>less 与 fewer</b></div>本来 less 是专管不可数名词的 little 的比较级，fewer 是专管可数名词的 few 的比较级。按理，less 只能用于不可数名词，可数名词应该同 fewer 一起，例如 less sugar、less time、fewer people、fewer ships、fewer houses 等等。但是在实际语言中，fewer 已经越来越少用，多被 less 所代替，例如 less people、less seats 等等，已经约定俗成(但说 fewer people 仍多于说 less people)。尤其是有些复数名词，其实是不可数的集合名词，用 fewer 反而别扭，不如用 less 更符合人们的心理。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... Goldsmith took less pains than Pope ... to create images of luxury in the reader's mind. (John Butt, The Mid-Eighteenth Century) ……哥德斯密没有像蒲柏那样使劲……去在读者的心目中创造出奢华的形象。(fewer pains 反面不自然)</div><div class="ex-item">The less sodium you consume, the less drugs you're likely to need. (Jane E. Brody, in The New York Times, Oct. 29, 1979) 摄入的钠越少，需要服的药就越少。(less drugs 是药物的总量减少，fewer drugs 是药物种类的数目减少。)</div><div class="ex-item">... Americans pay less taxes than most of the inhabitants of developed countries. (Robert Lekachman, in Center Magazine, January-February 1970) ……美国人缴的税，比大多数发达国家居民要少。(less taxes 是税的金额较少，fewer taxes 是税目种类较少。)</div>但是即使是集合名词，由于语法规定的习惯影响，许多人仍然用 fewer 而不用 less，尤其如果说不清楚究竟是总量更少还是品种数目更少之时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Grose chose Tencel because its manufacture produces fewer pollutants than traditional rayon. (Popular Science, December 1993, p. 13) 格罗斯选中了天丝，是因为制造天丝产生的污染物比传统的人造丝少。（这里说不清是种类数目较少还是总量较少）</div>
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let
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>let</b></div>有使役意义，参见 have' 条、get 条、make 条。<br><br>
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let
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>let</b></div>要注意 let 的过去式和过去分词仍然是 let，因此出现 let 时要判明它是什么功用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A detainee let go last year has gone back to being a terrorist. 去年释放的一个扣留者，又回去当了恐怖分子。（这里的 let 就是个过去分词）</div>
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let alone
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>let alone</b></div>中文的“更不用说”，英文可以有几种表达方式：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 前面肯定了，后面再进一步肯定，可以说 even more so、still more、much more (much 没有加强语气的作用)、most of all，尽管形式上仍然是副词短语，但实际上已经起着连词的作用。但是后两者较少这样用作连词短语，前两者则用得较多。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This is something that will be enjoyed by younger audiences, but even moreso with older audiences. 这是年轻观众会欣赏的，但是老年观众更会欣赏。/ This strategy makes a great deal of sense, even more so when considered from a long-term perspective. 这种战略是很能起作用的，如果从长远的角度来看，作用就更大。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 前面否定了，后面进一步否定，可以说 still less、much less (much 也没有加强语气的作用)、least of all，也是作为连词短语。通常后面接的是一个名词成分或状语成分，甚至可以是谓语动词成分。如果是个句子，要主谓颠倒。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is far from my thought to cast a veil over these misdeeds, which are such as to make the conscience of mankind shudder with horror for ever; still less will I endeavour to minimise the degree of guilt of the actors in the great drama. (British Prime Minister David Lloyd George) 这些恶行，足以使得人类的良知永远为之震惊发抖，我绝不打算拿一块面纱加以掩盖；对于这场大规模惨剧的操作者，我更不会设法减轻他们的罪责。(后接句子，倒装)</div><div class="ex-item">I cannot go far in my analysis without drawing on interpretations that have not yet been adequately published, still less widely discussed or rigorously criticized and evaluated. 我要进一步进行分析，就无法不引用一些尚未正式发表、更未经过广泛讨论或严格批判与评价的解读。(后接动词过去分词)</div><div class="ex-item">The cloud of treason hanging over him was enough to guarantee that no one ever trusted, much less listened to him ever again. 悬在他头上的背叛乌云，已足以保证谁也不会再信任他，更不会再听他的。(后接谓语动词)</div><div class="ex-item">I'm not blaming anyone, much less you. 我不是指责任何人，更不是指责你。(后接作宾语的代词)</div><div class="ex-item">Such large questions are never easy to approach, much less to answer, ... (Ian P. Watt, The Rise of the Novel) 这样的大问题，从来都是不容易面对的，要回答更是不容易，……</div><br><br>前面不是明确的否定，只是疑问反诘或“准否定”，这个用法同样适用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>When our headlights flashed, the deer barely blinked, much less/still less moved. 我们的车前灯亮时，那只鹿眼睛都不眨一下，更别说动一下了。(后接谓语动词)</div><div class="ex-item">In American memory President Coolidge is, to put it mildly, hardly an object of pride or admiration, still less of veneration. 在美国人的记忆中，柯立芝总统，说得客气点，很难使人以他为荣或是对他感到钦佩，更难以使人崇敬他。(后接作定语的介词词组)</div><div class="ex-item">Under what circumstances does the CEO owe the employee anything, least of all an explanation for his actions? 身为首席执行官，哪能欠区区一个雇员什么东西，更何况是就自己的行动要对他说明理由？</div><br><br>但是，要注意，所谓前面有否定，是对整个前面句子的否定，如果前面只有一个否定作用限于本身的单词而没有否定全句的否定词，则仍然要当作“前面肯定了，后面进一步肯定”处理。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is impossible to finish this work in a week, even more so in two days. 这个活儿，一个星期是做不完的，更别说两天了。这是因为 impossible 更进一步是 more impossible 而不是 less impossible (其实 impossible 本身就不容许有比较级，这里只是就行文语气而言)。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 不分“前面肯定了，后面进一步肯定”或是“前面否定了，后面进一步否定”，都可以用 let alone。<br><br>用于进一步肯定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was folly to have thought of going in the first place, let alone staying. (Kate Chopin, The Awakening and Selected Short Stories) 本来想到要去，就已经够愚蠢的了，更何况要留在那里。/ He knows every cabbage stump in th' gardens, let alone th' people. (Frances Hodgson Burnett, The Secret Garden) 他对菜园里的每一个白菜茬都熟悉，更别说人了。/ He will, sir, for the hatred and malice that he bears to you; let alone the pleasure of doing a bad action, which to him is its own reward. (Charles Dickens, Barnaby Rudge) 先生，他会这样做的，因为他恨您，对您抱有恶意；更何况他又以干坏事为乐，坏事对于他，本身就是一种奖赏。</div><br><br>但是，从上面用于进一步肯定的例句来看，let alone 总是带有“从高往低处说”的“降级”意义，而不是“更上一层楼”那个意义上的进一步肯定。因此，也有人主张 let alone 仍然应该列入“负面极性项”的范畴。<br><br>用于进一步否定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I wouldn't go out with him, let alone marry him. 我不会跟他一起出去，更不会嫁给他。/ She's too good and holy for any man, let alone me. (George Eliot, Adam Bede) 她太美好，太神圣了，哪个男人都配不上她，更别说我了。/ The human animal is a strange spectacle to behold, let alone comprehend. (Mr. and Mrs. Julius Haldeman, Dust) 人类这种动物，是一种不容易观察，更不容易理解的奇景。</div><br><br>有时候进一步否定也可以用 never mind 代替 let alone。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I can't find one, never mind several. 我连一个都找不到，别说好几个了。</div><br><br>有时候前面的一个否定只是准否定，但也可以用 let alone 来表示进一步的否定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Little attention was paid to it, and 10 years passed before the existence, let alone the exact functions of these receptors, non-committally named alpha and beta, was recognized. 人们不怎么注意这件事情，这些不明不白地叫作 α 与 β 的接收器，经过了 10 年之后，其存在才被承认，至于其准确的功用，那就更不那么容易被承认了。(before 同否定有密切的语义关系)</div><div class="ex-item">On what the boss pays us, we are lucky to be able (= we are lucky if we are able) to keep body and soul together, let alone feed a family. 靠老板付给我们的工钱，我们能自己糊口就算运气的了，哪还谈得上养家。这里的 are lucky to be able to 带有“能如何如何就算运气，不一定能做到”的准否定语气。(关于 we are lucky to be able = we are lucky if we are able，参见 lucky 条。)</div>要注意的是，这个 let alone 已经逐渐成了一个比 not 更进一步否定的副词短语，甚至可以放在谓语动词词组之内。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Country A still has not signed a peace treaty with country B, let alone established full diplomatic relations. A 国尚未同 B 国签订和约，更没有建立正式的外交关系。/ I've not even read the first chapter, let alone finished the book. 第一章我还没有看，更谈不上看完整本书了。/ No one had even heard of Pat Weaver, let alone seen him. 没有谁听说过帕特·韦维尔，更没有见过他。</div><br><br>
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let's
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>let's</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> let's 的否定形式，最正式的是 do not let us；比较正式的是 let us not 和 let's not。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Do not let us forget those who came before use. 我们不要忘记那些走在我们前面的人。/ Let us not despair. 咱们别丧气。/ Let's not count on it. 咱们别靠这个。(Don't let's count on it. 是不正式的用法。)</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> let's 与 let us 两者究竟有没有区别，有的话区别又在哪里，这个问题众说纷纭。有人认为前者不包括对方，后者包括对方；有人则相反，认为前者包括对方，后者不包括对方。但看来至少说 let's 不包括对方的看法不大符合语言实际；而相反地，let us 倒更有可能不包括对方。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Hey, Mom, let's go to the movies tonight. 哎，妈妈，咱们今晚一起去看电影吧。(妈妈也在内)</div><div class="ex-item">Hey, Mom, let us go to the movies tonight. 哎，妈妈，今晚让我们去看电影吧。(妈妈很可能不在内)</div><div class="ex-item">Let us send you the next issue of our magazine absolutely free. 请允许我们免费给您送上本刊的下一期。(“您”当然不包括在内) 也有许多词典认为意义上没有区别，只是 let's 是不正式的，let us 是正式的。例如 Let us pray. 是教堂里牧师或神甫叫大家一起祈祷，比较庄重，所以不宜说 Let's pray. 但是在一般场合建议大家一起做某事时，还是多用 let's。</div><br><br>
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level
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>level</b></div>blood level of cholesterol 是“血液中的胆固醇含量”，这里的 blood 作为 level 的前置定语，相当于 in the blood。也可以说 blood cholesterol level，意义相同。同样，urine level of cadmium 是“尿液中的镉含量”，相当于 urine cadmium level。如果进一步交代它的数值，可以在后面加上 of ...；此时为了避免两个 of，最好不用 urine level of cadmium 而用 urine cadmium level。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>urine cadmium level of 5μg/L 每升 5 微克的尿液含镉量。</div><br><br>
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liability
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>liability</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 来自 liable，也有与 liable 相称的几个含义。但复数 liabilities 通常指经济上承担的义务、负债。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They were unable to meet their liabilities. 他们无法偿还债务。中文近年来有“负资产”这个名词，在英文中就是 liability 或 liabilities。也可以应用于非金融的日常生活语言中。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... a lack of experience in the nation's capital may not be a liability. (The Associated Press, Jan. 16, 2007) ……缺乏在首都工作的经验，也许并不是一个缺陷。/ He is more of a liability than an asset. 有了他，成事不足，败事有余。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 参见 responsibility, liability 与 accountability 条。<br><br>
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liable
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>liable</b></div>有几个不同方面的含义和用法。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 如果主语是人，后面是 for something，是“对某负面的事(如债务或犯罪)负有责任”或“对某件事负有义务”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was held liable for his wife's debts. 他被认为应该对他妻子的债务负责任。/ You'll be liable for damages. 你将要负责赔偿之责。/ Offenders are liable to a fine. 违反者得罚款。/ You're not liable for military service. 你没有服兵役的义务。如果主语是事物，后面是 for/to something，则是“属于应该(或可以)……的范围”的意思。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This document is liable to alteration without notice. 本文件可以更改，不须事先通知。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 与 likely 相近，表示“很可能如何”。但是 likely 可以指很可能发生的正面和负面的事，liable 则偏向于负面。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A boy is liable to get run over if he darts out from between parked cars. 男孩子如果从停着的车子之间冲出去，就很可能被汽车压了。/ If you don't remind him, he's liable to forget. 你不提醒他，他多半会忘掉。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 主语是人，表语 liable 后面有“to + 某种疾病”，表示某人容易犯这种病。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He is liable to headaches. 他常犯头痛。也可以指非肉体的毛病。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He is liable to fits of temper. 他爱发脾气。/ Everybody is liable to error. 人人都会犯错误。</div><br><br>主语也可以不是人而是物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The earlier model is liable to overheat. 以前的那个型号容易过热。</div><br><br>
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libel 与 slander
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>libel 与 slander</b></div>两者都是“诽谤”。但在法律上，libel 是通过文字、图画、印刷品等进行的诽谤；slander 则是口头的诽谤。<br><br>
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lie
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>lie</b></div>这个不及物动词应该与及物动词 lay 相区别。问题出在 lie (“躺下，躺着”) 的过去式是 lay (过去分词是 lain)，同 lay 原形重合 (lay 的过去式和过去分词都是 laid)，所以容易混淆。(lie 如果作“说谎”解，则属规则动词，过去式和过去分词都是 lied。)
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life
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>life</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 可以相当于中文两个不同的含义：一是“生命”，二是“生活”。这里的“生活”指的是广义的“人生”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>lead a happy life 过幸福的生活。</div><br><br>如果指的是物质上的“生计”则常用 livelihood 或 living。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Never get so busy making a living that you forget to make a life. (格言) 别因为为生计奔波而忘记了要过生活。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> life 前面加上形容词，如果形容词指的是客观的类型、范畴，则 life 仍然是属于概括意义的“生活”，不加任何冠词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I think I would enjoy city life. 我觉得我会享受城市生活。但是如果形容词指的是主观的评价、内涵、性质，则 life 成了一种独特的价值，就要加上不定冠词 a。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She had a hard life. 她的生活很艰苦。/ They led a happy life. 他们过着幸福的生活。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 无论是“生命”还是“生活”，如果涉及的人是复数的，life 尽管是抽象名词，仍常用复数 lives。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My mother's parents lived interesting lives. 我的外祖父母生活过得很有乐趣。/ This one policy can add years and years and years to the lives of a very large number of young people. 单单这一项政策，就能延长众多年轻人许多许多许多年的寿命。/ If your children learn to self-learn these subjects, they will continue to do so throughout their lives and, in so doing, will be able to improve their own lives and the lives of those around them. 如果你的孩子学会了自学这些科目，他们今后一辈子都会继续这样做，这一来，他们就能够改善自己的生活和自己周围人们的生活。/ Many people lost their lives (*life) at sea. 许多人丧生海上。与此类似的有 mind、death、birth 甚至 upbringing。但是，如果谈的是“共同生活”，就用单数。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The couple led a quiet life. 这对夫妇生活安宁。另外，如果先说笼统的“生活”，然后再谈及复数的人，这个“生活”也用单数 life。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Life is probably harder for women. 生活对于妇女来说很可能更为艰辛。带数词的 lives 往往容易使人觉得一定是指“生命”，但是要根据上下文来判别，有时候也可能不是“生命”而是“生活”，例如 2007 年 1 月纽约有两个大学生发生争执，白人大学生用刀子捅伤了黑人大学生，结果是两人今后的生活都大受影响，黑人大学生长期带伤，白人大学生被开除学籍并判刑。报纸的标题是 An Explosion of Hatred Rocks Two Lives (仇恨的爆发，打乱了两个人的一生)，这里 two lives 显然不是指“两条人命”。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 有时候，为了强调这是宝贵的“生命”，而不是一般的“生活”，可以加上 very。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Reputation is the very life of a company. 信誉是公司的生命。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> life 不带冠词，可以指“一生的长度”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>healthy for life 一辈子都健康 (不是“为了生命”)。在法律上可以指“无期徒刑”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He got life for manslaughter. 他因为杀人罪被判无期徒刑。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> for the life of 后面如果是个名词，意义是“为了某人的生活或生命”或“关于某人的生平的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>ancient evidence for the life of Jesus 有关耶稣生平事迹的古代证据</div><div class="ex-item">You don't have to design for the life of others. 你用不着去设计别人的生活。/ The doctors were fighting for the life of the child. 医生们在努力为拯救那个孩子的生命而奋战。</div><br><br>但是如果后面是个代词 (而且人称同主语一致)，意思就是“无论如何都不”(句子是否定的)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Now, let these people go on piling up their money so fast that for the life of them (*for their life) they don't know what to do with it. 那么，就让这些人快快地把他们的钱堆积起来，快到连他们自己都不知道拿这些钱来怎么办。/ And I can't for the life of me think why he has taken such a dislike to me. (John Darnton, The Darwin Conspiracy) 我无论如何也无法明白他为何这样不喜欢我。</div><br><br>有时候 for the life of me 也可以用于带有否定意义的反问句 (此时 me 可以同主语不一致)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>For the life of me could anyone please explain why such an excellent show should be cancelled? 难道有谁能够劳驾给我解释一下，为什么这样好的表演节目要取消？</div><br><br>
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light
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>light</b></div>作为名词，基本词义是“亮光”；作为形容词，基本词义是“轻的”。两个词义，隔着词类，似乎是“老死不相往来”的。但是作为形容词，有时候也有“光亮的”之意。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It gets light very early these days. 这些日子天亮得早。/ It's already light. 天已经亮了。/ White paint makes a room lighter. 房间粉刷了白漆就显得亮堂些。</div><br><br>如果作另一个名词的前置定语，要注意是作为形容词还是作为名词。如果作为名词，当然只有“光”一个意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>light energy 光能</div><div class="ex-item">light wave 光波</div><div class="ex-item">light particle 光粒子</div><div class="ex-item">light pen 光笔</div><div class="ex-item">light meter 曝光表</div><div class="ex-item">light bulb 灯泡</div><div class="ex-item">light house 灯塔</div><div class="ex-item">light ship 灯塔船。但是如果作为形容词，则可能有“明亮的”或“轻的”两个不同的意义。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a light, spacious apartment 一处明亮宽敞的公寓</div><div class="ex-item">light vehicle 轻型车辆</div><div class="ex-item">light industry 轻工业</div><div class="ex-item">light summer clothes 轻便的夏季衣服。</div><br><br>
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lighted 与 lit
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>lighted 与 lit</b></div>两者都是动词 light 的过去式和过去分词。lit 比 lighted 用得多些。作为接近形容词的过去分词时，使用哪一个，往往根据习惯，没有什么规律，有时用哪一个都可以。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She lit/lighted the candles. 她把蜡烛点着。/ My uncle lit/lighted his pipe. 我叔父点着了他的烟斗。有时又只能用一个而不能用另一个。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The hallway was dimly lighted. 过道的亮光很暗淡。/ They entered a well-lit vestibule. 他们走进了一个灯火辉煌的门厅。/ The star's dressing room was well lighted, but unfortunately the stage was poorly lit. 明星的更衣室灯火通明，但可惜舞台上灯光暗淡。</div><br><br>
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lightning
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>lightning</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> “闪电”，是个不可数名词。一道闪电不可以说 *a lightning，要说 a flash of lightning 或 a bolt of lightning。一道闪电光是 a streak of lightning。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 同音词 lightening (比 lightning 多一个 e) 来自自动词 lighten (又来自形容词 light)，原意是“变轻”，用于医学上是“孕腹轻松(产前数星期子宫下降所致的感觉)”。<br><br>
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-like
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>-like</b></div>是个很有用的后缀。善于利用，可以节省很多笔墨。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>his hamlike arms 他那双像火腿一样通红的胳膊</div><div class="ex-item">his oxlike eyes 他那双公牛似的眼睛。</div><br><br>
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likely
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>likely</b></div>可以是形容词，也可以是副词。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为形容词，表示“很有可能的”，likely 可以放在名词前作定语，也可以放在系动词后作表语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She is a likely choice. 她很有可能被选中。/ I prepared for the most likely questions. 我对一些很可能问到的问题准备了答案。表示某事很有可能发生，最简单的句型，就是以表示该事的名词为主语，以 likely 为表语。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Rain is likely. 可能下雨。如果该事不能用简单一个名词表示，而需要用一个句子表示，则 likely 可以在两种不同的句型中使用。一种是比较符合逻辑的句型，即以 likely 评论全句内容：It is likely that ...。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's more than likely that she's out. 很可能她不在。另一种更常用的句型，则有点离开逻辑，即以 likely 用作这个句子的表语，形式上评论的是这个句子的主语，原来的谓语动词改为动词不定式，即：X is likely to inf.。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She is more than likely to be out. 很可能她不在。/ It is likely to be a tough match. 这场比赛很可能是场硬仗。/ They're not very likely to agree. 他们不大可能同意。此时即使主语其实是个虚构的实体，也可以用 likely 来评论。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is likely to rain. 可能下雨。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作为副词，likely 的意义也是“很有可能”，但较少单独使用，而往往是有 most、quite、rather、very 等表示程度的副词同时使用，位置很灵活，可以放在句首、主语后谓语前、谓语动词词组内部，实际上都是对全句内容的评论。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Most likely she'll forget. 她很可能会忘掉。/ I will most likely go to school tomorrow. 我很可能明天就上学去。/ As likely as not it'll be closed. 它很可能已经关了门。但偶尔也有 likely 单独用的。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He likely would have said no. 他本来不大可能答应。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> (as) likely as not 与 more likely than not 都是惯用状语词组，意思都是“非常可能，十之八九”。前者多用于口语，后者多用于书面。<br><br>
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likely 与 liable
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>likely 与 liable</b></div>参见 liable 条。<br><br>
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like no other
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>like no other</b></div>相当于 better than any other。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... he spoke the language like no other officer in the regiment. (Frederick Forsyth, The Fist of God) ……在一团人当中，他讲这种语言讲得最好。</div><br><br>
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like²
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>like²</b></div>在 How did you like our party last night? 中，like 不是“喜欢”，而是“观感，得到印象，评价”。这一句不能译成“你是如何喜欢我们昨晚的聚会的？”，应该译为“你觉得我们昨晚的聚会怎么样？”。<br><br>
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like³
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>like³</b></div>这个单词作为动词，表示“喜欢”；作为介词，则没有“喜欢”的意义，而是表示“类似，像”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's what you like, not what you are like that matters. 重要是你喜欢什么，不是你是个什么样子。</div><br><br>但是，在 feel like 词组中：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 主语是人，feel like 后面是动名词或者表示动作的名词，此时 like 又恢复了“喜欢”(但不是动词) 的意义，表示“想要，喜欢”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Whenever I felt like talking they were ready to listen. 每当我想说话话，他们总是愿意听我讲。/ I feel like a stroll ... I feel like a drink ... 我想要散步……我想要喝两杯……</div><div class="ex-item">I don't feel like eating any more. 我一点也不想再吃了。要注意的是：feel like 不一定是“对……有好感”，也可以是“看中”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Officials could deploy such punishment against anyone they felt like. 官员们看上了谁，就可以对谁施加这样的惩罚。</div><br><br>feel like 通常只是指一时的喜爱，不是长久固定的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He told her that ifshe felt like reading, she could take any book she liked from his collection. 他告诉她，如果她想阅读，可以拿他的任何一本书。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 主语是人，feel like 后面是指人或者比拟人的名词，此时 like 又没有“喜欢”的意思，feel like 表示“感觉自己像是”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We all feel like orphans this evening. 今天晚上我们大家全都感到自己是孤儿。/ He felt like a paleontologist coming face to face with a living dinosaur. 他感到自己仿佛是一个古生物学家面对面遇到了一头活生生的恐龙。/ In the first years of AIDS, I imagine we felt like the folks on the rooftops during Katrina, waiting for help. 在艾滋病最初几年，我觉得我们像是卡特里娜飓风期间躲到屋顶上的人们那样，等待救援。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 主语是人，feel like 后面是整句 (通常无 that)，表示“感到似乎如何”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I don't feel like we're strangers. 我感到咱们不是陌生人。/ I felt like I was voting. 当时我感到自己仿佛在投票。/ She felt like she had entered a colossal sanatorium. 她感到自己仿佛进入了一所巨大的疗养院。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 主语不是人，表示某事使人仿佛感到如何如何，或是表示某物给人的感觉像是什么。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Some chapters feel like rehash. 有些章节看起来像是炒冷饭。/ It would feel like cheating. (Newsweek, Sept. 4, 2006, p. 50) 这会显得有点像骗人。/ This reminded him of what it felt like to return to his parents' house after his father's burial ten years before. 这使他不禁想起，他父亲下葬十年之后，重新回到父母的故居的那种滋味。</div><br><br>
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like¹
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>like¹</b></div>作为及物动词 (第一类动词)，表示“喜欢”，like 必须有直接宾语，这个宾语可以是个名词或代词，也可以是个动名词，也可以是动词不定式。<br><br>作为第一类动词，表示没有变化的静态，like 原则上不可以有进行时态。但是如果表示程度有增加或减少的变化，可以有进行时态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Langdon was liking this idea less and less. (Dan Brown, The Da Vinci Code) 兰登对这个主意感到越来越不喜欢。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 直接宾语绝不可以缺位。中文是可以甚至必须缺位的，所以特别要注意。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—How do you feel about the concert? —I like it (*I like). —您觉得这次音乐会怎么样？—我很喜欢。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 加强 like 的状语是 very much，必须两个词一起出现。位置或在“like + 宾语”之前，或在其后，但不能插在 like 与宾语之间。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I very much like Peking duck. (= I like Peking duck very much.) 我很喜欢北京烤鸭。如果表示“更加喜欢”，much 不能变为 more，而应该改用 better。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 直接宾语可以是动名词，也可以是动词不定式。两者往往可以互换，但有时也有细微的差别。<br><br>用动名词，更多表示认为某事很有乐趣而且常常这样做 (用动词不定式也可以)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I really like walking/to walk in the woods. 我真的很喜欢在树林里散步。/ Children always like listening/to listen to stories. 孩子总是喜欢听故事。但是如果讲的是过去具体的一次经历，就一定要用动名词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I really liked walking with him in the woods last Saturday. 我上星期六同他一起在林子里散步真的很愉快。</div><br><br>用动词不定式，较为着重表示一种选择或习惯。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I like to do the shopping early on Saturday mornings. 我喜欢每星期六清早上街购物。/ When I'm pouring tea I like to put the milk in first. 每当我沏茶时总是喜欢先放牛奶。</div><br><br>但是，表示当前的一次邀请时，要说 Would you like to inf.? like 后面要用动词不定式，不能用动名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Would you like to dance (*dancing)? 请您跳舞可以吗？否定时 (not like to inf.) 不表示习惯而表示具体的一次选择。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I didn't like to disturb you. 我当时不想打扰你。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 提出邀请性质的提问，要用助动词 would，不能用 do。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Would (<i>Do) you like some coffee? 您喝点咖啡好吗？更不能说 </i>Do you want ...? 对于这类提问，否定的回答不能照抄问句 (<i>No, I wouldn't like ...)，要仿照 Do you want ...? 的问句，说 No, I don't want ... 如果问 Do you like ...? 就不是特定的一次邀请，而是问对方惯常喜不喜欢某物或某事。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Do you like playing tennis? 您喜欢打网球吗？Would you like ...? 主要意思是“邀请”而不是问“是否喜欢”，因此直接宾语如果是名词，前面不用 any 而用 some，尽管句子采取疑问句形式。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Would you like some (</i>any) coffee? 您来点咖啡好吗？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> like 的反义词 dislike，参见 dislike 条。<br><br>
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like⁴
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>like⁴</b></div>作为介词，like 还可以引入“名词 + to inf.”，表示该名词所指的人或物按其本性将要做动词不定式所指的行动。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It would be just like Olsen to leave everything to him. (Mary Higgins Clark, Where Are You Now?) 看样子，奥尔森是要把全部财产都留给他的。</div><br><br>
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like⁵
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>like⁵</b></div>作为名词，有三种意义和用法：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 经常用复数形式，表示所爱好的事物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We all have different likes and dislikes. 我们大家都有不同的好恶。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 经常用单数形式，如 and the like 表示“以及与此类似的东西”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>jazz, rock and the like 爵士乐、摇滚乐之类。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 常用复数形式 (但偶尔也有不加 -s 的，仍作复数处理)，the like(s) of (注意：不能说 <i>his likes 或 </i>my likes，要说 the likes of him 或 the likes of me)，表示与接在后面的人或物相类似的另一些人或物 (但是中文有时简化为同一物)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We haven't seen the likes of Muhammad Ali since he retired. 自从穆罕默德·阿里退役之后，我们就看不到像他那样的人了。/ technological advances the like of which the world had previously only dreamed of 一座以往世界只能梦想的科技进展</div><div class="ex-item">We are dealing with an epidemic the likes of which we have never seen in this century. 我们现在所对付的是本世纪当中我们连类似的也从未见过的一种流行病。</div><br><br>
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like⁶
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>like⁶</b></div>like 还可以充当副词，意思是“相当于”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>With that, life returned to something like normal. (Daniel Silva, Portrait of a Spy) 这一来，生活又恢复得差不多正常了。</div><br><br>
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like 与 as
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>like 与 as</b></div>两者的使用区别，比较复杂，有时相当混乱。这个问题早已经引起不少学者的注意，研究的成果十分丰富，这里只零星举出一些值得注意的情况。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 很重要的一个区别是“真的是”和“像是”的区别。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He worked as (<i>like) a waiter for two years. 他干了两年的招待员。/ Please don't use that knife as (</i>like) a screwdriver. 这把刀子请不要当作螺丝刀使用。/ A crocodile starts life as (<i>like) an egg. 鳄鱼的生命开始于卵。试比较：As your brother, I must warn you to be careful. 作为你的哥哥，我必须警告你要小心。/ Like your brother, I must warn you to be careful. 我必须像你的哥哥一样警告你要小心。但是如果前后文 (尤其是动词) 已经明确指出了并非“真的是”，习惯上反而要用 as 而不用 like。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She disguised herself as (</i>like) a boy. 她假装成男孩。/ Upon a closer look, authorities realized the “student” trying to take the exam was a male masquerading as (*like) a girl. 负责人员再仔细一看，原来那个企图应考的“学生”，是个假装成女孩子的男子。</div><br><br>在比较老的英文中，尤其是在主语补足语或宾语补足语中，往往省略掉 as 或 like。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But he who reigns (as) Monarch in Heav'n (John Milton, Paradise Lost) 但是那位在天上统治着的君王</div><div class="ex-item">Nero reigns (like) a Titus, if he will. (Alexander Pope, Essay on Man) 尼禄如果想的话，就会像另一个提图斯那样统治。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> like 在美式英语中常常可以用来代替 as if 或 as though (从句中不用虚拟语气而用直陈语气)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Like that matters. 仿佛那一点有多么重要似的。/ He talks to me like I was his dog. 他把我当成他的狗那样对我说话。</div><br><br>有时后面接的不是句子而是名词成分加上动词现在分词，也表示“仿佛”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was like Nero offering a brilliant water-and-sewage plan for Rome in the midst of the fire. (Time, May 24, 2004, p. 25) 正如尼禄在大火烧罗马城之际提出了一个出色的供水排水方案那样滑稽。/ But it doesn't seem like he has anyplace else to go. 但是看来他似乎没有别的地方可去。</div><br><br>
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limited
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>limited</b></div>有“不多”的否定意义，即使作定语放在名词前面，也不是“虽然有限，但仍然有”，而是“虽然有一点，但很有限”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They have a limited grasp of what really goes on in the admissions process. 他们对于招生过程真正是如何进行的并不十分了解。（不是“有一定的了解”）</div>
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lips, mouth 与 tongue
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>lips, mouth 与 tongue</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> lips 专门集中在说话的功能上。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>loose-lipped third parties 嘴不严的第三者</div><div class="ex-item">button/button up one's lips 守口如瓶</div><div class="ex-item">hang on the lips of somebody/somebody's lips 注意倾听某人说的话</div><div class="ex-item">on every lip/everyone's lips 成了街谈巷议的话题</div><div class="ex-item">My lips are sealed. 这件事情我一定不对任何人说。/ Rest assured that no word has passed or shall pass my lips. (John Fowles, <i>The French Lieutenant's Woman</i>) 请放心，此事我谁也没告诉过，而且永远也不会告诉任何人。/ Read my lips. No new taxes. (1988年美国总统大选中老布什的一句竞选名言) 请听清楚了。我绝不设立新税目。 (2) mouth 的两大功能——吃东西和说话，在英语中都有表现。</div><br><br>表示吃东西的功能。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>talk with one's mouth full 边吃边说</div><div class="ex-item">another (hungry) mouth to feed 又多一张嘴需要吃饭</div><div class="ex-item">make one's mouth water 使某人垂涎欲滴</div><div class="ex-item">live from hand to mouth 勉强糊口度日。</div><br><br>表示说话的功能。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>be/have a big mouth 爱多嘴</div><div class="ex-item">open one's mouth 开口说话</div><div class="ex-item">shut your mouth 闭上你的嘴</div><div class="ex-item">by/through word of mouth 通过口头相传</div><div class="ex-item">give mouth to one's grievance 诉苦</div><div class="ex-item">watch your mouth 说话规矩点。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 同中文的“舌”一样，英文的 tongue 同“说话”的关系也极为密切，甚至可以作为 language 的同义词，例如 mother tongue (母语)。不过 tongue 更主要是指语言的运用和表达，lips 则更多偏重有话说出来或不说出来以及言谈的传播。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She had a sharp and hurtful tongue. 她言词尖酸，出口伤人。/ Loose tongues cost lives. 多嘴害人命。</div><br><br>
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list
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>list</b></div>make a list of Xs 和 make list of Xs，只差一个不定冠词 a，意义就大不相同。前者是“列出各个 X 的名单”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Make a list of things to buy. 要买什么东西，列一张单子。/ Make a list of all the possible sources in which you think you can find that information. 凡是你认为有可能找到这种信息的来源，你都一一列出清单。后者是“自己跻身于 Xs 之列(亦即自己也是一个 X)”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Harry Potter books make list of top 50 children's books. 哈利·波特系列小说名列最流行的 50 种儿童图书之列。/ Will (New York governor) Spitzer make list of politicians who survive scandal? (<i>The Christian Science Monitor</i>, Mar. 12, 2008) (纽约州州长) 史皮策能名列那些经得起丑闻的政客之中吗？</div><br><br>如果 list 是已知的一个特定名单 (有 the)，则 make the ... list of Xs 是“榜上有名”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Wild salmon and albacore tuna also make the EDF's list of most eco-friendly fish. (<i>Whole Foods Market</i>, Spring 2010 issue, p. 8) 野生三文鱼和长鳍金枪鱼也名列“环境保护基金会”的对生态最友好的鱼种名单之中。</div><br><br>有时候一个名单的称呼已经家喻户晓，list 一词可以省略，光是 make 就表示“跻身于……之列”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Who Make the Fortune 500? (标题) 名列“财富 500 强”的是谁？</div><br><br>
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listen
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>listen</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> listen to 与 hear 的区别，参见 hear 与 listen to 条。注意 hear 是及物动词，后面直接接上宾语；listen 必须有 to 才可以接上宾语。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 在祈使句中，listen 用于比较不庄重的场合。如果是庄重的场合或是抒情的场合，多用 hark。例如莎士比亚的一首诗就取名为《听，听，云雀！》(<i>Hark, Hark, the Lark!</i>)。又例如一首基督教的赞美诗开头就是：Hark the herald angels sing, glory to the new-born king! (听啊，天使纵声唱，荣誉归于新生王！) 与此相似的，有代替 look 的 behold。<br><br>
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literature
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>literature</b></div>literature 作“文学”解时通常不带冠词，即使是前面加上形容词或充当定语的名词也不带冠词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>modern literature 现代文学</div><div class="ex-item">scar literature 伤痕文学。</div><br><br>如果在没有前文提及的情况下出现 the literature，则是指某专业已发表的文献。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This paper addresses the claim made in the literature that ... 本文所针对的，是本学科文献中的一个说法，说的是……</div><br><br>
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litter
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>litter</b></div>这个及物动词的搭配有点特别。它的直接宾语 (也是被动句的主语)，可以是乱丢各处的杂物或垃圾，也可以是上面到处有杂物或垃圾的地方或表面。前一种搭配的例子相对少一点。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There were books littered all over the room. 满屋子到处乱丢着书。后一种搭配则更为多见。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The boy has littered his room with toys. 这个男孩子的房间里乱丢着许多玩具。(主语是人，杂物用 with 引入)</div><div class="ex-item">Clothing littered the floor. 地板上乱丢着衣服。(主语是杂物)</div><div class="ex-item">The roof of the main building was littered with over five hundred antennas. 主楼屋顶上架满了 500 多根天线。/ Mistakes littered the text. 错误连篇。/ History is littered with such examples. 历史上这种例子屡见不鲜。</div><br><br>
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little
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>little</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> little 作为形容词或副词，都没有正常的比较级和最高级的形式。如何表现“更加”和“最”？用如下办法：(a) little 表示人的年龄或个子小时，或是表示物件体积小时，可以有比较级 littler 或最高级 littlest。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The rural teacher left the older students with a quiz inside and took the littlest ones outdoors to practice their multiplication tables using a concrete wall as a chalkboard. 乡村教师把大一些的学生留在室内做测验题，把最小的学生带到室外，利用一块水泥板当黑板，练习乘法表。</div>(b) 如果 little 表示不可数名词的“少量”而不是可数名词个体的“小”，或是作为副词表示程度之低，比较级就是 less，最高级就是 least。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A shower uses less water than a bath. 淋浴比盆浴省水。/ The least pressure would suffice to crack the tube. 只要一点点压力，就足以把管子压破。/ They came out when I least expected it. 我最没有料到的时候他们出来了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 要注意判别 little 究竟是用于可数名词，表示“体积小，个子小”，还是用于不可数名词，表示“不多，没多少”；a little 究竟是表示“一个小型 的”，还是“一点点”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Little heavy machinery was available, so families frantically searching for loved ones used crow bars and their bare hands to lift heavy chunks of concrete. 没有多少重型机械，所以那些拼命寻找亲人的人就使用铁锹和双手去掀起那些沉重的混凝土块。(这里的 little 是否定意义的“没多少”，不是“小型的”。)</div><div class="ex-item">It's good to inject a little play into our daily activities. 往我们的日常活动中加进一点点玩耍，是有好处的。(这里的 play 是不可数名词，a little 是肯定意义的“有一点点”。)</div>有时候 little 后面的名词是单数还是复数，会影响到 little 究竟是肯定意义还是否定意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Little victories in curbing health care costs can add up. In truth, theyseem little only next to the titanic $2.6 trillion Americans spend a year on health care. (Froma Harrop, "Hospitals Should Be Avoided or Routine Care," in <i>The Daily Gazette</i>, June 19, 2013, A7) 一些抑制医疗费用的小胜利，是靠得住的。其实，看来很少，那只是同美国人一年花在医疗上的 26,000 亿美元相比而言的。(这里的 little victories 是正面的“一些小小的胜利”)</div><div class="ex-item">It was an evening that Charles would normally have enjoyed; not least perhaps because the doctor permitted himself little freedoms of language and fact in some of his tales. (John Fowles, <i>The French Lieutenant's Woman</i>) 一般说来，这样的晚上查尔斯本应该兴高采烈，因为医生在讲故事时没有像以前那么古板，语言的运用和情节的叙述都稍许随便了些。(这里 freedoms 用了复数，表示它在这里是作为一个可数名词，而 little 唯有在不可数名词前面才有否定意义，在这里就没有否定意义，而只是表示肯定意义的“一些小小的自由”。) 当然，freedom 也可以是个不可数名词，如果以单数形式出现，little freedom 就是否定的“没有多少自由”了。单复数形式之差，就产生了相反的肯定和否定的意义。</div><br><br>有一些名词，可能是可数的，也可能是不可数的，此时用 a little 可能会产生歧义。例如 a little room 可能是“一个小房间”，也可能是“一点空地”，要看上下文。例如某慈善团体，名称就叫作 Leave a Little Room，这里的 room 就不是“房间”，而是“空间”，因而 a little 就是“有一些”而不是“一间小小的”。但是在下面的例句中，a little room 却是“一个小小 的房间”：The boy saw that there was a little room near the door, so he went in and sat down to wait. (男孩子看见，门旁有一个小小的房间，于是他就进去，坐下等候。)家喻户晓的英文儿歌 "Mary Had a Little Lamb"，这里的 lamb 是可数名词，a little lamb 是一头小绵羊。但是有人开玩笑在后面添加了一些字，成了 Mary had a little lamb, some rice and vegetables，这一来，lamb 就成了不可数名词“羊肉”，a little 的意义也从“一头幼小的”变成不可数“一点”，就连 had 的意思也从延续状态的“占有着”变成瞬时动作的“吃了”。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> little 也可以作为带有否定色彩的副词，接近于 scarcely 与 hardly。要注意不要误以为是形容词 (“小的”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Could a little known nerve be a key to desire? 一个不太熟悉的神经，会是引起欲望的关键吗？(little 是副词，修饰 known 起否定作用，不是修饰 nerve 的形容词“小的”，不能把 a little 连在一起以为是肯定意义。) 如果作为否定全句的副词，放在句首，主谓要颠倒次序。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Little need I dwell upon the joy of the reunion. 那次团聚的欢乐，我大概用不着多形容了。/ Little did I know when I embarked on this quest where it would lead me. 我着手进行这项探索的时候，对于后来会发展成什么样子，是不大清楚的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 但是如果 little 前面有 a，则排除了否定色彩，变为语气微弱的肯定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was, however, a little disappointing. 但是这有点令人失望。不过，如果 a little 前面又加上否定词 not，成为 not a little (后面是动词过去分词或形容词)，并不产生“否定 + 肯定 = 否定”，而是稍带强调语气的肯定 (“相当如何，十分如何”)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We are not a little outraged by the utterly unjustifiable decision of the committee. 对于委员会根本无理的决定，我们感到十分愤慨。/ His plumpness and his red, fatcheeks made his mourning not a little incongruous. (Somerset Maugham, <i>The Moon and Sixpence</i>) 他的肥胖的身躯、又红又胖的面颊同身上的孝服很不协调。/ The enlightened part of Europe have given us the greatest credit for inventing the instrument of security for the rights of the people and have been not a little surprised to see us so soon give it up. (Thomas Jefferson, letter to Francis Hopkinson, Mar. 13, 1789, on the new Constitution) 欧洲的开明人士，曾经因为我们发明了这个保障人民权利的工具而给予了我们最高度的赞扬，但又因为看到我们这么快就放弃了这个工具而十分惊讶。</div><br><br>这个 not a little 也可以作为代词使用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... there was much in his life which was strange and terrible, in his character something outrageous, and in his fate not a little that was pathetic. (Somerset Maugham, <i>The Moon and Sixpence</i>) ……他的生活中有不少离奇可怕的行径，他的性格里有不少荒谬绝伦的怪癖，他的命运中又不乏悲壮凄怆的遭遇。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> little 作为代词，前面没有 a，就有否定意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Little of these nuances have made much of an impression on certain Republicans. (Richard Cohen, "Obama's Controlled Response to Iran Is Right," in <i>The Daily Gazette</i>, June 23, 2009, A7) 这些微妙细节，并没有引起某些共和党人多大的注意。</div><br><br>
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live to inf.
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>live to inf.</b></div>这里的助动词不定式通常是个延续体的动词。live to inf. 意思是：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> “一辈子都处于……状态”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... Armstrong would live to regret suppressing the minister's secret. (Jeffrey Archer, <i>The Fourth Estate</i>) ……阿姆斯特朗将会一辈子都后悔压住了部长的隐私。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> “活到进入某种状态”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You will live to be one hundred. 你会活到 100 岁。/ Rabbits have many predators, so many of their babies will not live to be adults. 兔子有很多天敌，所以它们的幼崽许多都活不到成年。/ ... because of our age difference, I probably won't live to see a Mars landing, while President Obama can say with confidence that he will. (<i>The Sunday Gazette</i>, Apr. 25, 2010, C1) ……由于我们年龄上有差异，我大概活不到看见人类登陆火星的时候，但奥巴马总统倒可以有把握地说他能看到。</div><br><br>
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live 与 living
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>live 与 living</b></div>动词 live 是广义的“生存，生活”。名词 living 则偏重于物质上的“生计”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There are two types of education... One should teach us how to make a living, and the other how to live. (John Adams) 教育有两类……一类教我们如何谋生，另一类则教我们如何为人。参见 life 条之 (1)。</div><br><br>
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load
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>load</b></div>作为及物动词 (趋成动词，第三类动词)，load 的直接宾语，可以是承载的载体，也可以是往载体上装载的货物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They loaded the truck with furniture. (= They loaded furniture onto the truck.) 他们给卡车装载了家具。load 的反义词 unload，直接宾语也有类似情况 (参见 unload 条)。</div><br><br>
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loath 与 loathe
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>loath 与 loathe</b></div>前者是形容词，表示“不喜欢的，不愿意的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I am loath to criticize him. 我不愿意批评他。</div><br><br>后者是及物动词，表示“讨厌，厌恶”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I loathe spinach. 我不喜欢吃菠菜。</div><br><br>
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lobby
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>lobby</b></div>作为及物动词“游说”，这个单词在美国的政治生活中常常出现，指通过合法的方式对决策人 (尤其是议员) 施加影响，使之做出有利于自己或与自己一致的人们的决策。搭配的办法，可以有兼语式 lobby somebody to inf. 或 lobby for somebody to inf.，也可以用 lobby somebody for something。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They are lobbying the council for increased subsidies. 他们在游说委员会增加津贴。</div><br><br>
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loneliness 与 solitude
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>loneliness 与 solitude</b></div>参见 solitude 与 loneliness 条。<br><br>
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long
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>long</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为副词，肯定时放在句末不能单用，例如不能说 *He stayed long. 但可以说 He stayed a long time (for a long time). 否定或疑问时可以说 He didn't stay long. 也可以说 Did he stay long? 或者前后加上别的单词如 He stayed too long. 变了形的 long 则可以这样单用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He stayed longer. 他停留时间更长些。/ We can't say: "We're the biggest and we've been at it the longest, so de facto we win." 我们不能说：“我们这一家规模最大，而且干这一行的时间最长，我们就自然而然会取胜。”</div><br><br>同某些动词连用且放在动词词组之中也可以。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I've long admired your style of writing. 我久仰您的文笔。/ I have long thought of retiring at the age of 55. 我很久以来一直打算 55 岁就退休。/ Those laid-back days are long gone. (<i>U.S. News & World Report</i>, Oct. 2, 2006) 那些悠闲的日子早已过去。</div><br><br>用以修饰另一个时间状语时也可以单用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We used to live in Paris, but that was long before you were born. 我们以前住在巴黎，不过那是你出生之前很久的事了。/ Long after the accident he used to dream that he was dying. 事故过了很久之后，他还常常做梦梦见自己要死了。/ They kept talking long into the night. 他们一直谈到深夜。</div><br><br>放在句首作为副词也可以单用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Long the domain of amateur painters, watercolors had gained professional respectability in 1866 with the formation of the American Water Color Society. 水彩画本来一直是业余画家的领域，但随着 1866 年成立了美国水彩画协会，水彩画获得了受人尊重的专业地位。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> long 作为形容词，有时候会越出对单个名词本身的长度说明，变成对复数名词的数量说明。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Nurses have to work long hours. 护士们要干许多钟点的活。(本来一小时多长就是多长，丝毫不能增减，这里的 long 不是指每个 hour 的长度，而是指多个 hours 加起来的长度，也就相当于 many hours。)</div><div class="ex-item">We were married for ten long years. 我们结婚有十年之久。</div><br><br>不但在时间上如此，在空间上 long 也有类似的用法。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There is in theMidlands a single-line tramway system which boldly leaves the county town and plunges off into the black, industrial countryside, up hill and down dale, through the long, ugly villages of workmen's houses, ... (D. H. Lawrence, <i>England, My England</i>) 密德兰有一条单线的电车，它勇猛地开出郡首府，一下子冲进乌黑的乡村工业区，爬高爬低，穿过长串长串的丑陋的工人住宅村，……</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> for a long time 与 for long 都是表示某一行动或状态延续很久 (for long 通常用于否定句)，但是在否定句中起不同的作用，前者“管”否定，后者被否定所“管”，试比较：She didn't speak for a long time. 她很长时间不说话。/ She didn't speak for long. 她没有讲多久。/ He didn't live there for a long time. 他很久都没有住在那边。/ He didn't live there for long. 他在那边没住多久。这是比较容易辨别的，因为状语不同。但是有时候状语没有区别，就可能产生歧义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You mustn't sleep till tomorrow morning. 如果是 till tomorrow morning 管 not，意思就是“没到明天早上你可不能睡下来” (sleep 代替 begin to sleep 或 go to bed)；如果是 not 管 till tomorrow morning，意思就是“你可不能睡到明天早上才起床”。两者在语调上有区别，但是书面上看不出来，要靠前后文和语境来判别。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> long on ... 是“长于……”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The White House china was long on elegance but short on practicality. (Tom Clancy, <i>Debt of Honor</i>) 白宫的瓷器用具，高雅有余而实用不足。</div><br><br>
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long distance
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>long distance</b></div>可以作为副词短语使用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He telephoned her long distance from New York. 他从纽约给她打长途电话。</div><br><br>
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look
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>look</b></div>这个动词有不同的意义，从而也有不同的“体”：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 自己向外看 (包括用眼睛向外看和内心对外界抱某种见解)，后面都要加上介词成分：(a) 如果加上介词成分后表示自己有意做出的行动，这个动词就是第二类动词，时态就可以用现在进行时或过去进行时，呈现“未完成貌”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was looking at them angrily. 他怒气冲冲地盯着他们。同样，look for (找)、look in on (顺便串门访问)、look into (细察)、look out for (留神注意)、look on ((有意的动作) 观看)，都可以用现在进行时或过去进行时。但如果采用一般过去时，则显示“完成貌”。</div>(b) 如果加上介词成分后不是自己有意做出的行动，而只是内心的一种见解，那就是第一类动词，时态就不能用进行时，如 look on ((非有意的动作) 认为)、look up to (敬仰)、look down on (瞧不起)，都是如此。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 由于 look 有主动“观看，注视”的意义，也有无意识的“给人以……印象”的意义 (作“给人以……印象”解时，look 属第一类动词，相当于系动词，接近于 seem，后面接上形容词或名词性质的表语；由于是状态而不是行动，除非是有意摆出的样子，时态不可以有进行时)。所以遇到 look 时要特别小心加以辨别。<br><br>最不容易看错的，是后面跟着形容词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Your father looks angry. 你父亲样子很生气。/ Are you looking your very best? 您现在是不是显出您最好看的样子？/ He particularly wanted to look good to his boss in these final months. 他特别想要在这最后几个月给上司一个好印象。/ She tried to look her prettiest for her grandmother. 她想方设法要在祖母面前展示出最好看的样子。/ She looked at leastforty. 她样子起码有 40 岁。(look 与 at 不能连在一起)</div><div class="ex-item">I know I look better without glasses. That's why I take them off a lot. 我知道我不戴眼镜样子好看些。所以我常常把眼镜摘下。(不是“看得更清楚”)</div>如果 look 同 how 之类的疑问词一起，也容易看出来。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Rembrandt was so pre-eminently good at rendering emotions, not just how we look but how we think and feel. 伦勃朗是多么善于表现感情，不光是表现我们的外表，而且是表现我们的心思和感受。(不是“我们如何看东西”)</div><div class="ex-item">Everywhere we look, we are bombarded by the media telling us how we should look and it affects our body image. Even cartoon characters are drawn a certain way, often sending an unrealistic message—especially to women—about the way they are supposed to look. 我们无论往哪里看，媒体都对我们进行轮番轰炸，告诉我们外表应该如何，这会如何影响到我们的外在形象。甚至漫画人物也专门画成某个样子，发出不现实的信息 (尤其是对女性)，告诉她们外表应该什么样子。</div><br><br>如果 look 后面是名词成分，就一定是“呈现……样子”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You don't look your age. 你不像这个年龄。/ I expect I look a mess. 我想我大概是仪表不整吧。/ Now that you are a professor, I would appreciate it if you would make an effort to look your part. 你现在既然是个教授，我倒很希望你能下点功夫，显得你符合这个身份。/ Prosecutors called (him) the "perfect sleeper agent," though he hardly looked the part. (<i>The Washington Post</i>, Apr. 3, 2008) 检察官称他为“地道的卧底特工”，但是他的样子却不那么像。</div><br><br>look 后面接上动词不定式，如果接的是个表示延续动作或状态的动词，look 也是“显现出……的样子”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She looked to be in her early forties. 她的样子大概是 40 开外。</div><br><br>最容易产生疑惑的，是 look 后面跟着一个介词短语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The prime minister has looked in political peril. 总理有点政治上地位不稳的样子。/ You don't look a day over 58. (<i>Newsweek</i>, Oct. 10, 2005, p. 69) 你的样子一点也不像过了 58 岁。/ ... a tall, thin, anonymous-looking man in morning dress who wouldn't have looked out of place proposing a toast to the bride at a society wedding in Hampshire. (Jeffrey Archer, <i>The Fourth Estate</i>) ……一个面目没有特征的、穿着常礼服的高瘦男子，如果是参加汉普郡的一场婚礼，以他的打扮，由他来向新娘祝酒，也丝毫不会显得失礼。本来 look out 是惯用词组，但是这里不可以连在一起，look 是单独的，相当于一个系动词 (接近于 seem)，out of place 是它的表语 (“格格不入的”)。</div><br><br>下面一个例句特别值得注意：Seniors a burden? That sure isn't how his gray-haired residents look to Mayor Bill Saffo of Wilmington. (<i>U.S. News & World Report</i>, Oct. 2, 2006, p. 54) 老年人是个负担吗？韦尔明顿市长比尔·萨福对他的那些头发灰白的居民们的看法，肯定不是如此。(是市长看老人，不是老人看市长，尽管 look 的主语是老人。) 按照一般的词典解释，look to X for Y 是主语自己主动去向 X 寻找 Y 事物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They're looking to you for guidance. 他们在寻求您的指导。如果没有 for ...，则 look to 的意思是“找”或“照料”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's best to look to an expert. 最好找一位专家。/ Every country must look to its defenses. 每个国家都必须注意自己的防务。但是上述 look to 都是自己有意做出的动作，而本段第一个例句中的 look to 却是不经过自己的意愿而给他人的印象，是“让别人看自己的样子”，to 是指指令某人得到印象。</div><br><br>需要进一步说明的是：如果 look 带有一点自己有意摆出某个样子的意思，或是仅属一时的表现，也可以用进行时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You're not looking yourself. 你现在样子很特别。/ He was looking every inch the superstar. 他处处都摆出超级明星的派头。(注意 look 后面没有介词)</div><div class="ex-item">He was thirty-five years old and looked it. 他 35 岁，看起来也是这个年龄。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> look to inf. (可以是表示状态的第一类动词，但也可以是表示有意志的行动的第二类动词；to 后面不是名词成分而是动词不定式)，这里的 look，不是“给别人看自己的样子”，而是“自己展望要做某事”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In the following year, Columbia looked to expand its operations in either film or radio. 翌年，哥伦比亚公司就着眼于在电影或广播方面扩大业务。/ Democrats now look to sustain majority. 民主党人现在着眼于保持多数。如果表示自己有意做出的行动，时态就可以用进行时。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The International Cricket Council is looking to shorten the World Cup tournament to five weeks in its future editions. 国际板球理事会正在打算将今后的世界杯大赛缩短为五周。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> look 的主语如果是空泛的 it，就一定不会是“自己去看”，而是“显出……的样子”，属第一类动词，时态不能用进行时，后面可以跟着 as if 或 like (但是不能跟着 that 从句)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It looks as if it's going to rain again. 看样子又要下雨了。/ It looks like we're going home without a suntan. 看样子咱们没晒黑就要回家了。本来，look 和 seem 及 appear 意义差不多，但是在搭配上，seem 和 appear 后面都可以接上动词不定式或是 that 从句，look 却不可以，只能有“look + 表语” (如果是 look to inf. 则是 (3) 的意思，同 seem to inf. 的意思是两回事) 以及上述 it looks as if 或 it looks like 的结构。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 如果是祈使句，用于比较庄重的场合，就不常用 look 而用 behold。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>(基督教的圣诗) Behold, thy king, cometh unto thee. 看哪，你的王向你降临。与此相似的，有代替 listen 的 hark。</div><br><br>
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lose
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>lose</b></div>是第四类动词。lose something to somebody 是把什么东西输给了某个对手。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We have lost many clients to our competitors. 我们许多顾客跑去了竞争对手那里。但是，也可以说 lose something to something，后一个 something 是失去前一个 something 的原因，这个 to 是中国人不大习惯的。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He'd lost his parents to an airliner crash at Chicago. 他的父母在芝加哥的一次空难中丧生。(这里仿佛“空难”是一个对手，自己在对抗中输了，父母输到了对手手中)</div><div class="ex-item">He has lost his hair and beard to chemotherapy. 他因为化疗而头发胡须脱落。/ ... the number of jobs actually lost to outsourcing is small, ... (<i>The New York Times</i>, OP-ED, Nov. 27, 2007, A3) ……真正由于外包而流失的工作机会数目不大，……</div><br><br>
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lose/waste no time in + -ing
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>lose/waste no time in + -ing</b></div>这里有先后两个动词词组，前面是 lose/waste no time，后面是 in + -ing。究竟前面的否定是否也管到后面，也就是说，整个意思究竟是“不在某事上面浪费时间”，还是“不浪费时间，马上动手做某事”，这里牵涉到后面的动词究竟是瞬时体还是延续体的问题。如果是“不在某事上面浪费时间”，这件“某事”就应该是延续的；如果是“不浪费时间，马上动手做某事”，这件“某事”就应该是瞬时的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Don't lose your time in reading these books. 这些书你就别浪费时间看了。(read 是延续的第二类动词，被否定作用所包括)</div><div class="ex-item">They lost no time in provoking a schism. 他们马上就挑起了分裂。(不是“他们没有在挑起分裂上浪费时间”)</div><div class="ex-item">I've taken my resolution, so I advise you to lose no time in taking yours. (George Eliot, <i>Middlemarch: A Study of Provincial Life</i>) 我已经下了决心，所以我劝你也赶快下决心。</div><br><br>
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lose 与 loose
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>lose 与 loose</b></div>前者读 /luːz/，是个不规则动词 (lose—lost—lost；名词 loss)，意思是“失去，损失”。后者读 /luːs/，是个形容词，意思是“松的，宽松的，松散的” (及物动词 loosen)。许多中国人对于单词末尾的 (s) 和 (z) 往往发音不好，听起来也分辨不出，要特别注意。<br><br>
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lost and found
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>lost and found</b></div>是“失物招领处”，是个单数名词，但复数也不加 s。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The lost and found is a great resource for cell phone users... Most hotels are willing to lend chargers from their lost and found. 失物招领处对手机使用者是一个大资源。……多数旅馆愿意从自己的失物招领处出借充电器。</div><br><br>
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lot
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>lot</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> a lot of 与 lots of 后面可以接上可数与不可数名词，但通常限于肯定句，如果是否定句或疑问句，就不用 a lot of 与 lots of 而改用 many 或 much。反过来说，如果是肯定句，则要避免用 many 或 much 而改用 a lot of 或 lots of。(学术论文和正式文件中，肯定句也少用 a lot of 或 lots of，仍然用 many 或 much。)<br><span class="seq">(2)</span> a lot of 与 lots of，一个本身是单数，一个本身是复数，但是仍然要看后面的名词的性质。如果不可数名词 (当然只有单数)，即使用了 lots of，仍然当作单数处理；如果是可数名词 (必须复数形式)，即使用了 a lot of，仍然当作复数处理。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Lots of money doesn't always make us happy. 钱多并不总是能使我们快乐。/ What a lot of people there are! 人真多啊！</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 但是，lot 本来有“一批”的意思，所以如果把整批看作一个整体，“a lot of + 复数可数名词”要当作单数处理。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A lot of books has arrived. 有一批书运到了。但是如果不看作一个整体，则当作复数处理。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A lot of books are over there. 有好些书在那里。反之，如果后面是不可数名词，则 lots of 作为“好多批”仍然可以当作复数处理。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Lots of sugar have arrived. 好几批白糖到了。但是如果只是表示“大量”，则仍然当作单数处理。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Lots of sugar has spoiled. 大量的白糖变坏了。</div><br><br>
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loud 与 loudly
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>loud 与 loudly</b></div>凡是修饰 speak、say、talk、shout、laugh、sing 等动词时，通常用 loud 作为副词而不用 loudly。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Speak loud and distinctly. 请讲得大声些和清楚些。但是，如果强调高声宣告重大的主张或诉求，仍然可以说 speak loudly，此时 loudly 就是信息的重心。例如美国 2006 年 11 月中期选举，民主党大胜，《时代》杂志 (<i>Time</i>, Nov. 20, 2006, p. 5) 就在目录预告中说：The people have spoken loudly. (人民高声说出了自己的心声。)</div>如果所修饰的动词不是与“说话，叫喊”有关的，就不能用 loud，要用 loudly。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A clock on the wall ticked loudly. (Daphne du Maurier, in <i>Ladies' Home Journal</i>, August 1971) 墙上一个时钟，滴滴答答声很响。</div><br><br>
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love
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>love</b></div>球类比赛的比分，说 three goals to love，这里的 love 不是动词“爱”，也不是名词“爱”，而是“零分”的意思 (三比零)。最初这个用法，来自“marry for love, not for money”，经过意义的转变，这个 love 代替了“无任何财产”，又转而表示“零”。<br><br>
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lower
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>lower</b></div>参见 high 与 higher 条以及 upper 条。<br><br>
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loyal
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>loyal</b></div>原意是下对上的“忠诚”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Most Tories remained loyal to the Government. 保守党人大多仍然忠于政府。但是，常年光顾某一商号的顾客 (忠实顾客)、常年订阅某报刊的读者 (忠实读者)、常年找某医生看病的病人、常年找某律师办案的当事人，都可以说是 loyal 的。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Loyal customers are key to any company's success. 忠实的顾客是任何公司成功的关键。/ Dr. Townsend had a solid practice with patients who liked him and were loyal. 汤森大夫有处殷实的诊所，病人都很喜欢他，有病一直找他看。</div><br><br>从 loyal 这个形容词派生出来的名词 loyalty，也有这个含义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We have to earn the loyalty of our customers. 我们要赢得客户常年光顾。这里就丝毫没有“下对上”的意思。</div><br><br>loyalty 不但不限于表示下级对上级的忠诚，而且还可以用于表示上级对下级的信赖依靠 (正如顾客可以算作上级，商家可以算作下级)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Howard Altman was well aware of his boss's shifting loyalties, ... (Mary Higgins Clark, <i>Where Are You Now?</i>) 霍华德·阿尔特曼深知，他老板的信赖对象是变幻无常的，……</div><br><br>loyalist 除了“忠诚拥护者”之外，也有“忠实顾客”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a Toyota loyalist 丰田的忠实顾客。</div><br><br>
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lucky
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>lucky</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 口语中，单单 lucky 一个词在句首，后面接上句子，就可以表示“幸而，幸亏”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Lucky we only did a puddle jump. (Dan Brown, <i>Angels and Demons</i>) 还好，我们只是跳过了一个水坑。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> be lucky to inf. 的意义，视 be 的时态是过去的还是将来的而有不同。如果是过去的，意思是“幸运地得到某种好处”；如果是将来的，则主语不特指时也是“幸运地得到某种好处” (最后的动词不定式可以是瞬时体，也可以是连续体)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Eight pairs will be lucky to be selected as the final contestants. 将有八对选手被幸运地入选为决赛竞争者。主语特指时，则可能有两种很不相同的意义。一种仍然是“幸运地得到某种好处”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The first tier comprises 10 districts that the GOP will be lucky to hold. 第一层，由共和党将幸运地保住的 10 个选区组成。另一种意义，则是把动词不定式当作一个有待实现的条件，be lucky 当作条件一旦实现就会产生的结果。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You'll be lucky to find him. 你如果能找到他，算你运气。/ New Castle will have 7,000—8,000 fans show up for their games. North Central, the largest school in the state, will be lucky to get 2,000. 纽卡斯尔中学将有七八千球迷前来助威。而全州最大的学校北中央中学能有两千人就算运气好的了。</div><br><br>如果 lucky to inf. 之前的 be 是一般现在时，也可能有两种不同的意义 (最后的动词不定式必须是延续体的)。(1) 表示“现在的确很幸运，能如何如何”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He is lucky to be alive. 他很幸运，还活着。(2) 表示“如果能如何如何就算运气的了 (说不定连如何如何也做不到)”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>On what the boss pays us, we are lucky to be able to keep body and soul together, let alone feed a family. 靠老板付给我们的工钱，我们能自己糊口就算运气的了，哪还谈得上养家。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 由此可见，以 be 作为谓语动词，加上形容词或动词过去分词作表语，后面再加动词不定式，常常出现这种双关意义，既可以用谓语作一个状语意义的成分来修饰动词不定式 (通常是事情已经发生)，也可以把动词不定式理解为“如果”而把谓语动词理解为有条件的结果 (通常是事情尚未发生)。这样的双关意义，在 be surprised to inf.、be scared to inf.、be furious to inf.、be relieved to inf.、shudder to inf.、be stupid to inf.、be foolish to inf.、be wise to inf.、be perplexed to inf.、be doing a disservice to inf. 等词组中都可以发现。只要是事情尚未发生，就有可能是“如果……那就”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They're scared to expel me. 他们不敢开除我。(如果开除我，他们还害怕呢。)</div><div class="ex-item">I think we'd be doing a disservice to give them information that's not evidence-based. 我觉得，我们如果向他们提供证据不确凿的信息，那是帮倒忙。/ You would be wise to go now. 你如果聪明点，就现在去。</div><br><br>
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luxuriant 与 luxurious
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>luxuriant 与 luxurious</b></div>这两个形容词拼写相似，但意义差别很大。luxuriant 是指植物生长茂盛的、郁郁葱葱的。luxurious 则是指豪华奢侈的、金碧辉煌的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The castle we visited was luxurious (<i>luxuriant), and it was set in a garden of luxuriant (</i>luxurious) foliage. 我们参观的那座城堡很豪华，在一个绿树成荫的花园里。但是，连英语为母语者，也常常混淆不清。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>in luxuriant restaurants (Theodore Dreiser, <i>Sister Carrie</i>) 在豪华的餐厅里</div><div class="ex-item">a luxurious branch ... (Henry Vaughan) 一根繁茂的树枝。</div><br><br>
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luxury
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>luxury</b></div>英文常用 in the ... of ... 的结构，前面是一个表示正面良好性质的抽象名词，后面是通常具有这种性质的地点；中文相当于“形容词 + 名词”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>in the comfortable luxury of their suite 在他们那个舒适豪华的套间里。</div><br><br>类似这样的结构还有不少。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>in the safety of the port 在安全的海港里</div><div class="ex-item">in the comfort of your home 在你舒适的家里</div><div class="ex-item">in the privacy of his bedroom 在他隐秘的卧室里。</div><br><br>
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mad
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>mad</b></div>mad at somebody 与 mad about/on somebody/something 意义不同。<br><br>前者是“对某人怒气冲冲”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This week he's mad at him. Next week he'll be telling me that nobody runs his business like Howie, that he's like a son to him. (Mary Higgins Clark, <i>Where Are You Now?</i>) 这个星期他对霍伊气冲冲。下个星期他又会对我说，谁替他办事都比不上霍伊，霍伊就像他的儿子一样。/ She's mad at him for forgetting her birthday. 她忘记了她的生日，使她火冒三丈。</div><br><br>后者往往是“倾心于某人，醉心于某事物”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Would he one day be mad about her? (Cheryl Anne Porter, <i>Mad about Maddie</i>) 他有朝一日会不会发狂地爱上她呢？/ They are mad about mah-jong. 他们醉心于打麻将。但是，有时候 mad about something 也可以是“对某事感到气愤”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There're a lot more people mad about what's going on than I thought. (<i>The Associated Press</i>, Sept. 12, 2009) 对现状感到气愤的人比我想的多。</div><br><br>
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madam
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>madam</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 直接称呼一位不知姓名的女性，可以用 madam (美式英语中常缩写为 ma'am)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>May I help you, madam? 这位女士，我可以帮您吗？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 在英语国家，对外国要人的夫人直接称呼或去信以及间接提及时，统称 Madame 某某 (此词源自法文，不是 Madam，“某某”为丈夫姓名)，不用除法文外其他语言的“夫人”。例如宋美龄就被称为 Madame Sun Yat-sen。但是要注意 madam 这个单词只能用于这种场合，别的场合不要用，因为历史上指的是妓院鸨母。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> Madam 后面可以跟职务头衔而不附上姓名，用以直接称呼对方。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Madam Justice 大法官女士</div><div class="ex-item">Madam Speaker 议长女士</div><div class="ex-item">Madam President 总统女士。如果加上对方的姓氏，就要去掉 Madam。例如如果女总统姓 Smith，就不能当面称她为 *Madam President Smith，而只能称为 President Smith。不过，大法官例外，间接称呼也可以说 Madam Justice Louise Arbour 或 Madam Justice Arbour。</div><br><br>
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magic 与 magical
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>magic 与 magical</b></div>magic 既可以是名词，也可以是形容词。作为名词时词义比较简单。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>practice/work/make/do magic 施魔法</div><div class="ex-item">The headache went away like magic. 头痛神奇地康复了。作为形容词，通常只能作前置定语，不能作表语。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a magic carpet 会飞的魔毯</div><div class="ex-item">a magic mirror 魔镜</div><div class="ex-item">magic spells 魔咒</div><div class="ex-item">a magic wand 魔棒</div><div class="ex-item">a magic bullet 万灵神丹。</div><br><br>magical 则只能作为形容词，但既可以作前置定语，也可以作表语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Mr. Smith has a magical way with children. 史密斯先生对付孩子真有一套奇妙的办法。/ The result was magical. 结果十分神奇。</div><br><br>两者作为形容词，有时候在意义上各有侧重。magic 着重效果之神速，magical 则着重“扑朔迷离”的气氛。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... the magic solution to the defense problem inEurope ... (J. F. Golay, in <i>The New Republic</i>, Apr. 19, 1954) …… 欧洲防务问题的神速解决办法 ……</div><div class="ex-item">... its <b>magical</b> mornings and its incomparable sunsets ... (Paul Bowles, in <i>Holiday</i>, March 1957) …… 它的那些云雾重重的清晨，和那些风光无比的日落余晖 ……</div><br><br>
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magnitude
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>magnitude</b></div>表示“档次，量级”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... his evil was an <b>order of magnitude</b> beyond his predecessor's. …… 他的邪恶，超出了他的前任一个档次。</div><br><br>
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majority
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>majority</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 如果只注意数量的多少而不注意是哪些个体组成这个“多数”，说 the majority (of)，作单数或复数处理均可。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>The majority was/were</b> not in favor. 多数人并不赞成。如果注意的重点是组成这个“多数”的某些尚未指明的个体，就说 a majority (of)，必须作复数处理。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>A majority of</b> households now <b>own</b> (*owns) a TV. 大多数人家现在都有了电视。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 只能用于可数的人或物，不可以用于不可数的物质。例如不能说 *A majority of the gravel was dumped early in the morning. 而要说 <b>Most of</b> the gravel was dumped early in the morning. (砂石大部分今天清早卸下了。)
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majority 与 plurality
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>majority 与 plurality</b></div>在议会政治中，plurality 指相对多数，即得票额或所获议席比任何其他一个政党都多，但又未能过半。如果过半，就是 majority (绝对多数)。不过，“相对多数”往往用 relative majority，“绝对多数”往往用 absolute majority 表示。要注意，51% 就已经是“绝对多数”，但仍够不上中文的“绝大多数”。中文的“绝大多数”是 overwhelming majority，不是 *absolute majority。<br><br>
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make
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>make</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> make 往往同句子中后面的另一些单词遥相呼应，当中隔着 make 的宾语。这些放后面的单词通常是宾语补足语，可以是形容词 (包括动词过去分词)，也可以是名词，也可以是动词不定式。make + 宾语 + 宾补，意思是使得宾语成为或变成宾补那样。由于宾语有时候可能很长甚至有复杂的句法结构，make 与宾补之间的关系常常容易模糊起来，给理解造成困难。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Since then, I have worked on <b>making</b> my dream that computers can understand us better and work more simply <b>a reality</b>. (Bill Gates) 从那时候起，我就致力于实现我的梦想，要让电脑能更好地理解我们、工作起来更简单方便。(making 与 a reality 遥相呼应，宾语 my dream 有很长的定语从句修饰，插在中间，容易扰乱视线。)</div><div class="ex-item">Vice President Dick Cheney said the press had "<b>made</b> the job of defending against further terrorist attacks <b>more difficult</b>." (<i>Time</i>, July 10, 2006, p. 6) 迪克·切尼副总统说，新闻界“已经使得今后防御恐怖袭击的工作更为困难”。(made 与 more difficult 遥相呼应，宾语 the job 也有较长的后置定语，不能把 made the job 理解为“做工作”。)</div><div class="ex-item">For many centuries the dominance of religious beliefs <b>made</b> free scientific inquiries into the origins of people and their institutions <b>difficult</b>. (New Zealand Workers Party) 多少个世纪以来，宗教信仰的统治地位使得对人及其制度的科学探讨难以进行。</div><div class="ex-item">The U.S. has not persuaded itsregional partners that it is serious about negotiations, <b>making</b> efforts to secure their approval for a significantly tougher position <b>difficult</b> if not <b>impossible</b>. (Council on Foreign Relations, in <i>The Daily Gazette</i>, May 9, 2003, A2) 美国并没有能够说服它的地区盟友们相信它对谈判是认真的，因而难以甚至无法努力争取它们赞同采取更为强硬的立场。(注意不要把 making efforts 看成是“做出努力”，必须连同最后的宾补 difficult 和 impossible 一起来理解。)</div><div class="ex-item">Aquarium officials did not <b>make</b> the report from the American Zoo and Aquariums Association <b>public</b>. (<i>The Daily Gazette</i>, Aug. 19, 2003, A5) 水族馆的人员并没有把美国动物园与水族馆联合会的报告公之于众。</div><div class="ex-item">Fogel in Chicago has moved four times in the past four years. The hassle of changing his phone numbers and paying installation fees <b>made</b> his decision to drop the ground line a little <b>easier</b>. (<i>The Daily Gazette</i>, Aug. 5, 2003, A5) 芝加哥的福杰尔过去四年中搬了四次家。换电话号码的麻烦，加上要付安装费，使得他坚定了不要固定电话的决心。</div><div class="ex-item">I will continue to press the Congress to <b>make</b> these tax cuts, including the end of the death tax, <b>permanent</b>. (George W. Bush, Jan. 7, 2003) 我将继续敦促国会将这些减税措施包括取消遗产税的措施永久化。</div><div class="ex-item">Townsend wondered how he could <b>make</b> the idea of traveling between Sydney, Canberra, Adelaide and Perth every seven days <b>sound</b> exciting to Susan. (Jeffrey Archer, <i>The Fourth Estate</i>) 唐森在琢磨，每七天就在悉尼、堪培拉、阿德莱德和佩斯之间穿梭来往一次，这个主意，如何能让苏珊听到后觉得兴奋。</div><div class="ex-item">That is why our 2011 Annual Fund Drive is so important and why I'm asking you today, pleading with you, to help <b>make</b> this drive and all our efforts to defeat Alzheimer's disease <b>a success</b>. (fundraising letter) 正是因为这样，我们 2011 年的筹款运动才如此重要，我今天才请求您，恳求您，请您给予帮助，使得这项举措以及我们为了战胜老年痴呆症所做的一切努力得以成功。</div><br><br>遇到这样的结构，有时候会发生误解，把本来表示“使得成为……”的 make 误解为普通的“做，做出”，加上后面的直接宾语，使得最后面表示结果的宾补“无所适从”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Before he was elected, President Trump <b>made</b> promises to crack down on immigration <b>a cornerstone</b> of his campaign. (Katherine Krueger, <i>Splinter</i>, Aug. 8, 2017) 当选之前，特朗普总统曾经以打击移民为竞选活动的一块基石。(不要将 made promises 孤立出来，理解为“做出承诺”，使得宾补 a cornerstone “无所适从”。)</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> make somebody do something 是“使某人做某事”。注意 do something 前没有 to。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The heat <b>made</b> us sweat. 我们热得出汗。</div><div class="ex-item">Don't <b>make</b> me laugh. 别逗我笑了。</div><div class="ex-item">You've <b>made</b> me forget what I was going to say. 你让我忘了刚才要说什么了。但是如果 make 转换为被动语态，后面的动词不定式就要有 to。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She <b>was made to</b> apologize. 她被迫道了歉。</div><br><br>但是，中文中“使”出现率很高，不能一律对号入座用英文的 make 来表示。这是因为英文有许多动词或动词词组本身就包含了“使”的意思。中国人学英文，要善于运用这一类的动词或词组。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The picture <b>reminded</b> me of my early childhood. (<i>The picture <b>made</b> me remember my early childhood.) 那幅画使我回想起我的童年。(remind ... of ... 就是“使……回忆起……” )</div><div class="ex-item">A knock at the door <b>brought</b> him <b>to his feet</b>. (</i>A knock on the door <b>made</b> him stand up.) 一下敲门声，使得他站了起来。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> <b>make X of Y</b>，不要误以为 X of Y 是“Y 的 X”。(a) “把 Y 变为 X”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>make</b> a friend <b>of</b> an enemy 化敌为友</div><div class="ex-item">We want to <b>make</b> an engineer <b>of</b> our son. 我们想让儿子成为工程师。</div><div class="ex-item">Don't <b>make</b> a habit <b>of</b> it. 别养成这样的习惯。</div><div class="ex-item">The owner had <b>made</b> a mess <b>of</b> the house. 主人把房子弄得一塌糊涂。</div><div class="ex-item">Obedience</div><div class="ex-item">Bane of all genius, virtue, freedom, truth,</div><div class="ex-item"><b>makes</b> slaves <b>of</b> men, and <b>of</b> the human frame,</div><div class="ex-item">a mechanical automaton. (Percy Bysshe Shelley, <i>Queen Mab</i>) 服从，是一切天才、美德、自由、真理的毒贼，/ 它使人沦为奴隶，使得方趾圆颅</div><div class="ex-item">沦为机械木偶。</div><div class="ex-item">Just as in great cities one finds firms which <b>make</b> a specialty <b>of</b> laying foundations for immense buildings, so it is often wise to employ a teacher who specializes in instructing beginners. (Josef Hofmann, <i>Piano Playing</i>) 正如大城市中可以看到有一些公司专门替巨型建筑物打地基那样，请一位专门训练初学者的教师也常常是个好办法。</div><div class="ex-item">... though she <b>made</b> some sort of exception <b>of</b> the kitchen, since only the servants lived there ... (John Fowles, <i>The French Lieutenant's Woman</i>) …… 虽然她把厨房当成例外，因为那是仆人们居住之处 ……</div><div class="ex-item">It is this that <b>made</b> a modern man <b>of</b> him. 这使得他成了一个现代人。有时候 make X of Y 的 Y 可以转换成为被动句的主语。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The house had been <b>made</b> a mess <b>of</b>. 房子被弄得一塌糊涂。X 也可以转换成为被动句的主语，但这种用法较少。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A mess had been <b>made of</b> the house. 房子被弄得乱七八糟。</div>
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make something of it
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>make something of it</b></div>是“寻衅，闹事”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Do you want to <b>make something of it</b>?</div><div class="ex-item">Want to <b>make something of it</b>? 你想找事儿吗?</div>
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(make) something (of it)
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(make) something (of it)</b></div>参见make something of it 条。<br><br>
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make up
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>make up</b></div>这是一个多义的短语动词 (phrasal verb)。它可以作为不及物动词，也可以作为及物动词。作为不及物动词，后面再加上 for 或 to 又成为及物动词。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作不及物动词，make up 的主要意义是：(a) “和解”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Let's <b>make up</b> and be friends. 咱们和解，交个朋友吧。</div>(b) “打扮；化妆”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It takes her ages to <b>make up</b>. 她打扮起来要花半天时间。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作为及物动词，make up 的主要意义是：(a) “共同组成” (第一类动词)，与 constitute 同义，但用于更为非正式的语言。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Britain and Northern Ireland <b>make up</b> the United Kingdom. 不列颠和北爱尔兰共同组成联合王国。也可以作第四类动词，表示“联合起来”的动作 (这是 constitute 所不能表达的)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We <b>made up</b> a group to get cheaper tickets. 我们组团买便宜票。但是 make up 不能像 constitute 那样表示“定性”或“描绘” (参见 constitute 条)。</div>(b) “捏造” (第四类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He <b>made up</b> the whole story. 他说的情况全属捏造。</div>(c) “配齐” (第三类或第四类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The pharmacist <b>made up</b> the prescription. 药剂师把配方药配好了。</div>(d) “回报” (第四类动词，加一个空泛的宾语 it，回报的对象用 to 引入)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'll <b>make</b> it <b>up</b> to you. 我会报答你的。</div>(e) “和解” (第四类动词，加一个空泛的宾语 it，和解的对方用 with 引入)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They <b>made</b> it <b>up</b> with him. 他们同他言归于好。</div>(f) “消除 (分歧)” (第四类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They <b>made up</b> their differences. 他们消除了分歧。</div>(g) “确定” (第四类动词，宾语是“形容词性物主代词 + mind”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Make up</b> your mind! 打定主意吧!</div><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> make up 加了 for，作及物动词，主要意义是：(a) “弥补 (自己的损失或不足)” (可以是第四类或第一类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You'll have to <b>make up for</b> lost time. 你要把失去的时间弥补回来。</div><div class="ex-item">How can I <b>make up for</b> my mistake? 我怎样才能弥补自己的错误?</div><div class="ex-item">Their enthusiasm <b>makes up for</b> their lack of experience. 他们的热情，弥补了他们经验的不足。</div><div class="ex-item">What she lacks in technique she <b>makes up for</b> in style. 尽管她技术不足，但是风格足以弥补。</div>(b) “弥补或偿付 (他人的损失)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He now promises to <b>make up for</b> the damage he caused in the past. 他现在答应弥补自己过去造成的损失。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> make up 加了 to，作及物动词，主要意义是“讨好” (属于第二类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He's always <b>making up to</b> his boss. 他总是讨好上司。</div><br><br>另外，还有不属于短语动词的 make something up to (这里的 make 是个单独的及物动词，有它自己的宾语，up to ... 是它的状语补充成分，可以同它隔开)，意思是“将……凑够……”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'll <b>make</b> the total <b>up to</b> 500 dollars. 我可以把总数凑到五百美元。</div><br><br>此外，makeup 是名词，意思是“化妆品”。<br><br>
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make X out of Y
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>make X out of Y</b></div>，也是“把 Y 变为 X”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The Germans began their campaign to <b>make</b> an ally <b>out of</b> Croatia when they first came into Yugoslavia ... (Waverley Root, <i>The Secret History of the War</i>, Book 1) 德国人刚刚进入南斯拉夫时，就开始大力争取把克罗地亚拉过来作为盟友 ……</div>(b) “把 Y 权作 X”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They want to <b>make</b> an example <b>of</b> him by keeping him in prison under very difficult conditions. 他们把他监禁在条件十分恶劣的监狱中，以此惩一儆百。</div><div class="ex-item">It's a long way to drive so I thought I'd <b>make</b> a virtue <b>of</b> necessity and stop off at some interesting places along the way. 有一大段路要开，于是我就想，我可以顺水推舟，沿路开到某些有意思的地方就停一下。</div>(c) <b>make X of + -ing</b>，也不要误以为 X of + -ing 是“-ing 的 X”，其实意思是“使得 -ing 成为 X”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has <b>made</b> a career <b>of</b> defending poor people. 为穷人辩护，成了他的专业。也就是说，of + -ing 不是 career 的定语，而是 make 的状语，代表“原料”。</div>(d) 值得注意的是：Y 如果是一个特指的名词成分，也可以去掉 of 而移到 X 前面。如 Don't <b>make</b> a habit <b>of</b> it. 可以改为 Don't <b>make</b> it a habit. 同样，We want to <b>make</b> an engineer <b>of</b> our son. 可以改为 We want to <b>make</b> our son an engineer. <div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The end of chemo? Smarter cancer drugs with fewer side effects could <b>make</b> the drip history. (<i>Time</i>, July 29, 2013, p. 16) 不用化疗了吗? 更有效而副作用更少的抗癌药物可以使得滴注治疗成为历史。但是如果两者都是不特指的，通常只能保留 of 以及两者的次序。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>make a friend of an enemy</b> (make an enemy a friend) 化敌为友。但是在报纸标题中，无论定冠词还是不定冠词一律省略，此时通常 Y 在前而 X 在后。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>U.S. <b>makes</b> lower trade deficit (Y) top priority in NAFTA talks (X). (Reuters, July 17, 2017) 美国在北美自由贸易协定谈判中以降低贸易逆差为最高优先项。</div>(e) 如果 X 是个不定代词、否定代词或疑问代词，这个结构的意思就不是“变 Y 为 X”，而是“对 Y 有某种认识或观感”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I could <b>make nothing of</b> the message. 对这个信息，我莫名其妙。</div><div class="ex-item"><b>Make of</b> that what you will. 你爱怎样理解就怎样理解吧。</div><div class="ex-item">What did you <b>make of</b> him? 你看他这个人怎么样?</div><div class="ex-item">I don't know what to <b>make of</b> it. 我对这件事情无法理解。</div><div class="ex-item">Sherlock Holmes might have <b>made</b> something <b>of</b> these clues. 假如是福尔摩斯，就能从这些线索看出一些问题来。</div>(f) make X of Y 还有一个意义，就是“从 Y 中得到 X 好处”或是“拿 Y 来做 X 文章”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Make</b> the most <b>of</b> your time. 充分利用你的时间。</div><div class="ex-item">Mary realized they were <b>making</b> fun <b>of</b> her. 玛丽发觉他们在取笑她。</div><div class="ex-item">They <b>made</b> much <b>of</b> her beauty. 他们盛赞她的美丽。这样的用法，常常可以把 Y 转换成为被动句的主语。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The time was <b>made</b> the most <b>of</b>. 时间被充分利用了。</div><div class="ex-item">Mary realized she was <b>made</b> fun <b>of</b>. 玛丽发觉她被取笑了。</div><div class="ex-item">Her beauty was <b>made</b> much <b>of</b>. 她的美丽得到盛赞。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> make 还可以有“充当 (某角色)”的意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Surgeons <b>make</b> bad chronic disease doctors and vice versa. 外科医生当起慢性病内科医生来就差劲，反之亦然。</div><div class="ex-item">She would <b>make</b> you a good wife. 她可以成为你的好妻子。(you 是间接宾语。)</div>有人认为 She would <b>make</b> you a good wife. 有歧义，因为也可以理解为“她可以使你成为一个好妻子”。从结构上看，这个歧义是可能的。但这句话通常的理解是“她可以成为你的好妻子”，而不会是“她可以使你成为一个好妻子”。不过，如果不是 wife 而是另一种人物身份，这个歧义是成立的。如 I will <b>make</b> you a good employee. 就可能是“我将使你成为一个好雇员”或是“我将成为你的一个好雇员”，取决于具体语境。<br><br>
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man
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>man</b></div>没有任何冠词，man 表示区别于其他动物的“人类”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Man</b> shall not live by bread alone. 人活着不单是靠食物。</div><div class="ex-item"><b>Man</b> proposes, God disposes. 谋事在人，成事在天。如果有定冠词、不定冠词或其他限定词，则表示具体的男人。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Every <b>man</b>, woman, and child will be taken care of. 所有男女老幼，都将一律得到照料。但是也可以表示不分性别的人。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>All <b>men</b> are born equal. 人人生而平等。</div><div class="ex-item">Darwin concluded that <b>men</b> were descended from apes. 达尔文得出结论说，人是猿猴的后裔。</div><div class="ex-item">No <b>man</b> can live on this deserted island. 这个荒岛上不可能有人居住。</div><div class="ex-item">Put an end to the exploitation of <b>man</b> by <b>man</b>. 消除人剥削人的现象。</div><br><br>
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manage
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>manage</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> <b>manage to inf.</b> 常常用来表示“经过努力得以成功做成某事”，属第四类动词。尤其是用于过去时，与 could 相对应，但 could 只表示过去有此能力，不表示在某一具体场合成功做成某事 (参见 could 条)，而 manage to inf. 则表示经过努力具体做成某事 (inf. 必须是第三类或第四类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I <b>managed to</b> persuade them. 我把他们说服了。</div><div class="ex-item">She <b>managed to</b> get to sleep. 她终于能够睡着了。</div><div class="ex-item">Have you <b>managed to</b> find out the address? 你找到那个地址了吗?</div><div class="ex-item">How did they <b>manage to</b> get away with it? 他们怎么能够得逞的?</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 但是，由于 manage to inf. 带有“与客观困难对抗达到有利结果”的意义，因而也可以转化为表示“与有利的条件相反”或“反倒，反而”做出不利的事的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He <b>managed to</b> lose the documents. 他却把文件丢掉了。</div><div class="ex-item">Some people can eat whatever they want their entire lives and never get fat ... while others are constantly dieting but yet <b>manage to</b> actually gain weight. 有些人一辈子爱吃什么就吃什么，但不发胖……而另一些人则尽管老是节食，结果体重反倒增加。</div><div class="ex-item">Nearly 40 years after the first Earth Day, this is irony: The United States has reduced the manmade pollutants that left its waterways dead, discolored and occasionally flammable... But now, it has <b>managed to</b> smother the same waters with the most natural stuff in the world. (<i>The Daily Gazette</i>, Mar. 7, 2010, E10) 自从第一个地球日以来，几乎过了 40 年了，但讽刺的是：美国本来已经减少了那些令水源枯竭、变色有时甚至可以起火燃烧的人工污染物。……但是现在呢，它反倒用一些最为天然性的材料来堵塞了这些水源。</div><br><br>
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many a
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>many a</b></div>many 本来用于修饰复数，它与 a 合在一起是矛盾的。但英语中不但有 many a 的用法，而且还有 a good many、a great many 的用法，表示众多。但是要注意：many a 后面的名词必须是单数，它作主语 (甚至两个 many a 用 and 连接) 时，谓语动词也必须是单数。a good many 与 a great many 后面的名词必须是复数，它作主语时，谓语动词也必须是复数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Many a</b> true word <b>is</b> (<i>are) spoken in jest. 笑谈常出真言。</div><div class="ex-item"><b>Many a</b> writer <b>and many a</b> speaker <b>has</b> (</i>have) benefited from this book. 许多写作者和演讲者都从这本书中获益。</div><div class="ex-item"><b>A great many</b> true words <b>are</b> (<i>is) spoken in jest. 笑谈常出真言。</div><div class="ex-item"><b>A good many</b> boys <b>have</b> (</i>has) lost their hearts to her. 许多男孩子都为她神魂颠倒。</div><br><br>
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many 与 much
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>many 与 much</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 一般都知道，many 与可数名词复数连用，much 与不可数名词 (通常只有单数) 连用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The offices had so <b>many</b> occupants and were filled with so <b>much</b> furniture; it was hard to move around. 各个办公室人又多，家具又多，挤在里面转不过身。比较数量时，说“多得多”或“少得多”，more (管可数与不可数两种名词)、less (管不可数名词) 或 fewer (管可数名词) 前面要加上 many 还是 much，同样也要看后面的名词是可数还是不可数 (less 前一定是 much，fewer 前一定是 many，more 前则有两种可能)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has <b>many more</b> books than I. 他的书比我的多得多。</div><div class="ex-item">We hope one day soon <b>many fewer</b> people will die from cancer. 我们希望不久之后死于癌症的人会少得多。</div><div class="ex-item">He has <b>much more</b> money than I. 他的钱比我的多得多。如果是要强调形容词的比较级，前面是加上 much 而不能用 *many。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>John is <b>much more</b> tolerant than Smith. 约翰比史密斯宽容得多。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 英语中有少量名词虽然不可数，但却经常采取复数形式；还有一些可数名词以复数形式出现后，意义上成了一个不可以再分成原有一个个小个体的混沌整体。此时，用 many 还是 much (负面比较级用 fewer 还是 less)，就容易出现问题。如名词 oats (燕麦) 是不可数的，但又是复数形式，说 too many oats 或 too much oats 都各有其道理 (参见 oats 条)。名词 pain 的复数 pains 有了另外的“辛苦，劳苦，努力”的词义，不再是单独的一个个 pain 简单放在一起，此时，说 many pains 就十分别扭，所以尽管形式上勉强，也说 much pains，有时也说 great pains 来躲开这个令人头痛的问题 (参见 pain, painful, ache 与 hurt 条)。名词 tax 尽管本身明明是可数名词，但是复数 taxes 如果成了合在一起的一个整体，就往往可以当作一个不可数名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How <b>much taxes</b> will you have to pay? 你要付多少税金? 如果说 How <b>many taxes</b> will you have to pay? 那就可能是“你有多少个税目要交?”。同样，一些涉及款项的复数名词，如 profits、proceeds、investments 等等，都有或用 much 或用 many 的困惑问题。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 单独的 many 与 much 通常不用来修饰肯定句中的直接宾语，例如不能说 *I have <b>much</b> money. (但也有人认为 many 可以用于肯定句。) 否定句就可以用，如 I don't have <b>much</b> money. 和 We don't have <b>many</b> friends. 在肯定句中，直接宾语前面的 much 和 many 通常要用别的一些说法来代替，例如 a lot of、a great deal of、a good deal of、plenty of、a great quantity of、a large quantity of、a large number of 等等。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>One of the policemen started asking me <b>a lot of</b> questions. 其中一个警察开始向我提出了很多问题。</div><br><br>但是，much 和 many 之前如果有 too、so 或 as，就可以用于修饰肯定句中的直接宾语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They drank <b>too much</b>. 他们喝得太多了。</div><div class="ex-item">He spent <b>so much</b> money. 他花了这么多的钱。</div><div class="ex-item">She read <b>as much</b> as she could. 她尽可能大量地阅读。</div><br><br>如果放在句首作主语或主语的修饰语，many 与 much 可以用于肯定句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Many/A lot of</b> people came to the party. 许多人前来参加了联欢会。</div><div class="ex-item"><b>Much</b> will depend on what the minister says. 许多事情要取决于部长怎样说。但是 much 一般只用于正式场合，非正式场合多用代替词组 a lot。many 也常常不用而用 a lot of 或 plenty of 代替。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Plenty of</b> press secretaries have written behind-the-scenes views of the West Wing. (<i>The Associated Press</i>, Nov. 23, 2007) 许多白宫新闻发言人都写过有关白宫西厢内幕的著作。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 前面说过，many 和 much 可以用来修饰否定句中的直接宾语。在英文中，疑问句同否定句往往属于同一种范畴 (例如：肯定句用 some，否定句和疑问句就都用 any)，但是 many 和 much 在疑问句中却不像在否定句中那样畅行无阻。如果前面用 how 引导，many 和 much 当然可以用 (如 How <b>many</b> people did you invite? 和 How <b>much</b> money did you spend? )。如果前面不用 how，而且提问者期望得到肯定的回答，则直接宾语前面最好还是不用 many 而用上面说过的代替词组。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Did you take <b>a lot of</b> (*many) photos? I expect you did. 我想你一定拍了许多照片吧? 至于 much，前面不用 how，在不期望得到肯定回答的疑问句中也可以用来修饰直接宾语，但更常用的仍然是 a lot of 之类的代替词组。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Did you have <b>a lot of</div><div class="ex-item">much</b> snow last year? 你们那里去年下雪多吗?</div><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> many、much 等数量词在意义上有“有标记” (marked) 与“无标记” (unmarked) 的区别。所谓“有标记”，是说这个词在意义上有倾向性，例如 many 和 much 表示数量之多。而所谓“无标记”，则是说这个词只是表示中性的、无倾向的“数量或多或少”。对于 many 和 much 这类数量词，以及对于 old、tall、high、heavy、long、wide 这类形容词，在使用和理解时，都要区别“有标记”和“无标记”。记”，以免误用或误解。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... without a massive number of bees to flit among the blossoms, growers say, almond trees would produce scarcely a tenth as <b>many</b> nuts. (<i>Time</i>, Mar. 23, 2009, p. 9) …… 种植者说，如果没有大量的蜜蜂飞于杏花丛中，杏树生产的杏仁，连十分之一都到不了。</div><div class="ex-item">There are <b>only so many</b> ways to divide the relatively few dollars provided for community development projects. 给社区开发项目提供的拨款比较少，如何分配，办法就只有这一些。这里的 so many 不是“如此之多”，而是由于有 only 修饰，是“如此之少”。同样，问一个小孩 How <b>old</b> are you? 这个 old 就绝对不是“老”的意思。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> many 只能充当名词的前置定语，不能作表语，作表语可用 plentiful。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Even the hospital seemed mostly empty when I got there, and parking spaces were <b>plentiful</b>. (David Rosenfelt, <i>Heart of a Killer</i>) 我赶到医院时，就连医院也似乎大部分空空如也，停车位很多。</div><br><br>
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market
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>market</b></div>前面用 in 或 on 都可以，但是有一点细微的差别。用 in 多指人的活动或商情，用 on 则多指商品的上市买卖或价格行情。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the company's current position <b>in</b> the <b>market</b> 公司当前在市场上的地位</div><div class="ex-item">competition <b>in</b> the <b>market</b> 市场竞争</div><div class="ex-item">housing bubble <b>in</b> the <b>market</b> 市场上的房产泡沫</div><div class="ex-item">The supplier adopted an innovation that soon became popular <b>in</b> the <b>market</b>. 供应商采用了一种创新办法，这种创新很快就在市场上流行起来。</div><div class="ex-item">What separates winners from losers <b>in</b> the futures <b>market</b>? 期货市场上的赢家和输家区别在哪里?</div><div class="ex-item">They are seeking to grow aggressively <b>in</b> the New York <b>market</b>. 他们正设法大刀阔斧地在纽约市场上发展。</div><div class="ex-item">This product is <b>on</b> the <b>market</b> again. 这种产品现在又上市了。</div><div class="ex-item">Some engineered food are now allowed <b>on</b> the <b>market</b>. 一些利用基因工程生产的食品现在允许上市了。</div><div class="ex-item">Which are the hottest stocks <b>on</b> the <b>market</b>? 哪些是市面上最热门的股票?</div><div class="ex-item">A new building is <b>on</b> the <b>market</b> today. 今天又有一幢新大楼开盘。</div><div class="ex-item">It's absurd to have education <b>on</b> the <b>market</b>. 教育市场化是荒谬的。</div><div class="ex-item">Would you like to sell your corn <b>on</b> the futures <b>market</b> before you harvest it? 您想在玉米收获之前就在期货市场上销售吗? 不过，这里的界限不是截然分明的，所以 in 与 on 也常常互换。 </div>
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marriage 与 wedding
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>marriage 与 wedding</b></div><b>marriage</b> 指的是：(1) 结成亲事的这个事实或行动。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The bride's parents did not approve of Victoria's <b>marriage</b> to George. 新娘维多利亚的父母并不赞同她同乔治的亲事。(2) 婚姻关系或状态。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They enjoyed a long and happy <b>marriage</b>. 他们婚姻美满，地久天长。关于 marriage 表示“结婚行为”与“婚姻关系”的两重意义，参见 marry 条之 (5)。</div>
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marry
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>marry</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 动词 marry 无论是作为及物动词还是不及物动词，都是表示瞬间动作，属第四类动词，除非表示反复或习惯动作，或是用于表示将来的时间状语从句，一般不用一般现在时。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作为不及物动词，主语可以是男方一人或女方一人，也可以是男女双方，但不能加上 with + 对方。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He <b>married</b> (<i>married with her) in 1996. 他在 1996 年结婚了。</div><div class="ex-item">They <b>married</b> (</i>married with each other, *married each other) in Shanghai. 他们在上海结婚了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 作为及物动词，marry 可以指男方“娶”女方，也可以指女方“嫁”男方。也可以指家长给儿子娶媳妇或嫁出 (常常加上副词 out，成为 marry out) 女儿，或是证婚人 (在西方往往是牧师、神父或法官) 主持宣布两人结为夫妻。另外，至于 he married his wife 或 she married her husband 的说法，有些人认为等于说婚前已经是夫妻，不合逻辑。其实，合不合逻辑姑且不论，这样的说法本身就是不必要的，说 he married 或 she married 就已经足够了。<br><br>由于结婚不光是夫妻两人自己办的事，往往牵涉到家长和牧师或法官来操办，因此就出现一个“被动”的意义 (参见 swear 条、graduate 条等，也有类似的情况)，marry 也就产生了被动语态 be married 与 get married。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... that the clergyman absolutely refused to <b>marry</b> them without a witness of some sort. (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, <i>The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes</i>) …… 牧师因为没有任何见证人，断然拒绝给他们证婚。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> <b>get married</b> 是“结婚”的瞬间动作 (第四类动词)；<b>be married</b> 则通常是延续状态 (第一类动词)。除非是指反复习惯性的行为，或是用于表示将来的时间状语从句，get married 不可以有一般现在时；而 be married 则可以，也可以用 for 来说明这个状态延续的时间长短。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He <b>has been married</b> to his wife for thirty-six years. Their daughter <b>is married</b> to a Harvard professor. 他同他的妻子已经结婚 36 年了。他们的女儿嫁给了一位哈佛教授。</div><div class="ex-item">He <b>was married</b> to the actress from 1978 to 1985. 他自 1978 年至 1985 年同那个女演员有婚姻关系。</div><div class="ex-item">They <b>got married</b> last month. 他们上个月结了婚。但是 be married 也可以同 get married 一样用作第四类动词，指瞬间的“结婚”行为。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He and his wife <b>were married</b> in 1979. 他和他妻子是 1979 年结的婚。</div><br><br>He <b>was married with</b> ... 后面可以是“他的妻子” (要有独特的说明，不能笼统说 a woman 或 his wife 等“废话”)，也可以是“几个子女”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He <b>was married</b> <b>with</b> a black woman. 他娶了一个黑人妻子。</div><div class="ex-item">He <b>was married with</b> five children. 他已婚，有五个孩子。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 派生的名词 marriage 也可以是瞬时行动，或者是延续状态。美国政府发出的一张填写个人情况的表格里提到填写人过去的配偶时，问 date of marriage (结婚日期)，这里的 marriage 指瞬时的行动；又问 date of marriage ended (婚姻结束日期)，这里的 marriage 指延续的婚姻状态。<br><br>
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marry 与 wed
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>marry 与 wed</b></div>动词 wed 的各种搭配和用法，基本上同 marry 相同。尽管 marriage 与 wedding 有“婚姻关系”与“婚礼仪式”的区别，但是谈到“举行婚礼”时，动词仍然更多使用 marry，较少使用 wed，因为 wed 比较古旧 (但名词 wedding 仍然通用)。参见 wed 条。不过如果同一处地方“结婚”反复出现太多时，wed 也可以同 marry 换着用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>For example, about 23% of college graduates who <b>marry</b> in the 1970s split within 10 years. For those who <b>wed</b> in the 1990s, the rate dropped to 16%. (<i>Time</i>, May 24, 2010) 例如 20 世纪 70 年代结婚的大学毕业生，十年之内离异的占 23%。而 90 年代结婚的，这个比例则下降到 16%。</div><br><br>
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marshal
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>marshal</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 中国人一碰到这个单词，马上就会想到“元帅”。其实“元帅”只是其中一个释义。美国军队没有“元帅”这个军阶，所以 marshal 这个词在美国通常指法庭的法警或消防队的队长。近年来为了防止劫机事件发生，派了一些武装便衣警卫人员保障飞行安全，这些人被称为 air marshal (英国的 Air Marshal 是“空军中将”，但美国的 air marshal 不要误解为“空军元帅”)。英国则有“元帅”这个军阶，例如 Marshal Montgomery (蒙哥马利元帅)，而且不用 marshal 这个词来指警卫人员，所以这个词在英美两国差别很大。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> marshal 也可以用作及物动词，意思是“收集；整理；安排”。要注意不要看错词性。如 ... help the U.S. <b>marshal</b> the support of other nations (<i>Foreign Affairs</i>, September/October, 2004, p. 79)，这里不要把 U.S. marshal 连在一起误解为“美国元帅”，意思应该是“……帮助美国争取其他国家的支持”。<br><br>
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masterful 与 masterly
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>masterful 与 masterly</b></div>两者都可以既指人又指事物。<br><br>指事物时，是“高超的，巧妙的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This was done with <b>masterful</b> timing. 做这件事情，时间安排得妙极了。</div><div class="ex-item">It was a <b>masterly</b> performance. 表演十分精彩。</div><br><br>但是如果指人或其行为，则意义上区别较大。masterful 主要表示该人盛气凌人、高高在上。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She knew he would be too <b>masterful</b> for her. 她知道，他盛气凌人，她会受不了。</div><div class="ex-item">His voice became more <b>masterful</b>. 他的声调更加傲慢了。masterly 则主要表示该人能力高强。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was <b>masterly</b> in dealing with people. 他同人交往很有一套。</div><br><br>
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match
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>match</b></div>这个单词，除了作为名词时的“火柴”和“体育比赛”两个用法比较单纯的词义之外，作为名词和动词表示与“配对”相关的意思时，词义和用法都稍为复杂，需要特别探讨。但是最基本的意义，就是“配对” (即使是“火柴”和“体育比赛”，也同“配对”有关系)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为名词，首先比较简单的一个词义，就是“棋逢对手，将遇良材”中旗鼓相当的“敌手”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He's a <b>match</b> for anybody. 他不亚于任何人。</div><div class="ex-item">He was more than a <b>match</b> for Jones. 他赛过琼斯。</div><div class="ex-item">I had finally met/found my <b>match</b> in power and intellect. 我终于遇上了论势论智都不相上下的敌手。</div><div class="ex-item">I was no <b>match</b> for a man with such power. 我敌不过这样有势力的人。</div><div class="ex-item">He was no <b>match</b> for his rival in exploiting crises. 利用危机，他比不过他的对手。</div><div class="ex-item">We shall never see his <b>match</b>. 比得上他的，我们不会再看到第二个。match 在这里也可以转义，不指人而指难题。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I thought I knew quite a lot about electrical things, but when I was given this old radio to repair, I had to admit that I'd met my <b>match</b>. 我起初以为自己对电器懂得不少，但是人家一交给这台旧式收音机叫我修理，我就不得不承认遇到了难题。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 这个“配对”的意义，更常常用到配偶方面。match 在这里有时指配偶的一方，有时指双方合成的一对，有时指双方的结合。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a pure love <b>match</b> 情投意合的婚事</div><div class="ex-item">The two of them make/are a good <b>match</b>. 他们俩是很好的一对。</div><div class="ex-item">Who thought up this <b>match</b>? 这门亲事是谁堆出的主意?</div><div class="ex-item">She made a good <b>match</b>. 她结了一门好亲事。</div><div class="ex-item">You must not think that I approve of this <b>match</b>. 你别以为我会赞成这门亲事。</div><div class="ex-item">He's a good <b>match</b>. 他是个如意郎君。</div><div class="ex-item">They are right <b>matches</b>. 他们是很合适的一对。(注意 matches 复数。)</div><div class="ex-item">We'll find a good <b>match</b> for you. 我们会替你找个好对象的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> “配对”也可以指事物之间的“相配，和谐”。match 在这里可以指“另一配对物”，也可以指“双方配对物的总和”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The skirt is a good <b>match</b> for the blouse. 裙子同衬衣很相配。</div><div class="ex-item">Can you find the <b>match</b> to this glove? 你能找到这双手套的另一只吗?</div><div class="ex-item">I've found a vase that's an exact <b>match</b> of the one we already have. 我找到了一个花瓶，同我们已经有的那个花瓶恰恰配成对。</div><div class="ex-item">Helen's choice of lipstick was a good <b>match</b> for her skin-tone. 海伦选择的口红，同她的肤色很相配。</div><div class="ex-item">The chairs and the desk are a good <b>match</b>. 椅子和书桌很相配。</div><div class="ex-item">These colours are a good <b>match</b>. 这些颜色彼此很相配。</div><br><br>近年来由于器官移植手术逐渐普及，match 也获得了一个新的医学词义，就是“与等待移植的病人的条件相符合的供体”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A <b>match</b> was found for the patient, and the date for transplant operation was set. 找到了同病人配对的供体，于是定了移植手术的日期。</div><br><br>法医学上近年来也常常使用 DNA 来查明人的身份，match 就可以表示与某一标本相符的另一标本，或者两者之间“相符”的关系 (作为名词或者及物或不及物动词，属第一类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>99.6 percent of the population of North American could be excluded as a <b>match</b>. 北美居民有 99.6% 可以不算作符合对象。</div><div class="ex-item">This increased the likelihood of a <b>match</b> between the DNA on the toll ticket and the defendant's DNA. 这就加大了过路收费单上的 DNA 同被告的 DNA 相符的概率。</div><div class="ex-item">The probability the defendant's DNA <b>matched</b> the DNA on a Thruway toll ticket was 99 percent. 被告的DNA 同高速公路过路收费单上的 DNA 相符的概率为 99%。</div><br><br>match 也可以转义表示“同质之物”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Do you have a <b>match</b> for this ribbon? 你们有没有同这一个一样的丝带?</div><div class="ex-item">The new paint is not quite a perfect <b>match</b>. 新的油漆同原来的不完全一样。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> match 作为表示延续状态的第一类动词，以及及物，也可以不及物。作为及物动词，它的直接宾语可以是与主语匹敌或配对的对象，也可以是主语拿来同另一对象 (用介词 with 或 to 引入) 匹配的对象。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The gloves <b>match</b> the scarf. 手套和头巾很相配。</div><div class="ex-item">His arrogance is <b>matched</b> only by that of his father. 他的傲慢，只有他父亲才能与之相比。</div><div class="ex-item">This restaurant can't be <b>matched</b> for quality. 这家餐馆的质量是无双的。</div><div class="ex-item">It doesn't <b>match</b> our client's specifications. 这不符合我们客户的规格。</div><div class="ex-item">The windmill blades will be adjustable to <b>match</b> wind speeds. 风车叶片是可以根据风速调整的。</div><br><br>match 作为不及物动词，如果主语是双方，意思是“互相匹配”；如果主语是单方，通常要补上 with 介词短语，表示“与……相匹配” (有时对象清楚，也可以略去 with 短语)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I can't find two socks that <b>match</b>. 我找不到两只成对的袜子。</div><div class="ex-item">None of the glasses <b>matched</b>. 所有玻璃杯都不成对。</div><div class="ex-item">These gloves <b>match</b> very nicely <b>with</b> your coat. 这些手套同您的外衣很配。</div><br><br>match 作为表示延续状态的及物动词，派生的过去分词 matched 已经差不多成了形容词，意思是“相匹配的”或是“势均力敌的”，常作表语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He and his wife are well <b>matched</b>. 他和他妻子彼此很相配。</div><div class="ex-item">The two teams are well <b>matched</b>. 两队实力势均力敌。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> match 也可以作为表示“进行配对”的瞬时动作动词，属第四类动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Can you <b>match</b> the names <b>with</b> the photographs? 你能把每个人的名字同他们的照片一一对应起来吗?</div><div class="ex-item">I have trouble <b>matching</b> names <b>to</b> faces. 我把人名同人脸对应起来很吃力。如果不用于 with 或 to 而用于 against，则有“拿……来同……比高低”的意思。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He <b>matched</b> his skills <b>against</b> the champion's. 他同冠军比本领。</div><br><br>另外，作为及物动词的 match 还有一个转义，就是作为瞬时动词 (第四类动词)，表示“为了使得本事物能与另一类似事物并驾齐驱，而对差距加以弥补”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We won't be beaten on price. Find the same item elsewhere at a lower retail price and we'll <b>match</b> the difference! 我们在价格上决不会输给别人。您如果在别处发现有同样的货物而零售价更低廉，我们一定弥补这个差价!</div><div class="ex-item">I feel sure that my company would be able to <b>match</b> his (= my competitor's) offer. (Jeffrey Archer, <i>The Fourth Estate</i>) 我肯定我的公司出价不会比他低。</div><div class="ex-item">We <b>match</b> all competitors' prescription prices and offers. (Rite-Aide announcement) 本店所有的配方药品价格以及优惠活动与其他店家相比具有竞争力。</div><br><br>
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material
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>material</b></div>中文说某人是“……的料”，指某人天生有做某事或扮演某角色的才能。英文中也恰恰可以用 material 来表示 (前面加名词或形容词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She is champion <b>material</b>. 她是个拿冠军的料。</div><div class="ex-item">He is presidential <b>material</b>. 他是个当总统的料。</div><div class="ex-item">Heis not college <b>material</b>. 他不是个念大学的料。</div><div class="ex-item">He was a private, tagged by his instructors as not even corporal <b>material</b>. 他是个列兵，他的教官们认定了他连当下士的料也不是。</div><br><br>有时候 material 也可以指事物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This is bestseller <b>material</b>. 这是成为畅销书的料。</div><br><br>
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material 与 materiel
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>material 与 materiel</b></div><b>material</b> 是个可数名词，泛指各种“材料”，就具体物质而言，可以是原料，也可以是制成品，总之是人心目中有用的物质。也可以指手写或印刷的书面材料。<b>materiel</b> 则来自法文 matériel，本来相当于英文中的形容词 material，但被英文借用后意义范围缩小，只能作为不可数名词，指军事上或工业生产上的“装备”。<br><br>
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matter
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>matter</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> <b>matter</b> 与 <b>substance</b> 在汉语中都指“物质”。但前者泛指与非物质 (如能量、精神等) 对立的物质；后者则指具体的某种物质，如氧气、硫酸、聚氯乙烯、铁等等 (主要着眼于其化学性质而不在其形状)。前者无冠词，后者则必须有不定冠词或不定冠词。参见 language 条中一般人类语言与某一具体语言的区别。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 但是 <b>substance</b> 通常只是泛泛地指某种特定的物质，不能用来作为这物质的专门名称，此时专门名称仍然用 matter 前面加上相应的形容词，例如：解剖学上的“白质”是 white <b>matter</b> 而不是 <i>white substance (“白色的物质”)，“灰质”是 grey <b>matter</b> 而不是 </i>grey substance (“灰色的物质”)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> matter 的一个特殊搭配和用法是：the matter (the 不可缺少) 放在 something、anything、nothing 后面或是作为 be 动词的表语，可以理解为相当于形容词 wrong，这里的定冠词 the 没有特定意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There's nothing <b>the matter</b> (= nothing wrong) with the car. 车子没有毛病。</div><div class="ex-item">What's <b>the matter</b> (= What's wrong) with you? 你怎么啦?</div><div class="ex-item">Something is <b>the matter</b> (= is wrong) with the TV set. 电视机出了毛病。</div><div class="ex-item">I found nothing at all <b>the matter</b> with him. 我根本没有看到他出了什么问题。注意：千万不要把 all the matter 合在一起；at all 是一个整体，同 the matter 没有直接关系。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 遇到有人来访或是来电话时，如果要问他有什么事，不要说 <i>What is the matter? 因为这样说，就是相当于问 What is wrong? (出了什么事情?) 要说 Can I help you?</div><div class="ex-item">May I help you?</div><div class="ex-item">What can I do for you?</div><div class="ex-item">What is it I can do for you?</div><div class="ex-item">How may I help you? 如果来访者要找另一个人，则可以问他 What is your business with him? 来访者坐定了之后，则可以问他 Tell me what brings you here, and how I can help you. 如果双方都是很相熟的人，就不用问 Can I help you? 可以说 What's up? 总之，除非真的问“出了什么 (意外) 事情?”，一般不要说 </i>What is the matter?问“是怎么一回事?”，也不能说 <i>What is the matter? 因为这等于说“出了什么麻烦?”。如一个报纸女读者来信说，她发现丈夫谎称去看牙医，其实是去幽会别的女人，报纸编辑建议：... tell Roy that he was spotted having a chummy lunch with some woman on the day he supposedly had a dentist's appointment, and ask him <b>what's up</b> (</i>what's the matter). (<i>The Daily Gazette</i>, Nov. 16, 2010, B3) (……告诉罗伊，有人看见他在据说预约了牙医的那一天同某个女人一起亲亲热热地进餐，然后问他是怎么一回事。) 这里的 what's up 是比较平淡的提问，免得一开头就大发雷霆。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> <b>a matter of</b> 可以表示时间段之短。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>in <b>a matter of days</b> 短短几天之间</div><div class="ex-item">and his body would give up in <b>a matter of years</b> (Eoin Colfer, <i>The Supernaturalist</i>) 短短几年他的身体就垮了</div><div class="ex-item">The guards will react to an alarm call within <b>a matter of minutes</b>. 警报一响，守卫人员短短几分钟内就会做出反应。</div><div class="ex-item">We were off our course by <b>a matter of</b> ten to twenty miles to the west. 我们当时向西偏离了航道一二十英里。</div><br><br>表示时间段之长，可以说 over a stretch of + 多长时间。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... the others who had died <b>over a stretch of</b> nearly twenty years. (Mary Higgins Clark, <i>Nighttime Is My Time</i>) …… 在几乎长达 20 年当中先后去世的其他人。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 中国人常常只把 matter 当作名词，其实 matter 往往作为动词出现，而且不带其他成分作补充说明，表示“要紧，有重要意义”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Your happiness, that's the only thing that <b>matters</b>. 你的幸福，这是唯一要紧的大事。</div><div class="ex-item">The choices teachers make <b>matter</b>. 老师们做出的选择是重要的。</div><div class="ex-item">Actually, if you buy modern jurisprudence on the establishment of religion, context <b>matters</b>, and there are reasons to differentiate between the two cases. 的确，你如果接受有关宗教体制的现代法理学，那么，背景就是有重要意义的，两个案例区别对待是有理由的。(注意：context 是谓语动词 matters 的主语，不是复数名词 matters 的定语。)</div><div class="ex-item">Candidates win the popular vote by winning in big cities and ignoring the rest of the country. The electoral college ensures (that) the rest of us <b>matter</b>. 候选人们在大城市获得选民数量选票，就算赢得了选举，对国内的其他区域就置之不顾。而选举人制度，却保证了我们其余的人能发挥自己的作用。</div><div class="ex-item">Whatever you think <b>matters</b> doesn't. 你觉得要紧的事，其实都无所谓。</div><br><br>
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mature 与 expire
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>mature 与 expire</b></div>参见 expire 与 mature 条。<br><br>
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may not
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>may not</b></div>一般语法书认为，may not 的意思是“得到允许可以不做某事”或者“也许不会做某事”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She may not come to the party. (= perhaps she will not come.) 她也许不会来参加联欢了。/ I might not go to work tomorrow. (= perhaps I will not go.) 我也许明天不去上班了。/ The use of aspirin and other anti-inflammatory drugs may not reduce the risk of colorectal cancer. 服用阿司匹林和其他消炎药可能并不会降低患结肠直肠癌的风险。</div><br><br>但是，在实际语言中，may not 也可以表示禁止。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Bikes may not be stored on or next to the balcony. 自行车不可以存放在阳台上或阳台旁边。/ You may not bring these things to school. 你们不可以把这些东西拿到学校里来。/ You may not copy, reproduce, upload, post, distribute, republish, retransmit, or modify in any way any of the material on this site. 您不可以以任何方式抄录、复制、上传、张贴、散发、再发表、转发或是修改本网站上的任何材料。</div><br><br>
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may 与 can
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>may 与 can</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 一般认为，may 是得到允许去做某事，can 是自己有能力去做某事。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He <b>can</b> swim the channel. 他能游过海峡。</div><div class="ex-item">Children <b>may</b> swim in the pool only when there is a life-saver present. 唯有救生员在场，儿童方可以到游泳池里游泳。但是在实际用途中，can 往往“侵犯” may 的使用领域。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You <b>can</b> go when I dismiss the class, but no sooner. 等到我宣布下课，你就可以走，但未下课不能走。有时候这会造成歧义。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You <b>can</b> walk to the theatre. 你走得到剧院。/ 允许你走到剧院。需要从上下文来判别。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 如果某人客气地询问 <b>May</b> I use the telephone? 回答时最好不说 Yes, you <b>may</b>. 这样说有点高高在上恩准别人的口气 (人家用 may 是自谦，回答时如果把人家的自谦原封不动接过就成了自傲了)。最好说 Yes, of course you <b>can</b>.<br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 如果对客观可能性进行推测，肯定句只能用 may、might、could，不能用 *can (参见 can 条之 (3))。对客观可能性进行推测，否定时可以用 may 或 can，但是 may 与 can 否定时意义不同，may not 是“可能不”，cannot 是“不可能”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She may not be at home. 她可能不在家。/ She cannot be at home. 她不可能在家。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 自己说别人可以做什么事情（也就是宣布允许如何），可以用 may 或 can。但是如果是客观叙述某人已经得到允许可以如何，就不能用 <i>may (叙述过去也不能用 </i>might)，要用 can 或 be allowed to。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>These days, children can/are allowed to (<i>may) do what they like. 现在孩子爱干什么就可以干什么。/ I could/was allowed to (</i>might) read what I liked when I was a child. 我小时候爱看什么书就可以看什么书。/ Can you/Are you allowed to (*May you) park on both sides of the road here? 这条路两边都可以停车吗？但是如果间接叙述别人宣布允许如何，可以用 may。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The manager says that we may leave our coats in the toilet downstairs. 经理说我们可以把外套放在楼下的卫生间里。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> may 有两大不同的意义，即“允许”（不重读）与“估计”（重读），究竟是哪一种，取决于下列因素：(a) 主语是不是人，如果是人又是第几人称；(b) 后面的不定式动词是有意志的动作还是无意志的事件或状态，这个动词的意义对主语有利还是不利。首先，如果主语是 I，用 may 表示“允许”时，句子只能是疑问句，如 May I smoke? (<i>I may smoke. 或 </i>I may not smoke. 都是不通的。) 但主语是第二人称 you 或第三人称 he、she、they 时，则可以用 may 的陈述句表示“允许”或“不允许”。其次，may 后面的不定式动词，如果对第二与第三人称的主语有利，这个 may (无论是肯定句还是否定句) 都是表示“允许”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You may smoke. 你可以抽烟。但如果不利 (只是肯定句)，这个 may 就不是表示“允许”而是表示“估计”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You may be punished. 你可能受罚。/ You may lose your way if you don't take a map. 你如果不带地图就可能迷路。有些动词，很难判定有利还是不利，意义就可能是“允许”或“估计”两可。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He may leave tomorrow. 他可以明天离开。/ 他可能明天离开。如一份教人如何处理流鼻血的材料中说：If the bleeding has stopped, don't clean out your nose, or you may pick off the scab that has formed. (如果流血停止了，不要清理鼻腔，否则已经形成的血痂会被弄掉。) 这里的后半句不能理解为“或者你可以把已经形成的血痂弄掉”。这里的 pick off 虽然是有意志的行为，但却是不利的，是当事人犯下的错误；这里的 may 不是“允许”而是“有可能(做出不对的事)”。最后，至于非人主语，may 就当然不会有“允许”的含义，只能表示“估计”。</div><br><br>即使主语是人，may 后面的不定式动词是有意识的有利动作，如果这个不定式动词以 have + pp. 的形式出现，这个 may 也不是“允许”而是“估计”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He may have finished his work. 他估计完成工作了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> may (“估计”) 与 can (“估计”) 还有一个区别，就是 may 所表示的“可能”是当前就事论事的，而 can 则是泛泛而言的。如 The yen can be devaluated.</div><div class="ex-item">The yen may be devaluated. 前一句只是就任何货币都可能贬值而推论日元也不例外，而后一句则是就当前货币金融市场的现状做出走势的判断。再如 A friend can betray you. (朋友可能出卖你。) 这里用 can，暗示 a friend 是“虚指的某人”；而 A friend may betray you. 这里用 may 则是指“已有的朋友当中会有一个出卖你”。又如 Someone has got to be telling lies. 是指“肯定有人在撒谎” (只是肯定有此事，不涉及是谁)；而 Someone must be telling lies. 则是指“已知的人当中肯定有某个人 (可能知道是谁但不明说，也可能不知是谁，但肯定有这样一个人) 在撒谎”。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> might as well 的隐含意思是“别的不可能，就只能如此；退而求其次；勉强接受，只好如此”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Val would surely ask Juliane about his past, and the whole mess of his life would come out in that conversation. He might as well accept the inevitable. (Merrillee Whren, Hometown Promise) 瓦尔一定会向朱莉安打听他的过往，这一来他一辈子全部的糟糕事都会在那次交谈中兜出来。他只好接受不可避免的结局。</div><br><br>
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may 与 might
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>may 与 might</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> may 与 might 都可以用来表示对当前或不久的将来出现的客观情况的估计 (与一般的理解不同，might 除非出现在间接引语，否则就不是 may 的过去时)。但是 may 隐含的可能性比 might 略大。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I may go to London tomorrow. Joe might come with me. 我大概明天去伦敦。乔说不定会同我一起去。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 如果隐含“如果”的意思，则后果用 might 而不用 *may 表示。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Go to bed right now. You might feel better. 现在就上床睡觉。你会好过点的。/ Don't play with knives. You might get hurt. 别玩刀子。你会割伤的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> may have + pp. 与 might have + pp. 都可以用来表示对过去可能发生某事的一种肯定估计。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She may/might have missed her train. 她大概没有赶上火车。但是用 might 时可能有歧义，因为 might 还可以用来表示“本来当时可能如何但是结果没有如何”。如 She might have missed her train. 也可以是“她本来可能赶不上火车的，但最后还是赶上了”，要看上下文和语境。这句话用 may 时，则只有“她大概没有赶上火车”一种意义。所以，以下的几个例句中，may 都用得不对，应该改为 might。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The doctor failed to use the procedure that might (<i>may) have prolonged the patient's life. 那个手术本来可以延长病人的生命，但是医生没有采用。/ The engineer ignored the signal that might (</i>may) have prevented the crash. 工程师要是注意到那个信号，本来可以避免撞击，但是他没有理会。/ Too late he introduced the measure that might (*may) have saved the bank from failing. 那个措施本来可以使银行免于破产，但是他采取措施时为时已晚。</div><br><br>但是，如果说的是现在对过去可能发生某事或存在某状态的一种估计，尤其是学术性的考证，最好还是用 may have + pp. (这个 pp. 动词可以是瞬时的，也可以是延续的)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>(This kind of dinosaurs) were quick and flexible and had skin with scales that may have been striped. (The Associated Press, Dec. 2, 2007) (这类恐龙) 行动敏捷灵活，皮肤上有鳞甲，鳞甲上可能有条纹。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 表示祝愿，只能用 may，不能用 *might。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>May the New Year bring you all your heart desires. 祝您新年万事如意。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 表示委婉的建议，只能用 might，不能用 *may。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You might try asking him for a job. 你可以试试看问他要份工作。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 在口语中，重读 may 或 might，可以表示认为不大可能甚至不可能。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Tom may lend you the money. 汤姆不见得会把钱借给你。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 与 as well 一起，may 指笼统一般的优劣取舍，might 则指当前具体的优劣取舍。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>One may as well not know a thing at all as know it imperfectly. 一知半解，倒不如干脆一无所知。(笼统的)</div><div class="ex-item">If God were as you Calvinists say, I would not worship Him. I would rather go to Hell because I might as well be in Hell as to have to spend eternity with such a wicked, evil and untrustworthy god. 假如上帝真的像你们加尔文派所说的那样，我就不会崇拜他，我就不会宁可下地狱，因为与其跟这样一个狠毒、邪恶、不值得信任的上帝过一辈子，我倒不如到地狱里过。(当前具体的)</div>
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mean
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>mean</b></div>作为及物动词 (第一类动词)，mean 的含义从最原始的“意味着，意思是”逐步加强：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 本来是一般的“意思是，定义是”，主语是事物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>What does “hermetic” mean? hermetic 这个单词是什么意思？可以有转义。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In a competitive market, price means everthing. 在竞争市场上，价格就是一切。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 主语是人，mean 表示“某人通过说出某话要表达某意思”，这个“某话”用 by 引入，mean 的强度与 (1) 相同。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>What do you mean by “hermetic”? 你说的 hermetic 是什么意思？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 有所加强，主语是人，宾语是名词成分或 that 名词从句，mean 表示“(真正要说但表面没有明说的) 意思”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>What do you mean? 你说这话是什么意思？/ Do you mean that I was lying? 你的意思是说我撒谎吗？/ That's not what I meant. 我刚才说的不是这个意思。by 后面如果引入动名词，就不是 (2) 那样的限于词义内容如何，而是指行动的后果。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>What do you mean by waking me up at this time of night? 你半夜三更这个时候把我弄醒，是什么意思？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 再加强一点，后面接上名词或代词作宾语，或接上动词不定式，表示主语是郑重其事的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Don't worry, he didn't mean it. 别担心，他那样说不见得当真。/ I mean what I say. 我是说到做到的。/ He seemed to mean the compliments hepaid her. 他对她的恭维，似乎是真心的。/ Do you really mean to leave so early? 你真的要这么早就走吗？/ Did you mean John to post those letters? 你的意思是耍约翰把那些信寄掉吗？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 更进一步加强，表示“有意或故意做某事”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I mean to succeed. 我一定要成功。/ He means well. 他是出于好意。/ He didn't mean you any harm. 他一点也没有伤害你的意思。/ He means no offense by it. 他这样说并无恶意。/ It hit you, but I didn't mean it. 伤是伤了你，但我不是无意的。/ I didn't mean to make you cry. 我本来不是要惹你哭的。/ I meant to do it, but I forgot. 我原来是要这样做的，但是忘记了。/ I've been meaning to phone you for weeks. 好几个礼拜我一直都打算给你打电话。</div><br><br>有时候 mean 后面的动词不定式的逻辑主语同 mean 的主语不同，此时可以令这个不同的主语以 mean 的宾语的形式出现，后面再接上动词不定式。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We didn't mean it to end this way. 我们本来并没有打算让事情弄成这样的结果。/ I meant it to be very honest of me. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 我那样做正是老实的表现。有时候 mean 与这个宾语之间还可以加上介词 for。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I really doubt he ever meant for it to go this far. 我的确不大相信他原来就有意把事情闹得这样大。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> be meant for 这个词组属于表示延续状态 (或表示判断) 而非表示瞬时变化的第一类动词，意思是“为……而设”“以……为目标”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He believed the bullet was meant for his brother. 他相信那颗子弹本来是要打他哥哥的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> what do you mean 用起来要慎重，尤其是如果后面不接上其他具体的说明成分，单说 What do you mean? 有气汹汹地“兴师问罪”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>What do you mean, I can't sing? 你这是什么意思？是说我不能唱吗？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> mean 的一般过去时 meant 如果后面接上 to have + pp. 或 to have been + pp.，意思就是“原意虽然如此，但未能实现”，参见 hope 条之 (4)。<br><br>
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means
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>means</b></div>单复数同形。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a means of storing power 储存能量的办法</div><div class="ex-item">means of production 生产资料。</div><br><br>
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meant
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>meant</b></div>是动词 mean 的过去分词。用于被动语态时，属第一类动词，有几方面的不同意义：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> be meant for someone/something，表示“以……为对象”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Her smile was meant for me. 她的微笑，是向着我的。/ These spoons aren't meant for soup. 这些勺子不是用来喝汤的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> be meant to inf.，表示“(按常理) 应该”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Parents are meant to love their children equally. 父母照理应该一视同仁地爱自己的孩子。/ They're meant to be good cars. 按理这些年应该是好车。/ It's meant to be good for arthritis. 照说，这对治疗关节炎应该是有效的。/ I was meant to be there at six o'clock. 我原定六点钟到达那里。/ I found a road that wasn't meant to be there. 我发现了一条本来不应该在那里的路。be meant to inf. 也可以表示“有资格做某事；生来就适合做某事”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You were not meant to hear. 你当时不该听。/ I was never meant to be a teacher. 我从来都没有做老师的天分。/ Fortunately, gone are the myths that women are meant to suffer in childbirth to atone for Eve's taking a big bite of the apple. (U.S. News & World Report, June 12, 2006, p. 70) 原来以为，由于夏娃在苹果上咬了大大的一个口，为了替她赎罪，妇女将来就要遭受分娩之苦，但是，幸好这些神话已经成为明日黄花了。</div><br><br>
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meantime
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>meantime</b></div>这个名词的意义，中国人不容易掌握。从构词来看，就是“中间的时间”，也就是两个时间点当中的一个时间段。有时候这两个时间点是前面已经明确说出了的，意思就容易掌握。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A year ago I'd have accepted your proposal, but I can't now. Things have happened in the meantime. 你的建议，如果是一年前，我本来是会接受的，但现在可不行。这段时间情况已经变了。(meantime 指一年前与现在之间的时间段)</div>但是往往只有一个时间点是明确的，甚至可能两个时间点都不明确，只能意会。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My first novel was rejected by six publishers. In the meantime I had written a play. 我的第一本小说，六家出版社都不要。就在那段时间，我写了一部剧本。(meantime 前后两个时间点都不明确，但可以意会是同六家出版社先后接洽的那个时间段。)</div><div class="ex-item">The garden party dragged on, and in the meantime it began to rain. 游园会一直拖下去不散，这时候就下起雨来了。(meantime 指本来该结束但没结束之时到后来开始下雨之时的时间段。)</div>有时候中文似乎可以译为“先”或“暂且”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Our departure is three hours from now. In the meantime, take a good rest. 咱们出发时间离现在还有三小时。你先 (暂且) 好好休息一下。/ Tomorrow she could get the key from the reluctant real estate agent, but she'd at least get a glimpse inside in the meantime. (Marta Perry, Restless Hearts) 明天她也许能从房地产经纪人那里勉强拿到钥匙，不过，她起码已经先大致瞧了房子里面一眼。</div><br><br>
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measure
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>measure</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 这个词通常的词义是“措施”，但也可以是“测量出的量度”。X is a measure of Y 意思是“从 X 可以窥见 Y 的程度有多高”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>For an ambitious president, these might seem modest goals. But it is a measure of the universities' dire condition that they seem revolutionary. (The Economist, July 7, 2007, p. 52) 对一位雄心勃勃的校长来说，这些目标看起来未免有点寒酸。但是，连这样的目标都显得有革命性，各大学糟糕的情况也可见一斑。(后一句中 it 是形式主语，后面的 that 从句才是真正的主语。)</div><div class="ex-item">A presidential handoff comes with established rites and rituals, some political, others personal, all a measure of the weigh bearing down on the rising leader of the free world: ... (Time, Feb. 22, 2017) 新旧总统的交接，总有一番规范和仪式，其中一些是政治性的，另外一些是私人性的，而这全都说明了落在自由世界的新兴领袖身上的重担之大…… (some 与 political 之间，others 与 personal 之间，以及 all 与 a measure 之间，都省略了系动词 are；而 a measure of 是“局部已经如此，可见整体之大”的意思。)</div><div class="ex-item">To be able to undertake so many jobs, and do them well, was a measure of the young woman's energy and gifts. (Irving Wallace, The Second Lady) 竟然能够办这么多的事情，而且办得妥妥帖帖，足见这位年轻的女士多么有活力和天分。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 如果前面没有系动词 be，则 a measure of 是“某事物相当大的部分”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A measure of technical knowledge is desirable in this job. 这个工作，最好有相当多的技术知识。/ ... the first group bears a measure of responsibility for the global economic mess but will get by just fine, ... (Nicholas D. Kristof, in The New York Times, Apr. 2, 2009, A27) ……前一类人本来对这次全球经济乱局负有相当大的责任，但却会轻松地混过去，……</div><div class="ex-item">They have shown little inclination to surrender a significant measure of power. 他们没有显示有多大的倾向会放弃极大部分的权力。</div><br><br>
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meat 与 flesh
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>meat 与 flesh</b></div>flesh 是生理学与解剖学意义上的“肌肉”，既可以指活体的，也可以指死体的；既可以指动物的，也可以指人的。meat 则专指供食用的动物肉，例如 a plate of cold meat (一盘冷餐肉)。成语 one man's meat is another man's poison (甲之蜜糖，乙之砒霜) 中，one man's meat 显然不是某人身上的肌肉，而是他吃的肉。另外，flesh 还有一些其他意义和用法，都是同 meat 大不相同的。参见 flesh 与 meat 条。<br><br>
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media
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>media</b></div>本来是拉丁文 medium 的复数，但是专门用作“传媒”时，可以作单数指整个传媒界，也可以作复数指“各类传媒”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The news media are only interested in bad news. 新闻媒体只是对坏消息感兴趣。/ The media is biased. 传媒是有倾向性的。media 还常常作为名词充当另一名词的前置定语。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>media coverage 媒体报道</div><div class="ex-item">media people 记者群</div><div class="ex-item">It has received widespread media attention. 它引起了媒体广泛的注意。</div><br><br>
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medicine
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>medicine</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 表示具体的某种药品 (尤其是内服药)，此时它是可数的具体名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a medicine for the cold 治伤风的药</div><div class="ex-item">Some illnesses are caused through people not using medicines properly. 有些疾病是由人们用药不当引起的。在这个意义上，与 medication 可以互换。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 表示笼统的“药”，此时它是不可数的物质名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a dose of medicine 一剂药</div><div class="ex-item">take medicine 服药</div><div class="ex-item">drink medicine 喝药水，服汤药</div><div class="ex-item">take too much medicine 服药过量</div><div class="ex-item">put some medicine on the cut 刀伤伤口上抹点药。在这个意义上，也与 medication 可以互换。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 表示医学这门学问，或是行医事业 (主要指内科，与外科、骨科、产科等相对，但有时也可以笼统指整个医学或医疗事业)，此时 medicine 是不可数的抽象名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>study medicine 学医</div><div class="ex-item">practice medicine 行医</div><div class="ex-item">preventive medicine 预防医学</div><div class="ex-item">alternative medicine 替代医学</div><div class="ex-item">medicine and surgery 内外科。在这个意义上，不能用 medication 代替。</div><br><br>
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meet 与 meet with
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>meet 与 meet with</b></div>两者 (都是瞬时动词) 大体上的区别是：meet 往往指初次见面结识，meet with 则指一般的会面。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... his wife of 36 years, Janice, whom he met when she was a Navy nurse. (U.S. News & World Report, Dec. 24, 2007, p. 56) ……他同妻子詹妮斯结婚已 36 年了，初遇时，她是个海军护士。/ But we hope for brighter days to come, when friend shall meet with friend. (“Farewell to Thee”) 但愿岁月再晴朗，良朋有日能相会。而且 meet 有时候还可以是礼貌上或仪式上的迎接，不谈实质问题。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In the foyer a young woman secretary met them. 到了门厅，一个年轻的女秘书迎接了他们。</div><br><br>初次见面结交，meet somebody 中的 meet 是及物动词，以一方为主语，另一方为直接宾语。但也可以双方合在一起为主语，此时 meet 可以改作为不及物动词，不必保持作为及物动词说 *meet each other。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>John and I first met three years ago. 我和约翰是 3 年前初次见面认识的。</div><br><br>meet with 后面的宾语也可以不是人而是抽象事物，此时 meet with 的意思可以是：(1) “遇到” (瞬时动词，第四类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>meet with a warm reception 受到热烈欢迎</div><div class="ex-item">Her proposal met with resistance from her boss. 她的建议遭到了老板的反对。(2) “符合” (延续动词，第一类动词)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This quality is not often met with. 这样的质量，是很少见的。</div><br><br>
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memory
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>memory</b></div>这个单词如果联系到人，指的是已经死去的人。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>in memory of Prof. Smith 纪念史密斯教授</div><div class="ex-item">our dear mother of blessed memory 我们深切怀念的亲爱的先母。</div><br><br>尤其要注意的是：memory 无论后面是 of + 某人，或是前面加 his、her 之类，都是被怀念的对象。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His memory will live on. 大家会一直怀念他。/ A monument was erected to his memory. 人们竖起了一座纪念碑来纪念他。/ We all have reason to be proud of them and treasure their memory. 我们大家都有理以他们为荣，纪念他们。/ Through this scholarship in his memory, I know he is smiling, just knowing that other students will be helped to realize their dreams. 我知道，他的在天之灵如果知道了别的一些学生通过这项为纪念他而设立的奖学金得到帮助，去实现自己的梦想，他就会开颜微笑的。/ And his (= my father's) memory infused me, at a younger age than most, with a sense of my mortality. (Bill Clinton, My Life) 对他的怀念，使得我比许多别的人都更早地认识到自己终将死去的事实。</div><br><br>但是如果前面有 his、her 之类，后面又有 of + 某人，则可以是“某人对某人的回忆”，也可以指仍然活着的人。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was being harsh in his memory of his ex-wife. 他回忆起前妻，就耿耿于怀。</div><br><br>另外，有时候涉及已故的人，memory 放进译文中有点勉强，翻译时可以考虑省略。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Peace to his memory. 愿他安息。/ He died some ten years ago, and without intending any offense to his memory, the following anecdote is related to illustrate his bluff manners. (William Daugherty, Tales of the Nevada Frontier) 他大约十年前去世，下面说的一个故事，毫无对死者不敬之意，是有关他的一些弄虚作假的伎俩的。/ There is no excuse for insulting the memory of Turkish diplomats murdered by terrorists. (Letter of the Turkish ambassador to the United States to National Geographic, July 2004) 对于那些被恐怖分子杀害的土耳其外交人员所施加的诋毁，是无法原谅的。</div><br><br>memory 也可以有复数形式，指多个回忆起的事件或形象。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Harsh memories flashed through Juliane Keller's mind as she stepped in the middle of the church aisle. (Merrillee Whren, Hometown Promise) 朱莉安·克勒踏进礼拜堂中间过道时，心中涌现了种种难受的回忆。</div><br><br>
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mere
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>mere</b></div>参见 alone 与 only 条之 (3)。<br><br>
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merit
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>merit</b></div>中国人看见这个词，往往第一个反应就是“功绩”。其实 merit 更多的是指某人或某事物的较为长期、固定的优点或可取之处，而不着重一时取得的成就或立下的功劳。有时候中文说某事物“有价值”，英文说 valuable 就可能太重，说它 have got some merit 就会合适些。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a work of artistic merit 一件有艺术价值的作品</div><div class="ex-item">This reasoning may have some merit. 这样的推理，也许有可取之处。/ There's no merit in prolonging the treatment. 继续治疗下去已经没有什么意义。/ Both programs have merit. 两个方案都有可取之处。/ If the police found merit in the tip, they would phone the operations center. 警察如果觉得举报有可取之处，就会打电话给行动中心。</div><br><br>有时候复数形式 merits 可以不限于正面的“优点”或“可取之处”，而是指全面的衡量因素。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>decide a case on its merits 按事情的是非曲直做出决策</div><div class="ex-item">Let's put aside our personal feelings and judge him according to his own merits. 咱们先把个人感情放到一边，按照他本人的对错功过对他加以评判。甚至 merits 可以完全同好坏优劣的价值判断无关，只是客观权衡因素。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There is no absolute rule for the placement of this word; each writer must decide each instance on its own merits, and place it where it best accomplishes its purpose. 这个单词放在句中何处，并没有绝对的规则；每个写作者都必须依照每个场合的具体情况来做出决定，把这个单词放在最能达到其目的的位置。</div><br><br>
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method
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>method</b></div>中文“什么”的方法，“什么”这个定语，可以指方法的内容 (如“耐心说服的方法”)，也可以指方法的目的 (如“促进销售的方法”)。在英文中，method 的定语如果是前置定语尤其是形容词，通常是指方法的内容。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the trial-and-error method 试错法</div><div class="ex-item">the oral method 口头教学法</div><div class="ex-item">the comparative method 比较法</div><div class="ex-item">the deductive method 演绎法</div><div class="ex-item">the inductive method 归纳法。但是有些前置定语 (尤其是非形容词) 也可以表示目的。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>new teaching method 新的教学法</div><div class="ex-item">a payment method 付款办法</div><div class="ex-item">the most expensive transportation method 最昂贵的运输方式。前置定语究竟是指内容还是指目的，要从整体意思来考虑。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Another often overlooked alternative energy method is geothermal energy. 另一个往往被忽视的替代能源办法，是地热能。(如果单独说 alternative energy method，可以指内容，也可以指目的，但是在这句话中，因为后面有了 geothermal energy 进一步说明了内容，所以前面的 alternative energy 就成了目的。)</div>如果以 of something、of + -ing、for + -ing 或动词不定式作为 method 的后置定语，则通常指方法的目的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the most efficient method of birth control 最有效的节育办法</div><div class="ex-item">a new method of teaching English 新的英语教学法</div><div class="ex-item">a method of testing English speaking 测验英语会话的方法</div><div class="ex-item">a method of calculating the sales figure 计算销售数据的方法</div><div class="ex-item">find economical methods for extracting oil from shale 寻找经济的开采页岩油的方法</div><div class="ex-item">a method to go into the North American car market 进入北美汽车市场的方法</div><div class="ex-item">the method of financing for the project 项目的融资办法</div><div class="ex-item">an alternative method of finding answers to these questions 为这些问题找到答案的一个替代办法。但是也有用 of 指内容的。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>method of controlled detonations 可控爆炸法。</div><br><br>
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middle age
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>middle age</b></div>小写、单数形式是人年龄当中的“中年”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was growing stout with middle age. 人到中年，他的身体逐渐变得粗壮。但是，如果用大写、复数形式，那就是 Middle Ages (中世纪)。</div><br><br>
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middle school
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>middle school</b></div>与中国的“中学”不完全相同。在英国，是招收八九岁到十二三岁学童的介乎小学与初中的学校。在美国，则是招收 12 至 14 岁学童的初中。中国的“中学” (包括初高中) 在英国大致相当于 high school，但在美国则没有单独的对应物。《纽约时报》2007 年 1 月 7 日有一篇论述美国大学与中学教育的文章，里面提到 middle school，显然是指“初中”，不包括“高中” (不相当于中国的“中学”)：... a lot more students arrive having completed algebra II and geometry in middle school, though these courses are typically taken in 9th and 10th grades. (……更多的学生入学时，已经在初中念过了代数 II 和几何，尽管这些科目通常是在九年级和十年级才念的。)
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midnight
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>midnight</b></div>含义比中文的“半夜”更为精确，指午夜十二时，尤其是 at midnight。但放在另一个名词之前作修饰语时，可以泛指“深夜”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>midnight sun 子夜太阳</div><div class="ex-item">They were always having midnight parties on beaches. 他们总是在海滩上开深夜联欢会。中文中笼统的“在半夜”在英文中不说 *at midnight 而说 in the middle of the night。</div><br><br>
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mind
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>mind</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 这个及物动词，用于交际场合，意义并不复杂难懂，但是比较特别，中国人不容易习惯。它有“感到不愉快，感到不方便，不愿意，介意”的含义。但是这一点负面的含义，在中文的交际场合是不便直接说出的，但在英文中 mind 这个词用了并无刺耳的感觉。重要的是：使用 mind 这个词时，要特别注意正确处理肯定与否定，因为字面意思与中文往往相反。<br><br>归纳起来，当对方提出请求式的问句 Would/Do you mind ...? 时，有两种情况： (a) 如果是请你做某事，句子形式是 Would/Do you mind + -ing? 此时如果答应同意做此事，就应该用否定句回答，也可以接着马上用肯定句表示同意：(No,) not at all.</div><div class="ex-item">No, of course not.</div><div class="ex-item">No, I'd be happy/glad to. 也可以不用否定句，直接用另外形式的肯定句：Certainly.</div><div class="ex-item">All right.</div><div class="ex-item">Sure.</div><div class="ex-item">OK. <div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Do you mind telling me about it? ——Not at all. ——请你把事情告诉我好吗？——当然行。/ Would you mind lending me your car tonight? ——Well, I guess not. ——Great! Thank you. 你今天晚上车子借给我用一下行不行？——我想行吧。——太好了！谢谢你。如果不同意做此事，也不能直接说 *No. 而要说 I'm sorry/afraid I can't.</div>(b) 如果是问你是否同意他做某事，句子形式是 Would you mind my/me doing</div><div class="ex-item">if I + 动词现在时或过去时？或是 Do you mind my/me doing</div><div class="ex-item">if I + 动词现在时？此时如果答应应他，也应该用否定句回答，也可以接着马上用肯定句表示同意：(No,) not at all.</div><div class="ex-item">No, go ahead.</div><div class="ex-item">All right.</div><div class="ex-item">OK. <div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>——Would you mind getting my son to school? ——Why, of course not. I'd be happy to. ——麻烦你替我送孩子上学行吗？——当然可以啦。我很乐意。——Mind if I take a look inside? ——No problem. ——我看一下 (车子的) 内部可以吗？——请便。/ Do you mind if I sit here? ——No, help yourself. 我坐在这里可以吗？——可以，请便。/ Do you mind if we take a picture of you? ——No. Please, gentlemen, do what you must. ——照一张您的照片可以吗？——可以。诸位请便，该干什么就干什么。/ And, if you don't mind me saying so, it doesn't help matters that you mess with the Captain three times a day ... (John Darnton, The Darwin Conspiracy) 让我说一句不中听的话，您一天三次同船长泡在一起是于事无补的。如果不同意对方做此事，同样不能直接说 *No. 而要说 I'm sorry, but + 用句子说明不同意的理由。</div><br><br>在特殊场合，故意强调不同意，也可以例外地将 mind 用于肯定句中。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A bartender asked if they (two men) would mind offering their seats to the ladies. Yes, they would mind. Very much. (The New York Times, Nov. 2, 2011, A18) 酒吧招待员问他们二人可否让位给这些女士。不，不能让。确定不能。</div><br><br>但是，对于 Do you mind if I ... 这种表示请求的问句，有时候一些无声语言可能有歧义，就是说，点头 (nod) 可以表示同意，摇头 (shake one's head) 也可以表示同意 (否定了 mind)。例如一个新来的医生去看一个住院病人，病人正在罩着面罩喷雾用药。医生问：Do you mind if I wait here until you finish your medication? (我在这里等着您用完药可以吗？) 此时病人 said something from under his mask, but then he shook his head (= said, “Not at all. Please wait.”) (在面罩下说了什么，然后摇了摇头)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> Do you mind? 有两种不同用法。(a) 是 Do you mind stopping what you are doing? 的简略形式，向对方表示抗议或不满。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The lady behind her in line kept pushing against her every time the line moved. Finally, Sue turned and said sternly, “Do you mind?” 每次队伍移动，排在她后面的那个妇女就老是往她身上挤。终于苏转过身去，严厉地对她说：“你别这样好不好？”</div><div class="ex-item">All through the first part of the movie, two people in the row behind John kept up a running conversation. Finally, as the din grew loud enough to cause a number of people to go “shhh,” John rose and turned, leaned over into their faces, and shouted, “Do you mind?” 电影放映的上半段，后面一排有两个人一直在不断地交谈。到了最后，嘈杂的声音太响了，弄得有些人发出“嘘嘘”抗议之声，约翰就站了起来，转过身去，弓身对着他们的脸，喝道：“别这样行吗？” (b) 即将做某事，问对方对此是否反对或介意。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Mary had her hand on the lovely silver cake knife that would carry the very last piece of cake to her plate. She looked at Tom, who stood next to her, eyeing the cake. “Do you mind?” she asked coyly. 玛丽手里拿着那把精致的银质糕饼刀，要把最后一块蛋糕拿到自己盘子里。她瞧着站在她一旁眼睛盯着蛋糕的汤姆，不好意思地问：“我可以吃吗？”</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> mind to inf. 有“记住 (要做某事)”的意思，但指使句往往变成 Mind + and + 动词原形。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Mind and write to me. 记住一定给我来信。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 从上面可以看到，mind 表示“介意，不快”的时候，是一个不主动的感觉动词 (属第一类动词)，因此不能用现在进行时或过去进行时，只能用一般现在时或一般过去时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He doesn't mind the cold. 他对寒冷不在乎。但是 mind 也可以转义为主动的“操心料理”行为 (属第二类动词)，此时就可以用进行时态。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm minding my own business. 我正在操心自己的事儿。</div><br><br>
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minister
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>minister</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 在各个国家的政府中，minister 都是分管一个部的人。但是中文译法依国体的不同而不同。在君主制国家 (如日本)，译成“大臣”，简称“相”，如“外务大臣”，简称“外相” (但英国不用 <i>minister 而用 secretary)；在共和制国家，译成“部长”，如“外交部部长” (朝鲜虽然是共和制，但汉字原文仍然沿用“相”的名称，如“民族保卫相”即“国防部部长”)。至于一些非政府组织的“部长”，如统战部部长、中宣部部长，尽管级别与部长相当，但绝不可以译成 </i>minister。<br><br>另外，minister 的另一个词义，就是外交中的公使 (ambassador) 次一级级的“公使”。不过现在的实际情况是，外交关系几乎总是大使级的，公使级的很罕见。但是大使馆内可以设有公使或公使衔参赞 (minister-counsellor)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> minister 这个词从它的词源来看，和“仆人”相关。它来自拉丁文，到了英文中，minor + ster，意思就是“卑微者，仆人”。作为动词，minister to somebody 也是“服务，照料”的意思。基督教会有一些教派的牧师不叫 pastor 而是叫 minister，原意也是与此相近。<br><br>
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mis-
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>mis-</b></div>这个表示“错误”的前缀，同 out- 与 over- 一样，如果善于使用，可以使句子简化，避免累赘，比如 She misdialed twice. 就比 She dialed the wrong number twice. 简洁。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A misstep could be fatal here. 在这里，走错一步，都会有生命危险。/ Such hopes were themselves misplaced. 这样的希望，本身就寄托错了。/ This was his dinette—the table and three mismatched chairs. 这就是他的饭厅家具：餐桌和三把不成套的椅子。/ They all misread the announcement. 他们全都把公告看错了。使用这个前缀的有：misapply、misapprehension、misbehavior、miscalculate、misconduct、misfire、misguide、mishear、misinformation、misinterpret、misjudge、mislead、mismatch 等等。参见 out- 条、over- 条及 mistrust 条。</div><br><br>X mis + -ed for Y，意思是“本应是 Y，误为 X”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>double sharp misprintedfor double flat (Josef Hofmann, Piano Playing) 本应是重降号，印成了重升号。要注意哪个是本应的，哪个是弄错造成的。</div><br><br>
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misery
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>misery</b></div>中国人看见这个英文单词，往往第一印象就是物质上的“贫困”。但其实这只是它的一个特殊释义。更为概括的释义是“困境”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Finding Edwin if he's still alive, or learning what happened to him if he's not, would release Meg and Catherine from the misery of uncertainty. (Mary Higgins Clark, I'll Be Seeing You) 找到还活着的爱德文，或是如果他已经不在人世则查明他遇到了什么，这样都可以使得梅格和凯瑟琳摆脱掉不明情况的困境。</div><br><br>
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miss
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>miss</b></div>作为动词，miss 的意义和用法相当复杂。问题主要在于它有两个不同的“体”，从而派生出彼此相差很远的两大基本词义。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 首先一个概括性的词义是“错过” (瞬时动作，第四类动词)，但是与 lose 不一样，miss “错过”主要指较为抽象的、非物质性的事物，而且这个“错过”往往同“失误”有关。除非是表示习惯行为或反复发生的事件，或是时间状语从句中以现在表示将来，否则不能用一般现在时。(a) 碰击不准确 (有意击打但未打中，或是无意击打但几乎打中)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The bullet missed the target. 子弹没有打中目标。如果表示“几乎，险些”，就往往在 miss 前加上 just、only just 或 barely。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The bullet just missed his shoulder. 子弹差点儿打中他肩头。/ The hurricane just missed our city. 飓风差点儿袭击了本市。/ The car only just missed him. 汽车几乎碰到了他。/ The speeding truck barely missed the pedestrian. 超速的卡车几乎撞倒了那个行人。</div>(b) 该到之处没有到。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The plane missed the landing deck of the carrier and fell into the sea. 飞机降落时没有准确落在航空母舰的降落甲板上，掉到海里去了。</div>(c) (物质意义) 没有抓住。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He missed the rope and fell. 他没有抓住绳子，就掉下去了。</div>(d) 疏忽而漏掉。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You missed three wrong spellings. 你犯了三处拼写错误。/ We missed the turning. 咱们刚才该转弯的地方没转。/ I missed cleaning one window. 我漏掉一扇窗没有擦。/ He never misses my birthday. 我的生日他从来都没有漏掉。</div>(e) 没有看清楚或听清楚，或者没有理解。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Sorry, I missed that. 对不起，这句话我没听清楚。/ You can't miss it, it's on the first floor. 你一定会看见的，就在一楼。/ I think you've missed the point. 我觉得你没有懂。</div>(f) 没有看住。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I missed her in the crowd. 我在人群中找不到她了。/ We missed each other. 我们互相找不到对方了。</div>(g) 错过。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was a good opportunity which it would be a pity to miss. 那是个好机会，错过了会是很可惜的。/ You've missed your appointment with the doctor. 你错过了和医生的预约。/ I forgot all about the meeting and missed it. 开会的事我忘了，得一干二净，所以没有去。/ She is missing now her favorite TV program. 她喜欢的这个电视节目现在看不成了。</div>(h) 缺勤。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I've never missed a day's work. 我一天也没有缺勤过。</div>(i) 避免，避开。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If we go this way, we miss New York altogether. 咱们这样走就索性不用经过纽约了。/ We'd better miss the rush hour traffic. 咱们最好还是避开交通高峰时间。/ He missed death by inches. 他险些丢了命。后面宾语可以用动名词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He just missed getting soaked. 他几乎成了落汤鸡。/ They narrowly/barely missed being killed. 他们险些丧生。/ I managed to miss hearing the whole story again. 我设法避免了再听他唠叨一番。</div>(j) 赶不上。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They missed the flight. 他们错过了航班。</div>(k) 没有同某人 (直接宾语) 见面。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm sorry I missed you yesterday. 很抱歉，昨天没有同您见面。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 后面是动名词，表示没有达到目的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I missed winning the election by 2,000 votes. 我差两千票落选了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 与 miss 作为瞬时动作的意义不同，它作为一个表示延续状态的第一类动词，概括性的词义是“(因某人或某事物当前不在而) 感到惆怅”，亦即“想念 (某人或某物)”，可以用一般现在时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I miss you terribly/badly/sorely. 我想死你了。/ You'll be missed when you retire. 你退休了，大家会想你的。/ Our house is nice but I still miss the old one. 我们的房子很好，但我还是想念旧房子。/ The late chief's contribution will be missed. 大家将会怀念已故首长的贡献。</div><br><br>但是，如果 miss 的直接宾语是动名词，则习惯上这个动名词前面有没有 not，意思都一样。如果有 not，也不否定这个动名词，只是进一步加强这个动名词所包含的否定意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Defense Secretary Donald H. Rumsfeld said today he has “thoroughly enjoyed” working with Secretary of State Colin Powell and “will miss not working closely with him” after Powell steps down from his post. (American Forces Information Service, Nov. 14, 2004) 国防部长拉姆斯菲尔德今天说，他同国务卿鲍威尔共事“十分愉快”，鲍威尔去职后，他“会对不能再同他一起紧密合作感到惋惜”。/ He misses not having enough books because he's an avid reader. 他很可惜再没有足够的书看，因为他是个手不释卷的人。这在修辞学上叫作“额外否定” (overnegation)。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> miss 也可以作为不及物动词，表示主语的“缺失”，但是通常以现在分词 missing 的形式出现，前面的系动词如果指延续的状态，用 be；如果指“一下子失去”这个瞬时变化，用 get 或 go。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How long has he been missing? 他失踪多久了？/ One of his two roommates got missing soon after the accident. 他的两个室友，有一个在事件发生后不久就失踪了。/ This means there's a high probability that money—“tens of billions,” according to Walker—will go missing or be otherwise wasted. (Reader's Digest, Jan. 2008, p. 90) 这就是说，钱——据沃克估计有“几十亿美元”——将会不知下落，或是以其他方式浪费掉。</div><br><br>也可以用动词 have，表示宾语事物的“缺失”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The violin has twostrings missing. 小提琴缺了两根弦。missing 这个现在分词已经逐渐成了形容词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>missing, presumed dead 失踪，假定业已死亡</div><div class="ex-item">The missing climbers are safe. 失踪的登山者仍然安全。/ The missing papers haven't turned up yet. 找不到的文件仍然没有出现。/ Fill in the missing letters in the spaces provided. 请在空格中填入所缺字母。/ MIA (= missing in action) 战斗中失踪 (美国军事用语)。</div><br><br>但是 missing 不一定是“失踪”这样严重，也可以表示一时不在。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>All the guests haven't arrived yet, two are missing. 客人还没有到齐，还差两位。“失踪”作为一个瞬时事件，missing 前面用动词 go，成为 go missing。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In January 1945, he went missing when traveling in a training plane. 1945 年 1 月，他乘坐一架训练机飞行时失踪。“失踪”作为一个延续状态，missing 前面用动词 be，成为 be missing。</div><br><br>上面所说的，是以缺失事物为不及物动词 miss 的主语。但是 miss 还可以充当及物动词，以所缺失的事物为其宾语，以整体事物为其主语，此时 miss 通常采取进行时态，不用一般现在时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's missing (<i>misses) two screws. 它缺了两颗螺丝钉。/ His coat is missing (</i>misses) a button. 他的外衣缺了一颗扣子。/ We're only missing one witness. 我们只缺一个证人。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 同 (4) 相近的一个及物词义，但却是瞬时动作而不是延续状态，就是“发现 (某物) 缺了”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>When did you first miss your passport? 你是什么时候第一次发现护照不见了的？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> miss out 是个不及物短语动词 (out 只是个副词)，意思是“放弃机会” (瞬时动作)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He missed out because he couldn't afford to go to college. 他因为上不起大学，就放弃了。如果真的把“机会”说出来，miss out 后面还要加上介词 on，来引入一个名词成分。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He never misses out on a chance to make money. 他从不放弃赚钱的机会。/ Humorless people miss out on so much. 不懂风趣的人，能开心也开心不起来。miss out 也可以用简单的一个 miss (瞬时动词，“错过”) 来代替。</div><br><br>十分有意思的一个现象是，miss 由于既可能是瞬时的“错过，失去，没赶上”，也可能是延续的“怀念”，如何辨别，就是一个比较复杂而迄今尚未引起足够注意的问题。我们初步研究分析得出的结果是：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 由于通常只有表示不变的延续状态的第一类动词才用一般现在时 (瞬时动作的第四类动词唯有表示惯常动作或是用于表示将来或“如果”的从句中才用一般现在时)，因此，如果 miss 用于一般现在时，就可以判断它是表示延续状态的第一类动词，因而词义就是“怀念”而不是“失去”或“错过”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I miss you terribly/badly/sorely. 我想死你了。/ Our house is nice but I still miss the old one. 我们的房子很好，但我还是想念旧房子。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 但是如果 miss 的时态是一般过去时或是一般将来时，尤其是一般过去时 (在英语中既可以表示瞬时动作或变化，也可以表示延续状态)，或是 miss 表现为非动词时态形式 (如采取不定式或动名词形式)，问题就比较麻烦。通常要看上下文以及语境，但也有一些规律可循。大体上，如果 miss 的直接宾语是人、固定地点、特定事物、长时间的无结果状态或延续过程，它就表示“怀念”，属于延续体的第一类动词；如果它的直接宾语是短促的事件或虽然长但却有结果的过程，它就表示“错过”。(a) miss 以一般过去时出现，属于延续体，表示“怀念”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He missed his hometown. 他怀念故乡。/ Joseph thought again about his dream. He missed Danny a lot. He missed the old neighborhood. He missed the pigeons that strutted and pecked on the sidewalks there. (Joseph Anderson Donetti, More Adventures With Mac) 约瑟夫回想起刚才做的梦。他十分怀念丹尼。他怀念昔日的街坊邻里。他怀念站在人行道上啄食的鸽子。/ One day our paths crossed again and we realized how much we missed those years of working together ... how much we missed the passion and thrill of working as a team. 有一天，我们又碰到一起了，我们意识到，对于那些彼此共事的岁月，我们是多么怀念……对于当时那种一起工作的激情和刺激，我们是多么怀念。</div><br><br>miss 的直接宾语是人，通常 miss 是“怀念”的意思，属于第一类动词，延续体。但是，有时候 miss 也可以是“没有赶上同某人见面或交谈”，此时它是第四类动词，属于瞬时体。尤其是用于一般过去时，两种情况都有可能。比如某个负责人开了一段时间的会，不能接电话，开完了会后，秘书告诉他，某人来过电话，当时未能交谈：You just missed him. 此时这个 miss 就不是“怀念”，而是“没有能够接电话交谈”。(b) miss 以一般过去时出现，属于瞬时体，表示“错过”或“没有赶上”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>During his five years abroad, he missed the critically important political and economic upheavals at home. 在国外的五年间，他错过了国内那些事关重大的政治与经济动荡。(upheavals 不是漫无结果的事件)</div>(c) 同样，miss 以一般将来时出现，可以属于瞬时体，表示“错过”或“赶不上”，判断的标准同一般过去时相同。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We'll miss you when you retire. 等到你退休，我们会想念你的。(直接宾语是人，所以 miss 是“怀念”。)</div><div class="ex-item">You'll miss the train if you don't start now. 你现在不动身，会赶不上火车的。(直接宾语是交通工具，所以 miss 是“错过”。)</div><div class="ex-item">Tiger Woods will miss the rest of the season because of a left knee that will require more surgery. (The Associated Press, June 18, 2008) (高尔夫球王) “老虎”伍兹由于左膝需要进一步手术，因而这个赛季后半段将无法出场。(the rest of the season 属于短促的事件或虽然长但却有结果的过程，所以 miss 是“错过”。)</div><div class="ex-item">I began to wonder what else I might miss, wishing that some events will come to pass during my lifetime, while hoping that some events won't. (The Sunday Gazette, Apr. 25, 2010, C1) ……我开始琢磨我还还会看到别的什么，但愿有些事件会在我有生之年发生，而有些事件则不会发生。</div><br><br>但是直接宾语是人时，也有可能 miss 不是延续状态的“怀念”而是瞬时事件的“错过，不相遇”，需要仔细注意上下文和语境。例如本来妻子在家里等着丈夫回来，但是等不及了，要先回娘家，电话里告诉丈夫：I'm going over to my parents, so I'll miss you here at the apartment. (我现在要到父母家去，在家里等不着你了。)(d) 注意下面的例句，都是一般过去时的 missed + 时间段，但一些句子中的 miss 作“错过”解 (瞬时体)，另一些句子中的 miss 则作“怀念”解 (延续体)。<br><br>属于瞬时体，表示“错过”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>People should leave the JFK Library feeling  that this was someone they would have liked to know, feeling sorry that they missed those years, and feeling that somewhere, somehow, the country will fulfill the promise that he strove for, ... 人们参观完肯尼迪纪念图书馆出来时，应该感觉到，这是一个他们本来会想要结识的人，感觉到可惜自己生不逢时，感觉到他所努力要实现的诺言，我们这个国家将会在某处地方以某种方式来加以实现，……(those years 是有其结果的。)/ John McCain missed the 1960s. Barack Obama missed the 1980s. ... Obama, born at the tail end of the baby boom generation in 1961, didn't miss the 1980s in the same sense that McCain missed the 1960s. (U.S. News & World Report, Apr. 7-14, 2008, p. 30) 麦凯恩没有赶上 20 世纪 60 年代。奥巴马没有赶上 80 年代。……1961 年生于婴儿潮末期的奥巴马，他没有赶上 80 年代，情况同麦凯恩没有赶上 60 年代有所不同。(这些年代都是有其结果的。)</div>属于延续体，表示“怀念”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How proud you felt holding that gentleman's hand-Senator Agustin Cabral, Minister Cabral. Everybody knew who he was. ... How you must have missed those years of importance, Papa, when you became just another poor devil in the crowd. (Mario Vargas Llosa, The Feast of the Goat, English version by Edith Grossman) 想当年你握着那位大人物的手时，是多么光荣，他是奥古斯丁·卡布拉尔参议员，卡布拉尔部长。人人都知道他的大名。……爸爸，当你成了茫茫众生中的一个可怜虫时，你一定很怀念昔日如此风光的岁月。(those years 只是延续而没有结果。)/ Sometimes he wanted to let the shop go. Burn it to the ground and go, maybe to Canada. As difficult as those days were, he missed those years of drifting through Mexico and Texas and Louisiana. (Chaiti Sen, Washington Street) 有时候他真想这个店铺不要算了。一把火把它烧掉，走人，也许就到加拿大去。日子尽管那样难熬，他仍然怀念昔日在墨西哥、得克萨斯和路易斯安那漂泊的岁月。(those years 只是延续而没有结果。)</div>但是，要注意的是：有时候，一些瞬时体第四类动词(负面意义的)如果要表示是反复发生的，也会以进行时态出现，此时容易使人误会它是延续体动词。尤其是像 miss 这样的既可以是瞬时体(“错过”)，也可以是延续体(“怀念”)的动词，特别容易使人产生误解。例如 2008 年 9 月 30 日美国《纽约时报》A28 版某航空公司的整版广告，一开头就说：We're glad you hate flying. Because if you didn't, you wouldn't care that our entire reason for being is to do things differently. And you'd never know what you've been missing. 这里的 have been missing 乍看起来好像是延续体，既然是延续体，意思就是“怀念”了。但是看上下文，如果是“怀念”，哪有自己都不知道之理？(“你不知道自己一直在怀念什么”是不合情理的)所以这里的 miss 不是延续体的“怀念”，而是瞬时体的“错过”，用进行时态，是为了表示“一再反复”。这段话应该译成：“我们很高兴您讨厌飞行。因为您如果不讨厌的话，您就会对我们一心一意以改变这种状况为己任不那么在乎了。而且您就不会知道自己一直错过了些什么。”(e) 如果是现在完成时或过去完成时，则只能是瞬时意义的“错过，没有赶上”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I love classical music, but can't play it well because I've missed thoseyears of lessons. 我爱好古典音乐，但是演奏不好，因为我错过了上课的岁月。(直接宾语是有结果的时间过程。)但是如果 miss 的现在完成时或过去完成时用于表示延续未完的过程或状态(这是英语特有的语法手段)，miss 则仍然可以表示延续意义的“怀念”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We've missed him badly since he went abroad. 自从他出国以来，我们一直十分想念他。(直接宾语是人。)或者 miss 有程度状语修饰它(“错过”是不可能有程度差别的)，完成时态也就不影响 miss 表示延续意义的“怀念”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I told him how much I had missed him. 我告诉他，我前一阵是多么的想念他。</div>(f) 如果 miss 以非时态的形式(例如以不定式或动名词形式)出现，由于失去了时态这个判断根据，就要特别注意辨别其词义的不同。办法主要是考察究竟是一时的“错过”说得通，还是延续的“怀念”说得通。如 Even before he vanished, Abd Al-Salam Bin-Ali was an easy young man to miss. (Newsweek, Apr. 28, 2008, p. 24) 这里 to miss 是说明 easy 的，相当于 to be missed easily。如果 miss 是“怀念”，“容易怀念”就说不通，所以 miss 应该是瞬时的“丢掉；认不出来”的意思，全句应该是：“本·阿里即使是在失踪之前，也是个很容易让人遗忘的年轻人。”这句后面还说 (he) didn't leave much of an impression (他并不给人留下多深刻的印象)，更证明了对 miss 这样的理解是正确的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He'd been hard to miss with his handsome face, those blue eyes and dark hair. (Merrillee Whren, Hometown Promise) 他那英俊的脸、蔚蓝的眼睛、乌黑的头发，别人不大会认不出来。/ The cumbersome transport barely cleared the trees on the far end of the field, straining up, over a set of power lines, missing disaster by feet. (Stephen J. Cannell, The Plan) 那架笨重的运输机勉强躲开了机场另一端的树木，使劲抬起机头来，掠过一批准电线，仅仅差几英尺远躲过了事故。</div><br><br>
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mistrust
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>mistrust</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 这个词尽管有 mis- 前缀，却没有“错误”的意思，而是表示否定，即“不信任”。本来，同义词 distrust 的前缀 dis- 更加合适。两者可以互换。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> mistrust 的后面的名词，在逻辑上是被动的宾语，但由于 mistrust 没有动作的意思，而只是一种心态，因此，心态的主动持有者不用 by 引入，而用 on the part of 引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There is a widespread mistrust of grammar on the part of learners who feel that the "right" way to learn a language must be "nature's" way, i.e. the way one learns one's mother tongue. 在许多学习者当中，对语法信不过的心理十分流行，他们觉得，学习一种语言的“正规”办法，应该是“自然而然”的，也就是学习母语的办法。但是如果心态持有者用代词来表示，就可以以物主代词的形式放在名词前面：their mistrust of grammar (他们对语法的不信任)。这种代表心态的名词，有许多也和代表动作的名词一样，后面用 of 引入的成分是这种心态的对象，如 resentment of somebody (对某人的愤恨)。</div><br><br>
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moderate
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>moderate</b></div>作为形容词，表示“温和的”。作为及物动词，表示“使……缓和”。在电视节目中，moderator 是节目主持人(美式英语叫 anchor)，对节目起 moderate 的作用，可能这样叫是因为节目主持人通常不发表自己的意见，参加对话的嘉宾可以发表很激烈的言论，但是主持人要不偏不倚，降低争论的偏激程度。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You're supposed to be moderating this debate, not joining in it. 你该做的是主持这场辩论，不是参加辩论。美国总统候选人电视辩论的主持人，也叫 moderator，也有不偏不倚的意思。</div><br><br>
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momentarily 与 momently
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>momentarily 与 momently</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> momentarily 有三种不同的意义。第一种意义是(美式英语用法)“从现在算起很快就要(发生某事)”，同表示瞬时动作的第四类动词连用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We will arrive momentarily in Chicago. 我们马上就要抵达芝加哥了。/ The manager is on another line, but he'll be with you momentarily. 经理在打另外一个电话，但很快就会来同您谈的。(这里的 be with 有 come to talk with 的瞬间动作意义)/ Momentarily he had finished his work. (E. Phillips Oppenheim, The Vanished Messenger) 他很快就干完了他的工作。这个用法，有许多人认为不正确。</div><br><br>第二种意义是“(某过程)只延续很短促的一个时间段”，同表示延续状态或动作的动词(第一或第二类)连用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>“Oh, nothing at all, my dear,” replied the countess, a slight flush momentarily coloring her already pink cheek. (Edgar Rice Burroughs, The Return of Tarzan) “啊，亲爱的，没事。”伯爵夫人回答说，她那本来已经绯红的脸颊又冒出了一阵短暂的红晕。</div><br><br>第三种意义是“逐渐”，同第二类动词连用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The brilliant light increased momentarily in beauty. 灿烂的亮光变得越来越美丽。/ A small minority, mainly strangers, would look long at her in casually passing by, and grow momentarily fascinated by her freshness, and wonder if they would ever see her again... (Thomas Hardy, Tess of the D'Urbervilles: A Pure Woman) 有少数人，主要是一些陌生人，在她偶尔经过时许久注视着她，对她的娇嫩越来越入迷，不知道会不会再看见她……</div><br><br>另外要注意的是：英式英语中这个副词重音落在第一个音节，但是在美式英语中常常落在 -ta- 上。许多以 -ary 结尾的形容词，加上 ly 变为副词，发音都有这个变化。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> momently 则是“随时”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>momently expecting a letter 等待一封随时会到来的信。</div><br><br>
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more than one
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>more than one</b></div>后面接上名词单数形式，作主语时谓语动词仍然用单数，但实际意义是复数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>More than one politician has been charged with bribery in this town. 这个镇已经有不止一个政客被指控受贿。但如果是 more ... than one，more 和 than 中间插进名词，这个名词就要用复数，作主语时谓语动词也要用复数：More politicians than one have been charged with bribery in this town.</div>
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more²
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>more²</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> more 既可以作为形容词比较级的标志，又可以表示数量“更多”修饰名词。于是有时候容易产生歧义。例如 develop even more precise brain-imaging techniques 中这个 more 究竟是修饰形容词 precise (“更加精确的”)，还是修饰名词 techniques (“更多……技术”)？在有声语言中，如果 more precise 是一口气迅速念完的，more 就是修饰 precise 的；如果中间略有停顿，或是 more 拖得较长，more 就是修饰 techniques 的。在书面上，比较有心的人，也想出了一个区别的办法，如果 more 修饰 precise，就在两者之间加上一个连字符(-)，这样一来，to develop more-precise brain-imaging techniques 就是“开发一些更为精确的脑部图像技术”。有时候，上下文、语境或是事理可作为区别的依据，例如一篇关于住房纠纷的新闻中，一处是 ... when that means relocating to more violent regions in Iraq，另一处是 American officials worry that more heated conflicts over homes could erupt in the coming months。前一处的 more 显然是副词，修饰形容词 violent；后一处的 more 显然是个数量形容词，修饰名词词组 heated conflicts。与此相类似的，还有“形容词 + 名词 + 名词”的结构，例如 big city hospitals 中的 big 究竟是修饰 city 还是 hospital (究竟是“大城市的医院”还是“大型的城市医院”)？如果是前者，有人就加上连字符：big-city hospitals。criminal-justice system (刑事司法系统)用了连字符可以避免被误解为“罪恶的司法系统”。另外，America's best children's hospitals 按照常理，应该理解为“美国最好的儿童医院”，但是如果只照字面翻译，也可以理解为“美国那些最好的儿童所去的医院”。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 有时候 more than 尽管后面有数量，也不一定是表示另一更大的数量，而是从更为抽象的意义上表示事物的重要性超越了这个物质数字。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The ship that bears our dad's name is more than 95,000 tons of aluminum and steel. She will carry nearly 6,000 of the finest sailors and Marines in the world. She represents the craftsmanship of many skilled builders and thousands of hours of preparation. (George W. Bush) 以我们父亲的名字命名的这艘船，不光是 9.5 万吨的铝和钢铁而已(不译“有 9.5 万吨以上的铝和钢铁”)。它将承载着全世界最优秀的将近 6,000 名海员和海军陆战队员。它代表了许多专业的造船工人的出色工艺以及成千上万小时的劳动。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 有些形容词，本来不可能有程度的比较，没有比较级，例如 full、empty、round、perfect、final、alive、dead。但是有时仍然在说话行文中有点比较。此时不能用一般的比较说法，要兜个圈子。例如不能说 <i>Your cup is fuller than mine. 要说 My cup is not so full as yours. 不能说 </i>This is rounder than that. 要说 That is not so round as this.<br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 往往形式上的比较，其实际意义是否定的，尤其是译成中文时更不要把比较的字面照搬。如 You need to do more than sing "I'm Proud to Be an American" to keep this country free. 不要译成“你需要做比唱《我以做一个美国人为荣》更多的事情，去维护这个国家的自由”，而要译成“要维护这个国家的自由，你光是唱《我以做一个美国人为荣》是不够的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>That's more than I can do. 这个我可做不到。/ Don't bite off more than you can chew. 你嚼不动了，就别多啃。/ In delivering his lecture, he made sure not to include more things than the students can understand. 他讲课时，很注意不要过多地旁征博引，以免学生们听不懂。尤其是比较级同动词过去时一起出现，可以暗示“现在没有那么多了”，也是一种婉转的否定方式。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'd credited you with more common sense. 我原先以为你还有点理智。/ To be honest, Detroit has seen better times. 说句老实话，底特律已经今不如昔了。中国人对于动词时态对语义的影响往往估计不足，注意不够，容易忽略动词的过去时会表示对现在的否定。反过来，形式上的比较，再结合可能性的否定，往往实际上表示强烈的肯定。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I couldn't agree with you more. 我完全赞成你的意见。参见 cannot 条之(2)。</div><br><br>如果否定的比较不是同可能性结合，而是同 never 结合，实际上也是表示强烈的肯定，相当于最高级。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I called all kinds of modeling agencies in Atlanta when I wanted to get started and I was never more rejected in my life. 我想开始干时，给亚特兰大各种各样的模特公司打了电话，但我一辈子碰钉子也没有碰得那样惨(=那是我一辈子碰钉子碰得最惨的时候)。(这里的 never 不能改为 no，改了，意思就全变了，变成“我一辈子再也没有碰钉子了”。)</div>more 的反义词 less 也有类似的情况，只是意义相反，表示强烈的否定(“从来没有如此不”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He had never felt less free. And he had never felt less sleepy. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 他从来没有觉得像现在这样不自由。他从来没有觉得如此不想入睡。参见 less 条之(7)。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> more than + adj.</div><div class="ex-item">adv. 只是加强形容词或副词的程度。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>More than likely the counterfeit notes had come through numerous depositors. 伪钞很有可能是通过多个存户弄进来的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 过去英语的语法学者强调互相呼应的连词(如 both ... and ..., either ... or ..., more ... than ... 等)所引入的成分应该对称平衡。但是实际上有些场合很难做到，如果勉强做到，反而累赘。因此，在现代英语中，有些互相呼应的连词已经不要求对称平衡了。more ... than ... 就是一例。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... behavioural traits with a large genetic component are more likely to be shared by identical twins than fraternal twins. (The Economist, May 28, 2005, p. 82) ……带有很大基因成分的行为特征，在同卵双胞胎中共有的概率，高于异卵双胞胎。/ At 43, I'm seeing my experiences in a different light, although I worry more about what legacy I'll leave my kids than what other people think of me. (Ben Mattlin, in Newsweek, July 24, 2006, p. 19) 到了 43 岁的现在，我对自己的经历有了不同的看法，尽管我所操心的更多是给自己的孩子们留下什么样的遗产，而不是别人会对我有什公想法。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 表示进一步强调时，可以用副词的比较级，但是要注意区分究竟是进一步强调肯定还是进一步强调否定。前者要用 more，后者要用 less。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He knew little of that country, still less (*more) of its capital. 他对这个国家不怎么了解，更不了解它的首都。(still less 也可以改为 much less，这个 much 并无加强之意。)</div><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> 如果要对表语加以程度上的加强，通常不能简单用副词 more 而说成 be more + 表语，而要说 be more of a + 表语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She was more of a surprise. 她更是出人意料之外的一个人物。也可以进行比较。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He is more of a writer than a scholar. 他与其说是个学者，不如说是个作家。顺便说一句，如果不做比较，可以说 something of a，表示“多少可以算作”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He is something of a musician. 他多少算个音乐家。</div><br><br>
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more¹
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>more¹</b></div>同数词连用，表示“再加若干”，more 通常放在数词和名词之间，较少放在名词后面。究竟放名词前面对，还是放名词后面对，现在仍有争议。大体上，有下面的区别：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 如果原先已经知道有了一个数量，后来再加上一个新的数量，more 就放在数词和名词当中。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I need one more book. 我想再借一本书。/ Five more students arrived. 又来了 5 个学生。/ There are only two more miles to go until we get there. 再走 2 英里，咱们就到那边了。(原有数量已知，并且强调新增数量)</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 如果是对原有已知数量的进一步增添，且原有数量是含糊的，对新增部分也不重视其数量(例如只是表示“继续下去”)，则 more 可以放在名词后面。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I was a bit sad to finish Book 6 because that meant that there was only one book more. 我看完第 6 卷，心里感到有点难过，因为这表示后面只剩下一卷了。(即将看完，不能继续享受了)/ How does a dinosaur say good night when Papa comes in to turn off the light? ... Does a dinosaur stomp his feet on the floor and shout: "I want to hear one book more!?" (Jane Yolen, How Do Dinosaurs Say Good Night?) 恐龙看见爸爸走进来关灯，是怎样说“晚安”的呢？……他是不是在地板上跺脚，高声喊叫“我还想再听一本书”？(不一定只是一个，真正意思是不肯马上上床睡觉)/ Faust: Nay, let me have one book more ... wherein I might see all plants, herbs, and trees that grow upon the earth. (Christopher Marlowe, Doctor Faustus) 浮士德：不过，我还想要一本书……里面可以看到大地上生长的所有植物、花草和树木。(着重书的内容，不着重其数量是一本)试比较：We like the hotel so much that we have decided to stay two more days here. 和 We like the hotel so much that we have decided to stay two days more here. 两句的着重点有非常细微的差别：前一句着重 two days 的数量；后一句则着重“继续”，two days 的数量退居次位。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 但是如果是做比较，而且比较的另一对象在后面才出现(用 than 引入)，则通常 more 放在名词后面。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You have two books more than I do. 你的书比我的多两本。/ Many (campaign volunteers) have only a few hours of training and earn an average of $100 for working up to 16 hours on Election Day-or, 40 cents more an hour than the federal minimum wage, the survey said. (The Associated Press, Feb. 23, 2008) 据该项调查，许多竞选活动志愿者只经过几小时的训练，选举日那一天工作时间长达 16 小时而平均所得只有 100 美元，即比联邦最低工资只多出 40 美分。/ Car A gets 5 miles more per gallon than Car B. 甲车每耗油 1 加仑比乙车多跑 5 英里。(这样的词序比 5 more miles 好些；甚至 more 可以挪到 per gallon 之后，可以更加靠近 than。)</div>关于 more 的位置问题，参见 less 条之(6)。<br><br>
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more 与 -er
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>more 与 -er</b></div>英语形容词的比较级(最高级)在形式上比其他语言复杂，大体上单音节形容词在词尾后加上 -er (最高级加上 -est)，多音节形容词则在前面加上 more (最高级加上 most)，少数以 -y、-er、-ow、-ble 结尾的双音节形容词也采取 -er (-est) 形式(如 happier、cleverer、narrower、abler)。少数单音节形容词，如 real、right、wrong，却不能采取 -er (-est) 形式而必须在前面加上 more (most)。中国人比较容易犯的错误，往往是图简单，遇到单音节形容词也随便在前面加上一个 more 了事。尤其是往往把对 the more ... the more ... (“越……就越……” )的记忆固定化，例如有时候就出现这样的错句：*The more he grew old, the more interested he was in science. 这句应该改为：The older he grew, the more interested he was in science. (他年纪越大，就越是对科学感兴趣。)但是，采取哪一种形式，也有一些特殊情况：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 如果后面没有 than，而是重复两次比较级以表示“越来越……”，则两种形式都可以用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The road was getting more and more steep/steeper and steeper. 路越来越陡。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 同一事物两种情状相互比较，不能用 -er，只能用 more。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He's more lazy than stupid. (不能说 *He's lazier than stupid.) 他与其说是愚蠢，不如说是懒惰。</div><br><br>
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morning
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>morning</b></div>泛泛表示在上午，不专门表明哪一天，说 in the morning；带“今天”“昨天”“明天”时不用任何介词，说 this morning、yesterday morning、first thing tomorrow morning (明天一大早)。<br><br>与带有名称的日子一起出现时用 on 或不用任何介词，说 on Friday morning 或 Friday morning，通常在句首要有 on，在句末不用 on。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>On Friday morning, Nicholas arrived at the jury room early. 星期五早上，尼古拉斯一大早就来到了陪审团室。/ He'll leave Friday morning. 他星期五早上出发。/ On the morning of Sunday, July 1, they left the city. 7 月 1 日星期日上午，他们离开了那座城市。即使没有明说是哪一天的上午，只要是某一特定的上午而非笼统的上午，也通常用 on 而不用 in。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>on a sunny morning 某日晴朗的上午</div><div class="ex-item">on chilly afternoons (Charlotte Brontë, Jane Eyre) 在一些阴冷的下午</div><div class="ex-item">on winter mornings (ibid.) 在冬天一些日子的上午。但是如果 morning 前有 late、middle、early 之类的形容词，就可以用 in，即使有明确具体の日子限制也无妨。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>in the early morning of Sunday, July 1 7 月 1 日星期日一大早。</div><br><br>
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morning 与 mourning
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>morning 与 mourning</b></div>两者发音相同(r 在美式英语发音，在英式英语不发音)，但是意义风马牛不相及。前者是“早晨，上午”，后者是“哀悼，服丧”。<br><br>
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most
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>most</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 这个单词，既可以作为副词，修饰后面的形容词或副词，也可以作为代词，表示“大多数(人或物)” (= most of them)，甚至可以作为名词，表示“最大限度”，阅读与听人说话时要注意分辨。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>All of the houses have central heating and most visibly have indoor swimming pools. 所有房屋都有中央取暖设备，而且大部分显然有室内游泳池。(这里的 most 是个代词，相当于 most of them，不是修饰 visibly 的副词。)</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 一般的语法书都指出凡是形容词最高级都要有定冠词或其他表示定指的限定词。这在一般情况下是对的。但是如果最高级不是在多个事物之间比较得出来，而是同一事物在不同的空间、时间或场合合比较而得出来的，就不能加定冠词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This lake is deepest (<i>the deepest) at this point. 这个湖在这里最深。(同一个湖不同地点的比较)</div><div class="ex-item">I'm happiest (</i>the happiest) now. 我现在最高兴。(同一个人不同时间的比较)</div><div class="ex-item">Spring is when we're happiest (<i>the happiest). 春天是我们最快乐的时候。(同一些人不同时间的比较)</div><div class="ex-item">He is still most (</i>the most) comfortable operating behind closed doors; ... (U.S. News & World Report, Dec. 25, 2006, p. 48) 他仍然是闭门躲在家里办事最舒服；……(同一个人不同状况的比较)</div><div class="ex-item">Local resistance to the occupation was strongest (*the strongest) in the rocky hills near Darnah, but even there it was ultimately crushed. (Newsweek, Apr. 28, 2008, p. 26) 当地居民对占领军的抵抗，以达尔纳附近崎岖的丘陵一带最为激烈，但是连那里的抵抗也终于被粉碎了。(同一种抵抗在不同地点的比较)</div><div class="ex-item">... the higher costs would drive disposable wages downward across most of the earnings spectrum, although the declines would be steepest for lower-earning workers. (Steven Nyce and Sylvester Schieber, in a study for Watson Wyatt Worldwide, 2009) ……费用的提高，将会把大部分收入范围内的可用工资往下拉，不过跌得最厉害的可能是低收入工作者的可用工资。(declines 作为一个总的抽象概念，steepest 是其本身之最)</div><div class="ex-item">... for this is precisely the point where the government case is weakest, ... Instead, they have chosen to give battle where the government position is strongest, ... (Waverley Root, The Secret History of the War, Book I) ……因为这恰恰是政府的理由最脆弱之处……。反之，他们却挑选了政府的立场最强之处来展开战斗，……</div><div class="ex-item">... at the moment of taking off, when the strain on the engine was greatest, ... (Waverley Root, The Secret History of the War) ……就在引擎负担最大的起飞之时，……</div><div class="ex-item">The enemy will never attack you where you are strongest. (William R. Forstchen, One Second After) 敌人绝不会攻击你最强的地方。</div><br><br>但是，有时候某事物本身是个可变数，是否算同一事物，可以有不同的理解，此时也有加上定冠词的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The ozone levels are generally the highest in the afternoon and early evening. 臭氧含量通常在下午和傍晚时分最高。(注意这里 levels 用复数，表示不同时间有不同的含量，因而讲的是多个不同 levels 中之最；如果 level 用单数，虽然也可以说 the highest，但不大自然。)</div>同一事物在其存在的时间段中，某一属性有时强，有时弱。如果说它在某一时候或在某一场合下这个属性最强，可以说 be at its -est。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... the cold war wasat its hottest. (The Economist, Oct. 13, 2007, p. 41) ……当时冷战正酣。/ With oil revenue at its highest in almost three decades ... the nation hopes the economy will turn around without delay. (Iran Daily) 石油收入既然达到了近 30 年来的最高点……国人就希望经济马上得到扭转。/ America, at its best, matches a commitment to principle with a concern for civility. ... America, at its best, is also courageous. (George W. Bush, Inauguration Speech, Jan. 20, 2001) 在一个最理想的美国，对原则的承诺和对文明的关注是完全相呼应的。……一个最理想的美国也是最有勇气的美国。(一个充分发挥其优势的美国，是以对文明的关注来履行自己对原则的承诺的。……一个充分发挥其优势的美国，是勇敢无畏的。)/ The story of Moses is one of the most poignant in the Bible. It shows God at his most adamant and petulant, refusing to forgive Moses for his own anger and vanity when he disobeyed the Almighty. (Richard Cohen, in The Daily Gazette, Apr. 23, 2008, A9) 摩西的故事，是《圣经》中最尖锐的故事之一。它显示了上帝当时是如何强硬与暴躁，拒绝饶恕摩西本人不服从万能之主的那种怒气与虚荣心。有时候甚至可以在形容词最高级前再加上一个修饰语。例如美国一份支持特朗普总统的刊物，曾对他提出批评说：If so, it was Trump at his paper-tiger worst. (National Review, Aug. 13, 2017) (如果这样，特朗普就暴露出自己最差的纸老虎一面了。)如果 best 前面没有物主形容词，而只是 at best，则意思是“充其量，也不过”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>At best, we'll just manage to cover costs. 我们充其量也只能够够本。/ At best, she's irresponsible. 她起码是不负责任的。/ His ties to the committee are tenuous at best. 他同委员会的联系，起码是若即若离的。</div><br><br>这个 the 所表示的定指意义，也可以通过 what、when、where 之类的关系代词或关系副词来代为表示。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In short, progressive indexation is a mechanism that would "work" when we didn't need it and wouldn't work when we needed it most (<i>the most). (The Atlantic Monthly, Nov. 2005, p. 44) 总而言之，累进指数计算算法，是一种不需要时“起作用”而最需要时却不起作用的机制。/ He would not be expecting anyone to confront him where he feels he is strongest (</i>the strongest). 他不会想到会有谁敢在他自认为最强之处同他作对的。/ At breakfast this morning Uncle Ras, who was fond of diversions of all sorts, asked me when in my childhood I had been at my happiest. (John Darnton, The Darwin Conspiracy) 拉斯叔叔喜欢各种各样的消遣，今天吃早餐的时候问我，我孩童时期什么时候最高兴。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 凡是“最”，一定要划定一个“范围”，只能在这个范围内是“最”，否则就会过于泛泛而落空。在语言上，遇到最高级，也要注意“范围”何在(当然也有不表明范围的，例如“最深切的谢意”，这个“最”只是客套，不是比较出来的)，否则也容易发生误解。例如 2007 年 2 月，哈佛大学任命了该校有史以来的第一位女校长，《华盛顿邮报》谈到这位女校长就任后将遇到的艰巨任务时说：Her major challenges include uniting nine powerful, highly decentralized faculties, steering the biggest undergraduate curriculum changes in three decades and presiding over an ambitious multi-billion dollar campus expansion, ... (她的艰巨任务主要有：将九个力量雄厚但又高度分散的学院联合起来，掌握好 30 年来规模最大的本科生课程改革，并且主持耗资数十亿美元的校园扩建，……) 这里 in three decades 是管 biggest 的，不是修饰动词 steering 的，因为 biggest 如果没有范围——这里是时间段范围——就会落空；而且，动词 steer 没有终结意义，是第二类动词，不能用 in + 时间段来修饰它。这里即使把 steer 改为有终结意义的第三类动词 complete，它也不能把 in three decades 抢过来当作自己的时间状语，因为 biggest 已经把 in three decades 占住了。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The nation's unemployment rate edged up to 4.5 percent in April as cautious employers added the fewest new jobs in more than two years, ... (The Associated Press, May 4, 2007) 4 月时全国的失业率上升到了 4.5%，这是因为小心翼翼的雇主们所新增的就业机会，是两年多以来最少的，……(这里 in more than two years 也是管 the fewest 的，不是管 added 的。)</div>最高级后面加上的“范围”，可以是时间上的(“历时之最”)，也可以是空间上的(“共时之最”)。“历时之最”有两种表达方法：(a) 如果这个“历时”是有限时间段，如上面的那些例句那样，在最高级后面加上该时间段(定位或不定位均可)来限定它；(b) 如果这个“历时”是无限的时间段“历来”或“有史以来”，在最高级后面加上定语从句(谓语动词用一般现在时、现在完成时或过去完成时，再加上副词 ever 或 yet)来限定它。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was the greatest pianist that ever lived. 他是有史以来最伟大的钢琴家。/ This was the closest we ever came to finding the truth. 那是我们最接近真相的时候。也可以不用定语从句，只简单地用一个动词过去分词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This is the best novel ever written. 这是历来写得最好的小说。/ This is my hardest job yet. 这是我历来最棘手的工作。也可以用 ever to inf. 来表示“历来之最”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Kepler is the largest telescope ever to be sent beyond Earth's orbit. (The New York Times, Mar. 3, 2009, D1) 开普勒望远镜是历来发射到地球轨道以外的最大的望远镜。</div>“共时之最”可以是“空间范围内之最，多个相比之最”，也可以是“单个独称之最”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He is the richest man in this city. 他是本市的首富。/ She is the fastest player of them all. 她是她们当中最快的球员。“单个独称之最”，可以用 any 来引入单独一个同类事物来表示范围。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The United States imposes the second highest business taxes of any industrialized nation in the world. (Newt Gingrich, "Exactly Wrong on the Economy," Mar. 3, 2009) 美国征收的营业税，是世界上工业化国家中第二高的。/ The Church of Saint-Sulpice, it is said, has the most eccentric history of any building in Paris. (Dan Brown, The Da Vinci Code) 圣叙尔皮斯教堂据说是巴黎建筑当中历史最古怪的。</div><br><br>因此，遇到最高级，就要注意它的范围何在，即使相隔很远。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The Senate yesterday approved the most far-reaching changes to the nation's product safety system in a generation. (The Washington Post, Mar. 7, 2008) 参议院昨天通过了对这一代人影响最为深远的对国内产品安全体系实行的改动。(这里 in a generation 也是一个时间段，管 the most far-reaching。)</div><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 形容词最高级同它所修饰的名词之间，有时候会出现介词 of，这时候意义发生了一点细微的变化，通常表示该事物是想象中之“最”而不是现成摆着的 “最”，因此其实不是真的进行比较之后得出的“最”，而是修辞上的加强语气(也正因为如此，这样的最高级不需要在后面规定一个范围)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I wish you the best of luck (*the best luck). 祝您处处交好运。/ We always go into these things with the best of intentions and the best of hopes. 我们总是抱着最善良的用意和最乐观的希望做这些事情的。/ We are always looking forward to giving you the best of products at the best of prices and with the best of hopes that we continue our relations till time abides with your love for things Indian! 我们总是期待着以最相宜的价格向您提供最优质的产品，并抱着最良好的希望，但愿我们之间的关系能够同您对印度风物的喜爱一样一直延续下去。/ Journalism is a highly competitive profession at the best of times. 即使是在情况最好的时候，新闻记者也是一份竞争十分激烈的职业。/ It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, ... (Charles Dickens, A Tale of Two Cities) 那是最好的时代，那是最坏的时代，……</div><div class="ex-item">Creation is the most satisfactory of feelings. 创造是一种最适意的感受。/ Both characters culminate in the most satisfactory of outcomes. 书中两个人物的结局都写得极为圆满。/ Good magicians can fool the smartest of people. 出色的魔术师连最聪明的观众也能骗过。/ We all sometimes make mistakes under the best of circumstances. 哪怕是在最好的情况下，我们也都会常常会犯错误。/ Surely if we pointed our telescope at the brightest of stars, we would be looking towards the nearest of stars. 可以肯定，假如我们把望远镜对准最明亮的星球，我们会看到最近的星球。/ But saying that he (= McCain) wouldn't do what he says he will do in his campaign literature is not the most convincing of arguments. (Froma Harrop, in The Daily Gazette, June 21, 2008, A9) 但是，如果说，他说要做的地事他将不去做，这样的论点恐怕说服不了人。还要注意，最后面的名词，如果是可数名词，通常要用复数形式，但是实际上句子主语可以是复数，也可以是单数。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He is the worst of men. 他是个坏透了的人。</div><br><br>如果名词不在 the most ... of 后面，而是在前面而且是主语，the most ... of 变为表语就要变成 of the most ...。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Need I assure you, my dearest Sarah, that my intentions are henceforth of the most honorable? (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 我亲爱的莎拉，从今以后我的一切目的都是最高尚的，这还需要我向你保证吗？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 英语常常用被否定的最高级来婉转地表示一般意义上的否定，这是一种修辞手法。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... there were times if cook had a day off, when Mrs. Tranter sat and ate with Mary alone in the downstairs kitchen; and they were not the unhappiest hours in either of their lives. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) ……有时厨子放假时，特兰特姨妈居然和玛丽在楼下的厨房里一起坐着用餐。这对两个人来说，不能不说是一生中最愉快的时刻。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 不但形容词有最高级，副词甚至某些有程度差别的动词也可以有最高级。副词的最高级，通常用前面加 most 的形式，只有少数与形容词同形的副词采取 -est 的形式(例如 fast、early、late、hard 等)，前面可以加上 the，也可以不加(美式英语多加)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He spoke (the) most rudely of the three. 三个人当中，他说话最粗野。/ Bob drives most carefully of all my family. 我们一家人就数他开车最小心。</div><br><br>但是要注意，上述规律也只限于多个相比中的“最”。如果是同一事物在不同场合的“最”，就不能加 the。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He runs (the) fastest in the class. 他在班里跑得最快。/ He runs fastest (*the fastest) when he goes to school. 他上学时跑得最快。</div><br><br>另外一点需要注意的是，多个相比中的“最”，还要弄清楚是哪些。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The Sun's gravity pulls on Mercury the hardest. 太阳对水星的引力最强。(这里是同一个太阳引力“对水星”和“对其他行星”之比，不是“太阳引力”和“其他引力”对同一个水星之比。)/ She was filled with a deep sense of loneliness at his (= her father's) departure, a sadness at saying good-bye to the person she loved the most. (Sidney Sheldon, The Other Side of Midnight) 父亲离开后，她陷入了深深的孤独之中，因为她与她最爱的人告别了。(这里的 the most 也是同一个 she “对 the person”和“对其他人”之比，不是 she 同他人谁更爱同一个 the person 之比。)</div><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 动词的最高级，一律用 most，通常放在句末。如果动词的词义是表示有程度高低之分的状态的，most 前面的 the 往往可以省略(但不省略也可以)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>what surprised me (the) most 最使我感到惊讶的</div><div class="ex-item">what annoys me (the) most 最使我感到烦恼的。</div><br><br>但是有少数表示态度的动词(如 enjoy、want、fear、appreciate 等)，most 可以不放在句末而放在动词前面，此时前面就不要 the。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>What did the children most enjoy? 孩子们玩得最高兴的是什么？</div><br><br>如果动词的词义是表示动作的多少的，most 前面的 the 就通常不省略。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He worked the most and was paid the least. 他干得最多，拿得最少。/ What dictionary do you use the most? 你最常用哪一本词典？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> most 有时候不一定就是真正通过比较比出来的“最”。它可以仅仅是一种加强语气的修辞手段，此时，不要求有定冠词 the。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They are the most respectable. 教他们最为正派。(比出来的)</div><div class="ex-item">They are most respectable. 他们十分正派。</div><br><br>但是，从上面(2)，我们知道了同一事物在不同情况下的“最”，也不用定冠词 the。这样一来，没有定冠词的 most 出现时，就有两种可能，一种是同一事物在不同情况下的“最”，一种是加强语气的修辞手段。如 He was most eloquent at the end of his speech. 既可以是“他的通篇演说，在结束时最为娓娓动听”(比出来的)，也可以是“他的演说，结束时非常娓娓动听”(只是加强语气)。<br><br>
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most of all
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>most of all</b></div>是“尤其是”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Recent decades, and the 1990s most of all, drove these points home with terrible clarity. (The Economist) 最近几十年，尤其是 20 世纪 90 年代，这几点已经表现得触目惊心。</div><br><br>如果“尤其是”是表示进一步的否定(或是疑问反诘)，则不能用 *most of all 而要用 least of all。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The American Empire simply could not tolerate an anti-imperialist and anti-capitalist government, least of all in the Western hemisphere, the U.S.'s “backyard.” (International Socialist Review, July/August, 2004, p. 59) 美利坚帝国简直不可能容忍一个反帝和反资本主义的政府，尤其是在美国的“后院”——西半球。/ Under what circumstances does the CEO owe the employee anything, least of all an explanation for his actions? 身为首席执行官，哪能欠一个雇员什么东西，更何况是就自己的行动做出解释？</div><br><br>但是，有时候表面上是否定，其实是从反面表示肯定，也可以用 most of all。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Flushed with money and power, they didn't and would never have enough. There was never enough of either for men like this, but power most of all. (Tom Clancy, Clear and Present Danger) 他们腰缠万贯，大权在握，不知餍足，也永不餍足。对于这样的人，多少钱也不够，多大权也不够，尤其是权。</div><br><br>
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most 与 most of
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>most 与 most of</b></div>most + 可数名词复数，表示笼统的“大多数”；most of the + 可数名词复数，表示特定场合下特定范围内的大多数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Most children like to play. 小孩子大多爱玩。/ Most of the children in this school are under 11 years old. 本校大多数孩子不满 11 岁。</div><br><br>most 前面通常没有 the，如果有 the，则意义发生变化，不再是“……的大多数”，the most 本身单独成了个名词成分，表示“最大的收益”或“充其量的限度”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Make the most of your time. 充分利用你的时间。(注意：不要误为“你时间的最大部分”。)/ Behavior is caused by brain activity, and the most genes can do isto shape the wiring. 行为是由大脑活动引起的，基因最多只能塑造线路。(注意：不要误为“大多数基因”。)/ Jane should therefore make the most of every half hour in which she can command his attention. (Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice) 因此简就得时时刻刻留神，一看到有机会可以吸引他，就绝不会错过。</div><br><br>
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motor 与 engine
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>motor 与 engine</b></div>参见 engine 与 motor 条。<br><br>
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mouse 与 rat
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>mouse 与 rat</b></div>两者在中文中都是“老鼠”或“耗子”，但是在英语和许多其他欧洲语言中都是两个不同的单词。这原先是由于动物种属不同。在外形上，rat 比 mouse 大些。在派生意义上，rat 给人的印象是“可鄙的”，可以借用来指卑鄙小人，尤其是内奸、告密者。rat 甚至可以作为动词表示“告密”，如 rat on his best friend to the police。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You rat! 你这个畜牲！也可以表示“密谋；鬼鬼祟祟”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I smell a rat. 我觉得事有蹊跷。</div><br><br>mouse 给人的印象则更多的是“胆小，怕事”，但不邪恶卑鄙，用来指人，就是“胆小鬼”。有时甚至有点天真可爱，例如人们熟知的卡通角色“米老鼠”就是 Mickey Mouse (绝对不能说 *Mickey Rat)。另外，电脑的“鼠标”也是 mouse，如果是 rat，拿在手中就会恶心。不过，对于居家来说，mouse 和 rat 都一样是祸害，说“耗子洞”是 rathole 或是 mousehole 都可以。“捕鼠器”是 rattrap 或 mousetrap 也都可以。<br><br>
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mouth 与 lips
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>mouth 与 lips</b></div>参见 lips, mouth 与 tongue 条。<br><br>
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movement 与 campaign
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>movement 与 campaign</b></div>参见 campaign 条。<br><br>
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movie
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>movie</b></div>单数是一部影片，复数(有定冠词 the)是“电影院”，可以是已知的的一家电影院，也可以是未知的笼统的电影院。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He went to the movies with his brother. 他同弟弟一起去看电影。这里 the movies 不是“影片”，所以只看一部片子也用 the movies。</div><br><br>
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Mrs. 与 Mrs
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>Mrs. 与 Mrs</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 同 Mr. 或 Mr 一样，美式英语有小圆点，英式英语没有。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 按照过去的严格习惯，Mrs. 或 Mrs 后面接上的，应该是丈夫的名和姓，例如本人名字是 Mary 而丈夫名字是 John，就应该是 Mrs. John Doe 而不是 *Mrs. Mary Doe (唯有离了婚，女方才可以称为 Mrs. Mary Doe)。但是这个重男轻女的习惯多年来受到强烈冲击，许多女性放上自己的名字而不是丈夫的名字(其实用了丈夫的姓氏而不用自己本来的姓氏或是把自己本来的姓氏作为中间名，已经是对重男轻女习惯的一个妥协了)。这个问题，英国人比较拘束，美国人则比较开放。很久以来美国就流行在 Mrs. 后面放上女方自己的名字，或者放上女方本来的姓氏代替名字。时至今日，Mrs. 后面放女方自己的名字已经十分普遍，用丈夫名字的反而不流行，除非夫妇名字一起出现在请帖上：Mr. and Mrs. John Doe。例如美国前总统小布什的夫人的正式名字就是 Mrs. Laura Bush，前副总统切尼的夫人就叫 Mrs. Lynne Cheney。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 如果男方还另有头衔，这个头衔不可以并在女方的称呼上，例如不可以说 <i>Mrs. Dr. Doe 或 </i>Mrs. Prof. Doe。如果头衔是女方自己的，则可以用头衔而不用 Mrs.，或者用 Mrs. 而不用头衔。总之，不可以两者都用。<br><br>
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Mr. 与 Mr
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>Mr. 与 Mr</b></div>大体上相当于中文的“先生”。但是有几点要注意：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> Mr 后面加表示省略的小圆点(Mr.)，是美式英语用法；英式英语不加小圆点(Mr)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 间接提及某人时，Mr. 或 Mr 后面可以是该人的姓名全名，例如 Mr. John S. Carstairs，也可以只有该人的姓氏，例如 Mr. Carstairs。Mr. 或 Mr 后面不可以有名无姓，例如不可以说 *Mr. Bill (除非他真的姓 Bill，或是家中仆役称呼几个同姓的主人，见(4))。如果直接在交谈或信件中称呼某人(包括信件称呼)，则不可以在 Mr. 或 Mr 后面用该人的姓名全名，而只能用该人的姓氏(不过如果涉及外国人名，何者为姓何者为名有时候不清楚，也有索性放上姓名全名的)。Mrs.、Miss、Ms. 等也与此相同。但是，在信件的信封上，则要在 Mr. 或 Mr 后面放上姓名全名，不能只放上姓氏。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 提及著名的人物和同自己关系亲密的亲友时，不用 <i>Mr. 或 </i>Mr。所以，中文的“鲁迅先生”不能译成 <i>Mr. Lu Xun。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This is my friend Peter Atkins. (</i>This is my friend Mr. Peter Atkins.) 这是我的朋友彼得·阿特金斯。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 在旧时，Mr. 后面加上名字，用以在口头谈话时将同姓的一家人加以区别。例如对某场合中年纪最大或辈分最高的人，只称其姓氏 Mr. Smith，而对其余的家族成员则一一称为 Mr. James Smith、Mr. Robert Smith 等等(尤其是涉及家族企业的各个参与者时)。家中仆役对年纪最大或辈分最高者称 Mr. Smith (即只呼其姓氏)，对其余的人则不用姓氏只用名字。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Mr. Robert and Mr. Richard will be out this evening, but Mr. Edward is dining in. 罗伯特少爷和理查德少爷今天晚上出去有事，但是爱德华少爷在家吃晚饭。但随着社会风气的改变，这种称谓已经越来越少用。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 少数特定的职务头衔，例如总统、国务卿、总理、部长、大使、议长、大法官等等，直接面对面称呼时可以加上 Mr.，但不要附上姓名。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Mr. President 总统先生</div><div class="ex-item">Mr. Secretary of State 国务卿先生</div><div class="ex-item">Mr. Prime Minister 总理先生</div><div class="ex-item">Mr. Secretary of Defense 国防部长先生</div><div class="ex-item">Mr. Ambassador 大使先生</div><div class="ex-item">Mr. Speaker 议长先生</div><div class="ex-item">Mr. Justice 法官先生。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 用 Mr. 或 Mr 称呼某人，不一定带有尊敬的意思。2006 年 7 月，美国纽约州一个企图绑架女学生的罪犯被判处 12 年有期徒刑。在法庭上，受害者的父亲当面愤怒斥责被告，先称呼他为 Mr. 某某，然后痛陈被告的邪恶，最后说“我希望你坐一辈子的监狱出不来”。这可能是因为日常的语言中，直接叫某人的姓名是很没有礼貌的，都要加上个 Mr.、Miss 之类，习惯了，在罕有的斥责场合，直接称呼某个人，不加上 Mr.，难以启齿。另外，为了表示“绅士风度”，在间接提及某人时，即使是坏人，也有加上 Mr 的(主要在英国)。英国的《经济学人》(The Economist) 杂志每次提到本·拉登，都说 Mr Bin Laden。这里肯定没有任何尊敬的意思。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 尽管 Mr. 或 Mr 甚至可以放在自己认为是坏的人的名字前面，但是自报姓名时自称 Mr. (例如说 My name is Mr. Smith.) 仍然多少有点做作，不够谦虚有礼。不过，这种做法，也日渐流行。<br><br>
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much as
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>much as</b></div>后面引入让步状语从句，表示“尽管”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Much as</b> I would like to stay, I really must go home. 我尽管很想留下来，但是我的确必须回家了。/ I can't leave you here. <b>Much as</b> I'd like to. 我不能把你放在这里，尽管我很想这样做。也可以用 as much as。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... American stopped buying big vehicles, <b>as much as</b> they might have preferred them. (Froma Harrop, "Cars: What We Need Versus What We Want," in <i>The Daily Gazette</i>, May 25, 2009, A7) ……美国人不再买大车了，尽管他们也许还是喜欢大车。</div><br><br>
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much less
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>much less</b></div>放在一个否定成分后面，表示“更不”，因为 less 的意义可以从“更少”过渡到“更不”；这里的 much 并不加重 less 的语气。后面的成分，在结构上与前面的相同。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The cloud of treason hanging over him was enough to guarantee that no one ever trusted, <b>much less</b> listened to him ever again. 悬在他头上的背叛乌云，已足以保证谁也不会再信任他，更不会再听他的。</div><br><br>
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much of a
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>much of a</b></div>后面只能接上单数名词，用于否定句，表示“算不上是(某种人或某种事物)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But it's not <b>much of a</b> slogan. 但是这就算不了什么口号。/ He isn't <b>much of an</b> actor. 他算不上什么演员。/ Too late to make <b>much of a</b> difference at all. (Tom Clancy, <i>Executive Orders</i>) 太迟了，根本起不了多大作用。</div><br><br>
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much²
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>much²</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为数量形容词，much (many 亦同)通常不单独出现在肯定句中(在否定句和疑问句中则可)，而用 a lot of ...、a good deal of ...、a great deal of ...、plenty of ... 来代替。但是如果同另一些单词结合出现则可，例如 how much、so much、too much、as much、that much、very much。此外，学术论文一般避免使用 a lot of ...、a good deal of ... 之类的说法，因此，不那么避讳使用单独的 much (many)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A good teacher needs <b>a lot of</b> (<i>much) patience. 做一个好老师，要有很大的耐心。/ The students started asking <b>a lot of</b> questions. 学生们开始提出了一大堆问题。/ —Did you earn <b>much</b> money last year? —Yes, I earned <b>a lot</b> (</i>much).</div><div class="ex-item">—No, I didn't earn <b>much</b>. —你去年赚了很多钱吧？—是赚了很多。/ —没有赚到多少。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 但是单独的 much 可以出现在句首主语中。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Much</b> work still needs to be done. 还有很多的工作要做。这个情况，也适用于 much 作为代词的场合。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Much</b> still remains to be done. 还有许多的事情要办。/ <b>Much</b> of the equipment is useless. 设备有很多是无用的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> how much 可以用来问商品的价格是多少，此时不论该商品的名词是可数还是不可数、单数还是复数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>How much</b> are eggs? 鸡蛋怎么卖的？/ <b>How much</b> is this camera? 这个相机卖多少钱？此外，涉及款项时，尽管款项的项目是多个，用复数表示，但如果问及总额为多少，也用 how much。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>How much</b> extra taxes must we pay? 我们该缴纳多少钱的追加税？(如果说 how many extra taxes ... 就是多少种追加税)</div><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 一个数量，由若干个单独的单位组成，作为一个整体，此时仍然要用 much (通常不能与可数名词复数连用)而不用 <i>many 来与之搭配。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Some of these fish can weigh as <b>much</b> (</i>many) as 80 kg. 这些鱼，有些可以重达 80 公斤。同样，表示其少时，用 little 而不用 <i>few。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You can fly to Paris for as <b>little</b> (</i>few) as 20 euros. 你可以花区区 20 欧元飞往巴黎一趟。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 这个形容词虽然意义是“多”，但有时候可以是中性无标记的“或多或少，某一个量”，在一定的语境中甚至可以是“少”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I had exactly as <b>much</b> experience dealing with the media as I had with the New Jersey Supreme Court, but Ifigured that was as good a time as any to learn on the job. (David Rosenfelt, <i>Heart of a Killer</i>) 我同媒体打交道，简直就像同新泽西最高法院打交道一样，没有什么经验，不过我猜想那倒是个好机会，可以边干边学。/ Butlers, footmen, gardeners, grooms, upstairs maids, downstairs maids—they took just so <b>much</b> of Mrs. Poulteney's standards and ways and then they fled. (John Fowles, <i>The French Lieutenant's Woman</i>) 男管家、男仆、园丁、马夫、上房侍女、打杂侍女——他们实在忍受不了波尔蒂尼夫人那么多的规矩，只得逃之夭夭。</div><br><br>
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much¹
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>much¹</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为程度副词，much 可以代替 very 用来修饰仍然未摆脱动词色彩的动词现在分词与过去分词。例如可以说 a very surprised look (十分惊讶的神情) (surprised 已经形容词化了)；但 a much-discussed subject (备受议论的话题) (discussed 还带有动词意义)不能说 <i>a very-discussed subject。可以说 I'm very interested in music. (我对音乐很感兴趣。)不能说 </i>The opera was very admired. 要说 The opera was much/very much admired. (那出歌剧很受赞赏。) She seemed very much changed by this experience. (这次经历，使她变了一个人。)<br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 如果单独一个 much (不带 very、too、so 等)作为程度副词用来修饰动词，则通常只能用于否定句、疑问句或条件状语从句。但是，有少数几个表示价值判断的动词(如 appreciate、admire、prefer、regret 等)，如果在直陈式肯定句中出现，可以用单独的 much 来强调其程度之高，此时 much 放在该动词前面。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I much prefer tea to coffee. 我喜欢喝茶，远胜于喜欢喝咖啡。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 作为程度副词，much 在直陈式肯定句中还可以修饰一些表示内心感情或感情的表露的动词(如 like、enjoy、love、hate、praise、blame、thank、surprise 等)，但是不能单独用，要加 very much，此时通常放在句末。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Thank you very much. (<i>Thank you much.) 太谢谢您了。/ He likes her <b>very much</b>. (</i>He likes her much.</div><div class="ex-item">*He much likes her.) 他很喜欢她。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 通常形容词原级要强调其程度，前面加上 very 即可。但有少数几个表语形容词(如 afraid、alike、ashamed 等)，可以用 very，也可以用 very much 来修饰。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They're <b>very/very much</b> afraid of being scolded. 他们非常害怕挨骂。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 作为程度副词，very 通常修饰一个形容词，很少修饰一个词组，此时可以用 much 来代替。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>much</b> the same 一模一样</div><div class="ex-item"><b>much</b> of a size 大小差不多</div><div class="ex-item"><b>much</b> like what I expected 同我预计的差不多。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 常常以表示数量的 much 来表达频度。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>having seen <b>much of</b> the beach (Tom Clancy, <i>The Cardinal of the Kremlin</i>) 常常看见海滩(不是“看见过海滩的大部分”)。</div><br><br>
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mud
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>mud</b></div>原意是“泥泞”，但是 here's mud in your eye 不是“你的眼睛里有泥”，而是碰杯祝酒时说的“干杯”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—Bottoms up. —<b>Here's mud in your eye</b>. —Care for another? —来干一杯。—干了。—再来一杯怎么样？/ Well, <b>here's mud in your eye</b>! I hope you'll both be very happy together. 来，干这一杯！祝你们两口子过得幸福美满。</div><br><br>
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music
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>music</b></div>不一定是笼统的“音乐”，也可以是作为物件的“乐谱”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There are four ways to study a composition: (1) On the piano with the <b>music</b>. (2) Away from the piano with the <b>music</b>. (3) On the piano without the <b>music</b>. (4) Away from the piano without the <b>music</b>. (Josef Hofmann, <i>Piano Playing</i>) 学习一部音乐作品，有四种方法：(一)看着谱子在钢琴上弹奏。(二)离开钢琴看着谱子。(三)不看谱子单在钢琴上弹奏。(四)离开钢琴也不看谱子。</div><br><br>
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must
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>must</b></div>这个尽人皆知的情态动词，其实意义并不简单。如果它后面接的不定式动词(没有 to)是个由意志左右的行为动词(无论是瞬时的行为还是延续的行为)，must 的意义就是“应该，必须”(这个“应该，必须”是从说话者的角度来说的)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He <b>must</b> go. (我认为)他应该去。(go 是瞬时的行为。)</div><div class="ex-item">He <b>must</b> sleep. (我认为)他应该睡觉。(sleep 是延续的行为。)</div>如果 must 后面接的不定式动词是个不由意志左右的状态动词，那就没有“应该，必须”的意义，而转为“(我估计)一定会是如何”的意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It <b>must</b> rain this afternoon. (我估计)今天下午一定会下雨。即使后面的不定式动词是个由意志左右的行为动词，如果采取 be + -ing 或 have + pp. 的形式，也不表示“应该，必须”，而是表示“(我认为)情况一定是如何”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He <b>must be</b> going. 他一定是要走了。/ He <b>must be</b> sleeping. 他一定是在睡觉。/ He <b>must have gone</b>. 他一定已经走了。/ He <b>must have slept</b>. 他一定睡过了头。/ They <b>must have come</b> from elsewhere. 他们一定是从别处来的。/ Robby <b>must have left</b> the hotel after dinner last night. (Mary Higgins Clark, <i>Nighttime Is My Time</i>) 罗比一定是昨晚晚饭后离开旅馆的。但是，如果 must be + -ing (-ing 动词为由意志左右的行为)的主语是第一人称 I 或 we，则不可能“自己估计自己如何”，此时 must 仍然有“(我自己认为)我有必要做某事”的意思。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I <b>must</b> be going. 我该走了。(此时 go 虽然是瞬时动作，也可以用进行时态。)</div>
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mutual
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>mutual</b></div>本来表示“互相的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>mutual</b> aid 互助。但是意义扩大到了“共同的”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>mutual</b> fund 共同基金(美国的一种投资方式)</div><div class="ex-item"><b>mutual</b> friend 共同的朋友</div><div class="ex-item"><b>mutual</b> hobby 共同的爱好</div><div class="ex-item"><b>mutual</b> effort 共同的努力</div><div class="ex-item">We have a <b>mutual</b> interest in opera. 我们都对歌剧感兴趣。</div><br><br>
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my orders
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>my orders</b></div>参见 order 条。<br><br>
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name
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>name</b></div>作为及物动词，如果意思是“命名”，则在被命名者后面直接放上名字即可。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Her parents <b>named</b> her (<i>to be</div><div class="ex-item"></i>as) Gladys. 她父母给她取名为格雷迪丝。如果意思是“任命”，则被任命者与所任职务之间要加上 to be 或 as。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The selectors <b>name</b> her <b>to be/as</b> a member of the touring team. 选择者们指定了她为巡视组的成员。</div><br><br>作为名词，一个介词搭配是用 by。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>(He) said there was no one there by that <b>name</b> and immediately hung up. (Daniel Silva, <i>Moscow Rules</i>) (他)说那里没有叫这个名字的人，就立刻把电话挂上了。</div><br><br>
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national
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>national</b></div>这个形容词虽然是从 nation 派生的，但是在词义上又增添了多重色彩。它可以表示：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 与“地方性的”相对而言的“全国性的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The meeting made the headlines in the <b>national</b> newspapers. 这次会议成了各家全国性大报的头条新闻。/ They plan to go <b>national</b>. 他们计划走向全国。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 与“国际性的”相对而言的“本国的”或“国内的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Special stamps were issued to mark <b>national</b> and international events. 发行特别邮票以纪念国家和国际大事。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> “具有本国或本民族特色的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They were wearing their <b>national</b> costume. 他们穿着民族服装。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 国际政治意义上的“本国的”或“国家的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>national</b> anthem 国歌</div><div class="ex-item"><b>national</b> debt 国债</div><div class="ex-item"><b>national</b> holiday 国家节日。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> “民族的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>national</b> liberation movement 民族解放运动</div><div class="ex-item"><b>national</b> independence 民族独立</div><div class="ex-item"><b>national</b> bourgeoisie 民族资产阶级。</div><br><br>但是中文的“民族”往往专指“少数民族”，例如“民族政策”，英文就不能译成 <i>national policy 而要译成 policy toward nationalities 或 policy toward ethnic groups; “民族歧视”不能译成 </i>national discrimination 而要译成 ethnic discrimination。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> “由全国性政府管辖的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>national</b> bank 国家中央银行</div><div class="ex-item"><b>national</b> university 国立大学。</div><br><br>
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nationalization
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>nationalization</b></div>这个名词以及它相应的动词 nationalize 虽然是从形容词 national 派生的，但是在词义上有了缩小，不表示与地方化相对的全国化或是与国际化相对的本国化，也不表示民族化，而只是指把境内本国或外国私人资本的企业收归“国有”(即“政府”所有)。<br><br>
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nation, country 与 state
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>nation, country 与 state</b></div>nation 相当于地理加国际政治意义上的国家或民族，也往往是相对于地方、地区而言的全国；country 则更多偏重地理意义的国家；state 则总是指一个国家的政权机构体系。但是在一些联邦制的国家，如美国，state 也可以指地理上或政府结构意义上的“州”(参见 state 条)。<br><br>
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Native American
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>Native American</b></div>不是“土生的美国人”，而是美国现在对土著印第安人的婉转称谓，犹如称美国黑人为 African American (非裔美国人)一样。<br><br>
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nature
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>nature</b></div>作“大自然”解时，不要加任何冠词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If you interfere with <b>nature</b> you will suffer for it. 如果你干预大自然，你就会因此吃苦头。有时候“大自然”也说 Mother <b>Nature</b>，但带有感情色彩，往往用于谈及大自然给予人类的恩惠。</div><br><br>
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nauseous
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>nauseous</b></div>是“使人感到恶心的”。如果要说“自己感到恶心的”，本来要用 nauseated。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a nauseated airplane passenger 一个感到恶心的飞机乘客。如果是 a <b>nauseous</b> airplane passenger，那就可能是衣衫肮脏、一身臭气的乘客。但是，许多人往往用 nauseous 表示“自己感到恶心的”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I feel dizzy and <b>nauseous</b>. 我头晕恶心。从上下文和语境分析，虽不至于发生误会，但最好注意区别。</div><br><br>
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near
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>near</b></div>这是一个语法作用十分独特的单词。它的词义是“接近、靠近”；它的语法作用基本上相当于介词(其特征是后面可以接上名词成分作宾语，但又可以有比较级和最高级，这是一般介词所没有的)；可以作为副词；可以作为形容词(有比较级和最高级，后面还可以接上介词短语 to + 名词)；还可以作为动词。现在分述如下：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为可以有比较级和最高级的特殊介词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He stood <b>near</b> the door. 他站在门边。/ I wish I lived <b>nearer</b> London. 我真恨不得住在更加靠近伦敦的地方。/ Several cars were already parked outside and, <b>nearer</b> the house, they could hear the sound of voices from the upper level. 好几辆车已经停在外面，再靠近房子一点，他们就听得到楼上的人声。/ Instinctively, those <b>nearest</b> the guardrail took a step backward. 那些最挨近栏杆的，本能地往后退了一步。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作为副词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>No birds or animals came <b>near</b>. 近处没有来什么鸟兽。/ a <b>near</b> impossible task 一项几乎不可能完成的任务</div><div class="ex-item">Afar, it (= the aspect of the winter afternoon) offered a pale blank of mist and cloud; <b>near</b> a scene of wet lawn and storm-beat shrub, with ceaseless rain sweeping away wildly before a long and lamentable blast. (Charlotte Brontë, <i>Jane Eyre</i>) 只见远方白茫茫一片云雾，近处是一块湿漉漉的草地和受风雨袭击的灌木。一阵持久而凄厉的狂风，驱赶着如注的暴雨，横空扫过。此时要注意不要将它后面的名词成分误认为介词宾语。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 作为形容词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Growth will be accelerating in the <b>near</b> future. 在不久的将来，增长会加速。/ We walked to the <b>nearest</b> house. 我们朝最近的那栋房子走过去。/ Right now we're no <b>nearer</b> to having that than we were before. 目前我们相比以前并没有什么进展。/ But she felt she was no <b>nearer</b> to her goal than she was when she had first arrived in New York. 但是她觉得，现在离自己的目标同刚到纽约时一样遥远。nearest 在句子中常常同它后面的补充成分 to ... 隔开，这种情况与 closest 相同。如 In summer it is the <b>nearest</b> this country can offer <b>to</b> a tropical jungle. (John Fowles, <i>The French Lieutenant's Woman</i>) 国内某译本译作：“夏天，它是这个国家能提供的最近的热带丛林。”这就把 near 的抽象意义“接近”误解为地理上的意义了，其实 nearest to 的对象是 a tropical jungle。英国(句中“这个国家”)根本不可能有热带丛林，这里只是说“近乎热带丛林的去处”。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 作为动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We were <b>nearing</b> the point where the lane curved. 我们正在走近巷道拐弯的地方。/ The attorneys of Schiavo's parents acknowledged the fight to reconnect the brain-damaged woman's feeding tube was <b>nearing</b> an end. 施亚沃父母的律师们承认，争取给这个脑损伤的妇女重新接上喂食管的这场战斗，正在接近尾声。</div><br><br>
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near 与 close to
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>near 与 close to</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> near 用于物质的接近，close to 用于物质或抽象的接近。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The table is <b>near/close to</b> the wall. 餐桌挨着墙。/ John remains/is/stays <b>near/close to</b> his brother. 约翰一直在他弟弟身旁。/ Michael feels <b>close to</b>/<i>near his brother. 迈克尔感到自己同弟弟很亲近。/ This attitude is/stays/remains <b>close to</b>/</i>near stupidity. 这种态度简直近乎愚蠢。/ The team was <b>close to</b>/<i>near victory. 球队差不多快要获胜了。/ Stephen is <b>close to</b>/</i>near physical collapse. 斯蒂芬的体力快要耗尽了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 表示抽象的接近(主语和补语双方都抽象)时，动词可以不用 be、stay 之类而用 come close to 或 verge on。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This attitude <b>comes close to/verges on</b> stupidity. 这种态度简直近乎愚蠢。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 但抽象的接近如果是被否定的，则不用 <i>close to 而用 near。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This problem is nowhere <b>near</b> a solution. 这个问题无从解决。但如果否定词在前面较远，也可以用 close。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Penn State's freshmen have an expected graduation rate of seventy-three percent and an actual graduation rate of eighty-five percent, for a score of plus twelve: <b>no</b> other school in the </i>U.S. News & World Report<i> top fifty comes <b>close</b>. (Malcolm Gladwell, "The Order of Things," in </i>The New Yorker*, Feb. 14, 2011) 宾州州立大学一年级学生的预期毕业率为 73%，实际毕业率为 85%，相比得分为正 12；《美国新闻与世界报道》排名的前 50 所大学中，没有任何其他一所接近这个水平。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 时间上的接近，用 close to 而不用 near。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is <b>close to</b> noon/midnight/5 o'clock. 快要中午/午夜/5 点钟了。/ Ted is <b>close to</b> 50/retirement age. 泰德快 50 岁/到退休年龄了。</div><br><br>
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necessary 与 necessity
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>necessary 与 necessity</b></div>有“必须，必需”(主观的)和“必然”(客观的)两个很不相同的意义。necessary 唯有作前置定语，才有“必然的”的意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This is a <b>necessary</b> consequence of progress. 这是发展必然造成的结果。necessary 作表语则一定是“必需的，需要的”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It may be <b>necessary</b> to buy a new car. 可能需要买辆新车。/ It doesn't seem <b>necessary</b> for us to meet. 看来我们没必要见面。/ Only use your car when absolutely <b>necessary</b>. 极度需要时再用你的车。但作前置定语时也可以是“必要的”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'llmake the <b>necessary</b> arrangements. 我会做必要的安排。</div><br><br>necessity 只有单数才有“必然性”的意思，但即使如此，也可以是“必要性”。有时候为了说清楚，在 necessity 前加上 logical 表示“必然”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Necessity</b> is the mother of invention. 必要为发明之母。/ We recognize the <b>necessity</b> of a written agreement. 我们认为有必要签一份书面协议。/ We were discussing the <b>necessity</b> of employing more staff. 我们当时在讨论是否有必要增加人员。/ There had never been any <b>necessity</b> for her to go out to work. 从未有任何必要叫她出去工作。/ This is, <b>of necessity</b>, a brief and incomplete account. 这是出于必要做出的简要而不完全的说明。/ Air-conditioning is an absolute <b>necessity</b> in this climate. 空调在这样的气候是绝对必需的。复数则是“各种所需之物”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Many people cannot even afford <b>basic necessities</b> such as food and clothing. 许多人连食物和衣物这样的起码必需品都买不起。</div><br><br>
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need
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>need</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 这个动词(属第一类动词)，可以是普通的实义动词，也可以是助动词(否定或疑问时不用加 do，后面接上动词不定式不要 to)。但是它只有在否定句或疑问句中(而且后面的宾语不是名词而是动词不定式)才可以用来作助动词，在肯定句中就要作为实义动词来处理。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You <b>needn't</b> come if you don't want to. 你不想来就不必来。/ She <b>need</b> never know. 她根本不需要知道。/ <b>Need</b> you be so rude? 有必要这样粗野吗？/ That <b>needn't</b> always be the case. 不必总是如此。/ <b>Need</b> one remind her (= U.S. State Secretary Condoleezza Rice) of the torture skills some (U.S.) soldiers brazenly demonstrated in the past? (<i>Bahrain Tribune</i>, May 19, 2005) 一些大兵昔日大肆表演的拷打技巧，难道还要人家给她提提醒吗？</div><br><br>need 在肯定的从句中，如果这个从句被前面的主句的否定所管辖，则 need 仍然可以用作助动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I have done <b>nothing</b> of which I <b>need</b> be ashamed. (Thomas Babington Macaulay, <i>History of England</i>) 我没有做过任何需要感到羞愧的事。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 如果是肯定句，或者虽然是否定句或疑问句但宾语是名词(包括动名词)而非动词不定式，need 就仍然要作为普通的实义动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I <b>need</b> to go to the post office. 我需要到邮局去一趟。/ Do you <b>need</b> the hammer? 你要用这锤子吗？/ Just what I <b>needed</b>! 我真是得其所哉！/ I <b>need</b> someone to look after the children. 我需要有人来看孩子。/ She didn't <b>need</b> telling twice. 给她一说就明白。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> need 作为助动词，意义主要是指当前有或是没有某个必要(尤其是用来要求或允许当前免做某事)，不指长远的需要。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's OK. You <b>needn't</b> pay for that phone call. 行。那次打的电话你不用付钱了。/ I'm in no hurry. He <b>needn't</b> send it by air. 我不急着要用。他不必寄航空件。这里的助动词 needn't，也可以改用普通动词 don't need to。但是如果讲的是长远的不需要，就只能用 don't need to。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You <b>don't need to</b> (<i>needn't) pay for emergency calls in most countries. 在大多数国家，拨打急救电话是不用付费的。/ I <b>don't need to</b> (</i>needn't) queue for my bus. I get on at the terminus. 我是在总站上公共汽车的，不需要排队。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 如果谈的是一段时间以后的需要，或是取决于另一事态的需要，need (普通实义动词)可以用于一般将来时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We'll <b>need</b> to repair the roof next year. 咱们明年要修理屋顶了。/ You'll <b>need</b> to fill out these forms before you see the immigration officer. 你去见移民局官员之前，要先填好这些表格。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> need (用现在时) not have + pp. 表示过去已经做了的某事现在看来本来是不必做的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You <b>needn't have woken</b> me up. I don't have to go to work today. 你本采用不着把我喊醒。我今天不需要上班。/ I <b>needn't have cooked</b> so much food. Nobody was hungry. 我本来不必做这么多的饭菜。谁也不饿。但是，didn't need to 意思就有些不同，是就过去谈过去的情况，说当时不需要如何，但是实际上可能做了，也可能没有做(通常是没有做，但这只是从情理来推测，字面上并不交代)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It started raining, so I <b>didn't need to</b> water the flowers. 下起雨来了，所以我就不需要浇花了。(后面还可以加上：But I did water them in case it didn't rain enough. 但是我还是浇了，以防万一雨水不够。)/ I <b>didn't need to</b> mow the lawn myself. My brother did it. 我不需要自己推草地。我哥哥干了。(从后一句看出没有做)</div>说了 needn't have + pp. 之后，往往另加一句 could have + pp. 作为一个替代办法。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—I wanted a copy of the letter, so I typed it twice. —You <b>needn't have typed</b> it twice. You <b>could have</b> used a carbon. —我当时想给这封信留个底，所以打了两份。—你本来不需要打两份。你可以用复写纸嘛。</div><br><br>needn't have + pp. 与 shouldn't have + pp. 意义接近，但是后者多少带有一点“本来不应该”的责备口气，而前者则只是“本来不必”的惋惜口气。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She <b>shouldn't have stood</b> in the queue. She <b>should have got</b> tickets from the machine. 她本来不该排队。她本来应该到自动售票机那里去买票。(有责备口气)</div><div class="ex-item">She <b>needn't have stood</b> in the queue. She <b>could have got</b> tickets from the machine. 她本来不必排队。她到自动售票机那里去买票就行了。(有惋惜口气)</div><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> need not 有时候不是“不需要”，而是“不一定”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—She looks quite ill. I'm sure it's flu. —It <b>needn't</b> be—maybe she's just overtired. —她看样子病得很厉害。我看一定是流感。—那可不一定。也许只是劳累过度。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 后面如果接上动名词，要用主动形式表示被动意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The machine <b>needs</b> oiling. 机器需要上油了。(不说 <i>needs being oiled，但可以说 needs to be oiled。)</div><div class="ex-item">Your hair <b>needs</b> cutting/to be cut. 你的头发需要整理一下了。甚至后面说出施动者(by whom)时，need 后面(by 前面)的动名词仍然要用主动形式。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This word <b>needs</b> replacing by (</i>being replaced by) a better one. 这个单词应该换一个更好的来代替。或者后面的动名词加上介词(或加上名词和介词)，合成一个相当于及物动词的动词短语，此时这个动词短语的宾语就是 need 的主语。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But there are a few other matters that <b>need</b> taking care of (= need to be taken care of) first. 但是另外还有不少事情需要先照应一下。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> need + 名词成分 + 动词不定式有时候会形成兼语式。所谓兼语式，原本是汉语语法的一个用语，指及物动词 + 名词成分 + 另一动词的结构，而当中的名词成分，既是前一个及物动词的宾语，又是后面另一动词的逻辑主语，一身二任，故称为“兼语”。例如“我请他前来”中的“他”，就是兼语，英语 I need him to come. 中的 him 就是兼语。但是，这样的结构形式并不一定就是兼语式。问题在于后面的动词不定式，其逻辑主语究竟是中间的这个名词成分，还是依旧是前面的那个主语。是否是兼语结构，主要靠上下文和事理来辨别。<br><br>need 的宾语可以是兼语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We <b>need</b> you to lead us. 我们需要你来引领我们。/ We may <b>need</b> you to do some work in the evening. 我们或许需要你在傍晚做些工作。/ Our appendix used to do something important that we don't <b>need</b> it to do anymore, because something is different today. (UCSB Science Line) 我们的阑尾，从前一直执行某些重要的功能，但是今天情况有点不同，我们不再需要它来执行这些功能了。</div><br><br>need 的宾语也可以不是兼语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We <b>need</b> water to live, and so does our wildlife. 我们需要有水才能生存，我们的野生动植物也一样需要。/ You don't <b>need</b> ID to vote, but you <b>need</b> it to do many other things. 你投票并不需要有身份证，但是要办许多别的事情却要身份证。/ Equality is like gravity. We <b>need</b> it to stand on this earth as men and women. (Joss Whedon) 平等就像地心引力。我们需要有它，才能作为男男女女站在这片大地上。/ Children <b>need</b> vitamin D to build strong bones, and adults <b>need</b> it to keep their bones strong and healthy. 儿童需要维生素 D 来打造强壮的骨骼，成年人则需要它来保持骨骼的强壮与健康。</div><br><br>
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neighborhood
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>neighborhood</b></div>neighborhood 这个表示地点的名词有时候表示“大约数量”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The base itself covers <b>somewhere</b> in the <b>neighborhood</b> of eighty-five to eighty-seven square kilometers. 基地本身占地大约 85 到 87 平方千米。参见 where 条之(3)。</div><br><br>
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neither
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>neither</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作代词，表示“两者均不”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Those who would sacrifice liberty for security deserve <b>neither</b>. (Benjamin Franklin) 为了安全而牺牲自由者，既不配享有安全，也不配享有自由。要注意 neither 与 none 的区别是：“两者均不”用 neither，“多者均不”用 none。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She read <b>both</b> poems, but liked <b>neither</b>. 两首诗她都读过了，但是哪一首她都不喜欢。/ She read the <b>three</b> poems, but liked <b>none</b>. 三首诗她都读过了，但是哪一首她都不喜欢。neither of + 复数名词，这个复数名词只能指两个，不能更多(更多就用 none)。如果作主语，谓语动词用单数。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Neither of</b> my sisters <b>is</b> married. 我的两个妹妹都没有结婚。但是非正式的英语也有用复数的：<b>Neither of</b> my sisters <b>are</b> married.</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 这个“两者均不”的意义，也贯穿到 neither 作为否定形容词时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Neither</b> proposal was accepted. 两个建议都没有得到采纳。/ <b>Neither</b> one is the right size. 两件的大小都不合适。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> neither 还可以作为否定连词，在一个否定句后再引出另一个否定句(此时后一句主谓次序要倒装)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is not our policy, <b>neither/nor</b> is it the policy of our allies. 这不是我们的方针，也不是我们盟友的方针。还可以用于省略句。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—I can't swim. —<b>Neither/Nor</b> can I. —我不会游泳。—我也不会。在这个用法上，neither 与 nor 可以互换。但是还可以说 Me <b>neither</b>, 此时就不可以用 *nor。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> neither ... nor ... 是一对前后呼应的连词，表示“既不……也不……”，要注意不能误操作 <i>neither ... or ...。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He <b>neither</b> bought <b>nor</b> (</i>or) sold stocks and bonds. 他既没有买进也没有卖出股票和债券。/ I estimate myself <b>neither</b> highly <b>nor</b> lowly. 我对自己的评价不高也不低。采取这个用法时，要注意两点。第一，neither 和 nor 后面的成分可以是任何句法性质(可以是名词成分，状语成分，非谓语动词成分，甚至谓语动词成分，如 I <b>neither</b> smoke <b>nor</b> drink.)，但彼此应该对称，如 I <b>neither</b> estimate myself highly <b>nor</b> lowly. 就显得头重脚轻。第二，按照正规的语法，应该是只能 neither 否定一个，nor 否定一个，一共两个，不可以多，例如 He attempted to excite <b>neither</b> anger, <b>nor</b> ridicule, <b>nor</b> admiration. (他既不企图惹人发怒，也不企图惹人讥笑，也不企图惹人钦佩。)这样的句子就不规范。但是还是有不少名家这样写，所以也可能是约定俗成的。也有人主张，像这样的句子，最好改为 He did not attempt to excite anger, nor ridicule, nor admiration. 另外，也可以将否定移到 neither ... nor ... 之外，成为 not ... either ... or ...。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This <b>isn't either</b> the time <b>or</b> the place. 现在的时间和地点都不对。/ Hong Kong researchers say they have found accurate tests using both blood and saliva for the coronavirus, but those methods <b>haven't</b> yet been endorsed by <b>either</b> the WHO <b>or</b> CDC. 香港的研究人员说，他们已经找到了检查血液和唾液中的冠状病毒的准确办法，但是这些办法还没有得到世界卫生组织或疾病预防控制中心的确认。</div><br><br>
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never
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>never</b></div>在句中的位置安排，参见 always 条之(4)。<br><br>
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never mind
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>never mind</b></div>可以用于进一步否定(“更不，更别说”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I can't find one, <b>never mind</b> several. 我连一个都找不到，别说好几个了。</div><br><br>
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never more ...
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>never more ...</b></div>与 no more ... (“再也不”)意义完全不同，表示肯定的“最”。<br><br>不过，如果主语没有明言或隐含的外部比较对象，而且动词用 get，成为 never get more adj.，则最常见的意思仍然是“一直没有变得更为如何”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>That was the depth of the worst date ever. Glad it <b>never got more</b> serious. 那一天的倒霉是到底了。幸亏还没有变得更加严重。/ Seeing my brother in the hospital bed covered in all those wires and tubes <b>never got easier</b>. (Bettie B. Youngs and Jennifer Leigh Youngs, "Good Friends Are a Necessity of Life," in <i>Taste Berries for Teens</i>) 看着我哥哥躺在医院的病床上，全身到处是电线和插管，这种感觉，无法轻松得了。/ Bennie Rosato had waited for more than a hundred jury verdicts in her career, but the waiting <b>never got easier</b>. (Lisa Scottoline, <i>Dead Ringer</i>) 委说员贝妮·罗萨托等候陪审团做出判决，也等过一百多次了，但是这种等待一直都是那样的不轻松。</div><br><br>但是，never get more adj. 如果后面有某一特定时间点或特定情况作为比较对象，则是“从未到如此地步”亦即肯定的“最”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Bookkeepingoutsourcing: Keeping accounts records <b>never got easier than</b> this. 将记账工作外包：保存账目记录，如今轻而易举。或者没有谈及过去的一个时间段来作为有没有变化的载体，此时虽然没有比较对象，但已经隐含了“现在的情况”作为比较对象，所以 never get more adj. 也可以表示肯定的“最”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Making money <b>never got easier</b>. 现在是挣钱最容易的时机。但是如果前文已经隐约提及了这样一个时间段，这句话也可以理解为“挣钱(在这个时间段当中)一直没有容易过”。</div><br><br>
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nevertheless 与 nonetheless
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>nevertheless 与 nonetheless</b></div>参见 nonetheless 与 nevertheless 条。<br><br>
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never-was
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>never-was</b></div>是个从动词变来的名词，意思是“失意者”(复数 never-wases)。参见 has-been 条。<br><br>
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news
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>news</b></div>news 虽然看起来是复数形式，其实是个不可数名词。如果要一个一个地说，要说 a piece of news、a bit of news 或 an item of news。但是对于已知的一个消息，就不必说 the piece of news，直接说 the news 就可以了。甚至某个特定的消息，不但可以用 the 来特指，还可以加上其他定语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>For the White House, Zarqawi's unexpected demise is <b>the first good news</b> about the insurgency in months, ... (<i>Newsweek</i>, June 19, 2006, p. 37) 对于白宫来说，扎卡维出人意料的死亡，是多个月来有关反叛动乱的第一个好消息，……(不说 *the first piece of good news) 但是要注意，只有是已知的消息或是独一无二的一个消息(有 the)才可以省去 piece of; 如果是新提到的消息，由于必须有 a，就只能用 a piece of 来搭配(如 a piece of good news)。</div><br><br>第一次提到有好消息或者坏消息，也不说 a piece of good news 或 a piece of bad news，而是可以干脆当作已经知道有好消息或有坏消息，说 <b>The</b> good <b>news</b> is that ... 或 <b>The</b> bad <b>news</b> is that ...。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>The good news is that</b> our ability to treat GI disorders continues to improve. 幸好，我们治疗胃肠道疾病的能力在持续提高。这样的思维方式扩而充之，不但好坏 news，而且谈论内容中别的判别成分，也可以当作已经分好了类别的、本来就应有的，第一次提及也用定冠词 the 而不用不定冠词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>The funny thing</b> is, ... 有趣的是，……</div><div class="ex-item">And <b>the supreme irony</b> is that ... 最讽刺的是……</div><br><br>
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new 与 novel
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>new 与 novel</b></div>new 只是从时间的先后说某事物是新近的，不涉及该事物的质态；novel 则有正面的“新颖的”之意。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The computer produced a completely <b>novel</b> proof of the theorem. 电脑为该定理提供了一个全新的证明。</div><br><br>
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next
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>next</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 后面跟一个表示时间位置的名词，next 前面不要任何介词，就可以成为一个状语词组。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>See you <b>next</b> Monday (*on next Monday). 下星期一再见。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 说 next summer，如果说话时是春天，就是即将到来的今年夏天；如果说话时已经是夏天甚至秋天或冬天，则指的是明年的夏天。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> next week (month、year) 与 the next week (month、year) 都是以说话时的现在为基准的，两者的区别是：next week (month、year) 是日历上的“下个星期(下个月、明年)”；the next week (month、year) 是从今天算起的一周(一个月、一年)时间。如果说话时是星期二，next week 就是下星期日到下星期六(美国人习惯每周从星期日算起)，the next week 则是说话时候起到下星期二。<br><br>上面所说的 next week (month、year) 与 the next week (month、year) 的区别，都是以说话时的现在为基准才有区别的。如果以过去或将来的另一时间点为基准，则有没有定冠词 the 都没有区别，都是指日历上的后来那一周、那个月或那一年，而不是该时间点后经过某时间长度达到的另一时间点。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She met him on the road (the) <b>next</b> week. 她在后来的一星期在路上碰到他。</div><br><br>这样的问题，如果以说话时的现在为基准，就不会出现在 day 上，因为“明天”英语不能说 next day，所以如果说了 next day 或 the next day (都可以，意义相同)，就只能是以过去或者将来某一时间点为基准。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>The next day/Next day</b>, I left home early in the morning. 次日，我一大清早就离开了家。</div><br><br>以现在为基准，说 next + 日子或月份，有时候会有歧义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—See you <b>next Sunday</b>. —Do you mean this coming Sunday or the one after? —下个星期日再见。—你说的这个星期日还是后面的星期日？星期日在许多国家是一周的最后一天(在美国则当作一周的头一天)，因此，星期一到星期六说这话，next Sunday 都可能指即将到来的星期日(算是本周或下周的星期日)。当然，如果是星期六说这话，无论哪一国人，一般都不会说“下个星期日”(next Sunday)，总是会说“明天”(tomorrow)。为了避免歧义，人们说话时，如果指的是本周的星期几，常常避免用 next 而用 this。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> next 所修饰的名词，可以夹在 next 与后面的 to ... 之间。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This watch is the <b>next</b> best thing <b>to</b> having your own atomic clock, because it automatically displays the precise accurate time. (<i>U.S. News & World Report</i>, ad) 拥有这块手表是仅次于拥有你自己的原子钟，因为它自动显示精确的时间。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> next 还可以作为副词，与 to 一起成为介词短语 next to，此时没有“次于”的意思，只是表示“放在一起比较”，甚至可以表示“优于”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>And Beijing's handling of the quake was even more impressive <b>next to</b> the horror in Burma, ... (<i>Newsweek</i>, May 26, 2008, p. 23) 中国政府对震灾的处理，比起缅甸的惨剧，更令人印象深刻，……</div><br><br>
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nice and
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>nice and</b></div>nice and 后面加上一个形容词，这个 nice 本身已经没有专门的词义，只是对后面的形容词(通常是褒义的)增添表示欣赏的感情色彩。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>nice and</b> warm 暖暖和和的</div><div class="ex-item"><b>nice and</b> neat 整整齐齐的</div><div class="ex-item"><b>nice and</b> clean 干干净净的</div><div class="ex-item"><b>nice and</b> quiet 安安静静的</div><div class="ex-item"><b>nice and</b> strong 结结实实的</div><div class="ex-item"><b>nice and</b> easy 很轻易的</div><div class="ex-item"><b>nice and</b> simple 简简单单的</div><div class="ex-item"><b>nice and</b> soft 软绵绵的</div><div class="ex-item"><b>nice and</b> useful 很有用的</div><div class="ex-item"><b>nice and</b> dependable 靠得住的。但是有时候也有讽刺语气。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>nice and</b> drunk 酩酊大醉，烂醉如泥。</div><br><br>
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night
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>night</b></div>可以从时间的角度区别于 morning、noon、evening，但也可以着重在没有时间内涵的“黑暗，静寂，夜凉”。如果是前一种情况，通常前面有定语或限定词，如 Sunday night、that night、the night、one night 之类；但是如果是后一种情况，则 night 前面不加任何限定词，接近于不可数的抽象名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>in the dead of <b>night</b> 在黑沉沉的夜间</div><div class="ex-item"><b>Night</b> (*The night) was falling. 夜幕正在降临。/ The stillness of <b>night</b> was broken by an explosion. 夜间的宁静被一声爆炸声打破了。不过，有一些固定词组在 night 前面没有限定词，night 仍然保持“时间”的含义。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>at <b>night</b> 在夜间</div><div class="ex-item">all <b>night</b> 整夜</div><div class="ex-item">day and <b>night</b> 日日夜夜</div><div class="ex-item"><b>night</b> and day 日日夜夜</div><div class="ex-item">from noon to <b>night</b> 从中午到夜晚。</div><br><br>
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(no) doubt
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(no) doubt</b></div>no doubt (副词短语)不能从字面理解为“无疑，毫无疑问”。它只是“大概，估计很可能”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>No doubt it'll rain soon. 看来很快要下雨了。</div><div class="ex-item">You'retired, no doubt. I'll make you a cup of tea. 看样子你很累了。我给你沏杯茶吧。这个 no doubt 还可以放进谓语动词词组之内。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He would have no doubt approved of the policy. 他本来大概会赞同这个方案。(注意：不要把 no doubt 误作 have 的宾语变成 have no doubt。)此外，如果真的要说“毫无疑问，肯定无疑”，就要说 there is/can be no doubt that 或 without any doubt，或者用别的词语，如 certainly 或 definitely。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There is no doubt that the world is getting warmer. 地球无疑在变暖。</div><div class="ex-item">Cycling is definitely healthier than driving. 骑自行车肯定比开汽车更有益于健康。如果要大力强调毫无疑问，可以说 beyond a doubt 或 beyond the shadow of a doubt。</div><br><br>至于 doubtless (词形像个形容词，但其实是个副词)，也是“大概，估计很可能”的意思，而不是“毫无疑问”(不过比 no doubt 更加正式)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Weeks, even months, of delicate negotiations had doubtless taken place before a deal had been struck. 大概总要经过好几个星期甚至好几个月的微妙谈判，才能实现成交。</div><div class="ex-item">As man advances in knowledge, he discovers that of his primitive conclusions some are doubtless erroneous, and many require better evidence to establish their truth incontestably. (John William Draper, History of the Intellectual Development of Europe)随着知识的增长，人类就发现，自己原先的结论，有一些大概是错误的，许多需要更可靠的证据才能无可辩驳地确定为真理。</div><br><br>doubtlessly 同 doubtless 一样都是副词，但 doubtlessly 意义是“无疑地”。<br><br>undoubtedly (也是副词)也是“大概”的意思，但肯定的意思强一些。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... she will undoubtedly be more careful next time. (Lenore Hershey, Ladies' Home Journal, January 1971)……她下一次也许会小心一些吧。</div><br><br>
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no ... like ...
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>no ... like ...</b></div>参见 nothing 条之(2)。<br><br>
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no more
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>no more</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> no more 是 not ... any more 的另一个形式，通常放在句末。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Shave <b>no more</b>, with Ultra Hair Away. (ad)使用超级去毛剂，再也不用剃毛。/ Tossing and turning <b>no more</b>. (ad)不再辗转反侧。no more 也可以作定语，放在名词前面，尤其是用于一些醒目的标题。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>No more</b> Hiroshima. 不让广岛(的悲剧)重演。也可以放在名词后面。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Hunger <b>no more</b>. 消除饥饿。也可以放在句子当中。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She (= Hillary Clinton) was <b>no more</b> inviting when a television reporter approached her after a rally on Thursday and asked if she was "moved" by Benazir Bhutto's assassination. (<i>Los Angeles Times</i>, Dec. 28, 2007)一名电视采访记者在星期四的一次集会散会后向她(希拉里)走去，问她对(巴基斯坦在野派领导人)贝纳齐尔·布托的遇刺身亡是否“伤心”，此时她可不像从前那样殷勤了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 按照语言通例，本来 no more (not ... any more 亦同)应该指习惯动作的停止；如果是延续状态的不复存在，应该用 no longer。如果用 no more (或 not ... any more)来否定某个延续状态，就可能变成“并不(因为某原因而)更为……”。尤其是如果 no more 放在形容词前面，更容易变成程度上的“并不更为……”而非时间先后的“再也不”。例如 She is <b>no more</b> pessimistic. 就可能是“她再也不悲观”，但也可以是“她并没有(由于某原因而)更加悲观”或是“她并不(比某人)更加悲观”。如果要排除后面的歧义，要说“她再也不悲观”，最好说 She is <b>no longer</b> pessimistic. 另一方面，如果指习惯动作的停止，就必须用 not ... any more 或 no more 而不能用 \<i>not ... any longer 或 \</i>no longer。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She doesn't come here <b>any more</b> (*any longer), but she used to come here twice a week. 她再也不到这里来了，但从前她是每星期来两次的。但是，在实际语言中，no more 常常代替了 no longer，用于延续状态的停止。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I just wrote to apologize and thought <b>no more</b> about it. 我写了道歉信，就再也没有想这件事了。参见 any more 与 anymore 条。</div><br><br>
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no more ... than ...
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>no more ... than ...</b></div>意义与用法都同 not ... any more than ... 相近。前半部分以否定形式表示否定某事，后半部分则不用否定形式但表示否定，总的意思是“甲事之不，犹如乙事(之不)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They could <b>no more</b> decline participation in this mission <b>than</b> they could deny their manhood. 他们无法拒绝参加这项任务，正如他们无法否认自己是堂堂男子汉。/ He's <b>no more</b> going to do it <b>than</b> I'm going to give you a lobster dinner. 要他这样做，就等于要我请你吃一顿龙虾大餐一样没门。/ We can <b>no more</b> opt out of this struggle <b>than</b> we can opt out of the climate changing around us. (Tony Blair, in <i>Foreign Affairs</i>, January/February 2007)这场斗争，我们是无法退出的，就正如我们无法逃脱我们周围正在变化着的气候一样。/ It is <b>no more</b> achieved by that <b>than</b> you could reach Jerusalem from here by one small step. (John Fowles, <i>The French Lieutenant's Woman</i>)这正像你从这儿去耶路撒冷一样，一小步是迈不到的。参见 any more than 条。</div><br><br>
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none
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>none</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> none 前面出现过某一名词，或是后面有 of + 某一名词，此时 none 表示该名词(可数)所代表的多个事物当中“一个也没有”，也可以表示该名词(不可数)所代表的一团事物当中“一点也没有”。(a) 同前面的名词相关。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—How many <b>students</b> went there? —<b>None</b> did. —多少个学生去了那儿？—一个也没去。/ The <b>children</b> were playing, and she took care that <b>none</b> were hurt. 孩子们在玩耍，她小心提防有孩子受伤。/ —How much <b>gasoline</b> is left in the tank? —<b>None</b>. —油箱里还剩下多少汽油？—一点也没有了。</div>(b) 同后面的 of + 名词相关。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>None of us</b> is infallible. 我们没有一个人是绝不会犯错误的。/ It's <b>none of your business</b>. 这件事你管不着。/ <b>None of the information</b> is useful to me. 这些信息对我来说都是没有用的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 如果前后都没有相关的名词，none 此时相当于 nobody，作主语，可以当作单数或复数处理。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There <b>are/is none</b> to help me. 没有能帮助我的人。/ <b>None are</b> so blind as those who won't see. 瞎眼莫如不愿看者。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> none 也可以作为表示否定的副词。none the + 形容词或副词比较级，是“丝毫更不……”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I am afraid I am <b>none the wiser</b> for your explanation. 听了您的解释，我恐怕还是听不明白。none too/so + 形容词或副词原级，是“丝毫也不”的意思。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>none too</b> good 一点也不好</div><div class="ex-item">I arrived <b>none too soon</b>. 我到得一点也不早。/ I am <b>none so fond</b> of golfing. 我一点也不喜欢打高尔夫球。</div><br><br>
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nonetheless 与 nevertheless
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>nonetheless 与 nevertheless</b></div>两个都是副词，表示转折(“不过，但是”)。分析一下其构成，对于深入了解西方人的语言心理，是很有用的。 (1) 在 all the more 条，我们指出了这个 all the 其实起了指示“说出原因或隐含原因”的作用；反过来，“并不由于这个原因(而不那么样)”，all 就变成 none，“更加如此”的 more 就变成 less，这就出现了 none the less，合在一起就成了 nonetheless。而“并不由于这个原因(而不那么样)”这个拗口的双重否定说法，简化了就是“仍然”。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> nonetheless 作为副词，可以管一个形容词或一个副词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... and yet even in the absence of those things without which we cannot make use of the instrument, we are <b>nonetheless correct</b> to affirm that we have the instrument for some particular action or task. (Anselm, <i>Three Philosophical Dialogues</i>, English translation by Thomas Williams)……而且，尽管缺了一些条件，使得我们无法使用这件工具，但是我们确认自己掌握了进行某个行动或任务的工具，这样说仍然是对的。/ Conservative internationalists <b>nonetheless accurately</b> discerned in the President the soul of a progressive internationalist. (Thomas J. Knock, <i>Wilson's Internationalism</i>)但是保守的国际主义者仍然觉察到总统具有一个进步的国际主义者的心灵。</div><br><br>但是 nonetheless 还可以上升到更高的句法层次，管谓语，甚至管全句，此时它可以放在句首(后面加上逗号)、句中，或是句末(前面不用逗号)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>These problems are not serious. <b>Nonetheless</b>, we shall need to tackle them soon. 这些问题并不严重。不过，我们还是要及早处理。/ Though this may have been an option in the past, it is <b>nonetheless</b> a short-sighted approach to future growth of American industry. 尽管这可能是过去的一个办法，但是这对于美国今后工业的发展来说是个短视的做法。/ Despite a state budget crisis and a crumbling national economy, Iowa legislators will <b>nonetheless</b> take on one of the most expensive problems in state history—flood recovery. (<i>The Associated Press</i>, Jan. 6, 2009)尽管州预算告急，全国经济又在崩溃中，但是艾奥瓦州的议员们仍然将处理本州有史以来花费最昂贵的问题之一，即洪灾恢复问题。由于 nonetheless 是个副词而不是连词，所以有了 though 之后它仍然可以使用，前面有了 but 之后它也可以使用。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Our students have good command of the German language, <b>but</b> we are planning ahead <b>nonetheless</b>. 我们的学生德语能力很强，但是我们现在仍然未雨绸缪。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> nevertheless 同 nonetheless 同义，用法也基本相同，但是 nevertheless 通常放在更高的层次管谓语或是管全句，较少放在形容词或副词前作其修饰语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It may be a waste of time, <b>but</b> I'm going to try <b>nevertheless</b>. 这说不定是白费时间，不过我还是想试试看。</div><br><br>
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no ..., no ...
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>no ..., no ...</b></div>不是“既没有……也没有……”，而是“如果没有……，也就没有……”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>No</b> guts, <b>no</b> glory. 没有胆量就没有光荣。</div><br><br>
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no-nonsense
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>no-nonsense</b></div>这个单词，通常作为形容词用。词形构造比较古怪(字面意思是“不荒谬的，不胡闹的”)，但其实意思是“爽快的，麻利的，轻便的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She saw herself as a direct, <b>no-nonsense</b> modern woman. 她觉得自己是个直率爽快的现代女性。/ We need a <b>no-nonsense</b> approach to this problem. 对这个问题，我们需要痛痛快快地处理。/ You'll need <b>no-nonsense</b> boots for the jungle. 到丛林里需要穿穿轻便的靴子。/ The cool, <b>no-nonsense</b> British Foreign Secretary shrugged off the insults and doggedly pursued his goal of ... (<i>Newsweek</i>, Dec. 17, 1979)冷静而爽快的英国外相，对人们的咒骂耸耸肩一笑置之，全神贯注地追逐自己的目标……</div><br><br>要注意的是，no-nonsense 不要同分成两个单词的 no nonsense 混淆。no-nonsense 的 no 只读较轻的次重音；no nonsense 的 no 由于是单独一个单词，而且是否定所在，所以读重音，而且 nonsense 的原意仍然保存。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She took <b>no nonsense</b> from him. 她不让他的胡闹得逞。</div><br><br>
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no notice
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>no notice</b></div>是“出其不意，临时才通知”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Sam, I realize that this is absolutely <b>no notice</b>, but are you by any chance free this evening to go to a black-tie dinner? (Mary Higgins Clark, <i>Nighttime Is My Time</i>) 萨姆，我也觉得这件事情完全是突如其来的，不过，你今天晚上是否有空去参加一个盛装宴会？</div><br><br>有时候 <b>short notice</b> 几乎等于 <b>no notice</b>，是“事先没有预告，突如其来”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>“I know it's <b>short notice</b>, but I wondered whether you might be free fordinner this evening.” (Sidney Sheldon, <i>The Stars Shine Down</i>) “我知道，没有早点问你，不过我想知道你今天晚上有没有空吃顿晚餐。”</div><br><br>有时候 <b>at a moment's notice</b> 也有“随时，准时”的意义，大体上相当于 short notice 甚至 no notice，根本没有谁预告谁的问题。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We are rather fond of coining words <b>at a moment's notice</b>. 我们很喜欢临时造出一些新词。</div><br><br>由于 notice 的意义着重在“事先通知，给一段时间”，重点在“一段时间”而不在“通知”，因此即使有“通知”但没有给“时间”，即时通知马上实行，也可以说 <b>without notice</b>。例如英国小说《法国中尉的女人》中，牧师向波尔蒂尼夫人介绍家庭女教师莎拉的情况，说那个法国中尉走后两天，莎拉就恳求女主人准许她辞职。波尔蒂尼夫人就问：And she let her leave <b>without notice</b>? (她就这么让她说走就走吗?) 这里明明有了“恳求”，也就是“通知”，只是没有给过渡时间，还是可以说 without notice。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 更进一步，on short notice 可以不是“事先通知某人但只给很短的时间”，而是临时出现需要，临时处理，或是根本没有通知的对象，而是自己随时产生念头，随时就要实行，此时 notice 原先的“通知”的意义就荡然无存了。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There's chicken in the refrigerator, boys, and cabbage too. It's no feast, but this is very <b>short notice</b>. 伙计们，冰箱里有鸡，还有一些白菜。只好怠慢了，时间太仓促了。/ In recent decades, the biggest rewards have gone to those whose intelligence is deployable in new directions <b>on short notice</b>, not to those who are locked into a single marketable skill, ... (Christopher Caldwell, “What a College Education Buys,” in <i>The New York Times</i>, Feb. 25, 2007) 最近几十年米，获益最大的，是那些能够将自己的才能随时往新的方向施展的人，而不是那些固守一门符合市场需求的技能的人，……</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 中国人可能不习惯的另一个词义，是“解雇或辞职通知”（也可以包括自通知之时起到实施之时止的过渡时间）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She was given <b>notice</b>. 她接到了解雇通知。/ Fifteen people were given their <b>notice</b>. 有 15 个人接到了解雇通知。/ I have to give the company a month's <b>notice</b>. 我需要提前一个月向公司递交辞职书。/ He handed in/gave his <b>notice</b>. 他递交了辞职书。/ They're under <b>notice</b> to quit. 他们被解雇了。/ <b>work out one's notice</b> (英式英语) 提出辞职后把离职前的工作做完。</div><br><br>notice 的词义还可以更进一步，表示“废约(或合约到期不再续延)的通知”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... the Mutual Security Treaty, which provides that in June 1970, either party may give <b>notice</b> ... (William O. Douglas, <i>The Center Magazine</i>, March, 1969) ……《共同安全条约》规定，到了 1970 年 6 月，双方都可以提出通知……</div><br><br>
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normal
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>normal</b></div>不但可以作为形容词，还可以作为不可数的抽象名词(不能带任何冠词)，表示“正常状态”或“正常值”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>above <b>normal</b> 高出正常值</div><div class="ex-item">below <b>normal</b> 低于正常值</div><div class="ex-item">Things soon returned to <b>normal</b>. 情况很快就恢复正常了。/ The doctor tells me I'm almost back to <b>normal</b>. 医生告诉我，我已经差不多恢复正常了。</div><br><br>
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north of
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>north of</b></div>可以是 more than 的意思，放在数词前面。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Something <b>north of</b> $100,000 10万美元以上。</div><br><br>
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north 与 northern
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>north 与 northern</b></div>参见 east 与 eastern 条。<br><br>
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not a
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>not a</b></div>是彻底否定的“一个也没有”而不是“不止一个而是多个”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He gave <b>not a</b> word. 他一言不发。/ One morning in August 1954, Sadako Sasaki looked up at the blue sky over Hiroshima and saw <b>not a</b> cloud in the sky. 1954年8月的一个早晨，佐佐木祯子往广岛的蓝天上张望，看不见一点云彩。/ They said no more but touched their glasses in a silent toast that spilled <b>not a</b> drop. (John Darnton, <i>The Darwin Conspiracy</i>)他们一言不发，只是拿着玻璃杯碰杯，一滴也没洒。</div><br><br>
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(not) as + adj.
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(not) as + adj.</b></div>这里的 as，意义其实相当于 so，也就是说，not as + adj. 等于 not so + adj.。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Our students find college not as challenging. 我们的学生觉得大学功课并不费劲。</div>
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(not) ... because
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(not) ... because</b></div>如果有一个否定的主句，后面加上一个由 because 引入的原因状语从句（从句和主句之间，书面上没有逗号隔开）或是由 because of 引入的状语词组，则 because 和否定的关系可以有四种意义完全不同的情况，即“否肯肯”型、“肯否肯”型、“否否肯”型、“肯否否”型（另有一种“否否否”型实际出现的可能性很微小，所以排除在外）。第一个“肯”或“否”指的是主句所说的事是否被否定；第二个“肯”或“否”指的是因果关系是否被否定；第三个“肯”或“否”指的是 because 从句中所说的事情本身是否被否定。从下列一些典型例句中，可以看出这四种情况的含义：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> I didn't leave home because I was afraid of my father. 1) “否肯肯”型——否：“我没有离开家”；肯：“因果关系成立”；肯：“我害怕我父亲”；译文：“我没有离开家，因为我害怕我父亲”。2) “肯否肯”型——肯：“我离开了家”；否：“因果关系不成立”；肯：“我害怕我父亲”；译文：“我离开了家，并不是因为我害怕我父亲，虽然我的确害怕他”。3) “否否肯”型——否：“我没有离开家”；否：“因果关系不成立”；肯：“我害怕我父亲”；译文：“我没有因为害怕父亲就离开了家，但我的确害怕他”。4) “肯否否”型——肯：“我离开了家”；否：“因果关系不成立”；否：“我不害怕我父亲”；译文：“我离开了家，并不是因为我害怕我父亲，我本来就不怕他”。可见，单单这样一个句子，就可以有四种不同的解读。但是也要注意，其之所以有这么多的不同解读，其中一个重要的原因是 because 从句的实际含义可以作两方面不同的理解，一是“因为害怕所以不敢离开家”，一是“因为害怕所以想离开家”。如果这方面的意义明确，不同解读的可能性就会随之而缩小。比如说，如果正确的理解是“因为害怕所以不敢离开家”，那么只剩下 1) “否肯肯”这种可能。用图解说明如下(粗黑线表示否定范围，✓表示不被否定):<br><br><div class="scope-visual" role="img" aria-label="not because 否定范围图解：四种肯否读法">
  <table class="scope-table">
    <tbody>
      <tr class="scope-words">
        <td class="scope-col-main">I did<u>n't</u> leave home</td>
        <td class="scope-col-because"><u>because</u></td>
        <td class="scope-col-clause">I was afraid of my father.</td>
        <td class="scope-label-head"></td>
      </tr>
      <tr>
        <td class="scope-neg"><span></span></td>
        <td class="scope-yes">✓</td>
        <td class="scope-yes">✓</td>
        <td class="scope-label">(否肯肯)</td>
      </tr>
      <tr>
        <td class="scope-yes">✓</td>
        <td class="scope-neg"><span></span></td>
        <td class="scope-yes">✓</td>
        <td class="scope-label">(肯否肯)</td>
      </tr>
      <tr>
        <td class="scope-neg scope-neg-wide" colspan="2"><span></span></td>
        <td class="scope-yes">✓</td>
        <td class="scope-label">(否否肯)</td>
      </tr>
      <tr>
        <td class="scope-yes">✓</td>
        <td class="scope-neg scope-neg-wide" colspan="2"><span></span></td>
        <td class="scope-label">(肯否否)</td>
      </tr>
    </tbody>
  </table>
</div><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> Tom did<u>n't</u> leave the party early <u>because</u> Carol was there. 同样，这一句中，究竟 Tom 是喜欢 Carol 还是讨厌她，这个背景没有交代清楚，所以四种可能都存在。如果是因为喜欢而没有早走，就只有 1) “否肯肯”这种可能，同(1)相类似。<br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> This university is very influential in Japan, <u><i>not</i> because</u> it is academically advanced. 这一句，由于 not 从谓语动词前面移到了 because 前面，排除了 1)和 3)两种可能，只剩下 2) “肯否肯”和 4) “肯否否”两种可能(区别在于 because 从句的内容是否被否定)。但是再看下文：Few graduates from this university I've ever met speak English well; their behavior is non-confident; their presentation and negotiation skills are remarkably poor. 由此可以看到，从句的内容也被列入了否定的范围，唯一的可能是 4)，即“肯否否”。<br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> Jane did<u>n't</u> purchase the white blouse <u>because</u> it suited her. 这一句，由于衣服合身有利于购买是人类起码的常识，所以 1) 的可能性排除，但是 2)、3)、4) 三种可能性仍然存在：简买了那件白色的衬衣，并不是因为衬衣合身(而是由于别的原因)；或简并没有因为那件白色的衬衣合身而买了它；或那件衬衣本来就不合身，所以简并不是因为合身才买了它的。<br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> Power does<u>n't</u> come <u>because</u> people like you. 按照常识，“别人喜欢”和“权力到来”是同一个方向的，所以 1) 的可能性排除，但是 2)、3)、4) 三种可能性仍然存在：权力到来，但不是因为人们喜欢你，尽管人们的确喜欢你；或尽管人们喜欢你，但权力并不因此而到来；或人们本来并不喜欢你，所以尽管权力到来，原因并不在此。下面另一例句，与此相类似：Hostilities did<u>n't</u> cease <u>because</u> a deal had been made. “达成妥协”同“停止敌对行动”是同一个方向的，所以 1) 的可能性排除，但是 2)、3)、4) 三种可能性仍然存在：敌对行动停止了，但并不是因为达成了妥协；或敌对行动并没有因为达成了妥协而停止；或本来就没有达成妥协，可见敌对行动虽然停止，原因并不在此。<br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> <u>No</u> one castigates Henry Ford <u>because</u> his Model-T's don't run in the Indy 500 today. 这句中的 Model-T 是福特汽车公司 1908 年最古老的型号，而 Indy 500 则是印第安纳波利斯 500 英里大奖赛。Model-T 放在 Indy 500 当然跑不动，因此，because 从句的内容是真的，不受否定。再看主句内容是否被否定。它的主语 one 是被否定的，因而主句全部被否定。最后再看 because 这个因果关系是不是被否定。既然从句内容是真的，如果因果关系成立，不受否定，就不合事理(“古老汽车现在不能跑”同“谁都不责怪福特”之间，没有因果关系，倒是可以有反意让步关系即“尽管……但并不……” )，可见因果关系在这里是被否定了的，这一句属于“否否肯”型。<br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> You must keep up your spirits, mother, and <u>not</u> be lonesome <u>because</u> I'm not at home. (Charles Dickens) 妈妈，你必须保持精神振作，不要因为我不在家就感到形单影只。这一句就只有 3) 一种可能，即“否否肯”，也就是：主句的 not be lonesome 保持否定，because 的因果关系被否定，但是从句中的 I'm not at home 保持肯定(也就是 not 不被再否定而否否得肯，仍保持否定)。<br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> 在 2008 年 8 月 25 日的美国民主党总统候选人奥巴马的提名大会上，一个卡车司机工会的主席说：There are people who are <u>not</u> going to vote for him <u>because</u> he's black. And we've got to hope that we can educate people to put aside their racism and to put their own interests No. 1. 如果孤立地看第一句，四种可能都存在，即：1)因为他是黑人而不投他的票；2)投他的票，但并不是因为他是黑人；3)不投他的票，但并不是因为他是黑人；4)投他的票，但并不是因为他是黑人(他本来就不是黑人)。当然，4)不符合事实，不能成立。剩下前面三种可能。但是看到后面一句，2)、3)两种情况都被排除，只剩下 1)。<br><br><span class="seq">(9)</span> I did <u>not</u> choose you <u>because</u> I was so innocent I could not make comparisons. (John Fowles, <i>The French Lieutenant's Woman</i>) 这句也可以有四种理解：1) “我没有选择你，因为我天真到连比较也不会” (否肯肯)；2) “我的确是天真到连比较也不会，但我选择了你，原因并不是在此” (肯否肯)；3) “我的确是天真到连比较也不会，但我之所以没有选择你，另有原因” (否否肯)；4) “我当时并不是天真到连比较也不会，所以我之所以选择了你，并非由于天真” (肯否否)。但是这是一对未婚夫妻的对话，所以“选择你”不可能被否定，1) 与 3) 被排除。再进一步，说话者不会承认自己“天真到连比较也不会”，所以 2) 也被排除，只剩下 4) 能够成立。<br><br><span class="seq">(10)</span> A man is <u>not</u> a hero <u>because</u> he can run ninety yards for a touchdown, <u>because</u> he can slap a puck one hundred miles per hour into a goal, <u>because</u> he can make a basket from thirty feet. 一个人可以打毁灭球时跑个 90 码融地得分，可以以每小时 100 英里的速度把冰球打进球门，可以从 30 英尺的远处投篮得分，但他还是算不上一个英雄。这句明显是“否否肯”型的，主句的否定有效，因果关系的否定有效，但是 because 从句的内容不受否定。<br><br><span class="seq">(11)</span> And you, ye well-known trees! — But you will continue the same. <u>No</u> leaf will decay <u>because</u> we are removed, <u>nor</u> any branch become motionless <u>although</u> we can observe you no longer! (Jane Austen, <i>Sense and Sensibility</i>) 还有你们，多么熟悉的树木；你们将依然如故。你们的叶子不会因为我们搬走了而腐烂，你们的枝条不会因为我们不能再观察了而停止摇动！这句也明显是“否否肯”型。<br><br><span class="seq">(12)</span> Robert H. Jackson (美国的杰克逊大法官): We are <u>not</u> final <u>because</u> we are infallible. 我们之所以成为终极权威，并不是因为没错。这句属于“肯否否”型。<br><br>从以上例句可以看到，not ... because ... 句型，孤立地来看，往往是多义的，要考虑到语境和上下文才能判明。但是，有时候即使从本句的一些语言现象也可以做出判断，例如：<br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 如果主句有加强否定语气的词语，或是否定方式不用 not 而用其他否定词，否定的作用就向前收缩，不影响到因果关系及从句。此时，唯一可能的是“否肯肯”型。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I did<u>n't</u> sleep <u>at all because</u> we were so excited. 我们太兴奋了，我根本没法睡着。(否肯肯) / He told his commanding officer that he had <u>no</u> intention of returning to Iraq <u>because</u> he believed that the war was morally wrong. 他告诉自己的指挥官说，他不打算回伊拉克了，因为他认为这场战争在道义上是错误的。(否肯肯) 至于主句之间如果有停顿(书面为逗号)，那就更是掐断了否定作用的延伸，使之局限在主句，例如上面(2)中的例句如果加上逗号，成为 Tom did<u>n't</u> leave the party early, <u>because</u> Carol was there. 唯一可能的解读就是：汤姆没有提早离开联欢会，因为卡洛尔在那里。</div><br><br>英语有一些动词或词组，通常只能以否定或疑问形式出现，形成固定词组，此时，否定作用就只限于固定词组(或者加上独立意义较弱的附加成分，如动词不定式)，管不到因果关系和从句内容，因而也就只剩下“否肯肯”一种可能。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>John did<u>n't bother</u> to call <u>because</u> he was too busy. 约翰懒得去打电话，因为他太忙了。/ They did<u>n't lift a finger</u> to help him <u>because</u> they hated him. 他们因为恨他，一点都没有帮他。</div><br><br>有时候 because 并不代表一件过去的事，而只是将来的一种可能原因，因果关系被否定，但从句内容不被否定(即属于“否否肯”型)。此时 because 从句同 if 从句一样，用一般现在时表示将来。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I sure do<u>n't</u> want to waste my Sunday having to come back here <u>because</u> Ethel suddenly <u>decides</u> she's got a plane to catch and needs everything in ten minutes. (Mary Higgins Clark, <i>While My Pretty One Sleeps</i>) 我真的不打算因为埃塞尔忽然决定要赶飞机，一切东西都要十分钟内齐全，就不得不回到这里把我的一个星期天耗掉。</div><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> because 如果不引入一个从句，而是以 because of 形式引入一个介词短语，则可以参考后面那个名词成分究竟是特指的(亦即已有的事物)还是不特指的(亦即尚不存在的事物)来判别 because of 这个原因的内容是否也在否定之内。如果是特指的，因果关系被否定，但是原因内容不被否定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Bush Tuesday sent a clear signal that he is <u>not</u> going to limit his policies <u>because of the</u> threat of long-term deficits. (The Associated Press, Jan. 8, 2003) 布什星期二发出了明显的信号表示，他不会因为长期的赤字威胁而限制自己的政策。(“否否肯”型或“肯否肯”型都可能，但从语境判断为“否否肯”型，因为 the 表明原因内容是确实存在的，不受否定，只是否定其为原因。) / She did<u>n't</u> get this job <u>because of her</u> beautiful looks. 她之所以得到这个工作，并不是因为她貌美。/ 她并没有因为貌美而得到这个工作。(“肯否肯”或“否否肯”都可能。)</div><br><br>但是，英语中有时候特指的东西也不一定有定冠词，所以没有定冠词有时候仍然不被否定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Doctor: Teen <u><i>Didn't</i></u> <u><i>Die</i></u> <u><i>Because</i></u> <u><i>of</i></u> Sickle Cell (报纸新闻标题) 医生称少年的死亡不是由于镰状血红细胞(按照新闻内容，该少年确实有镰状血红细胞，但医生认为死因不在于此)。</div><br><br>反过来，有时候出于风趣，明明没有的东西也当作有，在名词前面加上了表示特指的限定词，遇到时要善于辨别。例如前面的例句：She did<u>n't</u> get this job <u>because of her</u> beautiful looks. 可能她的确貌美，也可能并不貌美，要斟酌辨别。<br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> because 前面如果有加重语气或加上限制范围的副词，如 just、only、simply、chiefly 等，则 just because、only because、simply because、chiefly because 等词组整个被否定(即因果关系被否定)，原因从句的内容不受否定，主句的内容则可能被否定，也可能不被否定，要看语境和上下文(“否否肯”或“肯否肯”均可)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But science functions by inference, not just by direct observation, and the inferential sorts of evidence such as paleontology and biogeography are <u>no</u> less cogent <u>simply because</u> they're indirect. (<i>National Geographic</i>, Nov. 2004, p. 30) 但是科学是靠推导的，不单单是靠直接观察，而推导性的证据，例如古生物学和生物地理学，尽管是间接的，并不仅仅因此而降低其确凿性。(“否否肯”) / Do<u>n't</u> look down upon them <u>just because</u> they're poor. 别仅仅因为他们穷就瞧不起他们。(“否否肯”) / We do<u>n't</u> respect them <u>just because</u> they're professors. 我们并没有仅仅因为他们是教授就尊敬他们。/ 我们之所以尊敬他们，并不仅仅因为他们是教授。(“否否肯”或“肯否肯”均可能，但“否否否”不可能。) / I did<u>n't</u> come here <u>just because</u> I wanted to see her. 我之所以到这里来，并不仅仅因为想见她。(“到这里来”一事必然是事实，不可能否定，just because 又排除了对原因内容加以否定亦即“肯否否”的可能，故只剩下“肯否肯”一种可能。)</div><br><br>主句中的否定形式如果不是一般的 not 或者加强了语气，则主句的内容仍然不能逃脱否定，此时就只剩下“否否肯”一种可能。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There is <u>no</u> reason why I have to be a doctor <u>just because</u> my father is one. 尽管我父亲是个医生，也没有道理我就一定要当个医生。</div><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 如果出现两个 because，否定一个，肯定一个，则主句的谓语动词不被否定，被否定的 because 所引入的从句，其内容可能被否定，成为“肯否否”型，也可能不被否定，成为“肯否肯”型。如何区别，要看语境和上下文。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The Liberal Party of Canada did<u>n't</u> lose the last election <u>because</u> it was divided, with the Paul Martin people on one side, and the Jean Chrétien people on the other. The Liberal Party lost <u>because</u>, after 13 years, Canadians wanted a change. 加拿大自由党之所以这次选举失败，并不是因为它分裂成保罗·马丁一边和让·克雷蒂安一边。自由党的落败，是因为加拿大人经过 13 年之后想要一次变化。(第一个 because 后面的从句 it was divided 经查证是事实，不被否定，故这句属“肯否肯”型。) / I do<u>n't</u> respect him <u>because</u> he is rich but <u>because</u> he is kind to everybody. 我之所以尊敬他，并不是因为他富有，而是因为他对所有人都很和善。(第一个 because 后面的从句 he is rich 可能真，也可能不真，故这句属“肯否肯”或“肯否否”型都有可能。中文“并不是因为他富有”究竟是否真的富有，在此也同样没有交代清楚。) / This policy did<u>n't</u> fail <u>because</u> it was poorly implemented, but <u>because</u> it was wrong to begin with. 这个政策之所以失败，并不是因为执行得不好，而是因为它本来就是错误的。(第一个 because 后面的从句 it was poorly implemented 可能真，也可能不真，故这句属“肯否肯”或“肯否否”型都有可能。中文“并不是因为执行得不好”究竟执行得好不好，在此也同样没有交代清楚。)</div><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 有时候 <i>because</i> 前面某处出现的并不是 <b>not</b>，而是带有否定意义的表示比较、取舍的连词或连词短语，但是在什么被否定和什么不被否定的问题上，同使用 <b>not</b> 的情况是一样的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is far safer to stick to the original plan <u><i>than</i></u> to jump ship in midstream <u><i>because</i></u> a few shareholders are getting bored. 坚守原定计划，比之因为一些利益攸关者感到厌倦而中途换马，要安全得多。(“否否肯”型)</div><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 有时候 <i>because</i> 前面出现一个负面的动词支配一个正面的动词，此时 <i>because</i> 究竟是说明负面还是说明正面，要斟酌全文。如果 <i>because</i> 前面有 just 之类的限定词，则往往 just because 对正面动词起说明作用，又连同正面动词一起被负面动词的负面意义所涵盖。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>People <u>got tired</u> of <u>coming</u> to the rescue <u><i>just because</i></u> he (= the boy who howled "Wolf!" too often) liked the excitement. 大家结果都厌烦了，不愿仅仅因为他爱找刺激而前来救援。(just because 管 coming to the rescue，然后 coming to the rescue just because ... 一起被 got tired of 的负面意义所涵盖。)</div><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 有时候 <i>because</i> 前面出现的不是否定词，而是准否定词，此时什么被否定，什么不被否定，情况同前面出现否定词是一样的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In the end, dictators, however unpopular, despotic and incompetent, <u>rarely</u> fall <u><i>because</i></u> they have too many enemies. They fall <u><i>because</i></u> they have too few friends left. (<i>The Economist</i>, Aug. 15, 2009, p. 37) 归根到底，独裁者无论多么不得人心、暴虐、无能，他们的垮台也很少是因为树敌太多。他们垮台，是因为剩下的朋友太少。</div><br><br>
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no thanks
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>no thanks</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 一般表示婉拒时，不说光秃秃的 no，后面要加个 thanks (或 thank you)以表示客气有礼。本来应该有一个逗号(No, thanks.)，但是这个逗号有时候省略或忽略，成了 No thanks. 此时要注意，不要误解为“没有谢意”。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 但是，如果说 no thanks to 某人，则的确是表示“不谢谢某人，不是某人的功劳”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—It looks like the picnic wasn't ruined despite the fact that I forgot the potato salad. —Yes, it was okay. <b>No thanks to</b> you, of course. —尽管我忘记了带土豆沙拉，但是看来这次野餐似乎没有砸锅。—对，还不错。当然这不是你的功劳。/ During this election campaign, one in which the polls continue to oscillate, Schröder has made much of the fact that Germany is the world's leading exporter. <b>No thanks to</b> you, Germans might reply. (<i>The Telegraph</i>, Sept. 11, 2005)在这次民意持续摇摆不定的竞选运动中，施罗德常常援引德国是世界上领先的出口国这一事实来为自己造势。德国人也许会回答说，这又不是你的功劳。</div><br><br>
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nothing
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>nothing</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 如果 nothing 在主句中和从句中都兼有位置，它的否定意义只限于主句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Nothing</b> you've told me changes my opinion. 你告诉我的话，没有任何一点能改变我的看法。nothing 在从句中是直接宾语，在主句中是主语，但这里的从句根本没有 you've told me <b>nothing</b> 的意思，倒是肯定了 you've told me <b>something</b>，只是这个 something 当中没有任何东西(nothing)，也相当于 none of what you've told me)能改变我的看法。所以 nothing 在从句中没有否定意义，只在主句中有否定意义。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> nothing like 有正面的“最好莫如”或负面的“最坏莫如”的意思。(a) 表示正面。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There is <b>nothing like</b> returning to a place that remainsunchanged to find the ways in which you yourself have altered. (Nelson Mandela, <i>Long Walk to Freedom</i>)最好的事情，莫如回到一处保持原样的地方，看看自己到底是如何改变的。/ There's <b>nothing like</b> food back at home. 最好吃的还是家乡菜。/ There's <b>nothing like</b> a funeral to make you feel alive. 最能让你感到自己还活着的，是参加一次葬礼。</div>(b) 表示负面。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But there was <b>nothing like</b> the violence that resulted in the death of a Russian citizen, over 100 injuries, including two dozen policemen, and more than 840 arrests over the previous two nights. (<i>The Associated Press</i>, Apr. 28, 2007)但是最糟糕的是：暴力冲突使得一名俄罗斯公民丧生，100多人受伤，其中包括20多名警察，还有前两夜有840多人被捕。</div><br><br>nothing like ... 的 nothing，也可以改为 no + 名词，意思也是“没有什么……比得上……”。... <b>no</b> shock to the poor <b>like</b> unearned money. (John Fowles, <i>The French Lieutenant's Woman</i>)这一句，国内有译本译成“但那神情看来绝不是穷人得到意外之财时的不知所措”。意思完全译反了，应该是“再也没有像穷人得到意外之财那样震惊的了”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There is <b>no</b> place <b>like</b> home. 哪儿都比不上家里舒服。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 与 there is nothing like 相似的一个惯用词组 there's no such thing as 意思却完全不同，是“根本没有这样的东西”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—This advertisement says I can get an expensive camera for free! —Don't be so gullible. <b>There's no such thing as</b> free lunch. —这一份广告上说，我可以白拿到一部昂贵的照相机！—别这么容易受骗。根本就没有免费午餐这回事。但是，这两个相似的词组有时也有相混的。There's no such thing as free lunch. 有时候也作 There's nothing like a free lunch. 此时这句话惯用语就可能有歧义。最常用的意义仍然是“根本没有免费午餐这回事”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>While Kenya was lauded in 2006 and 2007 as a top destination for investment dollars, the political strife of 2008 and the immediate flight of fast money from the country's capital markets also highlighted the risks of frontier markets to long-term investors: <b>there's nothing like a free lunch</b>. 肯尼亚在2006年和2007年曾被誉为美元投资的最佳去处，但是2008年出现了政治冲突，游资立即撤出这个国家的资金市场，这也突出了边缘市场对于长期投资者的风险：没有免费的午餐。</div><br><br>但是在下面的例子中却可以有另一个意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I have to tell you, the Court is the world's most exciting place to work, but <b>there's nothing like a free lunch</b> at an expensive restaurant. (Brad Meltzer, <i>The Tenth Justice</i>)我要告诉你的是：高级法院是全世界最激动人心的工作地点，但是什么也比不上在高级饭馆吃一顿免费的午餐。/ <b>There's nothing like a free lunch</b>. I was treated to lunch today. The department I work in hosts a team lunch every month or so, and this time around we went to Akasaka Restaurant for some Teppanyaki. 什么都比不上一顿免费的午餐。我今天应邀参加了一顿午餐会。我工作的部门大约每个月举办一次聚餐会，这一次我们去了赤坂饭店吃铁板烧。如果不是 free lunch 而是别的东西，则往往只有“最好的莫如……”一个意义。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>There's nothing like</b> childhood friends. 最好莫如识于微时的朋友。/ <b>There's nothing like</b> a day at the beach. 在海滩过一天，最带劲儿不过了。 (4) not for nothing 按照字面本是“本非无因，怪不得”的意思。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Not for nothing</b> is economics called the dismal science. (<i>U.S. News & World Report</i>, Nov. 25, 2002, p. 84)怪不得经济学被称为惨淡的学问。(放在句首，后面要主谓颠倒。)但这一个状语词组也被滥用，变了意思，后面停顿一下，然后加一个 but，再说出令对方不快的一句话。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Not for nothing, but</b> if you're going to live in the midwest, you're going to have to learn to deal with tornadoes. 说句不中听的话，你如果到中西部去居住，你就要学会如何应付龙卷风。</div><br><br>
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nothing if not
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>nothing if not</b></div>后面可以接上名词成分或形容词，意思是“地地道道的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>McCain is proving that he is <b>nothing if not</b> an independent-minded maverick on this. (<i>New York Times</i>, Dec. 5, 2006)麦凯恩表明了他在这个问题上是个地地道道的别出心裁的独行侠。/ The film is <b>nothing if not</b> visually rich. 这部影片的确给人们充分的视觉享受。</div><br><br>
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nothing less than 与 nothing more than
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>nothing less than 与 nothing more than</b></div>英文常常用“否定 + 比较”来表示加强语气的肯定。nothing less than 强调该事物本身的必不可缺，相当于“唯有……才……”；nothing more than 则强调事物本身即已足够，相当于“只不过”。但是对于中国人来说，nothing more than 比较容易理解和使用，碰到 less，则只能间接地拐个弯，用否定形式(“不那么，不到那程度，不如”)再来第二个否定，心理上很不自然。正是因为如此，更需要下功夫逐渐适应。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... was <b>nothing less than</b> bloody tyranny. (Shakespeare, <i>King Henry VI</i>)这简直是血腥的暴政。/ Still the mouth remained clamped shut; and a third party might well have wondered what horror could be coming. <b>Nothing less than</b> dancing naked on the altar of the parish church would have seemed adequate. (John Fowles, <i>The French Lieutenant's Woman</i>)那张嘴依然紧紧地绷着，要是有第三者的话，他一定会惊奇不已，不明白她到底会说出何等可怕的事情。除了在教区教堂的祭坛前光着身子跳舞以外，还会有比她所说的更为可怕的事吗？(后一句直接的意思是：看来只有在教区教堂光着身子跳舞，才会够得上她会说出的可怕的事情。)</div><div class="ex-item">It was quite bitter enough, she felt, that he did not come to her, but now that she had made that advance, she felt that any withdrawal on his part would, to a woman of her class, be <b>nothing less than</b> a flaming insult. (Bram Stoker, <i>The Lair of the White Worm</i>)她觉得，他不来找她，已经够令她痛苦的了，而现在，她已做出了这样的主动示意，如果他竟然有任何在她这样高尚的女子面前退缩的表示，这就十十足足是一种侮辱。</div><br><br>nothing less than 后面不一定是名词成分。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The violinist's playing is <b>nothing less than</b> magnificent. 这位小提琴家的演奏简直是精彩极了。/ With its daring imagery, grave magnificence of language and solemn thought, it is <b>nothing less than</b> Elizabethan, and only the masters of that age could have done it justice in the rendering. (L. Cranmer-Byng, <i>A Lute of Jade</i>)它生动如画的大胆笔法、庄重高超的语言，以及严肃的思路，简直是伊丽莎白时代的作品，也唯有那个时代的大师们才能够恰如其分地加以表达。/ Expecting <b>nothing less than</b> to be murdered on the spot she covered hereyes with her hands to avoid the sight of the descending axe. (Joseph Conrad, <i>Under Western Eyes</i>)她预计自己免不了会就地被杀害，就用双手掩住眼睛，免得看见那把要掉下来的斧头。/ ... her bold plan was <b>nothing less than</b> to set the steamer adrift and float with her out into the open sea, ... (Edgar Rice Burroughs, <i>The Beasts of Tarzan</i>)……她那大胆的计划，简直就是要让那艘汽艇带着她去大海里随波漂流，……</div><br><br>
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nothing more ... than ...
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>nothing more ... than ...</b></div>如果是 nothing more adj. than X，就有三种不同的句型和两个可能的意义：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 第一种句型，是 there's nothing more adj. than ...，只有一个意义，就是对情况的主观评价：“再也没有比 X 更 adj. 的了，X 是最 adj. 的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>There's nothing more</b> rewarding <b>than</b> shopping for baby items. 最让人感到得意的，莫过于上街采购婴儿用品了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 说明句中 nothing more adj. than 仅仅作为其中一个名词成分起作用(“只不过；仅仅”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Today SUVs and other light trucks are the new family car often used for <b>nothing more demanding than</b> commuting and taking the kids to school. 今天，运动型多用途车和其他轻型卡车，成了仅仅用于家庭成员上下班和送孩子上学的车辆。/ Had she (= Gabrielle-Emilie Le Tonnelier de Breteuil, Marquise du Châtelet-Lomont, 1706-1749) been attractive, she would have been taught <b>nothing more demanding than</b> embroidery and the art of clever conversation, since the Age of Enlightenment in which she lived was not so enlightened as to acknowledge the equality of women. (Calculus)假如她长得好看，本来会教她一些不那么难学的本领，像刺绣和谈吐绰令之类，也就行了，须知她生活的那个启蒙时代，其实并不那么启蒙开明，并不那么承认妇女的平等地位。/ ... thunderstorms containing violent tornadoes can often be situated in close proximity to storms with <b>nothing more severe than</b> large hail, heavy rain, or strong winds. ……带有强烈龙卷风的雷雨，其位置常常很靠近本来只带有大冰雹、大雨或大风的雷雨。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 一开头就是 nothing more ... than ...，意义双关，可以是：(a) 是 there's nothing more ... than ... 的简化，意义与(1)相同。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Nothing more</b> powerful <b>than</b> an idea whose time has come. 力量最强的莫如一个符合时代潮流的思想。/ <b>Nothing more</b> practical <b>than</b> a good theory. 最实际的莫如一个好理论。/ <b>Nothing more</b> certain <b>than</b> the indispensable necessity of government. 最颠扑不破的真理是政府不可或缺。/ <b>Nothing more</b> rewarding <b>than</b> working with young people. 最能满足人的莫如和青年一起工作。</div>(b) 说明句中 nothing more adj. than 仅仅作为其中一个名词成分起作用(“不会比 X 更加 adj.，再 adj. 也只不过到 X 的程度”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In practical terms, <b>nothing more</b> onerous (= you will have to do nothing more onerous) <b>than</b> an occasional visit to the office of management, a most general supervision of what is going on. (John Fowles, <i>The French Lieutenant's Woman</i>)具体说来，你一开始并不需要多么费神，只需偶尔到办公室走走，对经营进行一般监督即可。</div><br><br>
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notice
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>notice</b></div>作为名词，notice 最基本的词义是中国人容易掌握的，但是也有个别派生的附带词义对中国人来说有点别扭。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 最基本的也是中国人最容易掌握的词义，是“通知，告示”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>birth notice</b> 出生启事</div><div class="ex-item"><b>marriage notice</b> 结婚启事</div><div class="ex-item"><b>death notice</b> 讣告</div><div class="ex-item"><b>put up a notice</b> 登告示</div><div class="ex-item"><b>without prior/previous notice</b> 未经事先通知</div><div class="ex-item"><b>until further notice</b> 以待下一步通知</div><div class="ex-item"><b>A notice</b> was pinned to the door. 门上贴了一张通知。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 中国人容易掌握的另一个名词词义，是“注意，知悉”（但不是很主动很密切的注意，只是觉察到而已）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It has come to my <b>notice</b> that ... 我觉察到……</div><div class="ex-item">It was never brought to his <b>notice</b>. 这件事情从来没有告诉过他。/ His talent brought him to the <b>notice</b> of the director. 他的才能引起了主任的注意。/ The error escaped my <b>notice</b>. 这个错误我没有发觉。/ The problem passed without <b>notice</b>. 问题没有引起注意。/ Please take special <b>notice</b> of these instructions. 请特别注意这些使用说明。/ We told her to stop, but she took no <b>notice</b>. 我们叫她住手，但她不理会。/ Don't take any <b>notice</b> of him. 别理会他。/ These figures finally made them sit up and take <b>notice</b>. 这些数字终于惊动了他们。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 但是，中国人可能不习惯的一个词义，是“自通知之时起到通知实施之时止给予对方行动或准备的时间”，此时，notice 常常有表示时间长短的定语，而且是不可数名词，不加任何冠词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I can't drop everything at/on a moment's <b>notice</b>. 一收到通知就把事情全都放下，我可做不到。(a 这个冠词是管 moment 的，不是管 notice 的。)</div><div class="ex-item">I'll try and get there, but it's rather short <b>notice</b>. 我设法赶去，但是给的时间够短的。/ It's impossible to do it at/on such short <b>notice</b>. 通知的时间这样仓促，这是办不到的。/ The CEO convened the meeting on extraordinarily short <b>notice</b>. 首席执行官异常仓促地宣布召开会议。/ We require at least two days' <b>notice</b> of any changes. 有任何变动，都起码要提早两天通知我们。/ Give me more <b>notice</b> next time you come up. 下次你来，早一点通知我。/ You had plenty of <b>notice</b> of our arrival. 我们到来之前早就已经通知你们了。/ Legally, they must give you a month's <b>notice</b>. 按照法律规定，他们应该提早一个月通知你。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> notice 有时候可以不是指要对方做某事时提前通知给予的时间，而是指某消息公布之前提前了多久通知对方。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Trump and his aides received less than an hour's <b>notice</b> Wednesday before the Justice Department announced it was bringing in Robert Mueller as a special counsel. (CNN, May 18, 2017) 特朗普和他的助手们星期三那天提前了不到一小时才收到司法部宣布任命穆勒为特别检察官的消息。</div>
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not just 与 not only
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>not just 与 not only</b></div>有时候两者同义，可以换用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Most people in the West, <b>not just/not only</b> the Italians, sensed this in a vague sort of way. 西方人，不仅是意大利人，大多对此都有隐隐约约的感觉。但是有时候 not just 有另外的意思，要注意它可能同 not only 有区别。例如现在许多人指责网络上的虚拟世界浪费了人们的时间，就有人辩解说：Virtual worlds are <b>not just</b> time-wasters. 这里的 not just 同 time-wasters 的关系应该是：首先 just 离开 not，同 time-wasters 联结成为一个单位，然后再同 not 联结。这样一来，just 也是从质的方面来限定 time-wasters (“区区浪费时间的玩意儿罢了”)，而 not 并不否定 just，而是否定 just time-wasters (“并不是区区浪费时间的玩意儿”)，这两种不同的用法，意义一正一反，差别很大。参见 just 条。</div><br><br>
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not only ... but ...
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>not only ... but ...</b></div>中文是“不但……而且……”。但是，这两个前后呼应的词组在句中的位置何在，要看两分句中的各个成分是否有共享，是哪些成分共享。通常的一个准则，是 not only 后的结构同 but 后的结构应该一样。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 如果两个分句中的各个成分都不同，not only 要放在前一句的最前面，这一句的主语和谓语动词要用倒装语序，but 后面一句则保持正常词序。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Not only</b> was any new item incredibly costly to launch, <b>but</b> most new products failed, often taking their supporters down to obscurity with them. 不但推出任何新产品都要花费难以置信的费用，而且大多数新产品都会失败，常常使得支持者随同这些产品落得个默默无名。/ If you want to play God, I always tell my students, go be a prosecutor. Not a judge, mind you. <b>Not only</b> do you have to be older and more experienced to be a judge, <b>but</b> everything you do must be explained and is subject to review. (<i>The Daily Gazette</i>, Sept. 2, 2006, A9)我总是告诉我的学生们，你们如果想扮演上帝的角色，就去当检察官吧。别当法官，要记住。要当法官的话，不但年纪要大些，阅历要丰富些，而且，事情无论怎样办理，都得说明理由，还要经过审核。/ <b>Not only</b> did Mr Snow take pains to point out that he had chosen his words carefully, <b>but</b> it seems unlikely that an intelligent man would make gaffe after gaffe on the same subject. (<i>The Economist</i>, May 24, 2003, p. 31)斯诺先生本来已经不厌其烦地指出他是字斟句酌的，不但如此，一个聪明人，看来更是不太会在同一个题目上反复出洋相的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 主语和谓语动词在前后的分句中都相同，只有宾语或表语不同，此时两个句子可以合成一句，将 not only 和 but/but also 分别放在两个宾语或表语前面即可(中文习惯重复谓语动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She lost <b>not only</b> her money, <b>but also</b> her passport. 她不但丢了钱，还丢了护照。/ She was <b>not only</b> beautiful, <b>but also</b> intelligent. 她不但美丽，而且聪明。/ Sometimes it is <b>not only</b> wise to listen to your parents <b>but also</b> interesting. 有时候，听你的父母说话，不但明智的，而且很有趣。但是，也可以保持两句话，同一主语出现两次，甚至由于结构上合并困难而不但重复主语而且重复谓语动词(not only 放在第一句的句首，第一句主谓倒装，第二句不倒装)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Not only</b> did she not know that adherents of the Russian Orthodox Church are Christians, she <b>also</b> knew absolutely nothing about the New Testament. 她不但不知道俄罗斯东正教的信徒也是基督徒，而且她对《圣经·新约》也一无所知。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 主语相同，但谓语及其他成分不同，此时两个分句也合成一句，将 not only 和 but/but also 分别放在两个谓语动词前面即可。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Chimps <b>not only</b> use tools <b>but</b> make them. 黑猩猩不但使用工具，而且还制造工具。</div><br><br>但是，也可以保持同样的主语和谓语动词分别出现在前后两句(not only 放在第一句的句首，第一句主谓倒装)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Not only</b> did she lose her money, she <b>also</b> lost her passport. 她不但丢了钱，而且护照也丢了。/ <b>Not only</b> do chimps use tools, they <b>also</b> make them. 黑猩猩不但使用工具，而且还制造工具。</div><br><br>也可以第一分句由 not only 开始，主谓倒装，第二分句由 but 开始，不倒装，而由于前后内容没有相同之处，所以一般不用 also。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Not only</b> are they (= Earth and Venus) comparable in size and mass, <b>but</b> they have similar amounts of carbon dioxide and once probably possessed nearly equal amounts of life-giving water. (<i>Los Angeles Times</i>, Dec. 1, 2007)地球和金星不但大小和质量相仿，而且都具有数量差不多的二氧化碳，而且很可能曾经有过等量的孕育生命的水。</div><br><br>要注意，but also 不可以一起放在第二分句的句首，先于该句的主语。如果 but 和 also 都出现，两个词要分开，but 在主语之前，also 在主语和谓语动词之间。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Not only</b> do we want to go, <b>but</b> we <b>also</b> have enough money. 我们不但想去，而且还有足够的钱。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 有的学者认为，后一句如果有 also，意义的重点就在后一句；如果只有 but 而没有 also，意义的重点就仍然在前一句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She is <b>not only</b> smart <b>but</b> brilliant. 她既潇洒又聪慧。/ He <b>not only</b> wanted the letter <b>but</b> wanted it desperately. 他对这封信，不但是想得到，而且想疯了。但是从例句看，这不见得普遍正确。</div><br><br>
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not so much as ... 与 not so much ... as ...
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>not so much as ... 与 not so much ... as ...</b></div>中文可以译成“与其说是……不如/毋宁说是……”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The oceans do <b>not so much</b> divide the world <b>as</b> unite it. 各个大洋与其说是把世界分割开，不如说是把世界连在一起。/ ... inspecting officers had come there <b>not so much</b> to see how Wegener ran things <b>as</b> to see how things should be run. (Tom Clancy, <i>Clear and Present Danger</i>)……视察的军官前来，与其说是要看韦杰纳如何办事情，不如说是要看事情该如何办才对。</div><br><br>
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not to inf. 与 to not inf.
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>not to inf. 与 to not inf.</b></div>to not inf. 按照正规的英语是不可以出现的，但是实际语言中有时也出现，原因是它比 not to inf. 含有更为主动积极的“努力防备，不做某事”的色彩，而 not to inf. 则可能被理解为“因为疏忽而没有做某事”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>And <b>to not</b> even count many citizens' votes in the process of selecting the nonrepresentative delegates is a crime! (<i>U.S. News & World Report</i>, Sept. 15-22, 2008, p. 12)在挑选无选区大会代表的过程中，竟然把许多公民的选票弃置不算，这简直是犯罪！/ Although I am told that their policy is <b>to not</b> permit contact between children and the mothers who relinquish rights over them ... (John Darnton, <i>The Darwin Conspiracy</i>)虽然我听说他们的方针是不让孩子同放弃了孩子抚养权的母亲们接触……但是有时候 not to inf. 同 to not inf. 在意义的强度上差别不大。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My eyes are dry as I ponder Joe Lieberman's decision <b>to not</b> seek re-election. (Froma Harrop, in <i>The Daily Gazette</i>, Jan. 22, 2011, A9)我在琢磨乔·利伯曼不寻求连任的决定时，眼睛干干的没有眼泪。</div><br><br>
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not to say
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>not to say</b></div>相当于 if not，参见 if not 条。<br><br>
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not without
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>not without</b></div>这两个否定词加在一起，产生了肯定的意义。但是，究竟是谁管谁，肯定的力度就有所不同。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 如果前面已经有否定，就是 without 管 not，此时“否定 + 否定 = 肯定”的力度就很大，相当于中文的“非……不可”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You can never do that. <b>Not without</b> a court order. 千万不能那样做。除非有法院的命令。有时候前面的否定是隐含的，例如1991年美国拍了一部故事片，内容是一个美国母亲如何带着女儿逃出伊朗，片名就叫作 <b><i>Not Without</b> My Daughter</i>，这里就预先隐含了“我一个人不走”的意思。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 如果前面是肯定的，而且 without 后面的宾语是不特指的，就是 not 管 without，此时肯定的力度就轻得多，相当于中文的“不无”，也就是对前面的肯定加上一点保留。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Weight-loss surgery is <b>not without</b> risks. 减肥手术还是有些风险的。/ The winners were announced, but <b>not without</b> controversy. 虽然宣布了获胜者，但还是有些争议。/ The device works, but <b>not without</b> glitches. 装置能运转，但还是出了些故障。/ His claim is <b>not without</b> justification. 他的申诉也不无道理。/ Its legal system, while <b>not without</b> substantial flaws, is considerably more advanced. (<i>Foreign Policy</i>, July/August, 2013, p. 75)这个国家的法律制度，尽管有一些根本性的漏洞，但仍然先进得多。</div><br><br>
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(not) without
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(not) without</b></div>参见 not without 条。<br><br>
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not²
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>not²</b></div>中译英时，比较容易简单化地一律用 not 来表示否定。但是其实英语表示否定的办法非常多。这里举出一些可供选择使用：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 最常见的是不用 not 而用其他否定词如 no、nothing、never、nowhere、nobody、no one、none、no longer 等。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>No</b> dogs are allowed. (= Dogs are <b>not</b> allowed.)不得携狗入内。/ She could see <b>no</b> hope ahead. (= She could <b>not</b> see any hope ahead.)她眼前看不到有希望。/ There's <b>nothing</b> you can do about it. (= You <b>cannot</b> do anything about it.)你对此毫无办法。/ It's <b>never</b> happened yet. (= It <b>hasn't</b> happened atany time yet.)这样的事从来没有发生过。/ <b>Nowhere</b> else will you find such beautiful scenery. (= You <b>won't</b> find such beautiful scenery anywhere else.)你在任何别的地方都不会看到这样美丽的景色。/ I can <b>no longer</b> stand it. 我再也容忍不了了。/ <b>No way</b> they'll let their union members be treated like this. 他们绝不会让自己的工会会员受到这样的对待。有时候以 no way 开始的句子中主谓语颠倒。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>No way</b> is it the right time for him to come back. 他这个时候回来根本不合适。有时候 no longer 这类的否定词可以放在句末，要一直看到句末才知道是否定(中文倾向于尽早出现否定)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He could silence himself <b>no longer</b>. 他再也不能沉默了。/ to her he was only the man who made himself agreeable <b>nowhere</b>. ... (Jane Austen, <i>Pride and Prejudice</i>)她只觉得他是个处处不讨人喜欢的男人，……</div><br><br>有时候用这些否定词只能否定该词本身，否定不了整句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I was starting from <b>nothing</b>. (\<i> I was <b>not</b> starting from anything.)我当时是白手起家。/ The car just appear from <b>nowhere</b>. (\</i> The car <b>didn't</b> appeared from anywhere.)那辆车子突如其来地出现。/ <b>No news</b> is good news. 没有消息就是好消息。(这个 no 不是否定全句，只否定 news，等于 There <b>not</b> being any news. 不是“凡是消息都不是好消息”。)</div><div class="ex-item">The union demands <b>no dismissal</b> of strikers. 工会要求不得解雇罢工工人。(这个 no 也不是否定全句，不是“工会不要求解雇罢工工人”。)</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 往往可以用 do nothing to inf. 来代替简单的 do not inf.。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The fact that I wrote a 30-page critical analysis of the function of shame in society <b>did nothing to</b> (= did <b>not</b>) ease the sting when I spilled beer on a customer at the bowling alley. (<i>Newsweek</i>, Nov. 13, 2006, p. 21)我尽管写过长达30页的批判分析，探讨羞耻感在社会上的作用，但这丝毫无助于减轻我在保龄球馆把啤酒洒在一位客人身上时心里的难过。有时候可以用 little 代替 nothing，语气稍微缓和一些。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was a thirst they could <b>do little to</b> satisfy. 那种渴望，是他们所不容易满足的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 对一个动词加以否定，可以用 fail to inf.，但这个用法带有一点“该做而没有做”或“该发生而没有发生”的意思，有时候还可能保持“想做某事但没有做成”的意思，参见 fail to inf. 条。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 对一个动词加以否定，还可以用 abstain from + -ing 或 refrain from + -ing 的表达，但这个用法带有一点“自己注意克制因而没有做”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He <b>abstained from</b> eating for two days. 他戒食2天。/ I <b>refrained from</b> criticizing him. 我忍住没有批评他。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 用 have yet to inf. 可以表示“该做但尚未做，但是稍后会做”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Investigators <b>have yet to</b> find or arrest anyone in connection with those explosions. 调查人员尚未发现或拘捕任何同这些爆炸案有牵连的人。/ The full effect <b>has yet to</b> be felt. 全部效果尚未感觉到。/ A just society <b>has yet to</b> be established. 一个公正的社会尚有待建立。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 有一些动词，本身就带有否定的意义，常常可以用来表示中文的“不”或“没有”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The windows were coated with dark plastic, which <b>denied</b> the casual onlooker the sight of the people inside. 车窗上贴着暗色的塑料膜，不让偶然路过的人看见车子里面的人。/ Cracks in the dam so far <b>defied</b> all efforts at repair. 水坝上的裂痕，至今一直无法修补。/ The full significance of the deal seems to have <b>escaped</b> him at the time. 这笔交易的全部意义，看来当时他并没有认识到。/ The man had the muddy remains of what had once been red hair, but was now sprinkled with enough gray to <b>defy</b> an accurate description. (Tom Clancy, <i>Clear and Present Danger</i>)这个人过去是一头红头发，现在剩下的却是泥浆似的，掺着大片灰色，所以说不清是什么颜色的头发了。/ Thus many disabled New Yorkers are effectively <b>barred from</b> returning to work, ... (<i>The Daily Gazette</i>, New York, Jan. 18, 2001, editorial)这样，许多残障的纽约人实际上就无法恢复工作，……</div><div class="ex-item">Fear of "knowing the truth" <b>keeps</b> many people <b>from</b> getting the treatment they need. (<i>Reader's Digest</i>, June 2001, p. 116)许多人由于害怕“知道真相”，得不到本来需要得到的治疗。/ High interest rates, a shortage of capital, drought in 2004 and intense competition have <b>kept</b> Bowland Vineyard <b>from</b> earning any profits. (<i>Newsweek</i>, Nov. 7, 2005, p. 63)由于利率高，资金又短缺，2004年又大旱，竞争又激烈，所以宝兰葡萄酒园毫无获利。/ <b>Quit</b> acting like a child! 别闹小孩子脾气！/ He is out to <b>stop</b> James Hormel, a philanthropist, <b>from</b> serving as ambassador to Luxembourg. (<i>The Daily Gazette</i>, June 12, 1999, B12)他决心要阻止慈善家詹姆斯·霍梅尔担任驻卢森堡大使。/ ... her face <b>fell</b> just <b>short of</b> being beautiful ... ……她的脸够不上漂亮……</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 有时候也可以用 wish 加上虚拟语气来表示婉转的否定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I <b>wish</b> I <b>could</b> share you optimism. 您看得这样乐观，我不敢苟同。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> 少数动词可以前面加 ill，表示否定(通常都是表示不如意)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It <b>ill becomes/ill befits</b> you to criticize. 由你来批评是不合适的。/ I can <b>ill afford</b> to buy a new car. 我买不起一辆新车。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(9)</span> too ... to inf. 或 too ... for ... 后半截都有否定的意思，参见 too ... to inf. 条。此外，有时候没有 too 也可以表示否定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>25 is pretty old <b>to</b> take up ballet dancing. 25岁的年纪，不宜开始学芭蕾舞了。/ He's enough of a coward <b>to</b> do that. 他完全是个胆小鬼，不敢干那个的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(10)</span> beyond、above、past 常常可以用来表示否定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is certain <b>beyond</b> doubt that ... 毫无疑问可以肯定的是……</div><div class="ex-item">I'm grateful <b>beyond</b> words. 我感激得无法用语言来表达。/ Though he knew that they called him something else among themselves, he was <b>past</b> caring what little people thought of him. 尽管他也知道他们私下里是怎样称呼他的，但是他对一些小人物的想法并不在乎。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(11)</span> 动词的被动式，有时候否定时可以用 un-加过去分词表示，参见 un-条。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(12)</span> out of 也可以用来表示否定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>out of</b> breath 上气不接下气</div><div class="ex-item"><b>out of</b> step with reality 同现实脱节</div><div class="ex-item"><b>out of</b> practice 生疏</div><div class="ex-item">I've been <b>out of</b> teaching for two years. 我已经有两年没有教课了。/ To retreat was <b>out of the question</b>. 退却是根本不可能的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(13)</span> 形容词 last 也可以表示否定，参见 last 条。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(14)</span> 连词短语 instead of、rather than、short of 等，都可以表示否定。 (15) before 引入的从句，有时候是要避免发生或是没有发生的事，因此 before 有时可以有否定意义。参见 before 条。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(16)</span> 常常可以借用比较的形式来表示否定。上位比较，用于表示“不止；超出……”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>To add a divorce to all that was <b>more than</b> I could handle at the time. 有了这一大堆事，还要加上离婚，那是我当时应付不过来的。/ It is <b>more than</b> I engage for, I assure you. (Jane Austen, <i>Pride and Prejudice</i>)老实跟你说吧，这不是我分内的事。/ <b>More</b> blood is needed in hospitals <b>than</b> donors can supply. 医院需要的血浆太多，输血者供应不过来。(不说 *Donors <b>cannot</b> supply enough blood needed in hospitals.)</div>下位比较，常用于表示“达不到那程度”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But the CIA was <b>less than</b> helpful. 但是中央情报局没起多大作用。</div><br><br>也可以用反义的形容词比较级来表示否定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I read your novels and expected to meet an <b>older</b> man. 我看了你写的小说，没想到你这么年轻。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(17)</span> know better (than to inf.) 实际上是一种否定方式，意思是“懂得不应该做某事，也就没有去做”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He <b>knew better than</b> to think the assailant had given up. 他心中有数，知道刺客并没有罢休。/ That bluff worked on Rémy. Not on me. I know you <b>better than</b> that. (Dan Brown, <i>The Da Vinci Code</i>)你这一套空城计骗得过雷米。但是骗不过我。我看透了你，不会上当的。/ I should have known <b>better than</b> to believe in free wishes. 我本来应该懂事，不应该相信那些空洞的愿望。/ Although his female colleagues insisted the gray only accentuated his bookish appeal, Langdon knew <b>better</b>. (Dan Brown, <i>The Da Vinci Code</i>)尽管兰登的女同事们坚持说，灰色只会加重他那副书呆子外表，但是他没听她们的。/ She knew <b>better than</b> to interrupt him a second time. 她懂得最好别再一次打断他的话，也就没有这样做。</div><br><br>think the better of it 也是一种否定方式，意思是“经过考虑后觉得还是不这样做为妥(从而也就没有这样做)”。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(18)</span> 有一些形容词，本身就有否定意义，其中 free 用来表达正面意义，devoid 则用来表达负面意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>products <b>free from</b> defects in materials and workmanship 用料和工艺都没有缺点的产品</div><div class="ex-item">a speech <b>devoid of</b> content 一篇空洞的演讲词</div><div class="ex-item">a man <b>devoid of</b> any moral principle 一个没有任何道义原则的人</div><div class="ex-item">an explanation <b>devoid of</b> logic 一次缺乏逻辑性的解释。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(19)</span> 许多时候，对一个作表语的形容词加以否定，可以有多种办法。(a) 加上 far from。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But these circumstances are <b>far from</b> ordinary. 但是这些情况很不寻常。/ The matter is <b>far from</b> over. 事情还远远没有过去呢。/ <b>Far</b> be it <b>from</b> me to criticize her. 我本来无意批评她。参见 far from 条。</div>(b) 前面加 anything but。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But the atmosphere surrounding cloning research is <b>anything but</b> normal. (<i>U.S. News & World Report</i>, Dec. 10, 2001, p. 56)但是克隆研究所处的环境，是很不正常的。/ If the restroom is <b>anything but</b> clean, please ... 如果厕所不够洁净之处，烦请……</div><div class="ex-item">Though the tail assembly of the aircraft was <b>anything but</b> intact, you could tell what it had once been. 飞机的尾部尽管已经损毁，但是原先的形状仍旧依稀可辨。</div>(c) 前面加 other than (可以作表语，也可以作定语)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In <b>other than</b> unanimous opinions (of the U.S. Supreme Court), one or more dissenting opinions are usually written by those justices who do not agree with the majority. 当(美国最高法院的)判决不一致通过时，往往那些同大多数意见不一致的大法官们就写出一份或多份的异见书。/ The word is used in some <b>other than</b> its expected sense. 这个单词用的不是原意。/ This report is quite <b>other than</b> what I asked for. 这个报告同我所要求的很不一样。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(20)</span> 中文的一些否定用法，尤其是在一些祈使句中，到了英文可以转换为肯定，这更为符合英文的习惯。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Mind your own business. (\<i>Don't mind other people's business.)别多管闲事。/ Keep off the grass. (\</i>Don't tread on the grass.)请勿践踏草地。/ Remember what I said. (\<i>Don't forget what I said.)我说的话你别忘了。/ Leave him alone. (\</i>Don't pay attention to him.)别管他。/ Wet paint. (\<i>Paint not dry yet.)油漆未干。/ Staff only. (\</i>No admittance to non-staff.)非工作人员请勿入内。/ a song to remember (*a song hard to forget)一曲难忘。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(21)</span> 一正一反时，后面的“反”可以用 rather than 引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Most of them work in private firms, <b>rather than</b> in the government. 他们大多是在私营企业而不是在政府工作。</div><br><br>
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not³
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>not³</b></div>所否定的范围就谓语和状语而言(暂时不论宾语)，not 可能有三个不同的否定范围。参见 (not) ... because 条。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 只否定谓语动词，不否定谓语动词后的状语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The police <b>didn't</b> release his name because of his age. 由于他的年龄，警察没有公布他的名字。/ He <b>wasn't</b> listening all the time. 他一直都不在听。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 不否定谓语动词，只否定谓语动词后的状语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They had <b>not</b> gathered in this remote wooded area forty miles west of Moscow <b>to relive the past</b>. 他们聚集到莫斯科以西40英里这处偏僻的森林地带，并不是要重温过去。/ This man's friends had <b>not</b> gotten to where they were <b>by being careless</b>. (Dan Brown, <i>Deception Point</i>)这个人的朋友们之所以能够有今天，不是靠漫不经心就能办到的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 把谓语动词连同其后面的状语合在一起作为一个整体加以否定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Working in an open-source world is not without its hardships. There is <b>no</b> toll-free number to call when things don't work, <b>as</b> is the case with packaged software. 在一个开源的世界里活动，总是免不了遇到种种麻烦。东西不灵了，就不能像买原装的软件那样有免费电话可以打。这里有时候会出现歧义。如 He <b>didn't</b> go to New York <b>to attend the meeting</b>. 可能是谓语动词(go)连同其后面的状语(to attend the meeting)合在一起作为一个整体受到否定，意思就是“他没有去纽约，所以也就没有参加会议”；但是也可以是只否定状语，不否定谓语(此时否定词 not 就是跳过谓语，“隔山打炮”，否定状语)，意思就是“他去纽约并不是要参加会议”。</div><br><br>
</>
not¹
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>not¹</b></div>后面接状语。在一个否定句后面，无论是用逗号隔开，还是另起一句，not 后面接上状语成分，此时这个 not 可能不是否定状语，而是反过来被这个状语所修饰，而 not 本身只是前面否定句的简略重复，加上状语成分来进一步说明前一句是在什么情况下被否定的。要注意要弄清楚 not 和后面的状语“谁管谁”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>And he couldn't leave Washington for a week of low-profile existence, leaving the limelight to the other side—<b>not</b> with that question lying unanswered behind him on the White House lawn, could he? 他又不能离开华盛顿去销声匿迹一个星期，让聚光灯照到另一边去——他无法这样做而让那个问题放在白宫草坪上得不到答案，是吧？/ <b>Not</b> enough time. <b>Not</b> with so much still to do. 时间不够。还有这么多的事情要做。(not 不否定 with ...，而是 with ... 修饰 not。)</div><div class="ex-item">They'll <b>never</b> get away with it. <b>Not</b> as long as I live. 他们永远不能得逞。只要我还活着。(not 不否定 as long as ...，而是 as long as ... 修饰 not。)</div><div class="ex-item">I will <b>not</b> lie about it, <b>not</b> to protect anybody. 我在这件事情上不会撒谎，不会为了保护任何人而撒谎。(not 重申否定，把后面 to protect anybody 也同前面 lie about it 加在一起否定。)</div>有时候前面不一定是个否定句，而只是个疑问句，后面的 not 仍然不否定其后的状语，而是反过来受到状语的修饰。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—Any problems? —<b>Not</b> so far. —有什么问题吗？—到目前为止还没有。(不是 not 否定 so far，而是 so far 修饰 not。)</div><div class="ex-item">Did he comment on anything? —<b>Not</b> to my knowledge. —他对什么事情发表了议论吗？—据我所知，没有。(to my knowledge 管 not。)</div><div class="ex-item">Would this, as some warn, increase tensions all the more? <b>Not</b> in the least. 这会不会像某些人所警告的那样让局势更紧张呢？丝毫不会。(not 不否定 in the least，而是 in the least 修饰与增强 not。)</div>有时候前面没有否定，后面出现 not + 状语，也同样要判明否定和状语谁管谁。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—Water, water everywhere—well, apparently <b>not if</b> you live in the south of England. —水，到处是水。—不错，看来如果你居住在英格兰南部就不是这样了。(if ... 修饰 not。) not without 也有类似的问题，参见 not without 条。</div><br><br>但是，not because ... 却是 not 管 because，不是 because 管 not。参见 (not) ... because 条的“肯否肯”与“肯否否”。<br><br>
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now
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>now</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> now 常常用来表示现在与过去情况的不同。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I feel better <b>now</b>. 我现在觉得舒服多了。(原先不舒服。)</div><div class="ex-item">They have all gone home <b>now</b>. 他们现在全都回家去了。(原先在这里。)</div><div class="ex-item">You can come in <b>now</b>. 现在您可以进来了。(原先不可以。)</div><div class="ex-item">We are <b>now</b> entering enemy territory. 我们现在进入敌区。(原先在我区。)</div>但是 now 也可以用来表示与将来情况的不同。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Now</b> (与过去相比) those efforts will be encouraged, and competition between universities legitimised. Universitieswill have the explicit mission of preparing students for work, something many <b>now</b> (与将来相比) see as not their problem. (<i>The Economist</i>, July 7, 2007, p. 52) 现在呢，这样的努力就会得到鼓励，各大学之间的竞争就会更激烈。各大学还将明确负有培养学生就业才能的使命，而现在许多大学却认为这并非它们的事。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 如果要强调“目前暂时如此，将来会有变化”，可以说 <b>for now</b>。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>That's all <b>for now</b>. 目前暂时只有这些。(往后还会有的。)</div><div class="ex-item">Can you make do with 1,000 dollars <b>for now</b>? 你先拿 1,000 美元目前应付一阵行不行？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 中国人说话，常常说“现在”，但是在英语中，由于动词已经有了现在、过去和将来时态的区别，不必再加上时间副词，因此，如果不是同先前比较，就较少说 now。例如问时间，说 What time is it now? 这个 now 就是多余的，除非前面谈到过时间，现在再问，作为对比。如果一直在做某事，注意到时间可能太晚了，可以问 What time is it? 还可以问 How are we doing for time?<br><span class="seq">(4)</span> now 通常是个副词，但是有时候也作为名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... a new year and a new presidency are on the horizon making <b>now</b> an ideal time to reassess your financial plan, reevaluate your portfolio and redefine your goals. (<i>U.S. News & World Report</i>, Special Year End Issue, 2008, p. 3, ad) ……新的一年即将来临，新的总统即将上任，这使得现在成了最为理想的时刻，可以重新评估你的财务计划，重新估价你的投资组合，重新确定你的目标。与此相类似，其他一些常用的时间副词，有时候也可以用作名词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Today</b> is Sunday. 今天星期日。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> <b>now that</b> 是个连词词组，意思是“既然”，不要分成两个单词来理解。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is important <b>now that</b> key personalities inside the NSC have been removed that we keep the pressure on from the outside because ... (Sebastian Gorka, Aug. 26, 2017) 既然国家安全委员会内的主要人物已经被撤掉，那么，我们就很需要从外部保持压力，因为……。(it 是形式主语，但不是以 that key ... 名词从句作为真正的主语，而是后面的 that we keep ... 名词从句作为真正的主语；now that ... 只是一个状语从句，说明背景。)</div>
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now ... (and) now ...
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>now ... (and) now ...</b></div>是“时而……，时而……”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... the same word used <b>now</b> as a preposition <b>and now</b> as a conjunction (Otto Jerpersen, <i>The Philosophy of Grammar</i>) ……同一个词，时而作为介词，时而作为连词</div><div class="ex-item">others (= other Chinese words) without any outward change may function <b>now</b> as substantives, <b>now</b> as verbs, <b>now</b> as adverbs, etc. (ibid.) 另一些中文词，毫无外形变化，可以时而作为名词，时而作为动词，时而作为副词，等等。</div><br><br>也可以是 <b>now ... and then</b> (此时 and 不可省略)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In extended octave playing it is well to vary the position of the wrist, <b>now</b> high <b>and then</b> low. (Josef Hofmann, <i>Piano Playing</i>) 弹奏伸展八音度时，手腕的位置最好有些变化，时高时低。</div><br><br>
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no²
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>no²</b></div>有时候 no 只否定后面的名词，不否定别的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>No</b> news is good news. 没有消息就是好消息。(不是“凡是消息都不是好消息”。)/ The union demands <b>no</b> dismissals of strikers. (≠ The union doesn't demand dismissals of strikers.) 工会要求不得解雇罢工工人。/ We want <b>no</b> more excuses. (≠ We don't want more excuses.) 我们希望人家别再提出什么借口。/ He came from <b>nowhere</b>. (≠ He didn't come from anywhere.) 他不晓得是从哪里冒出来的。/ A huge bear appeared out of <b>nowhere</b> and roared andthreatened us. (= A huge bear appeared out of <b>somewhere we didn't know</b> and roared and threatened us. ≠ A huge bear didn't appear from anywhere and roared and threatened us.) 一头巨熊不知从何处猛然扑出来，号叫着威胁我们。(不是“没有从任何地方出现任何一头巨熊”)</div><div class="ex-item">Why run the risk for <b>no</b> reason? 何必无缘无故去冒这个风险呢？/ For <b>no</b> reason at all the two men started to laugh. (= <b>Without any reason</b> the two men started to laugh. ≠ The two men <b>did not</b> start to laugh for any reason.) 那两个人无缘无故地笑了起来。(不是“那两个人并没有出于任何原因而笑了起来”。如果用 without 表示否定，这个否定作用只支配 without 的宾语，不可以支配句子的谓语。)</div><div class="ex-item">You must put up with <b>no</b> hot dinner. (≠ You <b>mustn't</b> put up with hot dinner.) 没有热饭，你们得将就一下。/ “What's the problem with her sister-in-law?” “I hope <b>nothing</b>. (≠ I don't hope anything.) She's supposed to manage the tearoom while Heather and J. C. are in Europe on their honeymoon, but yesterday she seemed to be getting sick. ...” (Irene Hannon, <i>The Doctor's Perfect Match</i>) “她的嫂子出了什么问题？” “我希望没什么事。她要管理这家茶室，好让她嫂子希瑟和她哥哥 J.C. 在欧洲度蜜月，但是昨天她似乎病倒了。……” (不是“我不希望任何事”。)/ Without doubt, exercise at any time of the day beats <b>no</b> exercise at all. (<i>The New York Times</i>, Mar. 3, 2009, D1) 毫无疑问，无论在一天当中什么时候做运动，也胜过根本不做运动。(不是“根本不会胜过任何运动”。)</div>
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no¹
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>no¹</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> no 放在可数名词前面表示“没有”，如果同 have、there are 之类表示“有”“存在”或“出现”的动词一起，通常这个名词要用复数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was early December and there were <b>no</b> leaves on the trees. 已经是 12 月初，树上的叶子都掉光了。/ The room has <b>no</b> windows. 房间没有窗。/ <b>No</b> dogs, unless they are on a lead, are allowed in the flower garden. 狗除非有人牵着，否则不准进入花园。(用复数可以表示概括性的规定。)/ <b>No</b> road accidents were reported throughout February. 整个 2 月份都没有发生过交通事故。/ There are <b>no</b> messages in your Bulk folder. 您的垃圾箱中没有信件。特别要注意的是，有些事物，明明只有一个，而且是特指的，说它在某一特定场合不出现，也把它当作不特指的事物，而且在 no 以后以复数形式出现。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>No</b> pledges or anthems Monday morning. 星期一上午，没向国旗宣誓，也没唱国歌了。/ <b>No</b> morning prayers that day. 那一天没有做早祷。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 但是如果该事物在正常情况下是单个出现的，就应该用单数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This cup has <b>no</b> handle. 这个杯子没有柄。(一只杯子只有一个柄。)/ He must lead a lonely life in that village: he has <b>no</b> wife and <b>no</b> children. 他在那个村子过的生活一定很寂寞，没有妻子，没有孩子。(妻子只有一个，孩子可能有多个。)/ Oh, I know that civilized progress depends on education. Without it, I'd have had <b>no</b> motorcycle to ride, <b>no</b> tractor to run on our farm; I wouldn't now be flying in an airplane above the North Atlantic Ocean. (Charles A. Lindbergh, <i>The Spirit of St. Louis</i>) 啊，我知道文明的进步有赖于教育。没有教育，我就不会有摩托车来骑，没有拖拉机来耕种我们的田庄；我就不会驾着飞机飞越北大西洋上空。(一个人只能骑一辆摩托车，开一辆拖拉机，驾驶一架飞机。)由于正常情况下应该是一个还是多个往往可以有不同的看法，所以 no 后面的名词用单数还是复数，也不完全统一。例如一份介绍天文常识的材料中就接连出现不同的用法：Mercury has <b>no</b> moons, ... Venus has <b>no</b> moon. (水星没有卫星。……金星没有卫星。)</div><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 如果该名词后面还有说明其内容的语言成分，这就把该名词的范围固定在一处，此时这个名词通常也用单数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She has <b>no</b> intention of leaving. 她没有要走的意思。/ I have <b>no</b> idea which one is correct. 我不晓得哪一个是对的。/ I have <b>no</b> excuse not to do it. 我没有什么借口不这样干。/ I have <b>no</b> reason to run away. 我没有理由跑开。/ He has given <b>no</b> reason for his decision. 他对自己做出的决定没有说出理由。/ I have <b>no</b> place to hide. 我没有地方躲。比较：I have <b>no</b> opinions. 我没有什么意见。(泛泛的)</div><div class="ex-item">I have <b>no</b> opinion on whether it is right or wrong. 这样究竟是对是错，我没有什么看法。(特指的)有时候尽管名词后面没有语言上明确的补充说明，但是当时的语境对这个名词到底指什么是明确界定的，此时名词也用单数。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>No</b> comment. 无可奉告。(专门针对眼前这件事的 comment)</div><div class="ex-item">There was <b>no</b> answer. 没有回答。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 此外，在句首，“没有……”作主语，用单数除了能与后面的特定描述呼应之外，还可以加重语气，表示“(符合这条件的)一个也没有”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>No</b> sensible person would dispute this. 没有一个通情达理的人会对此提异议。/ <b>No</b> one company can handle these orders. 没有一家公司能应付这些订货单。/ <b>No</b> building was left standing. 没有一座建筑物是屹立不倒的。/ <b>No</b> man (*No men) can be a good teacher unless he has feelings of warm affection toward his pupils and a genuine desire to impart to them what he himself believes to be of value. (Bertrand Russell) 任何人，除非对学生抱有热烈的感情，而且的确期望把自己认为有价值的东西传授给他们，否则就不可能当一个好教师。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 另外值得注意的是，no 后面名词用复数，往往暗示这些事物属于一个笼统的类别，所以理解为多个的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>No</b> dogs, unless they are on a lead, are allowed in the flower garden. 狗除非有人牵着，否则不准进入花园。(这里的 dogs 是笼统的一类。)/ One in four adults read <b>no</b> books last year. 去年每四个成年人中就有一个没有看过书。(这里的 books 是笼统的书籍，没有特别指出内容。)</div>如果该事物不属于笼统的类别，而是有其特殊性，用复数就不如单数自然。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There's <b>no</b> provision in the contract <b>to that effect</b>. 合同里没有这样的规定。/ <b>No</b> good paragraph (<i>paragraphs) can come out of recurring hammer-stroke emphases. (Wilson Follett, </i>Modern American Usage*) 靠反复敲打榔头那样一再强调，是写不出好文段的。/ Probably <b>no</b> drug ever introduced before has been tested more thoroughly for safety. 大概先前引进的药品没有哪一种受到过更为彻底的安全检查了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> no 后面如果是单数名词，即使用 and 再加上同样的结构作主语，谓语动词仍然要用单数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>No</b> boy under fourteen <b>and no</b> girl under sixteen <b>is</b> to be admitted without accompanying parents. 男童不满 14 岁，女童不满 16 岁，如无家长带领，不得入内。但这一句不妨改为 <b>No</b> boys under fourteen <b>or</b> girls under sixteen <b>are</b> to be admitted without accompanying parents.</div>
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no 与 not
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>no 与 not</b></div>本来，系动词(be、become 之类)后面接上表语，如果要否定，按理应该加上一个 not。但是英语在某些情况下加的不是 not 而是 no。这些特定情况有：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 表语是名词，强调“根本不是”或“并不是”(中文“并不”就是对原先的一个猜测加以否定)，用 no 代替 not a 时，a 要去掉。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Miss Hannah, of course, is <b>no</b> relative of Edith at all. 当然，汉娜小姐并不是伊迪丝的亲戚。/ Virginians loved to dance and he was <b>no</b> exception. 弗吉尼亚州的人喜欢跳舞，他也不例外。/ This is <b>no</b> easy matter. 这并不是一件容易的事。/ His biographers are <b>no</b> apologists. 为他写传记的作者们并不是什么卫道士。/ It's <b>no</b> trouble. 没事儿。/ She has a good voice, but she's <b>no</b> Callas. 她嗓子很好，但她还比不上卡拉斯。/ It's <b>no</b> masterpiece, but it's well written. 这还算不上一篇杰作，但的确写得不错。/ He was <b>no</b> fool. 他可不是傻瓜。/ That was <b>no</b> problem. 那不是问题。/ The demise of Europe's constitution is <b>no</b> reason to celebrate. (<i>BusinessWeek</i>, July 13, 2005, p. 53) 欧洲宪法的寿终正寝，并不是一件乐事。/ This was <b>no</b> small extra burden. 这个额外负担可不轻。/ Their triumph was <b>no</b> fluke. 他们的胜利不是侥幸得来的。在一些语义上相当于表语的宾补前，也常用 no 而不用 *not a。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Finding his visitor apparently <b>no</b> threat, he opened the door. 他发现他的访客显然没有威胁，就打开了门。</div><br><br>但是如果表语破例用了复数名词代替单数，就要用 not 而不用 *no。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was <b>not friends</b> with his co-workers. 他同自己的同事们也不交朋友。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 在形容词或副词比较级之前，用 no 表示原先已经如何，现在也没有什么改变(如果用 not 则不交代原先如何，只是进行对比)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's <b>no</b> better. 情况一样糟。/ The application should be submitted <b>no</b> later than August 21. 申请表最迟要在 8 月21号之前递交。/ He was <b>no</b> happier for knowing it. 他知道了，也没有觉得更加高兴一些。/ The process left them <b>no</b> better off than before. 经历了这个过程，他们的处境还是和从前一样糟。/ The radio is <b>no</b> bigger than a matchbox. 收音机只有一个火柴盒那么大。/ In terms of paperwork, domestic adoptions are <b>no</b> less laborious than international. 就办手续而言，国内认养并不比国际认养简便。/ Many newspapers have done <b>no</b> better. 许多报纸的情况也不见得好多少。/ She felt she was <b>no</b> nearer to her goal than she was when she had first arrived in New York. 她感到自己的目标同初到纽约时一样遥不可及。/ The doctor was <b>no</b> closer to being able to help his patient. 医生对于他的病人，仍然一样束手无策。/ A chain is <b>no</b> stronger than its weakest link. 整条链条有多结实，以最薄弱的一环有多结实为准。/ The study of more than 2,000 patients found that those who underwent the expensive procedure, known as angioplasty, in non-emergency situations were <b>no</b> less likely to suffer a heart attack or die than those who ... (<i>The Washington Post</i>, Mar. 27, 2007, A01)这种费用昂贵的手术，通称血管成形术，而对2000多名病人的调查发现，在非急诊情况下进行这种手术的人，比起……的人，心脏病发作与死亡的危险并不会有所减低。表示“差别”的形容词，也同形容词比较级一样“欢迎”no。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In Miami, it is <b>no</b> different. 迈阿密的情况也一样。/ The situation is <b>no</b> different from what it used to be. 情况同从前没有多大差别。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> no more/less than 与 not more/less than 的区别也是前者先肯定了原先的一方“并不多”或“并不少”，而后者则对原先一方的“多”或“少”不加评论，只是做简单的比较。简单地说，no more than 相当于 only; not more than 相当于 at most; no less than 相当于 as much as; not less than 相当于 at least。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has <b>no more than</b> 10,000 dollars. 他只有一万美元。/ He has <b>not more than</b> 10,000 dollars. 他最多也只有一万美元。/ He has <b>no less than</b> 10,000 dollars. 他有一万美元之多。/ He has <b>not less than</b> 10,000 dollars. 他起码也有一万美元。</div><br><br>
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no 与 yes
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>no 与 yes</b></div>参见 yes 与 no 条。<br><br>
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nuance
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>nuance</b></div>指色调的细微差别，也可以用于任何抽象事物的细微差别。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was notknown where Gadhafi was at the time, but it seemed to show that while the allies trade <b>nuances</b> over whether his fall is a goal of their campaign—he is not safe. (The Associated Press, Mar. 13, 2011) 不知道卡扎菲当时在何处，但是看来，尽管各盟国对于这次战事是否以他的垮台为目的彼此的说法有出入，他的确并不安全。</div><br><br>
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number
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>number</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> <b>number</b> 和 <b>amount</b> 的不同用法，参见 amount 条。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> <b>number</b> 作“号码”解时，the number of 后面的名词可以是单数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the <b>number</b> of my friend 我朋友的电话号码。但是如果 number 表示数量，of 后面的名词就必须是复数的(不能用不可数名词)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the <b>number</b> of the books on the shelf 架子上图书的数量。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> <b>number + 基数词</b>，可以放在一个名词后面，表示“第几个”或“第几号的”，此时该名词前面没有 the，而且 number 可以简写为 No.，例如 room No. 3 (读 room number three，第三号房间，room 前面不可以有 <i>the)。有时候 number 可以省略，名词前面也不要 </i>the。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>World War II (读 World War Two) 二战</div><div class="ex-item">Whether it's Barack Obama or John McCain, the next commander in chief faces a host of threats on <b>day one</b>. (<i>U.S. News & World Report</i>, June 23-30, 2008, pp. 36-37) 无论是奥巴马还是麦凯恩，下一任的总司令上任第一天就面对着一大堆威胁。这里用 day one 代替 the first day，达到了加强语气的修辞效果，表示工作日程一天一天排得紧紧的，已经排好了次序。这种效果是 the first day 平铺直叙所达不到的。而且，有时候编排的次序数目复杂，不是一个简单的序数词(first、second 等)所能表示的，那就要用这种“无冠词名词 + 基数词”的形式。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The jet lifted quickly off <b>runway three B three</b>. 喷气式飞机迅速飞离了第 3B3 号跑道。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> <b>number of</b> 如果指的是“若干(事物)”，重点不在数目而在事物，前面用不定冠词 a，作复数处理。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>A number of</b> students <b>were</b> going on a picnic. 一批学生正在去郊游。/ <b>A number were</b> waiting. 有些人在等待着。</div><br><br>如果指的是“(事物)的数目”，重点在数目，则前面用定冠词 the，作单数处理。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>The number of</b> rooms <b>was</b> too small. 房间数目太少了。/ <b>The number of</b> voters <b>was</b> diminishing. 投票人数在减少。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> <b>number</b> 是一个完整的数，可以由多个“位数”(digit 或 figure)组成。例如 37,605 就是一个 <b>five-digit</b> number; “拿六位数的薪水”就是 make <b>six-figure</b> salaries 或 make <b>six figures</b>。<br><br>
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nurse
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>nurse</b></div>同 nurture 相类似，不一定是“养育”，可以是“抱有某种想法或心情”(属第二类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He had long <b>nursed</b> a desire to build his own yacht. 他早就打算建造自己的游艇。/ For years he had <b>nursed</b> a grudge against her. 他多年来一直对她有怨。</div><br><br>
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nurture
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>nurture</b></div>参见 nurse 条。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They <b>nurtured</b> a wishful belief it never would happen. 他们一厢情愿地相信这样的事不会发生。 # O o</div>
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oats
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>oats</b></div>这是一个不可数名词。它作主语时，谓语动词通常要用复数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Oats are</b> used especially for making porridge or for feeding animals. 燕麦专门用于煮粥或是喂牲口。/ These <b>oats are</b> good and we will cook <b>them</b>. 这些燕麦很好，我们要把它煮熟。但是也可以用单数。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This <b>oats is</b> good and we will cook <b>it</b>.</div>它前面既可以用 many，也可以用 much。这大概是由它本身虽然不可数但又必须以复数形式出现的自相矛盾所致。用了 much，相关的谓语动词就可以用单数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There <b>is</b> probably <b>too much oats</b> being grown again this year. 今年的燕麦大概又种多了。但是也有仍然用复数的。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Too much oats are</b> bad for horses. 燕麦喂太多，对马匹是不好的。如果不涉及谓语动词，这个矛盾就不显得尖锐。</div><br><br>前面也可以用 many。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In fact, horses are known to become overly excited if fed <b>too many oats</b>. 其实，马匹如果燕麦喂得太多，会过分兴奋。/ If <b>too many oats</b> are fed, for example, calcium levels may drop as phosphorus levels rise. 例如如果燕麦喂得太多了，钙的含量就可能下降，而磷的含量就可能升高。/ If <b>too many oats</b> are added to a bread, it becomes crumbly. 面包里如果加进太多的燕麦，就会变脆。/ There were <b>too many oats</b> yet to be sown. 还有大量的燕麦种不过来呢。属于类似情况的，还有 ash、beans 等名词，参见 ash 条及 beans 条。</div><br><br>oats 如果放在另一个表示食品的名词之前作定语，就要变为单数，去掉 -s。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>oat</b> bread 燕麦面包。</div><br><br>
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object
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>object</b></div>作为名词，重音在前一音节；作为动词，重音在后一音节。作为名词，object 的意义容易了解和掌握。但是作为动词，它的词义、用法和搭配有值得注意之处。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为不及物动词，是“表示反对”(瞬时动作)，不必加上反对“什么”(这个“反对”是表态上的“反对”，不是形之于斗争行动的“反对”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Nobody <b>objected</b> when I proposed the motion. 我提出动议时无人反对。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 也可以说明“反对什么”(表示延续状态，也可以表示瞬时动作)，此时 object 后面加上 to 再加上一个名词成分或一个动名词(如果动名词的逻辑主语同 object 的主语不一致，可以在动名词前面加上该逻辑主语的所有格)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She <b>objected to</b> the presence of journalists. 她反对记者在场。/ But I do <b>object to</b> not being told at all. 但是我确确实实反对人家根本不告诉我。(being 的主语与 object 的主语一致。)</div><div class="ex-item">They <b>objected to</b> working overtime. 他们反对加班。(working 的主语与 object 的主语一致。)</div><div class="ex-item">I <b>object</b> most strongly <b>to</b> your accusations! 我极其强烈地反对你们的指责！/ Do you <b>object to</b> my smoking? 我吸烟你不反对吧？/ I <b>object to</b> your using the place as a hotel. 我反对你把这处地方当作旅馆来使用。/ I wouldn't <b>object to</b> a cup of tea. 喝一杯茶，我也无妨。</div><br><br>注意：object to 中的 to 是个纯粹的介词，后面必须是名词或动名词，不可以是动词不定式。要说 <b>object to</b> working overtime，不能说 *object to work overtime。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 比较特别值得注意的是：object 表示瞬时动作时，object that 后面的从句，其内容不是“反对”的对象，而恰恰是反对意见所依据的理由。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They <b>objected that</b> he was too young. 他们提出反对意见说，他年纪太轻。/ The engineers <b>objected that</b> such techniques would be ridiculously expensive. 工程师们提出反对意见说，这些技术会贵得惊人。/ Others <b>objected that</b> it would be unfair to hold liable an end-user. 另外一些人提出反对意见说，要终端用户来承担责任，未免太不公平。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> object 与 subject 的关系，参见 subject 条之(2)。<br><br>
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objet d'art
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>objet d'art</b></div>“艺术品”，源自法文。要注意的是：(1) 复数是 <b>objets d'art</b>，不是 *objet d'arts。(2) 法文的 objet 同英文的 object 拼写不同，没有 c。<br><br>
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obligation 与 duty
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>obligation 与 duty</b></div>参见 duty 与 obligation 条。<br><br>
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obscene
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>obscene</b></div>这个形容词，通常意义是“淫秽的”。但是可以转义为“不像话的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's <b>obscene</b> that millions of children should be starving in the world. 世界上上千万儿童挨饿，这太不像话了。也可以用来表示金钱的巨额(有贬义)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They're spending <b>obscene</b> quantities of money on the campaign. 他们在竞选上大把大把地花钱。</div><br><br>
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occupy
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>occupy</b></div>这个及物动词，可以是静态的第一类动词(“占据着”)，也可以是动态的第四类动词(“从尚未占据转为占据”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They <b>occupy</b> neighboring offices. 他们的办公室彼此为邻。/ The plan was to <b>occupy</b> the airport. 计划是要占领机场。</div><br><br>
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occur
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>occur</b></div>不一定是“发生”，可以是“某个想法(主语)出现在某人头脑中”，这个人用介词 to 引入，表示想到要做什么事。想到的内容用 that 从句表示。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>That idea had already <b>occurred</b> to me. 那个主意，我原先已经想到过。/ It didn't <b>occur</b> to me to ask. 我没有想到去问。/ It never <b>occurs</b> to him that I might want to go. 他从来都不会想到我竟然会想去。/ It <b>occurred</b> to me later that he was lying. 我后来想到，他是在说谎。/ It had not <b>occurred</b> to her she would need such warm-weather clothes in Britain. 她原先没有想到在英国居然需要这样保暖的衣服。也可以是突然想起某个人或某件事，这个人或事就作主语。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>An eligible has <b>occurred</b> to me. (John Fowles, <i>The French Lieutenant's Woman</i>) 我突然想起了一个合格的人。</div><br><br>occur 还可以指延续状况的“存在；生存”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I don't know the English word in Britain for such a kind of shellfish, because I'm sure it doesn't <b>occur</b> in home waters. 我不知道在英国这种蚌壳的英文名称是什么，因为我肯定我们本地的水域中是没有的。</div><br><br>
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odd
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>odd</b></div>The poet lived here twenty years <b>odd</b>. 诗人在这里住了 20 多年。这里是 20 年加几个月，不满 21 年。如果说 twenty-<b>odd</b> years 则是二十几年，例如 25 年。<br><br>
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odds
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>odds</b></div>这个复数名词，有正面、负面以及中性三种不同的含义。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 正面的意义是“某事发生的可能性”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Anytime you have more than two lines to choose from, (the) <b>odds</b> are (that) you will not pick the fastest one. (<i>Reader's Digest</i>, June 2016, p. 66) 每当你耍排队，前面有两条以上的长龙要你选择时，你所挑选的很可能不是最快的一条。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 负面的意义，首先就是 odds 本身(不是靠外面其他词语)就有“差距，差别，不一致；不利；不可能”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Against all <b>odds</b>, he made a full recovery. 出乎意料的是，他痊愈了。</div><br><br>其次一个负面的用法是 <b>at odds</b> (不和，合不来)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>John and Michael are <b>at odds</b>. 约翰和迈克尔在闹别扭。/ There was no reason why the two countries remained <b>at odds</b>. 这两个国家没有不和的理由。/ That's <b>at odds</b> with the official version. 这与官方说法不符。/ What's (*What are) the <b>odds</b>? (= What difference does it make? = Never mind.) 有什么关系？有什么要紧？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 中性的意义是“某事发生或不发生的可能性”，这个可能性的大小，是随着外加的词语而变化的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The <b>odds</b> are very much in our favor. 咱们成功的可能性很大。/ What are the <b>odds</b> he won't show up? 他不来的概率有多大？/ The <b>odds</b> are heavily against him. 他的处境十分不利。/ What are the <b>odds</b> of finding a parking space right outside the door? 就在大门口找到一处车位，有多大的可能？/ He reckoned the <b>odds</b> are against the scheme going ahead. 他估计情况不利于这计划的推行。/ The <b>odds</b> of him recovering were never good. 当时他痊愈的机会一直不大。/ The <b>odds</b> of it being a plot, and him being involved, were slim. But <b>odds</b> being slim didn't mean you could dismiss them. 事情是个阴谋，他也卷进其中的可能性很微小。但是，可能性微小，你也不能完全否定它。</div><br><br>值得注意的是：由于 odds 既可正面又可负面，有时候搭配其他词语就会出现一些“怪”现象。例如 shorten the <b>odds</b> 中，odds 是负面的“某事不发生的概率”，所以意义是“减小某事不发生的可能性”，亦即“增大某事发生的可能性”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>What happened <b>shortened the odds</b> that he might be the next Tory leader. 这件事使得他更有可能成为下一任的保守党领袖。lengthen the <b>odds</b> 则是“增大某事不发生的可能性”，亦即“减小某事发生的可能性”。但是 increase the <b>odds</b> 中，odds 却是“某事发生的概率”，所以意义也同样是“增大某事发生的可能性”。</div><br><br>
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of a
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>of a</b></div>前面加 much、more、enough、something 等不定代词，后面接上名词，表示“在多大程度上是某事物”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It really hasn't been <b>much of an issue</b> in this region. 这在本地一直不是多大的问题。/ She seems to be <b>something of a</b> dancer. 她有点像个舞蹈家。/ Does she seem to be <b>anything of a</b> dancer? 她有点像个舞蹈家吗？/ John was <b>enough of a fool</b> to agree. 约翰竟然同意了，真是个傻瓜。/ She was <b>more of a</b> surprise. 她更是意料之外的一个人物。</div><br><br>也可以进行比较。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He is <b>more of a</b> writer <b>than</b> a scholar. 他与其说是个学者，不如说是个作家。/ It was <b>as much of a</b> success <b>as</b> I had hoped. 同我原先所希望的一样成功。/ He's <b>too much of a</b> coward <b>to</b> do that. 他胆子太小，干不了那个。</div><br><br>如果后面的 a 改为 the，则表示“有点某人或某事物的风度或气质”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There was still <b>something of the</b> child in Martin, even at thirty-two. 马丁虽然 32 岁了，但是还有一点孩子气。</div><br><br>
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of all
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>of all</b></div>后面接上复数名词，相当于中文的“偏偏”，意思是“从所有……当中偏偏选中某人、某时、某地或某物”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You <b>of all people</b> should know. 偏偏你是应该知道的。/ Why now <b>of all times</b>? 为什么偏偏是现在？(早不来晚不来)</div><div class="ex-item">Barren Siberia, <b>of all places</b>, may be original home to animal life. 贫瘠的西伯利亚恰恰可能是动物生存的发源之地。/ It started, <b>of all places</b>, in the Swiss Alps. 偏偏开始于瑞士的阿尔卑斯山。/ They met and fell in love in a supermarket, <b>of all places</b>. 他们偏偏是在一个超市相识并相爱的。/ It seems hard to credit in Britain <b>of all places</b>, but apparently there has just not been enough rain and we are heading for a drought. (BBC, Mar. 17, 2006) 偏偏在英国出现这样的事，似乎让人难以相信，但是显然前一阵降雨量不够，我们将要遇到旱灾。/ But tonight, <b>of all nights</b>, he is in the audience. 但是偏偏今天晚上他就在观众席上。有了这个复数名词，同样的单数名词就可以省略。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He needed such men more than ever at this (*at this time) <b>of all times</b>. 偏偏在这个节骨眼上，他比什么时候都更需要这些人。</div><br><br>
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off
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>off</b></div>无论作为副词还是介词，off 往往可以在句子中起很重要的实义作用，甚至可以代替关键性的动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In 1931 England was forced <b>off</b> the gold standard. 1931 年英国被迫放弃了金本位。/ “To-morrow!” he thought, “she's coming tomorrow!” and, leaving his neglected breakfast, he started out to walk <b>off</b> his emotion. (J. Galsworthy, <i>The Island Pharisees</i>) “明天！”他思忖着，“她明天就来了！”于是他就连早餐都顾不上吃了，走出去散散步，平复心中的激动。/ Walk <b>off</b> weight after 40! 过了 40 岁靠散步减肥吧！</div><br><br>
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offend
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>offend</b></div>作为及物动词，主动语态的意思是“冒犯，得罪，触犯”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm sorry if I have <b>offended</b> you in any way. 如有冒犯之处，务请包涵。</div><br><br>但是被动语态 be offended 或 get offended 往往不是真正意义上取决于外来因素的“被动”(“被冒犯，被触犯”)，而是自己可以左右的一种情绪，即认为自己被触犯了因而很不高兴。因此，不要把 be offended 或 get offended 理解为客观发生的“被冒犯”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She <b>was offended</b> by not being invited to the film festival. 她由于没有被邀请参加电影节而感到不快。(不是“被冒犯了”)</div><div class="ex-item">I apologize if anybody <b>was offended</b> by anything I said. 如果有哪一位对我所说的感到不快，那就请多包涵。由于这是一种自己可以左右的情绪，所以就可以有否定的祈使句(要不然，劝人家不要被触犯，就是荒谬的)，而且这种祈使句往往是以一句不中听的话为先导，然后再用 but 引入这句不中听的话(参见 sorry, but 条)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Don't be offended</b>, but guys truly are clueless sometimes about their girlfriends' favorite jewelry styles. 不客气地说，男孩子对自己女朋友喜欢什么样式的首饰有时候的确摸不着头脑。/ <b>Don't be offended</b>, but I just can't see why I'm having so much trouble making myself understood here. 请别见怪，我的确弄不明白，为什么我在这里这么难以把自己的意思让诸位听懂。/ <b>Don't be offended</b>, but truth is brutal. 请别见怪，事实就是无情的。/ <b>Don't be offended</b>, but your suggestions are worthless and meaningless to me. 恕我直言，您的各项建议，对我毫无价值、毫无意义。</div><br><br>
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offer
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>offer</b></div>是“表示愿意提供”，原意不是“实际提供”，即使动词时态表示行动已经实行，实行的也只是“表示”这个行动，而不是“提供”这个行动。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I <b>was offered</b> a place at Harvard University. 有人表示我可以在哈佛大学获得一个职位。/ Traces of Polonium 210 were found in both places as well as at Litvinenko's home and health officials have <b>offered</b> tests to members of the public who may have visited the locations. (<i>The Washington Post</i>, Nov. 26, 2006) 在两处地方以及利特维年科的家里，都发现了钋 210 的痕迹，卫生官员表示，凡是可能到过这些地方的人，都可以得到检查。/ They <b>offered</b> him fifty thousand dollars for his horse. 他们出价 5 万美元要买他的马。(只是表示愿意出价，不等于付了钱买下了)</div>但是，有些场合，“表示愿意提供”和“实际提供”之间的差别十分小，甚至合为一体，此时 offer 也可以表示“实际提供”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He <b>offered</b> me a cup of coffee. 他端来了一杯咖啡请我喝。(“端来”的动作本身就包含了“表示愿意提供”)如果所“提供”的又是一个“表示”，offer 就成了“提供”这个动作本身了。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He <b>offered</b> his congratulations. 他表示祝贺。/ <b>offer</b> an apology 致歉</div><div class="ex-item"><b>offer</b> an explanation 做出解释</div><div class="ex-item"><b>offer</b> a suggestion 提出建议。有时候 offer 本身就是“提供”的行动，而不是“表示愿意提供”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The president <b>offered</b> a dinner for the king. 总统设宴招待国王。/ The people <b>offered</b> resolute resistance to the aggressors. 人民坚决抵抗侵略者。</div><br><br>
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office
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>office</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为具体名词，是“办公室”，可以按照情况加冠词。<br><br>作为抽象名词，则是“职务”，不加任何冠词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>be in <b>office</b></div><div class="ex-item">hold <b>office</b> 正在任职</div><div class="ex-item">take <b>office</b> 就职</div><div class="ex-item">resign <b>office</b> 辞职</div><div class="ex-item">leave <b>office</b> 离职</div><div class="ex-item">run for <b>office</b> 竞选公职</div><div class="ex-item">seek <b>office</b> 谋职</div><div class="ex-item">two men in high <b>office</b> 两名高级官员。但是可以说 the office of president (总统职位)，注意 president 前无冠词，如果说 the office of the president，则是“总统的办公室”。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 由于 office 的词源是拉丁文的 officium，即 opus (办事) + facere (做) + 名词词尾 -ium，在稍为古旧一点的英语中，office 可以指一件普普通通的事务(不一定是什么正式的“公职”，甚至不是经常性的“私职”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... if you decline the <b>office</b>, I will take it on myself. (Jane Austen, <i>Pride and Prejudice</i>) ……要是你不愿意办这件事，我自己来办好了。(这是妻子叫丈夫去替女儿结识新来的邻居。)</div><b>good offices</b> (必须是复数形式，good 可省略)是“从中帮忙沟通、斡旋”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Through the <b>good offices</b> of an American journalist, he sent money to them. 靠一位美国记者从中帮忙，他给他们寄了钱。</div><br><br>
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off of
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>off of</b></div>这两个拼写很相近的单词放在一起，并不奇怪。前面的 off 在这里是副词，后面的 of 是介词，加在一起，意思是“从……上面去掉”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Get this bug <b>off of</b> me! 把我身上的这个小虫赶走！/ Climb down <b>off of</b> that horse with your hands in the air. 举着双手，从马上爬下来。/ The scandal has taken much of the luster <b>off of</b> the event. 丑闻使得那次盛会大为失色。/ ... said he has been waiting 30 years to recreate the car he saw Roger Moore use to drive <b>off of</b> a dock. (The Associated Press, Feb. 14, 2008) ……他说，他曾经看见过罗杰·摩尔开车冲出船坞，后来等了 30 年，才重新创造出这样的车子。</div><br><br>另一个意义是“靠……来消耗”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>From now on they would live <b>off of</b> the dwindling supply of canned food aboard. 从现在起，他们就要靠船上储存的日渐减少的罐头食品来度日。/ The allegations he brought against his fellow officers were considered nothing more than a smoke screen devised to keep the focus <b>off of</b> himself. (Michael Christopher Mahan, <i>An Internal Affair</i>) 他对警官同事们的指责，仅仅被当作烟幕弹，用来转移别人对他自己的注意。</div><br><br>但是，off of 只在美式英语中常用，而且有些人表示反对，认为应该把 of 去掉。如 Take your shoes <b>off of</b> the bed. 应该改为 Take your shoes <b>off</b> the bed. The bookfell <b>off of</b> the desk. 应该改为 The book fell <b>off</b> the desk.
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(of) one's + -ing
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(of) one's + -ing</b></div>在许多场合，这个表达特有的句法结构可以用来代替中国人通常按照中文搬过去的 that one V 结构(但是动词只限于“造成”“选择”之类这一较为狭窄的范围)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a meeting at a date and time entirely of his choosing (= that he chooses) 一次日期和时间完全由他来选定的会晤</div><div class="ex-item">He answered a question of his own asking (= that he himself asked). 他回答了一个他自己提出的问题。/ The wine was of her own making. (Henry Fielding, Joseph Andrews) 酒是她亲自酿制的。/ Her problems are of her own making. 她遇到的问题，是她自己造成的。/ The solution must be of your own making. 问题要由你自己来解决。/ They are involved in problems not of their making. 他们被卷入了一些不是他们自己造成的问题之中。/ It was none of our doing. 事情同我们拉不上关系。</div><br><br>但是 of one's (own) choosing 可以改作 of one's (own) choice。<br><br>
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often
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>often</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> often 表示的“常常”，是断断续续的，不是一直延续不断的，而且还是在先后不同场合的。(a)同一个场合屡次发生的事件不能用 often。如 <i>I <b>often</b> fell yesterday when I was skiing. 要改为 I fell <b>many times</b> yesterday when I was skiing. (b)按其本性不会断断续续的延续状态不能用 often。如 </i>I <b>often</b> knew what he was like. 要改为 I <b>always</b> knew what he was like.<br><span class="seq">(2)</span> often 放在句首或句中时可以单独使用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Often</b> he walked. 他常步行。/ He <b>often</b> visits me. 他常来看望我。但是放在句末时很少单独使用，通常前面要加上 very 或 quite。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He walked <b>quite often</b>. 他常步行。/ I haven't been there <b>very often</b>. 我不常到那边去。</div><br><br>
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of²
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>of²</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> of 还可以有 from (“脱离，摆脱”) 的意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>clear the pavement of snow</b> 清除过道上的雪</div><div class="ex-item">The shock of losing my purse <b>cured me of</b> all my former absent-mindedness. 我原先那样心不在焉，哪晓得丢了钱包，现在一下子就惊觉过来了。/ Each signal can operate quite independently <b>of</b> the others. 每个信号都能够独立于其他信号而起作用。/ It (= the lobby) had been <b>cleared of</b> people, except for agents, ... (Tom Clancy, <i>Executive Orders</i>) 厅廊已经空无一人，只剩下探员，……</div><div class="ex-item">Anxious Tokyo shoppers <b>clean stores of</b> basic necessities. (<i>The Associated Press</i>, Mar. 24, 2011) (大地震后)东京那些焦急的顾客们把商店的必需品一抢而光。/ Her friends, shocked at the event, had contented themselves with informing her brother at Athens, and had then <b>washed their hands of</b> the matter. (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, <i>The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes</i>) 她的朋友们得知这件事大吃一惊，只好把情况告诉她那在雅典的弟弟，就这样甩手不管了。/ ... the wind, now a gentle breeze, <b>swept the bridge of</b> cigarette smoke. (Stephen Coonts, <i>The Art of War</i>) ……大风现在减弱为和畅的微风，吹散了舰桥上的香烟烟雾。/ Thus have I <b>cleared the field of</b> my worst foe. (Henry Wadsworth Longfellow) 我就这样把我最大的仇敌清出了战场。/ They <b>emptied the wineshops of</b> their best champagne and cognac. 他们把酒类商店最好的香槟和白兰地抢购一空。/ She felt in her body that she was <b>healed of</b> that plague. (《马可福音》第 5 章第 29 节) 她便觉得身上的灾病好了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> of 一般都紧接其前面的名词，但也可以提前放在句首，表示“在……范围当中”，这是中国人不习惯而且容易找不到句法关系的一个用法。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Of</b> the elements known to chemists, only sixteen have been found to take part in the formation of the human body. (H. N. Martin, <i>The Human Body</i>) 化学家所知道的各种元素当中，只发现有 16 种元素参与组成人体。/ You don't need to read Russian to recognize that <b>of</b> the editions available in English, the Knopf edition is by far the one that most closely resembles literature. (<i>Newsweek</i>, Oct. 15, 2007, p. 81) 用不着阅读俄文就可以发现，现有的各种英译本当中，以诺普夫的那一版最为贴切，最接近文学。(要注意 that 同 of 没有直接关系。)</div><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 有时候 X 与 of Y 当中插进了另外一些词语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A fascinating <b>account</b> is given in the book <b>of</b> the author's adventures during his travels in South America. 书中精彩地介绍了作者周游南美洲的种种奇遇。(这里 of ... 不管 book，而管 account，而 account 与 of 之间插入了 is given in the book。)</div><div class="ex-item">During the day, some <b>reports</b> surfaced <b>of progress</b> on the Jerusalem front. (<i>The Daily Gazette</i>, July 19, 2000) 那一天当中，出现了一些报道，说耶路撒冷战线上有了进展。/ Because there is <b>much</b> that you will recognize <b>of</b> our own world here, restored Williamsburg is a bridge to that time when the consumer age was just beginning. 由于我们当代世界的许多东西你都可以在威廉斯堡这里辨认出来，因此，恢复了旧观的威廉斯堡就成了一座桥梁，通过它，可以回顾消费时代刚刚发轫的岁月。/ ... cardiologists say he is at higher <b>risk</b> than the average 60-year-old <b>of suffering</b> other cardiac problems. (<i>The Associated Press</i>, Mar. 7, 2001) ……心脏病专家们说，他患其他心脏疾病的风险，高于一般的 60 岁的人。/ The consensus among biotechnology specialists is that within a few years—some scientists believe a few months—<b>the news</b> will break <b>of the birth</b> of the first human clone. (<i>Time</i>, Feb. 19, 2001, p. 48) 生物技术专家们的共识是：再过几年(有些科学家相信再过几个月)，第一个克隆人诞生的消息，将会传出。/ ... since sooner or later <b>the news</b> must inevitably come to Mrs. Poulteney <b>of the sinner's compounding of her sin</b>. (John Fowles, <i>The French Lieutenant's Woman</i>) ……因为波尔蒂尼夫人迟早会知道这个罪人执迷不悟，罪上加罪。</div><br><br>有时候(尤其是在诗歌中)of 短语本来是某个形容词的后置补充成分，但却跑到了该形容词的前头。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the shrines <b>of offerings</b> rich (Byron, <i>Siege</i>, 32) 供品丰富的神庵</div><div class="ex-item">The maple, and the beech <b>of oily nuts</b> prolific. (William Cowper) 枫树，以及盛产油籽的山毛榉。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> of 词组有时候可以代替形容词，甚至可以用来作表语或是宾语补足语，此时要注意句子结构，以免发生误解。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He considered this tripe <b>of the lowest order</b>. 他认为这种雕虫小技做法太低劣。(这里的 of the lowest order 是 consider 的宾语 this tripe 的补足语，表示 consider 的内容；不能把 this tripe of the lowest order 连成一气，理解为“他考虑了这种极为低劣的雕虫小技”。)</div><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> of 也可以有相当于 from 的表示来源的意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>make</b> a friend <b>of</b> an enemy 化敌为友</div><div class="ex-item">We want to <b>make</b> an engineer <b>of</b> our son. 我们想让儿子成为工程师。/ Don't <b>make</b> a habit <b>of</b> it. 别养成这样的习惯。/ They have <b>made</b> no secret <b>of</b> a desire for independence. 他们并不讳言具有独立的愿望。/ The owner had <b>made</b> a <b>mess of</b> the house. 主人把房子弄得一塌糊涂。/ When great things <b>of</b> small, useful <b>of</b> hurtful, prosperous <b>of</b> adverse we can <b>create</b> ... (John Milton, <i>Paradise Lost</i>) 每当我们将细小化为巨大，化有害为有用，化险阻为顺利之时……</div><br><br>
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of³
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>of³</b></div>见到一个人多少次，或是某次见到一个人，本来是个频率或次数的问题，但是英语却用“of + 某人”来表示，仿佛不是先后的频率，而是某人作为一个整体分成多少部分被看见。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His father, <b>of</b> whom the family saw little, left the house soon after the sun had risen every morning and did not return until nightfall. 他父亲，家里人不常看得见，总是每天清早太阳一升起就走出家门，非得等到夜幕降临才回来。/ The last we saw <b>of</b> him was waiting at the luggage check-out place. 我们最后一次看见他，是在领取行李处等候的时候。</div><br><br>
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of¹
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>of¹</b></div>中国人对 of 的一般印象，是“占有”或“隶属”关系：X of Y 是 X 属于 Y，Y 占有 X。但是其实还有一个很常见的“同位”关系：X of Y 中 X 与 Y 是同一事物。这里面又分为：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> X 是一个笼统的数量概念，Y 将之明确化。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the <b>amount of $10</b> 10 美元的数量</div><div class="ex-item">He came to school at <b>the age of five</b>. 他 5 岁就上学了。/ They were paid <b>the minimum wage of six dollars an hour</b>. 他们得到每小时 6 美元的最低工资。/ The train was running at <b>the speed of 90 miles per hour</b>. 火车以每小时 90 英里的速度驰行。/ For an <b>outlay of $15,000</b> you'll be virtually guaranteed a week on the best-seller list. (Jeffrey Archer, <i>The Fourth Estate</i>) 花上 1.5 万美元的费用，你几乎可以保证在畅销书榜上上榜一个星期。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> X 是某事物当前所起的作用，Y 是该事物的本体。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>on the basis of</b> these facts 以这些事实为依据(事实本身就是依据，不是事实当中还有依据。)/ <b>the global scourge of human trafficking</b> 人口贩卖这个全球性的灾难</div><div class="ex-item"><b>Against the backdrop of a sustained market downturn</b>, the demanding customer groups have become increasingly skeptical. 在市场持续下滑的背景下，那些要求严格的客户群就越来越迟疑了。(市场持续下滑本身就是背景，不是下滑当中还有背景。)</div><div class="ex-item">When the facts by themselves do not make the reader's pulse beat faster, the journalist thinks it his duty to apply <b>the spur and whip of breathless words and phrases</b>. (Wilson Follett, <i>Modern American Usage</i>) 如果事实本身不足以使读者心跳加快，那么，记者就认为自己有义务拿一些令人屏息的词句来当作马鞭马刺。(词句本身不占有马鞭马刺。)</div><div class="ex-item">There was <b>the pretext of a bowl of milk at the Dairy</b>. (John Fowles, <i>The French Lieutenant's Woman</i>) 情侣们到那儿去的借口自然是说去牛奶店喝碗牛奶。/ It may be that you do not like his art, but at all events you can hardly refuse it <b>the tribute of your interest</b>. (Somerset Maugham, <i>The Moon and Sixpence</i>) 你可能不喜欢他的艺术，但无论如何你无法不对它感兴趣。/ He had <b>the knack of a certain fervid eloquence</b> in his sermons. (John Fowles, <i>The French Lieutenant's Woman</i>) 他布道时颇有窍门，热情奔放，侃侃而谈。(knack 与 a certain fervid eloquence 是同位关系。)</div><div class="ex-item"><b>receive money in the form of a check</b> 以支票形式收款(form 与 check 同位。)</div><div class="ex-item">The number of books and articles that have been written on <b>the subject of tense</b> is quite impressive. (Renaat Declerck, <i>Tense in English</i>) 论述时态这个主题的书籍和文章，数量相当惊人。</div><br><br>有时候，X 是 Y 的一个类别说明，而 Y 则是一个概念词，两者是同位关系，此时 of 要略去。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the name Florence (<i>the name <b>of</b> Florence) 佛罗伦萨这个名字</div><div class="ex-item">the term quark (</i>the term <b>of</b> quark) 夸克这个术语</div><div class="ex-item">the word orange (<i>the word <b>of</b> orange) orange 这个单词</div><div class="ex-item">The spelling (</i>of) dialog is also correct, but we prefer dialogue. (<i>Reader's Digest</i>, “Success With Words”) 拼写为 dialog 也正确，但我们更喜欢写成 dialogue。/ the number 10 (<i>the number <b>of</b> 10) 10 这个数目</div><div class="ex-item">the note ♭E (</i>the note <b>of</b> ♭E) 降 E 这个音符</div><div class="ex-item">the vowel /a/ (*the vowel <b>of</b> /a/) /a/ 这个元音。但也有仍然用 of 的。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the key <b>of</b> ♭E major 降 E 大调。</div><br><br>Y 这个概念词必须是中性(不正不负)的才可以不用 of，如果有正负倾向性的则要有 of。例如一个图解惊险小说故事一般梗概的说明，说到情节高潮时说 <b>the promontory of K</b>，说到情节低潮时说 <b>the abyss of M</b>；但说到 point B 时就没有 of，因为 point 在词义上没有倾向性。此外，X 与 Y 必须有种属关系才可以不要 of，如果只是形式上的称谓关系就仍然要有 of。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>under the heading of adverbials</b> (Christian Mair, <i>Infinitival Complement Clauses in English</i>) 归到状语一类(adverbials 与 heading 没有种属关系)。</div><br><br>如果 X 前有形容词，则 X 与 Y 之间要有 of。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... a keyboard in front, fromwhich they control drones, with the grim name <b>of</b> Reaper. (<i>The Sunday Gazette</i>, May 8, 2011) 面前放着键盘，他们就从键盘那里操纵无人飞机，取名为阴森森的“收割机”。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> X 是普通名词，Y 是专有名词，把 Y 从多个中单独分出。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>the Republic of Ireland</b> 爱尔兰共和国</div><div class="ex-item"><b>the State of New York</b> 纽约州。但是也有部分普通名词同后面的专有名词之间不用 of。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>the star Sirius</b> 天狼星</div><div class="ex-item"><b>the planet Mars</b> 火星这个行星</div><div class="ex-item"><b>the date November 1, 2005</b> 2005 年 11 月 1 日这个日子。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> X 是范畴名词，Y 则将这个范畴具体化。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... famous for their <b>gift of low repartee</b>. (John Fowles, <i>The French Lieutenant's Woman</i>) ……以说低级的俏皮话著称。</div><br><br>
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of⁴
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>of⁴</b></div>of 也可以用来缩小形容词修饰的对象的范围。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Ryan was a young man still, broad <b>of</b> shoulders, erect <b>of</b> posture. (Tom Clancy, <i>Executive Orders</i>) 瑞安仍然是个年轻力壮的人，双肩很宽，身躯笔挺。</div><br><br>
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of⁵
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>of⁵</b></div>许多由动态的及物动词派生而来的名词，可以用 of 来引入它的逻辑宾语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the invasion <b>of</b> the island 对该岛屿的入侵。有一些在中国人看来不像是来自及物动词的名词，也用 of 来引入它的逻辑宾语。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>their tour <b>of</b> the city 他们在市内的游览。但是，有一些本来并无动态意义的名词，尤其是一些表示心情的名词，也可以用 of 来表示这种心情的对象。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... he'd suffered a haunting phobia <b>of</b> enclosed spaces. (Dan Brown, <i>The Da Vinci Code</i>) ……他对于封闭的场所，有过一种挥之不去的恐惧心理。/ There is a widespread <b>mistrust of</b> grammar on the part of learners who feel that the “right” way to learn a language must be “nature's way,” i.e., the way one learns one's mother tongue. 有些学习者普遍对语法抱着猜疑的心理，他们觉得，学习一种语言的“正确”方法，必须是“自然而然”的方法，也就是学习母语的方法。/ ... their traditional <b>distrust of</b> the opposition and <b>fear of</b> change ... ……他们一贯对在野党的不信任以及对变革的恐惧……</div><br><br>of 也可以用来引入“评判，评价”的逻辑宾语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>(Chopin) had decided opinions <b>of</b> other musicians, especially of the popular pianists of his day who vitiated the public taste with their show pieces. (Henry T. Finck, <i>Chopin, The Greatest Genius of the Pianoforte</i>) 肖邦对其他音乐家有明确的看法，尤其是对他那个时候那些拿自己的作品哗众取宠品味的通俗钢琴家。(既然是 Chopin 有了，这个 of 就不可能是“属于”的意思。)</div>
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oil
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>oil</b></div>这个名词，除了作为不可数的物质名词表示“油”或“石油”之外，还可以作为可数名词表示一幅幅的“油画”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a collection of <b>oils</b> 一批油画藏品。但是，“油画颜料”作为物质名词，虽然不可数，却要采取复数的形式 oils (可能是因为有多种色彩)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a portrait in <b>oils</b> 一幅肖像油画</div><div class="ex-item">He paints in <b>oils</b>. 他画的是油画。</div><br><br>
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old
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>old</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 虽然这个形容词在词典上的释义是“老的”，但这个释义不能普遍搬用。例如看见一个小孩子，可以问：How <b>old</b> are you? 此时这个 old 就没有任何“老的”之意(绝不能译成“你多老了？”)，而只是一个可以用于任何年龄的形容词。表示“老”的 old 是“有标记”(marked)的，而表示“或老或少的年龄”的 old 是“无标记”(unmarked)的，亦即没有倾向性。同样，Lead is one of the <b>heaviest</b> metals. (铅是最重的金属之一。)这个 heavy 是“有标记”的，而 Scales are used to measure how <b>heavy</b> things are. (磅秤是用来测量物品的重量的。)这里的 heavy 就是“无标记” 的。另外，an <b>old</b> friend 同中文“老朋友”一样，不是指年龄的老，而是指结交时间的久远。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 说一个人年龄多大，可以说 someone is ... years old，但也可以省去 years old，只说 someone is ...。但是，说某物有多长的历史，则 years old 不能省略。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This tower is 400 <b>years old</b> (*is 400)。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 中国人以“老”为尊，称呼某人为“老”是尊敬。但是西方人不喜欢承认自己 old，美国称老人为 senior citizen 或简称 senior，对老人群体统称为 the elderly。“一位老太太”不习惯说 an old lady 而说 an elderly lady，总之避免 old。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> <b>of old</b> 作后置定语(前面的名词常常是特指的)是历史上的古老，old 只是“旧的”，没有历史意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The sad truth was that, as with the plagues <b>of old</b>, all that the medical professionals could really do with this modern curse (in Africa) was to protect themselves. (Tom Clancy, <i>Executive Orders</i>) 一个不幸而无奈的事实是：非洲的这种现代的病灾，正如历史上的瘟疫一样，医护人员唯一能做的，只是设法保护住自己。而且，of old 表示“现在已经不如此”；old 则可能表示“一直如此直到如今”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The secular fatalist <b>of old</b> began to turn into a religious fatalist. (<i>U.S. News & World Report</i>, Dec. 4, 2006, p. 64) 昔日的世俗宿命论者开始变为宗教宿命论者。</div><br><br>
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on
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>on</b></div>on 除了中国人一般都熟悉的“在上面”和“关于”的意义之外，还有一些常用的意义，值得记住。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为介词，on 可以表示“靠什么”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>on</b> social welfare 靠社会福利救济</div><div class="ex-item"><b>on</b> Medicaid 靠医疗补助</div><div class="ex-item">They're <b>on</b> unemployment benefit. 他们靠失业津贴过日子。/ I manage <b>on</b> less than that. 比这点收入还少我也能对付着过。/ We're <b>on</b> starvation wages. 我们拿的是不够糊口的工资。/ My son is <b>on</b> a scholarship. 我的儿子有一份奖学金。/ You won't get very far <b>on</b> $10. 靠 10 美元没多大用处。/ patients <b>on</b> erythromycin 服用红霉素的病人</div><div class="ex-item">The patient is still <b>on</b> antibiotics. 病人仍然靠抗生素维持。/ This device works <b>on</b> batteries. 这个装置是用电池供电的。/ Most cars run <b>on</b> gasoline. 多数汽车用汽油。/ She supported the family <b>on</b> $12 a month in welfare and whatever she could make cooking and washing for white folks. 她靠着每月 12 美元的福利救济金，加上替白人做饭洗衣服挣得的一点点钱，来维持家计。/ It's hard to support a family of four <b>on</b> that salary. 四口之家，靠这点薪水，是很难维持生活的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> on 可以表示某人是某一集体的一员。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She's <b>on</b> the committee. 她是委员会的一员。/ He's not <b>on</b> our staff. 他不是我们的人员。/ We have several doctors <b>on</b> our staff. 我们的工作人员当中有好几位医生。/ She's <b>on</b> the swimming team. 她是游泳队的。/ He's a reporter <b>on</b> the <i>Times</i>. 他是《泰晤士报》的记者。但是这个集体必须是一个范围明确的小集体，不能是范围模糊的大集体(如 church、navy 之类)。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> on 可以表示支出的用途。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She spent $30,000 <b>on</b> her new car. 她的新车花了三万美元。/ Save up to 50% <b>on</b> hotels. 您可以节省旅馆费多达 50%。/ Buy 1 get 2 free <b>on</b> all Epson and most Canon ink. 所有爱普生油墨和大部分佳能油墨均可买一送二。on 还可以表示“以……为抵押”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Lara went to see a banker in Sydney and borrowed enough money on her building to finance the project. (Sidney Sheldon, The Stars Shine Down) 莱拉去找了悉尼的一位银行家，用自己的房子作抵押，借了足够的钱来作为这个项目的经费。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> on 可以表示“出外进行”某一活动。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>on his official visit to Japan 在对日本进行正式访问期间</div><div class="ex-item">They're on vacation. 他们在度假。/ We went on a trip. 我们出外旅行了。/ They were on leave. 他们在休假。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> on 可以表示“比(原来的)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Profits are up on last year. 利润比去年增加了。/ —I know his address. —Well, that puts you one up on me. —我知道他的地址。—那么，你就胜我一筹啰。/ ... but at least it was an improvement on the damned books in the damned library. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) ……不过，退一步说，这总比到讨厌的图书室去读那些讨厌的书好些。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 后面接上动名词，表示两个瞬时事件同时或紧接相继发生。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>On hearing the news, they shouted with joy. 听到这个消息，他们高声欢叫起来。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> on + 某人，如果 on 前面有表示“停止，结束，消失”之类的动词词群(即单独一个不及物动词或动词加上必要的补充成分)，此时 on 表示“使得某人失去交往对象”(而这个对象本来就是动词的主语)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Armstrong put the phone down on his wife, ... (Jeffrey Archer, The Fourth Estate) 阿姆斯特朗掐断了同妻子通的电话，……</div><div class="ex-item">Dr. Cox had three patients die on him in the previous episode. (My Fallen Idol) 在前一集中，考克斯医生有三个病人不治身亡。(这里的 on 有点“使他失败”的意思。)/ What kind of mother would walk out on a six-month-old baby? (Mary Higgins Clark, I'll Be Seeing You) 竟然能抛下半岁大的婴儿自己出走，这是什么样的妈妈？/ I could die on you. (一个患了癌症的女子对追求她的男子说，)我要先你而去了。/ A moment later she had closed the door on Charles. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 查尔斯一走，她便匆匆关上门。(这里有“不让查尔斯回头看”的意思。)</div><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> bus 条已经说明，小的(私人的)车子，当作立体看待，前面的介词用 in、into、out of；大的(公共的)交通工具，则当作平面看待，前面的介词用 on、onto、off。因此 on 可用于公共交通工具中的静态位置。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>On the plane I met an old friend. 我在飞机上遇见一位老朋友。/ We had lunch on the train. 我们在火车上用午餐。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(9)</span> 至于 on 与 about 的区别，参见 about 条之(2)。<br><br>
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once
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>once</b></div>可以是副词，也可以是主从连词。<br><br>作为副词，once 有几个不同的意义和用法(所有用法都是表示过去有过，现在已经不如此了)：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 最原始的意义，是“一次”，用来修饰一个过去时的瞬时体动词，表示该动作或事件发生过一次(通常不放在句首而是放在主语与谓语动词之间，或放在谓语助动词与实义动词之间)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He once sleepwalked to the middle of the road outside his home at 1 a.m. 他有一次半夜1点钟梦游走到了家门外的路中心。/ The dance hall once even had its roof blown off in World War II. 舞厅在第二次世界大战期间甚至屋顶也被炸飞了。</div><br><br>如果 once 管带有从句的整个长句，就要放在句首。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Once when we were going to Paris, I forgot my passport. 有一次我们要到巴黎去，我忘了带护照。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 也可以用来修饰一个过去时的延续体动词，表示该延续动作或事件或是该延续状态过去曾经存在过，但现在已不如此(通常也不放在句首)，此时 once 的意义是“曾经”，不是“一次”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a health care system which was once the pride of the nation 昔日这个国家曾经引以为豪的医疗制度(昔日的延续状态)</div><div class="ex-item">He's not as good as he once was. 他不如从前了。(昔日的延续状态)</div><div class="ex-item">Once I wouldn't have said anything, but now ... 要是从前，我就一句话也不说，可是现在……(昔日的延续状态，不是只有一次)</div><div class="ex-item">The Daily News once had the highest circulation of any daily in the country. 《每日新闻》曾经是国内发行量最大的报纸。(had 是延续体，第一类动词。)/ He was once regarded as one of Mr. Brown's closest political advisers. 他曾经被认为是布朗先生最亲近的政治顾问之一。(was regarded 是延续体，第一类动词。)/ What was once a novel approach had become orthodoxy. 原先是一种崭新的做法，后来却成了正统。(was 是延续体，第一类动词。)/ Such roles are small beer compared with the fame she once enjoyed. 这些角色，同她曾经享有过的声誉相比，只不过是一点小意思。(enjoyed 是延续体，第一类动词。)/ The house where she lives was once the village post office. 她现在居住的房子，从前曾经是村子的邮局。/ Where Bucharest now stands, there once was a large, dense forest. 布加勒斯特现在所在地点，从前是一处茂密的大森林。/ Rain water was once considered to be good for the complexion. 雨水曾经被认为对脸部皮肤有好处。</div><br><br>但是如果 once (“从前”)管的是整个否定句，就不能放在谓语动词后面(因为 once 不能被否定)，而要放在句首。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Once I wouldn't have said anything, but now ... 要是从前，我就一句话也不说，可是现在……</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 也可以用来修饰一个过去时的瞬时体动词，但是动作或事件并不限于一次，而可以是习惯或多次反复(通常 once 不放在句首)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>And the Navy captain, who once flew from the decks of carriers during the Vietnam War, ran away withthe circus. (U.S. News & World Report, Dec. 24, 2007, p. 56) 这位昔日在越南战争中多次从航空母舰的甲板驾机起飞的海军上尉，退伍干起马戏班来。(昔日反复多次的瞬时动作，不是只有一次，这从 decks 与 carriers 的复数可以看出。)</div><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 放在句首，谓语动词是瞬时体的第四类动词，once 表示“曾经有过一次”，但是意义重点在“曾经”而不在与“多次”相对而言的“一次”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Once he was almost captured. 曾经有一次他几乎被抓获。</div><br><br>once 作为主从连词，引入一个时间从句，相当于中文的“……(就)……”。这个从句中谓语动词的时态用法，同 when 从句相同(也就是如果是过去发生的事情，主句和从句都用一般过去时；如果主句用一般将来时或是用情态动词表示将来的事，从句就用一般现在时表示将来，其余类推)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Once the vote was taken, things quieted down quickly. 投票一结束，事情就很快平息下来。/ Once the fire has died out, the salvage team will move in. 等到火熄灭，救援队就要开进去。/ Once the shrubs begin to smother the little plants, we have to move them. 灌木一旦开始堵塞住幼苗，就要挪开它。也有主句用一般现在时来表示通常规律的，once 从句就当然也用一般现在时。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>People usually draw the curtains once it gets dark. 人们通常一天黑就拉上窗帘。/ Any escape, once it's detected, sets off the alarm. 任何泄漏，一旦被探测到，警报就会启动。</div><br><br>once 后面的从句也可以简化为一个表语(形容词、过去分词或介词短语)，修饰后面的句子主语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Once exposed, soil is quickly eroded by wind and rain. 泥土一暴露在空气中，很快就被风雨所侵蚀。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> not once 究竟是“不止一次”还是“一次也不”，要看它在句中的位置。<br><br>如果在句首而且主语和谓语颠倒次序，那就是“一次也不”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Not once has she been wrong in her assessments. (Estelle Ryan, The Gauguin Connection) 她的评估，一次也没有出过错。/ Not once did I hear her say "thank you." 我一次也没有听到过她说“谢谢你”。/ Not once did they finish a job properly. 他们从未有哪一次把事情办妥当。</div><br><br>但如果 not once 放在句中主语和谓语之间或助动词和实义动词之间，意思就是“不止一次”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I have not once flinched when he touched me. (Estelle Ryan, The Gauguin Connection) 不止一次，当他触及我时，我就退缩。/ I have in fact been in a number of houses and they not once treated any animal poorly and did anything that shouldn't be done. (Video Tour of a Pork Plant, May 7, 2013) 我亲自到过好些屠宰场，他们那里多次虐待牲畜，做出种种不应该做的事。</div><br><br>
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one
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>one</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 代表前面刚刚出现过的可数名词，可单可复。但是只代表同一种类的其中一个或一些，不代表同一个或同一些(如果是同一个就用 it，同一些就用 they)。one 前面没有 the 时，单独一个 one，表示同一种类中未定的一个。the one (或 this one 等等)则表示刚刚提及的多个事物当中或与之有关的特定的一个(用 the one 时 one 的前面或后面必须附有定语)。one 可表示不特指。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>John has got three cars: a red one and two blue ones. 约翰有三辆车子，一辆红色的，两辆蓝色的。/ Give me a dictionary, the best one. 给我一本词典，要最好的。/ In our house there are three large rooms and two small ones. 我们房子有三间大屋子、两间小屋子。/ Shakespeare's age was not one of biographical writing. 莎士比亚的时代，并不是流行给个人写传记的时代。one 也可表示特指。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—Which dog? —The one that's barking. —哪条狗？—就是那条正在吠的。/ He's the one who did it. 这事情是他干的。/ —Which scarf is yours? —The blue one. —哪条围巾是你的？—那条蓝色的。/ This is a good translation, but that one is full of mistakes. 这篇译文很好，但是那篇错误百出。</div><br><br>遇到 one 时，要首先弄清楚它代表什么(前面哪一个出现过的名词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>An approach by one group (of attackers) is less likely to be spotted than one by two groups. (Tom Clancy, The Cardinal of the Kremlin) 由单独一群袭击者去，比之由两群去，不那么容易被盯住。(这个 one 与 two 无关，是代表 approach 的。)</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> one 唯有指人的时候可以前面没有名词预先交代它代表什么，否则前面一定要有个名词预先交代。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If you need a razor, here's one. 你如果需要刮脸刀片，这里就有一片。/ I've caught a fish. It is big. Have you caught one, too? 我逮着了一条鱼，很大。你也逮着一条了吗？如果前面找不到可以依托的名词，就不能用 one。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He looked round at Sir Tom and the bishop's son. The first (<i>first one) was sprawled back in his corner, the second (</i>second one) had put his legs across his seat. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 他环顾汤姆爵士和主教的儿子。前者懒洋洋地仰着坐在那个角落，后者则把双腿架在自己的座位上。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 但是 one 只能用于可数名词。如果是不可数名词，就要空着(下文用 Ø 表示)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I prefer white wine to red Ø (<i>red one). 相比于红葡萄酒，我更喜欢白的。如果不能空着，而且是特指的，则可以改用 that。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The water in the lake is cleaner than that (</i>the one) in the river. 湖里的水比河里的清。即使本来是可数名词，如果用作总类泛指，也不能用 one。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The Petrarchan sonnet differs from the Shakespearian Ø in various important respects. 彼特拉克式的十四行诗有好几个重要的方面有别于莎士比亚式的。有时候，事物比较抽象，或是不能摆在眼前一一对比，也倾向于不用 one。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A previous translation of the Kritik exists, which, had it been satisfactory, would have dispensed with the present Ø. (J. M. D. Meiklejohn, English translator of Immanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason, in "Translator's Preface" to the book) 《纯粹理性批判》原先有一个译本，要是令人满意的话，现在这个译本本来可以不要。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> one 或 ones 有形容词原级时不可以省略。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Green apples often taste better than red ones. 青色的苹果，味道常比红色的好。</div><br><br>但是如果形容词是表示国籍或是地方的，往往不用 one 或 ones。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Do you think she looks better in European clothes or in Japanese Ø? 你认为她穿欧式衣服好看点呢，还是穿日本和服好看点？/ Do you prefer Spanish oranges or South African Ø? 西班牙橘子和南非橘子，你更喜欢哪一种？/ English bulls are more fiery than Mexican Ø. (D. H. Lawrence, The Plumed Serpent) 英国公牛比墨西哥公牛凶猛。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 在形容词最高级后面，如果事物属于前面已经提及的事物当中的范围，就不用 one。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She is the kindest of women and the most innocent Ø ... (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 她是个心肠最好的女子，又是个最天真无邪的……</div><div class="ex-item">This is the author's first novel since 1979. It may well prove to be his most successful Ø yet. 这是作者 1979 年以来的第一本小说。它可能成为他最为成功的一部。</div><br><br>与此相类似，在序数形容词后面也有同样的情况。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She hunched over her drink—brandy and ginger, a double, her third Ø—and made no reply. (B. Baer, Swimmers) 她弯腰对着自己的饮料，喝着白兰地加姜汁，双份的，又喝了第三杯了，她还是不回答。/ She bought home a new dress or pair of shoes every day, and as often as not exchanged them the next Ø. (D. Lodge, Nice Work) 她每天回家都带回来一条新连衣裙或是一双新鞋子，又常常第二天就拿回去换掉。/ The last, it must be said, was a reasonable point. 最后一点应该说是有点道理。/ The last on the list was Potter. 名单上最后一个是波特。</div><br><br>但是如果是一般的形容词原级，one 就不可以省略。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This suit is a good one (*a good). 这一套是好的。/ I'm looking for an apartment. I'd like a small one with a garden. 我在物色一套公寓。我想要一套带花园的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 在 which、this、that、another、either、neither 后面，one 也可以省略。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—Which (one) would you like? —This (one) looks the nicest. —你喜欢哪一个？—这个看起来最好。/ Let's have another (one). 咱们另外来一个吧。/ Either (one) will suit me. 两个哪一个对我都合适。数词后不可以放 one。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—Did you get any postcards? —I bought four (*four ones). —你买了明信片吗？—我买了四张。</div><br><br>each one of 与 each of 都可以。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... but Churchill told the cabinet that "if this long island story of ours is to end at last, let it end only when each one of us lies choking in his own blood upon the ground." (Newsweek, May 31, 2004, pp. 42-43) ……丘吉尔告诉内阁说：“如果我们这个长长的岛屿故事终究要结束的话，那就等到我们每一个人都躺在血泊中窒息的时候再结束吧。”/ Each one of us has a definition of happiness. 对于幸福是什么，我们每一个人都各有一个定义。/ Each one of us can make a difference. 我们每一个人都可以有所作为。/ Charity begins with each one of us. 慈善从我们每一个人开始。但：Each of us was a child once. 我们人人都曾经是儿童。/ Each of the four was the CEO of a large public corporation. 四个人每人都曾经是一家大的上市公司的首席执行官。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> one 与 it 的区别是：one 只是指已提及的那些或那类事物当中之一，it 则是指同一事物。one 相当于 a/an + 名词；it 则相当于 the + 名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I've lost my pen; I must buy one. 我丢了钢笔，我必须再买一支。(同类事物中未定的一个)比较：I've lost my pen; I'm looking for it. 我丢了钢笔，我正在找。(同一事物)</div><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> 有一种意见，认为不能说 these ones 或 those ones，例如不能说 <i>Those ones are yours. </i>These ones are mine. 只能说 I want these. These are mine. 但是这种意见不一定可靠。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The person points at a bucket of red roses and says, "I prefer these ones. These ones are my favourite." 那个人指着一桶红玫瑰花，说：“我喜欢这些。这些是我最爱的。”</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(9)</span> 如果 one 前面的定语不是形容词而是名词，则要看这个名词是从哪个方面来修饰 one 的。如果表示质料就可以用 one。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>leather ones 皮革的</div><div class="ex-item">wool ones 羊毛的。但如果是其他方面的，就往往不能用 one。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Do you need coffee cups or tea cups (*tea ones)? 您需要的是咖啡杯子还是茶杯？这一点，可以结合上面(4)的形容词问题来考虑。也就是说，定语 + one 中的定语，无论是形容词还是名词，似乎都是限于描述有关事物的内在性质。如果离开了这个范围，涉及外部限制的国籍、地区、用途等，用起 one 来就不合适。而涉及外部限制时，同 one 一起的限定词 this、which、that、another、neither 等也往往使得 one 成为多余。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(10)</span> one 代表前面出现过的哪一个名词，通常可以从结构上或是 one 前后同该名词前后类似的单词中推论出来。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Sometimes a man survives a considerable time from an era in which he had his place into one which is strange to him, and then the curious are offered one of the most singular spectacles in the human comedy. (Somerset Maugham, The Moon and Six Pence) 有时候一个人早已活过了他享有一定地位的时期，进入了一个他感到陌生的新世纪，这时候好奇的人们便会看到人间喜剧中一幅最奇特的景象。(这句话中我们可以从 from 与 into 的对应以及两个 which 看出 one 所代表的名词是 era。)</div><br><span class="seq">(11)</span> the only 可以在被否定时以 the one 来代替。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Every voice has to be heard. Every idea must be considered ... The status quo is the one option that is not onthe table. (Barack Obama on health care reform, The Associated Press, Mar. 5, 2009) 对每一个声音都需要倾听。对每一个想法都必须加以考虑……唯一不在考虑之列的是维持现状。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(12)</span> 用 one 来代替前面出现过的名词，偏向于比较具体的事物；如果比较抽象的事物，可以用 version 而不用 one。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... one who values "soft power" more than the hard version (*the hard one) ... (The Economist, Jan. 17, 2009, p. 11) ……一个重视“软实力”甚于重视“硬实力”的人……</div><br><br>
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one in 与 one out of
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>one in 与 one out of</b></div>许多语法书上都说，如果是表示比例，不是真正具体落实到“一个”，则 one in ten 或 one out of ten (十个中有一个)要当作复数处理。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>One out of ten were admitted. 十分一的人被录取。但是在实际语言运用中，常常作为单数处理。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>About one out of every 20 people who get pneumococcal pneumonia dies from it. 患有肺炎球菌肺炎的人，大约每 20 人中就有 1 个死于这个疾病。</div><br><br>
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one of
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>one of</b></div>one of 有时候不一定就是“……之一”，one 可以不是指 of 后面的名词，而是代替前面出现过的另一个名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The big house in Belgravia was let, and Charles installed himself in a smaller establishment in Kensington, more suitable to a young bachelor. There he was looked after by a manservant, a cook and two maids, a staff of almost eccentric modesty for one (= a younger bachelor) of his connections and wealth. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 查尔斯将贝尔格拉维亚街的大宅子出租，自己住到肯辛顿街一座不大的寓所里。一个年轻的单身汉住这样的寓所倒更合适些。伺候他的只有一名男仆、一名厨子和两名侍女。有他那样的社会关系和巨大财富的人，使用如此少的仆人未免过于寒酸。</div><br><br>
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oneself
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>oneself</b></div>要注意句中的 oneself 究竟是个修饰主语的副词，还是及物动词的宾语(尤其是当动词可能及物也可能不及物时)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It shows a greater maturity on the applicant's part to call himself. 由报考者自己来打电话(*由报考者喊自己)，可以显得更为成熟。(himself 不是 call 的直接宾语，而是修饰逻辑主语 the applicant 的，call 在这里是不及物动词。)/ I still want to see what we can find out ourselves. 我仍然想看看咱们自己能发现点什么。(有了 what 作为 find out 的直接宾语，ourselves 就是副词而不是 find out 的直接宾语。)</div>
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one 与 a
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>one 与 a</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 首先必须明确，one 放在单数名词前面，基本上是个数词；a 放在单数名词前面，基本上是个不定冠词。前者着重数量，后者着重内在性质。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A bike is no good. 自行车不行。(要摩托车才行。)/ One bike is no good. 一辆自行车不够。(要两辆才行。)/ A man could not do it, and they had to employ a horse. 人干不了，只好用马匹。/ One man could not do it, and they had to employ two. 一个人干不了，只好来两个人。着重说明多个之一而不着重其意义内涵，也用 one 而不用 a。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>One positive element of the Suez Crisis was the creation of the first UN peacekeeping force, ... (The New York Review of Books, Mar. 29, 2007, p. 33) 苏伊士运河危机造成的一个正面结果，是成立了联合国的第一支维和部队，……</div><div class="ex-item">This was one meeting he couldn't afford to be late for, ... (Jeffrey Archer, The Fourth Estate) 这是他不能迟到的一次会议，……</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 但是，这个区别并不是普遍有效的，甚至可以看到有恰恰相反的情况。有些表示时间的名词，前面加了 one，可以不表示时间上的长度，而表示时间长河中某个不明确的位置。例如 one day 可以不表示 24 小时的时间长度，而只是表示“(在)某一天”；反之，服药说明的 twice a day 中的 a day 却是指 24 小时的时间长度。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A (<i>one) day after the report's release, diplomats were discussing global warming in a special session of the U.N. Security Council, ... (The Associated Press, Apr. 28, 2007) 报告发布后过了一天，外交官们就在联合国安全理事会的一次特别会议上讨论了全球变暖的问题，……(a day 不是“有一天”或“某日”，而是“一昼夜”的时间长度)</div><div class="ex-item">When Earth was very young, its days were but six hours long. After 1.3 billion years, the length of a (</i>one) day reached 15 hours. Another 20 billion years from now, a (<i>one) day will be as long as two are now. 地球很年轻时，一天只有 6 小时长。过了 13 亿年后，一天的长度达到了 15 小时。从现在起再过 200 亿年后，一天将会相当于现在的两天长。/ Rome was not built in a (</i>one) day. 罗马不是一天就建成的。/ Take the medicine three times a (<i>one) day. 每天服药三次。/ A (</i>one) day earlier he (the boy's father) had spread the field with pesticide endosulfan. A witness told the Pesticide News the rest: "After the work they were hungry and took a few maize cobs to eat. Fifteen minutes later they started vomiting. They were taken to the hospital of Bembereke where one (*a) boy of 12 died. The other two survived." (New Scientist, Nov. 25, 2000, p. 16) 他们的父亲前一天曾经在地里洒了杀虫剂硫丹。之后的情节，是一名目击者告诉《农药新闻》的：“干完了活后，他们肚子饿了，就摘了一些玉米棒子吃。15 分钟后，他们就呕吐起来。他们被送到了本贝勒克医院，其中一个 12 岁的男孩死了。另外两个救活了。”</div><br><br>one night 表示“(在)某一天的夜里”，而 a night 却表示“一夜长的时间”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>After six weeks, the moms with the training got an average of 57 minutes more sleep a night. 经过了六周之后，受过训练的母亲们平均每夜可以多睡 57 分钟。/ one winter morning 某个冬日的早上</div><div class="ex-item">I met him one evening last week. 我上星期一天晚上遇到了他。/ Another girl, whose name now he could not even remember, perhaps had never known, seen sleeping so, one (*a) dawn, in a bedroom overlooking the Seine. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 有一天黎明，在塞纳河畔的一间卧室里，他看到另一个姑娘也是这么睡着。至于那姑娘姓甚名谁，他现在忘得一干二净，兴许他压根儿就不知道。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 这里要注意，one 通常只有放在一个时间较短的时间名词之前(例如 day、evening、morning、night 等)时，才失去长度意义而变为表示“某一”时间点。如果时间较长，则 one 仍然保留时间长度的意义。如 one month later 表示一个月(的长度)之后；one year 通常不表示“在某一年”而是表示一年的时间长度，但是 a year later 也同样可以表示“一年的长度之后”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My grandfather died a year later. (Andrew M. Greeley, Irish Gold) 我祖父一年后去世了。/ ... researchers said one such vaccine kept a common form of lymphoma from worsening for more than a year. ……研究人员说，有一种这样的疫苗可以使得普通类型的淋巴肿瘤停止恶化一年多。/ This remarkable event had taken place in the spring of 1866, exactly a year before the time of which I write. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 那件颇为轰动的事情发生在 1866 年春，正是我在小说中所写的时间的前一年。同样，week 作为时间长度仍然可以说 a week。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Just a week's worth of interest on that sum ... (Nicholas D. Kristof, in The New York Times, Apr. 2, 2009, A27) 单单是这笔款一个星期的利息……</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 与 year 及 month 相类似，hour 尽管时间长度不及 day、night、morning 等，但一般不用来表示时间点，而总是表示 60 分钟的时间长度。因此，an hour 和 one hour 都是表示“一小时的长度”，而不是“某一时刻”。不过 an hour (同 a year 类似)意思比较平淡。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>an hour (<i>one hour) after the meeting 会散了一小时之后。而 one hour 则强调时间之短(one year 则视上下文，既可强调其长，也可强调其短)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>one hour (</i>an hour) delivery service 一小时送达服务。表示时间长度的 century，同 hour 类似，除非强调其长，不说 one century 而说 a century。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 有些表示季节的名词，即使时间长但是长度不明确，而且这个名词通常不用作时间长度单位，则用 one 仍然可以不表示长度而表示“在某一时间段之内”(意义仍然是“时间点”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>one summer 在某年的夏天(不是几个月的时间长度)。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 如果前面已经提及某个复数名词，或是可以推论出已经有某复数名词被涉及，则后面提到其中之一时不能用 a (因为 a 的作用是引入一件前面未提及过的新事物)，要用 one (= one of the-s)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Why the increase (in allergy incidence)? Improved diagnosis is one likely cause, but allergies do also appear to be more commontoday than a generation ago. (U.S. News & World Report, Feb. 2009, p. 34) 为什么过敏症发病率增高了？诊断方法的改进很可能是原因之一，但是过敏症今天也的确显得比前一代人更为常见。(前面问了 why，后面的 cause 是应有之义，用 one 表示“其中之一”。)/ ... he had learned many years ago to keep his emotions tightly controlled. His one outlet was cigarettes. (Stephen Coonts, The Art of War) ……他好多年前就已经学会将自己的喜怒哀乐紧紧控制住。一个宣泄办法就是抽烟。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 如果不是着重某一事物的内涵(也就是不把它当作新信息)，而是着重某一事物是已知的多个同类事物当中之一，也用 one 而不用 a。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Our resources in this country would be better spent emphasizing primary care as opposed to treatment of end-stage diseases. One (<i>A) way to this is to recognize the importance of primary care in our reimbursement structures. (U.S. News & World Report, May 12, 2008, p. 5) 我们这个国家的资源，最好重点用在社区医疗上，而不是用在治疗晚期疾病上。要这样做，一个办法就是要我们的报销体制上承认社区医疗的重要性。/ Crime, then, is one (</i>a) field in which women are unequal with men. (The Economist, Dec. 20, 2008, p. 130) 接着，犯罪领域是女性同男性不平等的一个领域。(如果用 a 就变成描述这个领域的内容，而这里讲的是“多个领域之一”。)/ When I first went to live with Grandma Putt, she had a (<i>one) time-worn Almanac in one (</i>a) hand and a (<i>one) dog-eared bible in the other. 我开始去同帕特奶奶一起居住时，她一手拿着一本用旧了的历书，一手拿着一本褶角的《圣经》。(正常人都有两只手，如果用 a 就会强调“手”的内涵特征，反而给人一个奇怪的印象，仿佛本来固有的“手”成了新鲜事物；而 a time-worn Almanac 和 a dog-eared bible 却的确是这句话中的新鲜事物，只能用 a，不能用 </i>one。)</div><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> 同样，如果着重的不是事物的内涵性质，而是事物对外的整体数量(一个而不是多个)，也用 one 而不用 a。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If you'll let me go one (*a) step further, I can probably make it odds-on. (Jeffrey Archer, The Fourth Estate) 你如果肯让我往前多走一步，我也许能稳操胜券。</div><br><br>名词前面加上 the one (不可以加上 *the a)，表示这是已知的唯一(排除所有其他)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I was just grateful that she'd been here the one day I was away. (Mary Higgins Clark, Where Are You Now?) 在我走开的那一天，她一直都在这里，我正求之不得。</div><br><br>有时候，one 比 a 显得更加客气婉转。例如打电话时，接线员说 Will you hang on a moment? 就比较公事公办；如果说 Would you mind waiting one moment? 就比较客气。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(9)</span> 同数词连用，one 和 a 的用法是：(a) 在小于 1 的数量词组中，单位名词前通常用 a 而不用 one。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>half a (<i>one) pound 半磅</div><div class="ex-item">three quarters of an (</i>one) hour 3 刻钟</div><div class="ex-item">seven tenths of a (*one) mile 十分之七英里。小于 1 的小数，如果是几分之一，前面没有整数，可以用 a 或 one，但更多用 a。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a/one quarter 四分之一</div><div class="ex-item">an/one eighth 八分之一。前面如果有整数，half 前面仍然用 a。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a month and a half</div><div class="ex-item">one and a half months一个半月</div><div class="ex-item">three and a half years 3 年半。</div><br><br>其他小数多用 one。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>six and one eighth 六又八分之一。前面如果还有别的字样，也多用 one。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>more than one quarter of the land surface of the planet 地球陆地表面的四分之一以上。</div>(b) 在 hundred、thousand 和 million (后面没有其他数字)之前，较正式的用 one，较通常的用 a。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a hundred years ago no doctor could have cured this disease. 这个病，如果在 100 年前，就没有医生能治好。/ I want to live for a hundred years. 我想活 100 岁。/ Pay Mr. Smith one thousand dollars. 付于史密斯先生 1,000 美元整。</div><br><br>如果后面有其他数字，则 hundred 前可以用 one 或 a。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>one/a hundred and two 102</div><div class="ex-item">one/a hundred and ninety-nine 199。thousand 后面如果百位为 0，十位或个位不为 0，则 thousand 前可以用 one 或 a。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>one/a thousand and forty 1,040</div><div class="ex-item">one/a thousand and ninety-nine 1,099。但是 thousand 后面如果百位不为 0，则 thousand 和 hundred 前都只能用 one，不能用 <i>a。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>one (</i>a) thousand, one (*a) hundred and forty 1,140。</div>(c) 通常在多位数中，不处于最高位的数字如果是 1，不用 <i>a 而用 one。例如可以说 one/a hundred (100)，但是只能说 three thousand one (</i>a) hundred (3100)。(d) 最末如果有单位名词，而且是指整数 1，用 one 或 a 都可以。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>one/a kilometer 1 公里</div><div class="ex-item">one/a pound 1 磅。但是如果后面有附加的小数，则最前面用 one 不用 <i>a，整数之间不用 </i>and，小数有单位时整数之间用逗号，没有单位时不用。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>one (<i>a) kilometer, six hundred meters 1.6 千米</div><div class="ex-item">one (</i>an) hour, seventeen minutes 1 小时 17 分</div><div class="ex-item">one (*a) pound twenty-five 1.25 磅。</div>(e) “一个”同 or two 结合时，如果是直陈的“一两个”而且有名词出现，用 a (<i>one) ... or two。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a (</i>one) chair or two 一两把椅子</div><div class="ex-item">He knows a thing or two about medicine (<i>one thing or two; </i>one or two things). 他对医学略懂一二。</div><br><br>名词成分如果不太长，一般用 a ... or two。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a star-spangled banner or two 一两面星条旗。但是如果名词成分太长，则仍以 one or two ... 为好。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>one or two large and systemically important broker dealers 一两家大型且一贯起重要作用的经纪商。</div><br><br>如果是问“究竟是一个还是两个”，用 one (<i>a) ... or two。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>One (</i>A) space or two after periods? (打字时)句号后空一格还是空两格？(如果问 A space or two after periods? 意思就变为“要不要在句号后空一两格？”)如果名词不出现，也用 one (<i>a) or two。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How many do you need, one (</i>a) or two? 你需要多少，一个还是两个？</div><br><br>
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on high
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>on high</b></div>口语中可以作状语，指“在上级领导层那里”(下级说话时用)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There are guilty consciences on high. 上面有些人心里有鬼。但是也可以作为名词成分使用(尽管开头是 on)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's the word from on high. 这是上面的吩咐。</div><br><br>
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(on) life support
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(on) life support</b></div>本来的意思是医疗上的，指一个病人病情严重，奄奄一息，呼吸、进食等基本生存机能都要靠人工输送。也可以转义，指某事业到了山穷水尽难以为继的地步。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... the GOP has left us with an endless war in Iraq, a sputtering economy, and a healthcare system on life support. (U.S. News & World Report, May 19, 2008, p. 18) ……共和党给我们留下的是伊拉克一场打不完的战争，一场糊涂的经济，以及奄奄一息的医疗制度。</div><br><br>
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(on) line 与 (on the) line
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(on) line 与 (on the) line</b></div>on line 与 on the line 意义完全不同。<br><br>on line 指人时，是“排着队”的意思；指机器时，是“连接在一起”的意思；指电脑时，是“上了网”的意思。<br><br>但是 on the line 则是“处于危险境地”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>put/lay one's reputation on the line 危及自己的名誉</div><div class="ex-item">Their jobs are on the line. 他们的饭碗岌岌可危。</div><br><br>
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only
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>only</b></div>only 所指的范围，是一个值得注意的问题。有些语言学家认为，only 其实是个否定词，相当于“除此之外再也没有”(nothing except)，因而它所管辖的范围问题同 not 之类否定词所管辖的范围问题是一样的。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 先撇开语言习惯，单单从逻辑和事理来看，only 放在哪个成分之前，就是对这个成分起限制作用。这个作用有时只管到后面的一个单词，有时又可以管一连串单词。only 放在不同的地方，意义就可以完全不同。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Dictators respect only force; they are not moved by words. 独裁者尊重的只是武力；他们是不会被言辞所感动的。(only 管 force。)/ Dictators only respect force; they do not worship it. 独裁者对于力量只是尊重，并不崇拜。(only 管 respect。)/ She picked up the receiver only when he entered, not before. 她一直到他进来的时候才拿起了听筒。(only 管 when 从句。)/ She only picked up the receiver when he entered; she didn't dial the number. 他进来时她不过拿起了听筒，并没有拨号。(only 管 picked up the receiver。)</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 按理如果一直遵守上述规则，only 的用法和意义都会很清楚，除了 only 管到多远会有问题之外，不会有其他问题。但是在实际语言运用中，only 往往远远放在它所限制的句子成分之前，当中隔着别的不受 only 管的成分，形成一种类似“隔山打炮”的局面。如果一定要直接把 only 放在它所管的成分前面，听起来反而不那么顺耳。例如按照道理，本来应该说 We fail only if we choose to. (我们唯有自己选择失败的时候才会失败)。但是语言习惯却偏偏喜欢说 We only fail if we choose to. (不是“我们如果自己选择失败就只会失败”。)又例如本来应该说 We can come to an agreement only if everyone is willing to compromise. (唯有人人都愿意妥协，我们才能达成协议。)但是按照语言习惯却偏偏喜欢说 We can only come to an agreement if everyone is willing to compromise. 喜欢死抠的人固然可以把它解释为“如果人人都愿意妥协，我们只能达成协议别无他途”。<br><br>only if ... 是“唯有……才……”(必要条件)，但 if only ... 则是“只要……就……”(充分条件)。参见 if only 条。<br><br>only ... by ... 也是“唯有……才……”(必要条件)；by ... only ... 是“只要……就……”(充分条件)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They could destroy or disable a satellite only by/by only attacking it with a nuclear-armed missile. 他们唯有/只要用一个带有核弹头的导弹进行攻击，才/就能摧毁一个卫星或使之失灵。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 不过，情况有时候比较复杂，上下文和语境要弄清楚也不是很容易。举个例子：Australia only allows gender selection of embryos to avoid an inherited disease. (The Associated Press, June 15, 2006) 这一句，如果撇开常识和对事实的了解，单从字面上看，可以有多种理解：“澳大利亚只允许进行胚胎性别选择以防止遗传病。”/“澳大利亚为了防止遗传病，只允许对胚胎(而不允许对别的东西)进行性别选择。”/“澳大利亚为了防止遗传病，对胚胎只允许进行性别选择(而不允许进行别的选择)。”/“澳大利亚为了防止遗传病，只允许进行胚胎性别选择(而不允许任何别的做法)。”/“澳大利亚只允许为了防止遗传病(而不允许为了任何别的目的)进行胚胎性别选择。”如果加上常识和对事实的了解，这几个理解当中，就只有最后一个是正确的。而产生歧义的原因，就在于 only 的位置放在谓语动词之前。这个位置，使得 only 可以管辖句子当中除了主语之外的任何一个成分，同时放过其他成分不管。在这个例句中，only 主要管辖的是 to avoid inherited disease，次要管辖的是谓语动词 allows，放过不管的是宾语 gender selection (更不管的是 of embryos)。也就是说，如果 only 放在谓语动词前面，就要提高警惕，判明它究竟管辖什么，它的“势力范围”延伸到哪里为止。在口语中，往往可以从声调听出来，但是在书面语言中，就往往要靠对事理的认识来判别。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>These snakes only attack if they feel cornered or threatened. 这些蛇唯有感到自己被困或是受到威胁，才会发动攻击。/ Hariyanto said he only believed he had survived when he heard the voices of ship's crew and the life raft was illuminated by a spotlight. (The Associated Press, Jan. 9, 2007) 哈里扬托(印尼渡船失事遇难生还者)说，直到他听到船员的说话声，他那片救生木筏被探照灯照亮之时，他才相信自己生还了。(这两句的 only，分别管 if 和 when，不管谓语动词，这也是从常理推论出来的。)不过，有时常理也不是那么一清二楚，仍然可能产生歧义。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was invisible, buried in the mud. I only saw it because I was looking for it. (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes) 它是埋在泥泞里看不见的。我之所以看见，只是因为我在寻找。/ But the politicians who had not been able to make up their minds to save Czechoslovakia had only gone to war about Poland because they had been forced to, ... (Waverley Root, The Secret History of the War) 但是那些原先未能打定主意拯救捷克斯洛伐克的政客们，现在因为波兰而开战，这仅仅是因为他们迫不得已，……</div><div class="ex-item">For energy firms, the Mexican system will only be as attractive as the American one if taxes and royalties are low, shale experts say. (The Economist, May 3, 2014, p. 32) 页岩专家们说，对于能源企业来说，唯有当税收和专利权费用低廉时，墨西哥体系才能同美国体系一样有吸引力。/ Given the low level of American natural-gas prices, at present it is only worthwhile to produce gas if it comes with shale oil. (ibid.) 由于美国的天然气价格低，目前天然气唯有同时与页岩油并存，才值得开采。</div><br><br>有时候 only 放在连续的两个状语成分之前，只管后一个，不管前一个。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... a national newspaper second only in circulation to the Daily Citizen (Jeffrey Archer, The Fourth Estate) ……一家发行量仅次于《公民日报》的全国性报纸。(如果是“仅在发行量上次于”，最好说 second to the Daily Citizen in circulation only。)</div><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> only 不放在谓语动词前面而放在其他成分前面，意思就比较清楚。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span> He read only science fiction. 他只看科幻小说，什么别的都不看。如果说 He only read science fiction. 就可能是“他只看科幻小说，什么别的事情都不做”。但是，这个 only 也可以不放在它所管辖的成分前面而是放在后面：He read science fiction only. 遇到这种情况，如果 only 在句末，意思还是清楚的。但是如果 only 不在句末，就要判明它究竟是管前面还是管后面(如果前面是动词，only 就不可能管它)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>God only knows what's going on there! 这里的 only 究竟是管 knows 还是管 what's going on there 还是管 God，不难从常识判断。“上帝”是无所不知的，不可能只知道什么，不知道什么。所以 only 只能管前面的 God：“只有上帝才知道那边发生了什么事情。”</div><br><br>但有时情况比较复杂，不是一眼可以判断的。如 The tribesmen fought from within their stockades only when the moon was down. 这一句念起来时，only 同后面的 when 是否一口气念下去，对句意影响很大。如果连起来念，only 就是管 when 从句了。如果有停顿，only 管的就是前面的 from within their stockades。但是在书面上，这个问题不好解决，于是就只好从常理和动词体貌来判断。如果 only 管的是 when，那就是“直到……才……”的意思，“才……”后面应该是一个动态的变化，就要求主句表示一个瞬时的事件或动作(或一个延续动作或状态的瞬时开始)与 when 从句配合。但是这里的 fought 不可能是瞬时的动作。如果 only 管的不是 when 从句，则这个从句虽然表示一个瞬时的事件(“月亮下去了”)，主句仍然可以表示一个延续的动作(如 fought)或状态。所以，可以判定，only 管的是前面的 from within their stockades 而不是后面的 when 从句。全句的译文是：“到了月亮下去之时，那些族人就只能守住自己的栅栏继续战斗了。”<br><br>但是，有时候从组合语义来看 only 不大可能管某些其他成分，此时就可以判定它管仅存的那个成分。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>That is a question which Mr. Darcy only can answer. (Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice) 这里的 only 如果向后管 can answer，意思说不通，所以一定是向前管 Mr. Darcy：“这个问题只有达西先生自己能够回答。”</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 某些情况从字面上可能有歧义但从事理上意思很清楚。如果事理上也有歧义，当 only 管主语时最好不要放在主语后面而放在前面(即句首)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In this county, only Niskayuna's Rosendale Elementary School and Scotia-Glenville's Glendaal Elementary School had all students meeting the standards. 在本县，只有尼斯卡尤纳的罗森代尔小学和斯科科-格伦威尔的格伦达尔小学是全体学生达标的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 要表示数量上的“只有，仅有”，固然可以用 only 放在谓语动词前面或放在数量前面，但也可以不用 only 而用 no more than 放在数量前面，这就能够避免任何歧义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The Clinton administration authorized the disbursement of no more than $12 million of the $97 million set aside by Congress to fund Iraqi groups. 克林顿政府对于国会单独拨出给伊拉克团体资助的 9,700 万美元，只批准了动用 1,200 万美元。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 由于 only 所管的句子成分必然是信息中心，如果 only 放在句首管主语，又要把句子转变为疑问句，此时，如果简单地用助动词 do 开头，则疑问重点会落到谓语动词上，成了“主语是否做此事”，这就不符合信息要求。因此，就需要先把句子转变为突出主语为信息中心的“断裂句”(cleft sentence)，再将这个“断裂句” 转变为疑问句。例如 The sun provides warmth. (太阳提供温暖。) 加上 only，成了 Only the sun provides warmth. (只有太阳才提供温暖。) 现在要变成疑问句，就不能简单地说 *Does only the sun provide warmth? (假如没有 only，倒是可以说 Does the sun provide warmth?) 需要先把这个句子转变为“断裂句”：It is only the sun that provides warmth. 然后再把这个“断裂句”变为疑问句：Is it only the sun that provides warmth?<br><span class="seq">(8)</span> 有时候 only 不是副词而是形容词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Only children are supposed to be spoiled, selfish and lonely. 独生子女通常被认为比较娇惯、自私、孤独。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(9)</span> only 还可以不用于限制后面的名词成分，而是限制后面整个句子。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>These riots were, in the Eastern European fashion, pogroms—only the victims were African Americans, not Jews. 这些骚乱，如果按照东欧的模式，就是排犹暴行，只不过受害者是非裔美国人，而不是犹太人。</div><br><br>
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only ... and ... already ...
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>only ... and ... already ...</b></div>only 后面是个没有冠词的名词成分，and 后面是个句子，意思是“尽管……，但已经……”<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Only midafternoon in October and there was already a winter feel in the air. (Mary Higgins Clark, Nighttime Is My Time) 尽管还是 10 月的一个下午，但是空气中已经有点冬天的寒意了。</div><br><br>
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only¹
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>only¹</b></div>only 也可用于表示某事发生之迟，此时 only 就没有“仅仅，只有”的意思。这里有两个不同的参照时间点：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 一个是过去的一个时间点，说在这个时间点之后过了很长的时间才发生某事。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>only a century later 直到一个世纪之后。但是这个用法也有可能产生歧义。如果 only 后的时间很长，通常是表示发生时间之晚。如果 only 后的时间很短，则反而是表示发生时间之早。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>only five minutes later 只不过五分钟之后。但这一来，时间怎样才算长，怎样才算短，没有明确的界限。比方说，only two days later 究竟是“迟至两天之后”还是“仅仅过了两天之后”，就要看上下文。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 另一个是现在的一个时间点，说在这个时间点之前只过了很短的时间就发生了某事。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I only approved a memo about it yesterday. 我昨天刚刚就此事批准了一个备忘录。/ These were people whom only yesterday he had assumed to be friends. 他们这些人他直到昨天还一心当作朋友。/ This beetle has only recently been discovered. 这种甲壳虫是不久以前才发现的。/ Mrs. Fairley informs me that she saw her (= Mary) only this morning talking with a person. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 费尔利夫人告诉我，她就在今天早晨看见玛丽跟一个男人在说话。采取这种用法时，同现在时间点的差距，通常都是很短的，所强调的也是其短。但是，无论是 only a century later 还是 only yesterday，在发生时间的早晚上都是强调其晚，只是前者以过去又过去的一个时间点为参照点，故强调时间之长，后者则以现在为参照点，故强调时间之短。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> only 作为“直到……才……”，是离开了它“只有”的本意的一个转义。但是有时候也可以恢复其本意。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Only yesterday did he call me. 除了“直到昨天他才给我打电话”和“就在昨天他还给我打过电话”外，也可以理解为“他只有昨天给我打过电话(以前和以后都没有打)”。这是因为“打电话”这件事可以多次发生，因而也可以限制为单单一次(前面一些例句中的动作如果只能发生一次，only 就不会是“只有”)。如果是“直到……才……”的意思，最好改为 Not until yesterday did he call me.</div>
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only 与 alone
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>only 与 alone</b></div>参见 alone 与 only 条。<br><br>
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on the part of
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>on the part of</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 凡是由一个及物动词变来的名词，它的施动者通常可以用放在该名词前面的名词所有格或物主代词来表示，或者在该名词后面加上 by 引入施动者。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span> the doctor's examination of the patient</div><div class="ex-item">examination of the patient by the doctor 医生对病人的检查。</div><br><br>但是，如果这个名词的动词意义不强(例如表示某种态度、心态、主张)，则不能用 by。此时，如果该名词是特指的，就仍然可以在其前面加上名词所有格或物主代词来表现其所有主或主体(相当于施动者)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>their determination 他们的决心</div><div class="ex-item">the government's commitment to science 政府对科学事业的支持。也可以用 on the part of 表示。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The heavy taxes and the abuses against the population on the part of the Ottoman rulers in the early years after the Ottoman conquest gave rise to opposition, ... 奥斯曼征服后的最初几年，奥斯曼统治者征收繁重的捐税，而且对居民横加欺凌，因而引起了反抗，……</div><br><br>但是如果该名词是不特指的，或是这个所有主或主体在文字上比较长，或者虽然短但需要突出，就可以采取 on the part of 的形式。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This bill is not a compromise but a full-fledged capitulation on the part of the legislative branch to executive claims of power. 这个法案，并不是个妥协的产物，而是立法部门对行政部门抓权要求的全面投降。/ And that has to be a constant process of reexamination on the part of the judges. 那应该是法官们不断进行重新审议的一个过程。/ If guessing succeeds, the cause is either incredible luck on the part of the attacker, or a weak password. 如果靠猜测也能成功，那么原因要么是攻击者的运气好得难以置信，要么是密码太简单。/ Interest on the part of the boss emboldened them to come up with new ideas. 看到上司感兴趣，他们就放胆提出一些新主张。</div><br><br>对下面一段文字(引自1999年6月至7月联合国教科文组织在布达佩斯召开的世界科学大会的演讲“Declaration on Science and the Use of Scientific Knowledge”)进行分析，可以看出 on the part of 的语言作用：the need for a strong commitment to science on the part of governments, civil society and the productive sector, as well as an equally strong commitment of scientists to the well-being of society. 这里，前面是 commitment to something on the part of somebody, 后面是 commitment of somebody to something, 从结构意义上说，两者是一样的，但是前者的 to science 很短，不宜放在最后。反之，governments, civil society and the productive sector 则很长，如果说 commitment of governments, civil society and the productive sector to science 就显得头重脚轻。后一个 commitment 情况则恰恰相反，to 后面的成分(the well-being of society)较长而 of scientists 则很短，如果把语序改成 commitment to the well-being of society on the part of scientists, 也未尝不可，但不如现在的语序安排更为通顺(而且更为突出 the well-being of society)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 如果中心名词是个表示抽象性质而非他动行为的名词，其逻辑主语不宜用 by 引入，最好用 on the part of 引入(参见 by 条)。此外，如果中心名词是表示“缺乏，不存在”的，也不宜用 of 引入主体或所有主，而用 on the part of 更为妥当。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>too few Western troops, too little money, and a lack of coherent strategy and sustained policy initiatives on the part of Western and Afghan leaders (The New York Review of Books, June 22, 2006) 西方部队太少，钱太少，而且西方和阿富汗领导人缺乏一种首尾一贯、持久不断的政策方针</div><div class="ex-item">This is not for the lack of desire or determination on the part of the enemy. (George W. Bush, Sept. 6, 2006) 这并不是因为敌人没有这样的愿望和决心。乏一种首尾一贯、持久不断的政策方针</div><div class="ex-item">This is not for the lack of desire or determination on the part of the enemy. (George W. Bush, Sept. 6, 2006) 这并不是因为敌人没有这样的愿望和决心。</div><br><br>
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open
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>open</b></div>open 这个词，中国人容易用错。唯有直接宾语产生了空间上的移动，比如说开门，才用 open。如果直接宾语是一个机器或是一盏灯，“打开”就是 turn on。如果直接宾语是一件电器，“打开”就是 switch on。<br><br>如果这个空间移动的“打开”是负面意义的，可以说 let loose。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Bartók, on the other hand, lets loose the floodgates, and we're bathed in emotions ... (Sidney Sheldon, The Stars Shine Down) 另一方面，巴尔托克松开了闸门，我们于是就情绪激动起来……</div><br><br>如果该直接宾语的事物本身不移动，只是被开个口子，“打开”是 crack open。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>crack open markets (Foreign Affairs, July/August 2004, p. 42) 打开市场。</div><br><br>
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open 与 close
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>open 与 close</b></div>参见 close 与 open 条。<br><br>
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operate
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>operate</b></div>作为不及物动词，代表固定性的功能(第一类动词)或延续而无终点的活动(第二类动词)或延续但有终点的活动(第三类动词)，基本词义是“运作，运转，起作用”，主语通常是机器、设备、用品、机构、法规之类。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>These machines operate automatically. 这些机器是自动运转的。/ The bank operates from offices in Liverpool. 该银行通过设在利物浦的一些办公室经营业务。/ The new tax law operates in favor of small businesses. 新税法对小型企业有利。/ Some drugs operate harmfully on the body. 有些药品对身体有害。</div><br><br>operate 也可以以军队为主语，表示“进行作战行动”(第二类动词)。也可以以医生为主语，表示笼统延续的“进行外科手术”(第二类动词或第三类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He operated all night. 他一整夜都在动手术。但是如果出现病人，要用 on 引入，此时 operate on 变成一个及物动词(第三类或第四类动词)，如果出现病名，就用 for 引入。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The surgeon operated on him for stomach cancer. 外科医生给他动胃癌手术。operate on 作为及物动词，可以转换为被动句，主语可以是人或人体的部位。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was operated on for lung cancer. 他动了肺癌手术。/ The pitcher had his elbow operated on last year. 投手去年动了手肘的手术。要注意的是，operate 作为及物动词，不能表示“给(某病人或某身体部位)动手术”，必须说 operate on。</div><br><br>operate 也可以作为及物动词，意思是“操作，驾驭”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Can you operatethis truck? 你能驾驶这辆卡车吗？</div><br><br>
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opportunity
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>opportunity</b></div>这个名词后面如果有定语，其搭配大体上是：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 在美式英语中，后面可以用动词不定式(但英式英语较少用)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... had hope for an opportunity to start work on a novel. (Current Biography, January 1966) ……曾经希望有机会动手写一部长篇小说。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 美式英语有时候还可以在 opportunity 后面加 for + 名词成分(但英式英语也少用)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... opportunities for broad university reforms are endless. (George W. Bonham, Change, March-April, 1969) ……进行大学改革，有无穷的机会。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> opportunity 后面也可以加 for + 动名词，但无论在美式还是在英式英语中都较少使用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... gave him an opportunity for thinking and writing. (Current Biography, July 1965) ……给了他一个进行思考和写作的机会。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 美式和英式英语都可以说 opportunity of + 动名词(但是近几十年来在美式英语中 of + -ing 往往被动词不定式所代替)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He seldom loses an opportunity of disprising the present, of showing his profound pessimism. (The Journals of Arnold Bennett, ed. Frank Swinnerton) 他几乎不放过任何一个机会诅咒现状，显示自己深刻的悲观主义。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 美式和英式英语都可以说 opportunity of + 名词，但是不如用动名词多。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>“This,” I said, “would give us an opportunity of long-needed talks ...” (Sir Winston Churchill, Closing the Ring) 我说：“这一来我们就会有机会进行早就需要的商谈了……”</div><br><br>至于 opportunity 前是特指的 the 还是不特指的 a，与后面的定语如何选择，似乎无关。<br><br>
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oppose 与 be opposed to
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>oppose 与 be opposed to</b></div>oppose 作为及物动词，意义和用法都有些特别：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 只有单独一个直接宾语时，这个直接宾语是反对的对象。主语通常可以是人或事物。这个“反对”可以是有意识的瞬时动作，包括从言辞抨击到暴力反抗，也可以是延续状态，只是持有某种反对的态度。由于 oppose 必然是及物动词，所以宾语前面不能加 to (object 则后面要加 to)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A few lawmakers opposed the budget. 有些议员对预算案表示反对。/ The people oppose the dictator. 人民反对独裁者。/ We oppose the construction of a hotel here. 我们反对在这里盖一座旅馆。/ Many parents oppose bilingual education in schools. 许多家长反对学校里实行双语教育。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> “反对某人做某事”也可以只用单独一个宾语，后面加上动词现在分词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Egyptian nuclear experts strongly oppose Egypt signing the additional protocol. 埃及核专家们强烈反对埃及签署附加议定书。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 如果直接宾语是多件事物，就可能不是“反对”而是“将多件事物互相做明显的对比”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>oppose light and shadow in a picture 在画面中做明暗对比。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 如果有双宾语(oppose + 直接宾语 + to + 间接宾语)，则直接宾语就不是反对的对象，而是被拿来作为依据而同间接宾语对立。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>oppose reason to force 以理性来反对暴力</div><div class="ex-item">oppose truth to falsehood 以真抗伪。也可以是同(3)相似的“拿两件事物互作对比”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The businessman opposed risks to profits, and decided to take a chance. 那个商人权衡了风险与收益，决定一试。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 前面说过，oppose 可以是瞬时动作，也可以是延续状态。be opposed to 则只能是延续状态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We are strongly opposed to the plan. 我们强烈反对该计划。但是 be opposed to 与 oppose 不同，它的主语可以不是人而是事物(既然不是人，就谈不上有意识)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is opposed to all our experience. 它同我们的全部经验根本相反。/ His views are diametrically opposed to mine. 他的观点同我的截然相反。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> as opposed to 表示“就当下谈论的话题注意到的某事物同另一事物的不同或对立”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In Roman, as opposed to Greek, society, ... 与古希腊社会不同，在古罗马社会，……</div><div class="ex-item">Saving, as opposed to investments, ... 与投资不同，储蓄则……</div><div class="ex-item">What exactly is an electron volt as opposed to a volt? 电子伏特究竟同伏特有何区别？甚至可以弱化为相当于 instead of 或 rather than。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>CITGO receives crude oil from the wellhead in Venezuela to the U.S. coast in days as opposed to weeks, ... (U.S. News & World Report, May 19, 2008, p. 19, ad) 雪铁戈公司只需几天，而不是几周，就收到自委内瑞拉油井口运到美国海岸的原油，……</div><br><br>
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opposing
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>opposing</b></div>作为形容词，如果名词是单数，表示“(斗争中或竞赛中)对立的”。当名词是复数时，有两种可能，一个是“(斗争中或竞赛中)对立的”，另一个是“互相斗争或竞赛着的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The opposing team must in turn try to keep the ball in the air before hitting it back over the net. 对方球队则必须设法一直让球保持不落地，然后把它打过网。/ I have a friend who has the opposing view and felt that the war was immoral. 我有一个朋友则持相反的看法，认为这场战争是不道德的。/ The president said in a radio address that he still favoured dialogue between the opposing sides. 总统在一次广播谈话中说，他仍然赞成对立各方彼此对话。/ Governance patterns appeared stuck, with countries trapped in opposing magnetic fields created by the Soviet bloc and the West. (Foreign Affairs, September/October 2004, p. 58) 治理模式显得停滞，一些国家陷于苏联集团与西方彼此相反的磁场引力拉扯之中。</div><br><br>
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optimistic
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>optimistic</b></div>应该是指人，不指事物。He cited several *optimistic factors. 应该改为 He cited several favourable/encouraging factors. (他举出了几个令人乐观的因素。)
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or
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>or</b></div>一般都知道，英文中的 or 往往可以相当于中文的“否则”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Stop or I'll shoot. 站住，否则我就开枪了。/ They like the apartment or they wouldn't have stayed so long. 这处公寓他们是喜欢的，要不然他们就不会住了这么久。</div><br><br>但是有时候也容易看不出这个“否则”的意思，而误以为“或者”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Read the best books first, or you may not have a chance to read them at all. (Henry David Thoreau) 最好的书要先看，要不然就根本不会有机会来看了。这里由于 may 后面是个非主动动作的动词，误解的可能性不大，但是如果 may 后面是个可以由主观意志来左右的动作，就很可能误解。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If the bleeding has stopped, don't clean out your nose, or you may pick off the scab that has formed. 如果流血停止了，不要清理鼻腔，否则已经形成的血痂会被弄掉。这里的后半句不能理解为“或者你可以把已经形成的血痂弄掉”。这里的 or 不是“或者”而是“否则”；may 不是“允许”而是“有可能(做出不对的事)”。</div><br><br>
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order
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>order</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作“命令”解时，虽然明明只有一道命令，但是如果同时说出了命令的具体内容，就用复数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My orders are to get this little chore wrapped up and get out of here. 我奉命要做的，是把这件小事结束掉，离开此地。/ I left orders that she was not to be disturbed. 我吩咐不许打扰她。/ I did it on your orders. 我是奉您的命令这样做的。/ We are under orders to arrest you. 我们奉令逮捕你。/ On whose orders are you doing this? 是谁命令你这样做的？/ He has received explicit orders to return to Germany. (G. N. Leech, Meaning and the English Verb) 他接到了明确的命令，要他回德国去。/ His orders were to stay in the house. (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes) 他奉令留在房子里。有时甚至具体的一项命令，也用复数，但语法形式上作单数处理。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is my orders to you that you publish these bans no more. (Henry Fielding, Joseph Andrews) 我命令你再也别公布这些禁令。</div>“解雇”或“打发走”是 give somebody his marching orders。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His girlfriend gave him his marching orders. 他的女友把他轰走了。“被解雇”或“被赶走”则是 get one's marching orders。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She got her marching orders for turning up late. 她上班迟到，被解雇了。这里 orders 也都是因为有具体内容而用复数。</div><br><br>如果只是泛泛地说某一次的“命令、吩咐”而不交代其内容，则 order 用单数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>give an order 下令</div><div class="ex-item">receive an order 接到命令</div><div class="ex-item">carry out an order 执行命令。但如果是长期的、笼统的，则用复数。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Orders are orders. 命令就是命令。/ I don't take orders from anyone. 谁的命令我都一概不接受。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> my orders 可以是“我发出的命令”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I expect my orders to be carried out to the letter. 我的命令，是要严格执行的。但也可以是“我接到的要我执行的命令”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My orders are to protect our guests. 我奉令要保护我们的客人。/ Even so, Sister Sandrine had her orders. (Dan Brown, The Da Vinci Code) 尽管如此，桑德琳修女仍然有命令在身。/ Carry out your orders. 执行(给你的)命令。同样，your instructions 可以是“你发出的指示”，也可以是“你接到的要你执行的指示”；his challenges 可以是“他向别人提出的挑战”，也可以是“他所遇到的挑战”；your answer 可以是“你对别人所提问题的回答”，也可以是“别人对你所提问题给予的回答”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If there is anyone out there who still doubts that America is a place where all things are possible ... tonight is your answer. (Barack Obama, Nov. 4, 2008) 如果有谁对美国究竟是不是一处什么事情都有可能的地方仍然感到怀疑，……那么，今天晚上，你就得到了答案。 (3) 可以不是指“订购(行为)；订货单”或饭馆中的“点菜(行为)”，而是指按订购提供的货物或点好后烹调中或端上的饭菜饮料等实物。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Your order was shipped on Oct. 19. 阁下所订货物已于 10 月 19 日发货。/ You sent us the wrong order. 你们送来的货物与订货单不符。/ The waitress brought their order. 女招待员端上了他们点的东西。/ He began to read the newspaper while the order was cooking. 点了的菜正在锅里烧着，他就打开那份报纸看。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> order 作“次序”解时，如果定语在前，最前面可以不用冠词，用 in 引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>in alphabetical order 按字母排列</div><div class="ex-item">in chronological order 按时间先后排列</div><div class="ex-item">in numerical order 按数字大小排列。如果定语是放在后面的 of X，则这个 X 可以是一个大小高低可变的抽象概念。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>in order of seniority 按年资先后排列</div><div class="ex-item">in order of age 按年龄排列</div><div class="ex-item">in order of size 按大小排列。也可以是一个表示动作或事件的名词(此时意义也是该动作或事件发生时间的先后次序)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>in order of application 按申请的先后次序排列</div><div class="ex-item">in order of arrival 按先后到达的次序排列。以上的 order，前面加上 the 也可以(如 in the order of age)。如果定语要用从句形式放在后面，正规的搭配应该是 in the order (in which) + 从句，一定要有 the，但是 in which 常常可以省略。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Your questions will be answered in the order (in which) we receive them. 你们的问题，将按照我们收到的先后次序予以解答。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 名词 order 构成的词组 in order，除了上面(后面加上 of ...)表示“次序”之外，后面若不加补充成分，则意思是“适宜的，合适的，该如此的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>An apology would be in order. 理应表示歉意。/ Celebrations are in order. 该庆祝一番。/ Everything is in order for today's performance. 今天的表演，一切都准备就绪了。意思反过来就是 out of order。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You were out of order asking where she was going. 你当时问她往哪里去，是失礼的。/ Would I be out of order in calling for an inquiry? 我如果提出要查询，会不会是不合规矩？</div><br><br>这里就引起了另一个词组 in order to inf. 的问题。in order 和 in order to inf. 的意义和用法是根本不同的。in order to inf. 是“为了，以便”如何如何。但是，有时候 in order 偶然后面会出现 to inf.，此时就有混淆的危险。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Before the examination of the witness begins, I believe it would be in order to commend him for his conduct two days ago when his prompt action and courage saved the life of a public utility employee in another state. (Arthur Hailey, Overload) 开始查问证人之前，我觉得有必要先对证人两天前的一件善举加以表扬，当时他在另一个州迅速、勇敢地挺身而出，拯救了一位公用事业雇员的性命。(这里的 in order to inf. 很容易误认为连在一起，而其实 in order 是 it would be 的表语，同后面的 to inf. 根本不相关；而 it 又是一个形式主语，真主语是后面的 to inf.。)</div>另外，in order 和 in order to inf. 的词性是不同的，前者属于形容词性质，而且通常只用作表语，放在 be 之后；后者所引入的是个状语词组，属副词性质，通常用来修饰动词。凭这一个鉴别的标志，就可以分清。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Is it in order to speak now? (Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary) (由于有了 Is it，就可以看出，in order 是 is 的表语，不可以同 to speak 合在一起，意思是“现在可以发言了吗？”。)/ Would it be in order for me to attend? 我参加好不好？(这里的 to inf. 也因为有 be 而不会被误认为是 in order to inf. 的一部分。)</div><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 作为名词，order of magnitude 是“档次程度”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... his evil was an order of magnitude beyond his predecessor's. (Charles Krauthammer, in The Daily Gazette, May 3, 2011) 他的邪恶，比他的前任高出一级。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 作为及物动词，order 通常是个表示瞬时动作的第四类动词，它的用法有些特别：(a) 首先，最符合中国人语言习惯的是兼语式 order somebody to inf. (后面的动词通常也是第四类动词，但也可以是第三类或第二类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He ordered me to go there. 他命令我到那边去。</div>(b) 上面这个句子也可以改为主从句，从句的谓语动词(通常也是第四类动词，但也可以是第三类或第二类动词)用虚拟式(should inf. 或是动词原形)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He ordered that I go/should go there. 他命令我到那边去。</div>(c) 后面的动词如果是表示移动位置的，有时候可以用副词或介词短语来代替(中文仍然译成动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They ordered him abroad. 他们派他出国。/ He ordered them out of the building. 他吩咐他们到大楼外面去。/ When he (= Edward Davey) refused to sit down to allow the debate to start, Sir Michael lost his patience and ordered him out. (BBC, Feb. 26, 2008) 他拒绝坐下来开始辩论，于是迈克尔爵士就不耐烦了，命令他离场。/ But his injury was so serious that the doctors—upon seeing X-rays of his skull—almost automatically ordered him home for another month, saying more may be required. 但是他的伤势严重，医生们一看见他颅部的 X 光透视，就几乎马上嘱咐他回家再休息一个月，而且说时间还可能延长。/ The judge ordered him back behind bars. 法官下令把他重新监禁。</div>(d) 有时候后面的动词是及物的，有直接宾语，反而 order 的直接宾语(即后面动词的逻辑主语，亦即汉语语法中的“兼语”)不明白表示出来，此时最常用的结构(也是中国人很不习惯的结构)，就是把后面动词的直接宾语改为 order 的直接宾语，而把后面动词的形式从主动的不定式改为被动的 to be + pp. 或者 pp.，此时语法形式同逻辑意义就不一致，成了“命令某事物去被如何如何”(“由谁来执行”不交代)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He ordered the baggage (to be) loaded into a taxi. 他吩咐把行李装上一辆出租车。/ President Bush ordered the controversial and expensive program accelerated after taking office, ... (The Associated Press, June 25, 2006) 布什总统就任之后，下令加速推进这个有争议而且花费巨大的项目，……</div><div class="ex-item">The jury might ordered him imprisoned for life or flung back into the arms of his family. 陪审团可能决定让他终身监禁，或者交给他的家人看管。/ Now he lay sound asleep on a squeaky cot he had ordered brought to his office early this morning. 他现在在今天清早他吩咐人搬进他办公室的一张嘎吱作响的行军床上呼呼熟睡。</div><br><br>
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original
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>original</b></div>这个形容词，一般词典有“原先的”和“独特的”两个不同的意义。但如何区别，有如下几个标志：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 如果作前置定语，而且有定指的指示词，意思就是“原先的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They will restore the house to its original state. 他们要恢复房屋的原状。/ Of the original twenty, only twelve remained. 原先的 20 个只剩下 12 个。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 如果作表语，表示性质，就一定是“独特的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The movie is quite original. 这部片子相当独特。</div><br><br>作前置定语但有不特指的指示词，意思也是“独特的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a daring and original idea 一个大胆而独特的主张。</div><br><br>original 有程度副词修饰时，意思也是“独特的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the most original guitar player 风格最为独特的吉他演奏者。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 有时候虽然名词是不特指的，但是总体意义上仍然可以判断定语 original 是“原先的”而不是“独特的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Please don't send original texts. 请勿寄来文本原件。(“文本”不可能是“独特的”。)</div><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> original 作为名词，通常是“原件，原文”；而派生的抽象名词 originality 则只有“独特性”的含义。<br><br>
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originate
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>originate</b></div>这个动词，可以及物，也可以不及物。可以是瞬时的第四类，表示“发生”这一事件；也可以是延续的第一类，表示“源于(某处或某事物)”这一状态。但是作为及物动词，只能是第四类，不可能是第一类。而且，由于万事万物都必然有一个起源或开端，因此 originate 就随“产生”或“出现”之物是已知或新知而同样为已知或新知(即主位或述位)。现在分别介绍如下：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 及物，第四类：“产生出”(直接宾语如果是不特指的，originate 加直接宾语就是新知信息；直接宾语如果是特指的或已知的，新知信息就转移到主语)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>originate new fashions 创造出新款式</div><div class="ex-item">The Egyptians are said to have originated papyrus. 据说是埃及人发明纸莎草的。/ I suppose no one has any idea who originated the story. 我估计谁都弄不清楚这是谁想出来的故事。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 不及物，第四类：“发生，起源”(指瞬时事件，通常特指的主语 + originate 是已知信息，新知信息在后面的介词短语中，这是因为主语既然已知，它的起源就是当然必有的事)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The conflict originated in the towns. 冲突发源于城镇。/ The flight, which originated in New York, stopped over in Chicago. 航班从纽约起飞，经停芝加哥。/ The practice originated in France. 这个习惯起源于法国。/ The bullfight originated in Spain. 斗牛起源于西班牙。/ The disease originated in Africa. 该疾病首发于非洲。/ This idea originated with/from him. 这个想法是从他那里发轫的。/ Where did that idea originate? 那个想法是从哪里发源的？/ The theory of relativity originated with Einstein. 相对论是爱因斯坦首创的。/ The Renaissance originated in Italy. 文艺复兴始于意大利。/ The gas leak originated in the basement. 气体泄漏是从地下室开始的。/ The noise seemed to originate from the first floor. 噪声似乎是从一楼传出来的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 不及物，第一类：“源于”(指延续状态及属性，可以用一般现在时；通常主语 + originate 构成主位，即已知信息，新知信息在后面的介词短语中)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Quarrels usually originate from misunderstandings. 争吵通常源于误解。/ He originates from Sydney. 他老家是悉尼。/ About 46 percent of Koreans' family names originate from neighboring countries, especially from China. 韩国人的姓氏，大约 46% 来自一些邻国，尤其是来自中国。/ ... merely four top brands originate from Asia, three—Sony, Honda, and Toyota—from Japan, and Samsung, from R. O. Korea. ……只有四家顶尖的品牌来自亚洲，即日本的索尼、本田和丰田这三家以及韩国的三星。</div><br><br>
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(or) what have you
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(or) what have you</b></div>列举一些事物或行动时，有时候一时想不到后面再说些什么(中文“等等之类”)，就说 or what have you。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>cars, motorcycles, <b>or what have you</b> 汽车、摩托车等等之类</div><div class="ex-item">... that with appropriate education, indoctrination, social conditioning <b>or what have you</b>, people can be made to behave in almost any way imaginable. (<i>The Economist</i>, Dec. 20, 2008, p. 127) ……认为只要有适当的教育、训导、社会制约等等，就可以使得人们做出几乎任何可能想象得到的行为。/ Things that you thought were safe to hide under or behind are no longer so because they can be blown apart, moved, <b>or what have you</b>. 你原先以为藏在底下或者后面就安全了的东西，现在不再安全了，因为这些东西可能被炸开、搬走或是怎么的。</div><br><br>
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or 与 and
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>or 与 and</b></div>参见 and 条之(2)、(3)、(7)。<br><br>
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other
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>other</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> other 可以作为形容词放在名词之前。作为代词时可以有复数形式 others。通常要前面出现过某个名词，为了避免重复，用 the other one 或 the others。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> other 与数词一起使用时孰先孰后，有一点微妙的区别。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>On the first ballot three jurors voted to acquit but the other nine voted to convict. 第一次投票，三位陪审员投了无罪票，其余九位投了有罪票。在这句话中，the other nine 用得不太妥当，会给人以“投无罪票的也是九位”的印象。所以，表示“除了已经说过的三位以外其余的九位”，最好改为 the nine others。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> other 有时候该用未用，有时候不该用而用了，都要避免。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I am more interested in the capture of the murderer than any other person in the world. 对于这个杀人凶手，我比世界上任何别的人都更加希望他落网。(缺了 other，any person 就把 I 也包括在内。)</div><div class="ex-item">He has more readers than any other writer on this newspaper. 他在这份报纸上的读者比任何别的作家都多。/ The pilot made the mission in a huge helicopter. Three (*other) persons accompanied him. 驾驶员开一架巨型的直升机出勤。有三个人陪同他一起飞行。(既然陪同，当然不包括本人，other 多余。) 有时候，用了 other 可能使人误解为与前面出现的组集无关的另外增添，也要避免。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The Russian woman was the twelfth person orbited in space. Six others were Americans. 那位俄罗斯妇女是在太空遨游的第 12 个人。其中 6 人是美国人。(这样用了 others，容易使人误以为是 12 人之外另有 6 人，一共 18 人，而其实 6 人是 12 人之内的。所以最好改为 Six of them were Americans)。此外，other 放在数词前或后，意思可能有不同。如当前谈论单独某一个案件时，提到其他千百个类似的案件，要说 thousands of other similar cases，以表示当前只有一个，thousands 是其他案件，拿来比较的；如果说 other thousands of similar cases 就可能被理解为当前也有千百个案件，同其他千百个类似的案件相比较。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 列举多项事物的不同活动，第一项通常可以用 some (或 many) 后面接上复数名词，第二项就用 other 接上同样的复数名词，或者用 others，后面不加名词。到了第三项，就要说 still other 加上复数名词或说 still others，后面不加名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Some grammarians believe that ... ; others say that ... ; still others say that ... 有的语法学者认为……；有的声称……；还有的声称……</div><br><br>
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other than
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>other than</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 一般词典都有 other than 前面有否定词的用法，意义是“除了……之外再无其他”，而且后面接着的总是个名词成分。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She never discussed it with anyone other than John. 她除了跟约翰之外，跟谁都没有商量过这件事。/ Many of these countries have no natural resources other than their people. (Newsweek, Jan. 9, 2006, p. 37) 这些国家，有许多除了有人之外，并没有什么天然资源。/ They did it for no other reason than sheer frustration. 他们这样做，除了出于纯粹的挫折感之外，没有任何别的原因。/ The signal could mean nothing other than a halt to the advance. 那个信号只能是表示要停止前进。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 但是 other than 如果前面有否定，后面就可以接上非名词成分的状语或定语，意思是“唯有，只有”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has never behaved other than impeccably with me. 他对待我是一直都无可挑剔的。(other than 后面接上状语成分。)</div><div class="ex-item">If the state governments did not have the power to tax, they would not be able to function other than on a ceremonial basis. 如果各州政府没有征税权的话，它们就只能摆摆样子了。(other than 后面接上状语成分。)</div><div class="ex-item">Attendance is not possible other than personally. 本人必须到会，不可委托他人。(other than 后面接上状语成分。) (3) 此外，other than 前面没有否定词时的用法，许多词典都语焉不详。其实 other than 本身就有否定的意思。有时它可以放在两个名词成分之间，表示前面一个在当前情况下不包括后面一个。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>languages other than English 除英语之外的语言</div><div class="ex-item">Singapore is now emphasizing factors other than raw testing skills when selecting its top students. (Newsweek, Jan. 9, 2006, p. 37) 新加坡现在挑选尖子学生时，所强调的因素已经不光光是考试技能了。有时候 other than 干脆就是否定。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This report is quite other than what I asked for. 这个报告同我所要求的很不一样。甚至可以放在作表语或前置定语的形容词甚至限定词前面表示否定。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... he always wondered how she could be other than happy. (Robert Canzoneri, McCalls's, March 1971) ……他对她怎能竟然不高兴，总是大惑不解。/ The word is used in some other than its expected sense. 这个单词不是用于一般的原意。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> other than + 名词或动名词，这个短语还可以没有任何名词在其前面同它发生关系，在句子中起修饰全句的状语作用，表示“除了……之外”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Bang on my door only if the building is on fire. Other than that, it can wait until morning. 唯有房子着了火才能敲我的门。其他事都可以等到早上。/ Other than twisting and untwisting her hands, she sits perfectly still. (Jim Jerome, The New York Times Magazine, Jan. 14, 1979) 除了把双手扭来扭去外，她坐得十分安详。/ Other than Chinese and Indian restaurants ... I can only think of one place in London where you can get lunch. (Margaret Costa, Illustrated London News, Aug. 31, 1968) 除了中国饭馆和印度饭馆之外……我觉得伦敦只有一处地方可以吃午餐。/ I do not recall in what territory it was, other than that it was west of Albuquerque. (Agnes Morley Cleveland, No Life for a Lady) 我记不清那是在什么地方了，只记得是在阿尔伯克基的西边。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> other than 还可以用来代替 except for (except for 与 except 的区别参见 except 条之(4))。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Other than the three chairs, a kidney-shaped table and a telephone, the office was bare. 那个办公室除了有那三张椅子、一张腰形的长桌和一部电话，就是空荡荡的。/ Other than a few aches from more than 450 parachute jumps, I felt as healthy as I did at 40, ... (General Hugh Shelton, Without Hesitation, in Reader's Digest, Large Print, November 2010, p. 156) 我除了 450 多次跳伞留下了一些疼痛之外，感觉自己同 40 岁那时一样健康，……</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> other 与 than 之间，可以插进名词成分，其否定意义同 other than 是一样的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There are other ways to insult the reader's intelligence than by forcing second-grade arithmetic on his attention. 即使要捉弄读者的智力，也可以有别的办法，不必强迫他把注意力放在一些二年级的算术题上。</div><br><br>
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otherwise
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>otherwise</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 这个副词除了一般词典所指出的“采取别样”与“否则”的意义外，有时候还表示“如果不是采取当前采取的新做法(或者不发生当前的新情况)就会如何”，也就是说“保持原先的状态或做法就会如何”，简化来说，就是相当于中文的“本来会如何”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In a fight, the otherwise friendly neighbor pounds his head with a brick. 在打斗中，本来很友好的邻居竟然拿砖头打他的脑袋。/ Otherwise lawful acts can constitute obstruction of justice if done with corrupt intentions. 有些行为，本来是合法的，但是如果实行时带有不良企图，也构成妨碍司法罪。/ The drug would save at least some babies and mothers from their otherwise terrible fate. 该药物将起码能够帮助一些婴儿和母亲摆脱他们那种本来很可怕的命运。/ The new medicine saved me from an illness which might otherwise have been hopeless. 新的药物治好了我的一场本来会毫无希望治好的病。/ It is true there was that little incident in Paris at the end of his trip to France which took some of the shine off an otherwise successful visit. 的确，他的法国之行，在尾声时出了一个小事故，使得这次本来很成功的访问有所失色。/ They exercise a disproportionate influence on our policy, forcing our national leaders to give uncompromising attention to something that would otherwise affect us little. (The Daily Gazette, Aug. 2, 2006) 他们对我们的政策起着大得离奇的影响，迫使我们的国家领导人对一些本来同我们没多大关系的事情纠缠不休。/ This helps explain many things that otherwise defy analysis. 这有助于解释一些本来难以分析的事情。/ ... verbs otherwise intransitive may have a nexus-object of result. (Otto Jespersen, The Philosophy of Grammar) ……本来不及物的动词，可以有一个表示结果的二元语核宾语。/ ... making the epidemic much more than it otherwise would have been. ……使得流行病比本来情况更加糟糕。 (2) 但是 otherwise 往往仍然保持“另有不同”的意义，其“不同”的对应对象，视具体情况而异。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The program must be reviewed and updated quarterly unless otherwise required by law. 除非法律另有要求，该项目应每一季度修订和更新。/ This use of the word is now common in clothing advertisements and catalogs but is otherwise rare. 该单词的这种用法，现已普遍见诸成衣广告与产品目录，但在他处仍然罕见。(这里的 otherwise 代替了副词 elsewhere。)</div>有时候甚至是对这个对象的否定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... the stability or otherwise of this resolved and obstinate war Government ... (Sir Winston Churchill, The Unrelenting Struggle) ……这个坚定顽强的战时政府稳定与否……(这里的 otherwise 代替了名词 instability。)/ ... we are shown portraits, prints, and drawings, contemporary and otherwise. (The Times Literary Supplement, Aug. 27, 1971) ……我们看到了一些肖像、版画、素描，有当代的，有从前的。(这里的 otherwise 代替了形容词 not contemporary。)/ They were, in short, hypocrites, and it was in this flexibility, moral and otherwise, that their genius lay. (Brian Moynahan, The British Century) 简而言之，他们是虚伪的，而这种道义上与非道义上的灵活性，正是他们的天才所在。/ for meetings important and otherwise (Tom Clancy, Executive Orders) 对于重要与不重要的会议</div><div class="ex-item">Novack assumed that it was a fake name and address, as most fabricated IDs are. But with a very short time on the computer, and one phone call, Novack learned otherwise and he was able to gather a good deal of information on the real William Beverly. (David Rosenfelt, Heart of a Killer) 诺瓦克猜定这是个假名假地址，正如多数伪造的身份那样。但是，稍加使用电脑，再加上打一次电话，他就知道了并非如此，他竟然收集到了有关这个真实存在的威廉·贝维里的大量资讯。</div><br><br>
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otherwise than
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>otherwise than</b></div>意思是“不如如何”；前面如果已经有了一个否定，就是“唯有如何”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He cannot do otherwise than follow your direction. 他除了跟随你的指导，别无他策。有人不用 than 而用 but，是不对的。</div><br><br>
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out
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>out</b></div>作为形容词充当表语，可以表示某纸质或电子出版物(作主语)已经出版上市。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His film, winner of numerous prizes in Europe, is out on DVD. 他的那部在欧洲多次获奖的片子，已经出了 DVD。也可以以人为主语，再加 with 引入出版物。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Arianna Huffington ... is out with a new book, ... (U.S. News & World Report, May 19, 2008, p. 18) 阿里安娜·霍芬顿……出版了一本新书，……</div><br><br>无论是出版物还是作者作为主语，动词 be 都是表示延续状态(但却是一个新出现的延续状态)的第一类动词。<br><br>
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out-
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>out-</b></div>以 out- 为前缀后面加上一个名词或动词，可以形成一个新的及物动词，表示“在某方面超过对方”。这个用法在英语中日益广泛，如果熟悉掌握，往往可以使长句变短。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>outbid 出价比……高</div><div class="ex-item">outclass 档次比……高</div><div class="ex-item">outdistance 把……甩在后面</div><div class="ex-item">outdo 赛过</div><div class="ex-item">outfight 战胜</div><div class="ex-item">outgeneral 在用兵方面比……高明</div><div class="ex-item">outgun 在枪炮火力方面超过</div><div class="ex-item">outgrow 个子超过</div><div class="ex-item">outguess 比……更为善于猜测</div><div class="ex-item">outhandle 操纵得比……灵活</div><div class="ex-item">outlast 比……更为持久</div><div class="ex-item">outlive 比……活得更长</div><div class="ex-item">outman 比……人多势众</div><div class="ex-item">outmanoeuvre 斗智赛过</div><div class="ex-item">outnumber 数量比……多</div><div class="ex-item">outpace 步伐比……更快</div><div class="ex-item">outperform 干得比……出色</div><div class="ex-item">outplay 玩得比……出色</div><div class="ex-item">outrank 地位级别比……高</div><div class="ex-item">outrun 比……跑得快</div><div class="ex-item">outsell 比……更畅销</div><div class="ex-item">outsoar 相形见绌</div><div class="ex-item">outshoot 在射击方面比……出色</div><div class="ex-item">outsmart 表现得比……更为聪明</div><div class="ex-item">outsoar 比……更高</div><div class="ex-item">outspend 开销比……更大</div><div class="ex-item">outstay 超过(应停留在某一地点的时间)</div><div class="ex-item">outstrip 比……优越</div><div class="ex-item">outvote 比……得到更多的选票</div><div class="ex-item">outweigh 在重量或重要性方面超过</div><div class="ex-item">outwit 斗智赛过</div><div class="ex-item">4th-graders' gains outpace 8th-graders'. 四年级学生的进展比八年级的快。/ They realized they were not only outmanned, but outgunned. 他们知道了自己不但人少，而且枪械也处于劣势。/ Now only one man outranked him there. 现在那里只有一个人的级别比他高。/ This means that poorer countries with low income variation can outscore richer ones with high variation. (The Economist, Dec. 20, 2008) 这就是说，收入差别小的穷国，可以赛过收入差别大的富国。</div><br><br>有些人还喜欢连用几个 out- 为前缀的动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They outhit us and outplayed us. (The Boston Herald, June 13, 1999, B46) 他们比我们多进了球，赢了我们。/ For three decades he'd outguessed, outbid, and outadvertised all the Japanese competition. 30 年来他一直比他所有的日本竞争者看得更准，竞投出价更高，在广告上更下功夫。/ She must outrun, outsmart and finally outfight the man who's trying to kill her. 她必须比那个要杀她的人跑得更快，更加机智，最后战胜他。/ ... and he persistently annoyed his fellow inmates by always wanting to outrun, outwork and outstrip every one of them. (Jeffrey Archer, The Fourth Estate) ……他总是比所有同他一起被收容的难友们跑得更快，干活干得更卖力，处处赛过他们，弄得他们很New York during the transition, ... (CNN, Dec. 5, 2017) 特朗普的那个以特朗普大厦一个会议室为中心的国家安全班子，在过渡时期是以纽约为根据地的，……</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> live out of 中的 out of 没有负面的“离开”或“失去”的意义，而是表示“以……为生活方式的标志”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Traveling for months on end, he got very tired of living out of a suitcase. 他多少个月来东奔西跑，席不暇暖，疲惫不堪。/ We had neither gas nor electricity for a week and had to live out of cans. 我们整整一周断煤气断电，只好靠罐头食品度日。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 与 into 相对，out of 同一些表示劝说的动词一起，表示“劝说某人打消某个念头”。而且，同 into 用法一样，有些不及物动词可以临时当作及物动词使用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'll tell you later. If I tell you now, you'll try to talk me out of it. 我以后再告诉你。要是现在告诉了你，你就会劝我打消这个念头了。要是现在告诉了你，你就会劝我打消这个念头了。</div><br><br>
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out-
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>out-</b></div>以 out- 为前缀后面加上一个名词或动词，可以形成一个新的及物动词，表示“在某方面超过对方”。这个用法在英语中日益广泛，如果熟悉掌握，往往可以使长句变短。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>outbid 出价比……高</div><div class="ex-item">outclass 档次比……高</div><div class="ex-item">outdistance 把……甩在后面</div><div class="ex-item">outdo 赛过</div><div class="ex-item">outfight 战胜</div><div class="ex-item">outgeneral 在用兵方面比……高明</div><div class="ex-item">outgun 在枪炮火力方面超过</div><div class="ex-item">outgrow 个子超过</div><div class="ex-item">outguess 比……更为善于猜测</div><div class="ex-item">outhandle 操纵得比……灵活</div><div class="ex-item">outlast 比……更为持久</div><div class="ex-item">outlive 比……活得更长</div><div class="ex-item">outman 比……人多势众</div><div class="ex-item">outmanoeuvre 斗智赛过</div><div class="ex-item">outnumber 数量比……多</div><div class="ex-item">outpace 步伐比……更快</div><div class="ex-item">outperform 干得比……出色</div><div class="ex-item">outplay 玩得比……出色</div><div class="ex-item">outrank 地位级别比……高</div><div class="ex-item">outrun 比……跑得快</div><div class="ex-item">outsell 比……更畅销</div><div class="ex-item">outshine 使……相形见绌</div><div class="ex-item">outshoot 在射击方面比……出色</div><div class="ex-item">outsmart 表现得比……更为聪明</div><div class="ex-item">outsoar 比……更高</div><div class="ex-item">outspend 开销比……更大</div><div class="ex-item">outstay 超过(应停留在某一地点的时间)</div><div class="ex-item">outstrip 比……优越</div><div class="ex-item">outvote 比……得到更多的选票</div><div class="ex-item">outweigh 在重量或重要性方面超过</div><div class="ex-item">outwit 斗智赛过</div><div class="ex-item">4th-graders' gains outpace 8th-graders'. 四年级学生的进展比八年级的快。/ They realized they were not only outmanned, but outgunned. 他们知道了自己不但人少，而且枪械也处于劣势。/ Now only one man outranked him there. 现在那里只有一个人的级别比他高。/ This means that poorer countries with low income variation can outscore richer ones with high variation. (The Economist, Dec. 20, 2008) 这就是说，收入差别小的穷国，可以赛过收入差别大的富国。</div><br><br>有些人还喜欢连用几个 out- 为前缀的动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They outhit us and outplayed us. (The Boston Herald, June 13, 1999, B46) 他们比我们多进了球，赢了我们。/ For three decades he'd outguessed, outbid, and outadvertised all the Japanese competition. 30 年来他一直比他所有的日本竞争者看得更准，竞投出价更高，在广告上更下功夫。/ She must outrun, outsmart and finally outfight the man who's trying to kill her. 她必须比那个要杀她的人跑得更快，更加机智，最后战胜他。/ ... and he persistently annoyed his fellow inmates by always wanting to outrun, outwork and outstrip every one of them. (Jeffrey Archer, The Fourth Estate) ……他总是比所有同他一起被收容的难友们跑得更快，干活干得更卖力，处处赛过他们，弄得他们很反感。</div><br><br>这个构词法，古已有之，于今为烈。莎士比亚的《哈姆雷特》(Hamlet)第三幕第二场，已经有 it out-herods Herod 的说法(当时第一个 h 小写)，指的是圣经上那个残暴的犹太国王希律(据《马太福音》第二章十六节，耶稣降生时希律王曾下令屠杀死伯利恒的所有婴孩)；out-Herod Herod 就是比希律王更希律王(即更残暴)。到了现代，用这个构词法，还可以自行以某个名词或动词为基础创造出许多新的动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They had out-bandited the bandits. 他们比土匪还土匪。/ Michelle Kwan outskated two Russians for the title ... (The New York Times, Apr. 2, 2000, p. 36)关颖珊滑冰夺标力克两名俄罗斯选手……</div><div class="ex-item">The Americans are trying to outmedal China. 美国人力图在奖牌数量上赛过中国。/ Obama also outpolled (Hillary) Clinton among women, ...The Associated Press, Jan. 3, 2008)奥巴马在女性当中的民调指数也超过了希拉里，……</div><div class="ex-item">With Obama winning eight straight contests and easily outdistancing her in money raising, ... (The Associated Press, Feb. 13, 2008)由于奥巴马接连在八次角逐中得胜，而且轻而易举地在筹款中把她甩在后面，……</div><div class="ex-item">(The new lure) out-fishes other baits 19 to 4 in one contest. (Newsweek, May 1, 2006, p. 62)新诱饵在一次比赛中以 19 比 4 的捕鱼量赛过了别的诱饵。</div><br><br>
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out East
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>out East</b></div>参见 out West 条。<br><br>
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outlive 与 survive
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>outlive 与 survive</b></div>两者都有“比……活得长”的意思。但是 survive 的直接宾语要么是一个亲人，要么是一件负面的事件；outlive 的直接宾语则可以是没有亲属关系的人或是任何性质的事件。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Buchwald refused kidney dialysis. He went on to outlive doctors' predictions by almost a year. (Susan Brink in Los Angeles Times, February 2007)布赫瓦尔德拒绝做肾透析。他比医生们预计的多活了差不多一年。/ Greek civilization outlived Roman Empire mainly due to their developed culture. 古希腊文明由于文化发达，保存的时间比罗马帝国还长。</div><br><br>
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out of
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>out of</b></div>这个复合介词，可以有负面和正面的不同意义。中国人对 out of 的负面意义一般比较熟悉，对它的正面意义就比较生疏。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 最基本的负面意义就是静态的“不在其内部而在其外面”和动态的“离开其内部而到其外面去”。这是中国人比较熟悉的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>out of bounds 越到界线之外</div><div class="ex-item">I sprang out of bed. 我从床上跳下来。/ He ran out of the office. 他从办公室跑了出去。/ They're out of town. 他们不在城里。/ feel out of place 感到格格不入。 (2) out of 的意义由“离开”转为“失去”，后面的名词由具体的空间转为抽象的状态。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>out of control 失控</div><div class="ex-item">out of practice 生疏</div><div class="ex-item">out of touch with reality 脱离现实</div><div class="ex-item">out of breath 喘不过气</div><div class="ex-item">out of order 有故障不能使用</div><div class="ex-item">out of speech 说不出话来</div><div class="ex-item">scared out of one's wits 惊慌失措</div><div class="ex-item">There his tarnished virginity was soon blackened out of recognition; ... (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 到了那里，他那本来已经玷污了的童贞又变得一片漆黑，面目全非……</div><div class="ex-item">... for a moment she was like a child, both reluctant and yet willing to be cozened—or homilized—out of tears. (ibid.) ……霎时间，她简直像个孩子一样，一边不情愿，一边又希望自己被哄着、劝着从痛苦中摆脱出来。/ Being out of money and business, he fell into evil company. (Henry Fielding, Joseph Andrews) 他没钱又没有工作，就同一些坏人交上了朋友。/ I am out of patience. (Shakespeare, Tempest) 我不耐烦了。/ When, out of hope, behold her, not far off. (John Milton, Paradise Lost) 失去希望时，就放眼看她吧，就在不远处。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> out of 从“离开”转义到“来自”，后面的名词保持为具体事物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a boy out of a fishing village 一个来自渔村的孩子</div><div class="ex-item">The project was financed out of the reserve fund. 该项目的经费来自预备金。/ She paid for it out of her own pocket. 这笔费用是她自己掏腰包支付的。/ He did well out of the deal. 他从这笔交易中得到很大好处。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> out of 的意义从负面的“离开”转义到正面的“出于，由于”，后面的名词由具体事物转为某种心态或条件。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>out of fear 出于害怕</div><div class="ex-item">out of habit 按照习惯</div><div class="ex-item">out of pity 出于怜悯心</div><div class="ex-item">out of friendship 出于友情</div><div class="ex-item">out of envy 出于羡慕</div><div class="ex-item">out of jealousy 出于妒忌心理</div><div class="ex-item">out of charity 慈善为怀</div><div class="ex-item">out of respect 出于尊重</div><div class="ex-item">out of boredom 由于烦闷</div><div class="ex-item">out of curiosity 出于好奇心</div><div class="ex-item">out of loyalty 出于忠心</div><div class="ex-item">out of deference for the monument 出于对纪念碑的尊重</div><div class="ex-item">out of concern for their welfare 出于对他们福利的关心</div><div class="ex-item">Out of necessity, we improvise and build much of our own equipment. 出于需要，我们即时设计并制造出自己的许多设备。/ I chastise thee not out of hatred, but out of love. (Henry Fielding, Tom Jones) 我现在惩戒你，不是出于仇恨，而是出于爱护。</div><br><br>这里需要注意的是如何区别负面和正面。例如 out of fear 是正面的“由于”，而 out of patience 则是负面的“失去”。大体上可以按照一个标准来区分：如果 out of 后面名词指的是某人本身出现的一种一时的、“有所作为”的心态或条件，就是正面的“由于，出于”(而且说了“由于什么”，还要进一步说出因此“做了什么”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I asked out of curiosity. 我出于好奇，就问了。/ There were news reports that consumers were reluctant to buy fish from the West Sea out of concern that they might be contaminated with chemicals from the spill. 有新闻报道说，消费者不愿意购买西海的渔产，因为担心这些鱼可能被泄油渗出的化学物所污染。/ Mother and Richard took him in out of duty, but certainly not out of desire. (Mary Higgins Clark, I'll Be Seeing You) 妈妈和理查德收容了他，是出于义务，而肯定不是出于意愿。/ The three ladies all sat with averted eyes: Mrs. Tranter out of embarrassment, Ernestina out of irritation with herself ... ; and Mrs. Poulteney out of being who she was. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 三个女人都垂眼坐着，但她们沉默的原因各不相同。特兰特姨妈是因为受到赞扬后十分窘迫；欧内斯蒂娜是因为生自己的气……；波尔蒂尼夫人则是得意扬扬，暗中高兴。/ (McCain) fashioned her (= Sarah Palin) out of political desperation ... (Richard Cohen, Palin's Red Menace, in Washington Post, Aug. 18, 2009) 麦凯恩出于政治上的饥不择食，把她装点了一番…… 此外，如果 out of 前面有个表示“发生，产生”的动词，也是正面的“出于”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>To resolve certain issues arising out of the Department's activities, a taxpayer or other persons subject to the Tax Law may ... 为了解决因为本部工作产生的某些问题，纳税人或其他受税法管辖的人可以……</div><br><br>如果不是某人本身一时出现的某种“有所作为”的心态或条件，out of 就是负面的“失去”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You're out of luck—she left ten minutes ago. 你运气不好，她十分钟前走了。也可以推论出，主语不是人时，不可能有什么心态，所以 out of 也就不能是正面的。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The washing machine is out of order. 洗衣机坏了。</div><br><br>如果 out of 后面的名词指的是某种“消极无为”的常态，就是负面的“失去”(往往不再进一步说做了什么)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> out of 有一个看起来像是负面(“在……之外”)而其实是正面(“在……管辖下”)的意义。这个义项许多词典中找不到。如 The International Institute of Education Fulbright program, which is run out of the Department of State, is not related and students applying to it are unaffected by the Department of Education decision. (UC Berkeley News, Feb. 4, 2004) 乍看之下，这里的 which is run out of the Department of State 似乎是“在国务院之外办理”。但是几天之后一条电讯就说得很明白：The State Department runs the International Institute of Education Fulbright program. (The Associated Press, Feb. 10, 2004) (国务院主办国际教育研究所富布莱特项目。) 可见前面那一句应该译成：“国际教育研究所富布莱特项目是在国务院管辖下运行的，它与教育部的决定无关，申请这个项目的学生不受教育部决定的影响。”<br><br>与此相似，谈到某个机构的所在地地点时，可以用 out of 来引入这个地点，意思是说这是它起作用的出发地点(管辖和作用范围则比这个地点大得多)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The Police Department of this city may be getting a new home after operating out of their undersized office space in the bottom of the City Hall since the station was constructed more than 120 years ago. 本市的警察局，自从 120 多年前建立以来，一直设在市政厅的底层，现在已经容纳不下，可能将搬迁到新的地址。/ Working out of the Chicago office, Janssen had a number of attributes to make him the logical choice to head up the investigation, ... (David Rosenfelt, Heart of a Killer) 詹森以芝加哥分局为根据地进行工作，他有好些能力，使得他成为主持这次调查的合适人选，……</div><div class="ex-item">Trump's national security team, who operated out of a conference room in Trump Tower, was based in New York during the transition, ... (CNN, Dec. 5, 2017) 特朗普的那个以特朗普大厦一个会议室为中心的国家安全班子，在过渡时期是以纽约为根据地的，……</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> live out of 中的 out of 没有负面的“离开”或“失去”的意义，而是表示“以……为生活方式的标志”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Traveling for months on end, he got very tired of living out of a suitcase. 他多少个月来东奔西跑，席不暇暖，疲惫不堪。/ We had neither gas nor electricity for a week and had to live out of cans. 我们整整一周断煤气断电，只好靠罐头食品度日。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 与 into 相对，out of 同一些表示劝说的动词一起，表示“劝说某人打消某个念头”。而且，同 into 用法一样，有些不及物动词可以临时当作及物动词使用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'll tell you later. If I tell you now, you'll try to talk me out of it. 我以后再告诉你。要是现在告诉了你，你就会劝我打消这个念头了。</div><br><br>
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outside
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>outside</b></div>可以作为介词，也可以作为副词。作为副词时，后面加上 of，也相当于介词的意义。但是其反义词 inside 多作为介词用，较少说 inside of。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Engineers from the Red Army obliterated yet another rocky outcropping outside of the fenced perimeter. (Tom Clancy, The Cardinal of the Kremlin)红军的工兵们在外围的围墙外，又削平了一个石峰。此外，outside of 不但可以表示空间和范围的意义，还可以在否定句中表示“除了……之外”，这是介词 outside 所不能表示的。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I don't have any work experience, outside of a few summer jobs. 我除了夏天干过一些零活，没有什么工作经验。/ Outside of my two cousins in California, I don't have many relatives in the United States. 我除了有两个表兄弟在加州，在美国没有多少亲戚。</div><br><br>
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outskirts
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>outskirts</b></div>这是一个必须用复数形式但又不可数的名词。即使是仅仅指“郊区”的单独一处地点，不是整片郊区，也必须用复数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The house is located on the outskirts of Washington, D.C. 房子位于首都华盛顿郊区。</div><br><br>
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out there
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>out there</b></div>参见 there 条。<br><br>
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out West
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>out West</b></div>人在东部(尤其是在美国)，谈到西部时，由于距离比较远，总有点遥远的感觉，常常就说 out West (作地点状语)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>People in the East simply have no understanding how difficult the water problems are out West. 住在东部的人，简直不能体会西部的水源问题是多么的困难。/ Between 1990 and 2000, all five of the fastest-growing states were out West: ... (U.S. News & World Report, Oct. 2, 2006, p. 49)自 1990 年至 2000 年，人口增长最快的五个州全都在西部……</div><br><br>人在西部，谈到东部时，也常说 out East。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If you are out East on the Island (= Long Island) and like wine, there are many excellent vineyards to visit with tasting at most of them. 你如果住在东部的长岛，又喜欢葡萄酒，那么，有许多极好的葡萄园可以供你观光，而且大都可以品尝。</div><br><br>至于南北，则较少用 out South 或 out North，而较多按照地图上的上下位置，说 up North 与 down South。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Although most of the alpine activities are out west or up north, a ski area 25 minutes from town is a resource that we are lucky to have. 尽管高山运动大都在西部和北部，但是我们很幸运拥有的一处资源，就是有一处滑雪区，离城区才 25 分钟的路程。英国人较少说 out West 或者 out East，但也一样说 up North 与 down South (人在此地也这样说)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>At least we are down south—up north they have plenty of water. (BBC, Mar. 17, 2006)起码我们是就南方而言，至于北方，水源充足得很。</div><br><br>
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out 与 out of
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>out 与 out of</b></div>美式英语多用 out，英式英语则多用 out of。如美式说 She looked out the window. (她往窗外看。) 英式则多说 She looked out of the window. 但是，需要有一个从内向外穿过的中间物，才可以用 out 而不用 out of；如果只是离开某物而向外，则美式英语也要用 out of。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The children gathered some bluebells before they went out of (*out) the wood and returned home. (Randolph Quirk et al. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language) 孩子们采集了一些风铃草，然后就走出树林回家了。</div><br><br>这里说的英美区别，并不是绝对的。英式英语也有用 out 代替 out of 的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>looking out the window (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes) 往窗外眺望。</div><br><br>
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over
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>over</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> over 表示超过某数量时，over 通常用于年龄(不能用 *above)、速度以及金钱、人数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You have to be over 18 to buy cigarettes. 你要 18 岁以上才能买香烟。/ He was driving at over 90 mph. 他当时驾驶速度在每小时 90 英里以上。/ I bought it for over two hundred dollars. 我是用 200 多美元把它买下的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> over 可以引入一个时间段，通常表示事情的发生不是一下子的，而是遍及整个时间段的，或者事情是遍及整个时间段，到了某一时间点时累积发生了某个总计性的变化。如果这个时间段是刚刚结束的，谓语动词通常就用现在完成时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Over the past few years our work here has gotten harder and harder. 最近几年以来，我们这里的工作越来越难做了。/ Over the past 150 years, surface air and water temperatures have been measured regularly at stations around the world. 近 150 年来，地面空气和水的温度，都由分布在全世界的测量站定期测量。/ Over the past 30 years, the Earth has warmed by 0.6°C or 1.08°F. Over the past 100 years, it has warmed by 0.8°C or 1.44°F. 近 30 年来，地球温度升高了 0.6 摄氏度，亦即 1.08 华氏度。过去 100 年来，地球温度升高了 0.8 摄氏度，亦即 1.44 华氏度。/ Over the past year, employment has increased in 48 States. 过去一年来，48 个州的就业人数增加了。/ The survey shows that newspaper readers' tastes and newspapers themselves have evolved considerably overthe past two decades. 调查表明，过去 20 年间，报纸读者的口味以及报纸本身都有了很大的变化。/ The incomes of the country's richest families have climbed substantially over the past two decades, while middle- and lower-income families have seen only modest increases. 我国最富有家庭的收入，近 20 年来大为增加了，而中低收入的家庭，则只有少量的增长。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> over 后面如果表示“餐饮”之类的名词，就表示“趁着一起进餐或喝东西的机会”(直接的意义可能是食品和饮料放在双方之间较低处的桌子上，说话交谈在桌面上较高处，“越过”食品或饮料)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Better check him out over drinks. 你最好同他一起喝两杯，打听出来。/ Finally, over brandies in the spacious, artistically decorated living room, it was Sam who introduced the subject that was on all their minds. 最后，在那宽敞的、布置得很艺术的客厅里，就趁大家喝白兰地酒的时候，萨姆谈起了那个本来都压在大家心头的问题。/ Over a quick lunch, a sandwich and a cup of tea in the breakfast room, she told me that ... (Mary Higgins Clark, Where Are You Now?)我们在早餐厅吃了一顿匆匆的早餐，只吃了三明治，喝了一杯茶，用餐时她告诉我……</div><div class="ex-item">More deals were made in this room over breakfast, lunch and cocktails than were consummated in all the offices of all the studios combined. 这个大厅里吃早餐、中饭和喝鸡尾酒的时候谈成的交易，数量比所有制片厂的所有办公室里谈成的还要多。有时候 over 单单用来描写人在进餐或用饮料。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Two priests were over glasses of beer at a café. (Sinclair Lewis, Dodsworth)两名牧师在一家咖啡馆里喝着玻璃杯里的啤酒。即使单独一个人用餐或用饮料，也可以用 over。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She read the Times over coffee. 她边喝咖啡边看《泰晤士报》。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> over 还可以表示“取舍”中的“舍”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... people chose one college over another to enhance their prospects in the corporate job market, ... (Malcolm Gladwell, “The Order of Things,” in The New York Times, Feb. 14, 2011)……人们挑选某一大学而放弃另一大学，是为了增强自己在就业市场上成功的机会……</div><div class="ex-item">... to value selectivity over efficacy ... (ibid.)……重视选择性而轻视功效性……</div><div class="ex-item">The majority of today's nursing homes grew out of a hospital model that emphasizes clinical efficiency over making a stay calm and pleasant. (U.S. News & World Report, Feb. 2010, p. 64)今天的养老院，大多是脱胎自医院的模式，这种模式注重临床效率，而不那么重视让人们在此安静而愉快地居住。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> over 有时候可以代替动词表示“琢磨，思考”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Having gathered these facts, Watson, I smoked several pipes over them, trying to separate those which were crucial from others which were merely incidental. (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes)华生，我将这些事实拼到一起之后，就用抽几斗烟的时间对这些事实反复琢磨，设法将那些关键的事实同那些仅仅是偶然的事实区别开来。</div><br><br>
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over-
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>over-</b></div>这个表示“过分，过多”的前缀，同 out- 一样，如果熟练掌握运用，可以省掉许多累赘的句型。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Some were punished for over-reporting output. 有些人由于虚报产量而受到处分。</div><br><br>
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overemphasize
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>overemphasize</b></div>The need for caution cannot be <i>overemphasized</i>. 这一句不能误译为“不能过分强调提防的必要”。原意是“提防的必要是没有被过分强调的可能的”，可译为“提防的必要如何强调也不过分”。参见 cannot 条。<br><br>
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overestimate
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>overestimate</b></div>... cannot be overestimated 是“如何估价都不过高”，这个 cannot 不是“禁止”，而是“不可能发生”。参见 cannot 条与 overemphasize 条。但是要注意：通常是“过高……”时 cannot 是“不可能发生”；如果是“过低……” (underestimate)，cannot 就是“不可以，禁止”了（因为通常不会说“如何估价都不过低”）。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>"When you show young people the telescope, they really seem to get it," he said. "SALT (South African Large Telescope) makes them want to get into science. You <i>can't</i> underestimate that in a country where science and math education were systematically neglected." (<i>The Washington Post</i>, Apr. 24, 2006) “你给年轻人看看这个望远镜，他们就的确显得跃跃欲试，”他说，“南非大望远镜使得他们渴望搞科学。这一点，在一个过去一向忽视科学和数学教育的国家，是不可以低估的。”</div><br><br>
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overlook
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>overlook</b></div>这个及物动词有“忽视，忽略”和“俯览”两大不同词义。美国纽约州的宁静湖 (Lake Placid, 1932 年和 1980 年的冬季奥运会曾在此举行) 有一家名叫“金箭” (Golden Arrow) 的湖畔旅馆，其广告上说：The only thing we <i>overlook</i> is the lake. 这里的 overlook 就是双关意义：“我们一切周全，毫无疏忽之处，俯览所至，湖光水色，尽收眼底。”<br><br>
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overoptimistic 与 over-optimistic
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>overoptimistic 与 over-optimistic</b></div>从 overemphasize 条以及类似的条目看来，凡是遇到“过分”被否定时，往往有可能反而是“不可能过分”亦即“无论多么……都不为过”的肯定意义。但并非都是如此。如果没有表示“可能”的词语，那么往往还是简单叙述式的“不过于……”，而非判断式的“无论多么……都不为过”。overoptimistic/over-optimistic 意义很简单，就是字面上的“过分乐观”。如果前面有否定，而没有表示“可能”的词语，也是字面上的“不过分乐观”，要避免误解为判断式的“再怎么乐观都不过分”。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Although the actual returns to the Federal Reserve Banks show a slight advantage over results from the same period in the Second Liberty Loan, Treasury Department officials are <i>not over-optimistic</i>. There is a disappointment in the returns from large cities, ... 尽管联邦储备银行的实际收益比同一时期第二自由债券的收益略多，但是财政部的官员们并不太乐观。人们对于从大城市来的收益感到失望，…… / During the first two courses they chatted about the Labor Party's chances of winning the next election, and both of them admitted they weren't <i>over-optimistic</i>. (Jeffrey Archer, <i>The Fourth Estate</i>) 吃头两道菜时，他们聊了一下工党下次选举有多大可能获胜的问题，两人都承认自己并不太乐观。(不是“再怎么乐观都不过分”)</div><br><br>
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overstate
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>overstate</b></div>同 overestimate 相类似，在有 can 的否定句中，表示“不可能过分”亦即“无论多么……都不为过”。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>One can hardly <i>overstate</i> how poorly the politician communicates his message and values. (Gingrich, in <i>Foreign Policy</i>, July/August, 2003, p. 46) 这个政客在传达自己的主张和价值观方面做得那么差，简直怎样形容都不过分。</div><br><br>
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overthrow
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>overthrow</b></div>原意是“弄倒(某竖立之物)”。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The heavy winds <i>overthrew</i> numerous telephone poles and trees. 强风吹倒了许多电话线杆和树木。转义是“推翻(当权者)”。</div><br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><i>overthrow</i> the government 推翻政府。</div><br><br>但是，如果直接宾语是某个文件、决定或规定，就要说 overturn。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The Supreme Court unanimously <i>overturned</i> the circuit court's “under God” nonsense. (<i>The Daily Gazette</i>, Dec. 22, 2011, A11) 最高法院一致推翻了巡回法院那个说什么“在上帝佑护下”的荒谬裁定。/ ... whether the entire law must be <i>overturned</i>. (<i>The New York Times</i>, Apr. 5, 2012, D5) ……是否整部法律该推翻。</div><br><br>如果是个人“推翻、不承认”自己原先的说法或供词，要说 recant。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... but she had spent six years in prison without having <i>recanted</i> that confession. (David Rosenfelt, <i>Heart of a Killer</i>) ……但是她已经在监狱中过了六年，一直没有推翻那个口供。</div><br><br>
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own
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>own</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> own 无论何时前面必须有物主代词(my、your、his、our、their等)，不能放冠词 the 或不定冠词 a/an。<br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 特指的事物，说 my own + 名词，your own + 名词，等等；不特指的事物说 a + 名词 + of my own，a + 名词 + of your own，等等。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a car <i>of his own</i> 他自己的一辆车子 / He seemed to harbour political ambitions <i>of his own</i>. 他似乎抱有自己的政治野心。/ Yet Blum had a secret policy <i>of his own</i>. 然而勃鲁姆有自己的秘密方针。</div><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 有些事物，是所有主通常必然或照例应该具有的，尽管是第一次提到，也可以认为属于特指的范围(当然，这个界限不是截然分明的)。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I saw it with my <i>own</i> eyes (<i>with eyes of my own</i>). 是我亲眼看见的。/ I have my <i>own</i> bedroom (<i>a bedroom of my own</i>). 我有自己的卧室。/ The apartment has its <i>own</i> entrance/an entrance of its <i>own</i>. 公寓有自己单独的出入口。/ I'd like to have my <i>own</i> room/a room of my <i>own</i>. 我想有自己的房间。/ She makes her <i>own</i> clothes (<i>clothes of her own</i>). 她自己缝制衣服。/ Each city has its <i>own</i> peculiarities/peculiarities of its <i>own</i>. 每个城市都有自己的特点。/ You'll have to make up your <i>own</i> mind (<i>a mind of your own</i>). 你要自己打定主意。/ He and his wife have their <i>own</i> car (in 私人汽车不普及的国家就说 a car of their <i>own</i>). 他们夫妻自己有汽车。/ He has an airplane of his <i>own</i> (较少说 his <i>own</i> airplane). 他自己有飞机。(私人飞机即使在美国也不普及) / The hotel has its <i>own</i> swimming pool (<i>a swimming pool of its own</i>). 旅馆有自己的游泳池。(有不少有)</div><br><br>
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ox
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>ox</b></div>参见 cow, ox, bull 与 buffalo 条。<br><br>
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package
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>package</b></div>表示“包裹”，有“一整包”的意思，因此转义为“计划，方案”或“建议”时，就有“一揽子方案”的含义，即要么全接受，要么全拒绝，不能只要一部分不要另一部分。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a U.N. package 联合国的一个一揽子方案。但是这个单词用得越来越多，“一揽子”的意义有所冲淡，往往只剩下“一套方案”的意义。</div><br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a high-speed railway plan package 一套高速铁路方案 / a one-time aid package 一套一次性援助方案 / a package of economic incentives 一套经济刺激方案 / the government's reform package 政府的改革方案 / severance package 全套解雇费用。但是，package 用作定语，仍然有较强的“一揽子”的含义。</div><br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a package deal 一次一揽子交易。</div><br><br>
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packed 与 crowded
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>packed 与 crowded</b></div>参见 crowded 与 packed 条。<br><br>
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pagan 与 infidel
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>pagan 与 infidel</b></div>pagan 这个形容词，英汉词典上通常译为“（从基督教角度看）属异教的”，但是实际上这个“异教”在日常使用中，往往指基督教出现之前的古希腊罗马神话。但是即使是信仰基督教的西方人，对于古希腊罗马文化传统和神话也并不排斥，pagan 这个词并没有多大的贬义。<br><br>而 infidel 则有强烈的贬义。基督教与伊斯兰教在历史上的宗教战争中，就互称为 infidel，但从来不用 pagan 这个词称呼对方，因为词义内涵不是一回事。<br><br>
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page
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>page</b></div>单面是 page，双面是 leave。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... while turning over the leaves (*pages) of my book. (Charlotte Brontë, Jane Eyre)……正当我在自己的书中翻页时。</div><br><br>
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pain, painful, ache 与 hurt
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>pain, painful, ache 与 hurt</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> pain 作为不可数名词（无任何冠词）表示肉体的疼痛时，是笼统的或是泛指疼痛。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Pain is the body's way of telling us that something is wrong. 疼痛是身体用来告诉你出了问题的一种办法。/ You can pre-empt pain by taking a painkiller at the first warning sign. 一发现警告信号，马上服用止痛片，就可以防止疼痛。/ She was writhing in pain, bathed in perspiration. 她痛得挣扎打滚，大汗淋漓。/ Mom's face was full of pain. 妈妈的脸上是一副痛苦的表情。/ She awoke in pain. 她痛醒过来。/ He twisted his face with/in pain. 他痛得脸都扭曲了。</div><br><br>pain 作为可数名词（有 the 或 a）时是特定场合下身体特定部位的疼痛。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I've got a pain in my leg. 我腿痛。/ He has a pain in his ear. 他耳朵痛。/ Where is the pain? 你哪里痛？/ The pain is always in the same place. 老是同一处地方痛。/ I felt a sharp pain in my lower back. 我后背下部感到剧痛。如果指特定部位但痛处分散或重复发作的疼痛，可以用复数的 pains 代替 a pain。</div><br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was suffering from pains in his abdomen. 他肚子痛。</div><br><br>如果 pain 同别的的不舒适并列，即使上下文表明了身体部位，也当作不可数名词<br><br>处理。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The bones begin to grind against each other, leading to pain and deformity. 骨头开始彼此研磨，引起疼痛与变形。/ I have recently been suffering from pain and numbness in my hands. 我最近手部感到疼痛和麻木。/ Heart disease often shows itself first as pain or tightness in the chest. 心脏病最初的表现，往往是胸痛和胸闷。</div><br><br>身体特定部位作为形容词或名词前置，pain 仍是不可数。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>abdominal pain 肚子痛 / alleviate back pain 缓解背痛。</div><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 修饰 pain 的形容词有很多，如：acute、excruciating、intense、unbearable、sharp、dull、slight、burning、stabbing、stinging、throbbing、constant、severe、gnawing、nagging。<br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 复数形式的 pains 可以转义为“劳苦，努力”。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A cup of tea was all I got for my pains. 我辛苦了一番，就得到了一杯茶。pains 常常结合另一些词语，形成惯用词组，如 be at great pains to inf.、take great/considerable/much pains to inf.、go to great pains to inf. 之类。</div><br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She was at great pains to dissociate herself from ... 她拼命要洗刷自己同……的关系。/ I took considerable pains to explain it to them. 我费了很大的劲去向他们解释。/ He went to great pains to help us. 他费心帮助了我们。/ They spared no pains to make/in making me feel at home. 他们竭力要使我过得舒服。/ Mobil is at pains to point out that the chances of an explosion at the site are remote. 美孚石油公司在竭力表示，在这个地点发生爆炸的可能性是十分渺茫的。/ I had taken great pains with my appearance. 我费了很大的劲整理自己的仪表。</div><br><br>pains 作“劳苦”或“努力”解时必须用复数，成了复数形式的不可数名词，因此不能说 *many pains 而要说 much pains。作主语时往往不用 much pains，而改用 great pains，但在古英语中也以 much pains 作主语。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Much pains were taken, during the second trial, to induce them to sign articles of subscription; ... (George Godfrey Cunningham, A History of England in the Lives of Englishmen) 第二轮审判期间，费了很大的力气去说服他们签署悔过书，……/ I have it by me still, and sometimes look at it with surprise, to think how much pains were thrown away to little purpose, ... (William Hazlitt's essay, "On the Pleasure of Painting") 这幅画我现在还保留着，有时候我看着它心里就感到惊讶，为了这个微不足道的目的，花掉了多少心血，……</div><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> pain 是各种各样的疼痛。ache 则多指身体内部器官的疼痛而非外部肌肤的伤痛，而且 ache 既可以是名词，也可以是不及物动词。动词 ache（表示延续状态的第一类动词）的主语可以是整个人，也可以是身体的某个部位。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I ache/am aching all over. 我全身都痛。（I ache. 表示长时间的延续，I am aching. 表示说话当时的延续。）/ My feet ache. 我脚痛。如果疼痛部位尚未确定，可以暂时以 it 为主语。</div><br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Where does it ache? 哪里疼？</div><br><br>hurt 同 ache 用法相似，但可以指外部肌肤的伤痛。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My leg hurts. 我腿痛。/ Where does it hurt? 哪里痛？/ Do you hurt? 你感到痛吗？/ I hurt all over. 我全身都痛。</div><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> painful 作为形容词，表示肉体疼痛，通常限于身体的个别部位，很少用于指<br><br>整個人。因此，問別人「痛不痛」時不習慣說 Are you painful? 更多說 Are you in <b>pain</b>?<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm in constant <b>pain</b>. 我一直都痛。/ She was in great <b>pain</b>. 她痛得很厲害。/ He suffered from a <b>painful</b> back. 他當時背痛。/ Her glands were swollen and <b>painful</b>. 她的腺體又腫又痛。/ Is your back still <b>painful</b>? 你的背現在還痛嗎？/ My back is so <b>painful</b> that I cannot stand upright any more. 我背痛得無法站直。偶爾也有用 painful 描述整個人的，但不多見。</div><br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Henry seemed to be pretty much the same man when he was <b>painful</b>/in pain as when he was not. 亨利痛的時候和不痛的時候，樣子看起來差不多。</div><br><br>說某人 painful 可能產生意想不到的歧義，可能指某個演員表演一塌糊塗，或是某個演說家或電視節目主持人講的話語無倫次。這個特殊詞義的來歷，很可能是因为說某人 painful，其實后面略去了 watch、behold、look at、listen to 之類，所以不是本人 painful，是 watch him、behold him、look at him、listen to him 這件事情 painful。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>(At the beginning,) she was <b>painful</b> to behold. Everything she did was studied, whether she sat down, rose, walked, it appeared to be stilted, overdone, affected, and looked cruder than a slow-motion movie. (Florence Treadwell, in Peter Kurth, <i>Isadora, A Sensational Life</i>) (開頭時) 她的舉止十分难看。她的一舉一動經過觀察研究，無論是坐下，站起，走路，都顯得呆板做作、迂緩不及、裝腔作勢，比慢鏡頭的影片還更加生硬。這一来，painful 单独用，也保持了這個含義。painful 用於這個意義，還可以作為名詞的前置定語。</div><br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a <b>painful</b> actress 一個糟糕的女演員 / a <b>painful</b> performance 一場糟糕的演出。</div><br><br>普醫談到寵物的病時，比之談到人生病時更多說 She/He is <b>painful</b> (in her abdomen). 這個疼痛不是貓狗自己說出來的，是人觀察出來的，也有「給人印象」的意思。<br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> painful 以及 hurt 都可以轉义用于造成肉體疼痛的具体或抽象事物 (ache 及名詞 pain 則不可)。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My boots are still <b>painful</b>. 我的靴子仍然痛腳。/ This condition is <b>painful</b>. 這種病是很痛苦的。/ The procedure is not <b>painful</b>. 手術不痛。/ He got a <b>painful</b> blow on the nose. 他的鼻子被痛痛地打了一下。/ My shoes <b>hurt</b>. 我的鞋子痛腳。/ The procedure <b>hurts</b> much less than open abdominal surgery. 這種手術比開腹部手術疼痛輕得多。/ Dental disease <b>hurts</b> like hell. 牙病痛得要命。</div><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 只有 ache 不能轉义用于表示精神上的痛苦，其余 pain、painful 和 hurt 都可以轉义。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I remember, with <b>pain</b>, his tears. 我痛苦地回想起他當時的眼淚。/ It's sometimes <b>painful</b> to know the truth. 有時候，知道真相就令人難過。/ Remarks like that brought back <b>painful</b> memories. 像那樣的說法，引起了痛苦的回憶。/ She finds it too <b>painful</b> to return there without him. 她覺得，不跟他一起回那邊去太痛苦了。/ It <b>hurts</b> to have to admit it, but I was in the wrong. 不得不承認這一點，是令人難受的，但是我的確是錯了。但是，ache for something 或 ache to inf. 却失去了「痛苦」的含義，轉义為「渴望」（表示延續狀態或延續動作的第一類或第二類動詞）。</div><br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... because the nation <b>ached for</b> something new. (The Associated Press, Jan. 12, 2009)…… 因為國人渴望一個新局面。/ She was <b>aching for</b> home. 她渴望回家。/ He <b>ached to</b></div><br><br>see her. 他渴望看見她。<br><br>
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painter
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>painter</b></div>可以是「畫家」。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>an oil <b>painter</b> 油畫家 / a watercolour <b>painter</b> 水彩畫家 / a portrait <b>painter</b> 肖像畫家。也可以是「油漆匠」。</div><br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a sign <b>painter</b> 招牌油漆工。</div><br><br>
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pair
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>pair</b></div>對通常成雙的事物加以修飾時，形容詞應該放在那裡？比如說，a pair of shoes 如果要加上修飾定語 nice，應該是說 a pair of nice shoes 呢，還是一個 nice pair of shoes 呢？按照中國人的語言習慣，應該是前者最自然。在英語中，說 a pair of nice shoes 也很普遍。但是將 nice 放在 pair 之前也十分普遍。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a <b>nice pair of</b> earrings 一對漂亮的耳環 / a <b>nice pair of</b> sunglasses 一副很好的墨鏡 / a <b>nice pair of</b> alligator shoes 一雙漂亮的鱷魚皮鞋。</div><br><br>通常放在 pair 之前的修飾定語，是主觀性質評價的，客觀性質的定語仍然放在 of 之後。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a <b>nice pair of</b> stereo speakers 一對漂亮的立體聲音箱 / a <b>beautiful pair of</b> dancing shoes 一雙美麗的舞鞋。</div><br><br>但是有時連客觀性質的定語也放到 pair 之前。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a <b>black pair of</b> shoes 一雙黑鞋 / a <b>leather pair of</b> shoes 一雙皮鞋。不過，十分獨特的客觀性質定語，通常仍然放在 of 後面。</div><br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a <b>nice pair of</b> Audio Technica ATH-EM7 clip-on headphones 一副很漂亮的 Audio Technica ATH-EM7 夾耳式耳機。</div><br><br>對於成雙的商品，如果自己決定購買，可以說 I'll take this <b>pair</b> 也可以說 I'll take it.<br><br>
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pajama
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>pajama</b></div>在美式英語中，pajama 如果作為名詞，通常要像 scissors 那樣「成雙」地出現。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a pair of <b>pajamas</b> 一套睡衣褲。如果不強調「一套」，則簡稱 pajamas (總是用複數)。同 scissors 不同的是，a pair of <b>pajamas</b> 其實并不是相同的兩件東西，而是一件上衣和一條褲子。pajama 在美式英語中作為單數出現時总是作另一名詞的前置定語。</div><br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>pajama</b> top 睡衣 / <b>pajama</b> bottom 睡褲。</div><br><br>
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palate
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>palate</b></div>原意是「上顎」，轉义為「品嚐食物的器官」，更進一步轉义為「食客」。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is a common ingredient of a stew and, being cheap, is widely eaten but does not seem popular with more refined <b>palates</b>. 這是一种肉湯的常用材料，由於价廉，吃的人很多，但對於更加講究的美食家來說，就似乎不那么受歡迎。</div><br><br>
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paradigm
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>paradigm</b></div>這本來是个學術用語，近年來逐漸滲入日常用語之中。它的意義，似乎同中文的「樣板」比較接近。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Louis XIV, the <b>paradigm</b> of absolute monarchs ... (John Wilkinson, in <i>The Center Magazine</i>, March 1968) 专制君主的樣板路易十四…… 有時候相當於「模式」。</div><br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His logic is the familiar <b>paradigm</b>: If radicals take two steps forward, society will eventually take one. (Robert Sklar, in <i>The Progressive</i>, February 1967) 他的逻辑就是人們熟悉的這個模式：如果激進派向前迈出兩步，社會最終就會向前迈出一步。/ This <b>paradigm</b> shift from reductionism to holism is altering</div><br><br>the practice of medicine in America today. (Interface, Fall 1979)这个从简约论到整体论的转型，正在改变着今天美国的医疗事业。<br><br>
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parameter
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>parameter</b></div>这本来是个自然科学术语，中文是“参数”，或“参变量”，即“在所讨论的数学或物理问题中，起某种作用的变量”。但是，自然科学用语日渐侵入日常语言尤其是人文领域，已经是大势所趋。parameter 这个术语是日常语言中用得较多的一个，不过意义发生了一些变化，接近“因素” (factor)、“标准” (criterion)、“限度” (limit)。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But a true novel is an extended piece of fiction: Length is clearly one of its <i>parameters</i>. (Anthony Burgess, in <i>The New York Times Book Review</i>, Feb. 5, 1984) 但是一部真正的长篇小说，是大型的虚构文学作品，篇幅的长短显然是因素之一。/ The two basic <i>parameters</i> of the industry—production index and price index—also point up the flat state of the West German chemical economy. (Dermot O'Sullivan, in <i>Chemical & Engineering News</i>, Feb. 22, 1982) 工业的两大基本参数，即生产指数和价格指数，都突出显示了西德化学经济的疲软状态。/ In the event that temperature levels exceed <i>parameters</i>, the system will warn the operator. (<i>Datamation</i>, February 1976) 如果温度超出了限度，这套系统就会对操作者发出警告。</div><br><br>
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part
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>part</b></div>演剧时分配角色，每个角色就是“分配”的一部分，也就是 part。所以 part 可以是“角色；身份”（“份”字同 part 词义也接近）。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>And yet it would be the blackest treachery to Holmes to draw back now from the <i>part</i> he had intrusted to me. (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, <i>The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes</i>) 更何况如果我退缩放弃福尔摩斯交托给我的角色，那将是对他最卑鄙的背叛。/ Now that you are a professor, I would appreciate it if you would make an effort to look your <i>part</i>. 你现在既然是个教授，我倒很希望你能下点功夫，显得你符合这个身份。</div><br><br>值得注意的是，the part、his part、your part 虽然形式上是名词成分，但实际上可以在句子中起状语的作用，其前面的动词可以是不及物动词，要注意这个 ... part 不是宾语。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He acted the <i>part</i> of Hamlet. 他扮演哈姆雷特的角色。/ He just doesn't look the <i>part</i>. 他简直就不像这样的人。/ Now that you are a professor, I would appreciate it if you would make an effort to look your part. 你现在既然是个教授，我倒很希望你能下点功夫，显得你符合这个身份。由于 ... part 接近于状语而非名词成分，所以即使主语是复数，part 也仍然是单数。</div><br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They just act the <i>part</i> (<i>parts</i>). 他们只不过是摆摆样子罢了。</div><br><br>
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part and parcel
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>part and parcel</b></div>粗略看来，part and parcel 意思就是“（其中的）一部分”，同 part 的意义差不多，and parcel 似乎是画蛇添足。但其实 part and parcel 比之简单的 part，还有更深的意义，强调整体的一个有机组成部分，而 part 只是简单地表示“部分”而已。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... mannerisms that now seem old-fashioned but that were <i>part and parcel</i> of the virtuoso violin playing of the time. (Winthrop Sargeant, in <i>Saturday Review</i>, Oct. 4, 1975) ……演奏中的特殊习惯，现在看起来像是过时的，但是在当时却是高超的小</div><br><br>提琴演奏的一个有机组成部分。<br><br>
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part of
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>part of</b></div>part of 前面不用 a。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><i>Part of</i> what I'm searching for is a reason for that slowing. 我正在探寻的问题当中，一部分就是要弄清楚进度为什么慢了下来。</div><br><br>
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(on the) part (of)
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(on the) part (of)</b></div>参见 on the part of 条。<br><br>
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partial
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>partial</b></div>这个形容词有两个差别很大的词义，一个是“局部的，部分的”。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She made a <i>partial</i> recovery. 她局部痊愈了。但是另一个词义则是“偏袒的，不公正的”。</div><br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He is <i>partial</i> in his judgments. 他的判断是偏袒的。/ The teacher is <i>partial</i> to his brighter students. 老师偏心自己的优等生。一般情况下，凭上下文和语境可以判别（例如说一个人 partial 就不可能是“局部的”）。</div><br><br>关于 partial 派生的副词 partially 与另一个副词 partly 的区别，参见 partially 与 partly 条。<br><br>
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partially 与 partly
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>partially 与 partly</b></div>由于形容词 partial 有“局部的”和“偏袒的”两个差别很大的词义，它的派生副词 partially 有时候也会引起歧义。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The testimony was <i>partially</i> recorded. 这句话可以是“证词部分地记录下来了”，也可以是“证词被带偏见地记录下来了”。此时如果是前一个意思，最好避免 partially 而用 partly 或 in part。</div><br><br>partly 只有“部分地，局部地”的词义。它和 partially 都大约从 15 世纪就开始在英语中出现，两者“部分地”这一意义相近。对于 partially 能否表示“局部地”，许多语言学家争论激烈。亨利·W.福勒 (Henry W. Fowler) 提出了 partially 与 partly 的区别标准，这个标准大体上站得住，就是：partially 偏重于“质”方面的“不完全”，而 partly 则偏重于“量”方面的“不完全”。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is <i>partly</i> wood. 这有一部分是木质的。/ ... his <i>partially</i> re-established health ……他多少恢复了健康 / ... their ramble did not appear to have been more than <i>partially</i> agreeable. (Jane Austen, <i>Mansfield Park</i>) ……他们的游玩，看来只不过是略微有点愉快而已。/ ... steps were taken to furnish these <i>partially</i> trained forces with whatever equipment could be made available. (George C. Marshall, <i>The United States at War</i>) ……对于这些只受到过部分训练的部队，就设法因陋就简，有什么装备就拿什么装备来给他们用。/ ... but he has only <i>partially</i> succeeded in it. (<i>Times Literary Supplement</i>, Apr. 16, 1970) ……但是他在这件事情上只是部分地成功了。但是这个区别也不是绝对的。有时候即使偏重“质”，也可以用 partly。</div><br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... while not convincing, is at least <i>partly</i> true. (Edwin O. Reischauer, <i>The New York Times Book Review</i>, May 23, 1954) ……尽管不能服人，但起码部分是真实的。</div><br><br>partially 与 partly 除了在词义上略有差别之外，在用法上也有差别。在表示原因的词组或从句之前，更多用 partly 而少用 partially（尽管这是“质”而非“量”方面的“不完全”）。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... it is also <i>partly</i> (<i>partially</i>) <i>because</i> Chaucer's English lies almost directly behind our own. (W. F. Bolton, <i>A Short History of Literary English</i>) ……这</div><br><br>也是因为乔叟的英语几乎是直接发展成我们今天的英语的。/ <i>Partly</i> (<i>partially</i>) <i>for</i> this reason, the search ... was not undertaken. (Noam Chomsky, <i>Columbia Forum</i>, Spring 1968)由于这一原因，征稿……没有举行。<br><br>
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partisan
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>partisan</b></div>主要的意义是“具有党派色彩的”（往往因此有贬义，暗示“不公正的”）。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Alternative counts on these and other subjects were rejected as <i>partisan</i> or uninformed. (<i>The Washington Post</i>, Mar. 20, 2007)这些和其他方面的计算数字，如果与此不同，就被当作有党派色彩或是情报来源不确而被否定。</div><br><br>但是 <i>partisan</i> 也常表示“游击队的”或“游击队员”。2006年10月23日美联社的一条电讯，标题是 GOP losses could spark <i>partisan</i> warfare。这里 <i>partisan</i> 用的是双关手法（“游击的”和“党派的”），意思是：一旦民主党在2006年11月国会中期选举中夺回多数席位，共和党就失去一统天下的地位，两党就会转而进行分散的一个个法案的争夺，又是党派之争，又是游击战。<br><br>
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partner
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>partner</b></div>同 <i>friend</i> 一样，在 I'm <i>partners</i> with Andrew. (我是安德鲁的伙伴。)中，<i>partners</i> 要用复数。<br><br>
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party
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>party</b></div>除了“政党”和“联欢会”这两个意义之外，<i>party</i> 还可以表示参与某一共同行为当中的一方（共同行为用介词 to 引入）。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a solution acceptable to both <i>parties</i> 一个双方都能接受的解决方案 / <i>all parties</i> concerned 所有有关方面 / <i>the guilty party</i> 有罪的一方 / <i>the innocent party</i> 无辜的一方 / <i>the parties to the contract</i> 合同订立的各方 / be (a) <i>party to</i> the crime 参与犯罪行为 / I won't be (a) <i>party to</i> that. 我不会参与那件事的。甚至可以代替 <i>person</i>。</div><br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... my travelling companions were very disagreeable individuals; these <i>parties</i> being a pair of squalid females and two equally unwelcome personages of the male sex. (William Cullen Bryant, <i>Letters of a Traveller</i>)……我的旅伴们是一些令人很不愉快的人；他们是两个邋邋遢遢的女人和两个同样不受欢迎的男人。</div><br><br><i>party</i> 还可以指一批聚在一起的人（不一定是有意相聚的，也可以是偶然碰在一起的）。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... he unpacked enough little boxes to feed a <i>party</i> of five. (Estelle Ryan, <i>The Gauguin Connection</i>)……他打开一堆外卖盒来让这五人吃。</div><br><br>
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pass
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>pass</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为及物动词（瞬时事件，第四类动词），表示“表决通过（某决议或法规）”，搭配比较独特。可以以机构为主语，文件为宾语（这与中国人的语言心理是一致的）。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The budget resolution the Senate <i>passed</i> on April 6 calls for a $1.188 trillion tax cut over the next 10 years. 参议院4月6日通过的预算决议，规定今后10年间减税1.188万亿美元。但是，它也可以反过来，以文件（或任何被审查之物）为主语，以审查机构为宾语（按中国人的心理习惯会觉得别扭）。</div><br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The law <i>passed</i> the Assembly. 法案经州议会通过了。/ That scene will never <i>pass</i> the censor. 那个镜头到了审查官那里一定通不过。</div><br><br>也可以转义为“经得起（考验）”（可以是表示瞬时事件的第四类动词，也可以是表示延续状态的第一类动词）。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>All our products have to <i>pass</i> a rigorous inspection. 我们所有的产品都必须经过严格的检验。（瞬时事件）/ It <i>passes</i> all the safety requirements. 它符合一切安全要求。（延续状态）</div><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 开汽车时 <i>pass</i> 别人的车，有两种可能：一是双方同一个方向，这是“超车”；另一个可能则是两车迎面而来，需要从上下文或语境来辨别。如 We <i>passed</i> a lot of cars on the road. 可以是“我们一路超了很多车”，也可以是“我们一路迎面遇到了很多车”。如果上下文清楚，就可以判断究竟是“超过”还是“迎面遇到”。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Another bus honked impatiently and <i>passed</i> her car. 又一辆公共汽车不耐烦地按喇叭，超过了她的车。美国和加拿大接送学生上学放学的校车，一到站停下来就不许其他车辆从其旁边开过，以保障学生下车后过马路的安全。为此，有些地方竖立相应牌子：Unlawful to <i>Pass</i> Stopped School Bus on Either Side. (校车停站时，两边开车驶过均属违法。)</div><br><br>同样，步行时 <i>pass</i> 也可能是“与之迎面相遇”或是“从后面超过”，但由于不是车辆，“从后面超过”的可能不太大。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This was why Charles had the frequent benefit of those gray-and-periwinkle eyes when she opened the door to him or <i>passed</i> him in the street. (John Fowles, <i>The French Lieutenant's Woman</i>)这就是为什么每次她给查尔斯开门或在街上撞见他时，查尔斯总是有幸得到那对灰蓝色眸子传来的秋波。</div><br><br>
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passive
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>passive</b></div>同中文的“被动的”只有部分意义相同，但许多人往往以为两者完全相等。中文的“被动”，如果指消极，自己不动，被人家推一推动一动，英文可以是 <i>passive</i>（例如语法术语 <i>passive voice</i>）。<br><br>但是如果“被动”指的是更为糟糕的“被动挨打”，并无还手之力，英文说 <i>passive</i> 就不够，最好说 <i>on the defensive</i>，自己处于被动是 <i>be on the defensive</i>，使对方处于被动是 <i>leave/put ... on the defensive</i>。<br><br>如果“被动”指的是“尴尬，为难”，可以用在 <i>an awkward position</i> 代替 <i>on the defensive</i>。<br><br>
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past
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>past</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为介词，<i>past</i> 最基本的意义是“（从外部）经过”（动态的）。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I go <i>past</i> their house every morning. 我每天早上都经过他们家。/ She walked straight <i>past</i> him. 她径直从他身边走过。/ How did you get <i>past</i> the guard? 你是怎样通过警卫的？</div><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 也可以是静态的“在其后面”（其实也来自动态的“经过之后”）。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's just <i>past</i> the school. 过了学校就是。/ It's the second turning <i>past</i> the lights. 过了红绿灯，第二个路口就是。</div><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 意义从空间转到时间，还是“在其后面”。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's ten <i>past</i> six. 现在6点过10分。/ It was <i>past</i> eleven. 那是11点钟多了。/ The party went on till <i>past</i> midnight. 聚会一直进行到午夜之后。/ She must be <i>past</i> 50. 她一定已经50开外了。</div><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 可以表示否定（与 <i>above</i>, <i>beyond</i> 接近），后面可以接上名词或动名词。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's <b>past</b> repair. 这已经无法修理了。/ It's <b>past</b> all belief. 简直难以置信。/ He was <b>past</b> caring what other people thought of him. 别人对他有什么看法，他都不在乎。</div><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> get past something 是“摆脱，克服”的意思(瞬时动词)。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>While it may be difficult to <b>get past</b> the feelings of shame and failure, the truth is, asking for help may be the only way to get the assistance you need. 尽管羞耻感和挫折感可能不那么容易克服，但是求助于别人的确是得到所需帮助的唯一途径。这个 something 也可以是个动名词。</div><br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Once you <b>get past</b> being offended about anything, life is so much easier. 你一旦摆脱了动不动就抱委屈的心境，你的日子就好过多了。</div><br><br>但是 get past something 还可以表示“经历某种一时的状态之后平静下来”。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Once you <b>get past</b> the happy surprise of finding a politician who can actually write, the book contains some disquieting elements. (Mona Charen, in <i>The Daily Gazette</i>, Mar. 8, 2008, A7) 你一开头，会因为看到竟然有一位政客能真正提笔写作而惊喜一番，但是往下看下去，就会发现这本书有某些令人担心之处。</div><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> be past + -ing 是 get past + -ing 造成的延续状态，意思是“已经超过了”某种状态。这里有两种意义，一种是“比这个更甚”(不否定这个)，另一种是“已经不再如此”(否定这个)，需要按照上下文仔细琢磨。这里里面又可以分成几种情况：<br><br>(a) 表示否定(如此状况是暂时性的，现已不再如此了)。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She always hid her eggs, though, so we never found 'em 'til they were <b>past being</b> edible. 但是她总是把她的鸡蛋藏起来，所以我们一直找不到，最后找到，鸡蛋都已经不能吃了。(edible 状态不持久。) / The stairs look like they were <b>past being</b> usable. 楼梯看来已经不能用了。(usable 状态不持久。) / They were <b>past being</b> polite. 他们不再客气了。(polite 状态不持久。) / We all thought we were <b>past having</b> children die because of bacterial infections. Well, we are not. 我们大家原先都以为我们的孩子不会再因为细菌感染而死去了。其实并非如此。/ In way of encouragement, I'd like to share a couple of recent acquisitions that many people would have thought were <b>past being</b> useful. 作为抛砖引玉，我要介绍一下近期收到的许多人曾以为已经无用的一些物品。/ Three weeks before she died, she was <b>past being</b> bitter. But she was still angry she hadn't been told what would happen. 她去世前三个礼拜就已经不再抱恨了。但是她对于人家不把将要发生什么事情告诉她，仍然很生气。/ After meeting I grew worse and worse; my feelings were <b>past being</b> described by the human tongue. (Oliver B. Huntington, <i>Autobiography</i>) 会面之后，我的情况越来越糟；我的心情已非人类语言所能形容。/ I realized that I was <b>past being</b> excited by anything. 我认识到，什么事情都不会使我激动了。</div><br><br>有时候不单是“再也不”，还有“再也不能”的意思，不用再加 able。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>At seven o'clock he woke up and I could see that he was <b>past being</b> lulled back to sleep. So we went to the living room to greet mama. 7 点钟他醒了，我看到再也不能哄他睡了，于是我们就一起到大厅去向妈妈道早安。/ We soon realized that there was no word for "menopause" in Fijian, and that menopause was not an issue for these women. ... When they were told that they were <b>past being</b> pregnant, they heaved a sigh of relief. 我们很快地发现，斐济语中没有“绝经”这个字眼，对于这些妇女来说，绝</div><br><br>经不算是个问题。如果大夫告诉她们说，她们已经不会怀孕，她们就如释重负，松了一口气。/ But the men could not be driven, they were <b>past being</b> driven, being too sick even to work for food, so many continued to die not only from their diseases but from starvation. 但是对他们逼也逼不了，他们已经无可再逼了，哪怕是干活有饭吃也干不了，于是就继续死好多人，不光是病死的，还是饿死的。<br><br>(b) 表示肯定的“早已如此”(如此状况一经形成就不易改变，因而仍保持)。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... the owner of <i>Empire Builder</i> was <b>past being</b> ready to go to sea, where the air was cooler and the breezes unrestricted. (Tom Clancy, <i>Clear and Present Danger</i>)……“帝国建设者号”的船主，早就一切就绪，准备出海，海上的空气要来得凉爽一些，微风吹来吹去不受阻挡。(ready 通常不会转变为不 ready。) / Everyone was <b>past being</b> ready for bed. 人人都早就准备就寝。</div><br><br>究竟“早就”早了多长时间？可以把时间的长度放在 past 前面。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They were an hour <b>past being</b> ready to go. 他们一个钟头前就准备好出发了。/ These methods are long <b>past being</b> ready to be used in the U.S. for the same purpose. 这些方法早就可以拿到美国来用于同样的目的。/ By now, I was well <b>past being</b> ready for bed. 在这之前，我早就已经准备好上床睡觉了。</div><br><br>(c) 表示“保持已经达到的状态，但更进一步”。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Now I was <b>past being</b> anxious and quickly becoming frightened. 这时我何止是焦急，我很快就恐慌起来了。/ However, I didn't have to imagine it, because it—this exact circumstance—was right in front of me. But already it was <b>past being</b> just the thing itself; it had become the construction of memory in sentences. 不过，我用不着对它加以想象，因为它，这个非常明确的情况，就摆在我的面前。但是它已经不光是它本身了；它已经成为用词句表达的回忆了。/ The two travellers thought they were <b>past being</b> shocked by the brutality and senseless loss of life they had seen. But what happened later managed to shock them even further. 两个旅客目睹这样残暴的行径和生命的无谓牺牲，本来已经够震惊的了，但是后来发生的事情使他们更加震惊。/ My feet and hands were <b>past being</b> numb and pain began creeping up my legs. 我不光是手脚麻木了，疼痛还开始沿着我的腿向上蔓延。</div><br><br>(d) 表示“已经不光是是”，但是实际意义只是加强语气。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The guitar had been hanging on the wall so long the strings were <b>past being</b> dead. 那个吉他挂在墙上那么久，琴弦都坏了。/ By the time I read the Congress for Cultural Freedom papers in the National Library in the late 1970s, I was <b>past being</b> shocked that they had taken CIA money. 我 20 世纪 70 年代末期在国家图书馆看到文化自由大会的文件时，对于他们竟然拿了中央情报局的钱感到震惊。</div><br><br>
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(in the) past year 与 last year
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(in the) past year 与 last year</b></div>last year 是日历上的“去年”，与之相搭配的谓语动词要用一般过去时。in the past year 则是迄今为止的 12 个月时间(常常要跨两个日历年度)，与之相搭配的谓语动词通常用现在完成时。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>In the past year</b>, Congress <b>has approved</b> $80 billion in budget authority. 过去一年内，国会在其预算职权范围内通过的预算有 800 亿美元。/ My life has changed a lot in the past year. 我的生活在过去的一年间变化很大。/ In the past year alone, we have hired roughly half a dozen college grads with a starting salary in the mid-to high $40,000 range. 过去一年间，我们雇用了五六名大学毕业生，底薪在 45,000—50,000 美元。/ Fully 15% of Americans say there have been times in the past year they have been unable to afford food. 有整整 15% 的美国人说，过去一年间，他们曾经有过买不起食品的时候。</div><br><br>但是也有用一般过去时的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Also in the past year, an estimated 575,000 (17%) adults in the state played Lottery games to the exclusion of the other two. 也是在过去一年间，估计该州有 575,000 个成年人(17%)买过彩票，但是没有参与其他两种赌博。/ Attention should be paid to those who in the past year forgot or disregarded Mr. Jefferson's admonition that freedom of speech "cannot be limited without being lost." 有些人在过去的一年当中忘记了或者是忽视了杰弗逊先生关于言论自由“如果受到限制就等于丧失”的忠告，对于这些人，应该予以重视。尤其是如果有一个主句和一个定语从句，后者有 in the past year 这个时间状语，则通常从句谓语动词用一般过去时，主句谓语动词用现在完成时。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If any member of the campus community who died in the past year has been inadvertently omitted, contact John Edwards. 如果校友当中有过去一年间去世而漏掉未列入的，知情者请与约翰·爱德华兹联系。</div><br><br>要表示“遍及整个时间段”，可以将 in 改为 over，仍然用现在完成时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>American policy in Iraq over the past two and a half years has been a mixture of nation-building and counterinsurgency, neither with much success. (Fareed Zakaria, in Newsweek, Oct. 30, 2006, p. 49) 美国过去两年半在伊拉克的政策，是建设国家和对付暴乱两者的混合物，但是两者都不怎么成功。</div><br><br>
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patron
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>patron</b></div>本来 patron 指地位崇高、实力强大的人物或神灵，例如护佑某国、某市镇、某行业的护佑圣徒称为 patron saint。司各特(Walter Scott)的《艾凡赫》(Ivanhoe)中就有 thanking Saint Julian (the patron of travellers)。福尔摩斯系列小说作者柯南·道尔(Conan Doyle)的历史小说 The White Company《白色连队》中，也有 the Holy Julian, patron of travellers。古代支持文艺人士的王公贵族就是 patron (如唐玄宗之于李白)，文化或慈善事业的捐助者也称 patron (美国许多博物馆的墙壁上刻有捐助者的名单)。但是这个名称慢慢扩大了用途。剧场的观众(先是常年的观众，又逐渐扩大到一般观众)，也被认为是戏剧事业的赞助者，所以也称为 patron。由此类推，图书馆的读者、餐馆的顾客、旅馆的入住客人、健身房的顾客、参加拍卖会的顾客，都称为 patron 了。美国有许多购物商业区(mall)，由多家商店和若干服务设施组成，前来购物、娱乐、用餐的顾客，也叫作 patron，而不像具体到某一商店购物的顾客称为 customer。参见 customer, client, guest 与 patron 条。<br><br>
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pattern
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>pattern</b></div>往往相当于中文的“规律(性)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There's a pattern in his way of thinking. 他的思维方式有一种规律。/ ... the migration pattern of the swallow. ……燕子作为候鸟迁徙的规律性。/ pattern of behavior 行为规律</div><div class="ex-item">The murders all seem to follow a similar pattern. 那些谋杀案似乎全都遵循一个类似的规律。/ Minor differences exist in pay between male and female city workers in Pittsburgh, but there's no pattern or conclusive evidence of discrimination. 匹兹堡城里的男性和女性工作者之间，工薪收入略有差别，但是没有什么规律和歧视的确凿证据。/ People have calculated it to over 1 million decimal places, and there's no end in sight and there's no pattern to the numbers. 人们对之计算到了小数点后 100 多万位，还看不到尽头，各个数字没有什么规律。/ There's no increase in seismic activity. There's no pattern. Are they foreshocks to a catastrophically different earthquake? No. (The Post and Courier, Apr. 16, 2010) 地壳活动没有增加。没有什么规律。这些是不是另一次灾难性地震的前兆呢？不是的。/ I conducted a one-man, totally unscientific survey of looted stores. I detected no pattern. (Richard Cohen, "Tough times don't have to make for more crime," in The Daily Gazette, June 2, 2010, A7) ……我对那些被洗劫的商店进行了一次单独的、完全非学术性的调查。我查不出有什么规律。</div><br><br>
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pay
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>pay</b></div>这个动词(通常是第四类动词，表示瞬时动作)是最常用的词之一，但是搭配要注意：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为及物动词，它的直接宾语可以是付出的代价。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I paid the amount in full. 我全额付清了。/ We paid a fortune to have it cleaned. 我们付了一大笔钱才把它弄干净。/ They pay my salary directly into the bank. 他们将我的薪金直接打进银行。直接宾语也可以是账单或债务。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>pay a bill 付账</div><div class="ex-item">pay a debt 还债。收款人作间接宾语，用 to 引入(或不用 to 而放在直接宾语之前)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You must pay the money to me. (= You must pay me the money.) 你应该把钱付给我。这样一个双宾语的结构，可以转换成被动语态，直接宾语或间接宾语都可以转换成主语，但以间接宾语转换的更多。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They were paid large sums of money to protect his privacy. 他们收到大笔的钱，要保护他的隐私。付出代价所得到的东西，用 for 引入。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How much did you pay for the painting? 这幅画你付了多少钱？/ He paid 500 dollars to the dealer for that old car. 他买那辆旧车，付给售车商 500 美元。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作为及物动词，它的直接宾语也可以是收款人。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They still haven't paid the builders. 建筑商的款他们还没付。/ You'll have to wait until I get paid. 你要等到我收到了款。付出代价所得到的东西，也用 for 引入。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was handsomely paid for his services. 他提供服务，得到了丰厚的报酬。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 作为不及物动词，pay 后面加上介词 for，指为购买或换取某事物而付出代价。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Willie paid for the drinks. 威利给饮料付了账。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 经过转义，pay 也可以指“因为自己做了不对的事而付出代价或得到报应”(for 的宾语从“得到的东西”转为“所做的不对的事”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She paid dearly for her negligence. 她因为疏忽吃了大亏。/ He paid for his mistake with his life. 他犯这个错误，把命都送掉了。/ I'll make you pay. 我会找你算账的。/ You'll pay for your laziness. 你这样懒惰，要吃亏的。 (5) pay somebody back for 指“对某人做的某件好事或坏事予以报答或报复”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'll pay him back for his trick. 对他的鬼把戏，我要给他点颜色看看。/ I'll pay you back for your kindness. 对于您的一番好意，我定将报答。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 以上的词义，主语都是人。但是，主语也可以不是人。此时，pay 转为表示延续状态的第一类动词，基本意义是“足以抵偿”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>That won't pay even for the food. 连吃饭的钱都不够呢。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 主语不是人，pay 也是表示延续状态的第一类动词，表示“会带来好处，能产生回报”(常常用形式主语 it 引入真正的主语 to inf.)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It pays to learn about taxes. 了解一下缴税问题，会有好处。/ It pays to be polite to people. 对人彬彬有礼是有好处的。/ It would pay her to learn a foreign language. 学一门外语，对她会有好处。/ It pays to read the instructions. 看一下使用说明有好处。/ You've got to be able to make your business pay. 做生意，就应该做得能生利。/ His part-time job paid him 45 dollars an hour. 他的兼职工作，工资每小时 45 美元。这里特别要注意的是，在 it pays to inf. 的句子中，pay 单独一个不及物动词就足以表示“有回报，有好处”，而 to inf. 却是真正的主语，不是 pay 的附带成分。参见 help 条。</div><br><br>
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pay 与 payment
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>pay 与 payment</b></div>pay 指工资、酬金。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>starting pay 起薪</div><div class="ex-item">a holiday with pay 带薪休假</div><div class="ex-item">work at very low/good pay 做工资很低/很高的工作。</div><br><br>payment 是付款的行为，或是一次交付的款额。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The goods will be delivered on payment of the outstanding charges. 一俟未清款项付清，当即送货。</div><br><br>
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peanut
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>peanut</b></div>是个可数名词，但是当许多花生(复数 peanuts)合成一团时，又同 grapes (葡萄)一样接近于不可数名词，就像面粉(flour)、白糖(sugar)。因此，前面可以加 much，也可以加 many (但 many 通常也不是表达“许多粒花生”，只是说其整体数量之大)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Cholesterol comes from animal-based products, yet eating too much peanuts will make you fat. 胆固醇来自动物性食品，但是花生如果吃多了，也会使人发胖。/ Does eating too many peanuts cause pimples? 吃花生过多会引起丘疹吗？</div><br><br>
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peer
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>peer</b></div>意义是“同侪，同辈；地位相同的人；能力相同的人”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has few peers as a biographer. 他这个传记作者，很少有人能与他匹敌。/ He is the peer of any worker in the factory. 他不逊于厂里任何一个工人。</div><br><br>have no peer 是“举世无双”，可以指人，也可以指事物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has no peer when it comes to debate. 辩论起来，谁都比不过他。/ But in the modern era, political scandal has virtually no peer in the affair that grew out of a Wyoming oil field in the early 1920s. (U.S. News & World Report, Jan. 14, 2008, p. 28) 但是在现代，政治丑闻实际上要数 20 世纪 20 年代早期由怀俄明一处油田引起的一宗事件最为空前绝后。</div><br><br>
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people
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>people</b></div>这个名词的含义和用法似乎都很简单，但其实有一些值得注意之处。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 前面不带任何冠词或限定词，表示笼统的“人们”，作复数处理。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span> People are tired of that. 人们对此已经厌烦了。/ What will people say? 人们会怎样说呢？/ People like her never learn. 像她那样的人是从来不吸取教训的。/ They are good people. 他们是好人。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 前面带数词或不定数量代词，表示以个体为单位的人数，相当于 person 的复数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Three people were injured. 有 3 人受伤。/ The hall seats 200 people. 礼堂可以坐 200 人。/ There were a lot of people there. 那边的人很多。/ Some people think it's true. 有些人认为那是真的。/ Most people disagree. 大多数人不同意。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 区别于动物或物的人(复数)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We're people, not machines. 我们是人，不是机器。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 放在 you 后面，表示“你们”，以区别于表示单数“你”的 you。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You people don't understand. 你们不懂。/ Are you people coming or not? 你们来不来？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 指一个地域的居民整体或某个民族的整体，前面加上定冠词及相应的形容词，作复数处理。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the Chinese people 中国人民。或者前面加上定冠词，后面加上 of + 地域专有名词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the people of Brazil 巴西人民</div><div class="ex-item">the people of Glasgow 格拉斯哥人。或者前面用 its。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>get to know the country and its people 去了了解这个国家的风土人情。注意：如果指的是某个国家，就多少带有政治或文化色彩，强调国与国之间的界限；如果指的是一个小地区，则主要带有民俗色彩。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 前面带有定冠词，但没有其他表示地域或国家的修饰语，作复数处理，表示“人民”，有强烈的政治色彩，强调人民及其国内对立面之间的相对关系。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>enemy of the people 人民公敌</div><div class="ex-item">Power to the people! 权力归人民！/ government of the people, by the people, for the people (Abraham Lincoln, Gettysburg Address) 民有、民治、民享。美国的刑事审判案，有以“人民”为公诉的一方的，例如轰动全国的辛普森涉嫌杀妻案，案件名称就叫作 The People v. O. J. Simpson (人民诉辛普森案)。</div><br><br>但即使如此，“人民”前面如果加上形容词，而且强调这个形容词当前的情状，仍然要用单数的不定冠词 a，尽管作复数处理。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A long-oppressed people turn into an angry mob. 长年累月受尽压迫的人民，变成了一群愤怒的暴民。(此为影片说明，用一般现在时，turn 说明主语是复数。)</div><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 英语中“人民”没有形容词，只能借用名词 people，形成所有格 people's。此时 people 前面加不加冠词，就转而取决于它后面修饰的名词的句法地位，同 people 本身无关了。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a people's commune 一个人民公社</div><div class="ex-item">the people's commune 该人民公社。此外，people 有时候可以代替形容词，放在名词前面，表示“人际关系的，交际的”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>people skills 交际能力。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> people 也可以作为普通的单数名词出现，表示“一个民族”，此时它可以有复数形式，two peoples 就是“两个民族”或“两国人民”(意义重点仍然在国际关系而不在国内关系)。尤其是如果 people 前面有表示特性的形容词，或是后面有表示特性的定语成分，就可以用不定冠词 a。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They are a proud people. 他们是个自豪的民族。/ The Swedes are a Germanic people. 瑞典人是日耳曼民族的。但是动词与代词仍然多用复数。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You can tell much about a people and their (<i>its) values by the way they treat children and the elderly. 看一个民族如何对待自己的小孩和老人，十之八九就可以看出这个民族和他们的价值观是怎么样样的。/ We still have faith in it because, as a people, we are natural optimists. (U.S. News & World Report, June 12, 2006, p. 72) 我们之所以仍然对此有信心，是因为我们作为一个民族，是天生的乐观主义者。/ Americans: Who are we? Is it possible that we are a people who are too busy working to rock our own babies, mow Mom's lawn, or visit Dad's death bed? 美国人：我们是什么人？难道我们这个民族人人都工作太忙，没有时间去摇摇自己婴儿的摇篮，给妈妈的草地割割草，到爸爸临终的床前探望一下？/ ... a people who could build a wall like this certainly have (</i>has) a great past to be proud of and a people who have (*has) this kind of a past must also have a great future. (Richard Nixon, while visiting the Chinese Great Wall in February 1972) ……一个能够修建这样一座长城的民族，必然有值得引以为荣的历史，而一个有这样的历史的民族，就一定有伟大的未来。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(9)</span> 作为单数普通名词的 people，也可以缩小到只是指一个家族。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In Germany we were a highly civilized and respected people. Mendelssohn was my distant cousin. 当年在德国，我们家是名门望族。门德尔松还是我的远房表亲呢。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(10)</span> of all people 表示“偏偏是某人而不是别人”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They've made her director, her of all people. 他们偏偏让她当上了主任。/ You of all people should know that! 恰恰是你最应该知道！其实，别的名词也有这样的用法。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>All the presidents in this region torture their people. Why, of all countries, do they come after us? 这个地区的总统们全都折磨自己的老百姓。为什么他们偏偏找到我们身上来？</div><br><br>
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percent
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>percent</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> percent 不是名词，来自分开写的 per cent，即“每一百”，但是在美式英语中常写成一个单词。即使如此，也不可以加 s 表示复数。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> one half、a quarter、one fifth 等表示几分之几的名词成分，接上后面的另一个名词时当中不用加 of。但是 percent 尽管本身不是名词，接上后面名词成分时却要加 of。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>twenty percent of the original amount 原先数量的 20%。参见 half 条。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 注意：“X 中包含的百分之几 Y”不同于“Y 的百分之几”，前者 percent 后没有 of，后者则有。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The government is mandating that school lunches contain less than 30 percent (<i>of) fat and 10 percent (</i>of) saturated fat. (The Daily Gazette, Sept. 7, 2004, editorial) 政府现在规定，校内午餐脂肪要少于 30%，饱和脂肪要少于 10%。</div><br><br>
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peril
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>peril</b></div>at one's peril (“自己承担风险”)是个状语，修饰谓语时，谓语真实的意思带有“假如做某事”的假定意义，而 at one's peril 则带有主句表示“自己承担风险”的结果意义。因此，遇到这样的句子，不要把谓语动词看作是眼前确实进行中的行动，而要看作假定可能采取的行动。由于这是假定的而非实际发生的行动，所以即使是瞬时动作，动词也可以采用一般现在时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You become neglectful at your peril. 你如果疏忽大意，就要自食其果。/ But in the United States, these values remain firmly in the grammar of thinking and discourse, and whilst they can be questioned, one ignoresthem at one's peril. (James Sherr, "Culture of spying," in The National Interest) 但是，在美国，这些价值仍然稳稳留存在人们的思维和语言中，对于这些价值，可以提出质疑，但是，如果忽视了，就要自食其果了。也可以采用祈使句的形式(但不是叫对方做这件事，而是向对方提出警告)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This is my country. Insult it at your peril. 这是我的国家。你敢侮辱它，就要自食其果。/ Our parents, our childhood, our past loves are part of us. Denying them denies one's basic self. Deny at your peril what you love. (Barbara DeMille, in The Sunday Gazette, Nov. 13, 2011, D3) 我们的父母、我们的童年、我们昔日的所爱，都是我们自己的一部分。否定了这些，就是否认了自己的根本。你如果否认自己的所爱，你就得自食其果。</div><br><br>
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period
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>period</b></div>用于大声念出带标点的文字时，表示“句号”，即一句至此完毕。也可以用来表示后面没有别的词语了。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>— I cannot wait to return home with the prize. — I cannot wait to return home, period. — 我巴不得马上拿到奖回家去。— 我巴不得马上就这样回家去。(删去了 with the prize，即不要得奖也想马上回家。)</div>
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permanently
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>permanently</b></div>本来这个副词只能同延续体动词一起使用，表示“经常不断地”做某事或保持某状态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My wife and children are staying there permanently. 我妻子和孩子们在那边长期逗留。/ The doors were kept permanently locked. 那些门老是锁着。但是它有时候也可以同瞬时体动词搭配，表示某一瞬时动作的后果永远保留。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Are you sure you want to permanently delete the contents of this folder? 您肯定您是要永远删除本文件夹的所有内容吗？</div><br><br>
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person, persona, personage 与 personality
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>person, persona, personage 与 personality</b></div>person 是一般意义上的“人”。复数时除非特别强调数字的准确，通常不说 persons 而说 people。<br><br>persona 来自拉丁文，指一个人在他人心目中的形象。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>take on/adopt an entirely new persona 显示一副崭新的形象。</div><br><br>personage 和 personality 都可以指“(著名)人物”，但是 personality 更多是指世俗名人，如影视娱乐界和体育界的明星，偶尔也可以指政界名人。“个人崇拜”或“个人迷信”就是 personality cult。另外 personality 还可以指“人品，性格”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has a wonderful personality. 他人品很好。personage 表示的人物地位可以更高，例如 the highest Personage (少用 personality) in the universe (宇宙的最高主宰)。</div><br><br>
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perspective
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>perspective</b></div>是看问题的角度、观感。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Funny—when you're just listening to people, you get a different perspective than when you're sitting with them. (Mary Higgins Clark, Weep No More, My Lady) 奇怪的是：当你单纯听别人讲话时，就同与他们并坐一起时的观感不同。</div><br><br>
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persuade 与 convince
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>persuade 与 convince</b></div>参见 convince 与 persuade 条。<br><br>
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Ph.D. 与 PhD
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>Ph.D. 与 PhD</b></div>发音就是 P、H、D 三个字母，来自拉丁文 Philosophiae Doctor，等于英文的 Doctor of Philosophy，本来直译应该是“哲学博士”，但是实际上根本不限于哲学。许多不属于哲学领域的博士也称为 Ph.D.，学科在后面用 in 引入。因此，“物理学博士”是 Ph.D. in physics，“哲学博士”说全了要说 Doctor of Philosophy in philosophy。Ph.D. 不但是指人，也可以指“学位”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She has a Ph.D. in anthropology. 她有人类学博士学位。(参见 art 条)</div>
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photo op
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>photo op</b></div>是 photo opportunity 的简化形式(非简化的很少用)，原意是“无意遇到或有意安排扩大影响的照相机会”(“亮相”)，用于政客身上，往往有贬义(“装模作样，装腔作势”)，但是用于日常真正的摄影，取其良好效果，则没有贬义。<br><br>
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physical
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>physical</b></div>这个形容词的意义，是相对于“代替的，象征的，虚拟的，想象的，精神的”，强调“实在的，有形的，捉得得着的，物质的，原件或原物的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>physical age 实际年龄、生理年龄</div><div class="ex-item">physical presence 现身说法</div><div class="ex-item">physical force 体力</div><div class="ex-item">physical education 体育(不是“物理学教育”)</div><div class="ex-item">physical environment 物质环境</div><div class="ex-item">The College, church and Capitol were the three physical symbols of a traditional city. 学院、教堂和议会，是传统城市的三大实物标志。</div><br><br>在下面的例句中，physical 表示“对实物施加动作而非仅仅外表(例如文件上)过过目”或是“就实物论实物”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Some bags are opened and physically inspected. Your bag might be among those selected for physical inspection. 有些箱子会被打开进行实物检查。您的箱子也可能被选来进行实物检查。(不光是检查书面的申报单)</div><div class="ex-item">In the looting of the ancient Nineveh palace, the destruction is not only physical. The "accumulation of knowledge" ceases the moment the object, whether it be a chunk of relief or a buried sliver of pottery, is moved from its context. 在尼尼微王宫被掠事件中，破坏不仅仅在于实物的丧失。物品无论是一片浮雕还是一件埋在土中的碎瓦，一旦被拿走，离开了整体，“知识的积累”就停止了。/ This played a critical role in enabling the SpaceX team to design and test products virtually before constructing them physically ... (Time, May 27, 2013, p. 13, ad) 这就起了关键的作用，使得“空间 X”小组得以先对产品进行虚拟的设计与测试，然后才制造实物……</div><div class="ex-item">physical theft of personal documents 偷走个人文件(与在互联网上窃取他人资料相对)</div><div class="ex-item">Neither store carried these items in their physical stores. (CNN, Feb. 12, 2017) 两家店均未将这些货物放在实体店中。</div><br><br>
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piety 与 pity
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>piety 与 pity</b></div>本来是根本不同的两个单词，前者是“虔诚”，后者是“怜悯”，而且发音差别很大。但是，由于词形很相像，有时会发生混淆。中文的“孝道”本来应该是 filial piety，但连英美人也常常误作 filial pity。<br><br>
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pigeon 与 dove
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>pigeon 与 dove</b></div>参见 dove 与 pigeon 条。<br><br>
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pile
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>pile</b></div>作为及物动词，它的直接宾语可以是堆起来的东西。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He picked up the heap of papers and piled them up on top of a radiator. 他把那一堆纸捡了起来，码到暖气片上。但是直接宾语也可以是承载堆积物的平面。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His desk was piled with papers. 他的书桌堆满了纸张。/ There were plates piled high with delicacies from an elaborate buffet. 这些盘子里精心制作的自助餐美食堆得高高的。</div><br><br>
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place
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>place</b></div>in place 是“在正常应在之处”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Gabriel sat atop one (= one of the stubby brown barriers of reinforced concrete), wraparound sunglasses in place. (Daniel Silva, Moscow Rules) 加布里埃尔坐在一段棕褐色的钢筋混凝土矮墙上，太阳镜好好折起来了。</div><br><br>
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plane
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>plane</b></div>比较 in a car 与 on a plane，参见 bus 条。<br><br>
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plants and animals 或 animals and plants
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>plants and animals 或 animals and plants</b></div>参见 fauna 条。<br><br>
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play
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>play</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 涉及运动或竞赛项目，无论是打(篮球、排球、乒乓球、垒球等等)，踢(足球)，下(象棋)还是玩(跳棋)，英语都一律用 play。要注意：不用定冠词 the。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>play golf 打高尔夫球</div><div class="ex-item">play tennis 打网球</div><div class="ex-item">play squash 打壁球</div><div class="ex-item">play poker 玩扑克牌。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 同样，对于乐器，也是一样笼统地用 play，不论是吹、弹、拉、拨、打，都是一样。通常乐器前面要加定冠词 the，但是有时也不加。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>play (the) piano 弹钢琴</div><div class="ex-item">play (the) violin 拉小提琴</div><div class="ex-item">play (the) clarinet 吹单簧管</div><div class="ex-item">play (the) cymbals 打钹。但是打击乐器可以用 beat 代替 play。如“打鼓”除了说 play (the) drum 之外，还可以说 beat (the) drum。打钹也可以说 beat (the) cymbals。</div><br><br>但是如果加上乐曲的名称(或不特指的“某一乐曲”)作为直接宾语，乐器就用 on 引入，仍然要有 the。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>play an étude on the violin 用小提琴拉一首练习曲</div><div class="ex-item">play Liszt's "Liebestraum" on the piano 在钢琴上弹奏李斯特的《爱之梦》。</div><br><br>on the piano 是“在钢琴上(弹奏)”；“对着钢琴”的位置，则是 at the piano。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A man was taking his place at the piano at center stage. (Sidney Sheldon, The Stars Shine Down) 一个男子正坐在舞台中央的钢琴前。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 中文的“玩”不可以一律译成英文的 play。唯有从事体育运动或是游戏项目，才可以说 play。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>play volleyball 打排球</div><div class="ex-item">play chess 下国际象棋</div><div class="ex-item">play sudoku 玩数独。“到公园去散步”是 go for a walk in the park；进行各种娱乐活动，可以说 have a good time 或 enjoy oneself。</div><br><br>
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pleasure
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>pleasure</b></div>I don't believe I've had the pleasure. 这一句中的 the pleasure 其实是 the pleasure of meeting you 的简略说法。全句的意思是“我觉得咱们是第一次见面吧”(字面意思是“我不觉得我从前有幸见过您”)，往往两个陌生人萍水相逢，就用这句话来开始互相自我介绍。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>— Looks like rain. — Sure does. Oh, I don't believe I've had the pleasure. — I'm Bob, Bob Jones. — My name is Fred Wilson. Glad to meet you. — 看来要下雨了。— 是的。哦，咱们是初次见面吧。— 我是鲍勃，鲍勃·琼斯。— 我叫弗雷德·威尔逊。很高兴遇见您。</div><br><br>
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plurality 与 majority
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>plurality 与 majority</b></div>参见 majority 与 plurality 条。<br><br>
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point
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>point</b></div>中文“道理”往往不能“对号入座”译成英文的 reason，因为 reason 作为“做某事”或“采取某态度”的“理由”，必须附在这件事或这个态度上，否则就落空了(除非 reason 作为不可数名词单独出现，不加冠词或其他限定词，表示抽象的“理智”)。但中文的“道理”却可以单独存在，此时在英文中就更接近于 point。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His point is clear. 他的一番道理很清楚。/ Point taken, but I stand by my view. 你说的道理我听到了，不过我还是坚持我的看法。参见 reason 条之(4)。</div><br><br>此外，point 还可以有“意义，好处，用处”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Is there any point in going out this evening? (= Is it worth going out this evening?) 今天晚上值得出去玩吗？</div><br><br>make a point of + -ing 是“坚持不懈做某事”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She made a point of taking a walk each day. 她坚持每天散步。</div><br><br>
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politician, politico 与 statesman
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>politician, politico 与 statesman</b></div>politician 有时候有贬义，相当于中文的“政客”，politico 贬义更重。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Machiavelli's The Prince in which the individual politico is shown how to succeed by ignoring all moral, social, and religious restraints on his own action ... (Gilbert Arthur Highet) 在马基雅维利的《君主论》一书中，政客们学到了如何在行动中摆脱一切道德上、社会上和宗教上的约束，来取得成功…… 而 statesman 通常是正面的，相当于中文的“政治家”，但一般指拥有政府或议会领导职务的人员。至于“政治学家”，英文则是 political scientist。</div><br><br>
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population
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>population</b></div>这是个集合名词，作为一个整体，前面可以按照特指或不特指加上定冠词或不定冠词。人数多，可以说 a large/numerous population (<i>many population)，人数少，可以说 a small population (</i>few population, *little population)。其他的形容词搭配，可以用 crowded、dense、teeming、sparse、growing、rising、decreasing、shrinking 等。(注意：表示一个整体，不定冠词 a。)population 不但可以指“人口”，还可以指处于特殊状况的人群(主要着眼其数目)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Built for a population of 4,000, the prison now houses 8,740. 监狱修建时预计容纳囚犯 4,000 人，现在却容纳了 8,740 人。这个处于特殊状况的人群，数目可以很小。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This population of aggrieved immigrant spouses include ... (The New York Times, Feb. 2, 2009, A15) 这群落难的移民配偶，包括……</div><br><br>另外，population 不光可以指人，也可以指动物群(着眼其数量)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In these areas, populations of mosquitos are greatly reduced. 在这些地区，蚊子数量大为减少。/ The spill could wipe out the Gulf's turtle population. 这次漏油事件可能使得海湾的海龟群灭绝。</div><br><br>
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positive
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>positive</b></div>positive 与 active 在中文中都可以译成“积极的”，但是前者表示“正面的，良好的，乐观的”，后者则表示“活跃的，采取许多行动的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>positive factors 积极因素</div><div class="ex-item">positive significance 积极意义</div><div class="ex-item">a positive sign 积极的信号</div><div class="ex-item">The Power of Positive Thinking《正面思维的威力》/ active defense 积极防御</div><div class="ex-item">active support 积极支持</div><div class="ex-item">active discussion 积极讨论。</div><br><br>另外，positive 还可以表示“确信的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She is positive about having seen him. 她觉得自己一定看见过他。/ Nancy was positive Robert had not seen her, ... 南希肯定罗伯特没有看见她，……</div><br><br>
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possess
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>possess</b></div>这个及物动词，是延续体的，第一类动词，及物动词，后面直接放上直接宾语即可。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Sean McMeekin's account possesses the large merit that it tells a story little known to Western readers, drawing extensively upon German sources. (The New York Review, Dec. 9, 2010, p. 44) 肖恩·麦克米金的说辞，其一个很大的优点，就是大量引用源自德文的材料，说出了一个西方读者所不熟悉的故事。但也可以采取被动形式表示主动，用 be possessed of。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... and his enormous limbs showed that he was possessed of unusual strength of body and of character. (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes) ……他那粗壮的四肢，显示出他具有不寻常的体力和意志力。</div><br><br>
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possession
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>possession</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 这个词的搭配有点复杂。特别要注意的是 in possession of 是“(某人)占有(某物)”，而 in the possession of 则是“(某物)在(某人的)占有下”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>MacDonald has been in possession of the letter for some weeks. 麦克唐纳手里掌握着那封信有好几个星期了。/ She wasn't in full possession of her faculties. 她身心并不完全正常。/ The documents are in his possession. 文件在他手里。/ The file is no longer in my possession. 案卷已经不在我手里了。球赛中掌握了球，英文是 be in possession/have possession (of the ball)，掌握着球的球员叫作 the player in possession。</div><br><br>以上是静态的“占有”。如果说动态的“从不占有到占有”的变化，可以说 come into/get/take possession of。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How did you come into possession of the necklace? 这项链是如何到你手里的？/ The tenant has already got possession of the house. 房客已经占据了房子。/ They took possession of the island. 他们占据了那个岛屿。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> possession 也可以用于法律上的“(不当)持有”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They were arrested for possession of drugs. 他们因持有毒品而被捕。/ He was charged with illegal possession of firearms. 他被指控非法持有枪械。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> possession 还可以表示“魔障，鬼迷”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They said this charm would protect a man from possession by evil spirits while he slept. 他们说这个符咒可以保护人睡觉时不被恶魔附身。/ tales of demonic possession 魔障故事。</div><br><br>
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possible
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>possible</b></div>这个形容词在搭配上有点特别，与一般的形容词不同。它可以放在另一个形容词或副词的后面，限定其有效范围。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> as + adj./ adv. + as possible，表示“尽可能如何”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The index should be as short as possible. 索引应该尽量简短。/ He sat as far away from the others as possible. 他坐得尽量同其他人离得远些。/ As far as possible try to work on your own. 尽可能设法自己干。/ Make everything as simple as possible, but not simpler. (Albert Einstein) 事情应该力求简单，但不能过于简单。/ I want to live as normally as possible. 我想过尽可能正常的生活。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 如果前面的形容词是修饰名词的，则这个名词不能带定冠词，只能带不定冠词或零冠词或不定指示词，成为 as + adj. + noun + as possible。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Read as many books as possible. 尽量多看书。/ in as simple language as possible 用尽可能简单的语言</div><div class="ex-item">The book requires a publisher with the power and facilities to communicate it to as wide an audience as possible. 这本书需要一个有力量、有条件的出版商，使之到达尽可能广泛的读者群中去。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 前面两种用法，形容词都用原级，不用最高级，但是有最高级的意义；如果 possible 前面的形容词不用 as ... as 前后管着，而是直接放在 possible 前面，则这个形容词就要用最高级，而且必须有定冠词或其他表示特指的限定词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the soonest possible date 尽可能早的日期</div><div class="ex-item">We provide the best possible accomodation for our students. 我们向学生提供尽可能好的住宿条件。/ We should keep this in the safest possible place. 我们应该把这个保存在尽可能安全的地方。/ I want to spend the least possible time working. 我想花尽可能少的时间在工作上。/ The men controlling the movement had the strongest possible motives for removing De Gaulle's representatives from the scene. 控制着运动的人，怀有最强烈不过的动机要把戴高乐的代表们排除在外。/ Suez split the Western alliance at the worst possible time. (The New York Review of Books, Mar. 29, 2007, p. 33) 苏伊士运河事件，在最为不利的时刻使得西方联盟发生分裂。</div><br><br>有时形容词最高级所修饰的名词，甚至名词词组，可以移到 possible 之前。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>in the nicest way possible 尽量妥善地</div><div class="ex-item">specialization to the highest degree possible 尽可能高度的专业化</div><div class="ex-item">the greatest number of households possible 尽可能多的人家。</div><br><br>available 也有与此相同的搭配用法，也可以放到名词之后，但没有与(1)和(2)相同的搭配用法。除了 available，还有少数以 -able 结尾的形容词也可以放在前面已经另有形容词最高级修饰的名词之后，对这个形容词最高级的范围加以界定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In Darwinian terms, giving up the chance to breed is the most extreme form of altruism conceivable. 按照达尔文的说法，放弃繁殖的机会，是利他主义可以想到的最为极端的表现形式。</div><br><br>
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possible 与 impossible
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>possible 与 impossible</b></div>“不能被如何”可以说 impossible to inf. (impossible 所修饰的名词成分是动词的逻辑宾语)，但是“能被如何”不能说 *possible to inf.。be possible to inf.，主语通常不会是动词的逻辑宾语，而是一个形式主语(多是 it)，真正的主语是 to inf.。也就是说，impossible 可以用于英语 Tough 结构(tough construction)，但是 possible 却不可。参见 impossible 条。<br><br>
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possibly
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>possibly</b></div>是形容词 possible 派生的副词，放在不同的句中所起的作用不同；尤其是如果句中本来就有 can、may 等表示可能性的情态动词，再加上 possibly，意义就重复，因而 possibly 可以起加强或减弱语气的作用。这个作用，概括来说，是负面的，在肯定句中减弱肯定，在否定句中加强否定，在疑问句中加强怀疑。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 在没有 may 等表示可能性的情态动词的肯定直陈句中(放在句首)，意义同 maybe、perhaps 差不多。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Possibly you're right, but I think differently. 你也许是对的，但是我的想法却不同。/ Possibly they have forgotten all about me. 他们也许已经把我忘得一干二净了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 在有 may 等情态动词的肯定直陈句中(放在 may 后)，进一步降低可能性。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It may possibly rain today. 今天说不定会下雨。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 在有 can、could 等情态动词的表示能力或客观可能状况的肯定直陈句中(放在 can、could 之前或后)，减弱其能力或可能性。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We'll do everything we possibly can for you. 我们一定会尽力帮助你。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 在有 can、could 等情态动词的表示请求的疑问句中(放在 can、could 及主语之后)，加强请求的婉转语气。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Can you possibly come tomorrow? 您明天可否来一下？/ Could you possibly give me a ride home? 您能让我搭顺风车回家吗？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 在有 can、could 等情态动词的表示能力或客观可能状况的疑问句中(放在 can、could 后)，加强怀疑语气。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How could you possibly say such a thing? 你怎么能说出这样的话来？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 在有 can 或 could 的否定句中(放在 can't 或 couldn't 后)，加强否定，表示“根本不可能”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I can't possibly go out now. 我现在根本出不去。/ That couldn't possibly be true. 那根本不是真的。但是如果放在 can't 或 couldn't 之前，却是减弱否定，表示“可能不”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They possibly can't leave now. (= It's possible that they can't leave now.) (Randolph Quik et al., A Grammar of Contemporary English) 他们现在可能走不了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 在有 can 或 could 的疑问句中(放在 can 或 could 后)，加强对真实性的怀疑。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How can that possibly be true? 那怎么能是真的呢？</div><br><br>
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post time
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>post time</b></div>原意是邮件递送、到达、截止的时刻。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's now post time and I must say farewell. 快到邮递时间了，我只好同你说再见了。但是意义范围可以扩大到“开始做任何季节性或阶段性事情的时候”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's now post time. 现在到了(赛马季节)开场的时候了。/ It's now post time for the presidency debate on Fox News Channel. 福克斯新闻频道的总统大选辩论现在要开始了。</div><br><br>
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posture
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>posture</b></div>与 attitude 相区别，参见 attitude 与 posture 条。<br><br>
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potato
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>potato</b></div>作为类别的总称，对之加以说明，要用加定冠词的单数，说 the potato。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The Atkins diet was the rage, and prospects for the potato were dim. 阿特金斯减肥法当时正大行其道，土豆的前景就很黯淡。但是如果不是笼统的总称，而是参与某一过程的“土豆”(只是一些土豆)，就用复数 potatoes (无 the)，此时 potatoes 实际上是个不可数的物质名词，类似 eggs、oats 之类，甚至前面可以用 much。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There is three times as much potatoes and two times as much carrots as beef. 土豆是牛肉的三倍，胡萝卜是牛肉的两倍。但是无 the 的复数 potatoes 也可以用来泛指，仍然是参与某一过程，而不是概括总类。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Vodka was first made with potatoes. 伏特加酒最初是用土豆制作的。/ Now, about 350 million tons are grown each year, making potatoes the fourth-largest source of food on the planet behind rice, wheat, and corn. (U.S. News & World Report, Feb. 18, 2008, p. 34) 现在每年种植的土豆有 3.5 亿吨，是世界上仅次于大米、小麦、玉米的第四大粮食来源。tomato 的搭配用法也与此相似。</div><br><br>
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poultry
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>poultry</b></div>这个名词指活的“家禽”时，是语法上复数的集合名词(与 people 相类似)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Nowadays, most poultry live (*lives) in battery houses. 今天，家禽大都养在饲养场。但是如果指供食用的“家禽肉”，则是不可数名词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Red wine is drunk with meat and poultry. 喝红葡萄酒时，吃一些禽肉。</div><br><br>
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pour
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>pour</b></div>作为及物动词，可以有双宾语(搭配参见 buy 条)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She poured him a drink. 她给他倒了一杯饮料。/ She poured it/a drink for him/Richard. 她给他/理查德倒了一杯饮料。</div><br><br>
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power
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>power</b></div>中文“权力”与“权利”同音，因而有些人也就混淆了英文的 power 和 right 这两个根本不同的概念。参见 right 与 power 条。<br><br>
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precisely
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>precisely</b></div>可以有“绝对”和“相对”两种意义和用法。“绝对”意义表示“正是这个而不是别的”；“相对”意义则表示“有(程度可高可低的)准确性”。前者不可以有比较级。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>That's precisely what I meant. 那正是我要说的意思。后者可以有比较级。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>target the market more precisely 更精准地确定市场。</div><br><br>
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predate
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>predate</b></div>及物动词，意思是“先于”(时间差距用 by 引入)，和同义词 antedate 一样，两者可以换用。但是多用于对已发生事情的描述(用一般现在时，作为延续静态的第一类动词)，而不是用当时当地发生某事的口气(即一般过去时，作为瞬时动态的第四类动词)。也就是说，predate 和 antedate 都是现在回顾历史时进行描述，因此多用一般现在时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In Indonesia, Hindu and Buddhist influences predate (<i>predated) the arrival of Islam by centuries. 在印度尼西亚，印度教和佛教的影响比伊斯兰教的传入早了好几个世纪。/ The American Revolution antedates (</i>antedated) the French Revolution by 14 years. 美国独立战争比法国大革命早 14 年。/ Epicurus predates Jesus by over 300 years. 伊壁鸠鲁比耶稣早 300 多年。/ Few of the town's buildings predate the earthquake of 1755. 该镇的房屋，没有多少是 1755 年地震之前兴建的。/ The ancient pyramids of Caral predate the Inca civilization by 4,000 years. 卡拉尔的古代金字塔，比印加文明早 4,000 年。</div><br><br>但是，也有人用 predate 表示当时当地发生的事件(作为瞬时动态的第四类动词)，使用一般过去时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This Spanish community predated the first permanent English settlement in the present United States, Jamestown in Virginia, by almost a decade. 这个西班牙社区比现在美国弗吉尼亚州詹姆斯敦的第一个英国人定居地要早近 10 年。参见 predecease 条。</div><br><br>
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predecease
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>predecease</b></div>及物动词，有点类似 predate，意思是“先于……而去世”，也是多用于对已发生事情的描述(用一般现在时，作为延续静态的第一类动词)，而不是用当时当地发生死亡事件的口气(即一般过去时，作为瞬时动态的第四类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Mr. Chevalier is predeceased by his beloved wife. 谢瓦利埃先生的爱妻已在他之前去世。(这里两人均已去世，但是动词用一般现在时，是因为 predecease 这个动词与其说是叙述过去发生的事件，毋宁说是事后对比先后时间。)不过，predecease 也可以用来叙述过去发生的事件，此时就要用一般过去时：... was predeceased by his beloved wife.</div>但是，讣告中如果使用另一个及物动词 survive，则情况有些不同，它涉及的双宾，不都是已经去世的，而是一方去世，另一方仍然活着。所以这里就没有“过去发生”与“对比去世时间”的区别，只能用一般现在时，不可以用一般过去时(尽管以已故之人为主语)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He is survived by his wife and three children. 他去世后留下妻子和三个孩子。</div><br><br>
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prefer
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>prefer</b></div>通常是表示延续状态的第一类动词。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> prefer X to Y 是“比起 Y 更喜欢 X”。只是程度的比较，不一定就是不喜欢 Y，更不一定是“两害取其轻”。有时候中文译成“宁愿(宁可)……而不……”不确切，因为中文这个意思暗示了两件事情都是不利的，只是两害取其轻，而英文的 prefer X to Y 没有这个意思。如 I prefer Bach to Beethoven. 并不一定是不喜欢贝多芬，只是拿贝多芬同巴赫相比，喜欢巴赫更多些。中文的“宁可”，英文可以说 would rather inf.。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Armstrong disliked having to wait for anything to cool down. He would rather (*preferred to) be burned. (Jeffrey Archer, The Fourth Estate) 阿姆斯特朗吃什么东西都不喜欢等它凉下来。他宁可烫了嘴。也可以说 prefer X over Y。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 可以只说 X 而不说 Y，就是说，只说 prefer X，不说 to Y。这时候，所喜欢的东西，如果是动词，可以用 to inf. (这个 to 同 to Y 的 to 无关)或是动名词。但是 to inf. 倾向于表示当前的一次，动名词则倾向于表示经常性的爱好。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I would prefer to speak to you in private. 我想同您单独谈谈。/ I much prefer listening to music. 我倒是很喜欢听音乐。/ I prefer to stay alone. 我更喜欢自己一个人。/ They'd rather have the strawberries by themselves, but I'd prefer to have them with cream. 他们喜欢单吃草莓，但是我倒喜欢草莓加奶油。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 用动名词时，可以保持 prefer X to Y 的格式。但是如果用 to inf.，后面的 Y 就不能再用 to inf. 了。此时，to Y 就用 rather than 加上没有 to 的动词不定式来代替。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I prefer to walk rather than take the bus. 我宁愿走路也不乘公共汽车。(由于走路通常是费力气的事，所以中文可以说“宁愿”，但也可以是“我喜欢走路甚于乘公共汽车”。)</div><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 如果 prefer 后面的动词另有主语，这个主语可以变为 prefer 的直接宾语，后面再加上 to inf. (也就是形成“兼语式”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My mother would prefer us to email each other once a week, rather than spend half an hour on the phone every night. 我母亲希望我们每周相通一次电子邮件，觉得那比每天晚上花半个钟头打电话强。/ I'd prefer it to rain now rather than during the game. 要下雨，我觉得宁可现在下，也别在比赛进行当中下。/ I won't go if you'd prefer me to stay. 你如果想让我留下来，我就不走。在美式英语中，后面 to inf. 的主语常常用介词 for 引入。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My wife would prefer (for) me to lose weight. 我妻子倒是希望我减肥。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> prefer 后面也可以用一个 that 名词从句(that 可省略)作它的直接宾语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They prefer that it should not be discussed. 他们希望这件事情不要被讨论。也可以指一个实际上不可能实现的愿望，但是此时 prefer 前面要加表示虚拟的助动词 would，从句的谓语动词也要用虚拟式(should + 动词原形)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In fact, I'd prefer he were alive. (Dan Brown, Digital Fortress) 其实我巴不得他活着。/ She preferred that he (should) remain in Chicago. 她倒是希望他留在芝加哥。/ Some prefer their birthdays go unrecognized, not so the Bulletin. 有些人宁愿自己的生日人家不认得，但本刊却不然。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> prefer 在法律用语中还有另外一个词义，相当于“提出”(此时 prefer 就转为表示瞬时动作的第四类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>prefer a claim to the inheritance 提出对遗产的要求</div><div class="ex-item">prefer charges against a company 对某公司提出控告。</div><br><br>
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pregnant
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>pregnant</b></div>一个妇女怀孕几个月，可以说 She is ... months pregnant. 问她怀孕了几个月，字面上固然可以说 How many months are you pregnant? 但是一般更多说 How pregnant are you? 这里的 how 不是问状态，而是问怀孕的程度，亦即时间的长短。说怀某个孩子，用 pregnant with 或 pregnant for，但用 with 较多。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>pregnant with her third child 怀上她的第三个孩子</div><div class="ex-item">pregnant for Peter 怀着彼得。</div><br><br>pregnant with 还可以转义为“孕育着，蕴含着，预示着(某种事件或局面)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>words pregnant with emotion 蕴含着激情的言辞</div><div class="ex-item">She kept a silence which was pregnant with indications of how much more she could say. 她保持沉寂，但这暗示着她还有好多的话要说。</div><br><br>
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prejudice
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>prejudice</b></div>这个单词，无论是作为名词还是作为动词，最主要、最为人所熟悉的词义，就是与“偏见，成见”有关，尤其是英国著名小说《傲慢与偏见》(Pride and Prejudice)将这个单词用进书名，使得这个词义更为人们所熟知。但是 prejudice 还有一个词义，就是“损害”，它同“偏见”这个词义“本是同根生”，都是拉丁文的 prae (前面，事先) + judicium (判断)，但是经过岁月演变，在好几种欧洲语言中都衍生了两个不同的词义，拼写也有了一些不同，但英文中两者保持同形。<br><br>因此，遇到 prejudice，要注意有时候是“损害”而不是“偏见”，尤其是 the prejudice of 与 without prejudice to 等词组。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... a law that operated to/in the <b>prejudice</b> of blacks ……一部损害黑人利益的法律</div><div class="ex-item">I will do nothing to the <b>prejudice</b> of my brother. 任何对我弟弟有损害的事我都不会做。/ When factions are carried too high and too violently, it is a sign of weakness in princes; and much to the <b>prejudice</b>, both of their authority and business. (Sir Francis Bacon, <i>The Essays</i>) 如果派别的地位抬得太高，闹得太厉害，这就表示君王的力量削弱了，这对他们的权威和事业都是不利的。/ These are still retained, to the <b>prejudice</b> of our interests, not less than of our rights. (Alexander Hamilton, <i>Federalist Papers</i>) 这些东西仍然扣在人家手里，损害了我们的利益，也同样损害了我们的权利。/ ... you shall do nothing in a passion, nothing to my <b>prejudice</b> or to your mother's <b>prejudice</b>, without my knowledge and consent. (Daniel Defoe, <i>The Fortunes & Misfortunes of the Famous Moll Flanders</i>) ……你不可以凭一时的冲动，不事先告诉我并且得到我的同意，就做出不利于我或是不利于你母亲的事情。/ As with standard legal trials, Hartmann says, the defendants will have the right to a military lawyer, the right to remain silent without <b>prejudice</b>, ... (<i>U.S. News & World Report</i>, Feb. 25, 2008, p. 15) 哈特曼说，同标准的司法审判一样，被告们将享有聘请一位随军律师的权利、保持沉默而不受不利影响的权利……</div><div class="ex-item">... I WILL speak it, though it be to the <b>prejudice</b> of my name and to the detriment of my reader's immediate pleasure as well as my own. (Anne Brontë, <i>The Tenant of Wildfell Hall</i>) ……哪怕是有损于我自己的名声，有损于读者眼前的愉快心情和我自己的愉快心情，我也一定会说出来。/ ... without <b>prejudice</b> to any claim for damages recoverable under Article 74. ……但不妨碍按照第 74 条规定可以取得的损害赔偿。</div><br><br>
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premise
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>premise</b></div>这个名词，用作单数，是逻辑三步论证中的“前提”；用作复数(premises)，则意义完全不同，是“非住宅的建筑物及其周围空地”。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 单数表示“前提”，是逻辑推理意义上的前提(大前提是 major premise，小前提是 minor premise)，不是日常语言中“(非此不可的)先决条件”(prerequisite 或 precondition)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 复数表示“建筑物”(一座建筑物也用复数)，前面的介词不能用 in，必须用 on。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>No alcohol may be consumed <b>on the premises</b>. 大楼内不许喝酒。表示“离开”要用 on 的反义词 off。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Police were called to escort her <b>off the premises</b>. 警察叫来了，把她领出了大楼。</div><br><br>
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premium
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>premium</b></div>源于拉丁文，是“奖励”的意思。到了英文中，作为名词也有这个意思，但是产生了几个转义：(1)投保人定期交给保险公司的保险费。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>life insurance <b>premium</b> 人寿保险费。(2)工资之外的奖金。(3)超出票面的价值。</div><br><br>值得注意的是，premium 构成的一些固定词组，往往离单词的原意很远。put/place/set a (high) premium on 是“特别注重”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A high <b>premium</b> comes to be <b>placed</b> on discipline and unity. 特别注重纪律和团结。/ I <b>place a high premium on</b> what someone is like as a person. 我特别注重一个人的为人如何。at a premium 原意是“价格超过了票面”，但也转义为“吃香，缺货，不够”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He eventually sold the shares back to the bank <b>at a premium</b>. 他终于以高出票面的价格把股票卖给了原来的银行。/ Land is <b>at a premium</b> in Manhattan. 曼哈顿地皮奇缺。/ If space is <b>at a premium</b>, choose adaptable furniture that won't fill the room. 如果空间不够，就要挑选好放的家具，别把房间都占满。</div><br><br>此外，premium 也可以作为形容词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>premium</b> goods 高档商品</div><div class="ex-item"><b>premium</b> grade gasoline 高级汽油。</div><br><br>
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prepare
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>prepare</b></div>这个动词通常属于第三类动词，即趋成动词，表示经过一段“准备”的过程，达到“准备好”的终点状态。时态若用一般过去时或现在完成时或过去完成时，则“过程”被忽略，剩下“终点”；时态若用进行时，则反过来“终点”被忽略，剩下“过程”。乍一看来，prepare 同中文的“准备”可以说是对应的。但是它有个别词义和用法对中国人来说仍然有些别扭。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 首先，中国人最容易接受的，是 prepare 作为及物动词，后面以事物(而且是新创造的事物)为宾语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>prepare</b> an expedition 准备出征</div><div class="ex-item"><b>prepare</b> a room for a guest 为客人准备房间</div><div class="ex-item"><b>prepare</b> a timetable 准备一个时间表</div><div class="ex-item"><b>prepare</b> a paper for a conference 写一篇论文到某个会议上宣读</div><div class="ex-item"><b>prepare</b> a contract 起草一份合同</div><div class="ex-item"><b>prepare</b> a medicine effective against flu 调制一种防治流感的药物</div><div class="ex-item"><b>prepare</b> dinner 准备晚餐</div><div class="ex-item"><b>prepare</b> a surprise for somebody 准备给某人一个惊喜。宾语也可以是预料中确定的事物(特指的)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>prepare</b> the way for something 为某事做好准备。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 符合中国人语言习惯的，还有 prepare 作为不及物动词，后面加上 for something (“为……做准备”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I have to <b>prepare</b> for the exam. 我要准备考试。/ We have to <b>prepare</b> for his arrival. 我们要为他的到来做准备。/ We should <b>prepare</b> for a storm. 咱们要准备好应付一场暴风雨。/ You'd better <b>prepare</b> for the worst. 你们最好还是准备应付最坏的情况。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 符合中国人习惯的，还有 prepare 作为不及物动词，后面加上 to inf.。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They're <b>preparing</b> to leave tomorrow. 他们正在准备明天动身。/ We would now have to <b>prepare</b> to fight an open battle. 咱们现在也许需要准备公开打一仗。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 不符合中国人心理习惯的，是 prepare 作为及物动词，以人作宾语，而且后面通常加上 for something。中文的“准备”无论如何不能以人作宾语，遇到这样的英文，有时候译成中文也有点别扭。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Our teacher is <b>preparing</b> us for the exam. 我们老师正在帮助我们准备考试。(或者“我们老师正在督促我们准备考试”。)还可以有反身代词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I've been <b>preparing myself</b> for the interview. 我一直在准备面试。/ The doctor had told him to <b>prepare himself</b> for surgery. 医生已经叫他准备动手术。</div><br><br>prepare somebody for something 中的 something 往往有“突如其来的不利事件”之意，所以这里的 prepare 就有“让某人做好思想准备，以免一下子打击太大”的含义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Prepare</b> yourself for a shock. 做好大吃一惊的思想准备。/ Problems sometimes arise for mothers who have suddenly taken on full-time work without <b>preparing</b> their children. 有些做母亲的事先没有给孩子做好思想准备，就干起全职工作，这样的母亲有时候会遇到难题。/ The children have been well <b>prepared</b> for their father's death. 孩子们对于父亲的去世已经早有思想准备。有时候加上一个 mentally 来修饰 prepare，但是没有 mentally 其实也是指“思想准备”。</div><br><br>
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presence
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>presence</b></div>这个名词在 in sb's presence (在某人面前、当着某人的面)中比较易懂好译，但独立出现代表某事物时不好翻译，要灵活处理。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a dominant <b>presence</b> in Washington politics 华盛顿政界的一个名人</div><div class="ex-item">a mysterious winged <b>presence</b>, felt rather than seen 一个可以感觉到但是看不见的神秘有翼怪物</div><div class="ex-item">Then his leg made its <b>presence</b> known. Arthritis, damn it. (Tom Clancy, <i>Executive Orders</i>) 接着，他的腿给了他一种感觉。是关节炎，糟糕。/ He was aware of her <b>presence</b>. 他知道她也在那里。/ Is his <b>presence</b> at the meeting essential? 他到会很有必要吗？/ Your <b>presence</b> is requested. 敬请光临。/ One day, the squirrels left evidence of their <b>presence</b> in our upstairs bedroom. 有一天，松鼠到过我们楼上的卧室，留下了痕迹。/ Domino's Pizza Inc. is aggressively expanding its <b>presence</b> across the globe ... 达美乐比萨公司正在大刀阔斧地扩大在全世界的经营……</div><div class="ex-item">Now he was walking up these stairs with his commanding <b>presence</b>. (Mary Higgins Clark, <i>Weep No More, My Lady</i>) 现在他竟然大摇大摆地走上楼梯。/ Since 1976 the Japanese Ministry of Health has been studying older Okinawans (who live in traditional cultures presumably unaffected by the American <b>presence</b>) ... (<i>Wellness Letter</i>, September 2001) 1976 年以来，日本厚生省一直在对冲绳的老人进行研究(他们过着传统的生活，估计没有受到美国人在那里的影响)……</div><br><br>
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present
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>present</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为形容词(重音在第一音节)，present 放在名词之前表示“现在的，目前的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>at the <b>present</b> time 在目前</div><div class="ex-item">in the <b>present</b> case 在当前这件事情上</div><div class="ex-item">the <b>present</b> writer 笔者。放在名词之后作定语或表语，则表示“在场的”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>all those <b>present</b> 全体到会者</div><div class="ex-item">a protein <b>present</b> in the blood 血液中包含的一种蛋白质</div><div class="ex-item">She was <b>present</b> at the ceremony. 她参加了该仪式。试比较：the members <b>present</b> 到会的成员</div><div class="ex-item">the <b>present</b> members 现有的成员。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作为动词(重音在末音节，及物动词，第四类动词)，同 provide 和 supply 相似，搭配比较特别，可以是容易理解的 present something to somebody。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>present</b> a petition to the government 向政府提出请愿。但也可以是 present somebody with something。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This model of monopoly <b>presents</b> the world <b>with</b> the threat that energy supplies can be broken off at any moment for political, not economic, reasons. 这种垄断模式，使得全世界面临一个威胁，就是能源供应随时可能因为政治原因而非经济原因而被切断。</div><br><br>
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presently
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>presently</b></div>有两个不完全相同的意义。一个是“现在，即时”，另一个是“再过一会儿”，要看上下文。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Come in. The doctor will see you <b>presently</b>. 请进来。大夫现在给您看病了。(现在轮到您了)</div><div class="ex-item">Have a seat. The doctor will see you <b>presently</b>. 请找个座位坐下等等。大夫过一会儿就给您看。(现在还没有轮到您)</div><div class="ex-item">We're <b>presently</b> discussing the matter. 我们现在正在商议这件事。/ <b>Presently</b>, he started to come round. 他很快就恢复了知觉。</div><br><br>
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president
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>president</b></div>这个单词意义和用途都很广泛。中国人最熟悉的意义是“总统”，但其实 president 在美国是很常用的。一个学院(college)的院长也是 president，一家皮包公司的董事长也是 president，甚至一所中学的学生会主席也是 president。究竟 president 是什么，要看语境。例如一部小说中，甲对乙说，今天这个会，the vice-president 也要来，乙就以为是某个公司的副董事长，但是甲马上补充说明，是美国副总统。<br><br>
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press
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>press</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为名词，既可以是“新闻事业；新闻从业人员”，也可以是“出版事业”甚至“出版社”。所以 freedom of the <b>press</b> 或 <b>press</b> freedom 既可以是“新闻自由”，也可以是“出版自由”。但是，从历史发展过程以及 press 这个单词的词源来看，它最原始的意义就是“压；印刷”，也就是“出版”。“新闻”这个新的词义也源于“出版”，但开始时缩小为“出版先后分期的报刊而不是一次完成的书籍”，所以当时“新闻”其实是“出版”的一部分。但是，随着技术的发展，“新闻”离开了平面的纸张，扩大到了广播、电视，甚至互联网，简直同 press 的原义“印刷”绝了缘。“新闻自由”含义很不明确。其实有了“言论自由”和“出版自由”，“新闻自由”也就是题中应有之义。更何况“出版自由”和“新闻自由”在英文中都是 freedom of the <b>press</b>。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> press 作为及物动词，可以形成“兼语式”，即 press somebody to inf.，此时 press 有“敦促，推动，催促”的意思，但是要注意：(a)没有字面上的“施加压力，强加于人”那样的含义；(b)后面的动词并不一定随着 press 而同时实现，也就是说，press somebody to inf. 只是单方面“敦促某人，希望他去做某事”，并不表示某人真的这样做了。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Obama has placed the issue (= the health plan) atop his domestic agenda and as recently as two weeks ago was <b>pressing</b> the House and Senate insistently <b>to pass</b> separate bills by the end of July or early August. (<i>The Associated Press</i>, July 29, 2009) 奥巴马曾经将这件事情放在他的国内执政方案的首位，就在两周前，还在坚持敦促参众两院赶紧在 7 月底或 8 月初通过一些各自独立的法案。</div><br><br>
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pressure
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>pressure</b></div>除了最常见的作为名词之外，pressure 也可以作为及物动词。pressure somebody to inf. 是“对某人施加压力，要他如何如何”，但是他究竟是否听从，并不明确交代。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Congress is <b>pressuring</b> the President <b>to</b> accept a compromise. 国会在对总统施压，要他接受一项妥协方案。/ With Olmert <b>pressured to</b> quit, government may fall apart. (<i>JTA</i>, Jan. 17, 2008) 由于(总理)奥尔默特受到辞职压力，(以色列)政府可能垮台。</div><br><br>但是，后面如果是 into + -ing，则是压力奏效。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He <b>was pressured into withdrawing</b> from the competition. 他受到压力，不得不退出了竞争。/ U.S. officials <b>pressured</b> the Iraqi government <b>into</b> suspending the bus convoys ... (<i>U.S. News & World Report</i>, Jan. 14, 2008, p. 31) 美国官员向伊拉克政府施压，迫使后者停止了用大轿车接回难民的做法，……</div><br><br>此外，也可以从动词 pressure 的时态看出压力是否奏效。用进行时或是用被动的一般现在时，可以肯定是尚未奏效。用一般过去时、现在完成时或过去完成时，可能已经奏效，也可能只有压力，但尚未奏效。<br><br>顺便一提，类似结构不能一概而论，不能以为凡是 to inf. 就是结果未明。有时前面的动词“役使”的意义十分强烈，后面的 to inf. 就通常是实现了的，例如 force somebody to inf.、persuade somebody to inf.、order somebody to inf.。<br><br>
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pretty much
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>pretty much</b></div>副词短语，有“干脆，索性”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My parents were consumed with her (= my mother's) illness, and my drinking was <b>pretty much</b> under their radar. (Merrillee Whren, <i>Hometown Promise</i>) 我父母就因为我母亲的病弄得焦头烂额，我酗酒的事情他们就索性不管了。/ So he <b>pretty much</b> washed his hands of me. (ibid.) 于是他就索性甩下我不管了。</div><br><br>
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prevent 与 avoid
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>prevent 与 avoid</b></div>参见 avoid 与 prevent 条。<br><br>
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price
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>price</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 说“价格很昂贵”或“价格很便宜”，不能说 <i>The price is too expensive. 或 </i>The price is cheap. 因为 price 只有高低 (high 或 low) 之分，商品本身才有贵贱 (expensive 或 cheap) 之分。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> great price 的 great 是“好”的意思，这是从购买者的角度说的，所以意思是“低廉的价格”。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> at a price in ... 是“以削减……为代价”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The word ("formation") implies that an increase in your specialized capabilities is bought <b>at a price in</b> flexibility and breadth of knowledge. (Christopher Caldwell, "What a College Education Buys," in <i>The New York Times</i>, Feb. 25, 2007) 这个词(“造就”)的含义有：你如果加强你的专业能力，就要以降低你的灵活适应能力以及知识面为代价。</div><br><br>
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prime minister
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>prime minister</b></div>是内阁制的政府首脑，但翻译成中文时要看相关国家是君主制还是共和制。如果是共和制，就译成“总理”，如果是君主制，就译成“首相”。但是朝鲜尽管是共和制，仍然沿用汉字“首相”字样。另外，德国的总理不叫 *prime minister 而叫作 chancellor，自成一格。<br><br>
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principal
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>principal</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 与 principle (原则)发音相同，但词义不同。 (2) 作为形容词，是“主要的”之意。作为名词，可以表示：(a)中小学校长。(b)(与代理人或保证人相对而言的)本人。(c)借贷关系中与利息相对而言的本金。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>principal</b> and interest 本利。(d)刑法中与从犯(accessory)相对而言的主犯(罪行用 to 引入)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They were accused of being <b>principals to</b> second-degree murder. 他们被控告是二级谋杀罪的主犯。</div><br><br>
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prints
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>prints</b></div>可以是 fingerprints (指纹)的简化形式。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... and his <b>prints</b> were the only ones lifted from the weapon. (Michael Christopher Mahan, <i>An Internal Affair</i>) ……枪支上唯一取得的是他的指纹。</div><br><br>
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prior to
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>prior to</b></div>这个介词词组，同介词 before 大致同义，指时间上的“先于”。不过 prior to 多用于书面或其他较为正式的场合。由于大致同义，所以许多人认为 prior to 是多余的。但是，prior to 也有 before 所没有的更深一层的含义：这个“先于”不单是时间上的偶然先后，而是前后两件事彼此有内在的关系。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... make it mandatory for every passenger to be fluoroscoped <b>prior to</b> boarding a plane ... (<i>American Labor</i>, September 1968) ……强制规定每个旅客登机之前必须经过荧光屏照射……</div><div class="ex-item">... a high-precision device that permits accurate positioning of the patient <b>prior to</b> exposure to the actual treatment ... (<i>Annual Report</i>, CIT Financial Corporation) ……有一个高精度装置，可以在病人真正接受治疗之前给他做精密的定位……</div><div class="ex-item">... unless <b>prior to</b> that time she requested a hearing ... (<i>AAUP Bulletin</i>, September 1971) 除非她抢在这个日期之前要求一次听证……</div><br><br>先后两件事如果没有内在联系，就不宜用 prior to，要用 before。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He arrived <b>before</b> (*prior to) the accident. 他是事故发生之前到达的。反过来，先后两件事有内在联系，尽管最好用 prior to，但是用 before 也可以。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>training <b>before</b> the Olympics 奥运会前的训练。</div><br><br>
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problem 与 question
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>problem 与 question</b></div>中文都是“问题”。这两个名词在英文中有时候意义相同，可以换用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the housing <b>problem/question</b> 住宅问题</div><div class="ex-item">the <b>problem/question</b> of unemployment 失业问题</div><div class="ex-item">tackle/deal with a <b>problem/question</b> 处理一个问题</div><div class="ex-item">solve a <b>problem/question</b> 解决一个问题。</div><br><br>但是有时候两者在词义上和习惯搭配用法上有相当大的差别。problem 侧重“困难，困扰”，接近于“难题”；question 则侧重“疑问”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has a weight <b>problem</b> (<i>question). 他身体过重。/ She's got boyfriend <b>problems</b> (</i>questions). 她情场不如意。/ I'm having <b>problems</b> (<i>questions) deciding. 我正在踌躇未决。/ Any <b>problems</b>, just call me. 有问题就找我。(找我帮忙克服困难，不是找我帮忙找出答案)</div><div class="ex-item">The <b>question</b> is who will pay the money. 问题是由谁来付钱。/ There remains the <b>question</b> (of) how to restore order. 还剩下如何恢复秩序的问题。/ To be, or not to be, that is the <b>question</b>. (Shakespeare, </i>Hamlet*) 生死存亡，这就是问题。</div><br><br>可以 answer 或 solve (有点勉强)一个 question，但只能 solve 而不能 answer 一个problem。<br><br>此外，in question (*in problem 则不可)可以作后置定语，表示“当前涉及的，这个”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Where were you during the time <b>in question</b>? 你这段时间在什么地方？</div><br><br>problem of 后面接问题或事项的内容。problem with 后面接某事“成问题，不一定对”之处。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The <b>problem with</b> the analogy, Golden points out, is that orchestras pick the very best players, through blind auditions in order to avoid favoritism, ... (Richard D. Kahlenberg, <i>The Century Foundation</i>) 戈尔登指出，这样的类比，其问题在于交响乐团所挑选的是好中又好的乐手，要通过不记名的听奏，以避免走后门，……</div><br><br>out of <b>question</b> (<i>problem) (beyond <b>question</b> 更常用)是“不成问题”；out of <b>the question</b> (</i>problem) 是“根本谈不上，不可能”。<br><br>
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proceed
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>proceed</b></div>可以是名词(但常为复数)，也可以是不及物动词。作为不及物动词时，可以是第一类、第二类和第四类动词。现分述如下：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 表示“行进着”或“进行着”，是第二类动词(主语可以是人，或是进行中的事)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I was <b>proceeding</b> along Oxford Street when ... 当我正沿着牛津街走着时……</div><div class="ex-item">How is the work <b>proceeding</b>? 工作进行得如何？/ The talks <b>proceeded</b> in a friendly atmosphere. 谈判是在友好气氛中进行的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 后面加 with ...，表示“(在真正或似乎停顿了一段时间之后)重新继续做某事”，是第四类动词(主语通常是人)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Please <b>proceed with</b> your explanation. 请你继续解释下去。/ Do you intend to <b>proceed with</b> the case? 这个案子你打算继续办下去吗？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 表示“采取某种行事方式”，是第二类动词(主语必须是人)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How does one <b>proceed</b> in such circumstances? 遇到这样的情况，该怎么办？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 后面加 from ...，表示“源于”，是第一类动词，可以用一般现在时(主语不能是人)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Superstition <b>proceeds from</b> ignorance. 迷信源于无知。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 同样后面也是加 from ...，表示“从……出发”，是第四类动词(主语可以是人或事物)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>From</b> where did the shot <b>proceed</b>? 这一枪是从哪里打来的？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 后面加 to inf. 或 to + 名词，表示“着手开始做某事”或“转而开始做某事”，是第四类动词(主语通常是人)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She <b>proceeded to</b> tell us why. 她于是就告诉我们是什么原因。/ Let's <b>proceed to</b> the next item on the agenda. 咱们转入议程下一项吧。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 名词复数形式 proceeds，表示某次售卖或活动取得的收入(income 则是某人在某一时期各种来源的收入)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the <b>proceeds</b> from a bazaar 一次义卖的收入</div><div class="ex-item">He sold the house and went to Jamaica on the <b>proceeds</b>. 他把房子卖了，靠这笔钱去了牙买加。/ She hopes to announce a fundraising weekend concert soon, with <b>proceeds</b> going to quake victims. (David Pierson, in <i>Los Angeles Times</i>, May 12, 2008) 她希望很快宣布将举办一次周末筹款音乐会，门票收入送给地震灾民。由于复数形式的 proceeds 所表示的是一个整体的金钱数量，不是一个一个单独的 proceed 凑在一起，因此它也同 profits 一样，成了一个不可数名词，前面也可以用 much。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>After the lottery has been drawn, the promoter must report to the local authority how <b>much proceeds</b> the lottery generated. 彩票抽奖之后，主持人应向当地主管部门报告彩票出售获得了多少收入。但是也有说 many proceeds 的。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Many proceeds</b> will go to the Red Cross tsunami relief efforts. 许多筹款收入将用于红十字会的海啸赈灾。参见 many 与 much 条之(2)。</div><br><br>
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produce
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>produce</b></div>作为动词，除了“生产”这个意义之外，还有“拿出，出示(但不是给予)”的意思，如“出示证件”或是店员向顾客“展示货物”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She <b>produced</b> what I wanted. 她给我展示了我想要的那个。</div><br><br>
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productive
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>productive</b></div>这个形容词带有一定的“起生产作用的”的主动意义，所以“生产力”是 <b>productive</b> forces，但“生产关系”不是 *productive relations (它的“生产”不是“起生产作用”)，而应该是 relations <b>of production</b>。<br><br>
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profession
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>profession</b></div>不一定是“职业”，也有“表白，声明”这个动作意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The report was larded with <b>professions</b> of eagerness to receive instructions. 报告中添加了一些表示渴望得到指示的声明。</div><br><br>
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profile
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>profile</b></div>可以表示：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> (人的)侧影。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>draw somebody in <b>profile</b> 画某人的侧面像</div><div class="ex-item">look at somebody in <b>profile</b> 从侧面看某人。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> (不一定是侧面的而是笼统的)轮廓、形象。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>profile</b> of modern Britain 现代英国剪影。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> (对人的)简介，(在他人心目中的)形象、地位。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She wanted to write <b>profiles</b> of the founders of the Party. 她想写出党的几个创始人的简介。/ It raises their <b>profiles</b>. 这能抬高他们的身价。/ They bought a TV network and used it to get him a national <b>profile</b>. 他们买下了一个电视网，用来把他捧成全国的名人。</div><br><br>
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profit
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>profit</b></div>作为可数名词，指具体一次交易得到的一笔利润。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The company made a healthy <b>profit</b> on the deal. 公司这宗交易赚了一笔可观的利润。复数 profits 指利润的整体，此时成了一个不可数名词，前面可以加 much。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>how <b>much profits</b> a company is generating based on every $1 in revenues (Paul Lim, <i>Investing Demystified</i>) 一家公司每一美元的收入产生多少利润。但是也有说 many profits 的。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Oil, <b>many profits</b> and few investments? 石油利润高而投资少吗？参见 many 与 much 条之(2)。</div><br><br>
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prohibit 与 forbid
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>prohibit 与 forbid</b></div>两者词义几乎完全相同(可以是权威的“禁止”，也可以是客观情况的“阻止”)，既可以指延续的“不准，不许可”状态(属第一类动词)，也可以指瞬时的 “宣布禁止”行动(属第四类动词)。只是 forbid 没有 prohibit 正式。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 两者都可以以犯禁或被阻之事为直接宾语(可以转换为被动语态)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Our budget <b>prohibits</b> further increase in expenditure. 我们的预算不准进一步增加开支。/ Drinking alcohol at work is <b>prohibited</b>. 禁止工作时饮酒。/ Smoking is strictly <b>prohibited</b>. 严禁吸烟。/ The law <b>forbids</b> hunting animals in this forest. 法律禁止在这片树林里猎杀动物。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 但是在“禁止或阻止某人做某事”的搭配上，两者有些不同。prohibit + 某人 + from + -ing，但 forbid + 某人 + to inf.</div><div class="ex-item">-ing。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>prohibit</b> people <b>from</b> swimming in the river 禁止人们下河游泳</div><div class="ex-item">The law <b>prohibits</b> ships <b>from</b> approaching this island. 法律禁止船只靠近这个岛。/ The regulations <b>prohibit</b> me <b>from</b> disclosing the results. 按照规章，我不能透露结果。/ The rain <b>prohibited</b> us <b>from</b> going. 我们因雨未能前往。/ Business <b>prohibited</b> him <b>from</b> going. 他有公务无法前往。/ The doctor <b>forbids</b> him <b>to</b> smoke. 医生不让他吸烟。/ I <b>forbid</b> you <b>contradicting</b> me. 我不许你反驳我。/ Lack of money <b>forbade</b> him <b>to</b> continue his studies. 他因为缺钱，无法继续学业。/ Bad weather <b>forbade</b> us <b>to</b> go out. 天气恶劣，我们无法出去。但是偶尔也有说 forbid somebody from doing something 和 prohibit somebody to inf. 的。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The order <b>forbade</b> officials <b>from</b> receiving "free or cheap house renovations." 该命令禁止官员接受“免费或低价的住宅装修”。/ ... they are <b>prohibited to</b> add new names. (H. C. Burdick, <i>Sales Promotion by Mail</i>) ……他们被禁止增加新的名字。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> forbid 也可以以人为间接宾语，以犯禁或受阻之事为直接宾语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The doctor <b>forbade</b> the patient sweets. 医生禁止病人吃糖果。/ They <b>forbade</b> him participation. 他们不准他参加。可以转换为被动语态，将间接宾语变为主语。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He <b>was forbidden</b> tobacco. 他被禁止吸烟。将直接宾语变为主语的较少。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Tobacco <b>was forbidden to</b> him.</div><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 两者都可以在后面加上 one's + -ing 作直接宾语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Business <b>prohibited</b> his <b>going</b>. 他有公务无法前往。/ My father <b>forbade</b> my <b>using</b> his car. 我父亲不许我用他的车子。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> forbid 后面可以接上 that 从句，从句中的谓语动词用虚拟语气。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My father <b>forbade that</b> I <b>should</b> use (美式英语: that I use) his car. 我父亲不许我用他的车子。/ They <b>forbid that</b> the wine bottle <b>should</b> be (美式英语: that the wine bottle be) opened. 他们禁止把酒瓶打开。prohibit 则不习惯接上 that 从句。</div><br><br>
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promise
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>promise</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为名词，不一定指“诺言”，可以是“未来的良好前景，发展前途”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The new drug holds great <b>promise</b>, especially for women. 新药前途广大，尤其是对于妇女。/ There is nothing to show that this fortunate situation is based on any permanent foundations, or holds any particular <b>promise</b> for the future. 没有什么迹象表明，这种顺利的局面有任何长远的基础或是具有任何特别的发展前途。/ The sun had already risen over the East River and it held the <b>promise</b> of a beautiful day. (Mary Higgins Clark, <i>Where Are You Now?</i>) 东河的上空已经升起了太阳，预示着这一天是个大好的艳阳天。由 promise 的现在分词变来的形容词 promising，则表示“大有前途的”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The scandal threatened an abrupt end to a <b>promising</b> political career. 丑闻有可能使得一个人大有前途的政治生涯戛然而止。</div><br><br>但也可以引入负面的前景。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If the costs <b>promise</b> to be too high or the prospects too poor, we should think twice about acting. (Richard Haass, in <i>Time</i>, May 13, 2013, p. 19) 如果代价太高，或是前景太差，我们就应该三思而后行。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作为及物动词，可以表示一个“做出许诺”的行动，此时是个表示瞬时动作的第四类动词，可以有双宾语，间接宾语在前，直接宾语(可以是 that 引入的名词从句)在后。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She <b>promised</b> them (that) she wouldn't tell anybody. 她答应了他们，对谁都不说。也可以转换为被动句，原先的间接宾语可以转换为主语。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They have been <b>promised</b> help. 人家原先答应过要帮助他们。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 作为及物动词，还可以表示一个“显示未来前途如何”的状态，此时是个表示延续状态的第一类动词，通常显示的未来前途是正面良好的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It <b>promises</b> to be an exciting week. 这一周看来会是很令人兴奋的。但也可以是负面不好的。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Unchecked, the problem <b>promises</b> to undermine consumer confidence. 问题如果得不到制止，势必动摇消费者信心。/ Now, Mr. Jabez Wilson here has been good enough to call upon me this morning, and to begin a narrative which <b>promises</b> to be one of the most singular which I have listened to for some time. (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, <i>The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes</i>) 现在，承蒙贾贝兹·威尔逊先生今天上午来访，开始讲了一个故事，这很可能是我好久以来所听到过的最独特的故事之一。</div><br><br>
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proof
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>proof</b></div>作为形容词，前面加上名词，当中常有连字符“-”，意思就是对这名词所代表的事物有“防止，抵御”的作用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>water-<b>proof</b> 防水的</div><div class="ex-item">bullet-<b>proof</b> 防弹的。也可以作为及物动词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is vital to fall-<b>proof</b> your home. 把住宅装修得不容易摔跤，是十分紧要的。/ <i>Age-proof Your Body</i> 《身体防老法》。</div><br><br>
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proof 与 evidence
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>proof 与 evidence</b></div>两者在中文中都是“证据”。evidence 是不可数的集合名词，没有任何冠词时表示泛泛的“若干证据”，有定冠词 the 时(不可以用不定冠词)表示已有证据的整体(偏向客观形成的证据)。<br><br>proof 则是可数名词，表示一件件的具体证据(而且偏向人为的证明)。但 proof 也可以是不可数名词，此时带有一点表示人为动作的动词意义(这是 evidence 所没有的)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You'll need <b>proof</b> of identity. 你将需要身份证明。/ We have written <b>proof</b> of it. 我们有这个的书面证明。/ The <b>proof</b> of the pudding is in the eating. 对布丁的证明，在于吃它。/ He gave her a necklace as <b>proof</b> of his love. 他送给她一条项链，以表爱意。在这些例子中，proof 都不能用 evidence 来代替。另外，proof 由于偏向人为的证明，所以除了“证据，证明”之外，还可以有“考验”的意思。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The new product has stood a severe <b>proof</b>. 新产品经受了严格的考验。</div><br><br>
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propaganda
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>propaganda</b></div>这个名词有浓厚的贬义，比中文的“宣传”更为偏重“撒谎欺骗”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Itis essential to sort the truth from the <b>propaganda</b>. 将真话同宣传区别开来，十分必要。</div><br><br>
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proper
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>proper</b></div>这个形容词的一个特别之处，是可以放在一个表示地域或具体事物的内容名词后面，表示“在严格意义上的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>in France <b>proper</b> 在法国本土，不包括法国海外属地</div><div class="ex-item">American military bases in Japan <b>proper</b> 日本本土上的美军基地</div><div class="ex-item">The suburb is not considered part of Boston <b>proper</b>. 郊区不算波士顿市的一部分。/ After the introduction we started the meeting <b>proper</b>. 开场白说完之后，我们的会议正式开始了。/ The scene is in the shadow of a lilac bush, which grows outside the kitchen door in Aunt Tranter's garden and provides a kind of screen from the garden <b>proper</b>. (John Fowles, <i>The French Lieutenant's Woman</i>) 这一情景发生在特兰特姨妈家花园的一簇紫丁香阴影下。那簇紫丁香就在厨房的窗外，正好可以遮住从花园射过来的视线。</div><br><br>
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propose
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>propose</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为瞬时动词，意思可以是“提出建议”，如果主语是第一人称，可以作为延续动词用一般现在时，表示“我建议大家做某事”，此时搭配有两种：(a) propose + -ing。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I <b>propose waiting</b> till the police get here. 我建议在这里一直等到警察来。</div>(b) propose that ... 后面接上名词从句作宾语，这个从句内的谓语动词可以采取三种形式：(b1) 虚拟式 should inf.。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I <b>propose that</b> the secretary <b>should send in</b> a report. 我建议由秘书送上一份报告。</div>(b2) 虚拟式 inf. (无 should 的动词原形)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I <b>propose that</b> the secretary <b>send in</b> a report.</div>(b3) 不用虚拟式而索性用直陈式一般现在时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I <b>propose that</b> the secretary <b>sends in</b> a report.</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作为瞬时动词，意思还可以是“提出有关客观情况的某个看法”，此时搭配只能是 propose that 后面接上谓语动词为直陈语气的从句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Hawking has done groundbreaking research on black holes and the origins of the universe, <b>proposing</b> that space and time have no beginning and no end. (<i>The Associated Press</i>, June 14, 2006) 霍金对黑洞和宇宙来源问题进行了开拓性的研究，认为时空是无始无终的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 作为延续动词，意思是“心中有某打算”，此时搭配是 propose to inf.。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I <b>propose to start</b> tomorrow. 我打算明天就动手。</div><br><br>
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protest
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>protest</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 这个动词(“抗议”，瞬时动作，第四类动词)，英式英语倾向于作为不及物动词，说 protest against 或 protest about；美式英语则倾向于作为及物动词，不要 against 或 about。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>protest</b> foreign occupation/<b>protest against</b> foreign occupation 抗议外国占领。但是如果意义不是“抗议”而是“声明”，就应该是及物动词，后面直接接上宾语。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She <b>protested</b> her innocence in a letter written in her own blood. 她写血书声明自己无罪。/ Sherif Hussein of Mecca, having frequently <b>protested</b> his loyalty to the Caliphate in Constantinople, suddenly reversed his position ... (<i>The NewYork Review of Books</i>, Dec. 9, 2010, p. 44) 麦加的谢里夫·侯赛因原本常常声明效忠君士坦丁堡的哈里发王朝，但却忽然改变立场，……也就是说，protest 作为及物动词，可以有负面的“抗议”和正面的“声明”两个不同的意义。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 中文一般对应为“抗议”，但是在英文中有时候并不带有这样严重的意义，只是表达一个不同的意见，甚至可以用来表示婉拒对方的某个好意。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>“I'll drive you there,” he said. “There's no need for that,” she <b>protested</b>. “It isn't far.” “我开车送你去吧。”他说。“没有必要，”她回答说，“路不远。”</div><br><br>
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prove
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>prove</b></div>这个动词(瞬时动作，第四类动词，但表示某事物的证明能力时，可以用作第一类动词)，它的搭配比较多样。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 中国人比较容易接受的，也最简单的，是 prove 作为及物动词，宾语是名词或 that 名词从句(或以间接问句形式出现的名词从句)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They can't <b>prove</b> anything against us. 他们提不出任何对我们不利的证据。/ I think I've <b>proved</b> my point. 我认为我的道理已经讲得清清楚楚了。/ They couldn't <b>prove</b> that she was lying. 他们证明不了她在撒谎。/ Can you <b>prove</b> where you were that night? 你能证明你那天夜里在什么地方吗？宾语所代表的如果是具有倾向性的，prove 就是“证实为真”；如果是没有倾向性的，prove 就是“拿来试验”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The method has not yet been <b>proved</b>. 这个方法还没有试验过。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 稍为复杂一点，是加上宾补(可以是形容词，也可以是名词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The facts <b>prove</b> him <b>guilty</b>. 事实证明他是有罪的。/ The accused is innocent until <b>proved/proven guilty</b>. 被告在被证明有罪之前是无罪的。/ Tests <b>proved</b> the drug <b>effective</b>. 试验证明了该药物是有效的。这个宾补前面也可以加上 to be。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The facts <b>prove</b> him <b>to be guilty</b>. 事实证明他是有罪的。/ Tests <b>proved</b> the drug <b>to be effective</b>. 试验证明了该药物是有效的。也可以有被动式。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Many of these findings have been <b>proved</b> fakes. 这些发现，有很多已经被证明为伪作。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 宾语是 oneself，指“证明自己的能力”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was given three months to <b>prove himself</b>. 他们给了他三个月的时间来证明自己称职。/ The new system has not yet <b>proved itself</b> in battle. 新的系统还没有在实战中证明有效。同样也可以加上表语或 to be + 表语。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Stephen quickly <b>proved himself</b> indispensable. 史蒂芬很快就显示出自己是个不可缺少的人才。/ She <b>proved herself</b> a brilliant student. 她显示出自己是个高才生。/ He has <b>proved himself to be</b> a great actor. 他显示出自己是个了不起的演员。但这不一定是证明自己如何好，也可以是暴露自己如何不好。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He <b>proved himself (to be)</b> a liar. 他暴露了自己是个撒谎者。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 中国人可能不大习惯的是 prove 作为系动词(但是个瞬时完成的系动词，体貌同 become 差不多)，后面跟表语(形容词、名词)，表示“经过实际考验表明了自己如何”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His advice <b>proved</b> useless. 他提出的主意，结果表明是没用的。/ The research <b>proved</b> groundbreaking. 研究工作显得有开拓性。/ As to his career, the period <b>proved</b> overall successful. 就他的事业来说，那个时期大体上是成功的。表语可以是表示好的，但也可以是表示不好的。作表语的名词，通常是不特指的，但如果表示“不出所料”或“名不虚传”，也可以是特指的(加定冠词 the)。</div><br><br>对于作表语的名词，要注意不要误认为宾语(因为名词性表语和句子主语是同一事物，宾语和主语则不同)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The Senate hearings were <b>proving</b> a gold mine for reporters. 参议院的听证会，对于采访记者们来说，越来越像是棵摇钱树。/ The senator <b>proved</b> a maestro at disclosing sensational charges. 那位参议员原来竟然是个发动耸人听闻的指责的高手。/ The original budget <b>proved</b> an underestimate. 原先的预算，原来是低估了。/ Such oil riches <b>proved</b> a curse. 这些石油财富，原来竟然是个祸害。如果表语是特指的，为了同直接宾语相区别，最好加上一个表示程度的副词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>John <b>proved quite</b> the professor. 约翰这位教授果然名不虚传。表语前面也可以加上 to be。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It may well <b>prove to be</b> his most rewarding and successful novel yet. 这部小说，很可能到头来成为他历来收获最大、最为成功的一部。/ His language skills <b>proved to be</b> an asset. 他的语言才能，结果还是一笔财富。/ The new secretary <b>proved (to be)</b> very friendly. 新来的秘书，其实是十分和蔼可亲的。</div><br><br>prove to inf. 和 turn out to inf. 意义和用法都差不多，本身都是瞬时的，但后面的 inf. 却必须是延续的。但是，两者也有一个区别。prove to inf. 后面的 to inf. 不可以有否定词(不可以说 *prove not to inf.)；turn out to inf. 则可以采取 turn out to inf. 或 turn out not to inf. 两种结构。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He <b>proved to be</b> a professor. 他果然是一位教授。/ He <b>turned out not to be</b> a professor. 他原来不是教授。</div><br><br>
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provide
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>provide</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为表示“规定”的及物动词(瞬时动作或延续状态均可)，直接宾语可以是一个 that 引入的名词从句，从句中的谓语动词用虚拟语气，也可以用直陈语气的“应该”或“可以”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The next year the assembly <b>provided that</b> the fort <b>be</b> given to Abraham Wood for three years. (<i>American Guide Series: Virginia</i>) 翌年，议会规定，该要塞交给亚伯拉罕·伍德，为期 3 年。/ ... the Mutual Security Treaty, which <b>provides that</b> in June 1970, either party <b>may</b> give notice ... (William O. Douglas, <i>The Center Magazine</i>, March 1969) ……共同安全条约规定，到了 1970 年 6 月，双方都可以通知(失效)……</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作为表示“提供”的及物动词(瞬时动作或延续状态均可)，有两种搭配。中国人习惯的是 provide something for someone。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The garden <b>provides</b> enough vegetables <b>for</b> the family. 菜园给全家供应充足的蔬菜。/ The company <b>provides</b> sport facilities <b>for</b> its staff. 公司给员工们提供体育设施。不大习惯的是 provide someone with something。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We <b>provided</b> them <b>with</b> food and blankets. 我们向他们提供了食品和毛毯。/ The state <b>provides</b> the orchestra <b>with</b> funds. 国家给管弦乐队提供资金。前一种搭配，可以只有直接宾语。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The book <b>provides</b> a good introduction to maths. 这本书为数学入门提供了良好的指导。/ The new plant will <b>provide</b> 2,000 jobs. 新工厂将提供 2,000 个工作机会。后一种搭配可以有被动语态，通常表示延续状态而非一时的被动事件。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The plane <b>is provided with</b> eight emergency exits. 该飞机备有八处紧急出口。参见 present 条之(2)。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> provide for 后面的宾语如果是人，表示“安排好某人的生活”或“保障某人的物质生活条件”，是瞬时或经常性的行动。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He left them very well <b>provided for</b>. 他把他们的生活安排得妥妥当当。/ Her husband was colonel in the Fortieth Hussars and left her handsomely <b>provided for</b>. (John Fowles, <i>The French Lieutenant's Woman</i>) 她丈夫生前是第四十轻骑兵的上校，留给她一大笔遗产。</div><br><br>宾语如果是事情，provide for 是“为某事做好准备”或是“就某事做出规定”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I have to <b>provide for</b> my old age. 我必须为老来未雨绸缪。/ I have a family to <b>provide for</b>. 我有一家子要养。/ Every eventuality has been <b>provided for</b>. 对一切可能发生的情况都做好了准备。/ The contract <b>provided for</b> increased wages, pensions, insurance. (<i>Current Biography</i>, November 1965) 合同对增加工资、养老金、保险金都做出了规定。</div><br><br>
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provided
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>provided</b></div>有时以 provided that 出现，但这个 that 可以略去。引入从句表示充分条件，意义同 if 差不多(但是 if 究竟是必要条件还是充分条件并不明确)，所以从句的时态也和 if 从句一样，用一般现在时表示将来，用一般过去时表示过去将来。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You may go, <b>provided (that)</b> you'<b>re</b> home by ten o'clock. 你如果 10 点以前回到家，就可以去。/ Children were permitted into the hall for these films, <b>provided</b> they <b>sat</b> at the back. 儿童如果坐在后排，就可以进大厅看这些片子。</div><br><br>但是，provided 并不完全等于 if，它带有“要求满足正面条件”的含义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You may leave now <b>if</b> (<i>provided) you wish. 你如果想走现在就可以走。(是你自己的愿望，不是对你的要求)</div><div class="ex-item">You may leave <b>provided/if</b> you have finished your work. 你如果做完了工作，就可以走。如果条件句是个否定句(不是正面条件)，就只能用 if 从句，不能用 provided 从句。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We'll be late for the show <b>if</b> (</i>provided) we <b>don't</b> hurry. 咱们如果不赶快，看戏就会迟到了。另外，如果条件是不利的(并非所要求的正面条件)，也不能用 provided。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We'll stay home <b>if</b> (*provided) it rains tomorrow. 如果明天下雨，我们就待在家里。</div><br><br>provided 的一个变体是 providing，也是个条件连词，但较少使用。<br><br>
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provision
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>provision</b></div>参见 regulation, provision 与 stipulation 条。<br><br>
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prudent 与 prudential
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>prudent 与 prudential</b></div>两个形容词都表示“审慎的”，但是前者用于指人或行为，后者用于指精神领域的思考、计划。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A <b>prudent</b> man will try to save money for family emergencies. 审慎的人会设法积蓄以备家庭不时之需。/ It is always <b>prudent</b> to plan a trip carefully. 出门旅行事先仔细计划一番，总是审慎之举。/ <b>Prudential</b> considerations often cause persons to watch out for their health. 审慎的考虑，常常使得人们注意自己的健康。</div><br><br>
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public school
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>public school</b></div>在英国与美国，意义差别很大甚至相反。在英国，同字面意义相反，是私立学校(中学)，收费很贵。在美国(以及澳大利亚等国)则符合字面意义，是公立学校，实行义务教育。<br><br>
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purge
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>purge</b></div>这个及物动词在一般词典上的释义是“清洗(组织)”，与之搭配的直接宾语，既可以是组织(此时被清洗的人用 of 引入)，也可以是被清洗的人(此时组织用 from 引入)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The organization has been <b>purged of</b> many of its active members. 该组织有许多积极成员被清洗掉了。(主语：组织)</div><div class="ex-item">They had done their best to <b>purge</b> extremists <b>from</b> the Party. 他们已经尽力把极端分子清除出党了。(宾语：极端分子) 参见 clean 与 cleanse 条、sow 条、sprinkle 条、swarm 条等。</div><br><br>
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purposefully 与 purposely
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>purposefully 与 purposely</b></div>两个副词都是“故意地”的意思，但是略有差别。purposely 是一般的“有意”，与“偶然，碰巧”相对；purposefully 则有更强的“有预谋地”的意思，而且常常同表示位置移动的动词一起使用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... she has <b>purposefully</b> (<i>purposely) hidden from her father. (Joshua Hammer, </i>People<i>, Feb. 27, 1984) ……她故意躲开父亲，藏起来。/ ... the people in green were scurrying about <b>purposefully</b> (</i>purposely). (E. L. Doctorow, <i>Loon Lake</i>) ……穿绿衣服的人们有目的地地东奔西赶。</div><br><br>
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push
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>push</b></div>这个单词，首先可作为及物动词，也可以作为不及物动词。它的意义非常广泛，不易捉摸。有时甚至借用为名词。这样的单词，虽然简单，但往往不容易看懂。下面举一个看错了 push 的意义而全句看错的例子：The entire world was not to them only <b>a push or a switch away</b>. (John Fowles, <i>The French Lieutenant's Woman</i>) 这一句，国内有译本原译是：“那时，他们觉得整个世界并非是人声鼎沸，拥挤不堪。”这完全是误读误译。这句话前面谈到了广播电视，此处的表语，不是 push 与 switch，而是 away (“离开……远”)，而 a push or a switch 是修饰说明 away 的程度(“差距，距离”)，away 是 world 与 they (them) 之间需要越过的“障碍”，a push or a switch 是排除这障碍所有待采取的手段(push 是“按键”，switch 是“拨动开关”)。似应该改译为：“对他们来说，并非只消按一下按钮或是拨动一下开关，就能接触到整个世界。”产生这样严重的误读误译，原因正是在于译者没有看出 away 是真正的表语，而把说明 away 程度的 a push or a switch 误认为表语，这一来，下一步就无法破解这两个名词的词义，从而牵强想象，同原意离了十万八千里。<br><br>
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put on 与 wear
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>put on 与 wear</b></div>中文都是“穿着，穿戴”。但是 put on 是瞬时完成的动作，wear 则是延续的状态，不能混淆。比如说 He <b>wore</b> a blue overcoat when he came into our house. 是可以的，但是如果说 He <b>put on</b> a blue overcoat when he came into our house. 就荒谬了。(进屋反而穿上大衣？) He always <b>wears</b> black shoes. (他总是穿黑鞋。)不能说 <i>He always <b>puts on</b> black shoes. 中国人的语言思维不大注意区分延续的动作或状态与瞬时完成的动作，如 </i>Food doesn't taste good to me when I <b>catch a cold</b>. 就是不通的，因为 catch a cold 是瞬时完成的事。吃东西无味是 catch a cold 之后一段时间当中延续的状态或现象，不是 catch a cold 那一刹那的事。所以应该改为 Food doesn't taste good to me when I <b>have a cold</b>.
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quarter
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>quarter</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作“四分之一”解，可以是名词，也可以是形容词。作为名词时，可以说 a quarter of a century (四分之一个世纪)；作为形容词时，可以说 a quarter century。要注意用不定冠词 a 而不用数词 one。作为形容词，可以比作为名词更简洁。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a quarter century's habits as a staff officer (U.S. News & World Report, Oct. 28, 2002, p. 46) 在四分之一个世纪里作为参谋军官养成的习惯。这里 a quarter century 可以方便地加上所有格符号 's，后面再加 of 结构 (如果说 habits of a quarter of a century as a staff officer 就太累赘)。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> “一又四分之一英寸”是 an (<i>one) inch and a quarter 或 one (</i>a) and a quarter inches，但如果前面的整数大于“一”，则后面 quarter 前用 a 或 one 皆可。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>four and a/one quarter gallons 四又四分之一加仑。</div><br><br>
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queen
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>queen</b></div>可以是王后，也可以是女王，在英文中是一个单词，但实际上差别当然很大，只能凭当时知道的事实来判别。“女王”同“王后”混淆不清的一个例子，是香港的 Queen's Road Central 中文名为“皇后大道中”，Queen Victoria Street 中文名为“维多利亚皇后街”，其实这里指的都是英国当时当政的维多利亚女王 (Victoria, 1819—1901)，不是“王后”，更不是“皇后”。另外，“皇帝”同“国王”不同，“皇后”同“王后”也不同；英国没有“皇帝”，也没有“皇后”。英国的 Royal Air Force 应该是“王家空军”而不是“皇家空军”。参见 empress 条。<br><br>
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question (of)
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>question (of)</b></div>当 question 后面有补充说明“问题”内容的附带定语成分时，用不用介词 of 来引入均可。<br><br>用 of 引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the question of how best to approach syntax is far from settled yet, ... (Christian Mair, Infinitival Complement Clauses in English) 有关如何妥善看待句法的问题，仍然远远尚未解决，……</div><div class="ex-item">The question of whether to sign the contract ... 是否签订合同的问题……</div><div class="ex-item">The question of whether global warming is natural or man-made is "all guesswork." 全球变暖的问题，究竟是自然界的问题，还是人为造成的问题，仍然属于主观猜测。/ settle the question of whether Machines Can Think 要解决“机器能否思维”的问题。</div><br><br>不用 of 引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... and the question arises whether this is indicative of different grammatical preferences of British and American speakers or whether ... (Christian Mair, Infinitival Complement Clauses in English) ……这就出现一个问题，就是这种情况究竟是说明英国和美国的说话者在语法上有不同的偏好呢，还是……</div><br><br>
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question 与 problem
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>question 与 problem</b></div>参见 problem 与 question 条。<br><br>
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quick
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>quick</b></div>对于这个形容词的含义，也要从“时间段”和“时间点”这两个不同的角度来理解。从“时间段”角度来看，quick 指的是某一延续行动或过程所覆盖的时间段十分短促。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a quick look 很快地看一眼</div><div class="ex-item">a quick visit 短促的访问</div><div class="ex-item">These cakes are quick and easy to make. 这些糕点做起来又快又容易。</div><br><br>从“时间点”的角度来看，quick 指的是从某明言或不明言的时间点开始算，只要经过很短的空白时间段就到达做某事或发生某事件的另一时间点 (这后一个时间点就是 quick 的所指)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a quick reply 迅速的答复</div><div class="ex-item">a quick resumption of arms negotiations 早日恢复军备谈判</div><div class="ex-item">John was quick to help her. 约翰很快就帮助了她。</div><br><br>如果涉及第三类动词 (即既有过程又有必然终点的“趋成动词”)，quick 及其派生副词 quickly 就可能包含上面所说的两种含义，既有过程“时间段”之短促，又有终点来临之快捷。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She wants to get the whole thing over with as quickly as possible. 她想让整桩事情尽快告一段落。这里的 get ... over with，通常是第四类动词，但也可以是第三类动词。如果当作第三类动词来理解，就是这个“使之告一段落”的过程要很短，终点结果要很快到来。如果当作第四类动词来理解，就是没有过程，只是很快一下子就告一段落。无论哪一种理解，quickly 在这里都说得通。</div><br><br>同样，a quick salad 可以指一份沙拉“很快就做出来端上” (时间点)，也可以指“只要很短时间就可以吃掉” (时间段)。<br><br>
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quiet
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>quiet</b></div>in the quiet of the night (在宁静的夜间)，这类的修辞结构在英语中比较常用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They can do it in the safety of their own homes. 他们可以安安稳稳地在自己家里这样干。/ Experience a special day exploring the beauty of Phoenix in the luxury of a brand new Mercedes-Benz. 请坐在崭新豪华的奔驰汽车里而欣赏凤凰城的美景，度过不平凡的一天。/ You can earn credits from our university, online, in the comfort of your home. 你可以舒舒服服地在家里上网取得我们大学的学分。</div><br><br>
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quiet 与 still
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>quiet 与 still</b></div>两个形容词都是“安静的” (没有声音，没有动静) 的意思，但是有细微的差别。quiet 倾向于正面意义的“没有喧杂的噪音”和“没有骚动”；still 则倾向于“停止不动”和负面意义的“沉寂，鸦雀无声”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Keep quiet! 别吵!</div><div class="ex-item">lead a quiet life 平平静静过日子</div><div class="ex-item">This is a quiet town. 这是一个宁静的小镇。/ Keep still! 别乱动!</div><div class="ex-item">paint a still life 画一幅静物画</div><div class="ex-item">The town was unnaturally still after the attack. 经过袭击后，该镇寂静得异乎寻常。</div><br><br>
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quit
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>quit</b></div>这个动词，可以及物，也可以不及物。它的过去式和过去分词，通常与动词原形相同，但也可以是 quitted。它与 stop 一样，表示“停止不做某事”时，后面用名词或动名词作其宾语 (不可用 *to inf.)。它同 stop 在含义上的区别主要是：如果主语是人，stop 只是客观叙述，而 quit 则隐隐约约暗示所“停止”的行动是施动者所乐意做，本来舍不得停下来或中止的，或是因为情况变化而主动停止的。所以，quit 作为不及物动词单独出现时，可以表示“罢休，割爱，舍弃”，更具体一些可以表示“辞职；退租；服输；离开 (此地)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The landlord gave them all notice to quit. 房东通知他们全体要退租搬出。/ He kept threatening to quit. 他一直扬言要辞职。/ Quit while you're ahead. 见好就收。/ 急流勇退。(谚语)</div>quit 作为及物动词，表示“罢休，舍弃”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I've finally quit that habit. 我终于戒掉了那个习惯。/ Quit talking and listen. 别老是你说，听我说。/ He quit what he was doing to help me paint the house. 他放下手中的活儿，帮我粉刷房子。/ They quit the city for the seashore every summer. 他们每年夏天都离开本市去海滩。/ He quit his claim to the throne. 他不再要求继承王位。/ Now was the time for him to step up and quit being a coward. (Merrillee Whren, Hometown Promise) 现在是他振作起来，不要再当胆小鬼的时候了。/ He used to (attend church), but his hearing got so bad that he quit going. (ibid.) 他从前是一直上礼拜堂去做礼拜的，但他耳背太厉害了，就不再去了。/ He decided to quit the committee. 他决定退出委员会。/ Quit trying to make excuses. (ibid.) 你就别再拿出什么借口了。/ "Val's great-great-great-great—" "Quit enumerating the greats." (ibid.) “瓦尔的曾——曾——曾——曾祖——” “别再摆你的‘曾’字了。”</div><br><br>即使 quit 的主语不是人，它仍然可以带有人的好恶色彩。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Oh, it (= the answering machine) quit working a couple of days ago, and I didn't know how to fix it. (Merrillee Whren, Hometown Promise) 哎，留言机好几天前就坏了，我又不懂得如何修理。</div><br><br>quit 同 stop 还有一个细微的区别。说 He stopped smoking. 可以是“他戒了烟”，但也可以是“他 (某时) 暂时停止了吸烟”，而 He quit smoking. 则是“他戒掉了吸烟的习惯”。<br><br>
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quite
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>quite</b></div>这个副词，本来意思是“十分地，完全地”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He is quite right. 他说得十分对。/ It's quite impossible. 这是根本办不到的。但是在实际使用中，力量减弱了，往往成了“相当如何”甚至“略为如何”。遇到这个词时，要从语境、声调和上下文判明它的真正含义。如 It's quite satisfactory. 就可能是“令人十分满意”或者“还过得去”。</div><br><br>
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rabbit 与 hare
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>rabbit 与 hare</b></div>rabbit 在英汉词典中一般是“家兔”，而 hare 则是“野兔”，但其实 rabbit 也有野生的。《伊索寓言》中“龟兔赛跑”的“兔”，因为实无其事，只是人的杜撰，所以英语中有说是 rabbit 的，也有说是 hare 的。<br><br>在美国，rabbit (不是 hare) 昵称 bunny，是春天的象征，又是复活节各种纪念品的标志，也是动画片和漫画里常见的角色。相形之下，hare 就显得受冷落了。<br><br>
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radar
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>radar</b></div>用于日常语言时，be on someone's radar 是“受到某人的注意”，be under someone's radar 是“不受某人的注意”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This disease is sometimes not even on a doctor's radar. 这个疾病往往甚至不受医生的注意。/ My parents were consumed with her (= my mother's) illness, and my drinking was pretty much under their radar. (Merrillee Whren, Hometown Promise) 我父母因为我母亲的病焦头烂额，我酗酒的事情他们就索性不管了。</div><br><br>
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radio
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>radio</b></div>作为大众传播媒介，radio、cinema 和 theatre 都要加定冠词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I always listen to the radio while I'm driving. 我总是一边开车一边听广播。/ It was a song that had been on the radio a lot that winter. 那是一首那年冬天广播常常播放的歌曲。/ It was a great treat to go to the cinema or the theatre when I was a child. 我小时候，去看电影或者看戏就是一件大喜事。但是 television (或 TV) 习惯不带 the。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>What's on TV? 电视上有什么节目?</div>另一方面，这些大众媒体，如果从专业或从业人员的角度来谈及 (相当于中文的广播事业、电影事业、戏剧事业等等)，就通常不带定冠词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Cinema is different from theatre in several ways. 电影在几个方面同戏剧不同。/ He's worked in radio and television all his life. 他干广播电视事业干了一辈子。</div><br><br>
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radius
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>radius</b></div>以 X 为圆心，1 英里为半径的范围，英文应该说 within a mile radius of X；如果半径是 10 英里，就说 within a ten-mile radius of X。注意这里 mile 始终用单数形式。<br><br>
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rain
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>rain</b></div>“冒雨”是 in the rain 或 under the rain。注意尽管这场雨前面没有提到过，是新知信息，但还是要用 the。这是因为 the rain 在这里是泛指的。但是如果对 rain 有特别的修饰，第一次提及及时就要用 a 而不用 *the。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They were traveling under a heavy rain. (首次提及)</div><div class="ex-item">They were traveling under the heavy rain. (再次提及)</div>
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rather
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>rather</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> rather 放在名词前面时，这个名词必须是单数可数名词，而且 rather 必须放在 a 前面。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm in rather a hurry. 我现在很忙。但是如果名词前面有形容词，则 rather 放在 a 的前面或后面均可。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>rather a good book</div><div class="ex-item">a rather good book 一本相当好的书。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> would rather (缩写为 'd rather) 与 prefer 意义相同，大体上可以换用。如果指的是通常的爱好，用 would rather inf. than inf. (都没有 to)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'd rather listen to music than watch TV. 相比于看电视，我更喜欢听音乐。也可以只说喜欢什么，不进行比较。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'd rather listen to music. 我更喜欢听音乐。用 prefer 则后面的动词要采取动名词形式。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I prefer listening to music to watching TV.</div>另外，would rather 也可以用来表示“两害取其轻”的“宁可”，prefer 则没有这一层的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Armstrong disliked having to wait for anything to cool down. He would rather (*preferred to) be burned. (Jeffrey Archer, The Fourth Estate) 阿姆斯特朗吃什么东西都不喜欢等它凉下来。他宁可烫了嘴。参照下面的 (4)。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> would rather 后面可以直接接一个 that 从句 (that 可省略)，从句中换上另外一个主语，谓语动词尽管谈的是现在或将来要做的事，却采取一般过去时 (其实是中国人所不习惯的虚拟语气)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—Shall we go out for dinner tonight? —No, I'd rather we ate at home, if you don't mind. 咱们今天晚上出去吃好吗? ——不啦，你如果觉得行，我还是喜欢咱们在家吃。/ —Shall I write to Harry and tell him that we've sold the car? —I'd rather you didn't. 要不要我写信告诉哈里咱们把车子卖掉了? ——我看最好还是别写。/ My mother would rather we caught the bus, rather than walk home after the party. 我母亲主张我们在聚会之后坐公共汽车回家，不要步行。</div><br><br>如果谈的是违反事实的愿望，从句就用过去完成时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I would rather you hadn't come. 我巴不得你没有来。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> X rather than Y 或 rather X than Y 都是肯定 X 而否定 Y。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Her humor did not exactly irritate him, but it seemed unusually and unwelcomely artificial, as if it were something she had put on with her French hat and her new pelisse; to suit them rather than the occasion. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 其实，她的幽默倒没有使他恼火，但是听起来却非常做作，使人讨厌，这正像她那法式小帽和皮外套上的装饰品一样，跟她的衣帽倒相配，但与当时的场合不协调。在 X rather than Y 中，X 和 Y 没有结构对称的问题。而在 rather X than Y 中，则按理 X 和 Y 在结构上应该对称，但是在实际语言中也往往不对称。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> rather than ... 或 rather ... than ... 后面的动词用什么形式? 大体上的规律是：如果是尚未实现的主观愿望，用不带 to 的动词不定式；如果是已经发生的事实，就参照前面与之相对比的另一动词的形式。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Rather than cause trouble, I'm going to forget the whole affair. 与其惹麻烦，我倒不如把整件事情罢算了。/ He wanted to sunbathe rather than swim. 他主要是要日光浴，不那么想去游泳。/ I'd rather not do a thing at all than do it badly. 我宁可什么事情也不做，也比把事情做坏了好。/ He'd rather die than disgrace himself. 他宁死不受辱。/ She feared General Tilney did not like her appearance: she found it was implied in his preventing her admittance to his daughter, rather than postpone his own walk a few minutes. (JaneAusten, Northanger Abbey) 她担心蒂尔内将军不喜欢她这副样子：她从一件事情上看出这样的迹象，那就是他一直在防止她接近他的女儿，他自己的散步时间也不肯推迟几分钟。/ It rained rather than snowed. 下的主要是雨而不是雪。/ He was pitied rather than disliked. 与其说人家不喜欢他，不如说人家可怜他。但是后一种情况时，如果涉及主观取舍，即使成了客观事实，也有用不带 to 的动词不定式的。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I stayed at home rather than go (*went) out in the rain. 我留在家里，没有冒雨出去。也有不问是尚未实现的主观取舍还是客观事实，不问前面动词的形式如何，而一律使用动名词形式的。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She made students think for themselves, rather than telling them what to think. 她让学生们自己动脑筋去思考，而不是告诉他们思考什么。</div><br><br>rather ... than ... 的 than 后面，甚至可以是一个句子 (用虚拟语气)，意思仍然是“宁可……也不要……”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I would rather die than you should think that of me. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 您这样看我，我宁肯去死。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> rather 作为副词，可以放在表示异同的形容词 alike、similar、different 以及介词 like 前面，也可以放在形容词比较级前面，但是意义有点减弱，表示“略为”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Siamese cats are rather like dogs in some ways. 暹罗猫在某些方面有点像狗。/ The weather was rather worse than I had expected. 天气比我原先预料的差一些。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> rather a/an 后面可以接上一些表示情绪反应的名词，如 disappointment、disadvantage、nuisance、pity、shame、joke 等，也是表示“略为，有点”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's rather a nuisance that we can't park here. 咱们不能在这里停车，这可有点不大方便。/ It's rather a shame that he has to work on Sundays. 要他星期天工作，这有点不大公道。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> rather 如果放在 like 或 enjoy 前面，可以表示一种怪癖 (中文可以译成“倒，倒是”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I rather like the smell of gasoline. 我倒挺喜欢汽油的气味。/ He rather enjoys queueing. 他倒是挺喜欢排队的。</div><br><br>
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rather 与 fairly
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>rather 与 fairly</b></div>参见 fairly 与 rather 条。<br><br>
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rat 与 mouse
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>rat 与 mouse</b></div>参见 mouse 与 rat 条。<br><br>
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re-
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>re-</b></div>这个前缀，词典上通常解释为“(与之前相同的) 再次” (again)。但是实际上这个“再次”的意思经过长期的演变，已经发展扩大，也可以表示“(与之前不同的) 再次，改变”甚至“反过来”的意思。辨义和使用时都必须有清楚的认识。现在分述如下：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> “(与之前相同的) 再次”，表示同一动作或现象的简单重复，如：reaffirm、reappear、reapply、reappoint、reappraisal、rearm、reassemble、reassert、reassure、reawaken、reboot、recapitulate、recapture、recharge、recite、recognize。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> “再次做某事，当中可能有改变”，如：reappraisal、reassess、rebirth、rebuild、reconstruct、redraft、reexamine、regenerate、rehear、rehouse、reincarnate。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> “修改”，如：redevelop、redistribute、redo、redraw、redress、reevaluate、refine、refit、reform、reformulate、refurbish、regroup、rehash、reinforce、reinterpret、reinvent。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> “单向转移”，<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>refinance、reinsurance、remortgage、resale、resell、revolve。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> “反方向作用”，<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>rebate、reflect、refract、refund、refrite、regression、regret、reimburse、reject、remunerate、renounce、repay、repel、reply、repress、repression。</div><br><br>有时候如果这几种不同的含义分辨不清，就可能发生误解或使用不当，例如一个新闻标题 Some AIG bonuses repaid (The Daily Gazette, Mar. 19, 2009, A1) 意思是：美国最大的保险公司“美国国际集团” (American International Group, AIG) 在经济危机中得到了政府的救助，但却给高级主管发了天文数字的奖金 (bonuses)。事情被揭发后，一些奖金不得不退还。这里的 repaid (动词 repay 的过去分词)，不是前面 (1) 所说的“再一次支付”，也不是 (2) 所说的“修改后支付”，而是 (5) 所说的“归还” (反方向作用)，repay 的逻辑主语不是付钱者，而是拿钱者。repay 的 re- 的“反方向”意义，也可以从 repay a debt (还债) 看出。<br><br>
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read
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>read</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为及物动词，read 可以是无声的“自己读，看”，也可以是有声的“朗诵”。(a) 只有一个表示读物或语言的宾语时，通常是“自己读”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>read a letter 看一封信</div><div class="ex-item">She is reading Kafka. 她在阅读卡夫卡的作品。/ I want to read some interesting story. 我想看一个有趣的故事。/ read Braille 阅读盲文</div><div class="ex-item">I can read Russian, but cannot speak it well. 我能阅读俄文，但是讲不好。</div>(b) 有双宾语，间接宾语是人 (read something to somebody 或 read somebody something) 时，一定是有声的“朗诵”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>read a child a fairy tale (= read a fairy tale to a child) 给孩子念童话</div><div class="ex-item">The policeman read him his rights. 警察向他宣读了他享有的权利。</div>(c) 附有表示声音的状语，当然 read 就是“朗诵”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>read a textbook aloud 大声朗诵一本教科书。</div>(d) 有时候要靠上下文或语境来辨别是“阅读”还是“朗诵”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If I may be allowed, I will read what the President said. 如果允许的话，我要宣读一下总统所说的话。这里有两处线索说明了是“宣读”而不是“阅读”。“允许我”意思就是“大家愿意听”；“总统所说”是口头的，再重复一遍也以口头方式可能性更大。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 要注意这个动词的现在时、过去时、过去分词三者同形 (但是发音不同)。如 Read literally, the pending Unborn Victims of Violence Act is not an anti-abortion measure. 这里的 read，不要误读为现在时 (像是命令式)，它是过去分词，全句意思是：“字面上看，悬而未决的《未出生暴力受害者法》并不是一个反对堕胎的措施。”<br><br>
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readership
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>readership</b></div>是个集合名词 (“读者群”)，只能用单数形式，语法功能类似于 population。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a readership estimated at 16,000,000 估计达 1,600 万人的读者群。</div><br><br>
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real estate
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>real estate</b></div>是“房地产，不动产”，这里的 real 不是“真的”，它源于拉丁文 res (“物”)。<br><br>
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really
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>really</b></div>有三个范围不同的含义：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 中性的，表示“真正，的确如何”，不涉及对前面说过或听到的内容加以肯定或否定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Tell me what really happened? 告诉我实际上发生了什么事。/ It was really hot. 当时真热。如果用于否定句，really 对否定起一点淡化作用 (也就是否定管 really)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It doesn't really matter. 这不大要紧。/ —Did you enjoy the book? —Not really. ——这本书你看得觉得好吗? ——觉得不太好。/ —My grandfather was a pirate. —Not really! ——我祖父是个海盗。——不见得吧! 大体上如果 really 先于否定，是加强否定，如果否定先于 really，否定就减弱，例如 I don't really know. 是“我不大清楚”，而 I really don't know. 则是“我的确不知道”。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 对前面说过或听到的内容进一步加以确认 (“的确，果然，真的”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I can't believe that he's really gone. 我不相信他真的走了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 对前面说过或听到的内容加以纠正或缩小其作用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I followed him into the library. "Library" sounds impressive. It really isn't that pretentious. (Mary Higgins Clark, Where Are You Now?) 我跟着他走进藏书室。“藏书室”听起来很了不起，其实并不那么有气魄。</div><br><br>
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reason²
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>reason²</b></div>作为不可数名词，是“理智，有理”的意思，前面不加任何冠词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>listen to reason 讲道理</div><div class="ex-item">He couldn't make her see reason. 他无法使她讲道理。/ It stands to reason. 这样是站得住的。</div><br><br>
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reason¹
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>reason¹</b></div>作为可数名词，有如下搭配：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 表示“采取 X 行动或 X 态度的主观理由；造成 X 事实的客观原因”，可以采取如下搭配：(a) reason for X (X 可以是名词成分或动名词)，通常是已经做出的行动或已经发生的事件的理由。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the reason for the decision 采取该决定的理由</div><div class="ex-item">He couldn't think of any reason for not going. 他想不出有任何理由不去。</div>(b) reason to inf.，通常是要采取的行动或将要发生的事件的理由。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>That's no reason to waste half the day. 那不是把半天的时间白白耗掉的理由。/ He couldn't think of any reason not to go. 他想不出有任何理由不去。如果后面的动词不定式另有逻辑主语，则这个逻辑主语用 for 引入，此时后面的动词不定式可以是将要发生的，也可以是已经发生的事件。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Cheap education fee is another reason for foreign students to study there. 教育费用便宜，是外国学生到那里去上学的另一个原因。/ Improving job prospects is another strong reason for the British to spend a lot of time learning the Chinese language. 改善就业前途，是英国人花费许多时间学习中文的又一个重要原因。</div>(c) 有时候也可以说 reason of X，这个 X 通常是已经发生的事件或业已存在的状态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Currently, Hong Kong films have failed to diversify the source of their stories, which I think is the main reason of the current sluggishness in growth. 目前香港的电影没能使故事的来源多样化，我认为这是当前香港电影成长缓慢的主要原因。</div>(d) reason why ... (why 从句通常指已经发生的事件或业已存在的状态)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span> This is the reason why people come to the U.S. illegally. 这就是人们非法来到美国的原因。</div>(e) reason (that) + 从句 (that 从句通常指已经发生的事件或业已存在的状态，是个结果而不是 reason 本身的内容，与 reason why ... 意义相同)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Asked about the reason the play has run so long, he said that the play is fun yet brings tears to the eyes of the audience members. 被问及这出剧为何上演这样久时，他说这出剧很有趣，但又能令观众为之流泪。/ I like children. That's the reason I became a teacher. 我喜欢小孩。这就是我当了教师的原因。/ I think we are all interconnected and there's a reason that each of us is in each other's life. 我觉得我们大家都是彼此有缘的，我们每个人都出现在别人的生活中，总是有原因的。/ There is no reason you should thank me. 您没有什么理由要感谢我。</div>(f) 如果是较为隐蔽的理由或原因，可以说 reason behind ...。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This is the prime reason behind holding foreign currencies as reserves. 这就是持有外汇储备的主要原因。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> “内容为 X 的原因”，也采用 reason that 的形式，但是与上面 (1) 中 (e) 条不同之处有三：一是 that 从句不是 reason 的定语从句，而是同位语从句，所说的是 reason 的内容而不是其结果；二是 reason 前必须有 the (定语从句中则 the 与 a 均可，也可前面有 any、no 之类)；三是最前面要有 for 之类的介词，表明引入了一个理由或原因，从而 that 从句就是这个理由或原因的内容，至于结果，他处有说明，不在 that 从句中。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I like this film, for the reason that it brought out issues that were at one time unjustifiably taboo. 我喜欢这部电影，理由是它提出了一些过去曾经无理地被认为是禁忌的问题。/ I chose him for the simple reason that I liked him. 我选中了他，原因很简单，就是我喜欢他。</div><br><br>无论中国人还是英美人，都容易说了“理由” (reason) 之后再说“因为” (because)，尽管这是累赘，但是连一些名作家也这样用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The reason every one now tries to avoid it, to deny that it is important, to make it seem vain to try to do it, is because it is so difficult. (Ernest Hemingway, Green Hills of Africa) 现在人人之所以设法躲开它，否认它的重要性，把它说成是实行不了的事，就是因为它这么难办。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> “X 方面的理由或原因 (不具体说理由或原因的内容)”，用 reasons of X，这里的 reasons 即使实际上只有一个也常用复数，X 则通常是很简短的名词成分，只说明理由或原因的范围，并不细述其内容。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>for reasons of space 因篇幅关系</div><div class="ex-item">for reasons of security 出于安保原因</div><div class="ex-item">He resigned for reasons of health. 他由于健康问题辞了职。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> reason 和中国人常说的“道理”并不完全相等。从以上的说明可以看出，reason (作为可数名词) 的根本意义是某个行动、看法或主张所依据的理由 (主观的) 或原因 (客观的)，使用这个名词时，需要同时明言或不明言地涉及这个行动、看法或主张，否则就会落空。而中文的“道理”则不同于“理由”或“原因”，可以单独成立。因此，“道理”译成英文，如果没有明显的一因一果关系，最好译为 point 而不译为 reason。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I think I've proved my point (*reason). 我觉得我的道理已经摆明了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 不是说话者赞成的“理由”，而是转述别人的“理由” (说话者可能不以为然)，用 justification for 或 rationalization。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Of course, this is not in itself a justification for writing yet another book on tense. (Renaat Declerck, Tense in English) 当然，这一点，本身并不是另外写一本有关时态的书的理由。/ The main justification for preferential treatment for the wealthy, of course is the need to raise funds. Golden is particularly good at quoting the defenders of privilege, and their strained rationalizations. 主张对富有子弟给予优先录取待遇，其主要理由就是需要筹款。戈尔登特别出色的一着，就是转引了那些为特权辩护的人的说辞以及他们那些勉强拉扯的理由。</div><br><br>
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recently
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>recently</b></div>可以与现在完成时、一般过去时和过去完成时三种时态连用。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 现在完成时，表示最近一段时间内不确定的一个时间点。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Have you seen Tom recently? 你最近看见过汤姆吗?</div><div class="ex-item">Recently, the money making potential of curry has been recognized by the big stores. 最近，咖喱产生利润的潜力，得到了各大商店的认可。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 一般过去时，表示过去已经同现在没有直接关系的一个时间点。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Until recently, the technology was reserved for the elite, including academic and government users. 直到不久以前，这项技术还只有精英阶层包括学术界和政府部门的用户才能使用。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 过去完成时，表示以过去某时间点为参照点再往前追溯一段时间内的某一时间点。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He'd been suffering from prostate cancer and had recently undergone treatment in the United States. 他患有前列腺癌，不久以前在美国接受过治疗。</div><br><br>
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recognize
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>recognize</b></div>可以是“认得”或“(外交) 承认”的延续状态，此时可以用一般现在时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Do you recognize this melody? 你认得这个曲调吗?</div><div class="ex-item">The United States recognizes only one China. 美国承认只有一个中国。</div><br><br>也可以是“一下子认出来”或“给予 (外交) 承认”的瞬时行动，此时原则上不可以用一般现在时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I recognized him as soon as he came in the room. 他一走进房间，我就认出来是他。/ The United States has recognized the new government of Salvador. 美国承认了萨尔瓦多的新政府。</div><br><br>
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recommend, refer 与 introduce
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>recommend, refer 与 introduce</b></div>都是“介绍”，但是用法不完全相同。谁把谁介绍给谁，关系要弄清楚。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 在社交场合把 A 介绍给 B，是 introduce A to B，此时 A 应该是主语所认识而是 B 所不认识的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He introduced John to Mary. 他向玛丽介绍约翰。但是如果 B 不是人而是事物，则是介绍 A 去初步了解该事物。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He introduced me to the classics. 他领我入门了解经典作品。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> introduce 就人而言，只是社交上的初步见面介绍，不涉及更深的内容。正式业务上的介绍则用 recommend 与 refer，但是两者也有区别。比如说，一个病人经过医生甲看过之后，介绍转诊到医生乙处进一步诊治。医生甲把病人介绍给医生乙，是 refer 这个病人 to 医生乙；医生甲向病人介绍医生乙，是 recommend 医生乙 to 病人。介绍一个新房客来找房东租房子，是 refer 新房客 to 房东。recommend 是将被介绍人的有用之处加以说明，让听者认为对自己有用，然后去找被介绍人；refer 则是相反，将被介绍人的需要转告另一人，看看能否满足。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 另外，还有一个“介绍”，不是介绍某人，而是介绍某个情况，此时，recommend 与 refer 都不符合，introduce 则只用于某门学问或知识的入门。如果是“介绍”一时具体的情况、事件经过、数字之类，最好用及物动词 brief，这是个单宾语动词，属于第三类或第四类动词，搭配是 brief somebody on/about something。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The boss briefed me on the latest developments. 老板向我介绍了情况的最新发展。/ The soldiers were briefed about their mission. 士兵们被交代了他们的任务。</div><br><br>还有一个说法是 fill somebody in on something。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They filled him in on the status of the campaign. 他们向他介绍了竞选运动的进展情况。这个短语动词，可以有被动式。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>New jumpers were filled in on past events. (SheJumps, Aug. 24, 2015) 新参加操练的，听取了有关前几次聚会情况的介绍。</div><br><br>
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recompense
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>recompense</b></div>通常的搭配是 recompense somebody for something，以人作直接宾语，但是也可以把事情作直接宾语。意思可以是正面的“酬谢”，也可以是负面的“报复”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The nation recompensed the statesman for his years of services. 国家酬谢了那位政治家多年的为国操劳。/ The insurance company will recompense him for the loss. (= The insurance company will recompense his loss to him.) 保险公司将对他受到的损失予以赔偿。/ You should recompense him for his efforts. (= You should recompense his efforts to him.) 对于他所做的努力，你应该给予酬劳。/ They attempted to recompense the violence done to them. 他们要对自己所受到的暴力欺凌进行报复。/ recompense good with evil 以怨报德。</div><br><br>
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recover
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>recover</b></div>作为及物动词，本来的意义是“重新取得 (自己原有的东西)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>recover one's weight 恢复体重</div><div class="ex-item">recover one's sight 恢复视力</div><div class="ex-item">recover one's hearing 恢复听觉</div><div class="ex-item">recover one's consciousness 恢复知觉</div><div class="ex-item">recover stolen goods 取回被窃财物</div><div class="ex-item">recover lost time 追回逝去的光阴</div><div class="ex-item">The army advanced to recover the lost ground. 军队前往收复失地。</div><br><br>但是，也可以是“取走”别人的东西，例如甲留下了某物，让乙来取，乙的“取走”，就是 recover。“救出”遇险的人或物，也是 recover。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Pakistani rescue workers struggle to recover an injured victim from the rubble at the site of suicide carbombing in Lahore. 巴基斯坦救援人员在努力从拉合尔一次自杀式炸弹爆炸的瓦砾中抢救一位伤者。</div><br><br>
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red eye
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>red eye</b></div>同表示“妒忌”的“红眼”毫无关系，是：(1) 红眼鱼；(2) (美国俚语) 番茄汁；酒；下等浓威士忌酒。<br><br>有连字符的 red-eye 则是美国口语“熬夜班；夜间飞机航班”。参见 green-eyed 条。<br><br>
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refer 与 recommend
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>refer 与 recommend</b></div>参见 recommend, refer 与 introduce 条。<br><br>
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refute
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>refute</b></div>这个及物动词，属于第三类或第四类动词，意思是“驳倒”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He couldn't refute my argument. 他没能驳倒我的论据。(不是“他没能反驳我的论据”)</div><div class="ex-item">This piece of evidence would have refuted the charge of his main accuser. 这个证据本来就可以驳倒他的主要指控人的指控。但是，refute 有时候也可以是第二类动词，表示“反驳”而不一定是“驳倒”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Munich Airport has refuted the April 7 news release from the International Air Transport Association (IATA) on passenger costs at European airports as misleading. (Ground Support, May 2006) 慕尼黑机场反驳了国际航空运输协会 4 月 7 日的一则有关欧洲各个机场的旅客费用的新闻，说它具有误导性。</div><br><br>refute 的同义词 rebut，则主要是第二类动词，表示“反驳”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He spent most of his speech rebutting criticisms of his foreign policy. 他的演说，大部分用来反驳那些对他的对外政策的批评。即使是用于一般或完成时态，rebut 也主要是“反驳”而不是“驳倒”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Once an employer has rebutted the charge of disparate impact discrimination, the burden is on the plaintiff to rebut the rebuttal. (Michael Yates, Power on the Job: The Legal Rights of Working People) 一旦雇主反驳了有关滥施歧视的指控，对他的反驳进行反驳的责任就落在原告身上。但是 rebut 有时候也用作第四类动词，表示“驳倒”，例如美国法院的判决书中常有 rebut the assumption that ... 的说法，意思就是“推翻了认为……的假设”。</div><br><br>refute 的另一个同义词 retort，属于第四类动词，但意义只是“(短促地) 反驳一下”，并不表示“驳倒”，而且它是个不及物动词，没有直接宾语，所以更谈不上“驳倒”什么。<br><br>
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regard
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>regard</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为动词，regard X as Y 要有 as；但是 consider X Y 中 Y 前不要加 as。参见 consider 条。此外，regard + 直接宾语，后面不能接上 to inf.。例如不能说 *The treasurer regards it to be a serious mistake. 应该改为 The treasurer regards it as a serious mistake. (会计认为那是一个严重的错误。)<br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作为名词，regard 也同 respect 那样有“尊重”的意义，但不像 respect 那样“敬重”，只限于按常理的一般的“不侵犯”，而且往往用于否定句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They have no regard for other people's feelings. 他们毫不理会别人的感情。/ Little regard was paid to these symptoms. 这些迹象没有受到重视。</div><br><br>作为名词，如果前面有加强意义的形容词，或是本身用了复数形式，一般的 “尊重，不侵犯”就可以“升级”为“敬重”，向 respect 看齐。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I have a great regard for her professional judgment. 我对她的专业判断十分敬重。/ The company holds your work in high regard. 公司对你的工作评价很高。/ Please give Tom my regards. 请代我向汤姆致意。/ Best regards. 敬祝大安。</div><br><br>同 respect 一样，regard 也有意义上从“尊重”向“关于”的转移。with regard to 同 with respect to 几乎是完全同义，可以换用。但是也许由于 regard 的“敬重”意义不如 respect，所以 with respect to 常常可以在 respect 加形容词 all、the utmost 之类，又从“关于”恢复为“尊敬”，with regard to 则较少使用这个恢复旧观的用法，尽管也有用 with all regard to 或 with every regard to 的说法来区别于 with regard to (“关于”)，表示让步式的“尊敬”。参见 consider 条与 respect 条。<br><br>
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regardless
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>regardless</b></div>通常后面有 of，后面是个没有倾向性的名词，或者是个间接疑问句，表示“不论”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>regardless of what people say 不论人们怎样说</div><div class="ex-item">regardless of her feelings on the matter 不论她在这一件事情上有什么感受。但是容易忽略的是：regardless 也可以单独作为一个副词使用，意思是“尽管如此” (针对前面刚说过的事情)，或“无论如何” (前面没有说过别的事情)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I told her not to do it, but she carried on regardless. 我已经告诉她别这样做，但是她一意孤行。/ She'll have to say, regardless. 她无论如何总是要说的。/ ... if any of them meet with an accident by tumbling into a ditch, or into a river, the rest pass on regardless, and generally leave him to his fate ... (Henry Fielding, The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling) ……如果他们当中有谁出了事，掉进沟里或是河里，其余的人还是照样过去，通常就让他听天由命……</div><br><br>
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regime
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>regime</b></div>通常用 regime (重音在末音节) 来称一个“政权”，有很强的贬义，表示自己不承认它是个合法的政府。<br><br>
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regimen
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>regimen</b></div>重音在第一个音节，指“保健饮食食谱”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He kept to his prescribed regimen. 他遵循规定的食谱。/ It is, perhaps, from their meat regimen that the Gauchos, like other carnivorous animals, can abstain long from food. (Charles Darwin, The Voyage of the Beagle) 加岛乔人也许是靠了他们的肉食食谱，所以像其他肉食动物那样可以长时间不吃东西。</div><br><br>
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regret
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>regret</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> regret 本身是个表示延续状态的第一类动词，它后面跟着动名词或 having + pp. (后面的动词是第三类或第四类动词) 都是对以前自己做过的某事感到遗憾，即：动名词的动作在先，regret 在后。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I regret not having kept in touch with them. 我后悔没有同他们保持联系。/ He didn't go to the party. Now he regrets not having done so. 他没有参加聚会。现在他对此感到后悔。/ I regret ever mentioning it. 我后悔曾经提到过它。/ Speakes ultimately apologized, saying he regretted providing fodder for Reagan's enemies. (The Associated Press, Nov. 23, 2007) 斯皮克斯后来道歉了，说他后悔给里根的敌人提供了炮弹。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 如果后面的动词 (动名词而非 having + pp.) 是个静态的第一类或第二类动词，则是对当时自己的状况或做法感到遗憾，即：动名词所表示的状态或动作与 regret 同时发生。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He regrets being unable to help. 他很遗憾，爱莫能助。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> regret to inf. (后面动词通常是表示瞬时动作的第四类动词) 则是对说话时自己马上要做的某事感到遗憾，在中文中往往可以将这个遗憾从谓语变为状语 (“遗憾地如何如何”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We regret to inform you that your application has been unsuccessful. 我们遗憾地通知您，您的申请没有成功。/ Mrs Jones, I regret to inform you that your credit limit has been exceeded. 琼斯先生，我遗憾地通知您，您的信用限额已经超了。/ Later, I regret to say, rents went up. 后来呢，说来也遗憾，租金上涨了。</div><br><br>试比较 Latasha regretted to tell the student that his essay was deleted. 与 Latasha regretted telling the student that his essay was deleted. 前者是：“拉塔莎抱歉地告诉那个学生，他的论文被删掉了。” (也就是向学生道了歉，regret 与 tell 同时发生) 后者则是：“拉塔莎后悔自己告诉了那个学生，他的论文被删掉了。” (这里是觉得本来不应该告诉学生，tell 在前，regret 在后)<br><span class="seq">(4)</span> regret 后面的直接宾语也可以是一个名词成分。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I shall say that he is mistaken in supposing that I can regret the birth of my daughters ... (Anne Brontë, Agnes Grey) 我要说，他错了，他还以为我可能后悔生了我的女儿们……</div><div class="ex-item">I now, weak, old, diseased, poor, dying, hold still my soul in my hands, and I regret nothing. (Somerset Maugham, Of Human Bondage) 我现在又老又弱又病又穷，行将就木，但我的灵魂仍然掌握在自己手里，我什么遗憾也没有。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> regret 后面如果跟一个由 that 引入的名词从句，从句中可以自由使用各种时态，表示以前、现在或将来发生的事或存在的状态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It made me regret that my student days are over. 它使得我叹息自己的学生岁月一去不复返。/ I only regret that I have but one life to lose for my country. (American patriot Nathan Hale, executed as a spy by the British in 1776) 我唯一的遗憾，是自己只能为国捐躯一次。/ I regret that I shall be unable to attend. 我遗憾到时将无法与会。/ We regret that the video company experienced technical difficulties and the commencement video is not available for purchase. 我们很遗憾，录像公司遇到了一些技术困难，毕业录像无法提供出售。从句中也可以使用虚拟语气，尤其是如果使用 should，这个 should 只是虚拟语气的标志，没有“应该”的意思。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You will be able to help Lucille through the annoyance to which I deeply regret that she should be subjected. (E. Phillips Oppenheim, The Yellow Crayon) 对于露西尔所遇到的麻烦，我深感遗憾，但是你一定能够帮助她克服的。</div><br><br>
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regretful 与 regrettable
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>regretful 与 regrettable</b></div>前者指人自己的内心感到惋惜；后者指事物令人感到惋惜。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She felt very regretful about it. 她对此感到很遗憾。/ This is a most regrettable mistake on our part. 这是我们的一个令人十分遗憾的错误。从这两个形容词派生的副词 regretfully 和 regrettably，仍然保持了前者指人、后者指事的区别。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Regretfully, shesevered their relationship. 她遗憾地中断了他们的关系。/ Regrettably, the hurricane upset their cruise plans. 可惜飓风打乱了他们航海观光的计划。</div><br><br>
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regulation, provision 与 stipulation
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>regulation, provision 与 stipulation</b></div>中文中往往笼统译成“规定”。其实 regulation 是有关公权力部门发布的一整个规范性的文书，可以译成“条例”或“规章”。provision 则是某一条例或规章之内的某项规定。stipulation 则是契约而非法律中的某项规定，也可以称为“约定”。<br><br>
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relative to
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>relative to</b></div>relative 本来是个形容词，但是在实际语言中，relative to 往往起状语的作用，并不专门修饰一个名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>consult a person relative to the subject 就该问题向某人咨询</div><div class="ex-item">Iran is now stronger relative to the United States than it was on the eve of the Iraq war. (Foreign Affairs, No. 4, July/August 2006, p. 69) 相对于美国而言，伊朗现在比伊拉克战争前夕更强大了。</div><br><br>
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religion
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>religion</b></div>单数前面不加冠词，是“宗教”的泛称。表示一种具体的宗教，要按特指或不特指而在前面加上定冠词或不定冠词。只有具体的一个个的宗教才可以引用复数 religions 表示。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Politics and religion are daily topics of conversation. 政治和宗教是日常谈论的话题。/ a new religion 一个新的宗教</div><div class="ex-item">the Christian religion 基督教</div><div class="ex-item">the major religions in the world 世界上各主要宗教。参见 science 条与 language 条。</div><br><br>
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reluctant
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>reluctant</b></div>be reluctant to inf. 是一个状态，即“不愿意做某事”或“做某事时抱勉强态度”。由于是一个状态，所以，如果 be 是现在时或将来时固然谈不上实际上做了没有，就连 be 是过去时也只是说明当时的心理状态，并不交代当时究竟做了没有。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They were reluctant to help. 他们不愿意帮忙。(可能还是帮忙了，也可能没有帮忙) 但是，副词 reluctantly 则表示虽然勉强、不愿意，事情还是做了。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She reluctantly handed him his stick. 她勉强把手杖递给了他。</div><br><br>
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remember
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>remember</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 主要是个表示延续状态的第一类动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Do you remember what he said? 你记得他说了一些什么吗? 但是也可以是表示瞬时事件 (“记起来”) 的第四类动词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I just remembered (that) I have to call him up. 我刚记起来该给他打个电话。/ I suddenly remembered that the day was my birthday. 我忽然记起来，那一天是我的生日。另外，作“纪念 (某人或某事)”解时一定是第四类动词。也可以作为第三类动词，采取进行时态，表示“在努力回忆中 (但尚未想起来)”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Wait a minute, I'm remembering it now. 等一下，我在回忆呢。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> remember to inf. 与 remember + -ing 的意义完全不同。前者是记得有什么事要做而尚未做；后者是记得自己曾经做过什么事。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I remember meeting him for the first time five years ago. 我记得五年前同他第一次见面。/ I remember visiting Rome last summer. It was great! 我还记得去年夏天访问罗马，真棒!</div><div class="ex-item">I must remember to meet him at the station next Saturday. 我一定要记得本周六同他在车站见面。/ Please, remember to post the letter at the Central Post Office! 请记住一定要到中卖邮政局寄出这封信。参见 forget 条。</div><br><br>但是 remember 后面如果不是 to inf. 而是 to have + pp.，则意义与 remember + -ing 相同，都是“记得过去曾经做过某事”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Charles remembered then to have heard of the place. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 查尔斯这时想起从前听说过这个地方。</div><br><br>
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remember, recall 与 recollect
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>remember, recall 与 recollect</b></div>这三个动词的含义，在中文中都是“回忆，记忆”，有时可以换用，但在“有意或无意”“延续或瞬时”“从无到有或一直有”“指过去或将来”等方面，也有一些区别。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 通常认为，remember 是不经过努力、自然而然地记得，而 recollect 和 recall 则是努力去回忆。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I remember long pieces of Shakespeare. 我记得莎士比亚作品中一些很长的段落。/ He said he remembered the man well. 他说他对这个人还记得很清楚。/ He remembers every detail of that occurrence as though it happened yesterday. 那件事情的经过，他一五一十都记得很清楚，恍如昨日。/ Beasts and babies remember, that is, recognize; man alone recollects. (Samuel Taylor Coleridge) 禽兽和婴儿自然地记忆，也就是辨认；只有人类能回忆。/ She tried to recollect some instance of goodness, some distinguished trait of integrity or benevolence, that might rescue him from the attacks of Mr. Darcy. (Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice) 她竭力要想超一两件足以说明他品行优良的事实，想起他一些为人诚实仁爱的特性，使达西先生所受到的诽谤可以不攻自破。</div><br><br>由于 remember 和 recollect/recall 有这个“自然记得”和“努力回想”的区别，所以亨利·W. 福勒认为，如果要说自己记不起来，就要说 I don't remember. 或 I can't recollect/recall. 因为 remember 与努力无关，用 can't 不合适，要用 don't 说明这个“记得”的状态不存在；recollect/recall 则涉及努力，说 don't 就是“自己不去努力回想”，也不合适，要说成“虽然努力但达不到目的”，所以要说 can't。同样，He tried to recall what he could about the meeting. (他努力回忆会面的情况。) 这里的 recall 也不能改为 remember。此外，由于 remember 有延续性而且是长期的，所以不常同 often 之类表示断断续续的时间副词一起使用，但 recall 则可。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She was always dangling and ogling after him, I recollect now... (William Makepeace Thackeray, Vanity Fair) 我记起来了，她老是跟在乔治后面飞眼儿……(是当时记起来，不是一直记得，所以不说 remember 而说 recollect。)</div>另外，如果 remember 表示有意志的“纪念”甚至“纪念行动”，就可以同表示意志的词语搭配。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Those are the people who used to stand up and fight for their land. We have to remember them. (Newsweek, Apr. 28, 2008, p. 26) 他们是一些敢于奋起保卫自己国家的人。我们应该纪念他们。</div><br><br>remember 虽然是延续性的状态，但是也可以表示“从记不起到记起来”的变化，也就是这个延续状态的开始(此时由第一类动词转为第四类动词，但还是指自然而然地记起来，而不是绞尽脑汁地追忆结果)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Finally he remembered the tiny detail that had eluded him the night before. 终于他记起来了昨天夜里记不起来的那个小小的细节。 (2) 但是在实际语言运用中，recollect 和 recall 有时候也“侵入”remember 的领域，用于无努力地自然记忆，只是没有 remember 用得那么多、那么符合规范。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I don't recollect (= remember) ever hearing anything foolish about Rebekah. (Ellen Glasgow, Barren Ground) 我不记得听谁说过丽贝卡的坏话。/ Thank you for recollecting (= remembering) my weakness. (Emily Dickinson) 谢谢你还记得我的软弱。/ I can still recall the day we met. 我还记得我们见面的那一天。/ I can't recall what he said. 他说的什么，我记不起来了。另一方面，remember 也用于努力地回忆。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I couldn't remember his name. 我记不起他的名字来。</div><br><br>不过这种换用仍然有其限制。recollect 和 recall 代替 remember，只能用于对过去的回忆，不能用于对目前尤其是对将来的提醒(或是要做而未做的事)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She gave me a list of things to remember (<i>recall, </i>recollect). 她给了我一张要记住的事情的清单。/ Remember (<i>recall, </i>recollect) to go to the post office. 别忘了到邮局去一趟。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 至于 recollect 与 recall 的区别，前者着重在“努力回想”的过程(而且往事往往是一连串的长过程)，后者则着重“回想起来”的结果(往事常压缩成为混沌的一团)。因此，recollect 可以作为第二类动词，有进行时态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In the film clip I saw, this woman was recollecting how people from the town came to her father and asked for the keys to his barn, which he gave them. 在我看到的影片剪辑中，这个妇女在回想，当年城里的人如何来找她父亲，问他要他马厩的钥匙，他也也就给了他们。recall 如果指只有一个场景的回忆，通常不用进行时态，但是如果是回忆起了一个连续的过程，也可以有进行时态。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I was recalling his words as he challenged budgeting processes to be transparent. 我当时在努力回想他敦促将预算编制过程透明化时所说的话。</div><br><br>
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remind
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>remind</b></div>这个动词有两个不同的“体”：一个是作为瞬间(第四类)动词，意思是“做出提醒的动作”；一个是作为延续(第一类)动词，意思是“一直起着提醒的作用”。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为第四类动词，remind 是个有主动意识的动作，主语通常是人，一定要有直接宾语(被提醒的人)，而且通常不能用一般现在时。(a) 提醒要记得的事，如果是名词成分，就用 of 引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She reminded him of that summer in Paris. 她提醒了他回想起那一年夏天在巴黎的情形。/ Just a few flowers to remind you of me. 送上一些鲜花，聊表心意。</div><br><br>如果是略微涉及内容的提醒回忆，可以用 about。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He reminded me about the meeting. 他提醒了我回想起那次会议。</div>(b) 提醒对方要做的事，用动词不定式表示。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Remind me to water the flowers. 请提醒我浇花。</div>(c) 提醒要记得的事实，如果是个句子，可以采取 that 从句形式(前面不要 of; remind 可以用一般现在时)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She had to remind him that he has a wife. 她不得不提醒他，他是有妇之夫。 (2) 作为第一类动词，remind 是个无意识的一直起着的作用，主语通常不是人(即使是人也不做出任何动作)，原意是“本身的存在使得某人(直接宾语)想起某事物(某事物用 of 引入)”，这个意义很容易就转为“在某人看起来很像某事物”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She reminds me of my sister. 我觉得她很像我的妹妹。/ He reminded them of a sumo wrestler. 在他们看来，他活像一个相扑力士。remind 表示“相似”，要加强语气可以加上 very much。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This reminds me very much of my hometown. 这很像我的家乡。也可以用 be evocative of 来表示(此时就不用说出“谁看起来觉得像”)；要加强语气则在 evocative 前加上 very 即可。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This is very evocative of the English countryside. 这很像英格兰的乡间。</div><br><br>
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rent 与 lease
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>rent 与 lease</b></div>中文无论是说“租”还是“借”，如果只用一个字，是有歧义的。有趣的是，有关“租”和“借”产生的截然相反的歧义，也出现在一些西方语言中。英语的 rent 作为及物动词，意义既可以是“租来”，也可以是“租出”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They rented a cottage for the summer. 他们租了一间木屋度夏。/ He rented a color TV. 他租用了一部彩电。/ We rent rooms (out) to girl students. 我们向女生出租房间。/ Some landowners do not work their land but rent it to tenants. 有些土地所有者自己不种地，租给佃户耕种。/ She rented us her spare room (= She rented her spare room to us) for $200 a week. 她把多余的房间租给我们，每周 200 美元。当然，如果句子中有 from 某人，rent 显然就是“租来”；如果有 to 某人，rent 显然就是“租出”。句子中的其他信息(例如，rent 后有 out，或是 for the summer)，一般也足以表明是“租来”还是“租出”。</div><br><br>lease 与 rent 意义相近，但通常只是限于不动产(rent 则可以用于不动产、汽车、用具甚至衣物)，而且通常多指“租出”，但偶尔也可以用于“租来”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They have leased the house where they live for three years. 他们现在住的房子已经租了 3 年了。</div><br><br>中文“借”究竟是“借来”还是“借出”，会有歧义，“贷”是“贷人”还是“贷出”也有歧义(会计用语“借方”指支出，“贷方”指收入，是人工规定的专业用语，日常用语“借”和“贷”都是双向的)。但是英文中与 rent、lease 意义相近的一对动词，即 borrow (“借来”)与 lend (“借出”)，却方向分明。rent 与 lease 涉及租金；borrow 与 lend 则除非是钱财的借贷，否则可以指无偿的借用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They borrowed money from the bank. 他们向银行借了钱。/ May I borrow your coat? 你的上衣可以借给我一用吗?</div><div class="ex-item">Can you lend me your bicycle? 你的自行车可以借给我一用吗?</div>
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replace 与 substitute
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>replace 与 substitute</b></div>参见 substitute 与 replace 条。<br><br>
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report
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>report</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> report 作为不及物动词时，report to somebody 可以有三个意义：(a) 向某人提供口头或书面的、有内容的报告(是个表示瞬时动作的第四类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We're to report to the director this afternoon. 我们定于今天下午向局长报告。 (b) 向某人或某机构报到(只是报到，表示开始服务，并不提供有内容的报告；也是个第四类动词)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The jurors were to report to court the next morning. 陪审员们委次日上午向法院报到。报到的目的可以用 for 引入。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I report to the office for duty at 9:00 a.m. 我上午九点整到办公室报到值班。/ He had to report to the police for interrogation. 他不得不到警察署去报到，接受询问。也可以加反身代词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You're supposed to report yourself to the principal. 你应该向校长报到。</div>(c) 下级受上级的领导，要向上级请示汇报(是个表示延续状态的第一类动词)，如果说的是现在的一般情况，可以直接用一般现在时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The Secretary of State reports directly to the President. 国务卿直接向总统负责。这个一般现在时的动词必然是表现延续状态而非瞬时动作的，不会有误解。但是如果说的是过去，则 reported 既可以表示隶属或领导关系的延续状态，也可以表示瞬时动作(“向上级提交一份书面或口头报告”)，因此，除非上下文表明这是状态而非动作，否则用一般过去时可能会产生歧义，最好在表示状态时改为 was/were to report to，以代替 reported to。</div><br><br>由此引申，甚至名词 report 也可以指作为人的“下级”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He called his direct reports in for individual meetings, ... (David Rosenfelt, Heart of a Killer) 他把自己直属下级喊来个别会见，……</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> report 作为及物动词时，直接宾语如果是人，意思是“告发，检举”(第四类动词)。后面也可以再加上动词不定式或动词现在分词或过去分词，意思就不是“告发”，而是报告直接宾语处于何种情况。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She reported her child missing. 她报了警，说孩子丢了。这个用法，也可以转换为被动语态(被动语态可以是延续的，所以可以用一般现在时)。此时，实际上被 report 的，并不是原先的主语，而是原先的主语加上动词不定式或动词现在分词或过去分词所表达的整件事情。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A ship is reported missing. (= It's reported that a ship is missing.) 据报告，有一艘船下落不明。/ Four people were reported killed. (= Four people were reported to have been killed. = It was reported that four people had been killed.) 据报道有四人丧生。/ Dr. Brown is reported to be the best eye doctor in this town. (= It is reported that Dr. Brown is the best eye doctor in this town.) 据报道，布朗大夫是本镇最好的眼科医生。其他一些动词如 seem、believe、fear、say、think 等也有类似的情况。</div><br><br>
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reportedly
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>reportedly</b></div>作为副词，表示“据报道”，不是说话人目击的。在新闻用语中十分常用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Reportedly, he left London a week ago. (= It is reported that he left London a week ago.) 据报道，他一周前离开了伦敦。/ America Online reportedly will (= It is reported that America Online will) furnish subscribers the tools through which they can publish diaries and commentaries on the Web. 据报道，美国在线将向订户提供技术服务，让他们能够在网上发表日记和评论。参见 alleged 条与 supposed 条。</div><br><br>
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representative
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>representative</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 参见 congressman 条。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 美国大商店的“客户服务部” (Customer Service)，柜台上接待顾客的工作人员，也叫作 representative，简称 rep。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If you need to call customer service, try to wait for a weekday afternoon. Representatives tend to be busiest during lunch hours and the 6 p.m. hour, as well as Monday mornings. (U.S. News & World Report, Dec. 24, 2007, p. 55) 你如果需要打电话找客户服务部，最好等到工作日下午再打。那里的工作人员通常在午饭时刻、下午六点钟以及星期一上午最忙。</div><br><br>
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require
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>require</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为及物动词(表示延续状态，第一类动词)，它最简单的搭配是加上一个表示所需事物的直接宾语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Formal dress required. 务请正装。/ How many copies do you require? 您需要多少份?</div><div class="ex-item">All I require now is your signature. 我现在只需要您的签字。/ This work requires great concentration. 这个工作需要全神贯注。/ We can supply the screws if required. 如需螺丝钉，我们可以供应。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 直接宾语是人，后面再加上动词不定式，此时 require 有“要求某人必须做某事或具有某种情状”的意思(require 仍然是第一类动词，后面的动词不定式则可以是任何一类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Candidates are required to provide three photographs. 候选人必须提供三张照片。/ Applicants are required to have experience. 求职者必须有工作经验。/ The course requires you to be bilingual. 课程要求你必须能说双语。但是如果作为一时而非本质的要求，可以是第二类动词，此时可以有进行时态。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Hotels are still requiring minimum stays. 旅馆仍然要求客人至少入住一定的天数。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 直接宾语可以是要求的事物，再用 of 引入要求的对方(仍然是第一类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>All that is required of you is that you observe the rules. 对你的唯一要求，就是请你遵守规则。/ I shall do all that is required of me. 凡是需要我来做的，我都做。也可以不用 of 而用 from，但是意义有细微的差别：用 of 表示这是该人分内的义务，用 from 则可能不是分内的而是具体场合下的临时要求。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Employee shall perform all duties that may be required of and from him. 受雇人对于其一切固定及临时职责，均应恪守。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 仍然是第一类动词，直接宾语可以是 that (可省略)引入的名词从句，从句中的谓语动词用虚拟语气(采用动词原形)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The law requires (that) everybody here wear a helmet. 法律规定此处人人都必须戴头盔。/ It is required that you begin work at 8 a.m. every morning. 要求你每天早上八点钟开始工作。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> require 有时候也可以表示“提出要求”的瞬时行动，此时就用作第四类动词，搭配与作为第一类动词时相同(但不用 be required of 的搭配)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Since he was involved in the case, the court required his appearance. 由于他和该案有牵连，法院就要他出庭。/ They required that we (should) finish our work ahead of time. 他们要求我们提前把活干完。</div><br><br>
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research
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>research</b></div>作为名词，“研究”什么，后面可以用 in、into、on 或 about 引入研究的对象。<br><br>通常如果是一门学问，用 in。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>research in (<i>into) linguistics 语言学研究</div><div class="ex-item">research in (</i>into) astronomical physics 天文物理学研究。</div><br><br>如果是某个比较专门的问题，就用 into、on 或 about。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>research into (<i>in) Alzheimer's 老年痴呆症研究</div><div class="ex-item">research into (</i>in) elections and social trends 选举及社会动向研究</div><div class="ex-item">research into (<i>in) football violence 足球暴力行为研究</div><div class="ex-item">research into (</i>in) stratospheric ozone 平流层臭氧研究</div><div class="ex-item">research on (<i>in) poverty 贫穷问题研究</div><div class="ex-item">research on (</i>in) globalization 全球化问题研究</div><div class="ex-item">research about (*in) employee training 有关雇员培训的研究。into、on 与 about 都可以引入一个比较专门的问题，但是 into 比较深入，on 次之，about 则比较一般。参见 about 条之(2)。</div><br><br>
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resist
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>resist</b></div>作为及物动词，通常是第四类动词，表示“抵抗住了”(即不但抵抗，而且达到了“顶住”的目的)；后面的直接宾语可以是名词、代词或动名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The window resisted all attempts to open it. 窗怎样都推不开。往往用于否定句，此时由于“没有顶住”，有关的动作就实际完成了。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I had to buy it; I couldn't resist it. 我忍不住，只好把它买下来。/ I couldn't resist telling her. 我忍不住就告诉了她。但是也可以用于肯定句(此时就是“忍住没有做某事”，不是“力图忍住但结果未明”)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Keith resisted telling him that that would hardly be a great achievement. (Jeffrey Archer, The Fourth Estate) 基思本来想对他说，这算不上是什么了不起的成就，但是忍住了没有说。</div><br><br>
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resolution
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>resolution</b></div>可以是已经通过了的决议，但也可以只是“ (待讨论通过的)提议”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>May I have a resolution on that? 对这个问题，我可以提出个提议吗?</div>
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respect
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>respect</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为及物动词(表示“尊敬，尊重”，延续体，第一类动词)以及同义的名词，很容易理解和使用，没有多少要说明的问题，只有一点：名词单数 respect 是“尊敬的心情”，如果说“敬意的表示”要用复数 respects。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Give my respects (*respect) to your parents. 请代我向令尊令堂问安。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 但是作为名词，除了“尊敬，敬意”之外，还有一个大不相同的词义，即表示“方面，领域”，可以是可数名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Marianne's abilities were, in many respects, quite equal to Elinor's. (Jane Austen, Sense and Sensibility) 玛丽安各方面的才干都堪与埃莉诺相媲美。用在 in this respect、in ... respects、with respect to 或商业上的 in respect of 之类的词组中，意思都是“至于，在……方面”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Parents often have little choice with respect to the way their child is medically treated. 对于孩子如何治疗，父母往往没有多少好选择的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 不过，with respect 后面如果没有 to ...，仍然保留“尊敬”的意思，往往用来先表示礼貌，然后向对方表示异议。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But Mr. Jones, with respect, I cannot accept your argument. 不过，琼斯先生，我很尊敬您，但是我不能接受您的论据。</div><br><br>如果是对第三者表示异议，with respect 后面就要加 to ...，但这一来，成了 with respect to ...，同不表示尊敬的“至于”的 with respect to 形式相同了。所以，通常要在 respect 前面加上定语，以示区别。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>With the utmost respect to the author, the report doesn't show such thing. 我十分尊敬报告的作者，但还是要说报告并没有显示这样的内容。/ With all respect to Mr. Russell, I doubt whether molecular physics and the Einstein theory are relevant to the question. 尽管我十分尊敬罗素先生，但是我仍然怀疑，究竟分子物理学和爱因斯坦相对论是否同这个问题有关。</div><br><br>有时候 respect 后面没有 to ...，前面也加定语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>With all due respect, your plan wouldn't work. 恕我直言，您的方案是行不通的。有时候 with the greatest respect 甚至可以译成“对不起”。参见 regard 条之(2)。</div><br><br>
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respectable 与 respectful
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>respectable 与 respectful</b></div>前者是“本身正派的，值得受人尊敬的；殷实的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>young people from respectable homes 正经人家的青年人</div><div class="ex-item">That's not done in respectable society. 上流社会是不这样干的。</div><br><br>后者则是“尊重别人的，有礼貌的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>be respectful to age 敬老</div><div class="ex-item">keep at a respectful distance 敬而远之。</div><br><br>
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respectfully 与 respectively
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>respectfully 与 respectively</b></div>意义和用法根本不同。前者是写信署名时加上客气用词(respectfully yours)；后者是“分别(对应)；各自(一一对应)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Harvard University and MIT are respectively the fourth and fifth largest employers in the area. 哈佛大学和麻省理工学院分别是该地区第四和第五大的用人单位。</div><br><br>
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respond
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>respond</b></div>respond to something 原意是对某事做出“回应”或“回答”，但是转义可以是“(对他人或他物在自己身上施加的做法)显示出其有效果”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The infection did not respond to the drugs. 药物对那个感染不起效果。/ The patient did not respond to the treatment. 病人医治无效。/ But of all her children, only he responded to her efforts, sitting at his mother's feet, devouring her every word and the answers to any question he posed. (Jeffrey Archer, The Fourth Estate) 但是，她所有儿女当中，只有一个不辜负她的努力，总是坐在她膝下，专心聆听她的每一句话，提出种种问题，听她解答。</div><br><br>
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responsibility, liability 与 accountability
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>responsibility, liability 与 accountability</b></div>responsibility 是最广义的“责任”(感情上的、道义上的、法律上的、经济上的、受责罚的等等)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Wives still take most of the responsibility for the children. 妻子仍然负起对孩子的大部分责任。/ I made a mistake and I will assume responsibility for it. 我犯了错误，我愿为此承担责任。</div><br><br>liability 本来专门指财务上的负债，意义范围比 responsibility 窄得多，后来扩大到一般的民事责任，主要还是法律上的财务责任，但也包括非财务责任。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>his liability for military service 他服兵役的责任。甚至还可以指刑事责任。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Parents or guardians may avoid liability for their children's crimes if they satisfy the court that they have done everything they can to prevent it. 家长或监护人如果能使得法院相信他们已经尽了一切办法防止他们孩子犯罪，则对孩子犯罪可以免责。/ Each is criminally liable in New York state, ... They also face liability in Florida. (The Daily Gazette, Mar. 6, 2007, A3) 他们每一个人在纽约州都要负刑事责任，……他们还要在佛罗里达州负刑事责任。</div><br><br>accountability 则主要是担任公职所负的职务责任，例如在香港谈论很多的“高官问责制”，英文就是 principal officials accountability system (POAS)，在这里就不宜用 responsibility，更不可以用 liability。<br><br>
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responsible
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>responsible</b></div>有时候转义，不是表示“负责任的”，而是叙述“占(多大的)份额的”(“份额”用 for 引入)，此时主语就不是人而是物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Almonds are a huge business in California's Central Valley; the state's 660,000 nut-producing acres are responsible for some 90% of the world's crop. (Time, Mar. 23, 2009, p. 9) 杏仁在加州中部谷地是一个庞大的产业；加州生产杏仁的 66 万英亩土地，占了全世界大约 90% 的产量。</div><br><br>responsible，用在名词之前或之后都可以，但意思有点不同：用在名词之后，指“须为某事负责的”；用在名词之前，指“有责任心的”或“负责任的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He is a responsible man. 他这个人勇于任事。/ The man responsible is wanted by the police. 负责其事者，被警方通缉。但不符上述规定的例子很常见。《美国联邦法典》(Code of Federal Regulations) 有一条陈述自然资源保护处 (Natural Resources Conservation Services) 在各州聘用的专责人员：Each state conservationist is the responsible Federal official in all NRCS-assisted programs administered within the State. (各州的自然资源保护专员以联邦官员身份，负责州内所有自然资源保护处赞助的计划。) 这一句的 responsible，就有 in charge of (负责)的意思。要问“这个机构的负责人是谁”，英文也可以说 Who is the responsible person of the organisation?</div>
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restore
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>restore</b></div>作为及物动词(通常属第四类或第三类动词)，restore 相当于中文的“恢复”，搭配有时候同中文一样，有时候又不一样。<br><br>搭配同中文一致。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>restore law and order 恢复法律和秩序</div><div class="ex-item">Good food and fresh air will restore your energy. 吃得好，空气新鲜，你的精力就会恢复。/ Their generous action restored my faith in human beings. 他们慷慨的行为，使得我恢复了对人类的信心。/ Her sight was miraculously restored. 她的视力奇迹般地恢复了。</div><br><br>但是，有时候，尤其是当直接宾语是“X 的 Y”时，搭配往往同中国人的习惯不同，采取 restore X to Y 或者 restore Y to X 的结构。如果 Y 是某种抽象的状态或地位，就用 restore X to Y。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>restore Angkor to its former brilliance 恢复吴哥昔日的辉煌</div><div class="ex-item">restore pensioners to a position of equality 恢复领养老金者的平等地位</div><div class="ex-item">The treatment should soon restore him to health/restore his heath. 治疗将使他很快恢复健康。/ The injection restored him to himself. 打了针，他就恢复了知觉。/ The boss restored him to favor. 上级又青睐他了。如果涉及的是 rights，用 to 或 in 均可。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was restored to/in his rights as a citizen. 他的公民权利得到了恢复。</div><br><br>如果 Y 是某种比较实在而不那么抽象的东西，则可以用 restore Y to X 的结构。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>restore stability to the region 恢复该地区的稳定</div><div class="ex-item">This book also intends to restore to the modern reader the ability both to understand these symbols and to benefit from their infinite wisdom. 这本书还旨在恢复现代读者的能力，使他们能够既懂得这些符号，又能从中吸取无限的智慧。中译英时要注意避免把中文的“X 的 Y”照搬到英文成为 X's Y 或 Y of X。但有时候中英文结构相同。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The jewels havebeen restored to their rightful owners. 珠宝已经归还其合法主人。</div><br><br>
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restroom
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>restroom</b></div>不是休息室，而是“厕所”的委婉说法。<br><br>
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result
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>result</b></div>作为名词(“结果”)时，没有多少需要补充说明。但是作为不及物动词时，却要注意：它单独用时，意思是“作为结果而发生”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If you take this medicine, side effects may result. 如果服用这种药物，就可能有副作用。如果后面有补充说明的介词短语，就依后面介词的不同而有方向相反的两个意义。result in ... 是“原因产生结果”，result from ... 则是“结果出自原因”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The disease resulted in death. 因病致死。/ Sudden change in temperature will inevitably result in rain. 气温骤变必然形成下雨天气。/ The crash resulted in the death of five passenger. 车祸导致五名乘客丧生。/ Death resulted from the disease. 因病而死。/ The arrests resulted from an anonymous telephone call. 逮捕事件是由一次匿名电话引起的。</div><br><br>
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reverend
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>reverend</b></div>作为对牧师、教士的尊称，要有 the，而且大写(简写为 the Rev.)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the Reverend Martin Luther King 马丁·路德·金牧师。同样的情况，参见 hono(u)rable 条。</div><br><br>
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rice
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>rice</b></div>这个单词可以指煮熟了的米饭，或者生的大米，或者带壳的稻谷，或者稻田里长着的稻禾。参见 tea 条。<br><br>
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ride
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>ride</b></div>最原本的意义是“骑马”。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 单独一个不及物动词 ride，不交代移动的方向或目的地，意思是把“骑马”作为一项技艺或一种特殊的活动(属于第二类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She learned to ride in Argentina. 她在阿根廷学会了骑马。/ I put my pillow on the saddle so that I could ride comfortably. 我在马鞍上加了一个枕头，这样骑起马来可以舒服些。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 如果把“骑马”当作一种交通手段，但是对什么“马”不加特殊说明，只是笼统的“马”，可以在不及物动词 ride 后加上 to... 之类表示目的地的介词词组(第三类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He saddled his horse and rode to town. 他给马上了鞍，骑到镇上了。</div><br><br>但是由于 ride 不一定是“骑马”，也可以是坐车、骑骆驼、骑大象、骑毛驴等，所以单独用 ride 表示“骑马”，通常由上下文表明是“马”而不是别的。上面的例句，就说明了这一点。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 如果对马有特殊的说明，可以用 ride 作为及物动词，特殊的马作直接宾语，或是 ride 作为不及物动词，马作为介词 on 的宾语(第二类或第三类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He rode a black horse to town to buy his niece a wedding gown. 他骑着黑马进城给侄女买结婚礼服。/ He was riding his father's horse. 他当时骑着他父亲的马。/ He arrived later, riding on his large white horse. 他后来骑着他的那匹高头大白马来了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 如果交通工具不是马而是别的，通常要把交通工具作为直接宾语来表明(第二类或第三类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The boy was riding (on) a donkey. 男孩骑着驴子。/ Herides a bike to work. 他是骑自行车上班的。/ We rode the bus downtown. 我们乘公共汽车进城。但是，如果从上下文或语境已经暗示不是马，也可以不说出交通工具。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Can I ride with you, John? 约翰，我可以跟你一起坐车吗?</div><div class="ex-item">She couldn't ride up the hill. 她蹬自行车蹬不上山。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> ride on 后面如果不是交通工具，则意思是“乘着；随其起伏；靠在上面”(第二类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The gulls were riding on the waves. 海鸥乘着波浪起伏。</div><br><br>但是如果 on 后面不是具体事物，则 ride on 的意思接近于 depend on (“取决于”)(第一类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A lot rides on these elections for the Republicans. 这次选举，对共和党人来说，关系重大。</div><br><br>
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right
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>right</b></div>这个单词可以作为名词，也可以作为形容词，也可以作为副词，阅读时由于没有停顿和声调高低，有时不容易辨别。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为副词，right 往往相当于中文的“就，正，恰恰”，用来加强语气，此时特别要注意不要误为形容词或名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This was the compliment he had been angling for right from the start. 这正是他从一开始就千方百计想听到的恭维话。(right 在这句话中不是名词，所以不是前面 for 的宾语，而是修饰后面 from the start 的副词。angle for something 是“千方百计设法要弄到某好处”，这里的 something 是 compliment。)</div><div class="ex-item">Is tomorrow's energy right in front of us? (U.S. News & World Report, Sept. 15-22, 2008, p. 17, ad) 明日的能源是否就在我们面前?</div><div class="ex-item">The wind was right in our face. 风就正吹到我们脸上。/ The bus came right on time. 公共汽车恰恰准时来到。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作形容词，既可以作“正确的”解，也可以作“右边的”解。与此相仿，left 既可以是“左边的”，也可以是动词 leave 的过去分词。有人曾利用这两个单词的双关词义编出一句无法直接译成中文的幽默的话：The girl who thinks no man is good enough for her may be right—and she also may be left. 这里的 right 双关，指“正确的”和“右边的”；left 也双关，指“(孤单)留下来的”和“左边的”。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 作为名词，不可数时意思是“正义”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>know right from wrong 明辨是非</div><div class="ex-item">do right 行为正直。可数时意思是“权利”。不过，have a right to inf. 与 be in one's right to 有一点细微的差别。前者指笼统的“有权做某事”，不一定具体到特定的场合和特定的行为。后者则着重对某一特定行为的说明，如果是过去时，表示实行了某行动而且是有权这样做的；如果是将来时，则表示有权这样做而且必将这样做，或表示是有权这样做的。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They were in their right to defend themselves. 他们有权自卫，而且采取了自卫行动。/ They will be in their right to defend themselves. 他们将有权自卫，而且将采取自卫行动。/ 他们如果采取自卫行动，那是行使自己的权利。(是哪一种意思，要看上下文)</div><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 几种主要的欧洲语言，“权利”都可以转义为“法律”，唯独英文的 right 不可以，同中文一样，“权利”是权利，“法律”是法律，“法律”一律是 law。这个十分有意思的问题，参见 law 条。<br><br>
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right 与 power
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>right 与 power</b></div>right 是“权利”；power 是“权力”。在中文中发音完全一样，而且在日常语言中往往混淆不清，例如说“他有权按市场价格出售产品”，这个“权”是“权利”(right)，不是“权力”；又例如说“政府无权强制压价收购”，这个“权”是“权力” (power)，不是“权利”。通常“权利”是个人的或私人的，“权力”则是政府的。在除了英语以外的几种主要欧洲语言中，作为概念的“法”，都和“权利”是同一个词，毫无分别。可见在他们的概念里，“法”的主要内容就是“权利”(参见 law 条)。不过，有时候 right 和 power 在英文中也有混用的。例如 2007 年 4 月 3 日《纽约时报》头版头条，标题是 JUSTICES SAY E.P.A. HAS POWER TO ACT ON HARMFUL GASES (大法官们说环境保护署有权对有害气体采取行动)；但是消息的正文却是 The 5-to-4 decision was a strong rebuke to the Bush administration, which has maintained that it does not have the right to regulate carbon dioxide and other heat-trapping gases under the Clear Air Act. (最高法院的这个五票对四票的裁定，是对布什政府的强烈斥责，布什政府曾坚持说自己无权按照《净化空气法》对二氧化碳和其他吸热气体加以控制。) 另外，虽然政府的“权”在这里可以用 right 来代替 power，个人或私人的“权”却不可以用 power 来代替 right。<br><br>
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ring
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>ring</b></div>这个单词，词性多样(可以作为名词，也可以作为动词)，意义繁多。“指环；戒指”是常用的名词词义。但是 give me a ring 不是“给我一只戒指”，是“回头给我来个电话吧”(主要用于英式英语)。<br><br>
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rise
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>rise</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 这个动词同 arise 及 arouse 的区别，参见 arise, arouse 与 rise 条。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作为表示“增加”的不及物动词，rise 的搭配是：新增加的绝对量或比例，通常用 by 引入，但也可以不用任何介词；增加后新的总量，通常用 to 引入；增加所覆盖的时间段用 over 引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Sales rose by 56 percent over the past eight years. 销售额在过去 8 年间增加了 56%。/ Sugar rose by 10 percent in price. 糖价涨了 10%。/ Nokia rose $6.81 to $36.56. 诺基亚股票涨了 6.81 美元，达 36.56 美元。但是要注意：由于有时候增加的绝对量或比例不用介词引入，看起来仿佛是 rise 的直接宾语，此时，这个量或比例，如果再有别的介词引入，容易引起误解。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... prices could rise up to 25 percent from 2005's peaks, ... (Newsweek, Jan. 9, 2006, p. 40) 这里的 up to 同 rose 没有直接关系(不是“增加到”)，而是管 25 percent 的，表示“最高可达 25%”，是新增加的百分比，不是增加后的总百分比(况且不交代是什么的百分之几，这个总百分比是没有意义的)。所以中文应该译成“……物价可能从 2005 年的最高峰再进一步增加，最多可增加 25%”，不应译成“……物价可能从 2005 年的高峰增加到 25%”。</div><br><br>
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river
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>river</b></div>河边沿岸的地点，用 on 引入河流名称。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a city on the Seine 塞纳河边的一座城市</div><div class="ex-item">a park on the Hudson 哈得孙河边一处公园。沿着河边的陆路，用 along 引入河流名称。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the railroad along the Hudson 哈得孙河旁边的铁路。</div><br><br>架在河上的桥梁，用 across 或 over 引入河流名称。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the bridges across the Seine 塞纳河上的桥</div><div class="ex-item">a bridge over the Danube 多瑙河上的一座桥。</div><br><br>
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road
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>road</b></div>参见 street 条。<br><br>
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rob
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>rob</b></div>这个表示“掠夺，抢劫”的及物动词，它的搭配，同中国人的语言心理不一致。直接宾语是人，不是物。掠夺去的东西要用 of 引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Gangsters robbed a bank of one million dollars. 一些匪徒抢劫了某家银行的 100 万美元。/ She was robbed of all her savings. 她的积蓄被掠夺一空。但是，表示“盗窃”的 steal，搭配却接近中国人的心理，是 steal something from somebody。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He stole a bike from his neighbor. 他偷了邻居的一辆自行车。</div><br><br>但是偶尔也有以“物”作直接宾语的，尤其是没有提到被抢劫的“人”的时候，此时搭配同 steal 一样。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... set it afire on Sunday, then robbed $100 after the clerk fled the flames. (Morning Union, Feb. 24, 1986) ……星期天放了火，趁职员逃出火场之后抢劫了 100 美元。尤其是 rob 用于抽象的转义时，可以以非钱财的事物为直接宾语。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Concave surfaces are troublesome in that they tend to focus sound in some spots and rob sound energy from others. (James J. Nickerson, Education Digest, March 1953) 凹面比较麻烦，因为容易把声音集中到一些点，而使得别的点失去声能。</div><br><br>
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role
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>role</b></div>开始扮演某角色是 take on the role of，持续扮演着某角色是 play the role of。<br><br>
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room
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>room</b></div>由于这个名词作为可数名词是“房间”，作为不可数名词是“空间”，a little room 可能有歧义，也许是“一间小小的房间”，也许是“一点空间”，要看语境和上下文，参见 little 条。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The conference room was packed, standing roomonly, ... (Stephen Coonts, The Art of War) 会议室挤满了人，只剩下站立的空间，……(这里前一个 room 是可数名词，后一个 room 则是不可数名词，意义不同。) standing room only 也可以合成一个形容词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His university lectures on etymology and linguistics were standing-room-only, ... (Dan Brown, Digital Fortress) 他在大学讲的语源学与语言学的课，座无虚席，许多人只能站着听，……</div><br><br>
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royal road
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>royal road</b></div>是“康庄大道，直路；捷径”的意思(现在同“王室”已经没有什么意义上的联系)，后面加 to，表示通往的目的地。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There's no royal road to learning. 学问无捷径。</div><br><br>
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rubbish
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>rubbish</b></div>参见 garbage, rubbish 与 trash 条。<br><br>
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rule
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>rule</b></div>作为表示“统治”的动词(延续的第二类动词)，rule 可以是及物或不及物的，不过作为及物动词，“统治”的意义一般比较抽象。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>if I ruled the world 我假如统治全世界的话</div><div class="ex-item">Their lives are ruled by fear. 他们在恐惧中生活。</div><br><br>有时候 rule 作为及物动词也可以指具体的、政治上的统治。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The junta went on ruling the country. 军人委员会继续统治着这个国家。此时，rule (v.t.) 与 rule (v.i.) over 意义没有多大分别，都是指比较具体的统治。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He ruled over a vast kingdom. 他统治着一个幅员广阔的王国。/ They resent being ruled over by a dictatorial boss. 他们因为被一个专横的上级所支配而感到不满。</div><br><br>
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rule out
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>rule out</b></div>意思是“排除掉”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Police have not ruled out the possibility that the man was murdered. 警方没有排除这个男子被谋杀的可能。但是在医学诊断上，中英文都一样，“应该排除”或“需要排除”某种疾病，意思是说有这种疾病的可能，需要检查确诊。“排除掉”这种可能，是检查过后的一个成立或不成立的结果，不是说不需要检查。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Apendicitis has to be ruled out. 应该排除阑尾炎。(即有可能是阑尾炎，需要通过检查来确诊；不是“现在就应该排除掉阑尾炎的可能性”。)</div>
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run out
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>run out</b></div>主语可以是“用罄”的事物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Time was running out for the trapped miners. 受困的矿工们情况越来越危急。但也可以是占有某事物的主体，此时该事物用介词 of。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We ran out of fuel. 咱们的燃料用光了。也可以是抽象的状态。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He ran out of patience. 他不耐烦了。也可以不明说事物。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—Could I have a cigarette? —I seem to have run out. —给我一根香烟好吗? —我好像已经没有了。(不是“跑出去”)但如果 run out of 后面的宾语是一个场所，则保持原有“跑出去”的意义。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... but he didn't run out of the Bauer (= the Bauer Hotel) (James Patterson, Cross) ……但是他没有跑出鲍尔旅店。此外，如果 run 作为及物动词，尤其是在被动句中，则 be run out of 意思是“被赶出(某地)”(原指板球比赛中的离场)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... we will be run out of there with our tails between our legs. (Stephen Coonts, The Art of War) ……我们将会夹着尾巴被赶出那地方。</div><br><br>
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's
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>'s</b></div>这个缩略符号，除了表示名词的所有格(如 my father's book)之外，还可以代替动词 is 和 has。在大多数场合，究竟是代替 is 还是 has，是很容易分辨的。但是有时候也要注意避免误认。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Still, what's left of the neocon movement does seem to be converging around the Giuliani campaign, to some degree, ... (Newsweek, Oct. 15, 2007, p. 37) 不过，新保守主义运动的遗老遗少，看来确在某种程度上围绕着朱利安尼的竞选聚集起来，……这里的 's，后面是动词 leave 的过去分词 left，所以从形式上看，has left 和 is left 都有可能。但是 leave 在这里应该是个及物动词，如果是 has left，就缺了直接宾语；是 is left，作为被动语态，就说得通(参见 leave 条)。</div><br><br>
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safe
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>safe</b></div>可以是“(人或物)自己安全的”，也可以是“(事物)对人无害的”或“(事物)能保障人的安全的”。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 表示“(人或物)自己安全的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You are safe here. 你在这里是安全的。/ At least we're safe from the threat of dismissal. 起码我们不会受到解雇的威胁。/ She is safe from any immediate danger. 她已经没有任何直接的危险了。/ No one is safe from her sharp tongue. 谁都避免不了她的冷嘲热讽。/ The money will be safe here. 钱放在这里是安全的。/ His reputation is safe. 他保住了名誉。/ Keep these documents safe. 好好保存这些文件。/ Your secret is safe with me. 我一定替你保守秘密。/ You don't look very safe standing on that chair. 你站在那张椅子上看起来不太安全。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 表示“(事物)对人无害的”或“(事物)能保障人的安全的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>That ladder isn't very safe. 那把梯子不太安全。/ Is the water safe to drink? 这水喝了安全吗?</div><div class="ex-item">Do you think it's safe to go out now? 你觉得现在出去安全吗?</div><div class="ex-item">They claim nuclear power is perfectly safe. 他们声称核能是完全安全的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> “自己安全的”同“对人安全的”有时候分不清。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a safe driver 开车很可靠的人。(既保自己安全，也保别人安全)</div><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> be safe of 可以是“(人对物)有把握能得到”(后面名词成分不特指)或“(人对物或物对人)有安全的把握”(后面名词成分特指)。<br><br>名词成分特指。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... and certainly the reader is safer of entertainment in their hands than in those of the writers who take a malicious pleasure in representing the great figures of romance as patterns of the domestic virtues. (Somerset Maugham, The Moon and Sixpence) ……用不着说，比起那些把富有浪漫色彩的人物写成道貌岸然的君子的使人败兴的作家来，这一派(历史)学者的著作肯定能给予读者更大的乐趣。</div><br><br>名词成分不特指。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Please be safe of the mountain! 务请注意登山安全!</div><div class="ex-item">Height: about 1 m, to be a comfortable working height and high enough to be safe of children and animals. 高度：约为 1 米，这是舒适的操作高度，也是儿童和动物够不着的安全高度。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> be on the safe side 是“宁可稳妥一些”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Take an umbrella to be on the safe side. 宁可稳妥一些，带把雨伞吧。</div><br><br>
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safety
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>safety</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 英文有 the safety of + 某地点的结构，意思是“某地点的安全环境”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They reached the safety of the port. 他们安全抵达港口。类似的用法还有 in the luxury of private aircraft (乘坐豪华的私人飞机)、in the comfort of home (安坐在舒适的家中)等。但有一点要注意：这个 the X of Y 中，X 特性应该是 Y 通常自然具有的，例如不能说 *They reached the luxury of the port.</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> safety 与 security 的区别，参见 security 条。<br><br>
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sailor
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>sailor</b></div>sailor 本来是“海员，水手”，但是 a good sailor 可以是“不怕晕船的乘客”，a bad sailor 可以是“怕晕船的乘客”，What kind of a sailor are you? 是“你晕不晕船?”。<br><br>
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salary, wage 与 pay
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>salary, wage 与 pay</b></div>中国多年来强调体力脑力劳动一律平等，劳动报酬一律叫作“工资”。但是欧美还是注意白领、蓝领之分。大体上白领的工资叫作 salary (包括年薪上千万美元的大公司总经理)，蓝领的工资叫作 wage，但是 wage 比较正式，通常就叫作 pay。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>After all the deductions my week's pay isn't enough for us to live on. 经过七扣八扣，我一周的工钱就不够我们过日子了。</div><br><br>
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sale
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>sale</b></div>要注意 for sale 和 on sale 的区别。无论是英式还是美式英语，for sale 都是“(较大件商品)供出售(但仍未售出)”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His former home is for sale at $495,000. 他之前的住宅现在出售，要价 49.5 万美元。但是，小件物品如果是非卖品，可以说 not for sale。</div><br><br>on sale 则英美有区别。在英式英语中也接近于 for sale，但不是指房地产或汽车之类的大件商品，而是指小件零星的商品。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>English textbooks and dictionaries are on sale everywhere. 英文课本和词典，到处都有出售。在美式英语中，则指“(小件商品的)减价出售”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He bought a sports jacket on sale at Dick's. 他在迪克商店买了一件打折的运动上衣。美国许多商店，每当减价时就挂上“On Sale”的招贴，有时干脆只标出一个“Sale”。Winter Sale 就相当于中文的“冬季大减价”。sale price 是减价后的折扣。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Many department stores will refund the difference between the sale price of an item and the original price, ... (U.S. News & World Report, Dec. 24, 2007, p. 55) 一件(购后降价的)货物的折扣与原价之间的差额，许多百货公司是可以退款的，……</div><br><br>
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same
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>same</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> same 作为形容词(即使后面的名词代表新知事物)或是作为代词(即使代表的是新知事物)前面通常都必须加 the (或表示特指的 this 或 that)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>two different photographs of the same man 同一个人的不同照片(尚未知道是谁，但用 the)</div><div class="ex-item">We come from the same place. 我们来自同一处地方。(什么地方尚未交代，但用 the)</div><div class="ex-item">Remember the story of King Solomon, confronted by two women claiming to be the mother of the same baby. 回想一下所罗门国王的故事，有一次两个妇女到他面前，都争着说自己是同一个婴儿的母亲。(baby 第一次出现，但用 the)</div><div class="ex-item">Children with the same family, the same blood, with the same first associations and habits, have some means of enjoyment in their power, which no subsequent connections can supply. (Jane Austen) 家庭相同、血统相同、结交关系和习惯相同的孩子，他们本身就拥有某些享受快乐的手段，而这是后来形成的关系所不能提供的。(这几个 same 所限定的都是初次提到的新知事物，但用 the。)</div>唯有特别突出被 same 修饰的名词是新知的，才不用 the 而用 a。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>different results for a same function 同一作用而结果不同。而且只能用于单数。</div><br><br>另外，在商业用语中，same 作为代词(“所述货物”或“所述事物”)有不加任何冠词的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>delivery of same 交货</div><div class="ex-item">We have your order for three ornamental cast-iron frogs and are shipping same immediately. 收到台端所需装饰用生铁铸造青蛙三件订货单，将立即发货。/ Estimate for repairs to ceiling and re-painting of same: £100. 修缮天花板及对之重新粉刷估价：100 英镑。/ Enclosed, please find a check for same. 现附上该款支票一张，请查收。</div><br><br>但是，如果要强调“唯一的同一”，就可以不说 the same 而说 one same。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Only one same reason is shared by all of us: we wish to create worlds as real as, but other than the world that is. Or was. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 只有一个原因适用于一切小说家：我们都希望尽可能把世界塑造得像现实世界一样真实，但又跟现实世界不完全相同，也不同于过去那个世界。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> the same 可以指：(a)同一件事物；(b)另一件同情状的事物；(c)先后情状相同的同一件事物(如果否定就表示情状发生了变化)；(d)抽象概念(因而不存在究竟是同一事物或只是情状相同的问题)。如何辨别，往往要靠事理。但有时从语言形式上也有线索可循。(a) the same 指同一件事物，这种事物最典型的就是人，因为人与人无论情状如何相同，终究是不同的人。说 the same shirt 可以是同样的另一件衬衣(当然也可以是同一件)，the same person 就不可能是情状相同的另一个人。所以凡是牵涉到人时，the same 总是指同一个人而不是情状相同的另一个人。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She is the same woman as/that I spoke to yesterday. 她就是昨天同我谈话的那个女人。/ Is he the same one you were telling me about? 他是不是你原来告诉我那个人？/ There is a lady waiting for you. She is the same lady who was here yesterday. 有位女士在等着您。就是昨天来过的那位。</div><br><br>与此情况相似的，还有地点、日期、地址等等，要么就是同一个，如果不是同一个，就谈不上性质相同。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They live at the same address. 他们住在同一个地址。/ I taught in the same school for thirty years. 我在同一所学校教了三十年。</div><br><br>此外，还可以按事理看出 the same 指的是同一事物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—I saw some beautiful shoes in the window. —You did? I saw the same shoes. —我看见橱窗里有一些很好看的鞋子。—你看见了？这些鞋子我也看见了。/ I lost my suitcase. Now I have to wear the same clothes for a week. 我的皮箱丢了。现在我只好一个星期都穿同一套衣服了。</div>(b) 但是 the same 也可以表示情状相同的另一事物(最极端的例子就是钱，只要数量相同，就是 the same money，不必是原来的那几张钞票)，这种情况，往往除了事理之外，语言形式上也可以有判别的提示。凡是 the same ... 后面用 as 的，或者 the same 之前有 much 之类表示程度的副词的，大多是表示情状相同的另一事物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I bought the same motorcycle as he. 我买了同他一样的摩托车。(共有两辆)</div><div class="ex-item">Your dress is the same as mine. 您的这条连衣裙同我的一样。(有两套)</div><div class="ex-item">Her earrings are the the same as yours. 她的耳环同你的一样。/ His furniture is the same as hers. 他的家具同她的一样。/ His last book is much the same. 他最近出的一本书，还是那老一套。而如果后面用 that (可省略)或 which、who、where 之类的关系代词或从属连词的，大多是表示同一事物。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This is the same camera (that/which) I sold to John. 这个相机就是我卖给约翰的那个。/ Put back that key in the same place where I left it. 把那把钥匙放回我原先放的地方。</div><br><br>但如果从事理上看只能指同一事物，则用 as 也不一定是同类的另一事物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I went to London in the same year as you did. 我同你同一年去伦敦。(不可能有两个性质的两个年头)</div><div class="ex-item">I found she was staying in the same small hotel as I was. 我发现她跟我住在同一家旅馆。(不太可能谈论两家情况相同的旅馆) 反之，有时凭事理就可以判断是情状相同的不同事物。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The two boxes are exactly the same. 两个箱子一模一样。(一开头就说清楚是两个箱子)</div><div class="ex-item">They both wore the same heavy tweed overcoat. 他们两人都穿同样的厚花呢大衣。(不可能两人共穿一件大衣)</div>(c) the same 也可以指同一事物在不同时期或不同场合保持(否定时就是不保持)原有情状。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He will never be the same again. 他再也不会像原来那样了。/ The village is much the same as it was fifty years ago. 村子跟 50 年前的样子差不多。</div>(d) 如果 the same 所管的名词不是具体事物而是抽象概念，就不存在是同一事物或只是情状相同而事物不同的问题。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They were exactly the same age. 他们年龄完全相同。/ It is the same colour as the wall. 它同墙壁的颜色一样。/ The fish is twice as big but the same shape. 这条鱼有两倍大，但形状相同。/ I'm glad you see thing the same way (as) I do. 你看事情同我一样，我很高兴。有时该名词指的是一些特定的现象或言行，一再重复，说是同一事物也行，说是情状相同的不同事物也行。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm fed up with doing the same old thing every day. 天天干同样的老一套，我腻死了。/ She always comes out with the same excuses. 她总是捧出同样的一些借口。/ The same thing happened to me. 我也遇到了同样的事情。/ It all comes to the same thing. 翻来倒去，结果还是那样。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> the same 如果要加强语气，可以在前面加上 much 或 very much 或 pretty much。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The Allies held much the same view. (Capt. Dudley W. Knox, American Naval Participation in the Great War) 盟国持一模一样的看法。/ ... Aunt Tranter had given Charles very much the same information as the vicar of Lyme had given Mrs. Poulteney twelve months before. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) ……那一次，特兰特姨妈把法国大尉的女人的事讲给查尔斯听，内容跟 12 个月前莱姆镇的牧师讲给波尔蒂尼太太听的一模一样。/ Vodka is pretty much the same no matter what brand you buy. 无论你买哪个牌子的伏特加，其实都是一个样。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 某人被对方认出，喊出名字，此时回答“对，是我”，可以说“The same.”<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>“Mr. Gryce!” I exclaimed. “The same,” he replied. (Anna Katherine Green, The Leavenworth Case) “是格莱斯先生！”我喊了一声。“对，是我。”他回答说。</div><br><br>
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sanguinary 与 sanguine
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>sanguinary 与 sanguine</b></div>这两个形容词都源出于拉丁文的 sanguis (血液)，但是派生的意义大不相同。sanguinary 总是同“血腥，残酷”连在一起。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a sanguinary war 一场血腥的战争</div><div class="ex-item">sanguinary revenge 血腥的复仇</div><div class="ex-item">a sanguinary tyrant 嗜血的暴君。</div><br><br>sanguine 则在历史演变中归属于古代欧洲医学中的一个想象中的人体体液模式。当时认为人体有四种体液(humors)，即血液(blood)、黏液(phlegm)、黄胆汁(choler 或 yellow bile)、黑胆汁(melancholy 或 black bile)。四种体液之间比例的高低，决定人的性格，属于哪种性格的就用相关的一个形容词来表示。sanguine 是“多血质的”，性格乐观。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a sanguine temperament 乐观的性格</div><div class="ex-item">He is sanguine about our chances. 他对我们的机遇持乐观态度。</div><br><br>phlegmatic 是“黏液质的”，性格冷淡或冷静。bilious 是“胆汁质的”，性格急躁或忧伤。其中 choleric 是“黄胆汁质的”，性格急躁易怒；melancholic 是“黑胆汁质的”或“抑郁质的”，性格忧郁。<br><br>
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save
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>save</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 一般作为及物动词，最原始的意义是“拯救”(表示瞬时动作的第四类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She wanted to save her reputation. 她想挽回自己的名誉。/ Rescue workers saved 20 people from the burning house. 救援人员从着火的房子里救出了 20 个人。/ They saved him from drowning. 他们把他从溺水中救了出来。</div><br><br>转义有比“拯救”轻一些的“佑护”(此时由瞬时动作转为延续活动，亦即转为第二类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>God save the Queen. 上帝佑护女王。(这里的 save 是虚拟语气，不能用直陈语气的 saves)。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 另一个转义是“节省”(第四类动词或第一类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It saves a lot of time. 这能节省许多时间。/ You can save a lot of money buying a season ticket. 买季票可以省很多钱。/ ... considerable doubts from experts about whether it (= the measure) would save elderly and disabled Americans much money. (The Washington Post, Jan. 13, 2007) ……专家们抱着巨大怀疑，不知道这个措施会不会给美国的老人和残障人士节省大笔的钱。</div><br><br>但是要注意：save 的直接宾语是指全部节省下来的总量，如果省下的只是总量中的一部分，这个总量就不可以作直接宾语。比如说，原来保险费 100 元，现在可以节省一部分，“节省保险费”就不能说 *save the premium，因为这样说就是 100 元全部省了下来。此时 save 应该用作不及物动词，再加上个 on，说 save on the premium。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> save 的另一个转义是“免得”，后面的直接宾语是名词或动名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She recorded the lecture to save having to take notes. 她把听的课录下音来，省得做笔记。/ Drip-drying the shirts saves ironing them. 让衬衣滴干，可以免烫。/ It will save you a journey. 这就可以免得你去一趟。</div><br><br>save 通常带有正面的把好的东西“省下来，拯救”的意义，但是有时候也可以有负面的把不喜欢的事情“拖延”的意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Don't save everything for/to the last minute. 别把一切事情都拖到最后一分钟才做。甚至于坏事时把一件坏事留到最后才干，也是 save。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Now Catherine, Debra, Cindy, Gloria and Alison were gone. He'd save Laura for last. (Mary Higgins Clark, Nighttime Is My Time) 现在，凯瑟琳、德博拉、辛迪、格洛丽和艾莉森全都干掉了。他要把劳拉留到最后才动手。</div><br><br>作“使某人免得，替某人节省；为某人保留”解时，可以有双宾语(第四类动词或第一类动词，搭配参见 buy 条)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Please save me a seat. (= Please save it/a seat for me.) 请给我留个座位。/ Please save it/a seat for Bob. (= Please save Bob a seat.) 请给鲍勃留个座位。但不能说 <i>Please save Bob it. 或 </i>Please save it him 或 *Please save him it.</div><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> save 的词源是拉丁文的 salvāre，但是后来其中的 l 逐渐消失，只保留在有宗教意义的名词 salvation(拯救)和有特殊意义的名词或动词 salvage [抢救(遇灾物资)；打捞(沉船)；保护(名誉)]中。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the Salvation Army (基督教慈善组织)救世军</div><div class="ex-item">The paintings were salvaged from the fire. 画作从火灾中抢救出来了。/ the salvage of the wreck 沉船的打捞</div><div class="ex-item">How can he salvage his career now? 他现在怎能保住他的前程呢？但是 salvage 的“抢救”，一般只用于物(灾难中的抢救物资或事后的搜索余物)，通常不用于灾难中的救人(用 save 或 rescue)。</div><br><br>
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saving
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>saving</b></div>作为名词，单数是“一次节省的事件”，复数(其实是复数形式的不可数名词)是“节省下来的财物”或“积蓄的财物”。这个区别本来应该是很清楚的，但是由于实际语言运用中用单数的时候比较少，所以复数形式 savings 成了常见的形式。用作另一个名词的前置定语时也常用复数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>savings bank 储蓄银行</div><div class="ex-item">savings account 储蓄账户。savings 作主语时，通常谓语动词和代词用复数。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Savings have a deflationary effect, since they cut down the amount of spending for consumer goods. (Albert H. Sayer et al., Economics in Our Democracy) 储蓄会产生通货紧缩的效应，因为它会减少用于购买消费品的支付量。本来，saving 作为“一次节省的事件”，应该用单数。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a saving of approximately $60,000,000 a year (Current Biography, January 1965) 一年节省大约 6000 万美元。但是有时候这个用法也受到复数形式的“传染”而采用了复数形式，而同时却又当作单数使用。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... would represent a savings of 183,000 miles a year ... (Buffalo Courier Express, Apr. 24, 1963) ……每年可以节省 18.3 万英里……</div><div class="ex-item">New GEICO customers report an average annual savings of more than $500. (U.S. News & World Report, Sept. 15-22, 2008, p. 40, ad) GEICO 的新投保户申报，他们平均每年可以节省 500 美元以上。</div><br><br>savings 尽管是复数形式，甚至在前面加 a，但其实是个不可数的“物质名词”(mass noun)，因此，前面有按照其复数形式用 many 或 few (比较级 more 或 fewer)的，也有按照其不可数性质而用 much 或 little (比较级 more 或 less)的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How much savings should you have at age 25, 35, and 45? 你在 25 岁、35 岁、45 岁时，应该该有多少储蓄？/ Because of its speed, and because of the many savings deriving from speed, air cargo service has become valuable to manufacturers, to retailers, and to consumers. (William E. O'Connor, An Introduction to Airline Economics) 由于航空货运速度快，而且由于速度快而可以大大节省，这种货运方式已经为生产厂家、零售商和消费者所重视。(这里的 many savings 既可以理解为不可一一分割的“大量节约的钱财总额”，也可以理解为“一个个项目的节约机会”)</div><div class="ex-item">The new registration process offers few savings for insurers. 新的(汽车)登记手续，并没使得投保户节约多少。/ With little savings to fall back on, millions of American households reach for the only other lifeline they have: credit cards. 数以百万计的美国人家没有多少储蓄作为靠山，就伸手去动用他们唯一还有的生命线：信用卡。比较级有时用可数的 fewer，有时用不可数的 less。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>German electronic health-insurance cards may generate fewer savings than originally expected. 德国的电子健康保险卡所能提供的节约额比原先预期的少。/ Whereas in previous times one bread winner per family was sufficient to provide for the family, the family now needs the second bread winner plus more debt with less savings and less time for the children, to do the same. 从前，每家一个人挣钱就足以养活全家；而现在，一家人还要有第二个人来挣钱，还要背上更多的债，减少储蓄，减少陪孩子的时间，才能养活一家人。</div><br><br>
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say
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>say</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> “据说某人(某事物)如何如何”在英文中可以说成“某人(某事物)被说成如何如何”。这是中国人不大习惯的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She's said to be very mean. (= It is said that she is very mean.) 据说她这个人很小气。/ These fans are said to be very efficient. 据说这些风扇效力很好。/ She is said to have written (<i>to write) a lot. 据说她著述甚丰。/ He is said to have married (</i>to marry) a soprano singer. 据说他同一位女高音歌唱家结了婚。</div><br><br>类似的动词还有 believe、fear、report、schedule、think 等等。这些动词后面，如果跟着一个动词不定式，这个动词应该是个延续状态的第一类动词，如果是第四类动词，就要改为 to have + pp.; 如果是第三类动词，要改为 to be + -ing 或 to have + pp.; 如果是第二类动词，要改为 to be + -ing。这是因为 be said to inf. 中这个动词应该是表示一种与 be said 同时存在的延续状态，如果是一个瞬时的动作，这个动作就无法与 be said 同时发生。但是把这个瞬时动作的动词由动词不定式变为 to have + pp.，这个动作就变为它所留下的延续状态，就可以与 be said 同时存在了。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> say 常常可以插在句中表示临时想出的一个例子。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Moreover, if you're not planning on becoming, say, a doctor, the benefits of diligent study can be overstated. (Christopher Caldwell, “What a College Education Buys,” in The New York Times, Feb. 25, 2007) 再者，如果你不是打算当一个，比方说，当一个医生，那么，勤奋学习的好处就可能有言过其实之处。/ A horrid mathematics gnawed at Charles's mind: three hundred and sixty-five, say three hundred “working,” multiply by two ... (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 此时，查尔斯的脑海里正在演算一道可怕的算术题：一年 365 天，就算她“工作” 300 天吧，再乘以 2……</div><br><br>
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scant
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>scant</b></div>这个形容词带有准否定的意义，修饰不可数名词，相当于 little。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The ailments of the world's poor receive scant attention compared to the diseases of the rich. 比起富人所患的疾病来，世界上穷人的病痛不会引起多大的注意。/ Yet that rule has been bent repeatedly, with scant explanation of how figures are compiled. (The Washington Post, Mar. 20, 2007) 然而这条规则一再被扭曲，数字怎样得来的，已经说不清了。</div><br><br>
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scarcely
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>scarcely</b></div>除了“几乎不”的意义之外，这个副词还可以同 when 呼应，表示“刚刚……就……”，核心信息在 when 从句，主句(如果 scarcely 在句首，主句要主谓颠倒)实际在语用意义上成了修饰从句的一个时间状语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We had scarcely begun/ Scarcely had we begun when the bell rang. 我们刚刚开始，铃就响了。/ Scarcely had the car drawn to a halt when armed police surrounded it. 车子刚停下来，武装警察就包围了它。</div><br><br>但是，由于 scarcely ... when ... 的语义同 no sooner ... than ... 相同，即使是英语国家的人，甚至著名作家，也往往把 when 误作 than。<br><br>此外，scarcely 还可以单独使用但不表示“几乎不”而是表示“刚刚”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Scarcely out of the Xerox machine, the sheet was taken away. 那张纸刚刚从复印机出来，就被拿走了。</div><br><br>
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scatter
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>scatter</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 这个及物动词(通常是第四类动词)在一般词典上的释义是“散播，散开”，但是与之搭配的直接宾语，既可以是被散开之物，也可以是散开后所覆盖的平面。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The bag burst, scattering her purchases. 袋子裂开了，她买的东西散落一地。(宾语：买的东西)</div><div class="ex-item">They scattered the pavement with sand. 他们在地面撒了沙子。(宾语：地面) 参见 clean 与 cleanse 条、sow 条、sprinkle 条、purge 条、strew 条等。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> scatter 的过去分词 scattered 可以作形容词，但是要注意，它的意思是“稀稀拉拉的”(少)，不是“遍布各处的”(多)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In Malawi, one of the world's poorest countries, weather stations are scattered and technology is out of date or not functioning. (The New York Times, Apr. 3, 2007, A1) 马拉维是世界上最贫穷的国家之一，那里的气象站稀稀拉拉，技术落后或是不起作用。</div><br><br>
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schedule
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>schedule</b></div>作为动词时表示预定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The next day, as fate would have it, Sessions was scheduled to talk to reporters. (CNN, July 22, 2017) 好像命运的安排，塞申斯断定于次日同采访记者们交谈。</div><br><br>
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school
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>school</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为泛称的起教育作用的机构，school 不加任何冠词。作为一处地点，要按情况加定冠词或不定冠词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Is he still at (英式英语) school?</div><div class="ex-item">Is he still in (美式英语) school? 他还在上学吗？/ Dad came to the school to see my teacher yesterday. 爸爸昨天到学校来见我的老师。</div><br><br>即使 school 前面有形容词，只要“形容词 + school”还是属于常见的教育机构或教育阶段范畴，就仍然不加任何冠词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I joined the office immediately after law school. 我从法学院毕业后，就马上进了律师事务所。/ I'd graduated with a B.A. in philosophy in May, and had decided against going straight to graduate school. (Newsweek, Nov. 13, 2006, p. 20) 我 5 月份毕业，拿到了哲学学士学位，而且决定不去直接念研究生。但是如果形容词的内容不属于通常的教育范围，school 就要恢复具体事物的含义，就要有冠词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>graduate from a well-known school.</div>如果 school 前面没有介词而单独出现，就是抽象的“上学”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>School was an unbearable ordeal for him. 上学对他来说是一件无法忍受的苦差事。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> school 还有“学派”的意思。究竟是“学校”还是“学派”，要看上下文。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the Dutch school 荷兰学派</div><div class="ex-item">the impressionist school 印象派</div><div class="ex-item">a politician of the old school 老派政治家</div><div class="ex-item">There are several schools of thought on this issue. 在这个问题上有好几个学派。</div><br><br>
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science
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>science</b></div>单数前面不加冠词，是“科学”的总称。表示一门具体的科学，要按特指或不特指而在前面加上定冠词或不定冠词。只有具体的一门门的科学才可以用复数 sciences 表示。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>every new fact discovered by science 科学所发现的每一个新的事实</div><div class="ex-item">the importance of mathematics to science 数学对于科学的重要性(美式英语中 science 的学科不包括数学)</div><div class="ex-item">one of the medical sciences 医学科学的一门</div><div class="ex-item">the science of genetics 遗传科学</div><div class="ex-item">a true science of education 真正的教育科学。参见 religion 条与 language 条。</div><br><br>
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sea
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>sea</b></div>这个名词前面用什么介词，要不要冠词，有不同的用法。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 如果指笼统的海，与陆地或是与江河湖泊相对而言，sea 是个总称名词，带定冠词 the。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The interior is resistant to salt water, allowing the skipper to drive into a lake or the sea. (The Associated Press, Feb. 14, 2008) 内部是抗盐水腐蚀的材料，因此这条船可以进入湖水或海水里行驶。这里不能说 a sea，因为在人们心目中，海洋是连成一片的，而且这里注意的是海水的盐分，不在乎是哪个海。但是 lake 就不同，在人们心目中，一个个的湖泊是界限分明的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 如果把海洋看作大自然的一部分，或则汹涌澎湃，或则风平浪静。人航海时把命运交给了它，只能听天由命，通常就说 at sea。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>200 workers are feared lost at sea. 200 名工人恐怕已在海上遇难。/ safety at sea 海上安全</div><div class="ex-item">rescue at sea 海上救援</div><div class="ex-item">burial at sea 海葬</div><div class="ex-item">adventures at sea 海上冒险。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 如果是指“海边”而不是“海上”，可以说 at the sea。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There was on each side a ridge of mountains that terminated at the sea. 每一边都有一条山脉，延伸到海边就消失了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 如果谈的是人在海洋中的活动，此时可以说 on the sea。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>cruising on the sea 海上游览</div><div class="ex-item">safety on the/at sea 海上安全</div><div class="ex-item">warfighting on the sea/at sea 海上战斗</div><div class="ex-item">They're born on the sea, live on the sea, die on the sea. 他们生在海上，住在海上，死在海上。/ We have to find a new place to live if we are to survive. There are three choices: on other planets, underground, and on the sea. 我们如果要活下去，就要找到新的居住之地。有三种选择：到其他行星上去，到地下去，到海上去。这些都是指“在海面上”而不是“在海水下”，在这个意义上，也可以指自然现象。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>ice floe on the sea 海面上的浮冰。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 但是如果是专有的海洋名称 the Sea of ...，则 on 可以表示“在海上”或“在海边”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In winter, navigation on the Sea of Okhotsk becomes difficult, or even impossible, due to the formation of large ice floes. 到了冬天，由于形成了大块的浮冰，鄂霍次克海上很难航行，甚至无法航行。/ There is a city called Abashiri on the Sea of Okhotsk. 鄂霍次克海边有一个叫作网走的城市。/ first-century harbors on the Sea of Galilee 公元 1 世纪加利利海边的港口。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> in the sea 通常指“在海水中”或“在水下”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the science of sound in the sea 有关声在海水中的科学</div><div class="ex-item">swim in the sea 在海水中游泳</div><div class="ex-item">scuba diving in the sea 在海水中潜泳</div><div class="ex-item">How much do you know about creatures that live in the sea? 你对海水中的生物知道多少？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> sea 还可以作为形容词，用于 sea change (猛烈的变化)，源出于莎士比亚戏剧《暴风雨》(Tempest)第一幕第二场。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Yet Republicans acknowledge that any move to support expanded offshore oil drilling after years of resistance is a sea change for Democrats. (The New York Times, Sept. 12, 2008, A17) 然而，共和党人承认，民主党人在多年来一直反对扩大沿岸石油开采之后，现在任何支持这种做法的措施对他们来说，都是一个翻天覆地的变化。</div><br><br>
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search
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>search</b></div>这个动词可以是及物的，也可以是不及物的。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为及物动词(第二类或第四类动词)时，意思是“对某一整体进行搜索(以图在其中找出所需要的事物)”。如果要寻找的事物亦同时说出，该事物名词前面要加介词 for。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Everyone's luggage was thoroughly searched. 所有人的行李都被彻底搜查过。/ I searched everywhere but couldn't find your book. 我到处都找遍了，但还是没找到你的书。/ They searched him for drugs. 他们搜他的身看有没有带毒品。/ She searched the attic from top to bottom for the letters. 她把阁楼翻了个遍，要找出那些信件。/ We searched the archives for conclusive evidence. 我们翻查案卷，要找到一些确凿的证据。</div><br><br>这个用法，也可以用于抽象意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>search one's memory 努力回忆</div><div class="ex-item">search one's conscience 扪心自问</div><div class="ex-item">She searched her mind for some words of comfort. 她搜肠刮肚想找出一些安慰的话语。/ I searched his face for a glimmer of recognition. 我注视他的脸，要发现一点他认出我的迹象。</div><br><br>此外，search me 是习惯用语，意思是：“你就是把我脑子搜个遍，你还是找不出答案，我还是不知道。”<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作为不及物动词(仍然是第二类或第四类动词)时，通常后面要补充上 for something 或 for somebody，意思是“进行搜索以图找到(某物或某人)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm searching for the missing ticket. 我在寻找那张丢失的门票。/ What I'm searching for is a reason for that slowing. 我要找出的，是慢下来的原因。</div><br><br>同样，也可以用于抽象意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He pretended to search for the appropriate words to say. 他佯装寻找合适的言辞。/ We are searching for a way to persuade him to cut costs. 我们正在设法说服他削减开支。</div><br><br>search through 则等于作为及物动词用的 search，其直接宾语代表大的范围。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They had to search through his belongings. 他们不得不翻查他的物品。/ His widow searched through his papers for his will. 他的遗孀查遍他的文件，要找到他的遗嘱。</div><br><br>
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seas
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>seas</b></div>说整个海面的波浪情况，较多用 seas，再加定语来形容，而较少用 waves 加定语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... his ship assaulted by wind and furious seas (Tom Clancy, Clear and Present Danger) ……他那艘被狂风恶浪冲击的船</div><div class="ex-item">It wasn't an easy task, as the seas were high. (Reader's Digest, June 2016, p. 108) 这个活儿可不容易，因为风浪很大。/ Heavy seas were running. 波涛汹涌。/ Fifteen-foot seas battered against the hull. 15 英尺高的大浪拍击着船身。/ The survivors endured monstrous seas. 生还者经历了险恶的风浪。/ ... they thought no one would attempt the invasion (of Normandy) with the high seas and which prevailed on the fourth of June. (F. W. Winterbotham, The Ultra Secret) ……他们觉得，6 月 4 日的风浪这么厉害，谁都不会尝试这一天进军诺曼底的。</div><br><br>
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seasonable 与 seasonal
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>seasonable 与 seasonal</b></div>前者表示“合乎时令的，合乎季节的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Snowy weather is seasonable here in January. 这里一月份下雪的天气是合乎时令的。</div><br><br>后者则表示“季节性的”(非常年的)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>seasonal workers 季节工</div><div class="ex-item">seasonal allergies 季节性过敏</div><div class="ex-item">seasonal adjustments 季节性调整。</div><br><br>
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secret
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>secret</b></div>secret 作“诀窍”解时，后面可以用 to 或 of 来引入另一名词。究竟用 to 还是 of，牵涉到更深一层的语感。<br><br>如果指的是“期望达到的目的”，用 to。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the secret to raising smart kids 培养出聪明孩子的秘诀。</div><br><br>如果指的是“通过实践总结的经验教训”，用 of。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Drill, drill, and more drill, is the secret of the early training of the mind and hand. (Josef Hofmann, Piano Playing) 练习，练习，再练习，是早期训练心和手的秘诀。</div><br><br>
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secretary
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>secretary</b></div>参见 attorney 条。<br><br>
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security
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>security</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 与 safety 在意义和用法上有细微的差别。security 多是指意义比较抽象的，如政治上、军事上、外交上和社会福利上的“安全”，例如联合国的安全理事会就称为 Security Council，机场的安检称为 security check，美国的社会保障制度称为 Social Security (但 public security 则是“公安”)。safety 大体上指比较具体的、物质上的，如交通的、日常生活中的“安全”(如防火、防食物中毒之类)。safety of nuclear energy 是技术上的核能安全，而 security of nuclear energy 则可能是防范针对核电站的恐怖袭击。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> security 可以指整个安保机构或系统、安保措施、安保人员、安全检查站地点(不要冠词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Even shoes are removed at airport security. 在机场安检，连鞋子也得脱下。/ Security was called to remove the protester. 召来了安保人员把抗议者赶走。/ ... security would take twenty minutes, half an hour to come. (Anna Salter, Fault Lines) ……安保人员要过 20 分钟或半个钟头才能到。</div><br><br>
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see
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>see</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> “看书”不可以说 *see a book，要说 read a book。不过，匆匆看某本书一眼可以用 see。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Could I see your book for a second? 我可以看你那本书一眼吗？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> “看电视”和“看球赛”等变化进程，不能说 <i>see TV 或 </i>see a football game，要说 watch TV 和 watch a football game。这可能是因为电视镜头变换频繁，球赛更是瞬息万变，而 see 则是看比较固定的东西。而且，watch 可以表示对无头无尾的过程“观看一段时间”，这个含义用于一天到晚轮番上演节目的电视就比较合适。但如果是特定的一个节目，有头有尾看了，就不用 watch 而用 see。因此，看电影用 see，看电视则用 watch。如果是电视当中的一个特定节目，或是球赛中一个特定事件，由于过程变化减弱了，也可以用 see 甚至只能用 see。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Have you ever seen (<i>watched) Chaplin's The Great Dictator? 你看过卓别林的《大独裁者》吗？/ Did you see/watch the seven o'clock news last night? 昨晚七点钟的电视新闻节目你看了吗？/ I saw (</i>watched) England's defeat. 我看见了英格兰队被打败。</div><br><br>如果上下文或语境暗示了看的是电视上一个特定的小段，而不是笼统地看电视，则仍然用 see 而不是 watch，而且 television 或 TV 前有 the。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I've seen the television. 这件事我在电视上看见了。(指谈话双方都知道的某一特定电视节目或镜头)但是如果说明了是电视上的一部片子，仍然以 watch 更好。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>watch a mystery movie on TV 在电视上看一部侦探片。即使是本句中没有说明是电视上的影片，只要上下文或语境有这个意思，就可以用 watch。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... our television time was limited, but as a treat we were allowed to watch old Hollywood movies. (Newsweek, Oct. 15, 2007, p. 13) ……我们看电视的时间是有限制的，不过，作为补偿，我们可以看一些老旧的好莱坞影片。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> see 除了最普通的“看见”的释义之外，还有一个比较重要但中国人常常不注意的释义，就是“留心，留神，设法办到；负责使之发生”。如果是这个释义，要采取 see that ... 或者 see to it that ... 的结构，that 后面的从句的时态按情况用直陈式(不用虚拟式)一般现在时或者一般过去时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>See to it that everything is ready by 5 p.m. 你要把一切在下午 5 点以前办好。/ —I'll finish by Friday. —See to it that you do. —我星期五以前办完。—那你就设法做到吧。/ We took care of his wounds and saw to it that he got home. 我们处理了他的伤口，设法把他送回了家。</div><br><br>see to it that ... 来自 see to something，是“照料；负责，管”的意思，因此，see to 后面接上名词成分，也有“照料”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Don't you worry about that. I'll see to that. 您就别操这个心了。我来管。/ A man was there to see to our luggage. 有个人在那里替我们看管行李。/ I'm too busy to see to everything myself. 我样样事情都要管，忙不过来。/ There's a customer out there; could you see to him for me? 那边有一位顾客；你能代我接待他一下吗？/ At his age, he ought to be able to see to his own breakfast. 他这么大了，应该可以自己料理自己的早餐了。/ —Are you sure she'll come? —I'll see to it myself. —你肯定她会来吗？—我会想办法叫她来的。</div><br><br>如果用 see to it that ... 的形式，不大容易理解错，但如果用 see that ... 的形式(从句动词仍然用直陈式)，则容易误解 see 是“看见”，所以要注意。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He would have to see that something was done about this situation. 他只好想想办法来收拾这个局面。/ See that the curtains are closed. 注意把窗帘都拉上。(不是“看看窗帘都拉上了”)</div><div class="ex-item">See that everything is marked with your initials. 所有东西都一律要标上你姓名的缩写。/ Just tell us what you want and we will see that your wishes are carried out. 你想要什么只管说，我们一定设法让你的愿望能实现。/ But heaven had punished this son, or blessed him, by seeing that he never married. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 遗憾的是，老天爷惩罚了这个儿子，当然也可以说保佑了他，叫他至今还没娶妻。/ All right. I'll see that a list is compiled. 好的。我设法列一张清单。</div><br><br>see that 还可以表示“检查(客观情况)如何”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... (she) then looking around to see that everything was clean and nice. (Somerset Maugham, The Moon and Sixpence) ……她向四周看了看，检查是否一切都已收拾整齐。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> see 的主语可以不是人，而是某一时间点或时间段，或是某一地点，表示该时或该地发生什么事。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>1960 saw the rebellion of the younger generation against established traditions. 在 1960 年，发生了年轻一代反对已有传统的反叛活动。/ The beginning of the summer holidays saw the end of serious traffic congestion, ... (Estelle Ryan, The Gauguin Connection) 暑假一开始，严重的交通堵塞就中止了，……这是英语的一种拟人修辞手法，参见 witness 条。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> see 作“看见”解时，本来是人的一种不自主的感觉活动，因此通常不能用进行时态。但是在下列意义上，则是自主的行动，可以有进行时态：(a) “会见”(通常是因公的)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The director is seeing the applicants this morning. 局长今天上午在同求职者面谈。</div>(b) “观光，参观”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They are seeing the sights. 他们在参观景点。</div>(c) see about (“安排，设法弄到”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They are seeing about a work permit for you. 他们正在设法给你弄一张工作许可证。</div>(d) see to (“处理，修理”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The plumber is here. He is seeing to the leak in our tank. 管道工在这里。他正在处理我们水箱的漏水问题。</div>(e) see somebody + 目的地或方向(“送某人到某处”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>see somebody out 送某人出门</div><div class="ex-item">see somebody home 送某人回家</div><div class="ex-item">He's seeing me to my bus. 他现在正在送我上公共汽车。/ see somebody off 给某人送行。</div><br><br>
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seem
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>seem</b></div>seem to inf. 的用法，需要从动词的体貌以及表语的性质来加以探讨，这样 seem 才能用得正确。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> seem to be 的表语是名词时不能省略 to be。例如可以说 He seems to be a student. (他样子像个学生。)但是不能说 *He seems a student. 不过，如果名词可以表达形容词意义时，也可以省略 to be。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It seems (to be) nonsense. 这看起来很荒谬。/ He seems (to be) a fool. 他样子很傻。与 fool 类似的，还有 coward、genius 等名词。另外，其他名词如果加上了非绝对的(即不可以有程度高低的比较的)形容词，也可以省略 to be。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She seems (to be) a good student. 她看起来像个好学生。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> seem to be 的表语不是名词而是形容词时，如果这个形容词是绝对的，不能省略 to be。例如可以说 He seems happy. (他样子很高兴。)只能说 He seems to be single. (他样子像是个单身汉。)但是不能说 <i>He seems single. 只能说 This book seems of great importance. (这本书看起来十分重要。)但是不能说 </i>This book seems about global warming. 一些形容词只能作表语，不能作前置定语，通常也没有程度高低的比较，也不能省略 to be。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She seemed to be afraid (*seemed afraid) of the dog. 她看起来很怕那只狗。类似的形容词还有 ablaze、alike、alone、asleep、awake、ill 等等。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 有时候(如果否定或准否定)there seems to be (“似乎有”)中的 to be 可以略去。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There seemed no warrant for further investigation. 看来没有理由继续调查下去。/ There seems no way this can hurt his family. 这看来不可能伤他家人的心。/ Lilian was pale; there seemed little life left in her. 莉莉安脸色苍白；她似乎只剩下了半条命。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 同 appear 相似(参见 appear 条)，seem 本身是个延续状态动词(第一类动词)，它后面如果加上动词不定式，这个动词也必须直接或间接代表一个延续着的状态或活动(上文的 to be 就是典型)。因此：(a) 这个动词，如果也是个延续状态动词(第一类动词)，那就是 to inf.。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He seems to know what happened. 他看起来知道发生了什么事。(seem 和 know 都是延续状态动词)</div>(b) 如果是个延续活动动词(即第二类动词)，那就要改为 to be + -ing。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He seems to be talking (*seems to talk) on the phone. 他像是在打电话。</div>(c) 如果是个延续但有必然终点的动词(第三类动词)，那也要改为 to be + -ing 的进行时，以消除其终点，保留其延续。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He seems to be writing (*seems to write) a letter. 他似乎在写着一封信。另一个办法是改为 to have + pp.，表示达到终点后留下的延续状态。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He seems to have written a letter. 他似乎写了一封信。</div>(d) 如果是个瞬时动词，就要改为 to have + pp.，间接代表这个瞬时动作或事件所造成并留下至今延续着的状态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He seems to have solved (*seems to solve) the problem. 看起来他已经解决了问题。不过，偶尔也有人把 seem 当作第四类动词使用，用于一般过去时，表示“一下子给人的印象”，此时后面的动词也可以同样用第四类动词，表示的动作与给人印象的动作(seem)两者同时发生并立即同时结束。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He seemed to wake quickly out of his trance. 他好像很快就从昏睡中醒了过来。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> seem 前面可以加 can't，但不可以加 can，意思相当于 seem to be unable to inf. (can't 其实否定的是不是 seem 而是后面的动词)，此时后面的动词可以是延续的，也可以是瞬时的，不受限制。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I can't seem to solve the problem. 我看样子解决不了这个问题。同样，如果 seem to be 后面加了 able/unable to inf.，由于 able/unable to 不排斥瞬时动词，所以也可以说 I seem to be unable to solve the problem. 尽管不可以说 *I seem to solve the problem.</div><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> seem to inf. 如果要否定，虽然真正否定的是后面的动词，但是形式上通常否定 seem，不否定后面的动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He doesn't seem to know it. 看来他对此并不了解。否定后面动词的比较罕见。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He seems not to know it. 看来他对此并不了解。</div><br><br>
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selection
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>selection</b></div>可以是：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 从多个当中进行选择但尚未选定的过程。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The judges may revise their selection process. 评判员们可以修改他们的选拔办法。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 过程的结束(选定了)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They made a wrong selection of materials. 他们材料选错了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 选择过程产生的结果。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>selections from 20th-century American poets 20 世纪美国诗人诗歌选编</div><div class="ex-item">Your new secretary is a good selection. 你新来的秘书选得好。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 供选择(但尚未从中选定)的多个事物的整体(集合名词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a wide/good selection of up-to-date men's fashions 供选购的大批最新款式男装</div><div class="ex-item">Most of us like to have a good selection to choose from when we go shopping. 我们购物时，大都喜欢有多种多样的东西以供选择。(注意：这里的 a good selection 同(3)例句中的 a good selection 意义很不同)</div>
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-self
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>-self</b></div>这个后缀(复数 -selves)前面可以加上 one-、my-、your- (单数 yourself，复数 yourselves)、him-、her-、it-、our-、them-。可以单独用，也可以放在不同的介词后面表达不同的意义。of -self 是“自行，不靠外力”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The city gates fly open of themselves. (Samuel Taylor Coleridge, The Piccolomini) 城门自行打开了。/ O fruit divine,</div><div class="ex-item">sweet of thyself but much more sweet thus cropt. (John Milton, Paradise Lost) 神圣的鲜果啊，/ 你本身就已经甜美，这样采摘就倍加甜美。/ Works without genius, which must shortly sink of themselves. (Oliver Goldsmith) 缺少才华的作品，很快就会自行沉沦。to -self 是“自己单独使用或掌握，不与他人分享”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>smile to oneself 窃笑</div><div class="ex-item">It was safer to keep his thoughts to himself. 把自己的想法藏在心里，更为安全。/ ... a tactic they probably meant to keep to themselves. (The Economist, Feb. 27, 2010, p. 5) ……这条计策，他们大概本来是要秘而不宣的。by -self 是“独自一人，单靠自己”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He lives by himself. 他独自居住。</div>-self 的各种变形，除了作介词的宾语之外，最重要的功能是作及物动词的宾语(直接或间接宾语)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I found myself unable to speak. 我发现自己说不出话来了。/ Obama just gave himself a massive pay raise. (The Political Insider, Oct. 14, 2016) 奥巴马刚刚给自己增加了大笔薪酬。但是，-self 的各种变形，也可以既非动词的直接宾语，也非间接宾语，而是作为表示“亲自”的状语，此时特别要注意不要误解，尤其是如果动词可以及物也可以不及物时。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It shows a greater maturity on the applicant's part to call himself. 申请者自己打电话，表明他更为成熟。(call 是不及物动词，himself 是副词，不是反身代词；call himself 是自己打电话，不是“喊自己”。)</div><div class="ex-item">... raising children in two faiths results in ... resentment toward their parents for forcing upon them a decision that their parents were uncomfortable making themselves. (The New York Times, Nov. 6, 2013, A28, letter to the editor) ……在家中有两种不同宗教信仰的环境中养育孩子，结果会造成……孩子埋怨自己父母为什么强迫他们做出连父母自己也不方便做出的决定。(themselves 是状语，不是 making 的宾语；making 的宾语是代表 decision 的 that。)</div>
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self-conscious
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>self-conscious</b></div>这个形容词，中国人通常从它的构成出发，理解为正面意义的“自觉的”，尤其是用于政治语言上。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The proletarian movement is the self-conscious, independent movement of the oppressed classes. (COBUILD Dictionary) 无产阶级运动是被压迫阶级的自觉独立的运动。但是它在日常语言中主要意义却是负面的“害羞的，不好意思的；自惭形秽的”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She's very self-conscious about her nose. 她觉得自己鼻子长得不好看，很不好意思。/ He became rather self-conscious when I mentioned her name. 我提到她的名字时，他很不好意思。此外，还有一个负面的意义，是表演或演讲时“装模作样的，不自然的”，或是作家或画家作品“忸怩作态的，华而不实的”。</div><br><br>
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sell
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>sell</b></div>除了最通常的“(某人)出售(某物)”的意义和搭配之外，sell 还有一些中国人不大习惯的意义和搭配：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 仍然作为及物动词，主语是某商品，直接宾语是售出的数量(是瞬时动词，但可以用于表示反复)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Her novel sold a million in a year. 她的小说一年售出了 100 万册。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 仍然作为及物动词，主语是某促销的有利条件，直接宾语是某商品，或者是售出的数量，还可以有间接宾语表示得利的商品提供者(此时 sell 相当于中文的“促销”，是瞬时或延续动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Big stars sell movies. 大明星能使得片子卖座。/ The ad may sell me 1 million CDs. 这个广告能帮我卖出 100 万张光盘。/ It's quality that sells our products. 我们推销产品，靠的是质量。/ I even hope there are lawsuits, because lawsuits sell books. 我甚至希望有官司打，因为打官司对书的推销有帮助。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 作为不及物动词，主语是商品，可以加上价格说明，表示以怎样的价格出售(是延续动词，属第一类动词，不用于瞬时)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It sells at three dollars a bottle. 它以每瓶 3 美元的价格出售。/ It can sell high. 它可以卖个高价。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 作为不及物动词，主语是商品，加上“好”或“坏”的说明，表示畅销与否(作为第一类动词，用一般现在时或一般过去时，表示经常状态，用现在进行时或过去进行时，表示一时情况)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It sells well. 它销路好。/ Corn is selling briskly. 玉米现在畅销。bestseller (畅销书)中的 sell 也是采取其不及物动词的意义。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 中文有“推销”某一主张，“推销”自己形象，公众“买(某人的)账”等说法。同样，英文也有与此对应的 sell 与 buy 的说法(但是 sell 属于第二类动词，只是“推销”的过程，不一定达到目的；buy 则是第四类动词，指“接受了”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Let's hear your proposal. You've got 10 minutes to sell it to me. 现在听一听你的建议。给你 10 分钟来向我推销。/ It will be difficult for the president to sell his austerity measures to the nation. 总就要向全国推销他的繁缩措施是不容易的。/ You've got to sell yourself at the interview. 你应该在面试中推销你自己。也可以把对方作为直接宾语，推销的东西用 on 或 to 引入。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The man sold the mayor on his development plan. 那个人向市长推销了他的开发计划。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 更进一步，sell 还可以以人为直接宾语，表示“说服”，后面用 on 表示说服的内容（可以是第二类动词，指“推销”过程，但也可以是第四类动词，指“达到说服目的”）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>sell one's parents on the scheme 说服父母支持这个计划</div><div class="ex-item">sell the boss on this idea 说服上级支持这个主张。被动语气 be sold on 则是“已经被说服支持某事”，属于第四类动词（或是表示状态的第一类动词）。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Not Everyone Sold on Chip Factory. (新闻标题) 并非人人都赞同兴建芯片工厂。/ How will Obama sell Congress on sacrifice? (Title of George Will's article in The Sunday Gazette, Jan. 25, 2009, F2) 奥巴马如何去说服国会同意做出牺牲?</div>
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send
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>send</b></div>更偏向“派”而不是“送”。send 可以说是“动嘴不动腿”，例如“送孩子上幼儿园”，自己必须去，就不能说 <i>send the kid to the kindergarten，而要说 take the kid to the kindergarten；自己亲自送某物到某人那里去，也不能说 </i>send something to somebody，而要说 bring something to somebody。<br><br>此外，send for 也是“动嘴不动腿”，但方向同 send 恰恰相反，是“叫来（某人）”或是“派（不明说的某人）去取（某物）前来”。如果是自己“动腿”从他处带来某人或取来某物，就不用 send for 而用 fetch。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My mom goes to work in the morning and fetches me on her way home. 我妈妈早上去上班，回家时把我接回来。但是 fetch 主要用于英式英语，美式英语在这里说 and brings me home on her way 就可以了。</div><br><br>
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senior
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>senior</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 为了避免 old 这个词，美国的老人叫作 senior citizen 或简称 senior。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 但是 senior 用于年龄只是借用，它的原意是职务更高或就学的班级较高，或是工作资历更长。在这个意义上，虽然 senior 本身已经有了比较的意思，但还可以再有比较级。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Another post was advertised which was more senior, so I applied for that. 又有另外一个更高的职位登出招聘启事了，我就申请应聘那个了。/ I'd like to speak to someone more senior. 我想同一个职位更高的人谈一谈。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> be senior to 某人，可以是“年龄比某人大”（要说明大多少岁或几个月）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He's five years senior to me. 他比我大 5 岁。也可以是“职位比某人高”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He is senior to them all. 他的职位比他们大家都高。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> be one's senior 可以是“年龄比某人大”（要附上年龄差距），也可以是“职位比某人高”（不用附上高多少）。年龄差距可以放在 senior 之前，不用介词，也可以用 by 放在 senior 之后。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His friend was 10 years his senior. 他的朋友比他大 10 岁。/ He is my senior by three years. (= He is three years my senior.) 他比我大 3 岁。/ You'll have to speak to my senior. 你需要同我的上级说才行。</div><br><br>
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sense
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>sense</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> sense 可以是人的主观感觉。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a false sense of security 虚假的安全感。也可以是客观事物显示出的一种气氛或给人的印象。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... the intricate dark wood paneling that covered the walls gave it an instant sense of history. ……墙壁上一层精致的暗色嵌木细工，使得房间顿时显得古色古香。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 词组 make sense，如果主语是话语、看法、做法，意思是“合理，说得通，有道理”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was so drunk that what he spoke didn't make sense. 他烂醉如泥，语无伦次。/ This sentence doesn't make much sense. 这个句子不大通。/ I thought that what he said made a lot of sense. 我当时觉得，他的话很有道理。/ It makes sense to invest in gold. 投资黄金是有道理的。/ It makes no sense to hire more staff now. 现在再多招聘人员是没有道理的。/ It doesn't make economic sense. 这在经济上是不合算的。</div><br><br>以人作主语时，make sense 后面常接上 (out) of something，表示“弄清楚……的意思”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I can't make sense of this letter. 这封信是什么意思，我弄不明白。/ He would try to make some sense out of the new information. 他将要设法从新的情报中找出一点线索。</div><br><br>如果主语是人而 sense 后面没有 of something，则意思是“精神正常”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—I could be stupid, but you're making no sense. —I've never made more sense. —我也许愚笨，但是你现在有点发糊涂。—我从来没有这样清醒过。</div><br><br>
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sensual 与 sensuous
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>sensual 与 sensuous</b></div>两者都是指“感官的，官能的”。但是前者更多偏重肉体上的享受，尤其是色情，有贬义；后者则较多偏重精神上的审美享受，没有贬义。<br><br>
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serve
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>serve</b></div>用于“端上（食品或饮料）”的意义（第四类动词）时，如果只有直接宾语，这个直接宾语可以是享用食品或饮料的人，也可以是食品或饮料；如果有间接宾语，可以以食品或饮料为直接宾语，以人为间接宾语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>serve the soup cold 端上的汤是凉的</div><div class="ex-item">They served me a steak. 他们给我端上了牛排。值得注意的是：指人的间接宾语，可以变为主语，形成一种特殊的被动语态。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They were served their main course. 给他们端上了主菜。</div><br><br>
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session
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>session</b></div>最常见的词义是“会议”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a session of the U.N. General Assembly 联合国大会的一次会议。但是其实还有范围更广的词义。最笼统的词义，就是“在一段时间（通常短于一天）内进行的某项活动（这活动又是一系列同样活动中的一次）”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a training session 一次训练</div><div class="ex-item">a recording session 一次录音</div><div class="ex-item">an interrogatory session 一次过堂审问</div><div class="ex-item">a torturing session 一场刑讯拷问。甚至日常生活中偶尔会进行的活动，发生一次，也可以用 session。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Clothes were strewn everywhere, discards from a furious packing session. 收拾衣物装箱子是气冲冲地进行的，所以不要的衣物扔得满地都是。/ ... patients showed significant improvement after just six acupuncture sessions. (Clevel and Clinic Arthritis Advisor, October 2007) 病人经过区区六次针灸之后，病情就有了很大的改善。</div><br><br>
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setting
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>setting</b></div>参见 environment 条。<br><br>
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sewage, sewer 与 sewerage
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>sewage, sewer 与 sewerage</b></div>sewage 是阴沟的污水。sewer 是一条条的阴沟、下水道。sewerage 是多条污水管道组成的排污系统或是抽象的排污工作。<br><br>但是三者有时候在意义上有些交叉。sewage 有时候可以指“下水道”，sewerage 有时候也可以指污水。<br><br>要注意的是：动词 wash（“洗”）加上后缀 -er 成为 washer，可以是“洗衣机”，相当于 washing machine。但是 sewer 却有两种可能，一是来自自动词 sew（“缝纫”）加上后缀 -er，意思是“缝纫机；缝纫工”；另一种则不是来自任何动词，本身是一个名词，意思是“污水”。因此要说“缝纫机”，最好说 sewing machine。<br><br>
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shade 与 shadow
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>shade 与 shadow</b></div>shade 和 shadow 在词义上和用法上有一些差别。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> shade 作“阴影”解时，是不可数名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The trees provide shade (*shadow) for the animals in the summer. 树木在夏天给动物提供阴凉之地。the shade 可以指笼统的任何阴凉处。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's 100 degrees Fahrenheit in the shade. 阴凉处气温为 100 华氏度。</div><br><br>shadow 则是可数名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The trees cast long shadows across the road. 树木在路面上投下长长的影子。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 大体上 shade 着重“不被晒热或照亮”，而 shadow 则着重“阴影的形状”。因此，说 shade 时，可以不交代挡光的物体，说 shadow 时则通常需要交代是什么的 shadow。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We sat in the shade. 我们坐在阴凉处。/ ... it (= the garden) ... has neither arbor, nor alcove, nor other shade, except the shadow of the house. (William Cowper) ……花园里没有树木，没有凉亭，没有别的阴凉处，只有房子的阴影。即使交代挡光的物体，shade 变为可数名词，也还是着重“不受晒热或照亮”的意义，而不着重挡光物体的形状。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We sat down in the shade of the wall. 我们在墙壁挡住的阴凉处坐了下来。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> shade 给人的印象是正面的“大树底下好乘凉”，而 shadow 则令人想到“暗影”甚至“威胁”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>No shadow of suspicion fell on the authoress, though many other people were accused. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 虽然许多人为此受到指控，可是对真正的写信人谁也没有怀疑过。/ She stood obliquely in the shadows at the tunnel of ivy's other end. ... Charles paused before going into the dark-green shade beneath the ivy; ... (ibid.) 她站在常春藤通道另一端的阴影下，隐约可见。……查尔斯在走进常春藤昏暗的绿荫下之前，停住脚步；……</div><br><br>shadow 虽然有负面的含义，但有时候也可以带有略为正面的含义（“余荫”，当然这仍然带有“靠外力”的负面成分）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... he had spent his life living in the shadow of his father's wartime exploits ... ……他一辈子都是在他父亲战时功勋的余荫的庇护下度过的，……</div><br><br>
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shambles
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>shambles</b></div>shamble 如果没有 -s，是不及物动词（“蹒跚，踉踉跄跄地走路”）。<br><br>有 -s 的 shambles，是名词，但却是单数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Her performance was a shambles. 她的表演一塌糊涂。</div><br><br>
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shame
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>shame</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 这个名词的原意（作为不可数名词）是“耻辱，羞耻”，一般出现时也是这个意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He lowered his face in shame. 他羞耻得低下头来。/ Don't bring shame on the family. 别给家里丢人。/ She is a shame to her family's name. 她败坏了门风。/ This woman has brought shame upon us all, ... (Nathaniel Hawthorne, The Scarlet Letter) 这个女人丢了我们大家的脸，……</div><br><br>但是，如果以某个情况或行为为主语，shame 前面又加上不定冠词 a，意思就大为减弱，表示“可惜”，完全没有“可耻，丢人”的意思了。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>What a shame the pubs are closed. 多可惜，酒吧都关了门。/ It's a shame to waste all this food. 这些食品全都浪费掉太可惜了。/ What a shame to die so young! 年纪轻轻就这样死去，多可惜！/ The cake is ruined. What a shame! 蛋糕弄坏了。多可惜！/ It's a shame (that) you're sick. 可惜你生病了。/ It's a great shame you can't come. 很可惜你不能来。/ Terrible shame about her, isn't it? (Mary Higgins Clark, Nighttime Is My Time) 她死得太可惜了，是吧?</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> put somebody to shame 是“相比之下使（某人）望尘莫及或自愧不如”的意思（是表示延续状态的第一类动词，可以有一般现在时，这与 put 的瞬时体不同）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Your work puts me to shame. 您的工作，使我感到望尘莫及。</div><br><br>
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shape
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>shape</b></div>作为可数名词，本意是“形状，外形”。但是可以作为不可数名词指没有形状的、内部的状况，尤其是身体健康状况。<br><br>in shape 就是“健康状况良好”（静态的），但 shape 前面还可以加上一些形容词，进一步说明“健康状况十分好”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The key is to get your brain in good shape. 关键是要使脑子健全。/ For her age, she is in pretty good shape. 像她这样大的年纪，身体算是相当不错的了。/ He is in great shape for the tournament. 他身体状况很好，可以参加比赛。</div><br><br>可以用 into shape 来表示动态的“身体状况变好”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I ought to do something about getting into shape for this walking tour. 为了这次徒步旅行，我要设法把身体状况弄好。</div><br><br>in shape 的 shape 前面也可以加负面的形容词表示“健康状况不好”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The old man is in pretty bad shape. 那位老大爷身体很差。也可以用 out of shape 来表示“健康状况不好”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>One-third of U.S. kids are out of shape. 美国有三分之一的儿童身体不好。</div><br><br>
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share²
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>share²</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 说某人的 share (of something)，意思是按照比例某人应得到或应担负的数量。这个数量，可以是一个总量按比例分摊的一部分，但也可以根本没有分摊这回事，只不过是按某人的情况，根据别人已有的数量按比例估算。总量按比例分摊。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I've already paid my share. 我应该支付的那一部分我已经支付了。/ How much is my share of the bill? 账单上我的一份应该是多少?</div><div class="ex-item">She must take her share of the blame. 她应该承担她那一份的过错。没有总量分摊时，往往表示这样的比例已经够大了（而不是表示应该这么大）。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I've done my share of covering her up. 我替她打掩护，已经够意思的了。/ He's come in for his full share of criticism. 他也受够了批评了。</div><br><br>有时候 share 表示一种模糊的意义，指一个正常的或通常的抽象数量。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They've had their share of misfortune. 也够他们倒霉的了。/ I was flattered to learn thatmy article got its share of readers with questions and good wishes. 我很荣幸，我的那篇文章，有了相当大一批读者，而且他们还提出了一些问题，表示了祝愿。/ They always continue to grow sufficiently unlike afterwards to have their share of vexation, ... (Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice) 他们总是弄到后来距离越来越远，彼此厌烦，……（这里的 their share of vexation 指通常会在他们身上出现的那种程度的烦恼。）/ He was of indeterminate middle age and corpulent enough to suggest he indulged in his share of the seven deadly sins, particularly gluttony and sloth. 他约莫中年，身材肥胖，胖到令人觉得他大概深深沉迷于七宗罪，尤其是贪吃和懒惰。</div><br><br>share 后面接介词 in，表示“在……中起的部分作用”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She must have had a share in his downfall. 他的垮台，她一定起了点作用。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> more than one's share of 原意是“比自己应分得的份额多”，但也可以转义为标准不明确的泛泛的“过多”（中文“额外”的“额”也同样是不明确的）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We've had more than our share of rain this summer. 咱们这里今年夏天雨水格外多。/ They've had more than their share of attention. 他们受到的照顾已经够多了。/ He received more than his share of concerned looks. 他招来别人不放心的目光格外多。/ As the nation's third-largest manufacturing state, Ohio has suffered more than its share of regrowing pains. (U.S. News & World Report, June 7, 2004, p.38) 作为全国制造业的第三大州，俄亥俄尝到了过多的转型的阵痛。</div><br><br>如果前文交代清楚了，of ... 可以省去。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>All rich men make enemies, but he seems to have made more than his share. 凡是有钱人，都会树敌，不过他似乎树敌格外多。</div><br><br>
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share¹
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>share¹</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为及物动词（第一类或第四类动词均可），share 的用法和搭配，可以首先看它的直接宾语（宾语是具体事物时，share 除非是经常反复，多属第四类动词；宾语是抽象事物时，share 多属第一类动词）有没有已定的物主，情况分别如下：(a) 直接宾语有已定的物主（有 my、his 等物主代词），而且这个物主就是主语，意思就是主语（人）将直接宾语拿来同（with）他人分享（主语自己也参与分享）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Why don't you share your cookies with Jim? 你的曲奇饼就同吉姆分着吃吧。/ I'd like to share my feelings with you on this happy day. 在这欢庆的日子，我愿诸位同我一道庆祝。</div><br><br>情况同上，但是主语（人）拿出直接宾语（物）给他人分配，自己不参与分享。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He shared his property between his wife, daughter, and sister. 他把自己的财产拿出来分给妻子、女儿和妹妹。</div>(b) 直接宾语没有已定的物主（没有 my、his 等物主代词），由主语（人）同（with）他人分享或共用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I share an apartment with a classmate. 我和一个班同学合住一处公寓。/ He shared with his brother the small income from his father's estate. 他同弟弟分用靠父亲产业得来的小额收入。</div><br><br>也可以不是分享或共用，而是分担。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You can find out whether they are prepared to share the cost of the flowers with you. 你可以打听出他们是否准备同你一起分担鲜花的费用。</div><br><br>直接宾语没有 my、his 等物主代词，但其实属于主语所有，后面没有 with 引入，此时意思仍然是“拿出来”或“公布出来”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He declined to share any information about the plan. 他不肯透露该计划的任何情况。有时候直接宾语是主语所有的或主语得到的一个信息，此时 share 的词义已经转变为单纯的“说出来”或“公布出来”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... voters in the overwhelmingly white state had been reluctant to share their true, race-based reservations about Obama. (Boston Sunday Globe, Feb. 17, 2008, D1) ……这个以白人占绝大多数的州的选民本来基于种族对奥巴马其实抱有保留，只是不愿意说出来。share 某个信息，如果后面有 with somebody，其实就是“将某信息告诉某人”的意思（属第四类动词）。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I would like to share with you the results of your CT scan. 现在将您的 CT 扫描检查结果通知您。甚至没有 with somebody，光是 share，也可以有“告知别人”的意思。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Langdon decided not to share the pentacle's most astonishing property ... (Dan Brown, The Da Vinci Code) 兰登决定不说出五角星的那个最令人惊讶的属性……</div><div class="ex-item">Mr. Durbin spoke with reporters briefly after the White House gathering, but did not share what the president had said. 德尔宾先生在这次白宫会议后不久即同采访记者谈话，但他没有告知总统所说的话。（这里的 share 切不可误解为“分享；同意，赞同”。）</div>(c) 直接宾语有已定的物主（有 my、his 等物主代词或 of 短语），但是这个物主不是主语，反而是他人，由主语（人）来分享或分担（可以是第一类或第四类动词）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Won't you share my umbrella? 到我这把雨伞下一起避雨吧。/ I share your feelings. 我与你有同感。</div>(d) 直接宾语（具体或抽象事物）没有已定的物主，而是由主语（多人）共同分享、共有、共用或分担。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Let's share the expenses between us. 费用咱们分摊吧。/ They share the same ancestry. 他们同祖同宗。/ They share the credit for the discovery. 这次发现，功劳是他们共同的。/ Two Americans will share this year's Nobel Prize for Medicine. 今年的诺贝尔医学奖将由两个美国人共同获得。</div><br><br>这个意义和用法，可以转换为被动语气，原先的主语多用 between 或 among，较少用 by 引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Scarce water resources are shared between states who cannot trust each other. 稀缺的水资源，由一些彼此不能互相信任的国家共享。</div>(e) 直接宾语代表某个主张、心态，有已定的物主（有 my、his 等物主代词或 of 短语），但这个物主不是主语，而主语（人）则同样持有这种主张、心态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I share your hope that war may be avoided. 我同你一样希望战争能够避免。（you 不是主语，但却是 hope 的物主。）</div>(f) 直接宾语代表某个心态或倾向，但没有已定的物主，而是主语（多人）都有同样的心态或倾向。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I felt we both shared the same sense of loss, the same pain. 我当时觉得我们两人都同样感到失落，同样感到痛苦。</div>(g) share 的过去分词 shared 可以用作纯粹的形容词（“共有的，共同的”）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Shared religious rites united ancient Greek villages and regions. (National Geographic, July 2016, p. 115) 共同的宗教仪式，将古希腊的各个村落和地区彼此联系起来。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> share 作为不及物动词，后面用 in 引入宾语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The company is offering you the chance to share in its success. 公司现在向您提供机会，可以分享它的成功果实。此时主语是原先不占有宾语所指事物的人，现在从外界进入（“成功果实”不是已有的，而是公司正在争取并号召“您”加入后可能获得的），参与分享（如果没有 in，单独用 share 作为及物动词，则主语是原先占有宾语所指事物的人，让别人参与进来分享）。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We are delighted to serve as your Grandparent's Day hosts and hope you will advantage of this wonderful opportunity to share in (*share) your grandchild's Andover experience and meet fellow members of the Phillips Academy community. (Phillips Academy's invitation, March 2009) 我们很高兴能够接待您前来参加祖父母日，盼望您能利用这个大好机会体会一下您孙辈们在安多福的经历并且结识菲利普斯高中这个大集体的伙伴。</div><br><br>
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sheer
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>sheer</b></div>参见 alone 与 only 条之 (5)。<br><br>
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-ship
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>-ship</b></div>是英语中一个很有用的后缀。它表示：(1) 资格；身份；权利。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>membership 会员资格，会籍；党籍</div><div class="ex-item">lordship 爵士身份</div><div class="ex-item">partnership 伙伴关系</div><div class="ex-item">professorship 教授资格，教席。(2) 群体。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>membership 会员群体</div><div class="ex-item">readership 读者群。(3) 群体人数。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>increase in ridership (公共交通) 乘客的增加。(4) 风度；本领。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>statesmanship 政治家风度</div><div class="ex-item">marksmanship 射击术；枪法</div><div class="ex-item">craftsmanship 手艺，工艺。(5) 其他。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>scholarship 学术；奖学金。</div><br><br>少数形容词后置的名词，加 -ship 后缀时加在后面的形容词后。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was rewarded with the attorney generalship. (CNN, July 24, 2017) 作为酬答，他获得了司法部长之职。</div><br><br>
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shipment
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>shipment</b></div>英国是个岛国，又是靠航运贸易起家。shipment 是（运出或运人的）一批货物。载运工具过去大多用船只，所以用 ship 一词。尽管现在很大一部分已经使用载重汽车或飞机，ship 这个词仍然保存了下来。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... the resolution now says local authorities will cooperate in the inspection process, which covers shipments by land, air and sea. (The Associated Press, Oct. 14, 2006) ……该决议案现在规定将由各地当局协同实施检查，检查对象为陆海空运输货物。</div><br><br>
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shipping
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>shipping</b></div>指货物买卖的运出或运人，也指运费。同 shipment 一样，载运工具也是不一定用船只。<br><br>
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short
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>short</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> sell somebody short，是“小看”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>To call him a star of stage, screen, and television is to sell him short, since he is also the author of five books for children and one for adults. 称他为舞台、电影和电视明星，是小看了他，因为他还是五本儿童图书和一本成人图书的作者呢。/ —Who'd employ me at my age? —Don't sell yourself short! You're intelligent and you've got loads of experience. —我这一把年纪了，还有谁会雇用我呀? —别小看自己了。你又聪明，又经验丰富。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> come up short，可以是瞬时或延续的，主语是人时，意思是“遭遇挫折”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The plaintiff came up short in the ruling. 原告败诉了。/ Giants came up short. 巨人队打输了。/ Don't come up short in retirement. 别到退休时陷入困境。主语是事物时，意思是“不见效，没用”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Most of these drugs come up short. 这些药品大多是没效的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> fall short，参见 short of 条之 (5)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> short on 是“缺乏某物”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's not easy welcoming a new arrival (= a new baby). For a while, you'll be feeling a little short on sleep. And if you have other kids, they'll be feeling a little short on attention. 欢迎一个新生儿的来临，不是一件容易的事。你会有一阵感到睡眠不足。如果你另外还有孩子，他们又会感到他们获得的关怀有点不够。</div><br><br>
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short of
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>short of</b></div>英语中用得很多。基本意义是“差（什么或多少），缺（什么或多少）”。各种具体的意义和搭配用法有：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 不修饰任何名词，short of something 作状语成分，可以表示“在没有……的情况下；除了……之外”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Short of asking him outright, I don't know how you can find out. 除非开门见山问他，否则我真不知道你怎么能够查得出来。/ Short of climbing railing four metres high, there was no way into the garden from this road. 除非爬过四米高的栏杆，否则没有路可以从这条马路进入花园。/ Short of a miracle, ... the most that can be hoped for in politics is the establishment of a moderate government under the stable rule of law. 除非出现奇迹，……否则在政治上可以抱的最大希望，就是在稳定的法治下，建立一个温和的政府。也可以表示“只要不达到某种程度就行”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Ellipsis is a useful device that should be encouraged, short of ambiguity or conveying a misleading idea. 省略法是一种有用的手法，应该提倡，只要别流于含糊或是传达一种让人误解的意义。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作名词的后置定语，表示“除了……之外的……，只差……的……”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Options exist short of war. (USA Today, Mar. 18, 2003, headline) 还有不诉诸战争的办法。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> short of something 是“拥有的某物不足”（“某物”不定指）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We're short of time. 我们时间不够。/ They were short of staff. 他们人手不够。short of 也可以作宾语补足语。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Her father's illness left the family short of money. 由于她父亲患病，她一家都很缺钱。</div><br><br>有时候 short 可以恢复“短小的”的原意，同“短缺的”的转义合并在一起使用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was somewhat short of stature but certainly not of intellect. 他个子略矮，但智力可一点不差。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 也可以表示“（差多少）尚未达到（某一点）”（“某一点”要特指，差距放在 short 前，不用介词；动词的体可以是延续的，也可以是瞬时的。）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We're still a long way short of our target. 我们离目标还有很长一段距离。/ He stopped a hundred yards short of the building. 他走到离那栋建筑物 100 码远的地方就停了下来。/ She came up short of the emergency room and ended up giving birth in her car in the parking lot of the hospital. 她还没有来得及进入急诊室，就在医院停车场上在自己的车里分娩了。/ It was Saturday, a few minutes short of midnight. 那是星期六，离午夜还有几分钟。/ She was one step short of stardom. 她只差一步就可以成为明星了。short of 除了可以充当表语或状语之外，还可以充当宾语补足语。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The accord, the culmination of two years of difficult negotiation, still left the administration short of its goal. (The New York Times, Sept. 20, 2005, A6) 经过两年艰难谈判才达成了协议，但是（美国）政府仍然没有达到目标。</div><br><br>有时候 short of something 中的 of 可以略去。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We're short a napkin here. 这里缺了一块餐巾。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> short of + 某个程度或某个目标，是“还差一点没有达到”的意思。前面如果加上动词 stop，是“自己主动停住不做那到地步（点到即止）”（瞬时体）；前面如果加上动词 fall，则是“由于外部原因没有能够做到那个地步”（瞬时体或延续体均可）。如果连“差多少”也说出来，这个“差多少”就不用介词而直接放在 short 前面。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>(Pataki) also hinted strongly that he would seek reelection next year, but stopped short of committing to the race. 帕塔基还强烈地暗示他明年将谋求连任，但是他没有表示参加竞选。/ ... said Tuesday that it would work with the FDA to improve safety information for consumers, but stopped short of saying it would quickly adopt the proposal. (Los Angeles Times, Dec. 20, 2006) ……于星期二说，它将同食品及药物管理局合作，更好地向消费者提供安全信息，但是它没有表示会很快采取这个计划。/ He fell well short of meeting his military obligation. 他远远没有履行自己的兵役义务。/ The 56-34 vote (in the Senate) fell four short of the 60 needed ... (The WashingtonPost, Feb. 17, 2007) 56 票对 34 票的表决，还差 4 票，未能达到所需的 60 票……</div><div class="ex-item">2003 OZONE "HOLE" APPROACHES, BUT FALLS SHORT OF RECORD (NASA, Sept. 25, 2003) 2003 年的臭氧“洞”接近纪录水平，但仍未及纪录水平</div><div class="ex-item">The legislation received a majority vote but fell short of the two-thirds needed for passage ... (The New York Times, Nov. 14, 2006, C1) 法案得到了多数票支持，但仍达不到通过所需的三分之二……</div><div class="ex-item">Pinpointing a difference in genomes falls short of explaining the mystery of what it is to be human. (Time, Oct. 30, 2006, p. 8) 抓住基因谱的一个差别，仍然解释不了人类的形成是怎么一回事这个奥秘。</div><br><br>fall short 后面没有 of ... 也可以，意思是“没有达到目的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... but whose efforts to turn out conservative voters fell short against the tide this year. (The Associated Press, Nov. 8, 2006) ……但是今年他发动保守选民的努力未能力挽狂澜。</div><br><br>stop short of 属于瞬时体的第四类动词，本身是瞬时的，它后面的名词或是动名词在词义上也是瞬时的。fall short of 则本身的“体”取决于后面的名词或动名词的“体”，或则属于第一类动词，或则属于第四类动词。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> nothing short of something 是“负负得正”，强调“十足，分毫不差”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Nothing short of a miracle can save them now. 现在唯有奇迹才能救他们了。/ Nothing short of a full apology will satisfy him. 唯有诚心道歉他才会满意。nothing 也可以改为其他否定词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>That's not very far short of saying that I am stupid. 那几乎等于说我是大傻瓜。nothing 也可以改为准否定词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His escape was little short of a miracle. 他的逃脱，几乎是一个奇迹。后面也可以不是名词而是形容词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It would be nothing short of disastrous. 这将是地地道道的灾难。/ ... is little short of calamitous for Iraq. (The New York Times, June 9, 2006) ……这对于伊拉克来说，几乎是灾难性的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> be caught/taken short 可以有几个意义（瞬时或延续均可）。最具体的是临时急于解手但找不到厕所。经过转义，可以表示临时发现手头没有钱或钱不够。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm afraid I'm caught short. Could you lend me a few dollars? 恐怕我钱不够了。你能借我几美元吗?</div><div class="ex-item">We went to lunch and I was caught short and had to ask Tom to pay the bill. 我们去吃中饭，我没带钱，只好求汤姆付账。再进一步转义，表示陷于（瞬时）或处于（延续）缺乏某种东西的状态。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Car rental companies are caught short as demand for smaller vehicles soars. 租车公司因为对小型车辆的需求猛增而应付不过来。还可以更加抽象地表示“陷于被动”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Nevertheless, the Obama camp was caught short ... (E. J. Dionne, in The Daily Gazette, Aug. 6, 2008, A9) 不过，奥巴马阵营还是陷入了被动……</div><br><br>缺乏什么东西，可以用 of 引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Airlines were caught short of fuel because of oil workers' strike. 各家航空公司由于石油工人的罢工而缺乏燃料。/ They openly wondered whether the vegetable oil industry would be caught short of supply if ... 他们公开表示担心，如果……植物油工业的原料供应会不会告急。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> 还有一个不常见的简单的搭配，就是 be short + 数量，表示缺少多少。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The fact that the world is now short well over four million health-care workers, moreover, is all too often ignored. (Laurie Garrett, in Foreign Affairs, January/February 2007) 而且，全世界目前缺少 400 多万卫生工作人员，这个事实往往被忽视。</div><br><br>
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should
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>should</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 关于 should，中国人最容易接受的一个用法就是“应该，必须”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You should be studying. 你应该在学习。/ That is as it should be. 就是应该这个样子。/ I think I should point out that you may get criticism for these ideas. 我觉得我应该指出，你的这些想法可能要挨批评。</div><br><br>它的否定形式 should not 或 shouldn't 就是“不应该，不可以，不准”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Papers should not exceed ten pages. 论文不得超过 10 页。/ She shouldn't treat her friends like that. 她不应该这样对待自己的朋友。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> should have + pp. 意思是“本来应该（但却没有这样做）”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You should have thought of that before. 你本来事先就应该想到那件事。/ The train should have arrived 20 minutes ago. 火车本来应该 20 分钟前就到达的。/ Yesterday should have been the start of the soccer season. 昨天本来应该是足球季的开始。</div><br><br>should have + pp. 同 must have + pp. 的区别是：should have + pp. 表示“某事在过去本应发生但没有发生”，而 must have + pp. 则是现在对过去很可能发生了某事的推测。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Jane should have arrived by now; she must have missed the bus. 简本来现在应该到了；她一定是没有赶上公共汽车。</div><br><br>但是，should have + pp. 还有另外一个意义，就是对某一情状加以强调，此时就没有真正的“该做没做”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You should have seen the look on her face! 她那时候的一副脸色，真应该让你看看！不用 should have + pp.，单用 should 也可以表示这个意思。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You should hear the way she talks to me. 她跟我说话的那副神气，真应该让你看看。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> should 的一个中国人不大习惯的用法（主要在英式英语中），就是在表示“有必要”之类的意义的句子中，放在从句里面，表示什么事情的实现或发生有必要。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is essential that you should be present. 有您到场是很要紧的。/ It is important that somebody should talk to the police. 一定要有人同警察谈谈。/ Is it necessary that my uncle should be informed? 有没有必要让我的叔父也知道?</div><div class="ex-item">I'm anxious that nobody should be hurt. 我很希望没有谁受到伤害。/ It is his wish that the money should be given to charity. 他的愿望是把钱捐给慈善事业。</div><br><br>但是在美式英语中，则常常去掉 should，只剩下后面的动词不定式，就拿这个动词不定式当作虚拟式来使用。如 It's important that somebody talk to the police. Is it necessary that my uncle be informed? 值得注意的是：虽然英式英语用了 should，乍一看来似乎 should 也是表示“必须”，但其实这里 should 已经没有“必须”的意思，“必须”的意思是由主句来表达的。这一点，只要参照一下美式英语，就一清二楚。凡是主句中出现 necessary、important、essential 之类的形容词或者 decide、insist、suggest、propose、demand、request、desire、order 之类的动词，后面的 that 从句就要这样处理。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 既然 should 在中国人习惯的认知中常常带有“应该”的意思，一遇到没有 “应该”的意思也用 should，心理上就容易觉得别扭。这样的用法，源出于拉丁语的“虚拟式” (subjunctive mood)。凡是表示评价或情感时，用从句叙述引起这种评价或情感的某一事实，这个从句的谓语动词，按我们中国人的直觉理解，既然是事实，就应该用直陈式。但是，许多欧洲语言却不用直陈式而用虚拟式，英语在一定程度上也受此影响。在表示对某事实的看法或感想时，陈述该事实的从句在英语中就用虚拟式。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I regret that he should be so stubborn. 我很遗憾他竟然如此固执。/ I was shocked that she shouldn't have invited Stephen. 她竟然没有邀请斯蒂芬，我感到很惊愕。/ He felt infuriated that she should so carelessly risk his reputation. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 她这样莽撞，竟拿他的名声冒险，这叫他怒上心头。/ I'm sorry you should think I did it on purpose. 我很遗憾你竟然认为我这样做是故意的。/ Do you think it's normal that the child should be so tired? 你觉得孩子这样累是正常的吗?</div><div class="ex-item">It is strange that you should not know it. 很奇怪，你竟然不知道这件事。/ It is natural that he should get angry. 他生气是很自然的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> should 可以用在 if 从句中表示此事发生的可能性不大。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If you should run into Peter, tell him he owes me a letter. 你万一碰到彼得，告诉他，他还欠了我一封信呢。/ If complications should arise, they will almost always occur within the first week following the biopsy. 万一出现并发症，那几乎总是在活检后第一个星期内发生。/ What if this wicked maid and my rascal Sam should fall in love? (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 那个鬼丫头跟我那个坏东西萨姆即便是相爱了，那又有什么不好呢?</div>should 往往可以提到主语之前，同时省略掉 if。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Should you have an accident, synthetic quilts are quite easy to wash. 万一尿了床，化纤被子是很容易洗的。/ Tortoises are able to withdraw their head and limbs should danger threaten. 乌龟一遇到危险，就会把头和腿缩进去。这个作用，是 should 特有的，would 通常是不放在 if 从句中的，参见 would 条之 (8)。</div><br><br>
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shut 与 close
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>shut 与 close</b></div>参见 close 与 shut 条。<br><br>
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shy
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>shy</b></div>无论是指数量上差了多少未够，还是时间上还差多少未到，英文都可以说（若干）shy of ...。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... one vote shy of the two-thirds majority required for the passage of the law. ……差一票未能通过该法案所需的三分之二多数。/ ... still a few hundred dollars shy of our goal. ……仍然差几百美元才能达到我们的目标。/ My grandpa is a year shy of ninety. 我爷爷还差 1 岁就满 90 岁。/ He passed away at age 88, just three days shy of his birthday. 他 88 岁去世，离生日仅仅 3 天。</div><br><br>
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siege
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>siege</b></div>这个名词的意义是军事上的“包围”（指对城市或固定地点的包围；战场上对敌军的包围是 encirclement）。但是“处于包围之中”却用介词 under，即 under siege。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The town was under siege for six months. 该镇被围困了半年之久。state of siege 是“围城状态”，宣布 state of siege 就是宣布戒严。有些国家尽管没有敌军围城，甚至在和平时期，也可以宣布 state of siege，因为这个用语已经转义。</div><br><br>
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signature
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>signature</b></div>可以作为形容词，意思是“标志性的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Los Angeles' signature palm trees 洛杉矶那些标志性的棕榈树</div><div class="ex-item">New York's signature skyscrapers 纽约那些独特的摩天大楼</div><div class="ex-item">two of his signature domestic proposals 他的两大内政主张。</div><br><br>
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signature 与 autograph
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>signature 与 autograph</b></div>两者意义上有差别。signature 在中文中是“签字”的意思，有法律效力；autograph 则是纪念性的“签名”，例如追星族请明星签名留念，签名者并不承担任何法律责任。但是有时候签名留念也有用 signature 的。<br><br>
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sincerely 与 truly
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>sincerely 与 truly</b></div>在正式的信函中，如果称呼处的收信人有姓有名(例如 Dear Mr. Adam Smith 或 Dear Madam Mary Smith)，信末落款英式英语要说 Yours sincerely，美式英语说 Sincerely yours, 后面附上自己的姓名。而如果收信人是“无名氏”(例如 Dear Sir 或 Dear Madam)，英式英语要说 Yours faithfully，美式英语要说 Yours truly。<br><br>
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since³
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>since³</b></div>since除了作为时间主从连词表示“自从……”，还可以作为原因主从连词表示“由于……”。如何区别，主要要看主句和从句的动词时态，尤其是主句，如果不用现在完成时或过去完成时，since就是表示“由于……”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Since she has had a series of acne laser treatments to reduce the scarring and redness, she feels a lot better about herself. 由于进行过一系列的粉刺激光治疗来减轻疤痕和红斑，她现在的自我感觉好多了。这一句中主句没有用完成时，而且从句中没有用一般过去时，所以since的意思是“由于……”而不是“自从……”。</div><br><br>
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since¹
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>since¹</b></div>一般语法书上都说，since 作为连词时，从句通常用一般过去时，主句通常用现在完成时或过去完成时；作为介词时，谓语动词也是通常用现在完成时或过去完成时。这个原则是对的，但是有一些用法脱离了这个规定，而且这个规定本身也需要进一步具体分析。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> since 作为连词时，从句谓语动词用一般过去时，这个动词在大多数情况下是瞬时体的第四类动词，动作或事件的瞬时发生表明了 since 开始的时间点。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Ever since you arrived you've been causing trouble. 你到这里以来一直在惹麻烦。(arrived 是瞬时动词)</div><div class="ex-item">I have lost ten pounds since I started swimming. 我自从开始游泳以来体重已经减了 10 磅。(started 是瞬时动词) 但是这个动词也可以是表示某一时间点当时状态的静态动词（即本是无限的延续动词，但被时间点所限）。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I've worn glasses since I was six. 我从 6 岁时起就戴眼镜了。(was 本是个无限静态动词，但被 six 所限) 或者这个无限静态动词尽管没有一个准确的时间点管着，但它的有效期仍然有个范围而不是无限的。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I have known her since she was a child. 在她还小的时候，我就认识她。(was 本是个无限静态动词，但被 a child 限制了有效期)</div>since 作为介词时，它的宾语通常应该是个时间点（笼统含糊的时间段，例如 childhood，也是理解为时间点的）。for 则与之相反，它的宾语通常应该是个表示长度的时间段，而且这个时间段只有长度，在历史长河中没有一定的位置，可以放在这里，也可以放在那里。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We've been living here since 1974. 我们自从 1974 年起就住在这里。/ We've been living here for twenty years. 我们住在这里有 20 年了。</div><br><br>但是在有些场合，since 从句中可以不用一般过去时而用一般现在时（但动词不能是瞬时体的）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I have liked to listen to music since I can remember. 我从有记忆的时候起，就一直喜欢听音乐。其实这里的 since I can remember 是 since the time that I can remember，这里的 time 就是个过去的时间点，since 是个介词。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 从句的谓语动词，如果所表示的是一个过去开始一直延续至今的状态，就不能用一般过去时，而要用现在完成时，于是就形成主句和从句都用现在完成时的局面。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has learnt a lot since he has been here. 他自从到这里以来，学到了不少东西。(has been 是延续状态，不能改为 was，改了意义会大不相同，成了“自从他离开这里”)</div><div class="ex-item">I've known her since I've lived in this street. 我自从住在这条街上，就认识她了。(have lived 是延续状态，不能改为 lived，改了意义会大不相同，成了“自从我离开这条街”)</div><div class="ex-item">I've read three English novels since I've been ill. 我自从生病以来，已经看了 3 本英文小说。(生病延续到现在)</div>这里特别要指出，since 从句中的延续动词，用现在完成时，还是用一般过去时，意义差别很大。用现在完成时，since 所指的时间起点是这个延续动词所指的时间段开始之时。用一般过去时，since 所指的时间起点却是这个延续动词所指的时间段结束之时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There have been too many new ideas since I was active. 我退下来之后，已经有许多人提出新的主张了。(since I was active 指从 active 的时期结束之时算起)</div><div class="ex-item">It had been a long, long time since my mother was able to listen to my problems. (Ellen Goodman, in The Daily Gazette, Dec. 9, 2006, A9) 我母亲当时已经很久不能听我叙述我的问题了。(注意 since ... was ... 的否定意义) 但是如果整个时态坐标向过去移动一个单元，since 从句的谓语动词无论本来是一般过去时还是现在完成时，都无区别地同样转换为过去完成时（参见 had + pp. 条），此时要看这个动词究竟是延续的还是瞬时的。如果是瞬时的，这个动作或事件保持肯定（“自从发生某事以来”），如果是延续的，则这个延续状态是被否定因而是在某一时间点结束的（“自从某状态结束以来”）。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It had been years since he had spoken German and he discovered how rusty he had become. 他已经有许多年不讲德语了，他发现自己对德语已经多么的生疏。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 主句的谓语动词如果要表示经过过去某时的某事之后发生了变化而现在呈现的状态，也可以不用现在完成时而用一般现在时或现在进行时，不用过去完成时而用一般过去时或过去完成时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You're looking much better since your operation. 你自从动了手术，现在气色好多了。/ She doesn't come round to see us so much since her marriage. 她自从结了婚，就不那么常来看我们了。/ Things weren't going so well since Father's illness. 自从父亲害了病，光景就不那么好了。He hasn't read the newspapers since the elections. 与 He doesn't read the newspapers since the elections. 表示的客观内容相同，但是含意略有差别。前者是对迄今为止一段时间内的情况做一个概括（“自从选举以来，他就没有看过报纸”），后者则是介绍当前的习惯延续状态（“自从选举以来，他就不看报纸”）。</div><br><br>在以 since 开始的疑问句中，谓语动词如果是延续体的，也常常不用现在完成时而用一般现在时，这样的句子通常带有不以为然的口气，也不是真的要问“从何时起如此”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—The best cure for that is to gargle with salt water. —Since when are you a doctor? —治这个病最好的办法，是用盐水漱口。—你什么时候候当起医生来了?</div><div class="ex-item">Since when do you paint like that? 你这样画是怎么一回事? 但是有 since when 的句子中，也有仍然用现在完成时的。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Since when has it been acceptable to have civilians killed in pursuit of criminals? (MindaNews, Sept. 1, 2008) 从什么时候开始，追捕罪犯可以杀死平民了? 如果动词是瞬时体的，则用一般过去时。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Since when did Sony become pirate-friendly? 索尼公司是什么时候对盗版放任自流的?</div><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 主句如果表示已经过了多长时间，英式英语可以用一般现在时的 it's + 多长时间，美式英语则常用现在完成时的 it has been + 多长时间。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is/has been five years since the war ended. 战争已经结束 5 年了。而且美式英语在主句中往往使用一般现在时、现在进行时或一般过去时。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Since the accident I walk with a limp. 事故发生以来，我就一瘸一拐地走路。/ I'm feeling better since I had an operation. 我自从动手术以来，感觉舒服多了。/ I lost ten pounds since I started jogging. 自从开始慢跑，我体重减了 10 磅。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 很值得注意的是：如果从句动词（瞬时体动词）所表示的是不可能再重复发生的事，那么全句的意思可以从字面来理解，就像上面的 It is five years since the war ended. 中 the war ended 不可能重复发生。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's a week since he left. 他走了一个星期了。（走了的事不可能重复发生）/ It's been 62 years since Paul Voehringer was killed when his B-17 was shot down over Berlin. (The Daily Gazette, May 29, 2006, A1) 自保罗·沃克林格因他的 B-17 飞机在柏林上空被击落而阵亡以来，已经过去 62 年了。（该人的阵亡不可能重复发生）</div>但是，如果从句动词所表示的事情本身可以重复发生，此时全句的意思就可能是否定的“自从过去某时发生过此事以来，已经有多长时间没有再发生此事”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's years since the family got together. 一家人已经多年没有团聚了。（团聚可以重复发生）/ It has been a while since we saw her. 我们已经有一阵没有看见她了。（看见她可以重复发生）</div>如果是表示否定的意思，更多使用现在完成时或过去完成时代替一般过去时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How long since you've seen him? 你有多久没见他了?</div><div class="ex-item">It's been a while since we've seen you. What have you been up to? 有一阵没看见你啦。你干什么去了?</div><div class="ex-item">They didn't know how long it had been since he'd seen the inside of a church. 他们不知道他已经有多长时间没有进过教堂了。/ ... but this time, for some reason, we were a little awkward together, maybe because it had been several years since we had seen each other. (John Darnton, The Darwin Conspiracy) ……但是这一次，不知什么原因，我们在一起有点别扭，也许是因为彼此好几年没见面吧。/ It's been a long time since you've kissed your poor old mother good night. 你已经很久没有亲吻你可怜的老母亲祝她晚安了。/ It's been quite a few years since Paul and I have felt really close to our daughter. 保罗和我已经有好多年没有对我们的女儿真正产生亲切之情了。/ It had been so many years since they had been given choices of any kind. 他们已经多年没有得到任何做出选择的机会了。（注意表示否定或怀疑的 any）/ It had been a long time since he had dreamed sweet dreams. 他已经很长时间没有做美梦了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 还要注意的是：since（尤其是作为介词）有时在句中并不是引入修饰谓语动词的状语，而只是作某个名词的定语，尤其是有序数词或最高级修饰的名词。此时，谓语动词的时态和体貌就是“自由”的，不受 since 的影响。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He made his first public appearance since his father died on May 3rd. 他自从他父亲 5 月 3 日去世以来第一次公开露了面。(since 管 first，不管 made，因此 made 的时态是自由的)</div><div class="ex-item">The powerful earthquake flattened homes and hotels in central Indonesia early Saturday as people slept, killing more than 5,700 in the nation's worst disaster since the 2004 tsunami. 强烈的地震星期六早上夷平了印尼中部的住宅和旅馆，遇难者超过5,700人，这是自2004年发生海啸以来这个国家遇到的最严重的灾难。(since管worst，不管killing)</div><div class="ex-item">This is the lowest since the committee began compiling statistics on banks' non-performing loans in 1999. 这是自该委员会1999年开始编制银行不良贷款统计数据以来的最低水平。</div><div class="ex-item">It would be a second meeting between the two leaders since June 2000. 这将是2000年6月以来两位领导人之间的第二次会晤。</div><br><br>since作为介词，如果引入的是the time of + 某个历史上起作用的名人，此时表示其遗风或影响的句子，谓语动词也可以用一般现在时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Since the time of Bach, composers use all the scales. 继巴赫之后，现在的作曲家就都使用所有音阶了。</div><div class="ex-item">The painters use colors differently since the time of Cézanne. 自塞尚以来，画家们的用色手法就大不相同了。</div><br><br>since从句或since介词短语作某个不定代词的后置定语时，主句谓语动词的时态和体貌，也同样是自由的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... the UN Oil-for-Food Program, ... while it achieved its purpose, probably did more damage to the reputation of the UN and its secretary-general than anything since the withdrawal of the peacekeeping force from Sinai in 1967, ... (The New York Review of Books, Mar. 29, 2007, p. 35) ……联合国的石油换食品项目……虽然达到了目的，但是也许对联合国及其秘书长的名誉造成了自1967年维和部队撤出西奈半岛以来最严重的损害，……</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 另外值得注意的一点是：由since时间状语从句或since介词短语所修饰的主句，它的谓语动词通常是延续体的，表示自从since从句或since介词短语的事件或时间点以来，一直保持着这个延续的状态或动作。而且这个谓语动词通常要用完成时态(现在完成时或过去完成时)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I've known her since 1980. 我自从1980年起就认识她。</div><div class="ex-item">Ever since then, he has been feeling intense pain on the left side. 从那时起，他一直感到左侧剧痛。但是这个谓语动词在下列情况下也可以不是延续体的：</div>(a) 用瞬时体动词来表示某个过程或状态的开始，这就暗示了该过程或状态在延续中。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Since then, I have begun to use the computer. 从那时候起，我就开始用电脑。</div><div class="ex-item">Since then they had started producing their own seed and raising nurseries in the village itself. 从那时候起，他们开始培育自己的种子，在村子里办起苗圃。</div><div class="ex-item">Since last winter, they have begun delivering food supplies directly to the famine-stricken areas. 自去年冬天以来，他们开始直接向饥荒地区运送食品。</div>(b) 用瞬时体动词来表示发生了什么事，并暗示由此造成的新状态在延续着。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The building has been torn down since I left. 自从我离开，那栋建筑物就被拆掉了。(目前处于不存在的状态)</div><div class="ex-item">Since then, we have learned Mars is still a candidate and maybe the best, but it is not the only candidate by any means. 从那时候起，我们就知道了，火星仍然是个供选择的对象，而且也许是条件最好的，但绝不是唯一的选择对象。(learn是瞬时动词，但learn了之后就留下know的延续状态)</div><div class="ex-item">Since then hehas become one of the oldest serving state legislative leaders in the country. 自从那时候起，他就成了全国在位时间最长的州立法领导人之一。(become之后留下的状态延续至今)</div><div class="ex-item">Since Barack Obama emerged as a serious challenger to Hillary Clinton for the Democratic presidential nomination, the primaries have become, in part, a referendum on ... (Boston Sunday Globe, Feb. 17, 2008, D1) 自从奥巴马崛起，成为同希拉里争夺民主党总统候选人提名的强劲对手以来，各州的初选有点像是一次公民投票…… (become是重复多次的，还没有结束，而且留下延续状态) 但是，如果瞬时事件是孤立的，没有产生后果，或者说话时并不考虑到产生的后果，这个瞬时动词就不宜同since并用，例如最好不要说 *I have visited the Louvre since you left. 但是如果有“总计”的意思，就可以说 I have visited the Louvre three times since you left. (自从你走后，我参观过卢浮宫三次。)</div>(c) 瞬时动词被否定，形成了一个没有发生某事的时间段。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has never come back since he left. 他自从走后，就没有回来过。</div><br><br>有时候否定词not可以提前到句首，在since之前，主句的主谓次序要颠倒，否定作用不影响到since，而是否定主句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Not since Alzheimer's disease was discovered in 1906 has there been a more crucial year than 2007 in our efforts against this mind-killer. 自从阿尔茨海默病1906年被发现以来，我们和这个心智杀手的斗争，没有哪一年比2007年更加关键。</div><br><br>since后也可以不是句子而是名词成分。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But not since Franklin Roosevelt's administration has U.S. foreign policy witnessed debate this fundamental. (The New York Times, Jan. 21, 2017) 自从罗斯福政府执政以来，美国的对外政策从未经历过如此根本性的辩论。</div>(d) 瞬时动词反复多次造成数量上的积累合计(其实是一个时间段范围内的合计)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Since the beginning of the campaign, they have raised two million dollars. 自从筹款运动开始以来，他们已经筹到了200万美元。</div><div class="ex-item">Since then, we have taught English to millions of students from over 140 countries. 从那时起，我们就向超过140个国家的数以百万计的学员教授英语。</div>(e) 过程有终点的动词(第三类动词)用了进行时态失去终点，也形成一个时间段。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I've been writing letters since breakfast. 从早餐时起我一直在写信。</div><br><br>
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since 与 from
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>since 与 from</b></div>两个介词都是表示“从何时起”，有时可以换用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She's been like thatfrom/since her childhood. 她从小时候起就是这个样子。</div><div class="ex-item">From/Since the moment they were married, they've quarrelled. 他们从结婚时起就一直吵架。但是since使用时，一定要是到了后来的某个时间点就止住，从这个后来的时间点向since那个开始的时间点回顾。from则只是简单地交代一个时间起点，后来并不止住回顾，而是“义无反顾”地走下去。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'll be here from (<i>since) three o'clock onwards. 我从3点钟起会在这里。(没有将来某时间点对3点钟的回顾)</div><div class="ex-item">I work from (</i>since) nine to five. 我上午9点到下午5点上班。(虽然有5点，但不是对9点的回顾)</div><div class="ex-item">Offices, factories, shops ... will also be Smoke Free zones from (*since) July 1. (International Podcast, Dec. 28, 2007) 办公室、工厂、商店……，自7月1日起将被列为无烟区。since要求谓语动词必须是现在完成时或者过去完成时(例外参见since³条之(3)与(4))，from则没有限制。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>From that day on, Trudy became a regular part of Francie's life. (Michael Christopher Mahan, An Internal Affair) 从那一天起，特鲁迪就成了弗兰西生活中的一部分。</div><br><br>用了since，无论是作为连词还是介词，主句的谓语动词必须是延续体(瞬时体需要反复动作)，还需要用完成时态。而用了from，尽管主句的谓语动词也必须用延续体，但是时态却不必用完成时态，可以用一般时态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>From a very early age the children were allowed to take books from the library quite freely. 孩子们从小时候开始，就可以十分自由地从图书馆借书。</div><br><br>
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sin 与 crime
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>sin 与 crime</b></div>在中文中都是“罪”，但 sin 指的是道德上、宗教上的罪，或罪孽；crime 则是法律上的犯罪。基督教的“罪人”是 sinner 而非 criminal。<br><br>
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sit
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>sit</b></div>这个动词，除了多个转义，最中心的意义“坐”，主要是不及物的，次要是及物的。两者都可以有延续状态或动作(第一类或第二类动词)和瞬时动作(第四类动词)两种体貌。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 比较常用的是延续状态或动作，但是在动词时态用法上又分为两种情况：(a) 从过程外部看的，概括性的，虽然是延续状态但不是注意力所在的，用一般现在时或一般过去时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There was nowhere to sit. 没处好坐。</div><div class="ex-item">That's where the boss sits. 那是老板坐的地方。</div><div class="ex-item">He sat in front of the television all day. 他整天坐在电视机前。</div><div class="ex-item">When you stand, they stand; when you sit, they sit. 你站他们站；你坐他们坐。</div><div class="ex-item">They sat over the meal for hours. 他们坐在那里吃饭，一坐就坐了好几个钟头。</div><div class="ex-item">She found it hard to sit still. 她觉得很难安坐在那里。</div><div class="ex-item">Don't just sit there; do something. 别光坐在那里；干点事情吧。</div><div class="ex-item">I've to sit at home while she's out enjoying herself. 她在外面开心，我倒是耍待在家里。(这里的sit不一定真的是“坐”，只是“停留”的意思，所以不说 *be sitting)。</div><br><br>sit的一些转义，也避免用进行时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The curry sat heavily on her stomach. 咖喱吃进去后，她感到胃不舒服。</div><div class="ex-item">His crime sat heavy on his conscience. 他犯了罪，良心一直不安。</div>(b) 从过程内部看的，在具体场合当中着重当时的延续状态的，用现在进行时或过去进行时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She was sitting on the edge of the bed. 她坐在床沿上。主语也可以是物品。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Your keys are sitting right in front of you. 你的钥匙就在你面前。如果强调延续的“拖拉”，当然也要用现在分词形式。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's no good sitting and waiting for success to come. 坐待成功到来是不行的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> sit也可以表示瞬时的“坐下”动作。通常后面加上副词down，但是如果不强调“从高到低”的变化，只是“就座”，也可以不用down。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Come and sit beside me. 来，坐我身边。</div><div class="ex-item">The boy sat on my knee. 男孩坐在我膝盖上。</div><div class="ex-item">A strange women came and sat next to her. 一个陌生的女人来了，坐到她的身边。</div><div class="ex-item">He set the cases against a wall and sat on them. 他把箱子放在墙边，坐到上面。</div><br><br>sit down一定是个瞬时动作，但是sit up可以是瞬时动作(从躺卧的姿势坐起来)，也可以是延续状态(一直坐着不躺下)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Sit up and drink this. 坐起来，把这个喝掉。(瞬时)</div><div class="ex-item">Her head spins dizzily as she sits up. 她坐起来的时候头晕。(瞬时)</div><div class="ex-item">I'll sit up with her until her fever passes. 我要一直坐着陪她，直到她退烧。(延续)</div><div class="ex-item">We sat up drinking and talking all night. 我们一夜没睡，喝酒聊天。(延续)</div><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> sit作为及物动词，如果主语是人，由于必须是个动作，所以只能是瞬时的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They sat me next to Julia. 他们把我安排在朱丽亚旁边坐下。</div><br><br>但是如果主语不是人，sit转义为“能容(多少人)坐下”，那就是延续状态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The auditorium sits a hundred people. 礼堂能坐100人。</div><div class="ex-item">The table sits eight people. 餐桌能坐8个人。</div><div class="ex-item">The back seat sits three comfortably. 后排坐3个人还挺宽松的。</div><br><br>
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skeptical
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>skeptical</b></div>这是美式英语的拼法，英式英语拼作sceptical。意思是“持怀疑态度的”。对什么持怀疑态度，用about或of引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Many were skeptical about this solution. 许多人对这个解决办法持怀疑态度。</div><div class="ex-item">The Senate is more skeptical of such a measure. 参议院对这项措施持更为怀疑的态度。也可以用that从句引入受到怀疑(即不相信，有否定意义)的事。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But the tests always had critics who were skeptical that intelligence was fixed or even measurable. (U. S. News & World Report, Nov. 11, 2002, p. 53)但是这些考试总是引起一些人的批评，他们不相信人的智力是固定的，或者甚至是可以测量的。</div><div class="ex-item">Manned-flight critics are even skeptical that space repairmen are a real necessity. (Newsweek, Feb. 10, 1986)对载人飞行持批评态度者，甚至怀疑空间修理人员是否有真的有必要存在。</div><br><br>
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skinny envelope
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>skinny envelope</b></div>参见fat envelope条。<br><br>
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sky 与 heaven
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>sky 与 heaven</b></div>sky是真正的“天空”；heaven则主要指想象中的“天堂，天国”。但是复数的heavens也偶尔可以指真正的“天空”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the brightest star in the heavens 天上最亮的星星</div><div class="ex-item">stink to high heavens 臭气熏天</div><div class="ex-item">The heavens opened. 天上下起滂沱大雨了。</div><br><br>
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sleep
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>sleep</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 这是个延续性的状态动词，不是上床去睡觉的那一瞬时的动作(go to bed)，也不是从清醒到入睡的那一瞬时的变化(fall asleep或get to sleep)。这是中国人容易混淆的概念。sleep late不是“很晚才睡下来”，而是“睡到很晚才起床”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>People who stay up late and sleep late are prone to insomnia. 晚睡迟起者，易患失眠。但sleep late有时候也可以理解为“很晚才睡觉”。17世纪英国悲剧《女先知》(The Prophetess)第一幕第三场中，士兵抱怨女先知预言他会飞黄腾达，说：Why do you fool me thus, and make me follow</div><div class="ex-item">Your flattering expectation hour by hour?</div><div class="ex-item">Rise early, and sleep late? (你为什么这样愚弄我，使我时刻依照你那诱人的预言办事，早起迟眠？)</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 但是fall asleep同get to sleep尽管都是瞬时动词，却又有其不同。fall asleep是不受本人意志所左右、由于自然困倦精神不支而“睡着了”，get to sleep则是“本人有意达到了入睡的目的”(如“孤灯挑尽未成眠”中的“成眠”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She had difficulty getting to sleep (<i>falling asleep) that night. When she finally did fall asleep (</i>get to sleep), her dreams were a wild kaleidoscope of fires and automobile accidents and shootings. (Sidney Sheldon, The Sky Is Falling)当夜她辗转反侧难以入睡。好不容易才入睡后，她梦中看见的是像万花筒似的一幕幕火灾、车祸和枪击事件的场景。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> sleep是个不及物动词，但是一张床如果有人睡过，可以采用sleep in，变换为被动式。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Mama would notice if his bed had not been slept in. (Mary Higgins Clark, I'll Be Seeing You)他的床有没有人睡过，妈妈会看出来的。</div><br><br>
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slot
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>slot</b></div>第一个意义是“缝隙”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>put a coin in the slot 往投币口投进一枚硬币。</div><br><br>第二个意义是“名额”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Since Brown has only 1,400 slots as compared to Harvard's 2,110 ... 因为布朗大学只有1,400个名额，而哈佛则有2,110个……</div><div class="ex-item">... up to 60% of slots at selective colleges go to candidates who have some sort of "hook" ... (Richard D. Kahlenberg, The Century Foundation) ……严格挑选生源的大学，其名额有多达60%是给予有某种“来头”的报考生的……</div><br><br>
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small print
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>small print</b></div>参见fine print条。<br><br>
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small 与 little
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>small 与 little</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 首先，就单独的词义来看，如果指人，small着重其个子的小，而little则着重其年纪的轻。试比较：She is a small girl. 与 She is a little girl.<br><span class="seq">(2)</span> little (可以是形容词，也可以是副词)没有正常的比较级和最高级(只在特殊的小情况下可以有，参见little条)。small则是同其他正常的形容词一样可以有比较级和最高级。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This box is smaller than that one. 这个盒子比那个小。</div><div class="ex-item">This one is the smallest of the five. 这是五个当中最小的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> a little后面修饰可数或不可数名词时，用法有所不同：修饰可数名词时表示某具体事物形状之“小”(如a little house)；修饰不可数名词则表示某物质或性质之“稀少”(如a little courage)。而a small后面则只能修饰可数名词(如a small desk)，不能修饰不可数名词(如 <i>a small courage)。例如莫扎特有名的《弦乐小夜曲》(德文名“Eine Kleine Nachtmusik”)译成英文是“A Little Night Music”而不是 “</i>A Small Night Music”，因为music不是可数名词。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 如果去掉a，只用small，则可以作不可数名词的前置定语，同little一样有准否定的意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The government had small cause for optimism. 政府没有多少乐观的根据。</div><div class="ex-item">They have small hope of succeeding. 他们没有多大成功的希望。最常见的是small wonder。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I was always terrible at math in school, so it's small wonder that I have such trouble filing my taxes. 我念书时数学糟糕得很，怪不得我报税时这样狼狈不堪。</div><div class="ex-item">Small wonder you had such trouble starting the car: the battery is almost completely dead! 怪不得你发动车子这样困难了：电池几乎是空的！但偶尔也有人将wonder当作可数名词，在small前加上a，意义仍然不变。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Considering the massive legal team they can afford to hire, it's a small wonder that few people are able to successfully sue the corporation for its questionable practices. 既然他们有钱雇得起这个庞大的律师团，那就怪不得很少有人能够控告这家公司的不轨行为并且胜诉。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> small beer 与 small potatoes 虽然是具体物质或复数名词，但仍然作为不可数名词处理，意思都是“无足轻重”(美国多用small potatoes)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>For him $2,000 is small potatoes. 对他来说，2,000美元无足挂齿。</div><div class="ex-item">We're small beer in the eyes of the bosses. 我们在老板们眼里一文不值。</div><br><br>
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smell
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>smell</b></div>可以表示“用自己的嗅觉去嗅”(第二类动词)或“通过嗅觉发现”(第四类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She picked up the soap and smelled it for a while. 她拿起了香皂，闻了一会儿。(第二类动词)</div><div class="ex-item">Sharks can smell blood in the water at a distance of many miles. 鲨鱼远在好几英里之外，就能够嗅出水里血的气味。(第四类动词)也可以表示“发出某种气味”(第一类动词)。作为第二类动词，是个动态动词，可以用副词来修饰；而作为第一类动词，则是个系动词，后面要求有表语(通常是形容词)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My dog smells badly. 我的狗的嗅觉出了毛病。</div><div class="ex-item">My dog smells bad. 我的狗身上发出了臭味。类似的情况，还可以参见feel条、look条等。</div><br><br>
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so
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>so</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> so往往用来代替前面说过的形容词或过去分词，避免重复。此时要注意so究竟代替什么。如 There (in Paris) his tarnished virginity was soon blackened out of recognition; but so, as his father had hoped, was his intended marriage with the Church. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman)国内有译本译为“谁知到巴黎后，他童贞顿失，在这条路上就愈走愈远。同时，正如他父亲所希望的那样，他有意识地密切注意宗教问题”。这里最后半句译文同原意恰恰相反，原因是对so理解错了。这里so是呼应前半句blackened out of recognition的。查尔斯在伦敦治游，童贞被玷污(tarnished virginity)，转而打算投身传教事业，但是他父亲并不愿意他当牧师，就打发他到巴黎去。到了巴黎，原先已经被玷污的童贞，更加变成黑墨一片(blackened)，而目全非(out of recognition)。但是另一方面，他父亲不让他当牧师的目的达到了(as his father had hoped)，他原先献身教会的打算(his intended marriage with the Church)也这样(so)了，这个so就是blackened out of recognition的一次重复。原译文误解了so代表什么，译成了恰恰相反的“他有意识地密切注意宗教问题”。可见遇到代表性的so、this、that、it、he、she、they之类，要特别注意代表什么，否则会失之毫厘，谬以千里。这一句试译：“到了那里，他那本来已经玷污了的童贞，更加一片乌黑，变得面目全非；不过，正如他父亲所望，他原先献身教会的意愿也同样烟消云散了。”<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 英语有 so ... that ... 的呼应句型，表示“程度到了如此之地步，以至于如何如何”。这里so属于主句，that引入结果从句。但是这样的句型也可以转换为 ... , so ... , 也就是把that从句变为主句(that当然去掉)，so从副词变为引入从句的主从连词(从句主谓语颠倒)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Hardly anything has been built since the early 1990s, so stagnant is the economy. (= The economy is so stagnant that hardly anything has been built since the early 1990s.) (The Economist, Nov. 3, 2007, p. 52)由于经济停滞，自20世纪90年代初以来，没有多少新的建设。</div><div class="ex-item">I can remember him standing every day with his nose pressed to the window, so positive was he that his mother would come back. (Mary Higgins Clark, I'll Be Seeing You)我还记得，他每天鼻子顶着玻璃窗站着，一心相信他母亲会回来。</div><div class="ex-item">(Sarah) sometimes went solitary to sleep, only to wake in the dawn to find the girl beside her—so meekly gently did Millie, at some intolerable midnight hour, slip into her place. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman)有时，莎拉一个人睡觉了，但黎明醒来时却发现米莉睡在她的身旁。有时候，米莉在半夜里觉得难以入睡，就怯生生地、轻手轻脚地钻到莎拉的被窝里。</div><br><br>so作为连接状语放在句首时，句子词序不变；但如果作为表语放在句首时，句子的主语与谓语要颠倒。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>When the sinuses are inflamed, so is the brain. (U.S. News & World Report, Nov. 4, 2002, p. 54) 鼻窦炎发生时，大脑也会发炎。</div><br><br>
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soccer 与 football
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>soccer 与 football</b></div>参见football 与 soccer条。<br><br>
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social
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>social</b></div>这个形容词有多方面的意义：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 涉及整个社会的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>social structure 社会结构</div><div class="ex-item">social change 社会变革。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 在社会上的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>social background 社会背景</div><div class="ex-item">social class 社会阶级</div><div class="ex-item">social status 社会地位</div><div class="ex-item">In Spain, accent reveals regional variations, not social. 而在西班牙，口音所展现的是地区性的差异，而不是社会地位的差异。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 社交的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>social event 社交集会</div><div class="ex-item">social contact 社交来往</div><div class="ex-item">social skills 社交本领</div><div class="ex-item">social dance 社交舞会。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 社会福利方面的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>social security 社会保障(注意：public security则是“公安”，与福利无关)</div><div class="ex-item">social services 社会福利事业。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 社会主义的，带“社会主义”色彩或是挂“社会主义”招牌的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>social democrat 社会民主党人</div><div class="ex-item">social chauvinism 社会沙文主义</div><div class="ex-item">social imperialism 社会帝国主义。</div><br><br>
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society
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>society</b></div>作笼统的“社会”解，不带冠词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a danger to society 社会隐患</div><div class="ex-item">women's place in society 妇女的社会地位</div><div class="ex-item">One beacon of sanity is all society needs. 一座清醒的灯塔，就是社会所需的一切。</div><div class="ex-item">Americans are increasingly alienated from society and from each other. 美国人越来越脱离社会并且互相脱离。</div><br><br>但是如果前面加上形容词呢？就要看加上哪一类的形容词。原则上，加了任何形容词，就要按照情况加上定冠词the或是不定冠词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a pluralistic society 一个多元的社会</div><div class="ex-item">the consumer society 消费社会。但是，如果加了形容词后，整个概念是人们熟悉的，就可以仍然不加冠词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Western society 西方社会</div><div class="ex-item">ancient society 古代社会</div><div class="ex-item">human society 人类社会</div><div class="ex-item">modern society 现代社会。以国家或民族为形容词的，可以加上也可以不加上the，如Chinese society 与 the Chinese society均可。马克思主义的社会发展史中几个阶段的社会，可能由于有创新性，通常都要加上冠词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the capitalist society 资本主义社会</div><div class="ex-item">the socialist society 社会主义社会。</div><br><br>
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sofa
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>sofa</b></div>中文的译音“沙发”，意义同sofa已经有了些不同。sofa专指长的、不止一个人坐的。中文的“沙发”则指一切软而有弹性的座椅，不问长短。<br><br>
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so far
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>so far</b></div>表示“迄今为止”，通常表示的是“一直到说话时原状都保持不变”，与until now (到现在就变了)不同。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In their scientific ignorance, they had so far failed to grasp these commercial possibilities. 他们由于在科学上无知，迄今为止未能抓住这些商业上的机会。</div><div class="ex-item">The food I've had so far is pretty miserable. 迄今为止我吃的食品都很糟糕。</div><div class="ex-item">He had been exceptionally fortunate so far, there was no need to tempt fortune any further. 他迄今为止运气一直格外好；没有必要再进一步碰运气了。</div><div class="ex-item">So far, FDA permission to sell the drug as a prescription product had not been given. 迄今为止，食品及药物管理局一直没有允许这种药品作为处方药出售。</div><div class="ex-item">So far, however, empowerment has not come easy. (Newsweek, Nov. 7, 2005, p. 63)迄今为止，支持南非黑人自建庄园的工作，进行得并不容易。参见until条。</div><br><br>
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soft
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>soft</b></div>这个形容词除了有词典上的各个词义外，还可以表示“(生意)清淡的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>(Retailers) are nervously hoping that last-minute shopping and huge discounts on prices will help them recover from a soft December. (The Daily Gazette, Dec. 20, 2008, A1)(零售商们)紧张地盼望，也许靠着顾客最后时刻的购物以及货物大打折扣，他们能从12月的淡市中获得转机。</div><br><br>
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soldier
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>soldier</b></div>通常的意义是“士兵”，与军官相对。但是soldier还带有一种崇高的、勇敢的意义，在这个意义上，所有军人，甚至将帅，都可以叫作soldier。与之相比，military man只是指一个人的职业，没有soldier的那种崇高的含义。称某将帅为“伟大的军人”时，英语不应说 *a great military man，而应说 a great soldier。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... British Gen. Alan Brooke, chief of the Imperial General Staff and perhaps the greatest soldier of the war. (U.S. News & World Report, Oct. 28, 2002, p. 47) ……英国的阿兰·布鲁克将军，他是帝国参谋总部的参谋长，而且也许是这场战争中最了不起的军人。</div><div class="ex-item">Instead, the 52-year-old soldier was sent to Scotland to command an army that didn't exist. (U.S. News & World Report, Aug. 26, 2002, p. 42)这位52岁的军人却被派到苏格兰去指挥一个并不存在的军队。</div><div class="ex-item">But Americans liked "Ike," the old soldier, ... (U.S. News & World Report, Mar. 17, p. 28)但是，美国人却喜欢老帅“艾克”，……</div><div class="ex-item">I do not speak of that greatness which is achieved by the fortunate politician or the successful soldier; ... (Somerset Maugham, The Moon and Sixpence)我所讲的了不起，并不是某个走运的政客或是战绩彪炳的军人那种了不起；……</div><br><br>
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sole 与 only
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>sole 与 only</b></div>两者作为形容词，意义大体相同。但是only的“排他”性较强，否定其他同类事物在这个场合的存在，sole则“内向”意义较强，强调本身的“专门、特地”性质。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... a group, Choose Responsibility, whose sole aim is lowering the drinking age from 21 to 18 years old. (U.S. News & World Report, Sept. 15-22, 2008, p. 10) ……有个叫作“责任自选”的团体，它唯一的目标，就是把饮酒年龄从21岁降低到18岁。(这里用sole，表示该团体全力以赴的目标；如果改为only，意思就略有变动，可能令人觉得这个团体很自我克制，是“只追求区区这个目标而已，没有别的目标，并不好高骛远”。)至于说“独家代理”，也应该说 the sole representative 而不能说 <i>the only representative，因为所着重的仍然是本身的特性，而不是排外的否定。“独项奖获得者”是 the sole prize winner 而不能说 </i>the only prize winner，因为只设一项奖，这是奖本身的特性，并不排外地强调“再也没有别的奖”。参见alone 与 only条之(4)。</div><br><br>
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solitude 与 loneliness
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>solitude 与 loneliness</b></div>solitude 与 loneliness 意义十分相近，但是有细微的区别。solitude 着重客观上、物质上、肉体上的“单独”，loneliness则涉及主观上、精神上、感觉上的“孤寂”。由此solitude这个客观环境，对于人的主观心理，可以产生正面(“结庐在人境，而无车马喧，问君何能尔，心远地自偏”)或负面(“茕茕孑立，形影相吊”或“独自莫凭栏，无限江山”)的两种相反意义；而loneliness则没有正面的意义，只有负面的一种意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>in the solitude of his room 独自在他自己房间里(正面负面均可)</div><div class="ex-item">He went to live in the solitude of the village. 他隐退到村子里独自居住。(正面负面均可)</div><div class="ex-item">When my lunch was delivered, I closed the door to the office and ate by myself, enjoying the solitude (*loneliness). 午饭送到办公室，我就关上大门，一个人吃，享受一下安宁。(客观产生正面的主观效果)</div><div class="ex-item">She couldn't stand the solitude. 她过不了孤寂的日子。(客观产生负面的主观效果)</div><div class="ex-item">This man in his wild solitude, forced to live only with himself, almost forgets the common language of men. (Havelock Ellis)这个独自在野外(守望灯塔)的人，不得不自己与自己相伴，几乎都忘掉了人类的共同语言。(客观产生负面的主观效果)</div><div class="ex-item">She ... past the South Pole and onward to the coastal ice shelf, persevering for 59 days in near-total solitude. 她……越过南极，去往岸边的冰崖，59天处于几乎完全孤独一人的状态。(客观状态，不正不负)</div><div class="ex-item">I am not to go to the sea. Very well, I don't go to the sea. I wish for solitude. That is all. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman)不允许我到海边，我就不去呗。我要清静，如此而已。</div><div class="ex-item">Elderly people complain of loneliness. 老人埋怨太寂寞。(主观感觉)</div><div class="ex-item">She was filled with a deep sense of loneliness at her father's departure ... 她对父亲的离去，心中充满了深深的失落感……(主观感觉)</div>1982年诺贝尔文学奖得主、哥伦比亚作家加西亚·马尔克斯(Gabriel García Márquez, 1927—2014)的代表作《百年孤独》，西班牙文原文书名是 Cien Años de Soledad，其中 soledad 兼有英文 solitude 和 loneliness 两方面的意义，而全书的内容，很难一笔断定这个词的内涵，所以英译文采用了比较稳妥的 solitude 而没有用 loneliness (英文书名是 One Hundred Years of Solitude)，而中文的“孤独”却是接近于 loneliness。<br><br>
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so long as
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>so long as</b></div>参见as long as 与 so long as 条。<br><br>
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solution
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>solution</b></div>作为“解决问题的行动”或“问题被解决的事件”，solution后面用of引入问题。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>software for the solution of linear algebra problems 解决线性代数问题的软件</div><div class="ex-item">Because the solution of large and complex problems must cope with tight timing schedules, ... 由于解决庞大而复杂的问题就要涉及严格的时间表，……</div><br><br>但是作为“解决问题的办法或方案”，后面用to引入问题。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The Radio Frequency Identification system might be a solution to rush hour headaches. 电波频率识别系统可能是解决交通高峰时刻这一头痛问题的一个办法。</div><div class="ex-item">They're trying to find a solution to the crisis. 他们在设法为危机找出一个解决办法。</div><div class="ex-item">Solution to Greenhouse Gases Is New Nuclear Plants, Bush Says. (The New York Times, May 25, 2006, headline)布什称解决温室气体的办法是兴建新的核电站。</div><br><br>与此相类似，名词cure如果表示“治愈”的行动或事件，后面用of引入问题；如果表示“治愈”的方法、疗法或药物，后面用to或for引入病症。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>effect apermanent cure of cancer 彻底治愈癌症</div><div class="ex-item">a cure to/for cancer 治愈癌症的办法。</div><br><br>
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someplace 与 some place
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>someplace 与 some place</b></div>参见sometime, sometimes 与 some time条。<br><br>
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something
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>something</b></div>something表示感叹。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Quite something! 真了不得！(感叹其大或多)</div>
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something of a
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>something of a</b></div>在肯定句中表示“在某种程度上是”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She seems to be something of a dancer. 她有点像个舞蹈家。如果是否定句或是疑问句，则something改为anything。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Does she seem to be anything of a dancer? 她有点像个舞蹈家吗？如果后面的a改为the，则表示“有点某人或某事物的风度或气质”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There was still something of the child in Martin, even at thirty-two. 马丁虽然32岁了，但是还有一点孩子气。</div><br><br>
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sometimes
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>sometimes</b></div>作为时间副词，sometimes同其他时间副词不同，通常不是放在主语和谓语之间，而是放在句首或句末。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Sometimes he wears a blue coat. (= He wears a blue coat sometimes.)有时候他穿蓝色外套。</div><br><br>
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sometime, sometimes 与 some time
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>sometime, sometimes 与 some time</b></div>前两者都是副词，最后一个则是个名词短语。sometime指将来或过去的某一个不明确的时间点，sometimes指任何时间段中不止一次，some time则是表示具有某长度的一个时间段。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We'll meet sometime next week. 咱们下周找个时间会面。</div><div class="ex-item">They met sometime last week. 他们上周某个时候会了面。</div><div class="ex-item">Sometimes I wish I was back in the South. 有时候我真恨不得回到南方。</div><div class="ex-item">He returned to Shanghai some time ago. 前些时候他回到了上海。(这个例句中的 some time 是一个时间段，加上ago，又成为时间点，说明非延续动词returned发生的时间。) some time 同 sometime 及 sometimes 的一个明显的区别，就是 some time 作为一个名词成分，如果去掉，句子就不成为句子；而 sometime 和 sometimes 作为状语成分，去掉了尽管句子意思变了，句子仍然不缺任何必要成分。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Set aside some time for me. 分点时间给我吧。(这里的 some time 是直接宾语，去掉了，剩下 Set aside for me。句子就要垮，不知所云。)</div><div class="ex-item">We'll meet (sometime) next week. 我们将在下周某个时间见面。</div><div class="ex-item">They met (sometime) last week. 他们上周某个时间见过了。同样，someplace是副词，some place是名词短语。</div><br><br>
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so much as
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>so much as</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 前面有否定，但so much as起主从连词的作用，引入一个方式状语从句，此时可以按照字面理解为“没有……那么多”或“达不到……的程度”，将前面的主句同后面的从句做程度上的比较，表示主句的程度比不上从句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I was not looking at her so much as I was studying her hat. 我与其说是在注视她，不如说是在打量她的帽子。前面和后面的两个比较项也可以不是句子而只是名词成分或状语成分。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Christianity was not a religion here so much as a birthright. (Dan Brown, The Da Vinci Code)基督教在这里与其说是一种宗教，不如说是一种继承权。so much 和 as 之间可以隔开，意义同没有隔开一样，只是前一个成分从so much之前跳到了so much之后，as之前。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>These are all important matters, which she does not so much address as allude to. (The New York Review of Books, Aug. 14, 2003, p. 4)这些都是重大问题，而她对此，与其说是加以处理，不如说是轻描淡写。</div><div class="ex-item">... and inspecting officers had come there not so much to see how Wegener ran things as to see how things should be run. ……视察的军官们到那里去，与其说是要看看魏格纳是如何办事的，不如说是要看看事情是该怎样办的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 同样前面有否定，但是so much as不是起主从连词作用，不引入从句，而只是作为一个介词短语，连同名词一起，起状语作用，此时意义同字面恰恰相反，不是“有这么多”，而是“连这么一点点(也没有)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He refused to donate so much as a penny. 他连一分钱也拒绝捐赠。</div><div class="ex-item">They left without so much as a good-bye. 他们连一声再见也没说就走了。</div><div class="ex-item">Two of them ran off without so much as a backward glance. 其中两人头也不回就跑掉了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 在疑问句或条件从句中，同样是起状语作用而不是作为连词引入从句，意义也同字面恰恰相反，表示“哪怕是如此小的程度”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If you so much as touch him, I'll kill you. 你哪怕是碰他一下，我也也会要了你的命。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 在肯定句中作状语，so much as既可以表示“竟然大到……的程度，几乎大到……的程度”，也可以表示“竟然小到……的程度”，取决于它所修饰的成分本身的词义方向。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The clerk so much as accused the customer of shoplifting. 店员竟然指责那个顾客盗窃商品。</div><div class="ex-item">These artifacts would be sold for a fraction of their worth on the black market before disappearing, sometimes for hundreds of years before so much as a whispered rumor was heard of them again. 这些珍品往往在黑市上廉价出售，然后消失无踪，有时候要等好几百年，才会再听到一点点与之有关的风言风语。</div><div class="ex-item">... if he so much as got a spot on his boots, he ran to his cabin in a tantrum to polish them. (John Darnton, The Darwin Conspiracy) ……哪怕是靴子上沾上了一个污点，他也会气冲冲跑回自己的舱房去把靴子擦干净。</div><div class="ex-item">I had never so much as argued a case in any court before, which in itself is not unusual for a person on my level within the (law) firm. (David Rosenfelt, Heart of a Killer)我以往哪怕是出庭辩论案件也没有干过，这对我这样在法律事务所所处的位置而言，本来是惯常无奇的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 参见as much as条。<br><br>
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(so) much as
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(so) much as</b></div>参见 so much as 条。<br><br>
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so much for
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>so much for</b></div>这个词组最原本的意义是“到此为止，不再多”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>So much for today. 今天就讲到这里为止。词义进一步又朝两个方向发展：</div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 表示“某事讲过(处理过)了(下面转入另一件事)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>So much for the producers, what of the consumers? 生产者讲过了，消费者又怎么啦？</div><div class="ex-item">So much for the theory—the practice, it now flooded in on Charles, as something other. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman)不过理论总归是理论，实践(它已经冲击了查尔斯)却是另外一码事。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 表示“某事物也就是这么一回事(不怎么样，没什么了不起)”(这样的句子是没有谓语动词的)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>So much for that! 那就算了吧！</div><div class="ex-item">So much for him. 他也就只能如此了。</div><div class="ex-item">So much for his help. 他帮帮忙，就是这样一回事。</div><div class="ex-item">So much for our new car. 我们的新车原来竟然是这样的货色。</div><div class="ex-item">So much for his promises. 他的诺言也就是这么一回事。</div><div class="ex-item">So much for his learning. 他也就这一点点学问。</div><div class="ex-item">So much for his ambition to be a doctor! 他这样的人，还想当什么大夫！</div><div class="ex-item">So much for being a well-educated college graduate. (Newsweek, Nov. 13, 2006, p. 20)一个受过良好教育的大学毕业生，也就这点本领。</div><br><br>
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(so) much for
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(so) much for</b></div>参见 so much for 条。<br><br>
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sooner
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>sooner</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> no sooner ... than ... 是“一……就……”的意思，前面的“……”部分，是个倒装句(谓语动词常为完成时，have或had放主语之前)；后面的“……”部分，是个正常词序句；主从句的谓语动词都是表示瞬时动作的第四类动词(意思是“前一事的发生，并不比后一事的发生早”，但是主要的新信息是后一事)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>No sooner had I sat down than the phone rang again. 我刚坐下，电话铃又响了。前一部分的主语，也可以提前到 no sooner 之前。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You no sooner pour your aperitif than the bell goes. 你刚倒下开胃酒，铃就响了。</div><div class="ex-item">He had no sooner given his name than the Frenchman recognized it. 他一说出自己的姓名，那个法国人马上就认出来了。在惯用成语中，两部分也可以只剩下动词过去分词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>No sooner said than done. 说到就做到了。参见scarcely条。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> no sooner也可以不与than呼应，而与when呼应。这样的用法并不规范，但有些著名的作家也这样用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But he no sooner entered his sitting room when he received his third shock of that eventful day. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman)可是他一踏进起居室，便碰到那多事之日的第三件出人意料的事。</div><div class="ex-item">The door had no sooner closed when Charles raised his hands to his head, ... (ibid.)门刚刚关上，查尔斯便把双臂伸过头顶，……</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> sooner还可以不表示时间上的先后而表示主观上的取舍。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'd sooner be dead than trapped in this hellhole. 我宁可死也不愿意困在这处鬼地方。</div><div class="ex-item">Sooner than go against her principles, she handed in her notice. 她宁可提交辞职书，也不肯违背自己的原则。</div><div class="ex-item">Would you sooner I call back tomorrow? 您要不要我明天回电话？</div><br><br>
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soon 与 early
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>soon 与 early</b></div>参见early 与 soon条。<br><br>
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sophistication
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>sophistication</b></div>这个词中文很难译得传神。意思是“老练，成熟，复杂，微妙”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>White House officials stressed the growing sophistication of U.S.-Chinese relations, ... (The Associated Press, Apr. 21, 2006)白宫官员们强调中美关系越来越成熟，……</div><br><br>
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sorry
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>sorry</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> Sorry you asked? 这句用于对于对方询问情况的一个问题给了对对方而言情况不妙的答案之后，是Are you sorry you asked? 的简略，意思相当于“你听了答案后是否后悔不该问我？”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>FATHER: How are you doing in school? SON: I'm flunking out. Sorry you asked? 父亲：你的功课怎么样了？儿子：我正要退学呢。你后悔不该问我了吧？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> I'm sorry. 这句话虽然简单，但含义十分微妙，既可以表示自己有对不起对方之处，也可以只是表示客观上有一个不利于对方的事实而自己这一方并无过错。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm sorry, but she's not in at the moment. 对不起，她现在不在。(她现在不在，“我”并无过错。)</div><div class="ex-item">"Jenny's dead," I told him. "I'm sorry," he said in a stunned whisper. “詹妮死了。”我告诉他。“我很难过。”他吃惊地轻轻说。(詹妮之死，他不一定有错。)</div><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> be sorry后面如何搭配，意义有微妙的差别。(a) be sorry for/about + 名词成分，可以是对自己并无责任的某一客观不利事实表示惋惜，也可以是对自己做得不对的某一事表示道歉，意义两可。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm sorry for what happened to you. 你遇到这样的事，我很难过。</div><div class="ex-item">I'm sorry about the mess. 太乱了，很对不起。</div><br><br>for的宾语如果不是事物而是人，则表示“替某人难过”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm sorry forhim. 我替他难过。但如果不用for而用to + 某人，则是“对某人感到抱歉”的意思。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Say you're sorry to the lady. 向这位女士赔个礼吧。</div>(b) be sorry for/about + 动名词，是承认自己(先前)做了某件不对的事，或是当前马上要做某件不得已于对方有碍的事，表示道歉。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm sorry for making such a noise last night. 我昨天夜里太吵，很对不起。</div><div class="ex-item">I'm sorry about forgetting your birthday. 忘记了您的生日，很对不起。</div><div class="ex-item">I'm sorry for disturbing you. 要打扰您一下，很对不起。</div>(c) be sorry to inf. 可以有差别很大甚至相反的意义：(c1) 后面的动词不定式如果是表示被动的感觉，则其内容是一个不利的客观事实，自己对这个事实感到难过，但对此并无责任。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm sorry to hear about your mother's death. 惊悉令堂去世，深为痛惜。</div><div class="ex-item">I was sorry to see him looking so ill. 看见他病成这个样子，我心里很不好受。</div>(c2) 后面的动词不定式如果是表示某一行为，则相当于 be sorry for + 动名词，表示当前马上要做某件不得已会使对方不快的事，因而需要表示歉意。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm sorry to inform you that there has been an accident. 很遗憾通知您，出了事故。</div><div class="ex-item">I'm sorry to disturb you. 要打扰您一下，很对不起。</div><div class="ex-item">I'm sorry to ask this question again. 对不起，这个问题我还要再问。</div><br><br>如果要对自己已经做了(不是说了之后才做)的某件事表示歉意，要用完成式不定式：be sorry to have + pp.。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm sorry to have bothered you. 刚才打扰了您，很对不起。</div>(c3) 以上两种情况，be的时态都是一般现在时或一般过去时，后面的动词不定式都是主语正在进行、已经做了或是马上要做的。但是如果be的时态转变为虚拟式的 should be，成为 should be sorry to inf.，意义就同 be sorry to inf. 大不相同，从肯定变为否定。be sorry to inf. (动词是个有意识的行动)是“我虽然遗憾，但仍然要做这件事”；be sorry to inf. (动词是被动的感知如hear之类)是“感知到这件事时，感到很遗憾”。但是 should be sorry to inf. (动词是个有意识的行动)则是“不愿意采取这样的行动”；should be sorry to inf. (动词是被动的感知如hear之类)是“不愿意有这样的感知(例如我不愿意听到)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I should be sorry to think our friend mercenary. (Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice)我可不愿意把我们的朋友看作是一个见不得钱的人啊。</div><div class="ex-item">I should be sorry to think so. I can't think so. (Letters of James Smetham)我可不愿意这样想啊。我不能够这样想。</div><div class="ex-item">I should be sorry to say anything that should stain, even with the most remote suspicion of ingratitude, that unadulterated mind. (Charlotte Smith, The Old Manor House)对于这个纯洁无瑕的心灵，我不忍心说任何可能玷污它的话，哪怕只有那么一丁点儿以怨报德的迹象。</div><div class="ex-item">For my part, I should be sorry to think that there was nothing between Anthony and Cleopatra but an economic situation; ... (Somerset Maugham, The Moon and Sixpence)拿我来说，要我认为安东尼和克里奥佩特拉的关系只不过是经济上的问题，那我可是很不服气的；…… 但是 should be sorry to say ... 也可以表示“要说的内容是肯定的，只是不想说出口(以便给对方留有余地)”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I should be sorry to say I have reason to think so now. (Letter of James Patterson to John Haywood, Aug. 18, 1795)我这样想，现在是有理由的，但我倒不一定非说出来不可。</div>(d) be sorry 有时候可以表示拒绝做某事(不是“虽然遗憾但仍然做这件事”)。例如美国作家托尼·莫里森(Toni Morrison)的小说《秀拉》(Sula)(1973)中谈到俄亥俄州一个小镇，白人占据了低处河边的肥沃土地，黑人只好住到山区。一个白人奴隶主向一个黑奴许诺，如果黑奴完成一件危险的活儿，就给他一片 bottom land(其实 bottom 指的是山地)。黑奴完成了任务，但是：But he (the white farmer) didn't want to give up any land. So he told the slave that he was very sorry that he had to give him valley land. He had hoped to give him a piece of the Bottom. 这里 sorry 意思就是“不愿意”。(e) be sorry (that)后面的从句，依其内容的不同，可以表示一件自己并无责任的客观事实，也可以表示自己做的一件不对的事。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm sorry you can't come. 你不能来我很遗憾。/ I'm sorry I've given you so much trouble. 给您带来了这么多麻烦，很对不起。</div><br><br>
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sorry, but
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>sorry, but</b></div>中文说了“对不起”或“很遗憾”之后，就可以马上说出使得对方不高兴的信息。但是英文说了“对不起”或“很遗憾”，往往再要加上一个 but，再说出令人不愉快的话语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm sorry, but I can't go. 对不起，我不能去。意义类似 sorry 的其他词句，也有类似的情况。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Excuse me, but you're wrong. 对不起，你错了。/ Excuse me, but could you tell me the way to the YMCA? 对不起，您能告诉我去基督教青年会的路怎么走吗？/ I apologize for this intrusion, but your have a visitor. He insists it is urgent. 对不起，打扰了，有客人找您。他坚持说事情很急迫。/ Jim sends his apologies, but he cannot come. 吉姆表示歉意，他不能来。(不能译成“吉姆表示歉意，但是他不能来”)这里面有一个语言心理问题。在英语中(还有许多欧洲语言也如此)，说“对不起”多少有点表示自己满足不了对方想得到满意的信息(或至少不愿收到不愉快的信息)的欲望，请对方谅解。说了这个意思之后，就需要转换口气，表示尽管如此，还是不得不说出令对方不愉快的信息，因此就往往需要加上一个 but。而在中文中，“对不起”本身就有令对方不快的口气，没有多少请求谅解的谦恭含义，因而后面可以直接接上令对方不愉快的内容。所以，中文如果说“对不起，但是我不能去”，听起来语气就不够通顺。这个 but 有时候甚至相当于中文的“因为”，用来表示自己未能满足对方愿望的理由。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I am sorry I haven't written before but I've been very busy lately as Tom has been away. 因汤姆在外，家务繁忙，未能及早奉复为歉。</div><br><br>
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so that
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>so that</b></div>这个连词词组，后面引入的从句，可能有歧义。既可以表示有意的“目的”，也可以表示无意的“结果”。本来这个区别，可以通过从句谓语动词是直陈语气(无意的“结果”)还是虚拟语气(有意的“目的”)来表示，但是英文so that后面已经不能使用虚拟语气的动词时态，只能用直陈语气，结果就产生了歧义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>As they walked with their catch past the drawing-room windows, bent over so that their heads couldn't be seen, Lisa heard her father's voice. (Lucy Pinney, Snakes and Lovers)他们拿着他们的捕获物从起居室的窗下走过，弯着腰，不让自己的脑袋被看见，此时，丽莎听到了她父亲的声音。(这里的so that表示有意的“目的”，也可以表示实际达到的“结果”。)</div><div class="ex-item">I'm lighting the fire so that the house will be warm when they return. (A. J. Tomson & A. V. Martinet, A Practical English Grammar)我现在点起火来，等到他们回来时，房子就暖和了。(点火可能目的就在于让房子暖和，也可能是为了别的目的，房子暖和是客观无意的结果。)如果从句中谓语动词有may、might、can、could之类的情态动词，通常so that所表示的是有意的“目的”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They make £10 notes a different size from £5 notes so that blind people can tell the difference between them. 他们把10英镑的纸币设计得同5英镑纸币大小不同，以便盲人也能够区别。</div><div class="ex-item">I pinned the note to his pillow so that he would be sure to see it. 我把便条钉到他的枕头上，好让他一定能看到。</div><div class="ex-item">We carved their names on the stone so that future generations might know what they had done. 我们把他们的名字刻在了石碑上，好让子孙后代知道他们的事迹。不过，往往有意的“目的”一旦达到，同时也就是客观的“结果”了，所以两者之间的界限并不十分严格。</div><br><br>
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soul
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>soul</b></div>可以用以代替 person:<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 用于否定句，加重语气，表示(没有)任何人。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>One could gaze far into the distance and often not see a single soul. 放眼远眺，往往见不到一个人影。/ Iswear I'll never tell a soul. 我发誓决不告诉任何人。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 虽然不是否定句，但表示“罕见，万一”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... any curious soul who ventured too close and accidentally slipped in would be in dire jeopardy. (Dan Brown, Deception Point)……万一有谁好奇，胆敢走得太近，不小心滑了进去，就会大吃苦头。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 用于表示某地有多少人口(这与果戈理小说《死魂灵》中的“魂灵”用法相似)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>this vast country of 200 million souls 这个有着2亿人口的大国</div><div class="ex-item">Now, one day in October—after an interval of just 39 years—America will claim more than 300 million souls. (U.S. News & World Report, Oct. 2, 2006, p. 48)现在，到10月的某一天，经过仅仅39年的时间，美国将有3亿以上人口。</div><br><br>
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south 与 southern
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>south 与 southern</b></div>参见 east 与 eastern 条。<br><br>
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sow
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>sow</b></div>这个及物动词在一般词典中的释义是“播种”，但要注意搭配的直接宾语，既可以是所播的作物本身，也可以是该作物的种子，还可以是所播种的土地。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's time to sow the winter wheat. 是播冬小麦的时候了。(宾语：作物)</div><div class="ex-item">Sow the seeds in spring. 春天撒种。(宾语：种子)</div><div class="ex-item">The land was cleared of weeds and sown with guinea grass. 那片地清除了杂草，种上了羊草。(被动主语：土地)参见 swarm 条、wash 条、clean 与 cleanse 条、sprinkle 条等。</div><br><br>
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so 与 such
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>so 与 such</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> so所修饰的形容词后面必须有不定冠词方可一起修饰名词，因此，只能用于可数名词的单数形式，不能用于可数名词的复数形式，也不能用于不可数名词。例如不能说 <i>so good cookies，也不能说 </i>so good milk。此时such就派上用场了，可以说 such good cookies 和 such good milk。同时，即使是可数名词的单数形式，such也可以用来代替so，但是词序不同：so nice a person, such a nice person。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> such表示已知信息(参见such条)，但是so往往可以表示新信息。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Thank you so much for your advice. 很感谢你的劝告。</div><div class="ex-item">I'm so tired. 我很累。</div><div class="ex-item">You're so right. 您很对。</div><div class="ex-item">I'm so glad to meet you. 很高兴同您见面。当然，so也可以表示已知信息。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Why are you so stubborn? 你为什么这样顽固？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> so ... as ... 的用法同 such ... as ... 的用法相近，参见such条之(3)。<br><br>
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space
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>space</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为可以测量大小的三维空间，space 是个不可数名词，用法同 water 差不多。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There was just enough space for a bed and a table. 只够放下一张床和一张桌子。/ There should be more space between the houses. 房子之间的空地应该大些。/ A mirror can add space to a room. 放面镜子，房间可以显得大些。</div><br><br>作为转义表示“余地”，也是不可数名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Leave some space for dessert. 留点肚子吃饭后甜食。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作“宇宙太空”解时，space 的用法相当于一个专有名词(尽管不大写)，既没有复数，也不能加冠词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The missile soared out the atmosphere into space. 火箭冲出大气层，进入太空。(注意 atmosphere 有 the, space 则没有)</div><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 作“空隙，空格，(容人或物的)位置”解时，space 则是个可数名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He had spaces between his teeth. 他的牙缝很宽。/ Fill in the spaces with the answers. 在空格里填入答案。/ We spent half an hour looking for a parking space. 我们花了半个小时到处找停车位。</div><br><br>
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Spanish
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>Spanish</b></div>是 Spain (西班牙)的形容词。不加任何冠词，是“西班牙语”。如果前面加上 the，成为 the Spanish，就是“西班牙人”的总称(复数)。但是，单独一个西班牙人(不分男女)，叫作 a/the Spaniard。特定情况下多个西班牙人(不是总称)可以说(the) Spaniards。<br><br>
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spare
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>spare</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为形容词，是“备用的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a spare shirt and a spare set of underwear 一件备用的衬衣和一套备用的内衣裤。</div><br><br>也可以是“多余的”(即临时发现多出来，并非有意留着备用的)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Have you got a spare umbrella you could lend me? 你有没有多余的雨伞可以借给我？/ There is a spare seat in the bus. 公共汽车上还有一个空的座位。/ There are two tickets going spare for tonight's performance. 今晚的演出还有两张多余门票。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作为及物动词，spare 可以表示“腾出”(第二类或第四类动词)：(a)表示“自己不用而腾出来”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Could you spare your dictionary for a moment? 您的词典能借我用一会儿吗？/ We would like to help you out, but we can't spare the staff. 我们本来很愿意帮你，但是人手腾不出来。</div>(b) 加上间接宾语(不用 to，放在直接宾语之前)，表示“腾出什么来给予某人”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Can you spare me fifty dollars? 你能借给我50美元吗？/ He spared us an hour from his busy schedule. 他从紧张的日程中抽出了1小时给我们。</div>(c) 名词 + to spare 中的 to spare 其实意义相当于形容词 spare，但不是有意备用的。a spare tire 是有意准备好的备用轮胎；a tire to spare 是临时多出的一个轮胎。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There's food to spare. 有多余的粮食。/ Have you got a few minutes to spare? 你能抽出几分钟的空吗？/ We arrived at the station with half an hour to spare. 我们提早半小时来到了车站。/ —Is there enough? —Yes, enough and to spare. —够吗？—够，还绰绰有余。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 作为及物动词(第四类动词)，spare 又可以表示其他意思：(a)表示“省下来，不投入使用”(往往采取直接宾语前面加 no 的否定形式)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>spare no effort 不遗余力</div><div class="ex-item">spare no expense 不惜工本。</div>(b) 直接宾语是人或人的切身利害，spare 是“放过，饶了”的意思(也是第四类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The great cities had not been spared. 大城市未能免祸。/ The epidemic spared no one. 流行病无人幸免。/ We should spare her feelings. 我们应该避免伤害她的感情。</div>(c) 间接宾语是人(放在直接宾语之前，无 to)，直接宾语是不好的事，spare somebody something 是“让某人免遭某事”(第四类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm only trying to spare you the bother of having to do it again. 我只是设法让你不必麻烦再做一遍。/ Spare me the details. 细节别跟我细说了。/ His intervention may have spared me a bloody nose. 他的干预，说不定让我避免了被打得鼻青脸肿。</div><br><br>可以采取被动态，将间接宾语变为主语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I was spared the shame of everybody knowing. 事情没有公之于众，我总算没有丢人。</div><br><br>
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speak English 与 speak in English
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>speak English 与 speak in English</b></div>speak English 是某个人或多个人习惯于或是有能力说英语，是经常性和普遍性的。speak in English 则是某个具体场合用英语说话。前者通常不用进行时态(<i>He's speaking English.)，后者通常不用一般现在时(</i>He speaks in English.)。<br><br>有一个故事。2006年3月，在一次欧盟会议上，有个法国人用英语做报告，当时在场的法国总统希拉克提出抗议，当场退场。《泰晤士报》的报道是：When Mr. Seillière, who is an English-educated steel baron, started a presentation to all 25 EU leaders, President Chirac interrupted to ask why he was speaking in English. Mr. Seillière explained: "I'm going to speak in English because that is the language of business."... Without saying another word, President Chirac, who lived in the US as a student and speaks fluent English, walked out, followed by his Foreign, Finance and Europe ministers, leaving the 24 other European leaders stunned. (Times, Mar. 24, 2006) (当接受英国教育的钢铁巨头塞耶尔先生开始向欧盟25位领导人做报告时，希拉克总统打断了他，质问他为什么说的是英语。塞耶尔先生解释说：“我要用英语，是因为这是商务语言。”……希拉克总统曾经在美国留学，能说一口流利的英语，但此时他一言不发，就带领他的外交部部长、财政部部长和欧洲事务部部长退场，留下其余24位欧洲领导人目瞪口呆。)由于说 you can 如何如何是“允许你”或“请你”的意思，在任何场合说 *You can speak English. 都不合理，因为 speak English 是本人的习惯或能力，他人无从允许或请求。要改为 You can speak in English. 满足当前特定场合的需要。<br><br>与此相类似，write English 指用英文写作的能力，write in English 则是特定场合用英文书写；read English 指阅读英文的能力，read in English 则是特定场合阅读英文。无论有无 in，通常都用于英语不是母语或尚未知道英语是否其母语的人。如果指“以英语为母语”，则当然不能用 write 或 read，只能用 speak，而且不能有 in。<br><br>
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(speak of the) devil
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(speak of the) devil</b></div>speak of the devil 相当于中文的“说曹操，曹操就到”。正在谈到某个人，某个人刚巧就来了。这里的 devil 没有贬义。<br><br>
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speak 与 talk
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>speak 与 talk</b></div>两个动词意义和用法差不多，往往可以互换。但是也有一些差别：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> talk 使人想到谈的内容；speak 则较多停留在口头表达这一行动上。因此，talk 可以表示双方就某事项进行交谈，speak 就没有这方面的含义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm always here if you want to talk (<i>speak). 你如果耍谈，随时可以来这里找我。/ The two sides are ready to talk (</i>speak). 双方都准备好要交谈。/ They refused to talk (*speak) about sovereignty. 他们拒绝谈主权问题。(talk 是拿主权问题来进行谈判；speak 是自己一方就主权问题发表意见。)</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> talks 作为名词甚至可以代替 negotiations (谈判)，而 speak 派生的名词 speech 则只能是单方面的意见表达。talk 没有 speak 正式。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>When she walked into the room, everybody stopped talking. 她走进房间的时候，人人都停止了交谈。(这些零零星星的交谈是不正式的，用 speaking 就不妥)</div><div class="ex-item">This is Professor So-and-so, who is going to speak to us on recent developments in low-temperature physics. 这位是某某教授，今天请他来给我们讲一讲低温物理学的最新发展。(严肃的学术演讲，不是交谈，用 speak)</div><div class="ex-item">This is Mr. Stevenson, who's going to talk to us about gardening. 这位是史蒂文森先生，今天请他来给我们谈谈园艺。(日常的园艺不是重大的学术问题，比较随便，用 talk)</div><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 涉及说话的生理功能，以及讲什么语言，要用 speak，不用 talk。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His throat operation has left him unable to speak (*to talk). 他喉部动了手术之后，就不能说话了。/ She speaks three languages fluently. 她能流利地讲三种语言。/ We spokeFrench so that the children wouldn't understand. 为了不让孩子们听懂，我们讲法语。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 在电话里同某人交谈，通常说 speak to somebody (美式英语也说 speak with somebody)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Hello. Could I speak to Karen, please? 喂，请问凯伦在吗？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 用状语来限定所说的范围(“就……而言”)，由于是单方面的意见表达而非双方或多方的交谈，也用 speak 而不用 talk。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But it was, politically speaking (<i>talking), love at first sight. (Newsweek, Oct. 15, 2007, p. 40)但是，从政治上说，那是一次一见钟情。/ At this moment, strictly speaking (</i>talking), they had no business being there. 在这样的时刻，严格地说，他们在那里没什么事。</div><br><br>
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special 与 especial
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>special 与 especial</b></div>参见 especial 与 special 条。<br><br>
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spiritual
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>spiritual</b></div>这个形容词同中文“精神方面的”不完全相等，比较接近宗教上的含义。因此，“精神文明”译成 spiritual civilization 就不大妥当，可采用几个“拐弯”的译法，如：cultural and ideological progress, culture and ideology, culture and ethics。但是同“物质文明”并列使用时，还是只好勉强用 spiritual civilization (也有人认为 civilization 是个整体，不可以分成两类，因而主张用 spiritual aspect of civilization)。“精神准备”是 mental (*spiritual) preparedness。“精神生活”是 cultural/intellectual life。“精神世界”是 inner/mental world。“精神鼓励”是 moral encouragement。“精神产品”是 intellectual product。法律上的“精神损失”是 emotional damages。<br><br>
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splatter
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>splatter</b></div>这个及物动词(属第四类动词，也可以去掉 l 而成为 spatter)在一般词典中的释义是“溅，泼”，但要注意搭配的直接宾语，既可以是所溅的糊状物，也可以是承受这种糊状物的平面。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Food was splattered all over the kitchen wall. 厨房墙上溅满了食物。/ A passing truck splattered mud onto my dress. 一辆驶过的卡车，把污泥溅到了我的衣服上。/ The ground was splattered with blood. 地面洒满了鲜血。</div><br><br>
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spoil
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>spoil</b></div>这个动词(属第三类动词或第四类动词，过去时和过去分词在美式英语中是 spoilt，在英式英语中则 spoiled 或 spoilt 均可)本来的意义是负面的，但也有正面的意义。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 最基本的负面意义，就是“弄坏”，又可以分为：(a) “将好端端的一桩事破坏掉”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's important not to let mistakes spoil your life. 很重要的是别犯错误使得生活被破坏掉。/ Peaceful summer evenings can be spoilt by mosquitoes. 本来幽静的夏夜，有了蚊子就大煞风景。/ The rainstorm has spoiled the cherry harvest. 暴风雨破坏了樱桃的收成。/ The scandal will spoil his chances for the presidency. 丑闻将会断送他当总统的机会。/ Too many cooks spoil the broth. 厨子多了煮坏汤。</div>(b) “把孩子惯坏”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Grandparents are often tempted to spoil their grandchildren. 祖父母往往情不自禁把孙辈惯坏。/ A spoilt child is rarely popular with other children. 惯坏的孩子，很少受到其他孩子的欢迎。</div>(c) 作为不及物动词，表示“变坏”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Meat spoils in warm weather. 天气一热，肉类就变质了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 正面的意义，就是从“惯坏”中取出其“优渥对待”的正面部分意义，把“坏结果”排除掉，变成“让……好好享受一番”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Spoil yourself with a new perfume this summer. 这个夏天，您就好好享用一下一种崭新的香水吧。尤其是许多美容产品和消除疲劳产品的广告，往往将 spoil 这个动词用于正面意义。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Spoil your body and mind after exhausting flight. Our services include: foot reflexology, neck and shoulder massage. 经过疲劳飞行之后，请来恢复身心活力。敝处服务包括：足部反射疗法、颈部及肩部按摩。/ Spoil your face, body and soul at the finest spa in the Northeast. 请来这个东北部最讲究的温泉疗养地美化容脸部及消除身心疲劳吧。</div><br><br>但是 spoil 的负面意义也往往出现在广告中。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>No need to let any little bulges spoil your body any more, because XX has developed some exceptional slimming products. 不必再让小小的发胖部位把你的体形破坏掉了，因为 XX 已经开发出一些非常有效的减肥产品。所以 spoil your body 或 spoil your face 之类的说法，都有正面或负面的歧义，阅读时，尤其是使用时，要特别小心。</div><br><br>
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sport
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>sport</b></div>原意是“体育运动”，但也可以指人，包括讨人喜欢的人，或是吃喝玩乐的人、好色之徒、赌徒，但多少带点熟悉亲近的口气，因此常常放在口语一句话的末尾，相当于中文中的称呼“老兄”或“老弟”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>That's what you're being paid for, sport. 给你钱，就是要你这样干嘛，老弟。</div><br><br>
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spot
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>spot</b></div>这个名词表示“点”，比较着重其同周围的不同，因此首先指“斑点”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a blue tie with white spots 蓝色带白点的领带</div><div class="ex-item">a reputation without spots of stain 完美无瑕的名誉。</div><br><br>the spot 常常用来表示小范围的“当地”或“当场”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Extra police were rushed to the spot. 更多的警察赶到了现场。on the spot 是“当场，就地”的意思。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>And now a report from Smith on the spot. (电视广播用语)现在请看史密斯从现场发来的报道。</div><br><br>spot 还可以指排行榜上的一个个名次。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Japanese brands (vehicles) took the top seven spots in Consumer Reports' annual reliability rankings, ... Volkswagen AG's luxury Audi brand made the biggest strides in this year's survey, climbing 18 spots to No. 8. (The Daily Gazette, Oct. 30, 2012, A4)日本牌的汽车，在《消费指南》的年度可靠性排名中，名列前7位，……大众汽车旗下的豪华品牌奥迪则在今年的调查中进步最大，上升18个名次，一跃到第8位。</div><br><br>
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spouse
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>spouse</b></div>表示“配偶”，妻子或丈夫都可以。如果前头加个字母 e-，成为 espouse，就成了及物动词，原意是“娶……为妻子”，但这个意义已经陈旧，现代的转义是“信奉，拥护”某一主张(属表示延续状态的第一类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Both candidates espouse democratic ideals. 两位候选人都信奉民主理想。/ Say that you will espouse my cause. (Edgar Rice Burroughs, The Gods of Mars)你就说你参与我们的事业吧。/ Ineffect, the principles and goals of change and diversity that Clinton has espoused for so long are now embodied in a more compelling way by someone else. (U.S. News & World Report, May 19, 2008, p. 16)其实，希拉里这么长时间以来一直信奉的变革和多样化原则和目标，现在却竟然确确凿凿地体现在别人身上。/ ... Americans have elected a generation of political leaders espousing the wonder-working power of free markets, ... (U.S. News & World Report, Apr. 21, 2008, p. 45)……美国人曾经选出了整整一代的信奉自由市场的神奇威力的政治领袖，……</div><br><br>
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spray
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>spray</b></div>同 splatter 和 sprinkle 相类似，spray 搭配的直接宾语，既可以是所喷洒的液体，也可以是承受这些液体的物体(此时液体用 with 引入)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She sprayed a little perfume on her wrists. 她在手腕上喷了一些香水。/ We should spray the fruit trees with insecticide. 我们要给果树喷洒农药。</div><br><br>
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spread
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>spread</b></div>同 spray、splatter、sprinkle 等动词相类似，spread 搭配的直接宾语，既可以是所涂抹或撒的物质，也可以是承受这些物质的平面(此时物质用 with 引入)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>spread butter on a piece of toast/spread a piece of toast with butter 在一片烤面包上涂抹上牛油。</div><br><br>
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spring, summer, autumn 与 winter
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>spring, summer, autumn 与 winter</b></div>一年四季，前面要不要 the 的问题：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为笼统的、与天气及自然景观有关的季节，可以有 the，也可以没有 the。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Rome is lovely in (the) spring. 罗马在春天风光明媚。/ I like (the) winter best. 我最喜欢冬天。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 如果指特定某一年的某季节，不论这一年是否明白说出，都必须有 the。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He spent his holiday here in the summer (*summer) last year. 他去年夏季在这里度假。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 尤其是如果只涉及时间的位置，不涉及天气及自然景观，就必须有 the。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Five months earlier, her husband lost his job ... Now it was the summer (*summer) and the family savings were gone. (The Daily Gazette, Dec. 22, 2008, A1) 5个月以前，她的丈夫丢了工作……现在已经到了夏季，家里的积蓄花光了。(如果说 now it was summer，意思就变成“现在天气热了”。)</div>可见，凡是没有 the 的，都是同天气或自然景观有关的，但有 the 则可以有关也可以无关。<br><br>
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sprinkle
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>sprinkle</b></div>这个及物动词(第四类动词)在一般词典中的释义是“撒，洒，喷淋”，但要注意搭配的直接宾语，既可以是所撒的粉末或液体，也可以是承受这些粉末或液体的物体。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Never sprinkle washing powder on clothes, dissolve it separately first. 切勿将洗衣粉洒在衣物上，请单独将之溶解。(宾语：洗衣粉)</div><div class="ex-item">She sprinkled the cakes with sugar. 她在点心上撒了糖。(宾语：点心)</div>
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staff 与 stuff
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>staff 与 stuff</b></div>两者要注意区别。<br><br>前者是“人员”的总称，是集体名词，但是也可以用来代替可数名词的复数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A total of 20 senior staff of The University of Hong Kong who have served the University for over 25 years will ... (The University of Hong Kong, Press Releases, Apr. 26, 2006)香港大学有20名在该大学工作25年以上的人员，将……</div><br><br>后者则是“材料，东西，物料”的总称，是不可数名词。<br><br>
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stage
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>stage</b></div>这个名词有两个不同的意义，视前面用什么介词而定。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 介词用 on，意为“舞台”(常用单数，而且常用定冠词 the，只有第一次介绍一个特定的舞台或对舞台加以描绘时才用不定冠词 a)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She walked out on the stage and started to sing. 她登上舞台，开始唱起来。也可以指抽象意义的“舞台”(此时仍然用定冠词 the)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Triconodonts made their debut on the evolutionary stage almost 200 million years ago. 三牙形虫是将近2亿年前才首次登上进化舞台的。由此产生了副词 onstage，而 go onstage (或 stride onto the stage)就是“(演员)登台”的意思。stage fright 是表演者“怯场”。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 介词用 at (偶尔也用 in)，意为“阶段”(有单复数形式，前面可以加任何特指或不特定特指的限定词以及其他形容词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The project is in its final stages. 项目到了收尾阶段。/ At this late stage, there is little we can do. 到了这个后期阶段，我们没有多少办法了。/ We'll need to discuss this at some stage. 到了一定阶段，我们就要讨论一下。/ The task will be accomplished in stages. 任务将分期分批完成。</div><br><br>
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stand
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>stand</b></div>这个不及物动词，作“站立”解，主要是表示延续性的状态(第一类动词)，但是偶尔也可以表示瞬时的动作(第四类动词)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> stand 表示延续性状态，可以用一般现在时或一般过去时，也可以用现在进行时或过去进行时。区别同 sit 类似，在于究竟是从外部概括的角度看待 stand 这个状态，还是就具体场合内部注意 stand 的延续状态。<br><br>城镇、建筑物或是有一定高度的固定物品“在”何处，这个“在”就用 stand 的一般现在时或一般过去时(高度较低的或是面积较大的不用 stand 而用 lie)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>London stands on the Thames. 伦敦位于泰晤士河畔。/ In the middle of the town stands a splendid Victorian building. 镇中心有一座华丽的维多利亚风格建筑。/ An old piano stood in the corner of the room. 大厅的角落有一架旧钢琴。/ A bench stood in the shade of the tree. 树荫底下有一张长椅子。</div><br><br>如果只是就具体场合注意到 stand 的延续状态，就用进行时态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She was standing at the bus stop. 她站在公共汽车站里。/ Mr. Smith is standing by the Nile. 史密斯先生站在尼罗河畔。物品如果是暂时竖立在某地点的，也用进行时态。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A stick was standing against the wall. 墙边靠着一根手杖。 (2) stand 表示瞬时动作(第四类动词，站起来或是站到某处)，通常要有副词 up。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I put down my glass and stood up. 我放下杯子，站了起来。但是也可以不加 up。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The judge asked us all to stand. 法官请我们全体起立。/ I stood to go to the car. 我站了起来，向车子走过去。/ He stood at the door and coughed, ... 他站到门前，咳了一声，……/ But he stood before Charles could speak. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman)但他还没等查尔斯开口便站起来了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> stand 这个动词的意义很广，往往取决于上下文或具体语境。例如 Let it stand. 可以是校对时的“保持原文不动”，也可以是逐段逐句审议法案时的“这一段(或句)可以通过”，也可以是刚刚沏了茶后“让它泡一会儿出味道”。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> stand by (by 是副词)有两个不同的意义。一个是负面的，意思是“袖手旁观，隔岸观火”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>People just stood by and did nothing. 人们只是袖手旁观，毫无作为。另一个则是正面的，意思是“随时准备好”甚至“枕戈待旦”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Stand by for take-off! 准备随时起飞！/ Please stand by for an important announcement. 请随时准备听取重要通知。/ They added they had been asked to stand by in case their help was needed. (The Associated Press, Aug. 22, 2008)他们还说，他们被吩咐要随时准备好，以备要他们帮忙。</div><br><br>另外，如果 stand by 中的 by 是个介词，意思就是“坚守”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I stand by what I said. 我说过的话是算数的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> stand at 或 stand 后面加地点状语，可以表示“数量为若干”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>As of press time, the fund stood at $3.7 million. (Andover Bulletin)到本刊付印时，该基金为370万美元。/ ... when the country's population stood at 400 million. (The Daily Gazette, May 7, 2012, A7)……当全国人口为4亿时。/ ... a national unemployment rate of 4.3 percent in December—the lowest since it stood at 3.5 percent in 1969 during the Vietnam war. (ibid., Jan. 9, 2012 A3)……12月的全国失业率为4.3%——自从1969年越南战争时期的3.5%以来最低的。/ A global death toll of 321 (where the SARS total stood Monday) just is not catastrophic in the way so many news reports suggest. (ibid., May 4, 2003, C4)全球的死亡人数321人(截至星期一的非典死亡总数)并不像那么多新闻报道所说的那样具有灾难性。</div><br><br>
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start
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>start</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 由于 start 是个表示瞬时动作的第四类动词，所以应该同表示时间点的时间状语相配合。“从某时或某处开始”，规范的英语应该是 start at/on/in 而不是 <i>start from (from 表示时间段的开始，与表示延续过程的动词相配合)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Start, for example, at Columbus Steel Castings, ... 开头先看看哥伦布钢铁铸造公司，/ Prices for these homes start at (</i>from) $250,000. 这些住宅的起价为25万美元。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> start 可以采取主动形式，也可以采取被动形式。get started 可以是“自己开始”；但 get somebody started 可以是“使某人开始”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Was there some special reason that got you started? 有什么特别的理由使得你动了手吗？/ ready to get things started 准备好动手干。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 同 begin 相比，start 更为偏重于“主动，积极，创业，开动”，而 begin 则略为偏重于“客观、略为静态的过程的开始”或是“主动但不强烈的行为的开始”。例如“按按钮开动印刷机”，就不可以说 <i>press this button to begin the printer 而要说 press this button to start the printer。“他们开办了一家电脑企业”要说 They have started (</i>have begun) an IT company. <div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The newspaper started (<i>began) life as a weekly magazine. 该报初创办时，是一份周刊。/ We want to start (</i>begin) a family. 我们想要成家。/ “Stop hitting him!” “He started (<i>began) it.” “别打他了！” “事情是他闹起来的。”</div><div class="ex-item">Don't start (</i>begin) anything with me. 别给我找麻烦。/ I start (*begin) my students on Dickens. 我开头先让学生们看狄更斯的作品。</div><br><br>可能是因为“说话”不算强烈的动态行为，所以多用 begin 而不用 start: begin to say/speak/talk。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>“Ladies and gentlemen!” he began (*started). “女士们，先生们！”他开始说。但是如果后面有 speak、talk 之类的动词，而且讲话本身又是比较正式的，还是可以用 start。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He started to speak and kept on for more than an hour. 他开始讲话，一直讲了一个多钟头。</div><br><br>作为不及物动词，start 也比 begin 的意义更为强烈主动。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The lawnmower won't start (<i>begin). 推草机开不动。/ It all started (</i>began) from an idea I had as a student. 整件事情是从我学生时代的一个想法开始的。/ Their business started (<i>began) some years ago. 他们的企业是若干年前创办的。/ start (</i>begin) up/down the stairs 开始上/下楼梯</div><div class="ex-item">We'll start (*begin) from the hotel at six. 咱们六点钟从旅馆出发。/ It's time we started (for) home. 该是咱们动身回家的时候了。</div><br><br>由不及物动词 start 变来的形容词 starting，意义也不同于 beginning。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>starting salary 起薪</div><div class="ex-item">starting price 起步价。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> start 作为不及物动词，甚至其“动态”可以强烈到“惊觉做出反应”的地步，更是 begin 所远远不及。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I started up from my chair. 我一惊，就从椅子上站了起来。/ She started at the noise. 她被嘈杂声音吓了一跳。/ He started out of his dream. 他从梦中惊醒过来。/ Tears started to her eyes. 她眼睛流出了泪水。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> start somebody doing something 是引起某人做某事。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His words started (*began) me wondering. 他所说的话引起我思索。/ This will start them talking. 这会引起他们说闲话。</div><br><br>start out + -ing 有两方面的意义。一方面是有主观意志起作用的“先做某事作为开头”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We'll start out finding a place to make camp. 咱们第一步先找处地方扎营。另一方面是客观情况的“开头本来如何”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I started out believing him. 我原先是相信他的。/ We started out thinking it would be easy. 我们原先以为会很容易。也可以以动词不定式代替动名词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We didn't start out to buy all their shares. 我们开头并没有把他们的股票全买下来。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> start 和 begin，后面都可以用动词不定式或动名词；但是动名词倾向于表示开始后延续了一段时间，而动词不定式则只是简单地表示“开始”，不交代后续如何。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He started to speak, but stopped because she objected. 他开始讲话，但是因为她提出反对，他就停下来了。/ He started speaking, and kept on for more than an hour. 他开始讲话，一直讲下去，讲了一个多小时。/ He began to open all thecupboards. 他动手要将所有的柜子全打开。(不交代后来全打开了没有)</div><div class="ex-item">He began opening all the cupboards. 他动手开始把所有的柜子全打开。(如果后面不说明没有全打开，那就是全打开了)</div>
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state
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>state</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 可以是“国家”或“州”，也可以是“状态”。美国总统定期向国会提交的 State of the Union Address (国情咨文)的 state 是“状况”(union 指的是“联邦，全国”)。美国还有 State of the State Address (州情咨文)，是州长向州议会做的报告，前一个 state 是“状况”，后一个 state 则是“州”。有一本抨击布什总统不承认错误的书，针对布什多次的“国情咨文”，书名为 State of Denial，这里的 state 并不是“国家”的意思(美式英语中，尤其是提到美国本国的事，很少用 state 来指全国)。state of denial 其实是一种拒绝承认现实、拒绝相信真相的心理状态，例如犯了错误怕承认了自己会垮台而硬将错误说成对，或是盲目乐观，明明有危险却不肯面对。有人将这本书译为“否认之邦”，这是对 state 的误解。另外有人把书名译成“鸵鸟心态”，这比较接近原意。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 美国的 state 译成“州”，从今天的现状来说是合适的。但是追溯到历史上，这个译名并不十分恰当。美国独立战争时的十三个 states，当时并不自认为是一个大一统的国家中的一个“州”(“州”这个汉字本身就否定了独立的主权)。1781—1787年的“联邦”中，各个 state 保留着自己的“主权、自由和独立”，这个 state 毋宁是“国家”的意思。但是经过历史的变迁，“联邦”代替了“邦联”，state 就逐渐从“国家”变成了“州”。但是，翻译起来，同一个 state，汉语不能把从前的译成“国家”，现在的译成“州”，所以不管现在过去，一律译成“州”，这就多少冲淡了当时各个 state 的独立主权性质。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 由于 state 可以表示“主权国家”，也可以在现代意义上表示“州”，因此，在美国，head of state 往往可以表示“州的首脑”即“州长”，而不是通常国际上的“国家元首”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In the meantime, California is rudderless, stuck with a head of state who won't take stands or hand down decisions. 而同时，加州陷于群龙无首的状况，它的州长既不肯表态，也不肯下达决定。</div><br><br>
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stationary 与 stationery
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>stationary 与 stationery</b></div>两者发音相同，词源相同，但经过历史演变，词类和意义已经有了很大差别。<br><br>前者是个形容词，意义是“固定不动的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>stationary orbit (人造卫星的)固定轨道</div><div class="ex-item">The exchange rate has remained stationary. 汇率一直固定不变。/ He likes to ride the stationary bike for exercise. 他喜欢踩健身车做运动。</div><br><br>stationery 则是名词，意义是“文具”。<br><br>两者的词源都是拉丁文的 stationarius，原意是固定兵站的军人。到了中世纪，转为指有固定开店地点的商人，以区别于流动商贩。这些人许多是书商，因为书籍笨重，不便流动。他们同一些大学做生意，因而这个文雅的拉丁名字就用到了他们身上。从14世纪起，这些书商的名称就以 stationer 的形式进入了英语。但是他们不光是买卖书籍，也经营纸张笔墨等文具。当时印刷术尚未发明，书籍都靠手抄，因此纸张笔墨就同抄好的手写书一样重要。印刷术发明后，这些书商的营业方式发生了很大的变化。到了17世纪，经营印好的书籍的书商，改称 bookseller，而 stationer 则专指文具商。到18世纪，出现了 stationery 这个词，专指 stationer 经营的商品，即文具。<br><br>
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status
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>status</b></div>本来指静态的“地位，身份”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>people of roughly equal status 地位大致相等的人们</div><div class="ex-item">citizens who wish to enhance their social status 希望提升自己社会地位的公民们</div><div class="ex-item">Age has status in the village. 在村里，年纪大就有地位。</div><br><br>但是也可以指动态的办事到了哪个阶段或程度。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'd like to learn about the status of my naturalization application. 我想了解一下我的入籍申请进行到了什么程度。/ They filled the candidate in on the status of the campaign. 他们向候选人汇报了竞选活动的进行情况。</div><br><br>
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stead
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>stead</b></div>日常通用的 instead of，其实来自名词 stead (位置，状况)，原先分开写成 in stead of，后来 in 和 stead 才合成为 instead。instead of 原意是“处在(某个别人的)位置上”，但是这个原意后扩大为“取(某个他人的)位置而代之”，更进一步变为否定意义的“不(如何)而代之以(如何)”。如果 of 后面不是个名词成分而是个人称代词，则通常不用 of 而将人称代词变为物主代词放在 stead 之前。(不习惯说 instead of it 或 instead of her 之类。)要注意的是：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 用物主代词放在 stead 之前，只能表示“取代”，不能表示“不(如何)而代之以(如何)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>On the third of November following, he expressly revokes this will, and leaves another in its stead, in which his widow is never once mentioned, ... (Wilkie Collins, No Name)接着，11月3日，他明文撤销了这个遗嘱，留下另外一份，这一份根本没提到他的遗孀，……/ Tidings presently reached them, of how he had met his death in a foreign land, and how John reigned as King in his stead. (J. Walker McSpadden, Robin Hood)消息很快传到他们那里去了，说他如何葬身异国，约翰又如何继他的王位当了国王。/ Fought as I should have fought had I been in their stead, with the determination to take as many of my enemies with me when I died as lay within the power of my sword arm. (Edgar Rice Burroughs, The Warlord of Mars)我要是处在他们的位置，我就一定大战一场，决心哪怕战死也要与我自己利剑所及的所有敌人同归于尽。</div><br><br>如果要表示“不(如何)而代之以(如何)”，只能用 instead of 的结构(参见 instead of 条)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 通常放在 stead 前的是物主代词，但是偶尔也有用名词加 's 的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>(They) stay to look after the dinner in the poor cook's stead. (H. E. Marshall, English Literature for Boys and Girls) (他们)留下来代替那个可怜的厨子做晚饭。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 人称代词也有放在 instead of 后面而不改为物主代词放在 stead 前面的，这种用法大多用于人称代词(尽管以宾格形式出现)，其实是作为紧接在后面的现在分词的逻辑主语，此时，意义就不是“取代”，而是“否定这个，肯定另一个”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>When you ask someone a question, and instead of them answering you they sort ofreask the question to make you think of the answer yourself, what is that called? 当你问别人一个问题，别人不回答你，而是似乎把这个问题接过去再问你一遍，让你自己想想答案应该如何，这种情况叫作什么？/ Instead of you thanking us, I think it should be the other way round. 我觉得，不应该是你们感谢我们，而应该是反过来我们感谢你们。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> stand/serve somebody in good stead 意思是“一旦需要时对某人很有用”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Such a lesson was to serve him in good stead later. 这个教训，日后帮了他的大忙。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 仍然有用 in place of 代替 instead of 的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>“Did you know, Jamie?” Sheryl was asking me if I knew in advance of Terry's plans to donate her own heart, in place of Sheryl's. (David Rosenfelt, Heart of a Killer) “贾米，你原先知道不知道？”谢丽尔追问我是否事先知道特莉计划献出自己的心脏来代替谢丽尔要献出的心脏。</div><br><br>
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steady 与 sturdy
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>steady 与 sturdy</b></div>两者都有“稳固的，坚定的”的意义。但是 steady 侧重移动中的稳定，sturdy 则侧重静止中的坚固。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This year we've seen a steady rise in prices. 今年物价稳步上升。/ sturdy oak tables 结实的橡木桌子。即使 steady 表示没有很大变化，它所指的数量仍然是一个可变数。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>These bulky vehicles are reasonably economical at a steady 56 mph. 这些笨重的汽车，如果速度稳定在每小时56英里，就可以相当节省燃油。</div><br><br>
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still other(s)
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>still other(s)</b></div>参见 other 条之(4)。<br><br>
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still 与 quiet
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>still 与 quiet</b></div>参见 quiet 与 still 条。<br><br>
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still 与 yet
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>still 与 yet</b></div>副词 still 在否定句中意义与 yet 接近(still 放在否定之前，yet 放在否定之后)，都是表示“仍然不”，但是意义着重点有所不同。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> still 可以用于肯定句和否定句，在肯定句中谓语动词必须是延续性的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was still there. 他仍然在那里。/ I'm still living in Shanghai. 我仍然住在上海。/ He's still a child. 他还是个孩子。/ She loves him still. 她仍然爱他。(still 放在句末起加强语气作用)。</div><br><br>但如果不是时间上的“仍然”，而是论述上保持原先判断不被动摇的“仍然”，最好不用 still 而用 all the same (因为 still 多少有点“暂且”的时间意义)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... it remains a substantive all the same. (Otto Jespersen, The Philosophy of Grammar)……它仍然是个名词。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 如果反过来表示过去某状态现在已经不存在了，就要把 still 变成 no longer。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was no longer there. 他已经不在那里了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 如果从另一个角度看，表示下一步的状态现在尚未存在，可以将 still 变成 yet (yet 暗示某状态尚未存在但早晚总要来临，still 则没有这样的预期)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was not there yet. 或者保留 still，后面再否定。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He still was not there.</div><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 由于 still 通常只能配合延续性动词使用，如果动词是瞬时的，这个动作就应该是否定的，而且应该是完成时态(现在完成时或过去完成时)，因为动作否定了又采用完成时态，就可以代表无限的延续状态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I still haven't bought a new car. 我还没有买新车。(buy 是瞬时动作，必须用完成时态)</div><div class="ex-item">All of the votes cast in Marion County still had not been counted as of early Wednesday afternoon. 直到星期三中午过后，马里昂县已投的票，仍未全部计算。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> yet 则通常只用于否定句或疑问句，其谓语动词可以是延续的(用一般现在时或一般过去时)，也可以是非延续的(用现在完成时或过去完成时)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Sara is not yet here. 萨拉还没有到这里。(延续动词)</div><div class="ex-item">She hasn't come yet. 她还没有来。(瞬时动词)在肯定句中 yet 很少使用，如果使用，谓语动词必须是延续性的，而且 yet 的语气比 still 弱。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There is still hope. 仍然有希望。/ There is hope yet. 还有点希望。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> still ... not ... 与 not ... yet 意义相近，但是视角有细微的差别。前者是从原先“无”的状态的角度，表示这个旧状态的继续保持，后者则是从后来“有”的状态的角度，表示这个新状态尚未存在但预言它的来临只是时间问题。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I still can't speak French, after all these years of study. 学了这么多年，我现在还是不能讲法语。(旧状态在延续)</div><div class="ex-item">I can't speak French yet, but I hope I will be able to soon. 我还不能讲法语，但是我希望不久之后就能够讲。(新状态将来但尚未来)</div><div class="ex-item">If the plug does not fit, reverse the plug. If it still does not fit, have an electrician replace the outlet. 如果插头插不进插座，就把插头反过来插。如果仍然插不进(<i>尚未插进)，就找电工换个插座。(这里不能说 </i>If it does not fit yet，因为要强调的是否定状态的延续，而不是肯定状态的尚未到来。) not ... yet 与 still ... not 的区别，可以参考中文“尚未”与“仍未”的区别。</div><br><br>下面一段引文中，可以清楚地看出 still not 与 not yet 的区别：The gene responsible for Huntington's disease was discovered in 1993, but there is still no cure. And the decoding of the human genome, contrary to some early expectations, has not led to a burst of new drugs, at least not yet. (The New York Times, Nov. 27, 2007, F4) (引起亨廷顿病的基因是1993年发现的，但是现在仍然没有治愈的办法。而人类基因谱的解码，同早期的预期相反，并没有带来新药物的大量出现，起码是尚未如此。)前一个 still no 表示“仍然没有”，并不预期将来一定会有；后一个 not yet 则只能在预期将来一定会有的情况下才可以这样说，否则 at least 就说不通(不能说 *at least still not)。请注意中文“仍然没有”和“尚未”的细微差别。<br><br>
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stipulation
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>stipulation</b></div>参见 regulation, provision 与 stipulation 条。<br><br>
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stop
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>stop</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> stop + -ing 与 stop to inf. 意义完全不同。前者是“停止不再做某事(-ing 的动词是延续体的第二类动词)”，后者是“停止正在做的事改为去做动词不定式所指的另外一件事(to inf. 的动词可以是延续体的第二类动词，也可以是瞬时体的第四类动词，或者是第三类动词)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>“Stop talking!” the teacher shouted inexasperation. “别说话了！”老师生气地喊道。/ They stopped to talk the matter over in detail. 他们停下来，详细地商量这件事情。</div><br><br>stop 还可以作为及物动词再加 -ing 表示“制止某人做某事”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How could he expect anyone to stop his father doing exactly what he wanted? 他父亲爱干什么就干什么，他又怎么能期望有谁能制止得了？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> stop somebody/something from + -ing 是“在某人或某物即将做某事之时加以制止”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There's nothing to stop you from accepting the invitation. 没有什么可以阻止你接受这个邀请。在英式英语中，可以略去 from，此时 -ing 就从动名词转为现在分词，意思除了“在某人或某物即将做某事之时加以制止”之外，还可以表示“在某人或某物已经在做某事的延续过程中加以制止中断”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The blood coagulates to stop wounds bleeding. 血凝固起来，使伤口停止流血。/ ... but that didn't stop him continuing to fidget. (Jeffrey Archer, The Fourth Estate)……尽管如此，他仍然烦躁不安。/ A telecom company is suing one of its former members of staff to try and stop him working for a rival company. 一家电信公司状告自己从前的一名雇员，以图迫使他停止为另一家与之竞争的公司工作。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> stop somebody to inf. 则可能有两种不同的意义：(a) 不规范的用法，与 stop somebody + -ing 相近，但既可以表示“防止某人去做尚未做的某事”，也可以表示“制止某人继续做已经在做的某事”(两者都是以 somebody 为“兼语”，即 stop 的直接宾语，to inf. 的逻辑主语)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Stop them to call! 制止他们继续打骚扰电话！</div>(b) “叫住某人，然后自己去做某事”(stop 与动词不定式同一主语不变)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I often have to stop them to ask whether this is the case. 我常常只好喊住他们，问他们事情是否如此。</div><br><br>stop 与 cease 及 quit 的异同，分别参见 cease 条及 quit 条。<br><br>
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stranger
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>stranger</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 多年不见的熟人，忽然来敲门，开门时主人会说 You're a stranger here. 或 Hello, stranger! 意思不是说真的是陌生人，而只是表示分别的时间很长，几乎认不出来了。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> stranger 也是形容词 strange 的比较级。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There are few sensations stranger than walking away from a 13-hour, 7000-mile flight actually feeling refreshed. 经过一次13小时7000英里的飞行，下机时却感到神清气爽，这样的感觉，比它更加离奇的，真是不多。/ The more we think about it the stranger it will seem. (J. Green, Le langage et son double)这件事情，我们越想会越觉得离奇。(要注意不要看错词类，尤其是不要把 the stranger 看成名词)</div>
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strategy 与 tactics
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>strategy 与 tactics</b></div>原来是军事用语。前者是“战略”，指涉及整个战争或一个大战区作战的构思、计划、方案；后者是“战术”，指具体战场上某一小部分的用兵艺术。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The theater of war is the province of strategy, the field of battle is the province of tactics. (Sir Edward Bruce Hamley)战区是战略的领域，战场是战术的领域。转用到政治上，前者的中译文仍然是“战略”，后者则是“策略”。领域大小之分，也同军事上相仿。但是 tactics 有时候略带贬义。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>delaying tactics 缓兵之计。当然，军事上和政治上并不太在乎这个问题。</div><br><br>但是，转用到商业上或其他非政治领域，情况就有些变化。strategy 中文里可以译成“战略”，也可以译成“策略”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>marketing strategy 营销战略，营销策略。而 tactics 一词可能因为商业要讲“诚信”，就较少使用。例如 business strategy 是“经营策略”，business tactics 则较为少见。“博弈策略”（中文不叫“博弈战略”）则叫作 game strategy，不叫 *game tactics。总之，由于非军事和非政治领域中，“大”和“小”的区别比较模糊，strategy 到了中文里有时译为“战略”，有时译为“策略”，但 tactics 则用得不多。即使在政治领域，有时候也用 strategy 来表示权宜之计，而不用 tactics。</div><br><br>
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street
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>street</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为专有名词的街名，名称放在 street 的前面，不用定冠词 the，重音放在前面的名称上，street 没有重音。road 则相反，名称不重读，重音放在 road 上。门牌号码与中文相反，放在街道名称前面。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> street 和 road 都可以指城镇里面两旁有房屋的街道，但是如果是两旁没有房屋，只是一条交通通道，就只能说 road，不能说 street。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> street 前面的介词，美式英语多用 on，英式英语多用 in。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 如果 street 指的是马路当中的车行道，就要说 in (*on) the street。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Don't walk in the street. 不要在车行道上走路。</div><br><br>
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strength
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>strength</b></div>作为可数名词，表示“一个个的优点(强项)”，与 weaknesses (一个个的缺点或弱项)相对。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He stood by the gist of his assertions that God imbued each race with different strengths. 他坚持他主张的要旨，认为上帝赋予了每个种族以不同的优点。/ “Describe your strengths and weaknesses,” said the interviewer. 面试者说：“请说一下你的强项和弱项。”（译成“强项”似乎比译成“优点”更好些，因为这里指的主要是工作能力而不是个人的品质。）</div>
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strew
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>strew</b></div>这个及物动词的搭配，有点类似 swarm、scatter、pile、sprinkle，也就是说，它的直接宾语(被动语态的主语)，可以是散放之物，也可以是此物散放之处(strew 更多用被动语态)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His clothes were strewn all over the room. 他的衣服在屋子里到处乱扔。/ Tree branches were strewn across the roads around the region. 这个地区的公路上到处是凌乱的树枝。/ A lot of music was strewn on the piano. 钢琴上乱放着许多琴谱。/ They continued to strew cans and wrappers all across the fields. 他们仍然继续在田野上乱扔空罐头和包装纸。/ The tables were strewn with old magazines and current newspapers. 桌子上乱放着旧杂志和新报纸。</div><br><br>也可以转义为形容出了许多不愉快的情况。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The process was strewn with repeated failures. 这个过程当中失败反反复复。</div><br><br>
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strike
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>strike</b></div>作为及物动词，strike 的基本意义是“打击”。这也是中国人比较熟悉，也比较容易为其所限的一个词义。但是 strike 的意义远远不光是“打击”。除了“打击”和类似的词义之外，它至少还有如下中国人不大熟悉的词义：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 以某个想法为主语，人作宾语，表示这个人心中冒出了这个想法(属于瞬时动作，第四类动词，主宾地位同中文相反)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A sudden thought struck me. 我心中忽然有了一个想法。/ Inspiration struck me in the shower. 我冲澡时灵机一动。/ The funny side of the situation struck me afterwards. 事后我想起了那事情滑稽的一面。</div><br><br>英文中这种同中文主宾颠倒的用法，还有其他一些动词或动词词组也有这样的情况。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Unaccountably something he had read years earlier came to his mind again. 不知怎的，他多年前读到过的一些话，现在又想了起来。/ A great sense of peacefulness came over me, impossible to describe in words. 我心中涌起一阵非常安详的感觉，无法用语言来形容。/ It crossed his mind that he was getting overtired. 他猛然又想到，自己过度劳累了。/ Then the realization came to him than there might be a choice, after all. 于是他就想到，总会有一个选择吧。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 以某件事情为主语，人作宾语，表示这件事情“触动”这个人，给了他某种印象(属于延续状态，第一类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How did she strike you? 你觉得她怎么样？（千万不要误解为“她是怎样打你的”）/ She struck Paul as lazy. 保罗觉得她很懒惰。/ It strikes me as odd. 我觉得很奇怪。/ Only later it struck me as unusual. 直到后来，我才觉得那很不平常。/ It doesn't strike me as being the best course of action. 我觉得这并非上策。/ We can eat here and meet them later, how does that strike you? 咱们可以在这里吃，晚些再同他们见面，你看怎么样？/ I wasn't very struck with (英式英语) his colleague. 我对他那位同事的印象不怎么样。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 达成某协议或某种平衡局面(瞬时动作，第四类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'll strike a deal with them. 我要同他们达成一宗交易。/ It's not easy to strike a balance between too much and too little freedom. 在太多和太少的自由之间找到平衡是不容易的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 遇到好运气或财物(第四类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>strike gold 发现黄金</div><div class="ex-item">strike oil 找到石油</div><div class="ex-item">strike uranium 找到铀矿</div><div class="ex-item">strike it lucky 交上好运</div><div class="ex-item">strike it rich 发财。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> strike 的现在分词 striking 已经成为纯粹的形容词，意思是“引人注目的，有吸引力的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a striking woman 一位漂亮动人的女士</div><div class="ex-item">The most striking feature of the report is ... 该报告最引人注意之处是…… 但是 striking distance 是“很短的距离”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She lives within striking distance of London. 她就住在离伦敦不远处。</div><br><br>
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struggle
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>struggle</b></div>中国人由于多年来的经历，一看见英文 struggle 这个单词(无论是作为名词还是动词)，当下的反应常常是“斗争”，而且总是赋予其积极乐观的含义，这基本上是对的。但是 struggle 在英文中有时候比中文积极意义的“斗争”含有更多的“艰苦，困难，挣扎”的负面意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Everything seemed such a struggle to her. 对她来说，一切都是这样艰苦。/ It's a struggle to make ends meet. 收支相抵很不容易。/ We had quite a struggle to convince him. 我们好不容易才说服了他。/ But closing the gap with Sarkozy could be a struggle in round two. (The Associated Press, Apr. 23, 2007)但是，要在第二轮投票中缩小同萨科齐的差距，可能是很难的。/ He is struggling to come to terms with his dwindling authority. 他正在努力适应他日渐式微的威信。/ As he (= Eisenhower) strode to the head of the table, the British eyed him curiously, still struggling to fathom how such a man could emerge from low-born obscurity to hold this high command. (U.S. News & World Report, Oct. 28, 2002, p. 46)当艾森豪威尔朝着会议桌的首席走去时，那些英国人向他投来好奇的目光，他们仍然难以摸透，这样一个出身卑微的人，怎的竟能一跃而起，来担任这个高级指挥职务。/ Moreover, Merck is still struggling with Vioxx fallout. 而且，默克公司由于 Vioxx 这种药出了问题，还在苦苦挣扎中。/ The Republican-controlled Congress seems to be struggling lately to carry out its most basic mission: passing legislation. (The Washington Post, June 24, 2006)共和党所控制的国会近日来似乎对履行它的基本使命即通过立法感到十分吃力。/ While other financial news outlets are struggling, the cable network strikes gold. (Newsweek, Dec. 18, 2006, p. 46)别的金融新闻媒体在苦苦挣扎，而有线电视网络却财源广进。</div><br><br>有时候 struggle 甚至干脆带有类似否定的意义，它后面可以有进一步否定的词语如 let alone 或 still less 之类与之呼应。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Underdeveloped transport, lack of sophisticated logistics and the need for countless middlemen mean that foreign firms struggle to set up regional distribution networks, let alone national ones. 由于交通不便、尖端物流技术缺乏，而且又需要无数的中间商，因而外资企业难以设立地区性的销售网络，更不用说全国性的了。</div><br><br>
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student of
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>student of</b></div>不一定是“学生”，如果后面是 of + 某学科领域，可以是“研究某领域的学者”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>student of international terrorism 研究国际恐怖主义问题的学者</div><div class="ex-item">student of Egyptian archaeology 古埃及考古学者。students of Sartre 可以是萨特的学生，也可以是研究萨特的学者；student of China 更多的是研究中国的学者；Chinese student 可以是“中国学生”，也可以是“学中文的学生”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... he was ... a strong-enough German student that he regularly traveled to Hunter College in New York City to take a high-level class. (The New York Times, Sept. 30, 2007)……他是个出色的德语学生，甚至经常前往纽约市的亨特学院去听高级班的课。history student 则是“攻读历史的学生”。</div><br><br>
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stuff 与 staff
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>stuff 与 staff</b></div>参见 staff 与 staff 条。<br><br>
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stupid
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>stupid</b></div>美式英语口语中，常常在阐述了自己的看法后，末尾加上一个 stupid 的称呼，表示这可能是对方所不知道的，现在告诉对方，纠正他的看法(有点像中文的“……嘛”，而广州方言在提醒对方后常常加一个“……，笨！”，同英语不谋而合)。这样的说法很不正规，也不够礼貌，通常限于熟人之间。但是，这个口语说法表现力十分强，所以在政治宣传中也被应用。1992年，克林顿同当时的总统老布什角逐总统宝座时，老布什在外交上屡次获胜，威望很高，但是国内经济情况很不好。克林顿的竞选得力助手就发明了短短的一句话来争夺选民：It's the economy, stupid. (问题在于经济嘛。)这句话对于克林顿击败老布什当选总统起了很大作用，成了美国政治史上的一句名言。2008年的总统大选中，竞争激烈，但是直到四五月人们的注意力还是放在候选人的个人情况上(黑人、女性等等)，经济问题还没有提到主要议程上，所以《美国新闻与世界报道》(U.S. News & World Report)的评论员在4月1日撰文，文章最后说：It's less “the economy, stupid” than “the economy, huh?” (与其说是“问题在于经济嘛”，倒不如说是“问题在于经济吗？”。)参见 huh 条。<br><br>
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sturdy 与 steady
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>sturdy 与 steady</b></div>参见 steady 与 sturdy 条。<br><br>
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subject
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>subject</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为形容词，组成 be subject to 时，有“遭受，蒙受”的意义，但又可以分为三个略微不同的含义。(a) 表示事实上业已“遭受，蒙受”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Here you'll be subject to outside noises. 你在这里将会受到外界噪音的干扰。/ Each parent is allowed to give a child up to $12,000 a year before it is subject to gift tax. (U.S. News & World Report, Dec. 24, 2007, p. 55)父母每人每年可以赠予每个孩子 1.2 万美元而不用缴纳馈赠税。</div>(b) 表示“(按照规定)必须经过(某一环节或程序)(但尚未经过，结果也未知)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The project is subject to the director's approval. 方案尚待所长批准。</div>(c) 表示“(按照规定)有可能被施加(某一措施)(但尚未施加，也可能实际上不施加，这个程序不是必须实施的)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>All letters are subject to editing for length, style and fairness. 所有来信都可能经过编辑整理，做到长度适当，文笔通顺，态度客观。(有些信件就可能一字不易照登)</div><div class="ex-item">All hand baggage is subject to search. 所有手提行李都可能受到检查。(实际上只是抽查一部分)</div><div class="ex-item">Before that “special counsels” — who were selected by, answerable to, and subject to being fired or financially hamstrung by the attorney general — were the norm. (The Atlantic Monthly, November 2005, p. 44)在此之前，惯例是任命一些“特别稽查员”，他们由司法部长挑选，对他负责，可以被他解职或是控制经费。(subject to 只是“可以解职”，不是“一定解职”)参见 carry 条。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作为名词，subject 很常用的一个词义，就是“题目，主题”，但是意义扩大，就可以表示“谈论的对象”，再进一步扩大，就可以是某一行动的“对象”，接近它的对立面 object，结果 subject 和 object 就合流了。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His behavior is a subject of much controversy. 他的行为引起很多争议。英文也常常用 object 而不用 subject 来表示“对象”，尤其是内心感情的对象。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was now the object of all their rage and frustration. 他现在成了他们所有的怒火和懊恼发泄的对象。/ This is the object of his obsession. 这是他痴迷的对象。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> subject 是内容的主题；theme 是有倾向、有主张的中心思想。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The subject of the book is the question of racism, but anti-racism is its theme. 书的主题是种族主义问题，但是主要思想是反种族主义。至于 topic，则是一小段的主题。在语言学上，subject 是句法的“主语”；theme 和 topic 都可以是语用学上的“主位”(或译“主题”)。</div><br><br>
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subscribe
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>subscribe</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为不及物动词(瞬时动作，第四类动词)，是：(a) “订阅”(后面加 to X)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She subscribed to Reader's Digest. 她订阅了《读者文摘》。</div>(b) “认购(股票，公债等)”(后面加 for X)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>subscribe for shares in this company 认购这家公司的股票。</div>(c) “赞同、支持、信奉(某个主张、意见)”(后面加 to X)，可以是瞬时动作，第四类动词，但更常见的是延续状态，第一类动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A large number of them subscribe to Islam. 他们许多人信奉伊斯兰教。/ All three subscribe to the theory that ... 他们三个人全都赞成……的说法。</div>(d) “捐款支持”，是瞬时动作，第四类动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>subscribe to a charity 捐款赞助一个慈善团体。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作为及物动词(瞬时动作，第四类动词)，是：(a) “签署”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He subscribed his name to the petition. 他在请愿书上签了名。</div>(b) “认购(股票、公债等)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The share offer was heavily subscribed. 上市的股票被大量认购。</div>(c) “捐款”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Can we afford to subscribe 5,000 dollars a year to such an institution? 咱们能每年给这个机构捐款 5,000 美元吗？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 派生的名词 subscriber，通常意义是报纸杂志的“订户”、慈善团体的经常性捐款者(英式英语)、公用服务事业的“用户”(后面都用介词 to，不用 *of)。但是由(1)的(c)派生出来，也可以是某一主张或意见的赞同者。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I was not a subscriber to the view which seemed to be held by Montgomery that ... (F. W. Winterbotham, The Ultra Secret)我并不赞同似乎是蒙哥马利所持的看法，即认为……</div><div class="ex-item">a subscriber to conspiracy theories large and small (Daniel Silva, Portrait of a Spy)对大大小小的阴谋论都信以为真的人。都信以为真的人。</div><br><br>
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substance
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>substance</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> substance 与 matter 的区别，参见 matter 条。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 在美国，substance 往往指“麻醉毒品”，例如 controlled substance 其实是“毒品”(当然医药上有其用途，可以有控制地使用)，substance abuse 是“吸毒”的委婉用语。<br><br>
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substitute 与 replace
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>substitute 与 replace</b></div>都是瞬时动作，属于第四类动词。乍一看来，中文意思都是“代替，取代”，但是，两者的搭配成分是不同的。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> substitute 作为及物动词时，它的主语是掌握调动权的人，直接宾语是“新事物”，用 for 引入“旧事物”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>substitute sugar for honey 以糖代蜜。</div><br><br>不过，substitute 的主语如果是掌握调动权的人，也可以不出现“旧事物”，只出现“新事物”(作为直接宾语)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The temptation to substitute in arises from ... (Wilson Follett, Modern American Usage)之所以有人情不自禁拿 in 来取代，原因是……</div><div class="ex-item">So the director of financial aid gave the team another task: drop more than 100 needy students before sending out acceptances, and substitute those who could pay full freight. (Jonathan D. Glates, “College in Need Closes a Door to Needy Students,” in The New York Times, June 10, 2009)于是经济助学主任就给自己的班子下达了又一项任务，要在录取通知书发出之前刷掉 100 多名贫寒学生，代之以能支付全额学费的学生。</div><br><br>substitute 也可以作为不及物动词，以“新事物”为主语，用 for 引入被取代掉的“旧事物”，掌握调动权的人并不出现，此时 substitute 在意义上就相当于及物动词 replace。substitute 作为名词“代替物”时，所代替的东西也用 for 引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But information is not experience. It cannot substitute for the feel of the country — a sense of what happens next. ... satellites, intercepts and the like are no substitute for human intelligence. (Richard Cohen, “Obama's controlled response to Iran is right,” in The Daily Gazette, June 23, 2009, A7)但是，信息不等于切身体验。信息代替不了对这个国家的感受，代替不了对下一步会发生什么事情的一种感觉。……卫星也好，截听等等之类的手段也好，都代替不了活人的情报。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 而 replace (只能是及物动词)则可以有两种情况，一种情况是主语是掌握调动权的人，直接宾语是“旧事物”，“新事物”用 with 引入；另一种情况则是主语是“新事物”，直接宾语是“旧事物”，掌握调动权的人并不出现。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If a red book is removed from the desk and a brown one is put in its place, the brown book has been substituted for the red one and the red book has been replaced by the brown. 如果桌上原先有一本红色的书，被拿走了，在它的位置上放了一本棕色的书，那么，棕色的书就被拿来取代了红色的书，红色的书就被棕色的书所取代。(replace 属后一种情况)</div><div class="ex-item">Since grains are substituted (*replaced) all over the world, they say corn's rise has indirectly contributed to the rise of other grains. (U.S. News & World Report, May 19, 2008, p. 37)由于全世界都拿谷物来代替(燃料)，他们声称玉米的涨价也间接引起了其他谷物的涨价。(如果用 replaced，意义就变为“由于全世界都拿别的东西来代替谷物”)</div><div class="ex-item">The new regime replaced Makarios with Nikos Giorgiades Sampson as president. 新政权以尼科斯·吉奥嘉加·桑普森取代马卡里奥斯为总统。(replace 属前一种情况)</div>另外，replace 还有 substitute 所不可能有的一个词义，不是“取代”，而是“重新补上”(可能是同样的东西，没有更新)，例如商店售出了货物后再进货，就是 replace inventory。<br><br>
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succeed
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>succeed</b></div>这个动词(属表示瞬时动作的第四类动词)有两大基本词义，一个是“成功”，一个是“继承”。两个词义，现在看来大不相同，但是都是从拉丁文 suc- (后继)和 cēdere (进行)演变而来的。先是演变为“后继而来”，又进一步演变为“后继而来且变得更好”。大体上，作为不及物动词词义是“成功”，作为及物动词词义是“继承”，但是界限并不分明。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为不及物动词(意为“成功”)，后面可以没有任何补充成分。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>After several attempts they finally succeeded. 他们经过几次尝试，终于大功告成。/ She tried to persuade him, but did not succeed. 她设法要说服他，但是没有成功。/ Nothing succeeds like success. (Sir Arthur Helps, Realmah)头炮打响，势如破竹。</div><br><br>后面也可以加上补充成分(in + 名词或动名词)，说明在哪件事情上成功。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He's succeeded in all that he's done. 他做的事情全都成功了。/ He finally succeeded in passing the exam. 他考试终于及格了。/ You'll only succeed in making matters worse. 你只会把事情弄得更糟。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作为及物动词(意为“继承”)，直接宾语通常是前人而不是遗产或身份。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She succeeded her father as CEO. 她继承了她父亲的首席执行官职务。要注意的是：A succeed B 不光是 A 在 B 之后，而且是取代了 B 的地位，B 本身完全消失或失去了原有的地位。如果只是一先一后，两者共存，没有“取代”，就不是 succeed，而是 follow。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... she was eagerly succeeded at the instrument by her sister Mary, ... (Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice)……她的妹妹玛丽早就急切地接替她坐到钢琴跟前去了，…… 参见 inherit 与 succeed 条。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 作为不及物动词，succeed 也可以有“继承”的词义，但是此时“前人”不能独立出现，只能出现“遗产”或“地位”(用 to 引入)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He succeeded to his father's business. 他继承了父亲的经营业务。/ If the king dies childless, who will succeed (to the throne)? 如果国王去世时没有子女，那么由谁来继承王位？/ The vice-president succeeded to the presidency. 副总统继任总统之职。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> succeed 的现在分词 succeeding，作为形容词，放在名词前面，是及物动词(“后继”)的意义(但是没有宾语，是作定语)，不是不及物动词(“成功”)的意义(“成功的”应该是 successful)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Most succeeding authors have fallen into the same blunder. 日后的作者，大多数都犯了同样的错误。(不是“成功的”)</div><div class="ex-item">... most of them (= the objections) having received as full an answer as they deserve either from Malthus himself or from succeeding writers. (John Elliot Cairnes, The Character andLogical Method of Political Economy)这些反对意见大都从马尔萨斯本人或是后来的作者那里得到了应有的圆满的回答。</div><br><br>
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success
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>success</b></div>通常是个不可数的抽象名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We all strive for success in everything we do. 我们无论做什么，都力求成功。/ Sometimes it is difficult to achieve success. 有时候取得成功是有点困难的。</div><br><br>但是，也可以代表具体一件办成功了的事，此时就变成可数名词，可以按需要加上定冠词 the 或不定冠词 a，或是加上 many、few 之类的不定数词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Mr. Dolling has had many successes in his long career as a violinist. 多林先生在其多年的小提琴家生涯中多次获得成功。/ The event was a success. 这次活动办成功了。</div><br><br>
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successful 与 successive
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>successful 与 successive</b></div>前者是“成功的”；后者是“连续的，相继的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a successful attempt to land on the moon 成功的登月之举</div><div class="ex-item">three successive years of low rainfall 连续 3 年少雨。这两个不同的形容词，也是来自自动词 succeed 的两个不同词义。</div><br><br>
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such
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>such</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> such 是从内涵上界定事物，this (that、these、those)是从外延上界定事物，例如 such a law 注意的是这部法律的内容，this law 注意的则是这部法律同其他法律相区别的外部界限。但是，只是主观上的注意点不同，客观上指的是同一物，所以，日常的语言运用上，such a law 几乎等于 this law；但是 one such law 则指内涵相同的同类之一，外延往往可以不同，是另一部法律。在这一点上，常用的 such as 与 like 一样，都是提醒读者注意有关名词的内涵，两者在大多数场合可以换用。不过，such as 往往涉及复数，like 则可以兼及单复数。例如 a writer like Shakespeare 就比 writers such as Shakespeare 自然，因为后者降低了莎士比亚的独一无二的地位，而前者实际上没有离开莎士比亚一个人的范围。<br><br>such 只能修饰名词成分，如果是代词，可以用后置定语 of that sort 来代替。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Nothing of that sort (= No such thing) happened last year. 这样的事情去年并没有发生。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 正是由于 such 是从内涵界定事物，所以用 ... such as ... 来举例时(也相当于 such ... as ...)，前面的名词不能用 the 来界定，例如不能说 *the European countries such as France, Germany and Italy，要把 the 去掉。至于 such ... as ...，前一名词在 such 之后，就更没有 the 的立足之地了。不过，如果 such 前面有逗号，表示语气停顿，则前面的名词可以用 the 来界定，例如 the European countries, such as France, Germany and Italy。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> such + 名词(单数有不定冠词，复数无冠词)，后面如果有定语从句，这个从句就是从内涵而不是从外延的角度来修饰名词，把它引入的那个关系代词不可以是我们常用的 that、which、who 之类(这些关系代词都是界定外延的)，而应该是 as (参见 as 条)。但是 as 作为关系代词，乍一看来很奇怪，所以甚至许多英美本国人和作家都有不用 as 而误用 that、which、who 的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The price reached such a level <i>which (应该改为 as) would endanger our position. 价格到了可能危及我们地位的水平。/ I'll give you such information as (</i>that) I have. 我掌握什么资讯，我会原原本本地告诉你的。/ This is written in such simple English as (<i>that) can be read by beginners. 这是用初学者都能懂得的简单英语写成的。/ The set, which contains only such pieces of furniture (a sofa, a chair, etc.) </i>which (应该改为 as) are required by the action. 舞台装置只包括本剧剧情所需的几件家具(一张沙发、一把椅子等)。/ The Constitution obliges the president “to give to Congress information of the State of the Union and recommend to their consideration such measures as (<i>that) he shall judge necessary and expedient.” 宪法规定总统有义务“向国会提供有关国情的资讯并且建议国会考虑采取他认为必要而且合适的措施”。/ They were faced with such a problem as (</i>that) only an expert can solve. 他们遇到的问题，只有专家才能解决。/ They picked up some loose anonymous essays, and put them together under the names of such authors as (<i>that, </i>who) best suited their purpose. 他们选出一些零散的佚名文章，拼到一起，以哪位作者的名义对他们的目的最有利就用哪位作者的。/ By the aid of such lights as (<i>that) knowledge gradually supplies, he comes at last to discover that ... (John William Draper, A History of the Intellectual Development of Europe)靠着知识所陆续提供的这样的启发，人类终于发现……</div><div class="ex-item">The editors...have omitted such passages as (</i>that) were either superfluous or redundant. (Rollin, Ancient History, ad)一些多余或重复的段落，编者已经删去了。/ Such humble talents as (<i>that) God has given me I will endeavour to put to their greatest use; ... (Anne Brontë, The Tenant of Wildfell Hall)上帝赐予我这区区一点才能，我一定努力充分利用；……</div><div class="ex-item">... but go the children would, leaving behind schools and such friends as (</i>that) they had made, ... (Tom Clancy, Executive Orders)……但是孩子们走还是还是要走的，离开他们的学校，告别他们交到的朋友，……</div><div class="ex-item">(Mr. Matthew Adams) very kindly lent me such books as I chose to read. (Benjamin Franklin, Autobiography)马修先生一番好意，把我挑选的书借给我看。/ Never have I seen such a change as had been brought about in Silas Brown in that short time. (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes)像西拉斯·布朗这么短的时间发生这么厉害的变化，这是我从未见过的。/ I propose to him such a marriage as any nobleman in the land might be proud of. (William Makepeace Thackeray, Vanity Fair)我替他提了一桩亲事，就是国内第一等的贵族攀了这样的亲事还要觉得得意呢。(从句中 proud of 的宾语是 as，代表了主句的 such a marriage。)</div>如果先行词只是名词，没有 such，则后面的 as 就不是关系代词，而是普通的连词，此时 as 引入的定语从句要有与先行词对应的代词，不可以借用 as 来代替。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The global character of today's challenge and threats makes geographic distance irrelevant when it comes to the formulation of security policy, as (*such) threats as we know them today transcend national borders and entire continents. (U.N. General Assembly, 641 session, 8th plenary meeting, Sept. 25, 2009)制定安全政策时，今天各项挑战和威胁的全球性使得地理上的距离失去了意义，因为我们今天所知的威胁超越国家边界和各个大洲。</div><br><br>such as 也可以引入定语从句，相当于 which，但是 which 是从外延的角度来引入从句的主语或直接宾语，such as 则是从内涵的角度来引入从句的主语或直接宾语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... they tried to give her the best possible education, such as (=which) was granted to the sons of the privileged classes. ……他们设法让她受到尽可能最好的教育，相当于特权阶级男性子弟所受的教育。(such as 是从句的主语。)</div>但是也要注意，如果 such ... that ... 中的 that 不是关系代词，而是引入程度状语从句的主从连词(具备两个标志：一是从句中另有主语或宾语，不用 that 来充当；二是 such 在主句中不是修饰先行词的定语)，则当然应该保留 that。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The terms of the contract were such/Such were the terms of the contract that no self-respecting firm could accept them. 合同的条款，是任何一个有自尊的企业所无法接受的。</div><br><br>so 同 such 意义相同，只是用法不同(so 放在修饰单数名词的形容词前，such 则放在复数名词前)，因此 so ... as ... 的意义也同 such ... as ... 一样。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... but I do not remember so cruel a promiscuity as seems to be practised in the present day. (Somerset Maugham, The Moon and Sixpence)……我却不记得那时候文艺界有像今天这么多的风流韵事。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> such 还可以放在名词后面，形成名词 + such + as 的结构。这个名词必须是不特指的，as 也是充当一个关系代词，在从句中担任主语或宾语(动词或介词的宾语)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She is not a student such as would cut her classes. 她不是那种会旷课的学生。(as 在从句中担任主语)</div><div class="ex-item">I need a bag such as a doctor carries. 我需要一个像医生用的那样的袋子。(as 在从句中担任宾语)如果说 I need a bag that a doctor carries. 就不通顺，因为这样一来，a bag 不是从内涵角度来限定，而是从外延角度来限定(“某个特定的袋子”，性质相同但不是这一个也不行)。</div><br><br>such as 甚至可以不需要“挂靠”在任何名词后面，本身代表 such + 复数名词 + as (*that)，引入定语从句(as 兼作连词和从句的主语或宾语)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>First, by real ideas, I mean such as have a foundation in nature; such as have a conformity with the real being and existence of things, or with their archetypes. (John Locke, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding)首先，我所说的真实概念，指的是在自然界中有其根基的概念，是同事物的真实存在或是同其原型相符的概念。(这里的 such as ... 相当于 some ideas that ...)</div><div class="ex-item">If they who believe in Strickland's greatness are right, the personal narratives of such as knew him in the flesh can hardly be superfluous. (Somerset Maugham, The Moon and Sixpence)如果那些相信斯特里克兰伟大的人看法正确的话，与他有过亲身接触的人对他的追述便很难说是多余的了。但是这种用法今天已较少见。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 用 very、great 之类的单词来形容某情状的程度之高，常常提供的是新信息；而如果改用 such，则提供的是已知信息。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He's had a very bad day. 他过了很倒霉的一天。(very bad 是新信息)</div><div class="ex-item">Why did he have such a bad day? 他这一天为什么过得这样倒霉？(such a bad day 是已知信息)</div><div class="ex-item">The weather was very cold. 天气很冷。/ I wasn't expecting such cold weather. 我没有料到天气会这么冷。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> such ... that ... 是呼应关系(“如此……以至于……”), 但是有时候后面的 that 会略去。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The slayings left people of this once-peaceful mountain town andthe university at its heart praying for the victims and struggling to find order in a tragedy of such unspeakable horror (that) it defies reason. (The Associated Press, Apr. 17, 2007)经过这次残杀事件，这个一度宁静的山城和它中心的大学的人们只好为遇难者祈祷，设法在这场毫无理智、难以形容的恐怖悲剧中平静下来。</div><br><br>
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such and such
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>such and such</b></div>作为不定代词，可以指人，也可以指物，可以作为单数，也可以作为复数，意思是“某人或某物”，或者是记不起明确是谁或是某物，或者是随便谁或什么都行。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Mary said that such and such was coming to her party, but I forgot their names. 玛丽说某某人要来参加她的联欢会，但是我忘记他们的名字了。/ If you walk into a store and ask for such and such and they don't have it, you go to a different store. 你如果走进一家商店，询问某件东西，他们没有，你就去另一家看看。</div><br><br>such and such 还可以是形容词，后面接上不定冠词，意义同上。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>such and such an ending (Otto Jespersen, The Philosophy of Grammar)某个词尾</div><div class="ex-item">They are always telling her how pretty she is and how becoming such and such a dressing is on her. (John Darnton, The Darwin Conspiracy)他们老是告诉她，说她多漂亮，穿上某件衣服多么合身。</div><br><br>
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suggest
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>suggest</b></div>中国人一看见这个动词，就容易马上想到这是“建议”，但其实它的含义比较复杂：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 表示“建议(做某事)”，是瞬时动作，搭配方式有：(a) 建议内容为直接宾语(名词成分或动词不定式)，获得建议的人用 to 引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He suggested dinner the next evening. 他提议次日大家吃顿晚饭。/ I suggested three alternatives to them. 我给他们提出了三个可选方案。/ The only thing I can suggest to you is to tell them the truth. 我唯一能建议你做的事情，就是告诉他们真相。</div>(b) 建议内容为动名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She suggested leaving them a note. 她建议给他们留一张字条。</div>(c) 获得建议的人用 to 引入，建议内容用 that 从句(动词用虚拟式)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He suggested to me that I (should) look for another job. 他建议我另找工作。/ It was you who suggested that I tell my parents. 是你建议我告诉我父母的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> “推荐”(瞬时动作)。推荐的人选为直接宾语，推荐拥有的身份用 as 引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He suggested Smith to us as a suitable candidate. 他向我们推荐史密斯作为合适的人选。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 表示“(主语是人)提出(某一可能)；指出(存在某事)”，可以是瞬时动作，也可以是延续状态，表示“持有(见解)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Can you suggest a possible source for this rumor? 你能说说这个谣言可能的来源何在吗？/ I suggest (that) he's lying. 我认为他是在撒谎。/ No one is suggesting (that) you stole the money. 没有谁说钱是你偷的。/ I suggest (to you) that you are not telling the whole truth. 我的意思是你并没有把真话全说出来。/ It would be foolish to suggest that everyone in America is rich. 如果说美国人人都富有，那就太愚蠢了。/ Democrats Suggest Double Standard on Leaks. 民主党人指责(布什政府)在泄密问题上采取双重标准。(不要误解为“建议采取双重标准”)</div><div class="ex-item">He also suggested that Washington puts its political interests above the democratic ideals it claims to cherish. (The Associated Press, May 10, 2006)他还认为，美国政府将自己的政治利害摆在它声称珍视的民主理想之上。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 表示“(主语是人)暗示”，可以是瞬时动作(第四类动词)，也可以是延续态度(表示“见解”，第一类动词)；“(主语是事物)间接显示”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>What are you trying to suggest by that? 你这话是什么意思？/ Are you suggesting (that) my son is a thief? 你的意思是不是说我儿子是个贼？/ All the evidence suggests that he was involved. 一切证据都令人觉得他是有份的。/ The Supreme Court's 5-4 decision suggests George W. Bush stands a “substantial probability of success.” 最高法院五比四的裁决，使人感到乔治·W. 布什“成功的把握相当大”。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 表示“(主语是事物)轻微地显露，流露”，是延续状态(第一类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His gray eyes usually suggested a confidence and discretion born from experience. 他灰色的眼睛常常显示出由于世故而养成的既自信又严谨的性格。/ His reaction suggested a guilty conscience. 他的反应流露出他有点心虚。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 表示“(主语是事物)使人联想到”，是延续状态(第一类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>What does this melody suggest to you? 这段旋律使你想到了什么？/ We used swaying green curtains to suggest the wood in the play. 我们在剧中用晃荡的绿色幕布象征森林。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 中文很普遍的“兼语式”(“建议”某人去做某事)不能套在 suggest 上，也就是说，不能说 <i>suggest somebody to do something，要改为 suggest that，从句的谓语动词用虚拟语气(should 可以省略)或直陈语气都可以。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Her uncle suggested that she (should) get/gets a job in a bank. (</i>Her uncle suggested her to get ...) 她叔父建议她找一份银行的工作。如果是当场提建议，则不用 *should。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I suggest that you get a job in a bank. 我建议你去找一份银行的工作。关于兼语式，参见 support 条。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> suggest 作为瞬时动词，可以有双宾语(即直接宾语和间接宾语)，但是间接宾语必须用 to 引入，放在直接宾语之后，不能没有 to 而放在直接宾语之前。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Can you suggest a restaurant to us? (*Can you suggest us a restaurant?) 您能够给我们推荐一家饭馆吗？</div><br><br>
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suggestion
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>suggestion</b></div>这个名词，同动词 suggest 一样，意义不仅是“建议”而已：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 表示“建议”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If I may make/offer a suggestion, ... 如果允许我提出个建议，……</div><div class="ex-item">My suggestion is that ... 我的建议是：……</div><div class="ex-item">Following your suggestion, ... 按照您的建议，……</div><div class="ex-item">I'm open to suggestions. 我愿意倾听大家的建议。/ Do you have any suggestions for speeding up the process? 大家对如何加快进程有什么建议吗？/ I bought it at my wife's suggestion. 我是按照我妻子的主张把它买下来的。/ If nobody has any other suggestions, we'll move on. 如果没有人还有别的建议，咱们就谈别的事情吧。/ Their suggestion is that we stop work immediately. 他们的建议是要我们立刻停工。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 不一定是“建议”，可以是“暗示，透露”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The simple suggestion that the network was tainted could ruin the entire plan. 只要透露一下，说这个网络染上了病毒，整个计划就要垮台。/ Any suggestion the president hasn't been fully engaged on this pre-Katrina would be wrong. (Newsweek, Oct. 17, 2005, p. 39)任何说总统没有将全部精力用于预防卡特里娜风灾工作的说法，都是错误的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 表示“一点点”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>with just a suggestion of garlic 加上一点点大蒜味</div><div class="ex-item">a dish with a (slight) suggestion of saffron 一道加上了一点藏红花的菜肴</div><div class="ex-item">with a suggestion of irony in his voice 声音中略带讥讽口吻</div><div class="ex-item">There was a suggestion of a smile on her face. 她的脸上露出一丝笑容。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 表示“迹象”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There is no suggestion of any change in policy. 没有任何改变政策的迹象。/ There was no suggestion of foul play. 没有任何迹象显示有欺诈。/ There is no suggestion of negligence on their part. 没有迹象说明他们有疏忽。</div><br><br>
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summer
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>summer</b></div>前面要不要 the 的问题，参见 spring, summer, autumn 与 winter 条。<br><br>
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summon 与 summons
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>summon 与 summons</b></div>summon 是个动词(表示“召唤”)。summons 则是个单数名词(尽管是以 -s 结尾)，复数是 summonses。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a summons 一则召唤令，一道传唤出庭通知。但是，summons 也可以作动词，意思是“(法院)传唤出庭”。</div><br><br>
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Sunday
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>Sunday</b></div>星期日，在美国已经通行当作每个星期的第一天，但是在世界上许多国家却当作是周末一天。<br><br>
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superb
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>superb</b></div>这个形容词的原意是“美妙到无以复加的”，通常只用于肯定，不常用于否定、疑问或假设。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Her performance was superb. 她的表演妙极了。/ What a superb performance she gave! 她表演得多么美妙！但是不习惯说 <i>Her performance wasn't superb. (她的表演并不美妙之至。) </i>How superb a performance did she give? (她的表演美妙程度如何？) *If the performance is superb, she'll get an extra $1,000. (如果表演得十分出色，她可以另外多得 1,000 美元。)</div>不过，superb 也可以用于带有婉转意义的否定场合，通常先肯定一番，然后表示“尚未达到尽善尽美的境界”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Good, but not superb. 还好，但还不是尽善尽美。/ Decent, but not superb. 还可以，但还够不上十分好。/ OK/Passable, but not superb. 还是过得去，但是算不上十分好。/ Retailers reported good, if not superb, business. 零售商们上报，生意还不错，但也不是十分兴隆。也可以先否定 superb 然后再对这个否定加以补救。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The F-111 — not superb but irreplaceable. F-111 型战斗机，虽然并非十全十美，但没有别的机种可以取代它。</div><br><br>
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supply
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>supply</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为及物动词，supply 与 provide、present 一样有两种搭配：supplysomething to someone, supply someone with something。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作为名词，不光可以表示一方对他方的“供应”，也可以表示自己拥有的“存量”(是陆续消耗的，不是保持不动的)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Food supplies are running low. 存粮越来越少了。/ We'll need a good supply of books. 我们将需要相当多的图书。/ We only have a month's supply of oil. 我们的存油只够用一个月了。/ From now on they would live off of the dwindling supply of canned food aboard. 从现在起，他们就要靠船上储存的日渐减少的罐头食品来度日。/ Juliane checked to make sure there was a good supply of cups near the soft drink fountain. (Merrillee Whren, Hometown Promise)朱莉安检查了一下，确认软饮料机旁边杯子够了。甚至可以比喻自己身体中消耗性物质的存量。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>For years I shed so many tears that my supply ran dry. 多少年来，我流了这么多的眼泪，都流干了。</div><br><br>supply 不但可以指本身拥有的物质“存量”，甚至还可以指本身具有的抽象品性，这就离“供应”更远了。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... she recognized that he had at least two worthwhile qualities that were in short supply in the population. (David Rosenfelt, Heart of a Killer)……她承认，他起码有一般人缺乏的两个可贵品质。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 作为单数不可数名词(不加冠词)，supply 是经济上“供”与“求”中的“供”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Economic stability can only be reached if demand and supply are in approximate balance. 唯有供求大体平衡，才能达成经济稳定。</div><br><br>
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support
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>support</b></div>中文的兼语式，在英语中有许多类似的结构，例如：want、tell、ask、beg、order、instruct、permit、forbid、warn、invite、remind、force、allow、advise、commission 等动词，都可以在其直接宾语后再加上动词不定式(此时直接宾语成为“兼语”，即既兼宾语又兼主语)。但是动词 support 不属于这类动词，就是说，不能照中文“支持某人去做某事”的模式得出 *support somebody to do something 的搭配。遇到这样的中文兼语式要译成英文，需要灵活处理，不能照搬，例如可以译成 support someone in their effort to inf.。同样，动词 suggest 也不能有兼语式，参见 suggest 条。<br><br>
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supposed
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>supposed</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> be supposed to inf. 这个词组在英语中用得很多，基本的意思就是“按理应该”，否定了就是“按理不应该”。(a) “按理”按的是法律、规则、习惯之理(事实上是否做了，这里不管)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You are supposed to report it to the police as soon as possible. 你应该尽快将这件事事情报告给警察。/ I'm not supposed to talk to you about this. 这件事情我是不应该同你谈的。/ It is supposed to be kept in a cool place. 它应该放在阴凉处。/ What's that switch supposed to do? 那个开关是管什么的？/ You're not supposed to use dictionaries. 不准查词典。/ The door wasn't supposed to close so fast. 门按理不应该关得这样快。</div>(b) “按理”按的是临时约定之理(往往事实上没有做)或是原先推测之理(但是结果却不符合推测)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>“You were supposed to meet me at one,” she said, her voice cracking. “你本来应该是一点钟来同我会面的。”她激动地说。/ Where are we supposed to be meeting them? 我们本来应该在哪里同他们见面？/ This was supposed to be his moment of glory, ... But instead, ... (Dan Brown, Digital Fortress)这本来应该是他功成名就的时刻，……可是，……</div>(c) “按理”按的是常识之理(但事实并非如此)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Aren't you supposed to be at home? 你难道不是应该在家的吗？/ It wasn't supposed to come to this. 本来事情不应该闹成这个样子。/ Retirement is supposed to provide a respite from life's travails, but there are some realities even a day on the golf course won't let one escape. (U.S. News & World Report, Aug. 12, 2002, p. 40)退了休，本来人生的辛劳就可以得到一点缓解，但其实有一些现实问题并不是打一天的高尔夫球就逃避得了的。</div>(d) “按理”按的是一般人的看法(但是说话者可能另有看法)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's supposed to be a very interesting book. 据认为这是一本很精彩的书。/ You're supposed to be the expert, not me. 你应该是专家，而不是我。</div>(e) 如果是疑问句，就包含“遇到难题”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How am I supposed to finish all this work by ten o'clock? 这一切的工作，我 10 点钟以前怎么完成得了？/ What was he supposed to do? How was he going to win her back? 他该怎么办？他该怎么做才能把她争取回来？</div><br><br>be supposed to inf. 表示“按理应该”时，如果要加以否定，可以有三种方式。第一，否定 to be，此时意思是“不应该，不被允许，不可以”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You're not supposed to walk on the grass. 你不可以踩踏草地。第二，be supposed not to inf.，此时意思是“应该注意不要”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>People were supposed not to laugh impolitely during the French Enlightenment. 在法国启蒙时期，人们需要注意不要笑得失礼。第三，be supposed to not inf.，此时比第二种更为着重“应该主动去避免做某事”，参见 not to inf. 与 to not inf. 条。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> supposed 可以作定语，放在名词前面，有“所谓的”(“不见得名副其实的”)的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>all these supposed experts 所有这些所谓的专家。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 值得注意的是：supposed 作表语和作后置定语(例如 the man supposed to inf.)，意义是不同的。前面(1)中，都是作表语，意思大致上都是“按理应该”。但是这个意义，必须以前面有动词 be 的各种形式为前提。如果没有 be，此时 supposed 作为一个名词成分的后置定语，情况就发生了以下变化。<br><br>首先，意义不同了，没有 to be，意义就变成“据说，据称，据推测”。<br><br>其次，be supposed to inf. 的 inf. 可以是延续体的，也可以是瞬时体的；但是如果没有 be 在前，则这个 inf. 只能是延续体的(如果是瞬时体的，就要用 to have pp. 的形式，表示瞬时动作留下的延续状态)；其被动式 to be + pp. 也不是表示被动的瞬时事件，而是表示留下的延续状态。例如 this book, supposed to be written by a traveler (这本书认为是一位旅行家所写的书)。在这里，第一，supposed to 没有“按理应该”的意思；第二，to be written 不是“将要被写”，而是“已经写出的状态”(被动的瞬时事件 to have been written 留下了延续状态 to be written)。<br><br>此外，即使是 be supposed to inf.，也不一定就是“理应”的意思，也可以是 be 和 supposed to inf. 两个意义的相加，即“被假定为”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>When a number of persons (whom we may style subjects) are supposed to be in the habit of paying obedience to a person ..., such persons altogether (subjects and governors) are said to be in a state of political society. (Philip Schofield, Utility and Democracy) 当有一批人(我们可以称之为“臣民”)被假设服从于某一个人……之时，这些人合在一起(“臣民”和“统治者”)，就可以说是处于一个政治社会之中。</div><br><br>由于 supposed to inf. 前面没有 be 就是“被假定”的意思(即使有，也可以是这个意思)，因此，如果要表示“按理应该”，就不要让 supposed to inf. 充当名词成分的后置定语，而最好采用一个从句，好让动词 be 出现。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The houses that are supposed to (<i>The houses supposed to) be destroyed are occupied. 本来要拆毁的房子是有有人住着的。/ The guides who were supposed to (</i>The guides supposed to) show us the path were sick. 那些本来要给我们引路的向导们病了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> supposed 可以派生出副词 supposedly，有“据称”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The robot is supposedly capable of understanding spoken commands. 机器人据称能听懂口头指令。/ He's supposedly too sick to walk. 据说他病得厉害，不能走动。参见 alleged 条与 reportedly 条。</div><br><br>
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sure
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>sure</b></div>作为形容词，它的基本意义比较单纯，就是“可靠的，肯定的”。但是由于搭配的不同，在用法和意义上有细微的差别。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作表语，后面不接任何附加成分，表示“(对当前正在谈论的事)深信不疑”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He'll win, I'm sure. 他一定会赢，我可以肯定。/ How can you be so sure? 你怎么能这样肯定?</div><div class="ex-item">You seem convinced, but I'm not sure. 看样子你是相信的，我却不能肯定。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作表语，后面接 about + 指事物的特指名词，表示“(对某一问题或事项)有把握”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I like it, but I'm not too sure about the colour. 我喜欢这个，但是对颜色我拿不准。/ Are you sure about that? 你对此能肯定吗?</div><div class="ex-item">She isn't sure about her feelings for him. 她对自己对他是什么感情拿不准。</div><br><br>如果 about 后面是人，就表示对某人信得过。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He's not quite sure about Edward. 他对爱德华不那么放心。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 作表语，后面接 of + 定指名词，表示“确信(某事)为真”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Are you sure of your facts? 你确信你说的都是事实吗?</div><div class="ex-item">I'm sure of one thing: he's a liar. 我有一点可以肯定：他撒谎了。/ She isn't sure of her feelings for him. 她对自己对他的感情没有把握。有把握。/ Once you've impressed these customers and they're sure of your credibility, they'll be much more likely to upgrade to a higher-priced membership level. 你一旦打动了顾客，让他们对你的信誉产生信心，他们就更可能升级到价钱更高的会员级别去。或者表示“业已查明”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Never buy something unless you're sure of the price elsewhere. 除非查明了别处的价钱，否则千万别买什么东西。如果是接 of + oneself，就表示对自己很有信心。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She's not so sure of herself these days. 这几天她对自己信心不那么大了。</div><br><br>后面接 of + 不特指名词，表示“自己确信一定会获得(某事物)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You can be sure of good service in this restaurant. 您光临本餐厅，肯定会得到优质的服务。/ They say they're sure of acquittal. 他们说他们一定会获得无罪判决。但有时也可以不指主语本人确信而指说话者自己确信。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>At the party, you're sure of a hearty welcome. 在招待会上，你一定会受到诚挚的欢迎。/ The team is sure of victory. 这一队一定会赢。</div><br><br>后面接 of + -ing，则表示“自己确信自己一定如何”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I want to be sure of getting there on time. 我想能有把握准时到达那里。/ They don't like to help out others, unless they're sure of getting something in return. 他们不喜欢帮助别人，除非有把握得到某种回报。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 作表语，后面接间接疑问句，表示“对某问题的答案有把握”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He's not sure whether he's going to come or not. 他不确定自己来不来。/ They're not sure if they can come. 他们不确定自己能不能来。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 作表语，后面接 that 从句，表示“肯定某事为真”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm sure (that) you're right. 我肯定你是对的。/ Be sure you have at least eight hours to devote to sleep. 你要保证至少有 8 小时睡眠时间。</div><br><br>表示否定(“不肯定某事为真”)时除了可以用 not 否定系动词 be 之外，还可以用 un- 来否定 sure，此时后面可以用 that 从句，也可以用 if/whether 从句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was unsure (that) the Army would discharge him in time for Christmas. 他对军方会不会及时让他退役过圣诞节没有把握。/ He was unsure if he'd be able to fulfill the commitment to his friend. 他向朋友许下的诺言，究竟能否兑现，他自己也拿不准。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 作表语，后面接动词不定式，这个结构，在含义上比较特别。be sure to inf. 的意义，要看主语是谁。不管如何，意义都是说话者自己表示有信心，肯定事情会如何如何。因此，如果 be sure to inf. 的主语是第一人称，就是“我/我们有信心肯定我/我们自己必然如何”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm sure to make you laugh. 我有把握把你们都逗笑。而如果主语是第二或第三人称，就不是“你/你们或他/他们有信心肯定你/你们或他/他们自己必然如何”，而是“我有信心肯定你/你们或他/他们必然如何”。例如如 He is sure to win. 与 He is sure of winning. 意义不同。前者是“我肯定他一定会赢”(相当于 I'm sure (that) he will win. 或 It is certain that he will win. 或(较罕用) It is sure that he will win.)，后者是“他自己肯定自己一定会赢”。如果主语不是人，那就更加不可能是主语本身有信心。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is sure to rain. 一定会下雨。/ We have a lot of books you're sure to love. 我们有许多您一定会喜欢的书。(不是“您自己肯定”，是“我们肯定”)</div><div class="ex-item">At the beginning he's sure to be full of enthusiasm. 一开始时，他一定是兴致勃勃。(不是“他自己预测”，是“我预测”)</div><div class="ex-item">If your children see you wearing a mask, they're sure to want to try it too. 你的孩子们如果看见你戴着面具，他们一定也想试试看。/ They're sure to get wet in the river. 他们到了河里一定会弄湿。定”，是“我们肯定”)</div><div class="ex-item">At the beginning he's sure to be full of enthusiasm. 一开始时，他一定是兴致勃勃。(不是“他自己预测”，是“我预测”)</div><div class="ex-item">If your children see you wearing a mask, they're sure to want to try it too. 你的孩子们如果看见你戴着面具，他们一定也想试试看。/ They're sure to get wet in the river. 他们到了河里一定会弄湿。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 词组 be sure to inf. 如果放在祈使句中，就从说话者的断言转变为“你一定要做某事”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Be sure to be on time tomorrow. 明天一定要准时。/ Be sure to let me know. 一定要告诉我。/ Be sure not to touch it. 千万别碰它。/ Be sure to check yourselves. 一定要检查身体。/ Be sure to back up all your priceless digital photos. 你珍贵的数码照片，一定要备份。/ Be sure to unplug the humidifier before cleaning. 加湿器清洗前一定要拔掉插头。</div><br><br>但是在实际应用中往往改成 be sure and inf.。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Be sure and ask him about his garden. 一定要问问他的花园搞得怎么样了。/ Be sure and come home by five. 5 点钟以前千万要回到家。参见 try 条与 go 条。</div><br><br>另外，这个意思也可以用 be sure you + 谓语动词(其实是虚拟式)来表示。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Be sure you get your daily quota of calcium. 你每天一定要摄入足量的钙。(参考下面的(8))</div><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> 词组 make sure that 后面跟从句(that 可以省略)，有两个不同的意义：(a) 积极的：注意采取某行动，或努力实现某一状态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Make sure that you follow the instructions carefully. 你一定要仔细照说明去做。/ It is his job to make sure that everyone is satisfied. 他的分内任务，就是让人人满意。/ Make sure you're not late. 注意千万不要迟到。/ Make sure I have the final text on my desk by five this afternoon. 你一定要在今天下午 5 点钟之前把最后定稿送到我的办公桌上。/ The government is effectively conscripting private businesses into the war on terrorism but doing so without making sure that businesses don't trample on individual rights. (The Washington Post, Mar. 27, 2007, D01) 政府正在有效地吸纳私营企业参加反恐战争，但是这样做的时候，又没有设法确保企业不践踏个人权利。/ The state eventually cleared the school's administrators but made sure (that) last year's testing was monitored by an outside agency. (Newsweek, Oct. 15, 2007, p. 41) 州当局查明了该校管理人员没有(考试作弊)问题，但还是让去年的测验由外界的一个机构来监督。这种用法，从句谓语动词可以是表示瞬时动作的第四类动词，也可以是表示延续状态的第一类动词，它的时态同实际时间不一致，形式上用一般现在时或一般过去时，但实际上指的是将来或过去将来。</div>(b) 消极的：不是自己做什么事，而是查明某一有利的情况确实存在(从句的谓语动词一定要是表示延续状态的第一类动词，或是用进行式来表示延续的第二类动词，它发生的时间同 make sure 的时间一致)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We made sure that no one was listening. 我们确定了没有人在线。/ He looked in the bathroom to make sure that he was alone. 他往洗手间里面瞧了瞧，确定了没有旁人。/ Ask if you'll need periodic blood tests or other monitoring to make sure the drug is working properly. 问一下你是否需要定期进行血液化验或其他监控，以确定药物正在生效。需要定期进行血液化验或其他监控，以确定药物正在生效。/ The doctor ordered that a set of X-rays be taken to make sure that the injuries to my ankle were not serious. 医生吩咐照一组 X 光，以确定我踝骨的损伤并不严重。</div>(c) 从上面(a)和(b)看来，如果 make sure that 后面从句的谓语动词是表示延续状态的，那么积极和消极两种可能都存在，要从上下文、语境和事理来判别，例如 It is his job to make sure that everyone is satisfied. 既可以是“他的分内任务，就是让人人满意”(任务尚未完成)，也可以是“他的分内任务，就是明确弄清楚人人都是满意的”(状态已经存在)，但是后一种可能性不大符合常理。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(9)</span> 词组 make sure to inf. 同 be sure to inf. 差不多，也是表示“注意一定去做某事”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Make sure to speak with your doctor. 一定要同您的医生谈一下。</div><br><br>概括起来，叮嘱某人一定要做某事时，sure 这个形容词可以有四种搭配，最常用的是 be sure to inf.；其次是 be sure you + 动词原形(虚拟式)；较少用的是 make sure to inf. 与 make sure you + 动词原形(虚拟式)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In Tokyo, be sure to see the Tokyo National Museum.</div><div class="ex-item">Be sure you see the Tokyo National Museum.</div><div class="ex-item">Make sure to see the Tokyo National Museum.</div><div class="ex-item">Make sure you see the Tokyo National Museum. 到了东京，你可一定要去参观东京国立博物馆。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(10)</span> sure 还可以作为副词，或加强语气，表示“的确，当然”，或表示让步。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She sure is clever. (= She's sure clever.) 她这个人真机灵。/ He sure likes to talk. 他这个人真健谈。/ Sure she loves you. 她当然是爱你的。/ Sure, he's a great guy, but ... 他这个人的确不错，不过……</div><br><br>
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surprise, amaze, astonish, astound 与 startle
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>surprise, amaze, astonish, astound 与 startle</b></div>这几个都是瞬时的及物动词，意义大体上都是“使惊讶”，但是有细微的差别。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> surprise 原来有军事上的“出其不意，攻其不备”的含义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>R.A.F. bombers surprised a large invasion training exercise and inflicted heavy losses. (William Lawrence Shirer) (英国)皇家空军轰炸机突袭了(德军的)一场大型渡海作战演习，使之遭受重创。</div><br><br>这个动词，也扩大用于非军事方面(“撞破”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A detective surprised him (in the act of) breaking into the warehouse. 他正在闯入仓库时，被一名侦探撞破了。</div><br><br>所以，surprise 着重“突然，无备”，而不着重“惊慌”的心理效果，甚至不涉及双方对抗的场合，只要是“忽然”，都可以用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Housemaids must vanish silently if surprised at their tasks. (Victoria Mary Sackville-West) 女仆们干活时如果忽然有人前来，就应该静悄悄地退出。而且，涉及的甚至可以是好事。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She surprised her parents with a present on their wedding anniversary. 她送给父母一件结婚纪念礼物，给他们来个惊喜。</div><br><br>但是 surprise 用于被动句，则转为着重“惊讶”的心理效果。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She could no longer be surprised by anything he might say or do. 他无论说什么，做什么，她都不会感到惊讶了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> amaze 着重“惊奇”的心理效果。引起“惊奇”的原因常常是正面的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The circus amazed and delighted the children. 马戏让孩子们看了感到惊奇和高兴。/ I'm amazed by/at his rapid progress in English. 他的英语进步这么快，使我感到惊讶。/ That he should even speak to her was amazing! (Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice) 他居然还会走上前跟她说话，光是这一点，就够叫人惊讶的了!</div>也可以是中性的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She was amazed to hear the news. 她听到消息很惊讶。(news 可能好也可能坏)。</div><br><br>也可以是负面的(但不是“惊讶”到不得了)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm amazed (that) he should have accepted the offer. 他接受了这个提议，我感到大惑不解。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> astonish 有人认为来自 stone，也有人认为来自拉丁文 ex (外来) + tonāre (雷鸣)，无论如何，都有点“使人惊讶得目瞪口呆”的意思，正面负面都可以。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I was astonished to learn that he had resigned. 我听说他辞了职，十分惊讶。/ ... while still an undergraduate ... (he) had astonished the scientific world by his acceleration of the metamorphosis of the tadpole. (Sir Compton Mackenzie) ……他还是个大学本科生的时候……就已经加快了蝌蚪的变形过程，使得科学界大为震惊。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> astound 也是来自拉丁文 ex (外来) + tonāre (雷鸣)，“惊讶”的力度又比 astonish 强，接近于“震惊”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Her love affair astounded her parents, who abruptly put an end to it. 她的偷情行为使父母大为震惊，于是父母猛然加以制止。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> startle 也是“惊讶”，意思同 astonish 差不多，但是有时候带有“惊动”的“动”意，着重“把(某人)从不注意或没有知觉的状态中猛然唤醒”。正面负面都可以。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>startle a person out of/from his sleep 把某人从睡眠状态中弄醒过来</div><div class="ex-item">The barking of a dog startled me. 一只狗的吠声惊动了我。/ He was startled to see how beautiful she was. 她是多么的美丽，他看见了顿时觉得惊艳。</div><br><br>
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surrounding
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>surrounding</b></div>参见 environment 条。<br><br>
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survive
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>survive</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 这个动词，作为及物动词(延续状态，第一类动词)时最基本的意义，是“(经过某事件或某个人的去世后)仍然活着”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He survived his children. 他一直活到自己儿女去世之后。多活多长时间，用 by 表示。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He survived his wife by ten years. 他在他妻子去世之后又活了 10 年。常常以被动语态出现，此时主语是已经死去的人。虽然人已死，但仍可以用一般现在时。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She is survived by her daughter. 她的遗属有她的女儿。参见 predecease 条。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 直接宾语可以不是人而是事件(瞬时事件，第四类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He survived the operation. 他经受住手术，安然无恙。/ Two of the crew survived the shipwreck. 船只失事后，船员有两人幸存。/ His grandfather survived the war. 他的祖父经过战争幸存下来了。/ None of the flowers survived the storm. 所有的花朵都没能经住那场暴风雨。/ Their love didn't survive the end of money. 钱一用光，他们的爱情也就维持不下去了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> survive 也可以是不及物动词，意义仍然是“活下来，保存下来”(第四类或第二类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Few animals survived after the forest fire. 森林大火之后，能活下来的动物很少。/ The play does not survive in its original form. 这出戏剧，已经失去了最初的形式。/ The custom has survived into the twentieth century. 这个风俗一直保留到 20 世纪。下来的动物很少。/ The play does not survive in its original form. 这出戏剧，已经失去了最初的形式。/ The custom has survived into the twentieth century. 这个风俗一直保留到 20 世纪。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 作为不及物动词，survive 也可以不一定涉及生死攸关的大事，而只是经过淘汰仍然保存下来，甚至只是一般的“安然无事”(第四类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Only two jurors survived. 经过筛选，只剩下两名陪审员。/ Even if I fail the entrance examination, I'll survive. 即使我入学考试没有通过，我也会活得好好的。</div><br><br>作为及物动词，也是如此。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Despite her agreement to meet with him and her prayers that she would be able to survive their one-on-one talk without letting old prejudices color her thoughts, she wasn't ready. (Merrillee Whren, Hometown Promise) 尽管她已经答应同他见面，而且她也祷告希望自己能够安然应付好这次一对一的交谈，不至于让昔日的成见影响到自己的心思，但是她仍然没有准备妥当。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 作为及物动词，通常直接宾语如上面(1)与(2)所述，是已经去世的人，或者是某一事件。这里有一个要点，就是这个人或事件是已经过去了或消逝了的。唯有了解了这一点，对下面一个例句中的 my share in this disappointment 才能了解其“业已过去，不复存在”的隐含性质。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Your restoration to peace will, I doubt not, speedily follow this act of filial obedience, and I flatter myself with the hope of surviving my share in this disappointment. (Jane Austen, Lady Susan) 你既然这样孝顺，遵从了父母的意旨，我深信你的内心一定会恢复安宁，我也满怀希望，但愿我原先的一份沮丧也会成为过去。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> survive 如果主语不是人，可以有“经得起(某考验)”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... this type of explanation, too, fails to survive scrutiny. (Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs, and Steel) ……这一类的解释，也同样经不起检验。</div><br><br>
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susceptible
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>susceptible</b></div>这个形容词在书面英语中用得相当多。由于不易同中文“一对一”，所以中国人不容易应用自如，不过理解并不困难。它的名词 susceptibility 现在在中文一般都译为“敏感性”。这个形容词只有在很少的场合用作前置定语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a susceptible nature 敏感的天性</div><div class="ex-item">a susceptible young girl 多愁善感的少女。在大多数场合，它是作表语或后置定语，后面都要加上 to 或 of 介词短语，补充说明“易受”什么或对什么“敏感”(主体是被动的，被这个“什么”所左右)。但是用 to 还是 of，要看不同的情况：</div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 修饰人或生物时，用 to。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>be susceptible to illness 容易得病</div><div class="ex-item">be susceptible to flattery 容易受人吹捧</div><div class="ex-item">He is highly susceptible to flights of fancy. 他容易胡思乱想。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 修饰事物时，用 of。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The argument is susceptible of serious misunderstanding. 这个论据容易被人严重误解。/ These facts are not susceptible of proof. 这些事实是无法证明的。但是也有用 to 的。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Yet that explanation is it self susceptible to Darwinian analysis: ... (The Economist, Dec. 20, 2008, p. 128) 但是那样的解释，也是可以用达尔文主义来分析的：……</div><br><br>
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suspect 与 doubt
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>suspect 与 doubt</b></div>参见 doubt 与 suspect 条。<br><br>
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suspicious
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>suspicious</b></div>它的意义可以是：“(人)感到怀疑的”(对什么怀疑用 of 或 about)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She was always suspicious of his intentions. 她对于他的意图一直抱有怀疑。/ I can't help feeling suspicious about them. 我对他们不能不感到怀疑。</div><br><br>也可以是“(事)可疑的”(相当于 suspect)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Their behaviour is highly suspicious. 他们的行为非常可疑。</div><br><br>但是说 Henry is a suspicious person. 就可能有歧义，可以表示“亨利是个多疑的人”，或“亨利是个可疑的人”。<br><br>
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sustain
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>sustain</b></div>这个及物动词，其实有两个不同的体以及因此而不同的词义。原始的也是主要的体是延续体，表示不变的状态(属第一类动词)，与之相关的词义是“支撑，维持，支持”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Heavy piers sustain the bridge. 沉重的桥墩支撑着那座大桥。/ The shelf cannot sustain the weight of the books. 书架支持不了书的重量。/ The problem is how to sustain the listeners' interest. 问题在于如何维持听众们的兴趣。/ Food and water sustain life. 食物和水维持着生命。/ The government sustains poor families. 政府维持着穷困家庭的生活。</div><br><br>sustain 还有另外一个次要的、瞬时体的意义，就是“遭受”(属第四类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The nation has sustained a terrible loss. 国家遭受了一次可怕的损失。/ He sustained minor injuries in the accident. 他在事故中受到了轻伤。这个瞬时体，还可以有“认可，给予支持”的意义。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The court sustained her claim. 法院判决她胜诉。/ Objection sustained. 反对有效(法庭用语)。</div><br><br>
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swarm
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>swarm</b></div>这个不及物动词(第二类动词)在一般词典上的释义是“蜂拥(而来或而去)”，但要注意这个动词的主语既可以是动物群或人群，也可以是挤满了这个群体的地点或空间(此时该群体由介词 with 引入)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The flies swarmed around the meat. 苍蝇成群飞来围着肉转。/ The monkeys were swarming across an artificial hill ringed by a moat. 猴子在一座由壕沟围住的假山上蹦来蹦去。/ The crowd swarmed into the square. 人群蜂拥进入广场。/ The swamp swarmed with mosquitoes and other insects. 沼泽地有许多蚊子和其他昆虫。/ The beaches were swarming with tourists. 海滩熙熙攘攘挤满了游客。</div><br><br>后一个用法也可以转义指抽象事物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His head was swarming with conflicting reactions. 他脑子里出现了一大堆彼此冲突的反应。/ The translation swarms with errors. 这个译本错误百出。</div><br><br>
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swear
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>swear</b></div>这个及物动词在一般词典上的释义是“宣誓”(第四类动词)，但是，这个动词的主语既可以是宣誓人自己，也可以是监督人。在美国，监督人在仪式上是很重要的(尤其是重要职位的就职宣誓)，宣誓人在人们心目中反倒处于被动地位，因而在语言表达上，往往使用被动式来表示“宣誓”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We've all been sworn to secrecy. 我们全都发过誓答应保密。/ He had already been sworn, agreeing to “tell the truth, the whole truth and nothing but the truth.” 他已经宣誓过“一定说真话，说出全部真话而且只说真话”。使用被动式时，往往加上副词 in。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The new President of the United States will be sworn in next January. 美国的新总统将于明年 1 月宣誓就职。/ The Cabinet of East Timor's new prime minister has been sworn in. 东帝汶新任总理的内阁已经宣誓就职。/ A replacement would be named, confirmed by the Senate and sworn in. 一个接替的人选将被提名，获得参议院确认并宣誓就职。语言表达上，往往使用被动式来表示“宣誓”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We've all been sworn to secrecy. 我们全都发过誓答应保密。/ He had already been sworn, agreeing to “tell the truth, the whole truth and nothing but the truth.” 他已经宣誓过“一定说真话，说出全部真话而且只说真话”。使用被动式时，往往加上副词 in。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The new President of the United States will be sworn in next January. 美国的新总统将于明年 1 月宣誓就职。/ The Cabinet of East Timor's new prime minister has been sworn in. 东帝汶新任总理的内阁已经宣誓就职。/ A replacement would be named, confirmed by the Senate and sworn in. 一个接替的人选将被提名，获得参议院确认并宣誓就职。</div><br><br>I swear. 是用来加强自己所说的内容的可靠性时的口头语(“我发誓”)。值得注意的是：许多表示自己看法的动词，例如 think、believe、hope 等等，后面可以加上 so 表示肯定，加上 not 表示否定。但是 I swear 表示肯定时则不加 so，唯有表示否定时加 not：I swear not.
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swim
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>swim</b></div>美式英语中，swim 可以指真正的“游泳”(如蛙式、自由式、仰泳等等)，也可以指在海边泡海水晒太阳。如果 swim 同 run、jump 等动作性较强的动词一起，就是“游泳”；如果同 go for a walk、read、play tennis 之类动作性较弱的动词或动词词组一起，就是“泡海水浴”，此时常说 go swimming。<br><br>
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switch
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>switch</b></div>有关词义的误解，参见 push 条。<br><br>
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sympathetic
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>sympathetic</b></div>这个形容词通常的意思是“对别人或别人的事抱同情态度的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They offered a sympathetic ear when I most needed it. 我最需要人家同情的时候，他们以同情的态度倾听我。/ He was most sympathetic to me when my father died. 我父亲去世时他对我表示十分同情。/ The public is generally sympathetic to the strikers. 公众大都同情罢工者。有时也表示“得到别人同情或好感的”，但比较少用。</div><br><br>
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sympathy
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>sympathy</b></div>虽然是个抽象名词，但是单复数都可以用(只是不能同表示数目的词语一起使用)。<br><br>大体上如果指的是内心的同情，多用单数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The audience was clearly not in sympathy with the speaker. 听众显然对演讲者不抱同情。/ I have some sympathy for the way she's been treated. 对于她受到的对待，我多少有点同情。/ Her tears were only a means of gaining sympathy. 她的流泪，只不过是博取同情的一种手段。/ The unemployed need more than sympathy. 失业者所需要的不仅仅是同情。</div><br><br>如果指的是就一个不幸事件表示出来的慰问同情(尤其是具体的慰问表示)，通常用复数(只是一件事也用复数)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You have my deepest sympathies. 谨向您表示我最深切的慰问。/ We called to offer our sympathies to the widow. 我们打电话给遗孀，表示慰问。</div><br><br>另外需注意两点。(1)表示内心的同情，如果涉及的是政治或社会性的内容，往往也用复数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She has strong left-wing sympathies. 她强烈同情左翼。/ His sympathies did not lie with his own class. 他的同情心并不在自己阶级一边。/ His sympathies did not lie with his own class. 他的同情心并不在自己阶级一边。/ His sympathies lay with the strikers. 他的同情心在罢工者一边。sympathies lay with the strikers. 他的同情心在罢工者一边。(2)就具体不幸事件的慰问，如果行文仍然是谈及自己心中的感受，就仍然可以用单数。如 You have my deepest sympathies. 也可以改为 You have my deepest sympathy. <span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a letter of sympathy 慰问信(表达自己内心的 sympathy)。但是 sympathy 如果成为传达的信息(“慰问”)，就最好用复数。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>offer/give one's sympathies to the widow 向遗孀表示慰问</div><div class="ex-item">telegraph one's sympathies on the death of Mr. Smith 就史密斯先生去世一事致电慰问。</div><br><br>
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table 与 desk
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>table 与 desk</b></div>通常 table 是“餐桌”，同“用餐”关系密切，如 tablespoon 指“汤匙”，table manners 指“用餐礼仪”，the pleasures of his table 指“他吃的珍馐美味”；desk 是“书桌”或“办公桌”。但是“谈判桌”是 negotiating table，而“接待处”是 reception desk，“收款处”(现在一般称“收银台”)是 cash desk。“暗中行贿”或“暗中给回扣”是 pay somebody some money under the table，可能这种做法常常是在宴请时进行的。<br><br>
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taboo
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>taboo</b></div>指的是宗教上、社会习俗上的禁忌。有一种中国药品(通络祛痛膏)的英文说明，却用了 taboo 这个单词来表示用药上的禁忌(contraindications)，这显然是中国式的英文。<br><br>
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tactics 与 strategy
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>tactics 与 strategy</b></div>参见 strategy 与 tactics 条。<br><br>
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tactic 与 tactics
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>tactic 与 tactics</b></div>单独一条计策是 a tactic；“策略”的整体是 tactics。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... a tactic they probably meant to keep to themselves. (The Economist, Feb. 27, 2010, p. 5) ……这条计策，他们大概本来是秘而不宣的。</div><br><br>
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tailor
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>tailor</b></div>作为名词，tailor 是“成衣匠，裁缝(工匠)”的意思。但要注意：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 西方社会对男女服装差别很讲究，各有各的设计和加工技巧，很少有一个成衣匠兼做男女衣服的。反映在语言上，做男人衣服的是 tailor，做女人衣服的是 dressmaker，做女人衣服的女性成衣匠是 seamstress。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> tailor 含有强烈的“量身定做”的意思，不是一般的成批生产，所以作为及物动词就突出了“专门定做”，而且转义到同衣服无关的事情上。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>better understand the illness and tailor care 把病情弄得更清楚，以对症下药(这里的 tailor 是个及物动词)</div><div class="ex-item">We offer individually tailored courses. 我们可以针对个人特点个别教学。/ The new provisions were tailored to the son of the president. 新的规定是专门为了总统儿子而设的。</div><br><br>复合词 tailor-made 也有这个原意和转义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Who is buying tailor-made suits these days? 这些年头谁还请裁缝做服装?</div><div class="ex-item">Both the play and the role were tailor-made for her. 连剧本和角色都是为她量身定制的。但是 tailor-made cigarettes 是区别于“手工卷烟”的“机器卷烟”。well-tailored 可以指衣服的合身，也可以指穿着合身的人。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a well-tailored jacket 一件合身的上衣</div><div class="ex-item">He is well-tailored. 他穿着合身。</div><br><br>
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take
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>take</b></div>通常 take 可以表示“需要(或者用了)(多长时间或什么条件)”，如果是一般现在时或一般将来时(it takes ..., it will take ...)，是表示延续状态的动词(第一类动词)，只表示一种推测或估计(“需要……” )，尚未成为事实；如果是一般过去时(it took ...)，则是瞬时完成的达成动词(第四类动词)，表示所需时间或条件已经有了(“用了……” )而且所预期的结果已经发生，但是也可以仍然是第一类动词，表示对过去当时情况的一种估计。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It took an expert to detect the difference. 要专家才能看出有什么不同。时或一般将来时(it takes ..., it will take ...)，是表示延续状态的动词(第一类动词)，只表示一种推测或估计(“需要……” )，尚未成为事实；如果是一般过去时(it took ...)，则是瞬时完成的达成动词(第四类动词)，表示所需时间或条件已经有了(“用了……” )而且所预期的结果已经发生，但是也可以仍然是第一类动词，表示对过去当时情况的一种估计。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It took an expert to detect the difference. 要专家才能看出有什么不同。</div><br><br>但是，如果 take 的直接宾语是时间长度，或是一个特指的名词， take 通常就是第四类动词，用作对过去特定事实的描述。后面通常会出现一个动词不定式，这个动词不定式动词的“体”也有讲究，通常只能用延续但必有终点的动词(第三类动词)和瞬时完成的动词(第四类动词)。全面的用法和搭配如下：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 主语(名词成分或 to inf.)是要做的事或要解决的问题：(a) 使用形式主语 it，时间量(或其他条件)为直接宾语(有时候时间量可以用表示时间长度的副词代替名词，作直接宾语，如 long、forever 等。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I wondered how quickly it took (him) to realize they were laughing at him. (Time, Oct. 8, 2007, p. 10) 我弄不清楚他究竟多快就认识到他们在嘲笑他。该实行行动(并达到目的)而投入此时间量(或提供此条件)的人是间接宾语。也可以将间接宾语改为“for + 名词成分”放在 to inf. 之前。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It took Fontaine only an instant to make up his mind. (= It took only an instant for Fontaine to make up his mind.) 方丹只用了一瞬间，就下定了主意。间接宾语通常放在直接宾语之前，紧跟着 take，此时要注意它是间接宾语而非直接宾语，直接宾语还在后面。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The Milky Way is so big that it takes light more than 100,000 years to travel from one end of the galaxy to the other end. 银河十分巨大，光也要 10 万年才能从这个星系的一端到达另一端。/ It took about a dozen students almost five hours to write down the names of 1,622 U.S. soldiers who have died in Iraq. 十几位大学生花了将近 5 个钟头，才把 1,622 名死在伊拉克的美国军人的姓名抄写下来。(about a dozen students 是间接宾语，almost five hours 是直接宾语。)</div>需要注意的是：如果 take 的直接宾语是时间量，后面的动词只能是下面两种之一：第一，有延续但必有终点的动词(即第三类动词)，在这里表示用多长的时间进行某动作直至完成终止(例如上面的 write down)；第二，瞬时完成的动词(即第四类动词)，表示过了多长时间才发生某事(在这段时间内保持尚未发生此事的状态直到最后才发生了此事)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Even so, it took nearly a century for the first clocks to appear. 即使如此，也几乎过了 1 个世纪，才出现最早的一些时钟。(appear 是瞬时发生并完成的第四类动词)</div><div class="ex-item">It did not take long for the small states to realize they would fare poorly under the Virginia plan. 没过多久，那些小州就发现，实行弗吉尼亚计划，它们将要吃亏。(realize 是第四类动词)</div><div class="ex-item">It took the United States 139 years to get to 100 million people, and just 52 years to add another 100 million, back in 1967. (U.S. News & World Report, Oct. 2, 2006, p. 48) 美国用了 139 年的时间才达到 1 亿人口，但后来才用了 52 年的时间，到 1967 年又增加 1 亿。(应该理解为：增加是个延续的过程，不是 1967 年那一年忽然增加了 1 亿，但最后增加的人数累计达到 1 亿，是 1967 年那一年的事。get to 是个瞬时的第四类动词，add 则是第三类动词，这从句中提及 52 年可以看出。) 52 年可以看出。)</div><div class="ex-item">I am disappointed in the fact it took about 30 pages and about an hour to get to education and address it. Education is the key issue. 我感到失望的是，足足过了 30 页，大约 1 个钟头，才谈到教育。教育是个关键问题呀。(get to 是个瞬时的第四类动词，30 pages and about an hour 这段时间中没有发生 get to 的行动，行动到了这段时间结束时才瞬时发生。)</div>有时候究竟是瞬时完成(第四类动词)，还是有延续但必有终点(第三类动词)，也可以有不同的理解(例如上面例子中的 make up his mind，既可以理解为第三类动词，也可以理解为第四类动词)。<br><br>如果有必要指明 to inf. 是第四类动词，没有过程，只有起点亦即终点，也可以将 to inf. 改为 before 或 until 引入的从句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Experts say it can take decades before psychiatrists decide that a patient is healthy enough to be released. (= ... it can take decades for psychiatrists to decide ... = it can take psychiatrists decades to decide ...) 专家们说，病人是否已经健康到足以出院，精神病医生要过好几十年才能决定。/ It took a long time before/until she felt comfortable in her new school. (= It took a long time for her to feel comfortable in her new school. = It took her a long time to feel comfortable in her new school.) 她过了很久，才在新学校里感到自在。(这里的 feel 本来是个第一类动词，借用为第四类动词，表示状态的开始。)</div>可以看出，如果 take 的直接宾语是个时间量，则在 take 后面出现的另一个动词，不可以是第一类(除非借用为第四类)或第二类动词，例如不可以说 <i>It took a long time for her to like him. (like 是第一类动词)，也不可以说 </i>It took a long time for him to watch TV. (watch 是第二类动词)。但是，如果 take 的直接宾语不是时间量，而是其他条件，则另一个动词的“体”就不限于第三类与第四类动词，而可以是第一类与第二类动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It doesn't take a psychic to know this isn't any goddamn diagnostic! 用不着通灵术士，都可以知道这算不上是什么诊断。(这里的 know 就是第一类动词。)</div>但是，有少数第二类动词或是第三类动词的反复习惯表现，其词义隐含了该延续动作需要前面有一个预备过程才可以实现，此时可以说 it takes + 多长时间 + to inf. (这个 inf. 表示有此能力，而不是行动的特定一次实现)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It took me two days to play Chopin's “Minute Waltz” in sixty seconds. 我花了两天的时间练成了用 60 秒钟的时间弹奏肖邦的《一分钟圆舞曲》。而上段的 watch TV 则不可以这样用，因为 watch TV 不需要事先练习。</div>(b) 使用形式主语 it，真主语是后面的 to inf.，无间接宾语，直接宾语可以不是所需时间，而是所需的其他条件(条件也可以是人)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The demise of Europe's constitution is no reason to celebrate. But sometimes it takes a disaster to produce change. 欧洲宪法的寿终正寝，不值得庆祝。但是，有时候却非得来一场灾难，才会产生变革。/ It did not then and does not now take a genius to figure it out. 当时和现在都用不着什么天才就可以看得清楚是怎么一回事。/ It takes no gift of prophecy to see the outcome. 用不着具备未卜先知的天分，就可以看出结局将会如何。/ It doesn't take a computer to figure out what happened. 用不着电脑，就能够弄清楚发生了什么事。事。/ It took four beers to knock the edge off and loosen the tongue. 喝了四瓶啤酒，外围就肃清了，口风就不紧了。真主语也是用 for 引入。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I know it took a lot of strength for him to do that. 我知道他这样做需要费很大的劲。</div>(c) 使用真主语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Whatever it takes, ... 不惜任何代价，……</div><div class="ex-item">There is no silver bullet for ending our oil dependence. It will take a collection of new technologies and millions of changes in individual behavior. (The Colorado Spring Gazette, July 25, 2006) 没有什么灵丹妙药可以结束我们在石油上的依赖地位。这将要求有一整套的新技术以及个人行为上无数的改变。/ They know the greatest problem is public anger over the economy. To fix it will take trade and investment with the West, ... (Reader's Digest, August 2006, p. 150) 他们知道，最大的问题是公众对经济的愤慨。要解决这个问题，就需要同西方进行贸易和投资，……</div><br><br>如果 take 的直接宾语是个及物动词(或相当于及物动词的动词短语)的动名词，则 take 的主语就是这个及物动词的直接宾语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Even then, Sam took some persuading. 尽管那样，要说服萨姆，还是费了一些功夫。(逻辑上是 persuading Sam)</div><div class="ex-item">He does take a little getting used to. (= A little getting used to him is needed.) 他这个人的确不容易一下子合得来。/ We found that the controls took some getting used to. 我们发现，要掌握控制键，需要一个熟悉的过程。(逻辑上是 getting used to the controls)</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 主语是做某事的人，直接宾语是所需时间(很少是其他条件)，后面再加动词不定式表示(现在或将来)要做的事或(过去)已经做了的事。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Why was FDA taking so long to decide? 食品及药物管理局干吗拖这么久还没有做出决定?</div><div class="ex-item">When the facts were pointed out, he took still more weeks to acknowledge them—and then did so ungraciously. 事实都摆出来了，他还拖了几个星期才承认，而且承认得很不情愿。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 主语是行动要施加的对象，可以有也可以没有做某事的人作间接宾语，然后直接宾语是所需时间，后面再加动词不定式表示要做的事。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The ferry took them five hours to unload. (= It took them five hours to unload the ferry.) 渡船费了他们 5 小时才卸完。/ The house will take all week to clean. (= It will take all week to clean the house.) 房子要花整整一周才能打扫干净。/ One quilt might take hundreds of days to sew. 一张百褶被，有的要花好几百天时间才能缝得出来。/ ... the 100 billion plastic bags distributed by retailers last year took about 35 million barrels of oil to make. (The Daily Gazette, May 24, 2008, A7, editorial) ……去年各零售商送出的 1,000 亿个塑料袋，用了约 3,500 万桶石油来制造。/ The sauce takes twenty-five minutes to prepare and cook. (= It takes twenty-five minutes to prepare and cook the sauce.) 调味酱要花 25 分钟调制和烹饪。这里的一个细微的区别是：如果以行动要施加的对象为主语，就可以将这个对象提到句首，成为“主位”或“主题”。这样的句法结构，语言学界称之为 tough construction，这种宾语提前为主语的现象，称为 tough movement，这表现了英语特有的灵活性，例如最后那个例句相当于 The sauce, it takes twenty-five minutes to prepare and cook it.</div>当 take 在这样的用法中以一般过去时的时态出现时，要注意可能是过去的确发生了的事实(take 是表示瞬时动作的第四类动词，句子是叙述句)，也可能只是当时的一般估计(take 是表示延续状态的第一类动词，所说的并不是一件具体发生了的事实，句子是判断句)。<br><br>take 用于叙述句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It took me years to fully recover. 我经过了好几年才完全恢复。/ It took them five hours to drive to New York. 他们开车开了 5 个钟头才到纽约。/ One glance was all it took. 只消看一眼。/ This book took three years to complete. 这本书花了 3 年时间才写成。/ It took four years for Britain just to decimalise its own coinage. 英国花了 4 年的工夫，才把自己的货币政改为十进制。</div><br><br>take 用于判断句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It took courage to talk to him. 要同他谈话可得有勇气。/ He needed allies who had what it took to stand up to some powerful, unscrupulous people. (U.S. News & World Report, Jan. 21, 2008, p. 28) 他需要一些有条件同某些势力雄厚、肆无忌惮的人对抗的盟友。</div><br><br>但是也有一些时候，两者均可，要看上下文才能判别。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It took a lot of money to send him to college. 费了好多钱才把他送上大学。(或：当时要把他送上大学，是要费很多钱的。)</div><div class="ex-item">The new system took some getting used to. 费了点功夫才对新体系熟悉起来。(或：当时要熟悉新体系，是要费点功夫的。)</div>但是如果 take 采取一般现在时，则只能是第一类动词，只有现在估计这一个意义(句子是判断句)，不是一件具体发生的事实。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It takes courage to do that. 要那样干，是需要有勇气的。/ The experiment takes time and money. 这个试验，需要时间和资金。/ It takes a long time to master a foreign language. 掌握一门外语，需要很长的时间。/ It takes patience to work with children. 做小孩子的工作，是要有耐心的。/ It only takes one flood to ruin a finished basement. 地下室装修好了，只要被水淹一次，就会前功尽弃。</div><br><br>
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(take...for) granted
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(take...for) granted</b></div>take ... for granted (都是指延续性的状态) 的用法和含义都有点复杂。 (1) 最基本的含义是“视为当然”，不去深究为什么，也不设想万一不如此又会如何，多少有一点负面的意义。直接宾语是某一情况。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We take the air we breathe and the water we drink for granted, just as the sun and the moon. 我们对于自己呼吸的空气和喝的水，都视为理所当然，就像看到太阳和月亮一样。/ The government should not take the people's support for granted. 政府不应该把民众的拥护视为理所当然。/ I was amazed that virtually all the things I took for granted up north just didn't happen in London. 我原先把北方那边的事情想得十分理所当然，没想到到了伦敦全都不是那么一回事。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 可以去掉负面的意义，用以表示“肯定不成问题”。直接宾语也是某一情况。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We may take that for granted. 那一点可以算是不成问题。/ It is taken for granted that every child should learn mathematics. 每个孩子都应该该学数学，这是不成问题的。/ We take it for granted that knowledge advances rapidly. 知识更新得很快，对这一点，我们可以肯定。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 去掉负面的意义，用以表示“掌握得十分熟练，得心应手”。直接宾语是“本领”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I came into adult life clueless about a lot of things that most people take for granted. 我成年时，对于大多数人得心应手的许多事情，却茫无所知。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 直接宾语是别人或别人做的事，表示对此漠不关心，或是不识相，不领他的情。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He takes her for granted. 他不领她的情。/ You take me too much for granted. 你对我太不领情了。</div><br><br>
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talent
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>talent</b></div>如果指某个人所拥有的“才能”的整体，往往用复数 talents。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Give Obama time to prove his talents. 给奥巴马时间来证明他的才能吧。但是如果指“有才能的人的整体”，则尽管是多个人，也用单数。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Fiction or poetry, in the midst of the greatest galaxy of talent in the history of English literature? (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 说到小说与诗歌创作，英国文学史上已是人才济济，再写点东西又该何容易? 此外，美国演艺界人员当中，登台演出的人员统称为 talent，以区别于后台杂务人员。</div><br><br>
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talk to
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>talk to</b></div>字面上是“自己讲，对方听”，其实在美式英语中不一定如此。双方对话，甚至主要是听对方讲，也可以是 talk to。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Not until I talked to him did I know he was in trouble. 直到我同他交谈，我才知道他遇到了麻烦。/ Police work is all the same. You talk to possible witnesses, your talk to the people involved, you talk to the victim. 干警察这一行，事情总是千篇一律。同可能的证人谈谈，同有关的人谈谈，同受害人谈谈。/ The president rarely talks to any foreign leader to get his opinions or assessment of events. (Newsweek, Dec. 19, 2005, p. 40) 总统很少为了征求对方的意见或是听取对方对事态的评估而同外国领导人交谈。/ It was from talking to him that I began to learn the enormous possibilities of the broken enemy cypher. (F. W. Winterbotham, The Ultra Secret) 正是通过同他交谈，我才开始认识到，破译敌方密码有这么大的用处。(当然主要是听他说，而不是对他说)</div>
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talk 与 speak
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>talk 与 speak</b></div>参见 speak 与 talk 条。<br><br>
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target
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>target</b></div>作为及物动词，target 的用法有些特别。首先，它可以用于主动句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The magazine targets the young. 该杂志以青年人为对象。/ We should target these areas of research. 我们应该注重这些研究领域。/ The government should target benefits at those most in need. 政府应该造福最贫困者。</div><br><br>但更多是用于被动句，往往包含“对立，对抗”的性质，以被“针对，对付，锁定”的对象为句子的主语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The suspects were constantly targeted. 嫌疑人经常受到监控。</div><br><br>也可以以一方拥有的手段为被动句的主语，以 at 引入要对付的对象。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The missiles were mainly targeted at two cities. 导弹主要对准两个城市。但是针对的对象，不一定是敌对的，也可以只是要加以影响的对象。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The ad is clearly targeted at the newlyweds. 该广告显然以新婚夫妇为对象。</div><br><br>
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taste
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>taste</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 自己用味觉去感知外界(可以是第四类或第二类动词)，可以用状语来修饰。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I tasted the soup suspiciously. 我将信将疑地尝了一口汤。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 具有某种味道，是什么味道(属第一类动词)，要用形容词(作表语)来表示。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The soup tastes wonderful. 汤的味道好极了。类似的情况，还有 look、feel、smell 等动词。</div><br><br>
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tax
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>tax</b></div>复数 taxes 有时候可以当作一个不可分的数量整体，成为一个不可数名词。此时它前面可以用 much 和 less 而不用 many 和 fewer。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How much taxes do you have to pay? 你要缴纳多少税款? (如果说 How many taxes do you have to pay? 则可能是“你有多少个税目要缴税?” )</div>
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tea
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>tea</b></div>这个单词可以指泡好的茶水，或者晒干了包装好的茶叶，或者地里长着的茶树。参见 rice 条。<br><br>
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teach
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>teach</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为及物动词，可以是第二类动词(“施教”)，也可以是第三类动词(“教会”)。有几种可能的搭配：(a) 单宾语(被教的人，或所教的东西)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He teaches disabled children. 他教残疾儿童。/ She taught math for many years. 她教了多年的数学。</div><br><br>单宾语(被教的人)可以是兼语(既是 teach 的宾语，又是后面动词不定式的主语)，此时 teach 的意义可以是“推动某人去做某事”，也可以是“教某人如何去做某事”。事”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>That sad experience taught him to be careful. 那次痛心的经历，教会了他要小心谨慎。/ I taught my little dog to sit up and beg. 我教了小狗立起来要东西。</div>(b) 双宾语：(b1) 间接宾语在前无 to，是被教的人(往往是人称代词)；直接宾语在后，是所教的东西(往往是名词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He'll teach you German. 他将教你们德语。</div><br><br>间接宾语(人称代词或指人的名词)在前，后面是 how to inf.。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He taught me how to play the violin. 他教我(怎样)拉小提琴。间接宾语在前，后面有 that 引入的名词从句作直接宾语。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His travels taught him that language is no bar to friendship. 他周游列国，体会到了语言并不妨碍友谊。</div>(b2) 直接宾语在前(往往是名词)，to + 间接宾语在后(往往是名词或人称代词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I teach French to a group of businessmen. 我给一些商人教法语。/ I teach French to them. 我教他们法语。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> That'll teach you to trust him! 真正的意思是 That'll teach you not to trust him! 是反讽语，相当于中文的“叫你去相信他！”，必须是将来时。如果是过去时，就不是反讽了：That taught me to trust him. (这教会了我应该相信他。)
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teacher
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>teacher</b></div>这只是一个职业种类，不是特定的职位，不能作为头衔。中文称呼对方为“李老师”，英文不能照搬为 *Teacher Li。但是有些名词既可以作为职业种类，也可以作为特定的职位，如果是后者，就可以作为头衔，如：detective、attorney、professor、secretary、agent、chief 等。<br><br>
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telephone
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>telephone</b></div>中文“给某人一个电话”中的“电话”，不是 telephone 或 phone，而是 phone call。此外，同中文一样，英文中的 telephone 或 phone，还可以缩小意义为电话的话筒。所以，“拿起电话”(其实不是把整个电话机都拿起来，只是拿起话筒)在英文中可以是 pick up the receiver，也可以是 pick up/lift the telephone/phone；放开手，用肩头和半边脸夹住话筒，这个“话筒”也可以是 telephone 或 phone。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He kept the phone nestled in the crook of his neck and shoulder. 他把电话(话筒)夹在自己脖子和肩头之间。/ He held the telephone against his sweating cheek. 他把电话(话筒)夹着紧贴自己冒汗的脸颊。“放下电话”(其实是“放下话筒”)在英文中可以是 put down/replace the receiver，也可以是 put down/replace the telephone/phone，类似的说法还有 nestle/place the receiver back in its cradle 或 put/nestle the telephone back in its cradle 或 return the phone to the cradle。</div><br><br>但是，上述的例子都是电话机正常使用时可以以 telephone 或 phone 代替 receiver。如果涉及话筒非正常使用的动作或场合，就还是不要用 telephone 而用 receiver。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In a fury, he slammed down the receiver (*telephone). 他一怒之下，把话筒摔了下去。</div>“接电话”如果是一个经常性的任务，可以说 answer phones，不一定说 answer phone calls。如果是具体一次的，特指的可以说 answer the phone 或 answer the phone call，泛指的可以说 answer a phone 或 answer a phone call。手机是 cell phone，不叫 telephone，但是也可以同 telephone 一样简化为 phone。由于它机身和话筒合而为一，所以对它施加的动作，也以整个手机为对象。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>flip the phone open/flip open the phone 翻开手机</div><div class="ex-item">flip the phone shut/closed 关起手机。</div><br><br>
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television
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>television</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 是否有不定冠词 the 的问题，参见 radio 条。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> on television 可以有两个不同的意思，一个是“关于电视”，一个是“在电视屏幕上”。法国社会学家布尔迪厄写过一本书，英文书名为 On Television (《论电视》)，一开头就说：I'd like to try and pose here, on television, a certain number of questions on television. (我打算在这里的电视上提出一些有关电视的问题。) 这里两处的 on television，意思就不同。<br><br>
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tell
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>tell</b></div>tell 除了“告诉”这个词义之外，还可以是“分辨，区分”，其搭配可以是：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> tell between X and Y。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>tell between male and female chicks 分辨雌雄雏鸡。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 可以在 between 前面加上 the difference。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was hard to tell the difference between the two versions. 两个版本的差别，很难分辨出来。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> tell X from Y。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Can you tell Tom from his twin brother? 你能把汤姆同他的孪生哥哥区别开来吗？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> tell X and Y apart。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's difficult to tell them apart. 很难把他们区别开来。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 如果要区别的不是两个事物而是两个情况，可以用 tell if ... or ...。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Funny how you can tell if something is good news or bad just by the sound of the voice. (Anna Salter, Fault Lines) 说也奇怪，是好消息还是坏消息，听听说话的声调，就可以分辨出来。</div><br><br>也可以没有 or ...，只有 if ...。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This is a way to tell if you're dealing with the person who is growing the produce. ("How to Pick Produce at a Farmers Market," in USA Weekend, June 18-20, 2010, p. 8) 用这个办法，就可以知道对方是否是蔬菜的种植者。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 也可以略去直接宾语，成为不及物动词，意思也是“懂得，分辨”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A man can tell easily enough when a woman loves him. (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes) 如果一个女子爱上了一个男子，那个男子是很容易知道的。</div><br><br>
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tempt
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>tempt</b></div>这个及物动词(可以是表示“持续起着引诱作用”的第一类动词，也可以是“瞬时起引诱作用或达到引诱结果”的第四类动词，“引诱”或“诱惑”不一定有贬义，可以是“诱导”)常常用于“兼语式”，即 tempt somebody to inf. 或 tempt somebody into something/ + -ing。<br><br>但是后面用动词不定式(尤其是被动式的 be tempted to inf.)时可能只是“起引诱作用但不一定达到目的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Cathy was tempted to ask if all this was really necessary, but she knew better. (Tom Clancy, Executive Orders) 凯西忍不住想问一下，这一切是否真正必要，但是她觉得不妥。</div><br><br>如果后面用 into something 或 into + -ing，那就是“诱惑”达到了效果，这个动作实际执行了。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They tempted me into staying another week. 他们说服了我多待一个星期。</div><br><br>
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tension
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>tension</b></div>本意是“紧张关系，张力”，但近年来越来越多用来表示“矛盾，对立”。中文近年来也常用“张力”表示这个意思，但似乎有点词不达意。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The two approaches, though often in tension, were not mutually exclusive. (The Atlantic Monthly, July/August 2006, p. 34) 两种做法，尽管常常互相对立，但并不是互不相容的。/ The tension between liberty and security is as old as the Republic and as new as the latest high-tech listening device. In wartime, that tension very often plays itself out as a battle between the White House and the press. (Time, July 10, 2006, p. 6) 自由与安全之间的矛盾，要说历史悠久，可以同共和国一样悠久，要说是新近的事，又可以同最新式的高科技窃听装置一样新。在战时，这个矛盾常常表现为白宫和新闻界之战。</div><br><br>
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ten to one
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>ten to one</b></div>本来是打赌时“以十赌一”，表示自己有十足的把握，后来成了放在句首的状语，意思是“十之八九(会如何)”。通常用于否定句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Ten to one I'd never be recognized. 我十之八九不会被人家认出来。但是也有用于肯定句的。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Ten to one Phillip came in early to get the place ready. (Mary Higgins Clark, I'll Be Seeing You) 十之八九是菲利普一大早过来把这地方收拾妥当了。</div><br><br>
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tenure
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>tenure</b></div>原本的意思是“拥有，占有，占有权，占有期间”。延伸到工作职位方面，表示“职务的担任，在职期间”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>during the tenure of his office 在他任职期间</div><div class="ex-item">He wondered how long his tenure with the bank could continue. 他不知道自己在那银行还能干多久。</div><br><br>再延伸到教育界，就有了一般词典所没有的含义，用以指美国大学教师(副教授以上)“终身任职”的资格。一般进入这个制度(the tenure system)的教师，必须有博士学位，进入时任助理教授(assistant professor)，叫进入了 tenure track (终身教职)，接受考核，考核期为 6 年，当中过了 3 年要来一次“中期评核”，不合格就停止进程，要另找工作，合格就继续考核 3 年。6 年期满最后来一次总考核，通过了(earn tenure 或 be awarded tenure)就获得终身聘用的资格，没有通过即 be denied tenure，就要另找工作。通过了的先升为副教授(associate professor)，以后还可以按照新的学术成就升为正教授(full professor)。但无论如何，学校对“终身教授”(tenured professor)是无条件终身聘用的。美国很少有“铁饭碗”，这是一个少有的例外，用意是保障学术自由和免除某些有造诣的教授的后顾之忧。<br><br>
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terrible 与 terrific
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>terrible 与 terrific</b></div>两者词形相似，意义却恰恰相反。terrible 是“可怕的，糟糕透顶的”；terrific 是“好得很的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Conditions in these countries are terrible—there is hunger and disease everywhere. 这些国家的状况糟得很，处处是饥饿和疾病。/ The food is terrible. 食品太差了。/ You do look terrible! 你脸色太难看了！/ Our new carpet looks terrific. 我们的新地毯好看极了。/ —I'll come and give you a hand tomorrow. —Terrific. —我明天来帮你一下。—那好极了。参见 awesome 与 awful 条、dreadful 条。</div><br><br>但是与 terrific 后缀相同的 horrific 意义却与 horrible 差不多。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Traffic was horrific. 路况糟糕透了。</div><br><br>
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thank
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>thank</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> thank 是当面表示感谢(第四类动词，但作为当场的表示可以用一般现在时)，直接宾语是人，感谢的原因用 for 引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Thank you for your advice. 谢谢您的指点。不能照中文的结构说 *Thank your advice. 正确的说法中听起来 you 和 your 有点重复，但必须如此。</div><br><br>如果不是当场直接对某人表示感谢，而只是间接对第三者表示对某人感谢之情，就不能用动词 thank，而要用形容词 grateful，如 I am grateful to Mr. So and So. 参见 thankful 与 grateful 条。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> for 后面如果是人，则是替该人感谢某人。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Please thank your friend for me. 请替我谢谢您的朋友。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> for 后面也可以是动名词，此时这个动名词所代表的行动，是先前已经实行了的，不是道谢的当时才发生的，但并不用 for having + pp. 的形式。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He wrote a letter in which he thanked John for giving him a chance to make a photo of that rare bird last Monday. 他写了一封信，感谢约翰本星期一给了他机会给那只珍禽拍了一幅照片。(不说 *for having given him)</div><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> thank somebody to inf. 不是“感谢某人如何”，而是“请某人如何”(认为当前某人并不如何，表示不满)。通常只能以“我”为主语，而且只能用一般将来时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'll thank you to be polite. 请你讲点礼貌。/ I'll thank you to mind your own business. 请你别多管闲事。</div><br><br>
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thankful 与 grateful
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>thankful 与 grateful</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> grateful 大都指由于得到某人给予的好处而怀有感激之心。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm very grateful to you for your help. 我很感激您的帮助。/ I'd be so grateful if you do it. 您如果这样做，我将十分感激。</div><br><br>thankful 的意义与此接近，但是更多是自我庆幸避免了某种不愉快的遭遇(有点“谢天谢地”的味道)，感谢的对象往往不明确，着重自己逢凶化吉的好运气。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You should be thankful you're fit and well. 你身体好好的，应该感到庆幸。/ Let's be thankful we got there in time. 幸亏我们及时赶到了那里。/ She was just thankful (that) no one recognized her. 她庆幸谁都没有把她认出来。/ I'm only thankful everything went off all right. 我庆幸一切都平安度过了。</div><br><br>两者的副词 thankfully 与 gratefully 也有同样的区别。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Thankfully, the air in the hemisphere was warm, ... (Dan Brown, Deception Point) 幸亏球形居室里面的空气是暖和的，……</div><div class="ex-item">We gratefully acknowledge the following companies for supporting our educational programs. 下列各公司对我们的教育节目惠予支持，谨在此表示鸣谢。</div><br><br>但是，两者的界限并不是绝对分明的。thankful 往往也可以用于“感谢某人”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm thankful for all their help. 对于他们的一切帮助，我很感谢。/ I'll always be thankful to her for her advice. 对于她的指点，我将永远感激。而 grateful 也可以表示(没有感谢对象的)“庆幸”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Langdon stepped out of Building C into the open air, grateful to be outside Vetra's flat. (Dan Brown, Angels and Demons) 兰登走出了 C 号楼，到了露天处，庆幸自己终于离开了维特拉的套间。/ I was grateful neither of my parents ever referred to it. (Mary Higgins Clark, Where Are You Now?) 谢天谢地，我父母都没有提到这件事。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> be thankful 或 be grateful 是延续的心理状态，属第一类动词。thank 则是表示谢意的瞬时动作，属第四类动词(即使使用一般现在时，也只是因为属于“当面表态”)。因此，“我很感谢他的帮助”不要译成 *I thank him very much for his help，要说 I'm very grateful/thankful to him for his help. 但可以说 Thank you very much for your help. 因为这是当面表示感谢(对“你”可以，对“他”不可)。<br><br>
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thanks to
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>thanks to</b></div>可以表示原因，通常指的是好好原因产生好结果。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The building became very well known, thanks to detective films. 由于一些侦探片，那栋楼房大大出了名。但也可以指不好的原因产生不好的结果。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Thanks to my stock broker's poor track record of picking stocks, I've lost $50,000 in equity. 由于我的证券经纪人挑选证券的业绩记录太差，我的股票损失了 5 万美元。/ ... thanks to government price controls, motorists had to wait an hour in line to fill up their gas tanks. (U.S. News & World Report, Apr. 21, 2008, p. 51) ……由于政府的物价管制，开汽车的人要等 1 个钟头才能加满油。/ Allergies will be even more miserable in the future—thanks to global warming. (The Verge, Apr. 10, 2017) 过敏症今后会更加厉害——原因是全球变暖。</div><br><br>
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than²
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>than²</b></div>做比较时，than 后面的句子成分，可以同前面的不同句子成分相对应。如 He loves you better than I. 是“他比我更加爱你”；He loves you better than me. 是“他爱你比爱我更甚”。He has a larger car than yours. 中的 yours 是同前面的 his car 对应。People work better with air conditioning than without. (“人们有空调比没有空调能工作得更好”)中的 without 是同前面的 with air conditioning 相对应。It snows less in New York than in Toronto. (“纽约下雪比多伦多多少”)中 in Toronto 是同前面的 in New York 相对应。有时候前面是个介词短语，than 后面甚至可以把介词略去。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>More black men are in jail than (in) college. (Newsweek, Oct. 15, 2007, p. 44) 坐牢的黑人男子，比念大学的多。有时候，甚至前面不是比较级，只是 different 之类表示差异的词，than 后面的成分也可以同前面的主语相对应。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If you ask a hedge fund manager what's he worried about, he's going to give you a very different answer than a guy who just lost his job in a factory in Orange City. (Mike Huckabee) 如果你问一个对冲资金经理人他担心的是什么，他给你的回答同奥兰治治城一家工厂内一名刚失去工作的人(给你的回答)会是大不相同的。</div><br><br>通常 than 前后两个成分应该对称(即同类事物)，但有时候也有不对称的(这就同中文的习惯相似了)，例如美国某翻译学刊采访杨宪益时，杨宪益就有这样一句：When I was in middle school, my Chinese was better than most of my classmates. (我念中学时，我的国文就比多数同学强。)有时候 than 后面的成分究竟同 than 前面的哪一个成分相对应，字面上可能有歧义，但是凭语境可以判断。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I am not going to be endorsing anybody, but I have written much more favorably about Barack Obama than Hillary Clinton, ... (Arianna Huffington, in U.S. News & World Report, May 19, 2008, p. 18) 我不打算挺任何人，但是我所写过的东西，对于奥巴马比之对于希拉里，更为支持，……(由于背景情况人所共知，这句绝不会被误解为“我之赞同奥巴马，更甚于希拉里之赞同奥巴马”。这是在二人争当民主党总统候选人时说的；后来希拉里当了奥巴马总统的国务卿，时过境迁，这句话就可以做另一番解读。)</div>
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than¹
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>than¹</b></div>同 as 相类似，than 也可以“一身而多任”。就是说，它一方面可以充当比较连词(表示“比……更……”); 同时又可以“兼差”，包揽了自己后面两个成分的作用，一个是 than 后面的名词成分，一个是这个名词成分后面本应有的关系代词。大体上有如下几种情况：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> than 既充当比较连词，又代表了前面出现过的名词，还“兼并”了该名词后面的关系代词 that、which 或 who。这个关系代词在其引入的从句中可以是主语，也可以是宾语、表语等。(a) 关系代词在从句中是主语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You have more money than (= than the money that) is necessary. 你的钱用不完。/ There are more things in heaven and earth than (= than the things which) are dreamt of in your philosophy. 天地之间发生的许多事，是你在哲学中做梦也想不到的。/ Noah's personality had clearly changed, even more than (= than the personality that) appeared on the surface. 诺亚的性格有了明显的改变，甚至比表面看出来的改变更大。/ The mild winter allowed more construction activity than (= than the construction activity that) would have normally occurred. 由于这个冬季气候温和，所以建筑工程往往常多。/ More deals were made in this room over breakfast, lunch and cocktails than (= than the deals that) were consummated in all the offices of all the studios combined. 在这个大厅，在早餐、午餐和鸡尾酒会当中达成的交易，比在所有工作室的办公室里谈妥的交易还多。</div>(b) 关系代词在从句中是宾语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We need simpler, less scientific words than (= than the words that) you're accustomed to using. 我们用的字眼，应该比你们所习惯使用的更为通俗一些，少一些学究气。/ What I want is a reasoned discussion and better causes for disagreeing with me than (= than the causes that) you've given already. 我所需要的是合情合理的讨论，而且诸位如果不同意我的看法，就请提出比您所提出过的更为站得住住的理由。/ The adjustment to having more time on her hands than (= than the time that) she could use did not come easily. 调整到让她手头有用不完的时间，并不容易。/ Some teachers have more control over pupils than (= than the control that) their parents have. 有些老师对学生比家长更有控制力。/ In her new job, she would have less direct contact with Sam Hawthorne than (= than the direct contact that) she'd had for the preceding three years. 她在新的职位上，同萨姆·霍桑的直接接触，就会比前 3 年少。</div><br><br>有时候关系代词在从句中是宾语，但是从句中的主语用助动词 do (而且在主语之前)代表谓语动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His reasoning was that she had merely made a lucky, unscientific guess; therefore she deserved no more intellectual credit than did the holder of a winning lottery ticket (= than the intellectual credit that the holder of a winning lottery ticket deserved). 他的推理是：她只不过是碰巧猜中，不是凭科学方法猜出来的；因此，她的智商并不会超过一个彩票中奖的人。</div>(c) 关系代词在从句中是表语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Monkeys are more distantly related to humans than are apes (= than apes are related to humans). 猴子同人类的关系，比猿同人类的关系远了些。</div>(d) than 所“包揽”的名词成分，不是代替前面出现的名词，而是代表一个较空泛的名词成分如 what 之类(又兼关系代词 that)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The armor made it (= the car) a ton heavier than (= than what) was the norm for an S600 Benz. 由于加了钢甲，车子比奔驰 S600 通常的重量重了 1 吨。/ The economy is more fragile than (= than what) might have been hoped. (U.S. News & World Report, Set. 9, 2002, p. 72) 经济比人们本来希望的更为脆弱。/ The job was taking far longer than (= than what) he'dimagined. (Dan Brown, Digital Fortress) 这个活儿拖的时间比他所想象的要长得多。/ In fact, doctors are finding that psychosocial factors pose far greater risks than (= than what) they previously realized. (Newsweek, Oct. 3, 2005, p. 51) 的确，医生们发现，社会心理因素引起的风险远远大于他们从前所认为的。/ You've been too successful—or, rather far more successful than (= than what) anyone expected. 你一直都太成功了，或者也可以说，比任何人所期望的都成功得多。</div><br><br>如果是 what is + pp.，有时候 what is 可以省略。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's taking a bit longer than (= than what is) expected. (Dan Brown, Digital Fortress) 拖的时间比预料的长了一点。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> than 所“包揽”的不是名词成分而是副词成分。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His legs surged beneath him faster than (= than how fast) he'd ever known they could move. 他的双腿在身下伸出来了，他从来都不知道能伸得这么快。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> than 后面有时候用了一些多余的词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They could be more easily disciplined and fired than is the case with other civil servants. 相较于其他公务员，他们更容易受到纪律处分或被解雇。</div><br><br>
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that
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>that</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 这个单词容易看错。它可能是(a)指示形容词(例如 that day 中的 that); (b)指示代词(例如 What is that? 中的 that); (c)引导出定语从句的关系代词(例如 all that you need 中的 that); (d)引导出名词性从句的主从连词(例如 I know that ... 中的 that, the fact that ... 中的 that); (e)用于 it is ... that ... 这种断裂句(cleft sentence)。尤其是(a)与(d)的区别特别值得注意。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I am not here to tell you that life is all gloom and doom. 我到这里来，并不是要告诉你人生是一片黑暗。(这里的 that 绝不可以误解为 life 的定语，它是引导出名词性从句的连词。)有时候这个 that 甚至可以出现在句首，也不可以误解为指示形容词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>That something was fundamentally wrong with this idea had become clear by mid-afternoon on July 15. 该主张有本质上不妥之处，这一点，到了 7 月 15 日下午就显得很清楚了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作为指示形容词和代词的 that，当然不能省略。有些引导出从句的 that，则可以省略，但有些仍不可以省略。情况如下：(a) that 在定语从句中充当宾语(无论是及物动词的宾语还是介词的宾语)，可以省略。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the house (that) they built 他们盖的那栋房子</div><div class="ex-item">the question (that) we talked about 我们谈论的问题。</div><br><br>但是，如果在定语从句中充当主语，则不可以省略。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the house that stood across the road 路对面的那栋房子</div><div class="ex-item">the question that was talked about 所谈论的问题。 (b) that 引入名词性从句在一般情况下，省略与不省略意义相同。但是，如果 that 引导的名词性从句前面的主句是主要信息，that 就不能省略；如果 that 前面的成分可有可无，只是一带而过，主要信息在后面，就最好把 that 省略。请看下面对话的例子：</div>A: Who thinks that Mary's a good speaker of German?B: I do. I think that she's a good speaker of German.A: Then what do you think of John?B: I think (无 that) he's a poor speaker of German.<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We believe (that) this is the only viable solution. 我们相信这是唯一可行的解决办法。(取决于是否强调 we believe)</div><div class="ex-item">I'm afraid (that) I won't be able to get it done today. 我恐怕今天干不出来。/ Can you prove (that) you were there last night? 你能证明你昨晚在那地方吗？</div><br><br>引导作为形容词的补充说明的名词性从句，that 常常可以省略。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm sorry (that) you can't stay longer. 我很遗憾您不能多待些时间。</div><br><br>但引导作为系动词的表语的名词性从句，其 that 较少省略。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'd like to go, the trouble is that I don't have any money. 我是想要去的，问题在于我囊空如洗。</div><br><br>引导说明前面名词内容的同位语从句，that 也可以省略。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... there is a good chance (that) Bill Clinton will have succeeded in his financial obligation to his publisher. (The Daily Gazette, June 25, 2004, A11) ……很可能克林顿在金钱上已经成功地完成了对自己出版商的义务。</div>(c) 断裂句中的 that 通常不可以省略。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's his attitude that I don't like. 我所讨厌的是他的态度。/ It's obvious that you don't like it. 你显然不喜欢它。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 引导名词性从句或定语从句的 that 有时候省略，乍一看可能发生误读，需要注意。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Quite honestly, it's surprising more of them aren't at risk. 老实说，他们当中没有更多的人处在危险之中，就已经是很令人惊讶的了。(这里的 surprising 同后面的 more of them 没有直接关系，千万不要把 more of them 看成 surprising 的宾语，其实两者之间省略了一个 that。)/ It emerged (that) his campaign advisers had 18 contacts in seven months with Russian officials before the election. (The Telegraph, May 18, 2017) 据传，他的竞选顾问们在选举前的 7 个月当中曾与俄罗斯官员有过 18 次联系。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> that 引入的定语从句或同位语从句，有时候会离前面的先行词较远，当中往往隔着谓语动词或其他词组，此时就要把这个从句同先行词接通关系。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The fish will soon be caught that nibbles at every bait. 看见诱饵就啃的鱼，很快就被逮住。(这一句的结构，本来是 The fish that nibbles at every bait will soon be caught. 但是这样把定语从句挪到前头，句子就显得得累赘。)/ What else is there left for Superman to do that hasn't been done? 还有什么事没有做，要留给超人来做的呢？/ That loaf was stale that you sold me. 你卖给我的面包当时就是不新鲜的。/ All's well that ends well. 最后好就一切都好。/ Then the realization came to him that there might be a choice, after all. 于是他就想到，总会有一个选择吧。/ Put all the guts into it thatyou can. (O. E. Rölvaag, Giants in the Earth) 你能有多大勇气，就放多大勇气进去吧。/ Parents love to buy things for their children that they had when they were young and that they loved. 父母自己年轻时有过什么喜爱的东西，他们就喜欢给孩子买。/ Suspicions are growing, meanwhile, that some South Ossetian officials are not just ignoring counterfeiting but are involving themselves in it directly. (The Washington Post, Nov. 26, 2006) 同时，人们越来越怀疑，南奥塞梯有一些官员，对于制造伪钞不光是不闻不问，而且还亲身卷入其中。</div><br><br>有时候 that 从句十分长而谓语很短，不把 that 从句隔开放在后面简直无法成句子。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How fair would any draft be that asked only a few thousand high school graduates out of the millions of eligible men and women to serve each year? (Time, Dec. 29, 2003, p. 10) 如果有个征兵制度，几百万名符合条件的男男女女当中，只要求几千名高中毕业生去服役 1 年，这样的制度，又有什么公平可言呢？</div><br><br>有时候找出 that 和先行词的联系，还要摆脱当中可能出现的干扰。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Would the news then be so easy to dismiss that around the world, there are scientists in labs pressing ahead with plans to duplicate a human being, deploying the same technology that allowed Scottish scientist to clone Dolly the sheep four years ago? (Time, Feb. 19, 2001, p. 47) 现在来了一个消息，说在世界上有些科学家正在实验室里努力推进一些计划，要把 4 年前苏格兰科学家用来克隆多莉羊的技术拿来复制人类，这个消息难道是那么容易置之不理的吗？(so ... that ... 不是呼应关系，news ... that ... 才前后呼应)</div>不但 that 从句有这样的问题，用其他关系代词引导的从句或是其他后置定语也是一样的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Obviously, someone gained entry tonight who should not have. 显然今天晚上有本来不该进来的人设法进来了。/ When the sun warms the Earth too dangerously, the time may come to draw the shade. (The Associated Press, Nov. 16, 2006) 当太阳给地球加热加到了太危险的地步时，就该把遮阳罩拉上了。/ Concepts emerge from these operations which are definite and verifiable. (Stuart Chase, The Tyranny of Words) 从这些行动中产生了明确的、可以核实的概念。(operations 前有 these，通常不会后面再有定语从句，可见 which 定语从句是远距离修饰 concepts 的) 还有前后相距很远的。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Her mother made discreet inquiries; and consulted her husband, who made more; for no young male ever set foot in the drawing room of the house overlooking Hyde Park who had not been as well vetted as any modern security department vets its atomic scientists. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 她的母亲做了周密的调查，随后便和丈夫商量，丈夫又进行了更多的调查。任何男青年，要踏进海德公园旁边那所高房子的客厅之中，都要经过过缜密的审查，就像如今要进入安保部门的任何原子科学家都得经过审查一样。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> that 与其先行词隔开的另一种现象，是该先行词后面还有后置定语，然后才出现 that 所引导的定语从句，而 that 前面的名词只是更前面的另一名词(即 that 的先行词)的后置定语的一部分，不是 that 的先行词。此时要注意哪一个是先行词。办法是：这个先行词，加上其后置定语，在内涵上或是外延上意义仍然不完全，要等待 that 从句来补全其内涵或是外延。内涵不完全时，这个先行词通常是不特指的(或是不定代词，或是名词单数有不定冠词，复数无冠词)；外延不完全时，这个先行词通常是特指的(名词单复数均有定冠词 the)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She had a way of dealing with things that always turned out right. 她处理事情，总有一套最后证明是正确的办法。/ There's something about the way he talks of her that doesn't fit. 他谈论她时说的话，有些是不合适的。/ There was something about the way she stood that suggested a strength hardly less than that of the great trees around the house. 她那昂然站立的姿势，显示出一种同房子周围的参天大树不相上下的坚忍不拔。</div><br><br>不但 that 从句可能远在它的先行词后面，当中隔了其他成分，同样，另外一些定语成分也可能远在先行词后面(当中常常隔着谓语)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The question then arises as to how these remarks differ from the previous ones. 这些议论同先前的有何不同，这一下子就出现了问题。/ The truth is beginning to come out about what happened. 有关当时的事态，真相正在开始浮现。/ The time has passed when he was an object of ridicule, ... (Somerset Maugham, The Moon and Sixpence) 他作为人们讥笑对象的日子，已经过去了，……</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 还有一种 that 与其先行词隔开的现象，是当中插入了状语成分。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Never place items in the washer that are dampened with gasoline or other flammable fluids. 洗衣机内不要放入沾了汽油和其他易燃液体的东西。/ I wrote an e-mail to a friend that made a disparaging remark about a co-worker. (Reader's Digest, October 2007, p. 83) 我给一位朋友写了一封电子邮件，里面说了一名同事一番坏话。(that 管 e-mail, 不管 friend)</div><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 有时候 that 究竟是定语从句的关系代词，还是同位语从句的主从连词，有可能产生歧义，需要从上下文和事理来判断。如 A report that he stole was sent to the police. 这一句光是从本句范围来看，可以有两种理解：(a) 一份被他偷去(stole 为及物动词)的报告送到了警察那里。(b) 一份说他偷窃(stole 为不及物动词)的报告送到了警察那里。从事理来推测，当然是(b)更为符合常理。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> 在比较古旧的英文中，that which 相当于现在的 what。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In this manner, that which (= what) is received is changed. (English translation of History of Philosophy, "Introduction") 这一条，传承下来的东西，又经历了变化。有时候，前后用 what 或 whatever 用多了，也可以用 that which 来调剂一下。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... and whatever it was possible to do to give priority to that which is in any case explained by what follows, and generally whatever might contribute to the greatest possible comprehensibility and clearness, has been honestly and conscientiously done. (English translation of The World as Will and Representation) ……如果行文中有哪些部分是接着马上就得到说明的，以及有哪些部分可能是有助于使全文尽可能清晰易懂的，编写时都老老实实地、自觉地尽可能予以优先。that 和 which 有时候当中可以插入别的词语，但两者的呼应关系不应中断。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Far more pervading and more remarkable was the other error, if that can be called an error which was the almost unavoidable result of the circumstances of the time. (James Bryce, The Holy RomanEmpire) 影响受广而且更为显著的，是另一方面的失误，如果当时事态所几乎不可避免要造成的结果也可以称为失误的话。</div><br><br>
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that is
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>that is</b></div>是“即，也就是”的意思，永远用单数 is。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... language-makers, that is ordinary speakers, are not very accurate thinkers. (Otto Jespersen, The Philosophy of Grammar) ……语言的创造者，亦即普通的说话者，并不是十分准确的思考者。</div><br><br>
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(that) said
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(that) said</b></div>that said 有“不过，但是”的意思，放在后句句首，意思同前句相反。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We are in the middle of the rainy season. That said, there has been surprisingly little rain this year. 咱们现在正处于雨季。不过，今年雨水却少得出奇。/ English is a very difficult language. That said, there are many opportunities to learn English since it is spoken all over the world. 英语是一种十分难学的语言。不过，要学英语，机会多得很，因为全世界到处有人讲英语。/ ... the economy grew by 5 percent in 1999 and by 8 percent in 2000. ... That said, the financial success stories... are still islands in a sea of stagnation. (National Geographic, November. 2001, pp. 8-9) ……经济在 1999 年增长了 5%，在 2000 年增长了 8%。……不过，金融上成功的故事……仍然只是不景气的大背景下的一些个例。如果后句意思同前句一致，就不可以用 <i>that said；例如不可以说 </i>We are in the middle of the rainy season. That said, it has been raining every day.</div>
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that 与 this
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>that 与 this</b></div>参见 this 条之(5)。<br><br>
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the
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>the</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> “数以……计”(表示其多)，尽管根本没有“特指”的意思，也用 the 放在 thousands 或 millions 之前。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Today, apartments like hers are priced in the millions. 今天，像她那样的公寓，价格以百万元计算。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 讲到一个身上可能同时具有的不同身份或天赋时，每一个特定的身份都可以用一个名词加上 the 来表示。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In this experience the boy attempted to fuse the vision of the sea with that of the bird, and this knowledge marked the beginning of the poet in him. 在这次的感受中，这个男孩子试图把大海的形象同那只鸟的形象融合起来，这个感知标志着他诗人生涯的开端。/ Mr. Vajpayee said that when he was young, he felt that the poet in him would die a premature death. 瓦杰帕伊先生说，他年轻的时候曾经感觉到，他自己的诗才会过早夭折。/ It triggered off the mathematician in him. 这激发了他的数学天赋。/ He therefore showed a calm, grave face when the spy returned to him. 因此，当间谍回到他身边时，他露出了平静而严肃的表情。/ But Dickens had an extraordinary power of resisting the common effects of applause and flattery; the artist in him prevailed against his own weaknesses and the world's assault. (George Gissing, The Immortal Dickens) 但是狄更斯具有非凡的力量，能够抵御受到欢呼赞扬所通常会产生的后果；他身上的艺术家气质，克服了他自己的弱点以及世俗的侵袭。/ Eisenhower the man deserves more respect than Eisenhower the president. 艾森豪威尔作为一个个人，比作为一个总统更为值得尊敬。/ The student (of history) in him (= Obama) knows that the worst thing the United States could do at the moment is ... (Richard Cohen, "Obama's controlled response to Iran is right," in The Daily Gazette, June 23, 2009, A7) 作为历史研究者的奥巴马，深知当前美国如果……，就会犯下莫大的错误。/ Some of the papers indeed had a good word for him, but, as in the case of Liszt and later of Rubinstein, it was rather for the pianist than for the composer. (Henry T. Finck, Chopin and Other Musical Essays) 有一些报纸的确说了他一些好话，但正如对李斯特和鲁宾斯坦那样，与其说是称赞他这个作曲家，不如说是称赞他这个钢琴家。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 一个人名前面，可以再加上一个名词成分说明他的身份。这里有几种情况：(a) 前面的名词表示某人的正式现任职务，此时这个名词不要任何冠词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>President (<i>the President) Trump 特朗普总统</div><div class="ex-item">Governor (</i>the Governor) Cuomo 科莫州长。通常这个名词只有一个单词，如果有所属的机构(of ...)，要放在人名后面。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Governor Cuomo of New York State (<i>Governor of New York State Cuomo) 纽约州州长科莫</div><div class="ex-item">Chancellor Merkel of Germany (</i>Chancellor of Germany Merkel) 德国总理默克尔</div><div class="ex-item">President Macron of France (*President of France Macron) 法国总统马克龙。</div><br><br>但是如果 of ... 不是指所属机构，而是这个职务的内在性质，则要紧跟着职务名词，合成一体，放在人名前面。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Secretary of State Pompeo (*Secretary Pompeo of State) 美国国务卿蓬佩奥。如果过是过去的职务，但只有一个单词，也可以用这种格式。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Former President Clinton 前总统克林顿。</div>(b) 不是正式职务，而是专业身份，此时，前面的名词(通常也是只有一个单词)要不要 the，取决于这个专业身份究竟是持久集中的，还是偶尔一时的。如果是持久集中的(中文是“……家”)，要 the。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the cellist Yo-Yo Ma 大提琴家马友友</div><div class="ex-item">the tenor Placido Domingo 男高音歌唱家普拉西多·多明戈。如果是偶尔一时的(中文是“……者”)，不要 the；但也可以要 the，同时在前面名词和后面人名之间加上逗号。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>pianist Condoleezza Rice</div><div class="ex-item">the pianist, Condoleezza Rice (本次音乐会上的)钢琴演奏者康多莉扎·赖斯。</div><br><br>但是，如果专业身份前面有国籍形容词，则有没有 the 不是表示持久或一时的区别(既然表明国籍，就通常都是持久经常的)，而是带有著名与一般的区别。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the American dancer Isadora Duncan 美国(著名)舞蹈家伊莎多拉·邓肯</div><div class="ex-item">German anthropologist Hans Schwartz 德国人类学者汉斯·史华兹。不过，这个界线有时很难明确划分，所以究竟用不用 the，也是见仁见智的。</div>(c) 不是正式或现任职务，而是履历。这个履历，在日常用语中通常要用定语从句或同位语从句来表示。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Jimmy Carter, (who is a) former President of the United States, ... 美国前总统吉米·卡特，……</div><div class="ex-item">Eierkopf, (who has once been the) one-time record holder in the Olympic pole vault, ... 曾是奥运撑杆跳高纪录保持者的埃尔科普夫，…… 但是在报纸杂志和广播电视的语言中，为了保持短促并且开门见山抢先说明某人的来头，可以把这个履历放在人名前面(前面不要 the)，如 Former President of the United States Jimmy Carter。前面的履历甚至可以很长。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>one-time record holder in the Olympic pole vault Eierkopf 曾是奥运撑杆跳高纪录保持者的埃尔科普夫</div><div class="ex-item">former President of the United States and onetime Hollywood star Ronald Reagan 曾任美国总统并一度当过好莱坞明星的罗纳德·里根。但是这样的格式，在媒体之外的日常用语中较少用。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 同法语、德语、葡萄牙语等语言相比较，英语突出的一个特点是少用 the 而多用 my、his 之类物主代词，这一点却是同中文比较接近。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He often thought of his father. 他常常想念他父亲。甚至有时候中文不必重复的物主代词，英语也不厌其烦地重复。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He put his hand in his pockets. 他把手放进衣兜里。</div><br><br>但是，如果是对身体部位或是对象上穿着的衣物施加动作，则英语也同其他一些欧洲语言一样，用 the 而不用物主代词，而且先把受动者的整体作为直接宾语，然后再用介词引入身体部位或衣物，以缩小施动对象，这就同中文拉开了距离。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He touched me on the shoulder. 他碰了一下我的肩头。这里的 the shoulder 已经是笼统化的概念，它不是指具体的哪一个肩头。因此，第一，它不必明确是左肩还是右肩；第二，即使受动者是多人，the shoulder 仍然保持单数不变。如 He touched us on the shoulder. 当然，如果本来受动者的身体部位或衣物就是成双地受动的，the 后面的这个名词要用复数形式。</div><br><br>受动者不一定是人，可以是动物，甚至还可以是无生物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I seized the hammer by the handle. 我抓住了锤子的柄。</div><br><br>如果受动的身体部位或衣物有描绘性的形容词，它就获得了具体特指的性质，不再是笼统化的概念，此时，就不用 the 而恢复用物主代词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His mother kissed him on his (<i>the) big, red nose. 他母亲吻了他那个又大又红的鼻子。不过，如果这个形容词只是表示客观的分类，就仍然用 the。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He shot him in the (</i>his) left leg. 他开枪打中了他的左腿。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 一般告示中，眼前的事物尽管是特指的，也不用任何冠词，因为这是不言而喻的，而且告示需要简单醒目。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Ambulance and deliveries: to rear (<i>the rear) of building (</i>of the building). 救护车和送货请到大楼后侧。但是，一本书中提到该书，定冠词(或是表示特指的指示词，如 this)不可以省略。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The book consists of eight chapters. 本书分 8 章。/ This book has been classroom-tested in four universities. 本书曾经在 4 所大学作为课堂教材试用。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 本来是可数名词，通常单数时要有定冠词或不定冠词，但是这样的名词如果用来表示一个笼统的概念而不是一件特定的事物，就临时转变为不可数名词，不加任何冠词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>(He is) the kind of leader who always puts country (<i>the country) ahead of party (</i>the party). (The Associated Press, May 16, 2009) 他是那种一贯先国家后政党的人。类似这样的名词，还有 language、law、religion、marriage、divorce 等。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 定冠词 the 还有一个很有意思的用法。2017 年，美国总统特朗普的重要助手班农(Bannon)曾经指责反对特朗普的人是“法团主义者”(corporativists)。对方就反驳说：Trump and Bannon are the corporativists. 意思相当于“特朗普和班农才是法团主义者呢”。中文这个“才”如果回译成 only 就不符合原意，而 the 有拿对方的用语来回敬的用意。<br><br>
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theatre
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>theatre</b></div>关于加不加定冠词的问题，参见 radio 条。<br><br>
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(the) moment
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(the) moment</b></div>形式上是名词成分，但是可以作为连词引入时间状语从句，相当于 at the moment when。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In the looting of the ancient Nineveh palace, the destruction is not only physical. The "accumulation of knowledge" ceases the moment the object, whether it be a chunk of relief or a buried sliver of pottery, is moved from its context. 在尼尼微王宫被掠事件中，毁灭不仅仅在于实物的丧失。物品无论是一片浮雕还是一件埋在土中的碎瓦，一旦被拿走，离开了整体，“知识的积累”就停止了。</div><br><br>every moment 也可以作连词，引入时间状语从句，表示一种延续或渐进的过程。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Every moment the colloquy continued in this tone, he felt more and more guilty. (William Makepeace Thackeray, Vanity Fair) 他听得奥斯本用这样的口气说话，越来越觉得惭愧。</div><br><br>
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then
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>then</b></div>作为时间副词(作为结果副词这里不谈)，then 有两个虽然相近但却不同的意义，一个是“在(过去或将来的)那时候”，一个是“然后，接着”。大体上可以说，如果谓语动词是延续性的(第一类或第二类动词)，then 是前面的那个意思；如果谓语动词是瞬时性的(表示发生变化，第四类动词，或第三类动词采取完成态)，then 就是后面的那个意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Then it was a world where crime and drugs seemed far away. 当时那是一个似乎同犯罪和吸毒风马牛不相及的天地。/ That was then and this is now. 此一时，彼一时。/ Turn right, then left. 先右转，再左转。/ I am going to my room to read, and then I will have a sleep. 我回自己屋里看看书，然后就要睡觉了。</div><br><br>
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theory
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>theory</b></div>不一定是普遍意义的“理论”(例如“相对论”“剩余价值论”等等)，也可以是对某一具体事实的解释、猜测或对将来可能情况的估计，有时中文也可以译成“论”(如“亡国论”“速胜论”之类)，但有时译成“论”也不妥当。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>According to Foggo's lawyer, Bill Hundley, the Feds are operating on the theory that Foggo helped Wilkes get CIA contracts in return for Wilke's paying for vacation trips for Foggo. (Newsweek, June 5, 2006, p. 33)据福戈的律师比尔·亨德利说，联邦当局的基本猜想，是福戈帮助了韦尔克斯取得联邦调查局的合同，以使韦尔克斯为福戈的度假旅行付费。/ Classical scholar Ludwig Edelstein proposed that the oath was written by Pythagoreans, a theory that has been questioned ... (Hippocratic Oath)古典学者路德维希·希·埃德尔斯坦认为希波克拉底誓言是毕达哥拉斯学派的人所写的，但是这个说法受到了质疑，……</div><br><br>
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there
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>there</b></div>here 与 there 是地点副词，不能作为名词成分表示“这地方”和“那地方”，需要补上 it 来使之成为名词成分。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She's followed me from one camp to another for almost twenty years, and finally to Moscow. She likes it there. (Tom Clancy, The Cardinal of the Kremlin)她几乎20年来都跟随着我，从一处兵营到另一处兵营，最后到了莫斯科。她喜欢那里。</div><br><br>there 不一定是远处处的“那里，那边”。正如 there is ... 中的 there 没有地点意义一样，另外一个词组 out there 如果同静态动词出现，也只是表示“有，存在”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You might think that you are alone in this battle, but there are methods out there which can help. 你也许以为自己是在孤军作战，但其实有些方法可以帮助你。</div><br><br>out there 可以没有远处“那里”的地点意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You can just imagine how many worlds are out there that have a shot to becoming a habitable ecosystem. Are we alone out there? (The New York Times, Feb. 22, 2017)你可以想象，会有多少个星球有可能成为能居住的生态体系。只有我们才单独存在吗？(这里前一个 out there 看不出有没有地点的意义，因为说的是远处的行星；但是第二个 out there 则明显指我们地球上的人类，这里的 there 就不可能指远处。)</div>out there 如果作状语同动态动词一起出现，则按两个词各自的词义表示“出去到他处”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We all went out there like headless chickens. (Frank De ttori, Frankie: The Autobiography of Frankie Dettori)我们全都像无头苍蝇一样到了外面去。</div><br><br>但是 out there (或 out-there)作为形容词，却有“奇特的，不同寻常的”之意。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His ideas are really out there. 他的想法的确很奇特。/ She's a bit out-thereand artistic, but she's such a fun character. 她有点不同寻常，还有点艺术家气质，但是个有趣的人。</div><br><br>
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there-
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>there-</b></div>there-后面加上一个介词，成了 therein、thereof、thereto、thereby 等等，就变成了副词，相当于 in it、of it、to it、by it。除了 thereby、thereupon、thereafter 之外，大都是法律文书或科技文献的用语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>two weeks thereafter 其后两个星期</div><div class="ex-item">the parties thereto 有关各方</div><div class="ex-item">a portion thereof 其中一部分</div><div class="ex-item">When vacancies happen in the Representation from any State, the Executive Authority thereof (= of that State) shall issue Writs of Election to fill such Vacancies. (Constitution of the United States of America)任何一州的众议员有缺额时，该州的行政长官应颁布选举令，选出众议员以补充缺额。/ Their opposition could be attributed to political naiveté, to a misreading of the Sermon on the Mount, to utopianism, or to some combination thereof. 他们所持的反对态度，原因可能是政治上的天真幼稚、对登山宝训的误读、乌托邦主义，或者是这些因素的某种相互结合。</div><br><br>有时候这个 there-甚至可以指代前面出现过的两个不同名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Viewed and measured from afar, the shape of Earth is much closer to a perfect ellipsoid than a billiard ball is to a perfect sphere, the deviations therefrom (= from the perfect ellipsoid and from the perfect sphere, respectively) being 0.17 percent and 0.22 percent, respectively. 从远处观察和测量地球，它的形状与完全的椭圆体的相似度，大大甚于一个台球与完全的球体的相似度，两者的误差各为 0.17% 与 0.22%。</div><br><br>
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there be
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>there be</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> there be ... 的句型往往用来使得句子显得不那么生硬。例如 We can do nothing about it. (我们对此无能为力。)固然符合语法，但听起来太生硬。说 There's nothing we can do about it. 就通顺一些。又如 If there is anything you need, don't hesitate to ask. (需要些什么尽管说。)就比 If you need anything ... 通顺。Is there anything I can do for you? 就比 Can I do anything for you? 通顺。句子长是长了一些，但有时候不一定短简就是好。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> There's nothing to do. 是“没有什么能做，百无聊赖”。There's nothing to be done. 则是“无能为力，无计可施”。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> there be 中的 there 已经完全失去了“那里”的空间地点含义，同动词 be “化合”在一起，表示“有”，而不是“那里有”。因此，如果要加上地点，说“这里有”或“那里有”，就需要再加上地点副词 here 或 there (这个 there 正是“那里”的意思)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There are two chairs here. 这里有两把椅子。/ There is a building there. 那边有一座建筑。here 甚至可以直接放在 there 前面。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Here there is a difficulty. (The Economist, June 14, 2008, p. 16)这里有一个困难。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> there be 可以有许多变化。中国人比较习惯于 there is、there are、there was、there were 等比较简单的形式，对变化的形式可能不大习惯。在现实语言运用中，be 前面可以加上各种助动词或其他动词，或者 be 本身保持不定式或分词状态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But there may be a better alternative. 但是可能另有更好的办法。/ There'sgot to be some explanation. 肯定有原因。/ There had to be a score of CNN employees outside the door. 门外肯定有一大批 CNN 的人员。/ There are thought to be more than 3,000 different languages in the world. 据估计全世界共有 3,000 多种不同的语言。/ There was said to be disagreement between Ministers. 据说各个大臣之间意见有分歧。/ There was sure to be a refreshing breeze. 肯定会有凉爽的风。/ Though the genes in question have yet to be identified, this result suggests they are too abundant to be there by chance. 尽管这些基因尚未查明是什么，但是这个结果显示，既然数量如此之多，就不会是偶然存在的。/ There weren't supposed to be any upstairs tenants. 按理楼上不会有房客。/ There is going to have to be a way to deal with Iran or a whole nexus of Middle East issues. (Madeleine Albright, U.S. News & World Report, Jan. 14, 2008, p. 18)对于伊朗或是对于一系列的中东问题，将需要办法来处理。/ He needed to know if there happened to be room. 他需要知道会不会刚好有空地。/ There had better be some people left there with some brains and guts. 那边最好留下一些有点头脑和魄力的人。/ What is the probability of there being creatures on Neptune? 海王星上有生物的可能性有多大？/ There began to be a commotion. 开始出现骚乱。/ There is certain to be some opposition to your suggestion. 对于你的建议，肯定会有反对意见。/ There appeared to be momentum.</div><div class="ex-item">这似乎是一种动力。/ There remained some crucial testimony from outstanding witnesses. 还有一些重要证人尚未提出关键性的证词。/ She had seen all there was left of hope in her life. 她已经看到自己一生中剩下的一点点希望。/ There's bound to be conflict. There's bound to be friction. (The New York Times, Apr. 4, 2007, E8)肯定会有冲突。肯定会有摩擦。/ When Carter stepped off the elevator, there looked to be about fifty people already gathered there. (Mary Higgins Clark, Nighttime Is My Time)卡特走出电梯时，看来大约有 50 个人已经聚集在那里了。/ There ended up being an orgy. 后来大家酗酒乱闹了一番。/ There failed to be any evidence of his guilt. 没有找到任何证明他有罪的证据。/ I guess I knew about there being a prince, because that's how my grand-aunt got in trouble, but I never thought about there being one right this minute. (Susan Mallery, Sheiks of Summer)我当时知道有一位王子，因为我的曾姨祖母就是那样惹了麻烦的，但是我从未想到此时此刻竟然有这样一位。</div><br><br>there 在这里的句法结构上，可以当作一个名词来安排(往往充当一个动词或介词的直接宾语)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the necessity for there to be a standard 有一个标准的必要性</div><div class="ex-item">It is possible for there to be a timetable. 可能有一个时间表。/ Their teacher considers there to be nothing difficult in that task. 他们老师认为这个作业一点也不难。/ I don't want there to be any misunderstanding. 我不希望发生任何误解。/ Don't let there be any mistake about that. (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes)这上面不要出现任何错误。/ The mayor kept there from being a riot. 市长阻止了骚乱的发生。/ The police believe there to be terrorists involved in the bombing. 警察认为爆炸案有恐怖分子参与。/ They believe there to have been a riot yesterday. 他们相信昨天发生过一次骚乱。有时候 there seem to be 中的 to be 可以略去。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There seemed no warrant for further investigation. 看来没有理由继续调查下去。/ There seems no way this can hurt his family. 这看来不可能伤他家人的心。/ Lilian was pale; there seemed little life left in her. 莉莉安脸面色苍白；她似乎只剩下了半条命。但是如果是 to have been，则不能略去。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There seems to have been some mistake. 看来出了点错误。</div><br><br>美国黑人语言有时以 it's 代替 there is。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's/There is nobody here but me. 这里只有我一个人。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> there be 后面出现的主语，通常是不特指的，但是有时候也可以是特指的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—Who could we give our old lawnmower to? —Well, there's that student next door, there's the guy who works for your eyes. —咱们这台旧的推草机给谁好呀？—可以给隔壁的那个学生，也可以给那个替你叔父干活的人。/ There was the smell of rum on his breath. 他的气息带着一股朗姆酒味。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> there be X to Y，则有“Y 具有 X 性质”的意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There is a fairy-tale appeal to stories in which people vanquish great odds. (The Economist, May 7, 2016, p. 14)叙述人们如何克服逆境的故事，具有童话般的吸引力。/ There is a dark side to the bonanza. (The New York Times, Apr. 4, 2007, E8)美中也有不足之处。/ There is much more to a successful life than simply finding a job. 成功的生活，远远不只是仅仅找到一份工作而已。</div><br><br>
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there be 与 “有”<br><br><link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css">
<div class="entry"><h1>there be 与 “有”</h1><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> there be 用得很频繁，实际“存在”的含义有点淡。为了补充其分量，用了 there be 之后，可以外加 out there。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There are thousands of pianists out there, playing their fingers to the bone, and there are only about four or five superstars. (Sidney Sheldon, The Stars Shine Down)有成千上万的钢琴家拼命动手指，但成为超级明星的只有四五个。/ There are a lot of to-do apps out there. What makes one more engaging than the others? (The Wall Street Journal, Nov. 9, 2013, D12)待办事项应用程序多得很。有些很吸引人，有些则不那么吸引人，原因何在呢？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 有时候说“有”不一定要说 there be，也可以换一下说法。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Just as in great cities one finds (= there are) firms which make a specialty of laying foundations or immense buildings, so it is often wise to employ a teacher who specializes in instructing beginners. (Josef Hofmann, Piano Playing)正如大城市里有一些公司专门为大型建筑物打地基，同样，聘一位教师专门教导初学者，这样做常常是明智的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 说某个人有某种情况或性质，可以用“there be 某情况 about 某人”的句型，这样似乎更合乎英文的习惯；参见 about 条之(1)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 如果占有关系的双方都是比较抽象的事物，就用“to + 较大的一方(也是载体，但更为笼统)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There was some truth to that, she thought. 她觉得这里面也有真实之处。/ There was no truth to this. 这毫不真实。/ And there seems to be an upside to all this. (Newsweek, July 16, 2007, p. 16)看来这一切也有好的一面。/ Yet there are virtues to living here (= in an old-age home). (Newsweek, Sept. 11, 2006, p. 13)住在这里有这里的好处。/ While he knew that there was no more to the message, he could not accept itsfinality. 他尽管知道这个信息到此为止，没有别的内容了，但是这样结束，他是怎样也接受不了的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 如果占有关系是比较固定的，只要较小的一方是比较抽象的性质，那么较大的一方即使是比较具体的事物，也用 to 来引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There is a soul to an army as well as to the individual man, ... (U.S. News & World Report, Oct. 28, 2002, p. 44)军队同人一样，也是有灵魂的，……</div><div class="ex-item">There is depth and structure to the skin (of the fossilized dinosaur). ... there is a pattern of handing to the larger and smaller scales on the skin. (The Associated Press, Dec. 2, 2007)(恐龙化石)的皮肤有厚度，有结构。……皮肤上的大小鳞甲有带状花纹。</div><br><br>
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(the ... side of the) tracks
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(the ... side of the) tracks</b></div>美国许多城市当中有铁路穿过，分成两半。往往一边居住条件较好，是社会地位较高的住户居住的；另一边的住户则社会地位较低。因此，住在铁路路轨的哪一边，就代表了社会地位的高低。He lives on the wrong <b>side of the tracks</b>. 字面的意思是“他住在铁路的不该住的一边”，真正意思是“他同我们不是一路人”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>And she at once assigns you to your proper <b>side of the tracks</b>, and which is not the right one. (Ogden Nash) 她一下子就把你摆到你本来不合适的那个位置上。</div><br><br>
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they
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>they</b></div>中国人常常一看到 they 就想到“人”的“他们”，其实英文可以指事物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>“Are there more questions?” There were several. They concerned the tactics to be employed ... “还有什么问题吗？”大家又提出了几个问题。是有关要采取什么策略的……</div><div class="ex-item">Years had passed, and apparently they had neither healed nor mellowed her anger. 许多年过去了，但是明显没有消除也没有缓和她的怒火。/ “... you might be able to recommend someone else who would want to buy my shares.” “How much are you hoping to be offered for them?” (Jeffrey Archer, The Fourth Estate)“……您也许能介绍一位想买下我的股票的人。”“您的股票希望人家出多高的价钱呢？”</div><div class="ex-item">The younger Tamils insisted that Gandhian methods were of no use: They might have worked in India, but that was because they were used by a majority against the minority. 年轻的泰米尔人坚持认为，甘地式的方法是没用的：这些办法在印度或许能够见效，但那是因为那是多数人用对付少数人的。有人英译中时把这类不指人的 they 译成“它们”，不大符合中文的习惯。</div><br><br>
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they say (that)
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>they say (that)</b></div>可以引入一句谚语(they 没有具体所指)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They say when you get yourself into a hole, stop digging. 常言道，闯了祸，早脱身。也可以引入一个自己不同意的意见，后面提出不同意见。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They say a leopard can't change its spots. But ... 常言道，江山易改，本性难移。不过……</div><br><br>
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thick-skinned
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>thick-skinned</b></div>这个形容词，看起来同中文的“厚脸皮的”差不多。它的确有“厚脸皮的”的贬义(但没有“厚颜无耻的”那样重)，不过通常的意义是“不容易动感情的”，也包括“不容易动怒的，淡然的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was thick-skinned enough to cope with her taunts. 对于她的种种挖苦，他淡然处之。另外，thick-skinned 还有对他人的遭遇“麻木不仁”之意，这也不是“厚脸皮的”所能概括的。</div><br><br>
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thing
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>thing</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 形容词不放在 things 前面而放在后面，表示“多方面的基本情况，多方面的基本知识”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Things Chinese 中国风土人情</div><div class="ex-item">things musical 音乐技能与知识</div><div class="ex-item">He (= George W. H. Bush) always made it his business to know all things geopolitical, long before—and certainly after—he took over as head of the CIA. (Newsweek, Jan. 8, 2007, p. 27)他(老布什)早在他就任中央情报局局长之前——当然之后也是——就已经一贯专心地了解地缘政治学的全部奥妙。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> a thing or two (不是 *one or two things)是“某门知识的一点皮毛”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>know a thing or two about banking 对银行业务略知一二。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 在否定句中，被否定的 a thing 可以相当于 nothing。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I didn't know a thing about stroke before I had one. 我中风之前，对中风毫无所知。/ They searched the area but didn't find a thing. 他们搜查了整片地区，一无所获。</div><br><br>
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-thing
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>-thing</b></div>在 what 与 who 条中，我们将看到，what 并不一定只能指物，它也可以指人，表示人的职业、地位、身份等，但不能表示人的姓名。也就是说，可以表示“哪一类”的人，但不能表示“哪个”人(参见 identity 条)。thing 作为名词，本身不能指人；但是如果前面加上 some-、any-、no-，成为复合代词 something、anything、nothing，也就同 what 一样可以指人的职业、地位、身份等(往往后面加 more 或 less 做比较)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He is something more than a novelist. 他不单单是个小说家。/ I still don't feel she is anything more than a competent dancer. 我仍然认为她只不过是一名合格的舞者。/ Nothing less than a professor would be acceptable to her as a son-in-law. 要有资格当她的女婿，起码得是个教授不可。</div><br><br>
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think
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>think</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 可以用被动语态，说某人或某事物 be thought to inf. (“人家认为他或它如何如何”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A thunderstorm rather than terrorism is thought to have caused a Russian airliner with 171 people on board to crash over Ukraine Tuesday. 据认为，是一场大雷雨，而不是恐怖活动，使得一架载有 171 人的俄罗斯客机星期二在乌克兰坠毁。think 的实际宾语不是 thunderstorm，而是 thunderstorm 造成的整个事件。这种用法，也见于 believe、fear、report、say、schedule 等动词。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> think 作为“思考”的过程，尚未达到某个看法或结论，可以作为不及物物的第二类动词用进行时态(后面无倾向性的思考对象用 about 引入，有倾向性的思考打算用 of 引入)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—What are you thinking about? —I'm thinking about the play we saw last night. —你在想些什么？—我在想咱们昨天晚上看的那出剧。/ She's thinking of marrying him. 她在考虑嫁给他。</div><br><br>但是如果表示持有某个“看法”或“意见”，就属第一类动词，不能用进行时态，只能用一般现在时或一般过去时，此时 think 是个及物动词，直接宾语(是句子时用 that 引入，但 that 可以省略)是看法或意见的内容，有关的对象用 of 引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>What do you think of it? 您对此有何看法？/ —Tom is thinking of emigrating. What do you think of the idea? —I think it is a stupid idea. —汤姆在考虑移民。您觉得这个想法怎么样？—我觉得这个想法很蠢。/ I thought he was laughing at me, and ran faster than ever. (Alphonse Daudet, The Last Lesson)我觉得他是在笑话我，于是就跑得更快了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> to think (that)或 and to think (that) (to think 一定要用动词不定式)，放在句首，后面用动词过去时表示回想过去竟然有这样的事情发生，从现在的观点来看简直不可思议。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>To think that I was once one of them! 我过去竟然曾经是他们中的一员！/ To think I left you alone in a place with a madman at large! 我当时竟然把你一个人留在有个疯子在游荡的地方！/ And to think that she did it all by herself. 这一切竟然是她一个人干的。/ To think that there was a time when I thought nailing the interview was the hardest part of getting a job. (Newsweek, Nov. 13, p. 20)我为什么这么糊涂，有一阵竟然以为，要得到一个职位，争取到面试机会就是最棘手的一步了。/ To think that one of our own police officers was doing the very same thing we were trying to fight. It's disgusting. (The Daily Gazette, June 26, 2007, A3)我们自己的一名警官竟然干着我们本来努力要打击的坏事。这是令人很难堪的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> you would think 或 I would have thought 或 we would have thought 表示“本来(或按理)应该如何(但是没有实现)”(带有不满的意思)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You'd think you'd remember to wash your face. 你本来应该记得洗脸。/ You'd think she'd be pleased. 她按理应该满意了。/ We'd have thought he'd become president. 他按理应该会成为总统。/ —She should have been given some proper help. —Well, I'd have thought so. —她本来应该得到一些适当的帮助。—对呀，本来就是。</div><br><br>
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think out, think over 与 think up
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>think out, think over 与 think up</b></div>这里三处的 think 都是及物动词，out、over 和 up 都是副词(不是介词)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> think out 和 think up 的意义(都是第三类或第四类动词)同中文“想出”和“想起”并不对应。大体上 think out (第三类动词，“对某已知方案加以考虑，经过一个考虑过程后使之达到更为完善的状态”)相当于中文的“考虑好”，而不是“想出”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I need time alone to think things out. 我需要单独处的时间把事情想周全。/ The book is detailed and well thought out. 这本书很详细很周全。/ Every detail has been thought out. 每一个细节都考虑过了。/ He chewed at the end of his pencil, thinking out the next problem. 他咬着铅笔尖，考虑着下一个问题。</div><br><br>与“想出”对应的是 think up (第三类或第四类动词，“经过考虑，产生出某个主意”)。而且 think up 通常的宾语是一个主意，往往不是一个广泛全面的计划，更不能照搬为中文的“想起”(即回忆起某件已有的往事)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Julian has been thinking up new ways of raising money. 朱利安陆续想出一些筹款的新办法。/ He thought up a plan to get rich quickly. 他想出了一个迅速致富的办法。/ You'd better think up a good reason for handing the work in late. 你不按期交差，最好想出个站得住的理由。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> think over 则是第二类动词(延续过程而无终点)，虽然也是对某一已知事物进行思考，但并不意味着达到目的，也就是说，着眼点是思考的过程，而对目的则并不重视。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'll think it over. 我考虑考虑吧。(这可能是一句搪塞的话，泥牛入海，没有下文)</div>
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this
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>this</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 用于年月日、早午晚及四季时，this 的意义较为复杂。<br><br>中国人很在乎日历年月的界限，英文则注意实际的先后排列，不问日历上的分界。在英文中，this 如果指较长的时间段，如年和月，指的是当前尚未过去的今年和本月，例如 this year (今年)、this month (本月)、this week (本周)。动词用过去时态，就表示事情发生在说话之前今年、本月或本周的某一时间点。动词用将来时态，就表示事情将发生在说话之后今年、本月或本周的某一时间点。如果是早午晚，就一定是指今天的。如果是季节，动词用过去时，就是指刚刚过去的那个；动词用将来时，就是指即将到来的那个(这样的英文译成中文时反而恢复日历上的年份)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This fall there was widespread bleaching from Texas to Trinidad that killed broad swaths of corals, ... (The Washington Post, Jan. 29, 2006, A16)去年秋天，从得克萨斯到特立尼达，出现了大范围的白化现象，使得大片的珊瑚死亡，……(说话时是 2006 年 1 月，是冬季，this fall 又加上动词过去时，指的是刚过去的秋季，亦即 2005 年秋季；年份的不同，对于用 this 没有影响)</div><div class="ex-item">This fall, NYU launched its 2004—2005 series of regional alumni events, NYU in Your Neighborhood. (NYU Alumni Connect, January 2005)去年秋季，纽约大学启动了它的 2004 至 2005 年度地区校友系列活动“纽约大学在您身旁”。(说话时是 2005 年 1 月，经查证，该系列活动是 2004 年 11 月 4 日开始的)</div><div class="ex-item">This spring, the Las Vegas Sands Corp. will open the $2.3 billion Venetian Macao, with a façade three times the size of the Vegas version, ... (Newsweek, Sept. 2, 2006, p. 52)明年春天，拉斯维加斯金沙公司耗资 23 亿美元的澳门威尼斯人度假村酒店将开张，它的建筑正面为拉斯维加斯的威尼斯人酒店的三倍，……(说话时是 2006 年 9 月，是秋季，this spring 又加上动词将来时，指的是即将到来的春季，亦即 2007 年春季；年份的不同，对于用 this 没有影响)</div>如果说话时的时节同“this + 时节”相同，则说的是今年当前的时节。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Despite hotter-than-normal temperatures this summer, Wisconsin has been hit with only three days when ozone pollution exceeded unhealthy levels. (Journal Sentinel, Milwaukee, Aug. 25, 2006)尽管今年夏天天气温比正常值高，但是威斯康星州只有过 3 天是臭氧污染超过不健康标准的。(说话时夏季尚未过去，而且动词用现在完成时，所以说的是本年当前的时节)</div>但是，用 this 表示刚过去的或即将到来的季节，通常是同当前的季节紧挨着的(例如现在在冬季，说 this fall)或是相隔不太远的(例如现在在秋季或冬季，说 this spring 即明年春季)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Pull up remaining plants, add compost to the soil and cover it with mulch to help it retain moisture this winter. Taking steps now can help your garden this spring. 把那些剩下来的花草拔掉，向泥土增添堆肥，盖上覆盖料以帮助泥土今年冬天保持水分。现在就采取措施，明年春天你的园圃就会欣欣向荣。如果隔得太远，又跨了年度，用 this 就不合适。跨年度用 this 指某个季节，通常过去的主要指秋季，未来的主要指春季，summer 处在一年的中期，两头隔开，this summer 不大可能是去年或明年的夏季，通常是今年已过去或将到来的夏季。但是不能一概而论，如果说话时是第二年刚刚开始，偶尔也有人说 this summer，用过去时态，指去年的夏季。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The plant passed its last state inspection this summer, but recent tests have found salmonella. (The Associate Press, Jan. 17, 2009)该厂去年夏季通过了最近的一次州内检验，但是近日的检查还是发现了沙门氏菌。至于 winter，它(在北半球)本来就是跨年度的，一般不涉及今年与明年的区别。 (2) this morning 和 this afternoon 当然指的都是今天的上午和下午，但是动词时态的用法则有比较细致的考虑。morning 一般到了正午 12 点后，最多到 1 点，就算是过去了。在这之前说话，算是在 this morning 的范围之内，动词用现在完成时。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Tom has called three times this morning already. 汤姆今天上午已经来了三次电话。但是在此之后说话，this morning 算是已经过去，动词就用一般过去时。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Tom called three times this morning. 汤姆今天上午来了三次电话。</div><br><br>afternoon 一般到了下午五六点钟就算过去了。在此之前说话，动词用现在完成时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I haven't seen Tom this afternoon. 我今天下午还没见过汤姆。但是在此之后说话，this afternoon 算是已经过去，动词就用一般过去时。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I didn't see Tom this afternoon. 我今天一整个下午都没见到汤姆。</div><br><br>但是，即使是在 this morning 的范围之内说话，某一事件如果按照常情有其一定的发生时刻，并不是在 this morning 这个范围之内随便什么时候都可以发生的，则动词仍然要用一般过去时，不能用现在完成时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My alarm clock didn't go off (*hasn't gone off) this morning. 我的闹钟今天早上没有响。又假如邮递员每天都是上午 9 点到 10 点来，那么，在 9 点到 10 点之间问，就说 Has the postman come this morning? 但是过了 10 点之后问，就说 Did the postman come this morning?</div><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> this 可以用作副词代替 so，甚至可以用于修饰复数名词的数量词前面。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... this many people practicing this many faiths and speaking this many languages (Time, Oct. 30, 2006, p. 8)……这么多信奉这么多种宗教和使用这么多种语言的人。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> this 既可以是名词的前置定语，也可以本身作为代词，要分辨清楚，否则会产生误解。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The press associations consider this great stuff, but to many readers it is confusing, exasperating and unnecessary. 各个报业协会把这个当作一件什么了不起的事，而在许多读者看来，这是使人迷惑的、令人恼火的、多此一举的。(这里的 this 是个本身独立的代词，不是 great stuff 的定语)</div><div class="ex-item">I don't like the looks of this one bit. 我看情况很不妙。(这里的 this 也是个本身独立的代词，不是 one bit 的定语，不可以把 this one bit 连在一起；one bit 表面上是名词成分，其实是加强否定的副词短语。)<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I suppose there are people who might consider this gossiping, but I prefer to think of it as an exchange of intriguing and potentially useful information. (The Daily Gazette, June 25, 2011, B4)我设想，可能有人认为这是说长道短，但是我却愿意认为这是一种交流有趣而又有用的信息的方式。(这里的 this 不是 gossiping 的定语，而是独立的一个代词，是 consider 的宾语。)</div><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> this (these)与 that (those)有如下的区别：(a) this (these)指靠近自己的，that (those)指远处的或靠近对方的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Get this cat off my shoulder. 把我肩头上的这只猫弄走。/ Get that cat off the piano. 把钢琴上的那只猫弄走。/ Do you like these ear-rings? Bob gave them to me. 你喜欢我的这对耳环吗？是鲍勃送给我的。/ I like those ear-rings. Where did you get them? 你这对耳环我很喜欢。你是哪里买到的？</div>(b) this 和 that 作为指示形容词，前者带有一点赞同的口气，后者则带有一点不喜欢的口气。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Now tell me about this new boyfriend of yours. 现在告诉我你这位新男朋友的一点情况吧。(带赞许口气)</div><div class="ex-item">I don't like that new boyfriend of yours. 我不喜欢你的那位新男朋友。/ So I met with this really nice guy. 于是我就同这个不错的小伙子见了面。/ I had got to have lunch with that fool Jackson. 我只好同杰克逊那个笨蛋一起吃了一顿午饭。/ She had better not buy that yacht, or do they spare her feelings by suppressing the bad news? (J. & S. Alsop, in International Herald Tribune, October, 1955)她最好别花钱买那条游艇，否则，要他们压下这个坏消息来照顾她的情绪吗？</div><br><br>但是，this 和 these 有时候也反而带有贬义。这种情况往往出现在名词成分本身就已经带有贬义之时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'll tell you about these monsters that I keep dreaming about. 我要告诉你这一阵我老是梦见的这些怪物。/ He is one of these artistic chaps. (John Galsworthy)他是那种吃艺术饭的人。</div><br><br>由于 that 和 those 可能带有贬义，所以如果提到上面某一事物，此时对之加以某种否定性的排除或纠正，就用 that 或 those 来限定它；如果此时对之加以某种肯定性的发挥，就用 this 或 these 来限定它。例如《科学美国人》(Scientific American)杂志 2005 年 5 月一篇文章谈及男女大脑构造的不同时，说到过去的神经科学家以为区别主要牵涉到交配、性激素和下丘脑。但是，接着下一段就说这一看法不对：That (<i>This) view, however, has now been knocked aside by a surge of findings ... (但是这个看法现在已经被一连串的发现所推到一边去了……)后面又接着谈这些新发现的作用：This (</i>That) progress has been accelerated in the past 5 to 10 years ... (这一进展，近 5 到 10 年来还加快了……)再后面另一段接着继续谈这些新进展：These (*Those) imaging experiments reveal that ... (这些成像试验显示……)可见，this (these)与 that (those)的选择，除了后面是否多加说明有其作用外，后面是“纠正式”的，还是“顺势发挥”的，也起作用。(c) This is what I mean. 这里的 this 可以指前面刚刚说过的话，也可以指后面接着马上要说的话(但更多是后者)。That is what I mean. 这里的 that 则只能指前面刚刚说过的话。(d) 前面已经谈及一件事情时，如果后面再就这件事情多加一些说明，这件事情可以按不同情况用 it、that 和 this 来代表。用 it 时，进一步多加的说明分量不重，一带而过；用 that 时，分量加重一些；用 this 时，分量加得最重。比如说，在西方，每家的住宅涂上什么颜色，不是自己可以随便决定的。这牵涉到整个住宅区的景色，所以常常要经过协商。假设某人自己单方面决定把房子涂成粉红色，可能会引起邻居们的不快。这个“不快”可能有三等：略为不快、很不高兴、怒火中烧。如果只是“略为不快”，涂颜色的事可以用 it 来表示，一带而过。如 He decided to paint his house pink. It upset the neighbours a bit. 如果是“很不高兴”，涂颜色的事可以用 that 或 this 来代表，略加后续说明。如 He decided to paint his house pink. That/This really upset the neighbours, as you can imagine. 但如果是“怒火中烧”，事情闹大了，后面要说的话就多，就要用 this 来代表涂颜色的事，留下多加后续说明的余地。如 He decided to paint his house pink. This upset the neighbours so much that they took him to court, believe it or not. The case came up last week. (他决定把房子涂成粉红色。这一来，邻居们非常不满，信不信由你，他们竟然把他告到法院。这案子是上周闹起来的。)通常后续说明如果很简短，就不要用 this 而用 that。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If the boss knew about their affair, it did not matter. They were doing their jobs well. Only that mattered. 即使上级知道了他们俩的事，也不要紧。他们工作干得好好的嘛。那(工作)才是要紧的。/ I hear that you dislike his latest novel. I read his first novel. That was very boring, too. 我听说你不喜欢他最近的那本小说。我看过他的第一本小说。那也是很枯燥的。/ They regularly take The Daily Courier. I wouldn't read a paper like that. 他们经常看《每日信使报》。我才不看那样的报纸呢。</div><br><br>作为指示形容词的 this (those)和 that (those)也有类似的区别用法。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Hong Kong researchers say they have found accurate tests. But those methods haven't yet been endorsed by the WHO. 香港的研究人员说，他们已经发现了准确的测试方法。但是这些方法尚未得到世界卫生组织认可。(后面一句内容不多，所以用 those 而不用 these)</div><div class="ex-item">The truth lies between those three mischiefs! (Anton Rubinstein, quoted by Josef Hofmann in Piano Playing)真谛就藏在这三个毛病彼此之间！</div><br><br>如果“这”指前面已经说过的内容，但是在后文却出现一个新的名词，则不便用 that 或 those，而是要用 this 或 these，因为后面名词的出现说明了这个 this 或 these 不是指示形容词而是代词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The U.S. government has 15 different agencies overseeing food-safety laws, 20 separate programs to help the homeless and 80 programs for economic development. (另段) These (*Those) are a few of the findings in a massive study of overlapping and duplicative programs that cost taxpayers billions of dollars each year, ... (The Wall Street Journal, Mar. 1, 2011, A1)美国政府设有 15 个不同的机构管理食物安全法律、20 个不同的项目帮助无家可归者、80 个项目处理经济发展。(另段)在一项大规模的耗费纳税人几十亿美元的有关交叉重复项目的研究中，这只是其中一部分发现……</div>(e) this 和 that 作为代词，通常不能指人，但是可以用于打电话一开始时代替“我”和“你”(打电话一开始时不能说 I am 或 you are，互相说明了是谁之后就可以)。直陈式的 This is ... 是“我是(某某)”；疑问句的 Is this ...? 是“你是(某某)吗？”。(f) 在非正式的英语中，this 和 that 都可以代替 so 修饰一个形容词或副词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I didn't realize it was going to be this hot. 我没有觉察到变得这样热。/ If your boyfriend's that clever, why isn't he rich? 如果你的男朋友真的那么聪明，他为什么不是个富翁呢？</div><br><br>但是如果 so 后面有呼应的 that 从句，就不能用 this 或 that 来代替。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was so (<i>this, </i>that) cold that I couldn't feel my fingers. 冷到我手指头都麻木了。</div><br><br>另外，not all that 相当于 not very。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—How was the play? —Not all that good. —戏演得怎么样？—不大好。</div><br><br>
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this ... that ...
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>this ... that ...</b></div>同中文的“这个……那个……”一样，可以用来表示不特指的随便“这个”和 “那个”。也和中文一样，必须“这个”在先，“那个”在后(指行文的先后，不是实际上的先后)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I was introduced to this celebrated person after that one, and the kind words they said about my book made me excessively uncomfortable. (Somerset Maugham, The Moon and Sixpence)我被介绍给这位名士、那位巨擘，这些人对我的作品所说的恭维话让我感到坐立不安。(实际上是 that 先于 this)这里的 this 和 that 实际上同 one 和 another 都是表示随便这个、那个，而且不一定只有两个。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Then we would speak of this publisher and of that, comparing the generosity of one with the meanness of another; ...)(Somerset Maugham, The Moon and Sixpence)之后我们就谈到了这个出版商、那个出版商，比较一下这个人的慷慨和那个人的吝啬；……</div><br><br>
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those
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>those</b></div>看到 those 与 these 的对比，容易产生一种印象，以为 those 一定是指远处的人或事物。其实还有另外一个和远近没有关系的意义，就是用来代替前面说过过的复数名词，或是用来指笼统的“人们”(这两个用法都是 these 所没有的)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The first baseball games were quite different from those of today. 早期的棒球比赛，同今天的很不一样。(虽然“今天”更近，但仍用 those)</div><div class="ex-item">Those close to the (Bush) family say there is little evidence that... (Newsweek, Jan. 8, 2007, p. 27)接近布什家族的人说，没有多少迹象表明……those 不一定指远处，甚至连最近处的“我们这些……的人”，也可以说 those of us who ...，比 we who ... 更为常用。</div><br><br>
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threaten
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>threaten</b></div>这个动词(属第二类或第四类动词)搭配有些特别。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 宾语是人或某件值得珍惜的东西，此时 threaten 就是指有可能危及这个人或东西。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Are you threatening me? 你是在威胁我吗？/ The war threatened the peace of the whole world. 那场战争威胁到全世界的和平。威胁的手段可以用 with 引入。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He threatened them with dismissal. 他扬言要解雇他们。可以有被动语态。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The members of the group were threatened with punishment. 该集团的成员受到惩罚的威胁。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 后面宾语是动词不定式，表示“以……为威胁，扬言要……”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He threatened to resign. 他扬言要辞职。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 宾语是威胁的手段。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>threaten court-martial 以军法审判为威胁</div><div class="ex-item">slogans threatening death to the oppressors 扬言要杀死压迫者的口号</div><div class="ex-item">The miners are threatening a further strike. 矿工们扬言要进一步罢工。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 主语不一定是人，threaten 也不一定是有意的威胁，而可以是一种客观的危险(属第一类或第二类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The riot threatened to get out of hand. 骚乱有失控之虞。/ It's threatening to rain. 恐怕要下雨了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 可以没有宾语，单独一个 threaten，表示“形成威胁或危险”(第一类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Tortoises are able to withdraw their head and limbs should danger threaten. 乌龟一遇到危险，就会把头和腿缩进去。</div><br><br>
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through
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>through</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 凡是表示“从何时到何时”，包括时刻、星期几、年月日，通常都用from ... to ... 的形式。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We are open from 9 a.m. to 6 p.m. 本店营业时间为上午 9 时至下午 6 时。/ We are open from Monday to Friday. 本店星期一至星期五营业。/ I lived in U.K. from 1985 to 1992. 我 1985 年至 1992 年住在英国。</div><br><br>但是，在美式英语中，如果后面那个时间单位是有长度的，而且全部长度包括在范围之内，则往往不用 to 而用 through，而且(说星期几或月份时)前面的 from 可以省去，也可以保持，但年份前不可以省去 from。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We are open (from) Monday through Friday. 本店星期一至星期五营业。(星期五那一天包括在内)</div><div class="ex-item">We camped there (from) June through September. 我们 6 月到 9 月在那里露营。(9 月那一个月包括在内)</div><div class="ex-item">I lived in U.K. from 1985 through 1992. 我 1985 年到 1992 年住在英国。(1992 年那一年包括在内)英式英语则多说 I lived in U.K. from 1985 to 1992 inclusive. 但是，如果是时刻，就不能用 through 代替 to，例如不能说 *from 2 through 6 p.m.，因为时刻只是个点，没有长度。</div><br><br>from ... through ... 一头一尾的两个成分，不一定是时刻、日子之类的名词成分，也可以是与一定时间点相联系的事物或事件。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is time to give the police every shred of detail from the moment the man was introduced to you and spent time at your home through your recent correspondence. 事到如今，你就应该把所有细节都一五一十提供给警方，从人家如何把这个人介绍给你，他如何在你家中住了一段时间起，直到你们最近的通信。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> through 可以是个介词(后面有宾语)，也可以是个副词(后面没有宾语)，阅读时要善于辨别。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If the St. Lawrence seaway goes through the familiar banks of the Lachine canal may encompass six lanes of automobiles instead of one lane of lake ships. (The Gazette, Montreal, Mar. 21, 1952)如果劳伦斯水道开通了，人们熟悉的拉辛运河的河岸将环绕六条汽车车道，而不是现在的一条船道。(这里的 through，后面有名词成分 the familiar banks，似乎是介词，但是再看下去，the familiar banks 其实是后面句子的主语，所以 through 在这里是副词，goes through 是一个词组)</div><div class="ex-item">I hadn't thought through the impact my actions might have; ... (David Rosenfelt, Heart of a Killer)我原先没有好好想透自己的行动会有怎样的影响；……(through 是副词，不是介词)</div>
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thunder
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>thunder</b></div>是个不可数名词。“一个响雷”不能说 *a thunder，要说 a clap of thunder。但是如果转义为“一下雷鸣似的响声”，就是可数名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a thunder of applause 一阵雷鸣似的掌声。</div><br><br>
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thus
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>thus</b></div>这个副词(“这样”)其实细看起来有两个不完全相同的作用。一个是管全句的，起承上启下的作用，多少有点表示结果。另一个只是管动词，补充说明动词的内容，或是借用为形容词(只能作表语)，或是作为副词管形容词或另一个副词。<br><br>如果是管全句，主语和谓语的先后次序不变。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Thus the same reasoning that I applied to the last day applies to the second to last. 这样，我用于最后一天的那个推理办法，也适用于倒数第二天。/ Thus he is able to conclude both a proposition andits negation. 这一来，他就可以得出一个命题及其否命题。/ Sex education is a sensitive area for some parents, and thus it should remain optional. 性教育对于一些家长来说是个敏感的领域，因此选择应该保持自由。/ Thus it came about that, after many years as an interior designer and antiques dealer, he combined both businesses. 结果，做了多年的室内设计师和古董商之后，他终于把两个行业合到一起来了。</div><br><br>如果只是管动词，thus 通常放在句首，主谓语次序要颠倒。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Thus Spoke Zarathustra 《查拉图斯特拉如是说》/ Thus began our adventure. 我们的历险记就是这样开始的。/ Thus did Noah; according to all that God commanded him, so did he. 诺亚就这样做了。凡上帝吩咐的，他都照做了。如果动词是表示“表达，描述”的，有时候也可以省略。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Thus Nicolas Sarkozy on his country's sclerotic universities. (The Economist, July 7, 2007, p. 52)(法国总统)萨科齐这样来描述他本国各大学的僵化状态。</div><br><br>如果是作为形容词，或是作为副词管形容词或是另一个副词，则意义和用法同 so 差不多(但是不能像 so 那样后面可以有 that 从句来呼应)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It has always been thus and will continue to be so. 向来如此，而且今后仍将如此。/ Sinking and stinking, thus beautiful Venice! 如此美丽的威尼斯，正在下沉并发臭！</div><br><br>
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till
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>till</b></div>参见 until 条。<br><br>
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time
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>time</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 常常将 time 加到形容词后面，形容词前加不定冠词，表示某人一时的处境 (time 不直接表示“时间”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>have a rough time 处境艰难</div><div class="ex-item">Have a good time. 过得开心。如果要表示难以做到某事，将“某事”的动词变为现在分词放在 have a difficult time 后面即可。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They were having a difficult time getting to sleep. 他们难以入睡。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> it's time 后面接一个从句(通常不用 that 引入)，表示“现在是应该如何如何的时候了”。但是很特别的一点，是从句中的谓语动词要用一般过去时来表示现在的需要。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's time you washed those trousers. 你现在该洗洗那条裤子了。其实这个所谓一般过去时，是虚拟式的现在时，在这里表示一种尚未实现但希望实现的行动或事件。本来，在这种场合(要表示“应该”)使用虚拟式，是虚拟式最为典型的用法，但是英语的 It's time you washed ... 中的 washed 即使在学了多年英语的中国人看来也多少觉得有点别扭，这是因为虚拟式在英语中比较衰落，剩下的“地盘”不太多，硕果仅存的少数用法就似乎成了罕见的怪物。(如果说 It's high time you washed ...，就是表示这件事很急迫，马上就要做。)about time 则是“快到时间了”的意思。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's about time you reentered the real world. (David Rosenfelt, Heart of a Killer)快要到你们回到现实世界里来的时候了。但是说 high time 时也可以简单地用现在时(也是动词不定式作虚拟用)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>High time we work together to figure out how to address the mess we've made. 我们自己造成的烂摊子，现在该是我们齐心合力找到办法来收拾的时候了。</div><br><br>但是，it's time 与 it's the time 不同，前者表示现在该做什么事情，后者表示这是客观发生什么事情的时候。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's the time when you (= the parents) ache with the pain of separation (with your grown kids). (Barbara Demille, in The Gazette, Mar. 6, 2011, D3)这是你们做父母的因为远离成年儿女而难过的时候。</div><br><br>this time + 多长时间，是个时间状语，表示“多长时间前或后的今天或现在”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Poor brother Tom had an accident, this time twelve-month. (John Gay, The Beggar's Opera)可怜的汤姆老兄一年前的今天遇到了一次事故。/ Young man, you will prepare to give me an answer on this important subject this day month. (Walter Scott, Rob Roy)小伙子，这件事要紧的事，你要准备下个月的今天给我一个答复。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 复数 the times 可以表示“时尚，潮流”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Her dress is extremely behind the times. 她的穿着极为落后于时代潮流。behind time (time 是单数)则与 behind the times 不同，是“迟到”的意思。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The bus should have been here; it's behind time. 公共汽车本来应该来了；它过了时间了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 有 time 参与组成的一些词组，有些是副词词组，不引入从句；有些则是连词词组，必须引入从句，意思才能完整。有时候甚至在形式上完全相同但是功能各异，要注意辨别，才不至于误解或误用。<br><br>有些词组，只能是连词词组，如 by the time。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>By the time (conj.) Ernesto Guevara, known to us as Che, was murdered in the jungles of Bolivia in October 1967, he was already a legend to my generation, not only in Latin America but also around the world. 当被我们大家称为“切”的埃内斯托·格瓦拉 1967 年 10 月在玻利维亚的丛林中被杀害时，他不但但在拉丁美洲，而且在全世界我这一代人当中已经是一个传奇人物了。</div><br><br>又如 the first time 是个连词词组，但前面加上介词 for 却成了副词词组。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The first time (conj.) a jury handed out a few million dollars to a widow, then all hell would break loose. 如果有一个陪审团开个先例，判决给一位遗孀赔偿好几百万美元，那么局面就会不可收拾。/ President Bush used his veto power Wednesday for the first time (adv.) since taking office ... (CNN, July 20, 2006)星期三布什总统自就任以来第一次动用了他的否决权，……</div><br><br>有些词组则既可以是副词词组(在句首时可能后面有逗号及停顿，表明是状语性质，但也可能没有；如果放在句子的最末处，也表明是状语性质)，也可以是连词词组。这就要求阅读时加以分辨，例如 at the same time 本来后面有 as (或 that)再引入从句，但也可以直接作为连词词组。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The answer is then read out at the same time as the computation is actually performed. 在计算真正进行时，答案就会被读出。/ Now it was being followed by more snow, whipped by vicious winds which piled new drifts—at the same time that plows were clearing the old. (Arthur Hailey, Airport)现在，接着而来的又是更多的雪，而在推雪机清理旧雪的同时，这些新雪经过阵阵那风吹扫，又堆成了新的一堆堆的。/ Sixteen buildings were demolished at the same time (adv.). 16 座建筑同时被拆毁了。/ Is it possible to lose fat and gain muscle at the same time (adv.)? 有可能同时减脂又增肌吗？/ To reach this goal, No Child Left Behind provides more support for English language acquisition than everbefore <b>at the same time</b> (conj.) it values and supports native tongues. 为了达到这个目的，“不让一个孩子掉队”方案在重视与支持各种本土语言的同时，对于英语习得，比以往任何时候都提供更多的支持。/ For example, the brain controls breathing, heart rate and blood pressure <b>at the same time</b> (conj.) it performs a mental task. 例如大脑在执行意识功能的同时，也控制着呼吸、心率和血压。/ <b>At the same time</b> (conj.) it issued designations on attainment and nonattainment, EPA issued a new rule ... (EPA Newsroom, Apr. 15, 2004) 环境保护署一方面把达标和未达标的地区予以公布，另一方面又颁布了一项新的法规，……如果施动者不变，at the same time 后面可以加上 as + -ing 来表示(此时 at the same time 就是一个状语词组，后面加上 as 又成为连词词组)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Cutting entitlements <b>at the same time as buying</b> hundreds of billions of dollars-worth of bad loans from Wall Street is difficult politics, to say the least. (The Economist, Jan. 17, 2009, p. 11) 一面收购华尔街数千亿美元的坏债，一面又同时削减福利项目，那么，这至少也是一个政治困局。</div><br><br>有时候，由于 at the same time 后面有进一步具体指明何时的时间状语，这个 that 无法省略(如果省略了，这个 at the same time 就成了副词词组而不是连词词组)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>About the same time</b> in early 1848 <b>that</b> the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo transferred California from Mexico to the United States, ... (The New York Review of Books, Oct. 11, 2007, p. 13) 大约在 1848 年年初，即瓜达卢佩-伊达尔戈条约将加利福尼亚从墨西哥转交给美国的同时，……</div>
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times
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>times</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 表示倍数时，后面如果是名词，这名词就直接放到 times 之后。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Soon tickets were going at <b>five or six times their original price</b>. 很快门票就炒到了原价的五六倍。后面如果是形容词或副词，则要先放一个 as 然后再放该形容词或副词，或者不用 as 而将该形容词或副词变为比较级。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It took <b>three times as long as</b></div><div class="ex-item"><b>three times longer than</b> I expected. 所花的时间是我所预计的 3 倍长。/ Last year Germany became the world's No. 1 exporter, larger even than America, despite the fact that the U.S. economy is <b>five times as big</b></div><div class="ex-item"><b>five times bigger</b>. 去年德国成了世界第一大出口国，甚至超过了美国，尽管美国的经济是德国的 5 倍。但是有人认为，... times bigger than ... 是不科学的，因为 bigger 是从加减法的角度来比较，而 times 顾名思义应该是从乘除法的角度来表述两个数量之间的倍数关系，所以应该说 ... times as big as ... 才对。不过，语言同数学毕竟是两回事(参见下面的(2))，即使不合逻辑，只要是约定俗成，也应算是正确的。</div><br><br>如果 times 后面是形容词或副词，最好还是用 as ... as ...。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The researchers found that kids who were not exposed to peanuts during infancy or early childhood were 10 <b>times as likely</b> to end up with a peanut allergy <b>as</b> those who ate peanuts. 研究人员发现，婴儿时期或童年早期不接触花生的儿童，发生花生过敏的可能性为吃花生的儿童的 10 倍。</div><br><br>此外，英文用多少 times 不但可以表示“更大更多”，也可以表示“更小更少”，而这是中文不习惯的(中文可以说“大一百倍”，但不说“小一百倍”，要说“等于它的百分之一”)。不过遇到这种情况，times 后面就只能用 less。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... a proposed geothermal power plant in New Hampshire "would emit 35 <b>times less</b> carbon dioxide per kilowatt" than traditional coal-fueled plants. (The Boston Globe, Oct. 21, 2007) ……拟在新罕布什尔兴建的一座地热发电站，比起传统烧煤的电站来，“每 1 千瓦排放的二氧化碳量，只等于后者的 1/35”。(不说“少 35 倍”)</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> times 本来只有初等算术的表示“若干倍”的意义，但是也扩展为更抽象的数学表述(“乘以”)，同“若干倍”或“若干次”已经没有捉摸得着的关系了(但仍然保持复数形式 times，甚至“一乘一等于一”也要说 One <b>times</b> one equals one.)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Area of a rectangle equals length <b>times</b> width. 长方形的面积等于长乘以宽。/ Force equals mass <b>times</b> acceleration. 力等于质量乘以加速度。/ Energy equals mass <b>times</b> light speed squared. 能量等于质量乘以光速的二次方。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 无论是表示次数还是倍数，三和三以上用 times，两次和两倍不说 <i>two times 而说 twice。但是也常常有说 two times 的。如果用 twice，就不能用比较级，只能用 as + adj. + as 的形式。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She's <b>twice as</b> heavy <b>as</b> (</i>twice heavier than) her sister. 她比她姐姐重一倍。</div><br><br>
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tired from 与 tired of
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>tired from 与 tired of</b></div>一般认为，肉体疲劳的原因说 tired from；精神疲劳或厌倦的原因说 tired of。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Perhaps he was just <b>tired from</b> his trip. 也许他只是旅途劳顿。/ You'll get <b>tired from</b> riding you scooter. 你滑滑板会累的。/ And I am <b>tired of</b> hearing of how brave TomHanks is! (Time, Feb. 7, 1994) 我听说汤姆·汉克斯多么勇敢，听都听腻了。在实际语言运用中，tired from 往往不用 from 而直接接上动词现在分词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm only afraid you are very <b>tired talking</b> to me. (Louisa May Alcott, Little Women) 我只是担心你同我交谈十分疲倦。</div><br><br>
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to do it 与 to do so 简化为 to
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>to do it 与 to do so 简化为 to</b></div>参见 (to) do it 与 (to) do so 简化为 to 条。<br><br>
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(to) do it 与 (to) do so 简化为 to
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(to) do it 与 (to) do so 简化为 to</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 本来动词不定式 to do it 或 to do so 已经是一个简化了的说法，用来代替前面某处出现过的一个实义动词。但是，如果它放在另一个表示主观意向或处境的动词后面，还可以更进一步简化为单独的一个 to。这类主观意向或处境的动词，包括：hate、hope、intend、would like、love、mean、plan、tell、try、want、have、need、used (to)、be able (to)、be going (to)等等。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We only fail if we choose to (= we choose to do so = we choose to fail). 我们唯有自己选择失败的时候才会失败。</div><div class="ex-item">—Would you like to come with me? —Yes, I'd love to (= love to do so = love to go with you). —您跟我一起去好吗？ —好的，我很乐意。</div><div class="ex-item">—Did you get a ticket? —No. I tried to (= tried to do so = tried to get a ticket), but there weren't any left. —您弄到票了吗？ —没有。我设法去弄，但是没有剩的了。</div><div class="ex-item">—Do you swim? —Not now but I used to (= I used to do so = I used to swim). —您游泳吗？ —现在不游了，但是从前常游。</div><div class="ex-item">He wanted to go but he wasn't able to (= wasn't able to do so = wasn't able to go). 他本来想去，但没有能够去。</div><div class="ex-item">—Why aren't you writing something? —I'm trying to (= trying to do so = trying to write something). —你怎么不写点东西？ —我正在打算写。</div><div class="ex-item">—Are you and Jennifer getting married? —We hope to (= hope to do so = hope to get married). —你和珍妮弗要结婚了吧？ —我们正有此意。(注意：hope to 是自己打算做某事，hope so 是希望客观事态如何发展)</div><div class="ex-item">—Let's go for a walk. —I don't want to (= want to do so = want to go for a walk). —咱们去散散步吧。 —我不想去。</div><div class="ex-item">Things pass, whether you want them to (= to do so = to pass) or not. 事情总是要过去的，不管你想不想它过去。</div><div class="ex-item">—Why? —Because I told you to (= to do so). —为什么？ —因为我叫你这样做的。</div><div class="ex-item">He'll do it for you if you ask him to (= to do so = to do it for you). 你如果请他给你做，他一定会做。</div><div class="ex-item">He hoped he would not have to (= to do so). 他希望不必做到这一步。</div><div class="ex-item">I can't speak French yet, but I hope I will be able to (= to do so = to speak French) soon. 我还不能讲法语，但是我希望不久之后就能。</div><div class="ex-item">Sorry I shouted at you. I didn't mean to (= mean to do so = mean to shout at you). 对不起我对您大吼了。我不是有意的。</div><div class="ex-item">—Somebody ought to clean up the bathroom. —I'llask John to (= to do so = to clean up the bathroom). —要有人来清扫一下洗澡间。 —我去叫约翰干。</div><div class="ex-item">She won't go, not even if we beg her to (= to do so = to go). 咱们就是求她，她也不会去的。</div><div class="ex-item">And because Clinton did it then, Obama doesn't have to (= have to do it) now. (Time, May 26, 2008, p. 35)而由于克林顿当时这样做了，奥巴马现在就用不着这样做了。</div><div class="ex-item">He was working in Los Angeles, but I felt the distance between us was shrinking. I wanted it to (= to be = to be shrinking) and hoped he did too. 他在洛杉矶工作，但是我觉得我们之间的距离在缩短。我很想如此，希望他也这样想。</div><div class="ex-item">I need only add here that she had never set foot in a hospital, or nursed a sick cottager, in her life. Her parents would not have allowed her to, of course; but she had never even thought of doing such a thing. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman)不过这里我要说明，她生来还没迈进过医院的门槛，也从没护理过一个乡下病人。自然，她的父母是不允许她那样的，不过她自己也从来没有想到过此等壮举。</div><div class="ex-item">That is just what every politician says. They have to, because the prosperity of our country depends on it. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman)政治家们都这么说。他们必须这么说，因为我们国家的繁荣要靠它。</div><div class="ex-item">Most working mothers, the Census Bureau reports, are back in the workforce within a year of having a child; better educated women and those who can afford to drop out are actually less likely to. (Time, July 20, 2009, p. 68)人口普查局报告说，就业的妇女，生了孩子的一年之内，大多数都返回工作岗位；那些受教育程度较高以及那些有条件离职的，则较少这样做。</div><div class="ex-item">Despite every reason not to, Carson liked Freddy Hunt. (Pascal Mercier, Night Train to Lisbon)尽管有种种理由不喜欢弗雷德·亨特，但卡森还是喜欢他。</div><br><br>有些名词后面也可以用 to 代替 to do so。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He had reason to (= to do so). 他有理由这样做。</div><div class="ex-item">Most patrons don't smoke, but the outside area gives smokers a place to (= to do so = to smoke). 大多数就餐的顾客不抽烟，但是室外区可以让抽烟者有地方抽烟。</div><div class="ex-item">If there's need to (= to do so = to call me), you can call me. 如果有需要，你可以打电话给我。</div><br><br>但是要注意两点。第一，必须本来已经是动词不定式的形式，如果是其他动词形式，例如限定动词(finite verb)或是动词现在分词(-ing)，本来就没有 to，当然不能用 to 来代替。第二，这个动词不定式的动词，如果不是有意识的主动动作，就不可以用 to 来代替，如表示“存在”或“被动”的 be，表示“(非主动)占有”的 have，在 to 后面，都不能省略为 to。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He is nice only when he has to be (<i>has to). 他唯有不得已的时候才对人亲切。</div><div class="ex-item">There are more cars than there used to be (</i>used to). 车子比从前多。</div><div class="ex-item">She hasn't been promoted yet, but she ought to be (<i>ought to). 她还没有得到提拔，但是她应该得到提拔。</div><div class="ex-item">You've got more freckles than you used to have (</i>used to). 你的雀斑比从前多了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 有时候如果 to 前面有否定词 not，则连 to 也可以省略。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Mel was tempted to laugh, then supposed he had better not (= not to = not to do so). 梅尔真想笑起来，但是又觉得最好别笑。</div><br><br>如果 not 所否定的不是动词不定式而是前面的助动词，则也是连 to 可以省略。 <div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He wanted to go, but I didn't (= didn't want to = didn't want to go). 他想去，但是我不想。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 此外，通常 to 只能代替前面出现的那个动词词组。但是，有时候前面的动词词组本身就包含了两个动词，此时 to 应该是代替两个当中表示有意识动作的那个动词。例如 When John had to cook, he didn't want to. 这里 to 当然不能代替 had (成为 <i>he didn't want to have to cook)，而只能代替 to cook (成为 he didn't want to cook)。但是，有时候，如果有适当的副词出现，就可能使得 to (否定时连 to 也省略)所代表的动词发生微妙的变化。例如这个例句如果后面再增加一句：When he had to clean, he didn't, either. 这里的 didn't，就不是代替 didn't cook，甚至不是代替 didn't clean，而是代替 didn't want to clean，这是因为副词 either 对它所管辖的(被否定的)动词词组有两个要求：(a) 同前面的(被否定的)动词词组呼应；(b) 其内容又不同于前面的那个动词词组内容，而是另有内容。而前面的(被否定的)动词词组是 didn't want to (cook)，所以后面被 either 所管辖的动词词组，就既不能是 </i>cook (因为未被否定的 cook 与 either 不能搭配，不符合条件 a)，也不能是 <i>clean (因为未被否定的 clean 与 either 也不能搭配，不符合条件 a)，也不能是 </i>didn't want to cook (不符合条件 b)。唯一符合 a 与 b 两项条件的，只能是 didn't (want to clean)。<br><br>
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toe
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>toe</b></div>与 finger 不同，脚上所有五个脚趾都叫作 toe。参见 finger 条。<br><br>
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to inf.
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>to inf.</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 动词不定式在句中充当状语时，其实有弱意和强意两种不同的情况。弱意的动词不定式信息分量较弱，是附属干前面的成分的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He will go to the clinic tomorrow <b>to be examined</b> by the doctor. 他明天去医院让医生检查一下。中文翻译时不必另起一个高潮，顺着英文的思路——带而过就可以了。这对中国人来说，没有多少别扭或不习惯之处。更为值得注意的是强意的动词不定式，它的信息分量较重，不是附属干前面的成分的(这成分往往带有“应该”或“需要”的含义)，而是另起一个高潮，不受“应该”或“需要”所管辖，中文翻译时需要加字加意(表示达到某目的)，不能一带而过(通常如果前面是“应该”，to inf. 就译成“才可以”)。如 You must appeal to public opinion <b>to win</b> the election. 这一句中，to win the election 不是 must 所一路管下来的成分，而是独立于 must 的，所以不能译成平平淡淡的“你必须诉诸公众舆论去赢得选举”，而应该译成“你必须诉诸公众舆论，才能赢得选举”。(“才能)如何如何”，其实是个“已知信息”，所以 to inf. 强意与弱意的区别，其实是已知信息与新知信息的区别。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You have to be over 18 <b>to buy</b> cigarettes. 你要 18 岁以上才能买香烟。(不是“你应该超过 18 岁以便买香烟”)</div><div class="ex-item">You've got to feel it <b>to believe</b> it. (Mattress ad) 您非得感受一下，才会相信。/ Depending on where you place the thermometer, you may need to add or subtract a degree from the reading <b>to get</b> the accurate temperature. 要看体温表放在身体的什么地方，读数可能需要加一度或减一度，才能得到准确的体温。/ Both men had to talk loudly <b>to be heard</b>. 他们两人都只好大声说话，才能听见对方。/ The press conferences ... must be seen <b>to be believed</b>. (Newsweek, Sept. 26, 2005, p. 64) 新闻发布会……非得亲眼看见，才会相信。/ There you have to go along <b>to get along</b>. 在那里，要随和将就，才能搞好关系。(不译成“要随和将就以便搞好关系”)</div><div class="ex-item">All passengers must have a picture ID <b>to obtain</b> boarding passes. (Southwest Airlines notification) 所有旅客都必须携带有带照片的身份证明，方可取得登机牌。(要不要去领登机牌，每个旅客可以自由选择，不属于“必须”的范围)</div><div class="ex-item">The team that cloned Dolly waited until she was seven months old <b>to announce</b> her existence. (Time, Feb. 19, 2001) 那个克隆了多莉羊的小组，一直等到它 7 个月大了，才宣布它的存在。/ In the end, the Clinton campaign had to lose <b>to win</b>. (U.S. News & World Report, Jan. 21, 2007, p. 27) 归根到底，希拉里的竞选活动，只好先败，才能获胜。/ She'd give anything <b>to know</b>. 只要能知道，她什么代价都愿意付。/ Why did Darwin wait twenty-four years <b>to write</b> On the Origin of Species? 达尔文为什么等了 24 年才写《物种起源》？</div><div class="ex-item">Everything must be solid, substantial, firm and secure, <b>to stand</b> the stress of use and the test of time. (Josef Hofmann, Piano Playing) 无论什么东西都必须可靠、实在、结实、稳固，才经得起反复使用以及时间的考验。</div><br><br>如果前面的“必须”或“应该”是否定的，或是有 only 之类表示“仅仅”的副词管着，后面的动词不定式在中文中可以译成“就可以……”(此时，否定或限制作用也管不到动词不定式)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It <b>doesn't</b> take a computer <b>to figure out</b> what happened. 用不着电脑，就能够弄清楚发生了什么事。/ The soldiers were <b>exempted</b> from getting command clearance <b>to fire</b>. 士兵们已经不必得到指挥官的同意，就可以开火。/ Undecided voters will <b>not</b> necessarily have to love him <b>to cast</b> a ballot for him. 尚未决定投票意向的选民们，不一定要喜欢他，才会投他一票。/ One <b>didn't</b> have to be anexpert <b>to understand</b> what they found. 对于他们的发现，用不着是个专家，都能懂得。/ Diplomacy <b>doesn't</b> have to guarantee our winning in advance <b>to be useful</b>, given its chance to resolve or improve situations. (Newsweek, Nov. 6, 2006, p. 21) 外交既然提供了机会，可以解决或者改善局面，那就不见得非得事先保证我们得胜，才算是有用的。/ One <b>does not</b> need to have cancer <b>to analyze</b> its symptoms. 要分析癌症的症状，用不着自己患癌症。/ ... they <b>need not</b> risk their or their country's honor <b>to prevail</b>. (Senator McCain on torture, in Newsweek, Nov. 21, 2005, p. 36) ……他们不必拿自己的或者本国的荣誉来冒风险，就可以取胜。/ You <b>don't</b> need to read Russian <b>to recognize</b> that of the editions available in English, the Knopf edition is by far the one that most closely resembles literature. (Newsweek, Oct. 15, 2007, p. 81) 用不着阅读俄文，就可以发现，现有的各种英译本当中以诺普夫的那一版最接近文学。/ You <b>only</b> had to look at him <b>to know</b> he was lying. 只要看看他的样子，就知道他是在撒谎。/ He had <b>only</b> to come home, he reflected, <b>to be treated</b> like a child. 他心里想，他只要一回到家，就会被当作小孩子一般对待。</div>
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toll
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>toll</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 这个名词最原本的意义是“(交通、通信)收取的费用”，特别是一些公路的“过路费”或是打电话的费用。例如美国一些中间有收费站的公路，叫作 toll road；收费的隧道，叫作 toll tunnel；许多公私单位，都有从外面免费打进去的电话号码 (toll-free number)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You must pay a <b>toll</b> when you cross the bridge. 过桥要缴费。/ How much is the <b>toll</b> to Paris? 打到巴黎的长途电话收多少钱？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 但是 toll 在报纸杂志上用得十分频繁的另一个意义是“损害，代价”(常采取 take a toll on 的搭配)，使用范围可以很广，从生命财产到学业成绩都在其内，而且往往指意外事故或军事行动造成的死伤。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>last week's traffic <b>toll</b> 上周交通事故的死伤人数</div><div class="ex-item">The Easter holidays took a heavy <b>toll</b>. 复活节期间(因交通事故)死伤多人。/ The train crash took a heavy <b>toll</b>. 火车碰撞死伤多人。但也可以指较轻的损害。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The climate took a <b>toll</b> on his health. 气候损害了他的健康。/ Her illness took a <b>toll</b> on her family. 她一害病，全家都受累。/ Frequent move took a <b>toll</b> on children's performance. 频繁搬家影响了孩子的成绩。/ All those sleepless nights will take their <b>toll</b>. 这么多天没睡觉，会出问题的。</div><br><br>
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tomato
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>tomato</b></div>本来是个可数名词(“一个个”的西红柿)，但是作为烹饪配料，一切碎了就不可数了，这个名词就成了不可数名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I've also had this problem with <b>too much tomato</b> (*too many tomatoes) too early. 我也遇到过这个问题，过早放了太多的西红柿。同样的问题，参见 egg 条。</div><br><br>
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too
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>too</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> too 单独使用时，默认有一个程度适当的比较对象，too 比这个对象“更”如何如何，“超过”了适当的程度。但是如果没有这个比较对象，只是一般的“很，十分”如何如何(就像中文“那太好了”中的“太”)，可以在 too 前面加上 all，就不必有比较对象了。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Such a simple need is <b>all too</b> often unmet. 这个普普通通的需要还是常常得不到满足。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> too 作为程度副词，通常只能作为系动词后面形容词前的修饰语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>These shoes are <b>too</b> small for me. 这双鞋子我穿起来太小。/ That's <b>too</b> difficult for her to understand. 那对她太难懂了。但如果存在 there is ... 之类的存在句中，可以作主语的前置定语。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There were <b>too</b> many cars. 车子太多了。另外，在个别场合，也可以修饰名词的前置定语，但修饰该名词的前置定语后要有不定冠词，这个名词只能是单数的可数名词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... following <b>too</b> radical <b>an</b> agenda (*a too radical agenda) (The Economist, Feb. 20, 2010, p. 26) ……遵循一个过于激进的主张</div><div class="ex-item">This is <b>too</b> large <b>a</b> helping for me. 这一份食物我吃不完。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> too 同 cannot (could not) 连用，参见 cannot 条。<br><br>
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toothache
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>toothache</b></div>这个表示“牙痛”的名词，在英式英语中是不可数的，不能说 *a toothache，但是在美式英语中则通常是可数的。如英式英语说 I've got <b>toothache</b>. 美式英语说 I've got <b>a toothache</b>.
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too ... to inf.
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>too ... to inf.</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 这样的结构中，后面的动词不定式尽管形式上是肯定，但其实是否定的，翻译成中文应该加上一个“不”字。这也是中国人常常容易出错的地方。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She was <b>too</b> fearful of the boy's falling <b>to let</b> him ride in the howdah. 她很害怕孩子掉下来，不敢让他骑上象轿。/ The anchorman was <b>too</b> serious about the eleven o'clock news broadcast ever <b>to be</b> gay and frivolous and flirtatious in the late evening. 这位节目主持人对 11 点钟的新闻广播十分认真，以至于无法在晚间显得轻轻松松、嬉皮笑脸。</div><br><br>尤其是当 too 与动词不定式相距较远时，或是当中出现了标点截断了行文，就容易忘掉前面的 too 而把动词不定式误解为表示肯定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She'd been a nurse <b>too</b> long, had <b>too</b> often seen the results of substance abuse, <b>to</b> think otherwise. 她当护士的时间够长的，也看够了吸毒的后果，所以不会有别的想法。/ He said there was <b>too</b> much uncertainty about the potential dangers of mobile phones for them <b>to</b> beclassified as safe. (South China Morning Post, Nov. 27, 2000) 他说，有关移动电话潜在的危险性，很不容易确定，所以不能把这些电话列为安全的。/ ... the crew had been <b>too</b> incapacitated from their drunkenness of the day before <b>to</b> stir. (John Darnton, The Darwin Conspiracy) ……但是船员们前一天喝得酩酊大醉，已经动弹不得了。/ There's <b>too</b> much to do when you're growing a new business <b>to</b> waste time blaming yourself for mistakes and failures that were beyond your control. 新办一个企业，正在起步发展之时，要做的事很多，可能因为自己无法控制出了些差错，遇到了挫折，但不必因此而浪费时间自怨自艾。/ He was always <b>too</b> busy playing tennis or golf, or going fishing with friends, or nursing the worst cold in history, <b>to</b> argue with me about the kids. 他总是忙于打网球或者高尔夫球，或是同朋友一起去钓鱼，或是得了有史以来最厉害的感冒需要养病，所以没有空同我争吵有关孩子的事情。</div><br><br>但是，有时相距很近仍然容易误解。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>That was the question I was <b>too</b> stupid <b>to</b> ask. 我当时太傻了，那个问题我竟没有问。</div><br><br>要注意的是：too 前面如果有 only、all、but 等词，后面的动词不定式就不是否定的。另外，too 所修饰的形容词如果是 ready、eager 或 apt，后面的动词不定式是这些形容词的附带说明，也没有否定意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was <b>only too</b> keen to get involved and help. 他非常喜欢挺身而出来帮助别人。/ It's <b>all too</b> easy to use the wrong one. 很容易用错。/ It's <b>all too</b> soon to predict. 要预言还为时过早。/ The government seems <b>too ready</b> to give in to religious pressure. 政府似乎很容易向宗教压力屈服。/ He was <b>too eager</b> to believe. 他太轻信了。</div><br><br>但是有时候 too 后面的形容词还要求有动词不定式作为其补充成分，或是后面的动词要求有动词不定式作为补充成分，此时这个动词不定式就同 too 无关，因而也没有否定含义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She lifted the canvas bag she was carrying onto the table, evidently <b>too</b> anxious <b>to</b> unpack it <b>to</b> be bothered <b>to</b> takeoff her coat. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 她把手里的帆布包放到桌子上，一看就知道她急于打开包，连大衣都顾不得脱。(形容词 anxious 要求有动词不定式作为其补充说明；动词 bother 也要求有动词不定式作为其补充说明，所以唯一剩下的动词不定式即 to be bothered 是同前面 anxious 呼应的。)</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> too 后面的动词不定式有时要加个逻辑主语，这个主语就用介词 for 引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The hotel was <b>too</b> expensive <b>for</b> me <b>to</b> stay. 那旅馆收费太贵，我住不起。/ The problem was <b>too</b> big <b>for</b> him <b>to</b> deal with alone. 问题太大，他一个人处理不了。/ She's <b>too</b> big a part of who I am now <b>for</b> me <b>to</b> cut her out of my life completely. 她已经是我生命中很大的一部分了，大到我无法把她从我的生活中完全分离出去。/ I saw that he was <b>too</b> hardened <b>for</b> any words of mine <b>to</b> influence him. (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes) 我看见他已经横了一条心，我无论说什么话，都影响不了他。</div><br><br>从各个例句可以看出，for somebody to inf. 中的动词不定式有时可以以前面 be too ... 的主语为宾语，但有时候另有其宾语，有时候动词不定式是不及物的，没有宾语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In a few cases, banks have been not just <b>too</b> big <b>to</b> fail, but also <b>too</b> big <b>to</b> save. (The Financial Times, June 24, 2009) 有些时候，银行不但是规模太大，不至于出错，而且也由于规模太大，出起错来就无法挽救。(前一个动词不定式 to fail 是不及物动词，banks 是其主语；后一个动词不定式 to save 则是及物动词，banks 是其宾语。)</div><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 更加值得注意的是：有时候前面没有 too，但是从前后语义对照中(往往是彼此方向相反的)可以知道后面的动词不定式实际上是否定的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He's a little well dressed <b>to</b> be playing Spiderman. 他穿着比较整齐，很难扮演蜘蛛侠。/ Italy is a bit far <b>to</b> come on a lark when you make a teacher's salary. 拿着教师的薪金，要到意大利来游玩，路程未免还是远了点。/ 25 is pretty old <b>to</b> take up ballet dancing. 25 岁的年纪，已经不宜开始学芭蕾舞了。/ He's enough of a coward <b>to</b> do that. 他是个胆小鬼，不敢干那个的。/ It was all an illusion, an <b>odd</b> thing for a man of supposed regard for objective truth <b>to</b> value. 那全是一个幻象，这样离奇的东西，是一个本应尊重客观事实的人所难以重视的。/ We've got proof. Though I grant you it's a lot <b>to</b> swallow all at once. (John Darnton, The Darwin Conspiracy) 咱们有证据。不过我向你保证，证据很多，一下子消化不过来。/ Ralph's getting a little old <b>to</b> travel so much, ... (Tom Clancy, Executive Orders) 拉尔夫有点老了，不好远行，……</div><br><br>前后语义的方向彼此相反，有时候可以从后面出现的某个“负面极性项”(negative polarity item, NPI)看出来，从而可以判定后一个成分隐含否定意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This one is, however, a long and very cumbersome method <b>to</b> use on <b>any</b> very large scale. 不过这个方法，使用起来既费时，又麻烦，不宜十分大规模地使用。/ Avoid time-release formulas. They're expensive and also present a problem in dissolving enough quickly <b>to</b> do you <b>any</b> good. 要避免服用那些缓释剂。这些药物既昂贵且又容易因为溶解过快产生问题，不会对你有什么好处。/ The human animal is a <b>strange</b> spectacle <b>to</b> behold, <b>let alone</b> comprehend. (Mr. and Mrs. Julius Haldeman, Dust) 人类这种动物，是一种样子看起来很离奇古怪，而且要理解就更为困难的奇景。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 还有，too 后面如果是形容词，作定语再修饰一个名词，则这个名词只能是单数的可数名词(too + 形容词 + 不定冠词 + 名词，必须有不定冠词)，既不能是复数的可数名词，也不能是不可数名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's <b>too</b> expensive <b>a</b> car to buy. 这车太贵了，我买不起。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 如果 too 前面有 not，则 not 的否定作用影响整个结构，从而本来被 too 所否定掉的动词不定式恢复肯定。如 Lady Lucas was a very good kind of woman, <b>not too</b> clever <b>to be</b> a valuable neighbour to Mrs. Bennet. (Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice) 这一句中的 clever 是很传神的，因为卢卡斯先生是有爵位的人，他的夫人如果有心眼(clever)，就会摆架子，做视邻居(not to be a valuable neighbour)。但是卢卡斯夫人不那么有心眼(not too clever)，比较大大咧咧，因而就成了班纳特夫人的好邻居。中译本(王科一译，上海译文出版社)中全书译得很流畅，但是这一句有点含糊，没有传达出作者用 not too ... to inf. 的苦心：“卢卡斯太太是个很善良的女人，真是班纳特太太一位宝贵的邻居。”也许可以试译为：“卢卡斯太太是个很善良的女人，不那么有心眼，所以还是成了班纳特太太一位宝贵的邻居。” (6) 有时候 too 后面虽然有动词不定式，但是容易误解这个动词不定式是另有用途的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Lily's daughter, Sandra, is <b>too</b> busy making money and trying <b>to</b> attract the new pastor <b>to</b> pay attention to the chaos of LaShawndra's life, ... (Editorial Review of Tina McElroy Ansa's novel You Know Better) 莉莉的女儿桑德拉忙于挣钱和设法吸引那个新来的牧师，顾不上关心拉珊德拉乱糟糟的生活，……(这里的 too busy 不是同 to attract 呼应，而是同 to pay attention 呼应的。)</div><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 除了 too ... to inf. 和 too ... for ... to inf. 之外，还有 too ... for ...，也是没有否定词的否定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The situation was <b>too</b> critical <b>for</b> that kind of scruples anymore. 情况太危急，不能再那样顾虑重重了。/ She's <b>too</b> good and holy <b>for</b> any man, let alone me. (George Eliot, Adam Bede) 她太美好，太神圣了，哪个男人都配不上她，更别说我了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> <b>too little too late</b> 是个惯用词组，用了两个 too，意思是本来应该及早投入足够的力量，但是早些时候投入的力量太小，等到后来增加力量已经为时过晚，无法补救。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The help was <b>too little too late</b>. A lot of people in New Orleans died because of that. 救援来得太少太迟。新奥尔良许多人因此而丧生。</div><br><br>
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(to) say nothing of
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(to) say nothing of</b></div>用于进一步的表示(“更不用说”)，可以在肯定之后表示更进一步的肯定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Their house is worth at least a million, to say nothing of their other assets. 他们的房子起码值 100 万美元，更不用说他们的其他资产了。</div><br><br>也可以在否定之后表示更进一步的否定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A person of no integrity, when asked, does not reveal another person's good points, to say nothing of when unasked. 一个没有道德操守的人，人家问到他时，他也不会说出别人的优点，更不用说人家没问他了。</div><br><br>前面虽然没有否定词，但是如果有倾向于否定或疑问意义的词语，表示更进一步也可以用 to say nothing of。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is difficult to escape the cold, to say nothing of the wind and rain. 要想摆脱寒冷是困难的，更不用说刮风下雨了。/ Why does not the industry itself realize that yes, no matter how much oil they discover, EVENTUALLY it is going to run out, and then where will they be, to say nothing of us? 为什么石油工业界自己还不明白，是的，无论他们发现多少石油，石油最后还是会用光的，到那时候他们怎么办，更别说我们怎么办了？</div><br><br>
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to the
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>to the</b></div><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Every story is planned <b>to the</b> second. 每个故事都安排得详细到秒。</div><br><br>
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(to the) extent (of/that)
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(to the) extent (of/that)</b></div>to the extent ... 原始的含义(也是字面的含义)是“达到……的程度”，这个程度的内容，如果是用名词(或动名词)表示的，就用 of 引入；如果是用句子表示的，就用 that (可省略)引入从句。但是所引入的意义内容，却因为引入部分在句首或句末的不同，而在整句中起到不同的作用。如果放在句末，所表示的是前半句所说的情况“达到了……的程度”(接近“结果”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Some people hold their beliefs very strongly, even to the extent of being prepared to go to prison for them. 有些人强烈地坚持自己的信念，甚至准备为了信仰而坐牢。/ Sales have fallen badly this year, to the extent that we will have to close some of our shops. 今年的销售量锐减，我们只好准备关闭一些店铺。</div><br><br>如果放在句首，所表示的是要对后半句所说的情况事先加以“范围限制”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>To the extent we maintain international operations and generate revenue in foreign currencies, and currency exchange rates become unfavorable, our results of operations may be adversely affected. 如果我们继续用外币进行国际交易并获得收入，而汇率又变得对我们不利，我们交易的结果就会受到负面的影响。(to the extent 有“如果”的意思，但又带有“条件与结果彼此在程度上相适应”的意思。)/ To the extent this is true, these scholars add, traditional gender roles for women and men make sense from an evolutionary standpoint, and attempts to change them go against the sexes' biological natures. (Steve Barkan, Sociology: Understanding and Changing the Social World) 这些学者们接着说，如果确是如此，男女各自的传统性别角色，从进化演变的观点来看，是说得通的，如果企图加以改变，就违反了两性的生物本性。(to the extent 有“如果”的意思，但又带有“后面的说法在多大程度上是对的，取决于前面的说法在多大程度上是对的”之意。)</div>本来，句首有了 to the extent ...，就表示这部分只是一个可大可小的假定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>To the extent there is civil war, it is limited only to random shootings. 就算是有了内战，也只不过是零星的枪击。(to the extent 有“虽然”之意)</div><div class="ex-item">To the extent that sex education is taught at all in high schools, a lot of the information is outdated. 就算是高中真的开展性教育，教材有很多也是老旧过时的。(同上)</div><div class="ex-item">The King will answer and say to them, "Truly I say to you, to the extent that you did it to one of these brothers of Mine, even the least of them, you did it to Me." (Matthew 25:40) 王要回答说：“我实话告诉你们，你们既然在我这弟兄中一个最小的身上做这些事，就是在我也身上做这些事。”(to the extent that 有“既然”之意) 但是，这个词组用多了，“程度限制”的含义就逐渐减弱，接近于单纯的“是或否”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>To the extent this belief exists, women may not want to work outside the home or, if they chose to do so, they face difficulties from employers, family and friends. (Steve Barkan, Sociology: Understanding and Changing the Social World) 如果这种信念存在，那么妇女就不会打算到家庭之外去工作，或者即使选择去工作也会在雇主、家庭和朋友那里遇到困难。/ One thing is clear: to the extent we accept biological explanations for gender, we imply that existing gender differences and gender inequality must continue to exist. (ibid.) 有一点是明确的：如果我们接受有关性别的生物学说明，我们就等于同意现有的性别分歧与性别不平等仍将继续存在下去。</div><br><br>经过长时间的使用，to the extent (that) 的“前后程度相仿”的意义已经逐渐被冲淡，只剩下“如果”的意义，因而常常被滥用，尤其是在打官腔的语言中。下面就是美国国会会议记录中的一段发言，这个词组的滥用可见一斑(其中的 to theextent 均可改为 if 或 when)：First of all, it is critically important to recognize that to the extent we get a patient to a specialist soon, and we do that in our bill, to the extent we allow women to go directly to an OB/GYN as their primary care provider, to the extent we allow patients who are in a critical emergency to go (to) the nearest hospital and be seen by an emergency room department or physician and thereby save that patient's life or reduce the amount of long-term care that patient receives—in every one of these instances we are reducing long-term health care cost in this country. (Congressional Record V. 145. Pt. 11, July 1, 1999 to July 15, 1999, p. 15473) 首先，至关重要的是要认识到，如果我们尽快将患者送往专科医生那里，而且在我们的法案中做到这一点，如果我们允许女性直接前往为其提供基础医疗服务的妇产科，如果我们允许处于紧急状况中的患者去最近的医院，并由急诊部门或医师看病，从而挽救了该患者的生命或使患者可以少接受长期护理——在上述每种情况下，我们都在减少国家的长期医疗保健费用。<br><br>
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tour of
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>tour of</b></div>要注意“游览，观光，巡视”某片地方，这个地方前面通常用介词 of 而不用 in，但是大片地域可以用 around，从出发地的角度可以用 to。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>go on/make/take/do a <b>tour of</b> the city 游览该市</div><div class="ex-item">They took us on a <b>tour of</b> Chicago. 他们带我们游览了芝加哥。/ My father led us on a <b>tour of</b> the places that had been off-limits to us until that time. 父亲带我们游览了那些之前不让我们去的地方。/ Officers offered <b>tours of</b> the slums ringing the city. (The Washington Post, Jan. 29, 1006, A20) 官员们请大家参观城外四周的贫民窟。/ They made a cycling <b>tour of/around</b> Ireland. 他们骑车周游了爱尔兰。/ The queen made a <b>tour of</b> the hospital. 女王巡视了医院。/ Few people knew about the presidential <b>tour to</b> Latin America. 知道总统拉美之行的人很少。</div><br><br>
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toward
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>toward</b></div>英式英语也作 towards。(1) 这个介词主要是表示动态(“朝向……移动”)，但是有时候也有静态的意义(“在靠近……之处”)。动态意义可以是物质的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span> They were heading <b>toward</b> the border. 他们向着边境前进。也可以是抽象的。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>lean <b>toward</b> the opposite opinion 向相反的主张倾斜</div><div class="ex-item">work <b>toward</b> a peaceful world 朝着和平的世界而努力</div><div class="ex-item">There have been moves <b>toward</b> a settlement. 有了一些和解的动向。静态意义则主要是物质的。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The farm is <b>toward</b> the mountain. 农庄靠着山。</div><br><br>但是也有一些动态当中的静态意义，就是从说话者的角度是动态(说了一处之后移动到另一处)，而从被描绘的事物或景象的角度来说却是静态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>further south, <b>toward</b> the Mexican border 再往南去，在靠近墨西哥边境的地方</div><div class="ex-item"><b>Towards</b> the top, the grass grows poorly. 到了靠近山顶的地方，草就长得很差。</div><br><br>另外，toward 还有一种想象中的动态(其实并不动)的意义(“朝向”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She sat with her back <b>toward</b> the fire. 她背对着火炉坐着。/ My room faces <b>toward</b> the south. 我的房间朝南。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 这个介词在现实语言运用中有一个许多词典没有收进的词义，就是和动词 count 一起使用时，表示“计入(总数)”(可以指在总数中占了份额因而应当扣除，也可以指加入总数之中)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Messages in your Bulk folder do not count <b>toward</b> your mailbox storage quota. 您的大家来信文件夹中的来信，不计入你信箱的限额之内。/ But none of the time you were in the United States before you left the country counts <b>toward</b> your time in "continuous residence." 但是你离开美国之前在美国停留的时间，一律不计入你的“连续居住”时间之内。/ Ask your doctor whether naps count <b>toward</b> your sleep requirement. 问问你的医生，打盹的时间，算不算你所需睡眠时间的一部分？</div><div class="ex-item">Her time in jail since her arrest Nov. 25 counted <b>toward</b> the sentence. (The Associated Press, Dec. 3, 2007) 她自从 11 月 25 日被捕时起被监禁的时间，算在判刑的时间之内。</div><br><br>表示“在总数中占了份额而应当扣除”，也可以不用 toward 而用 against。参见 against 条之(3)。<br><br>
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town
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>town</b></div>谈话双方都知道的一个特定城市，而且注意力放在其空间位置上，不用任何冠词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>go into <b>town</b> 进城</div><div class="ex-item">in <b>town</b> 在城里</div><div class="ex-item">They live out of <b>town</b>. 他们住在城外。/ She is out of <b>town</b> at the moment. 她目前在外地。/ He saddled his horse and rode to <b>town</b>. 他给马上子鞍，骑到镇上。/ The next day the news was all over <b>town</b>. 次日，消息传遍了全市。但是有些习语中，town 前面加上定冠词 the。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>go out on <b>the town</b>/have a night on <b>the town</b>/paint <b>the town</b> red 上街去过夜生活。</div><br><br>此外，如果注意力不是放在空间位置上，就要加上定冠词或不定冠词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>in the fields on the other side of <b>town</b> (Jeffrey Archer, The Fourth Estate) 在镇另一端的田野上(空间位置，不要 the)</div><div class="ex-item">... she was considered not only the most beautiful, but also the brightest girl in <b>the town</b>. (ibid.) ……她被认为该镇最美丽也最聪明的姑娘。(不是空间位置，要 the)</div>
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to²
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>to²</b></div>介词 to 的使用，有时候是中国人凭自己的语言心理所不大习惯的。有几个特别的用法值得注意：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 表示相对于某主要人物的次要职务。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>secretary <b>to</b> the manager 经理的秘书</div><div class="ex-item">adviser <b>to</b> the Secretary General 秘书长的顾问</div><div class="ex-item">special assistant <b>to</b> the president 总统特别助理</div><div class="ex-item">consultant <b>to</b> a big firm 一家大公司的顾问</div><div class="ex-item">foreword <b>to</b> a book 某本书的前言。 (2) 表示与另一人或一事物相对的身份。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>rival <b>to</b> somebody 某人的竞争者</div><div class="ex-item">kin <b>to</b> the owner 主人的亲属</div><div class="ex-item">a concubine <b>to</b> an alcoholic inn-owner 某个酗酒的客栈老板的小老婆</div><div class="ex-item">successor <b>to</b> the chief justice 首席大法官的后继者</div><div class="ex-item">heir apparent <b>to</b> the presidency 总统席位的法定继承人</div><div class="ex-item">a party <b>to</b> the settlement 参加诉讼和解的一方</div><div class="ex-item">a direct competitor plane <b>to</b> the Boeing 7E7 同波音 7E7 直接竞争的机型</div><div class="ex-item">slave <b>to</b> the lie 谎言的奴隶</div><div class="ex-item">witness <b>to</b> the deal 交易的见证人</div><div class="ex-item">victim <b>to</b> political pressure 政治压迫的受害者</div><div class="ex-item">Once she was a nude model and muse <b>to</b> French artist Henri Matisse. 她一度是法国画家马蒂斯的裸体模特和灵感源泉。/ William Gilbert, physician <b>to</b> Queen Elizabeth of England (David Macaulay, The New Way Things Work) 英格兰女王伊丽莎白的御医威廉·吉尔伯特</div><div class="ex-item">Above all, where could he, a stranger <b>to</b> the district, hide a horse, and such a horse as this? (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes) 首先，他在这个地区是个陌生人，又怎么能把一匹马藏起来，何况是这样的一匹马？</div><br><br>但是，如果另一人或物用代词来表示，则可以以物主代词的形式放在有关的名词之前，例如 heir <b>to</b> Reagan (里根的继承人)可以转换为 <b>his</b> heir, the heir <b>to</b> the throne (王位继承人)可以转换为 the throne's heir。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> “对……起某种作用”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the key <b>to</b> the front door 前门的钥匙</div><div class="ex-item">solution <b>to</b> the problem 问题的解决办法</div><div class="ex-item">prerequisite <b>to</b> success 成功的先决条件</div><div class="ex-item">the real secret <b>to</b> success 成功的真正秘诀</div><div class="ex-item">an obstacle <b>to</b> recovery 康复的障碍</div><div class="ex-item">an incentive <b>to</b> his research 一个鼓励他进行研究的因素</div><div class="ex-item">home <b>to</b> impressive exhibitions 举办一些引人入胜的展览会的场所</div><div class="ex-item">The Yellowstone National Park is home <b>to</b> a large variety of wildlife. 黄石国家公园有各式各样的野生动植物。/ We get tickets <b>to</b> most of their openings. 他们的大部分开场表演，我们都有票。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 表示某具体或抽象事物带有某一情状、属性或内容(因此往往同表示“有”的 there is 或动词 have 一起出现)，这是中国人不大习惯的(中国人可能更偏向于凭直觉而用 in 或 on)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There was some truth <b>to</b> that, she thought. 她觉得这里面也有真实之处。/ There was no truth <b>to</b> this. 这毫不真实。/ It has a nice ring/sound <b>to</b> it. 这听起来还很不错。/ And there seems to be an upside <b>to</b> all this. (Newsweek, July 16, 2007, p. 16) 看来这一切也有好的一面。/ Yet there are virtues <b>to</b> living here (= in an old-age home). (Newsweek, Sept. 11, 2006, p. 13) 住在这里有这里的好处。/ ... there is a lot more <b>to</b> education than getting children inside the front door of the schoolhouse. (Daniel T. Weaver, in The Sunday Gazette, Mar. 1, 2009, C1) ……教育远远不只是把孩子关到学校校舍的大门里面就算了。/ He was a bald, vast-bearded man with a distinctly saturnine cast <b>to</b> his face: a Jeremiah. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 他是个秃顶的大胡子，阴沉着脸，是个悲观主义者。/ Sammy's voice had an excited urgency <b>to</b> it when she answered. (Mary Higgins Clark, Weep No More, My Lady) 萨米回答时的声音显得有点迫不及待。/ There is a soul <b>to</b> an army as well as <b>to</b> the individual man, ... (U.S. News & World Report, Oct. 28, 2002, p. 44) 军队同人一样，也是有灵魂的，……</div><div class="ex-item">As a matter of fact, Saffo says he's hard-pressed to think of any downside <b>to</b> the flood of seniors here. (U.S. News & World Report, Oct. 2, 2006, p. 56) 的确，萨福市长说他很难想到大批老人涌入此地会有任何不利之处。/ While he knew that there was no more <b>to</b> the message, he could not accept its finality. 他尽管知道这个信息到此为止，没有别的内容了，但是这样结束，他是怎样也接受不了的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 表示遭受损失的原因(这也是中国人不大习惯的)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He'd lost his parents <b>to</b> (*in) an airliner crash at Chicago. 他的父母在芝加哥的一次空难中丧生。(本来 lose something to somebody 是把什么东西输给了某个对手，这里也仿佛“空难”是一个对手，自己在对抗中输了，把父母输到了对手手中。)</div><div class="ex-item">He has lost his hair and beard <b>to</b> chemotherapy. 他因为化疗而头发胡须脱落。至于一方受损，另一方得益，得益的一方用 to 引入，更是顺理成章了。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Even the housing boom and stock-market rebound failed to give much of a lift to the likes of Fortune and BusinessWeek, which have <b>lost</b> readers, and ad dollars, <b>to</b> the Web. (Newsweek, Dec. 18, 2006, p. 46) 就连房地产旺市和股市反弹，也重振不了《财富》和《商务周刊》之类的出版物，它们的读者以及广告收入，都纷纷输给了互联网。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 表示某一事件附带对某人造成的心理效应(通常作状语，是新知信息，但非主要信息)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>to</b> their amazement 令他们诧异</div><div class="ex-item"><b>to</b> my surprise 使我惊讶</div><div class="ex-item"><b>to</b> our delight 使我们高兴</div><div class="ex-item"><b>to</b> everybody's horror 使得人人恐惧。要注意的是，如果要强调这种效果，通常不在名词前加上形容词(to their great amazement，尽管也有这样用的)，而更多是在 to 前面加上副词 much。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>much to</b> their amazement 令他们十分诧异。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 表示某一事物是纪念某人或供奉某神灵的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>monument <b>to</b> the martyrs 烈士纪念碑</div><div class="ex-item">an ancient temple <b>to</b> the Egyptian goddess Isis (Dan Brown, The Da Vinci Code) 一座供奉埃及女神伊希斯的古庙。但是说 a statue <b>of</b> (*to) Lincoln (林肯塑像)，这是因为 statue 直接同该人物连为一体。</div><br><br>
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to¹
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>to¹</b></div>中国人学英文对 to inf. 一般都十分习惯，一看见 to 后面要放动词时就总是不假思索放上动词不定式。但是有时候这个 to 却是地地道道的介词，要求后面放上名词或动名词。此时，很多人常常误放上不定式。最常见的错误，就是 <i>We're looking forward <b>to see</b> you. (应该是 We're looking forward <b>to seeing</b> you.) 另一个常见的错误是把表示过去习惯的 used to inf. 同可用于任何时间的表示已养成某习惯的 be used to + -ing 混为一谈，弄出非驴非马的 </i>I'm used <b>to get up</b> early. (应该是 I'm used <b>to getting up</b> early.) to 作为介词，后面应该使用动名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We're also dedicated <b>to keeping</b> costs low. 我们致力于保持廉价。/ Her judgment seemed close <b>to being proved</b> correct. 她的判断看来差不多证明是正确的了。/ I only got around <b>to doing</b> this a few days ago. 我直到几天前才能够回过头来做这件事。/ You'd get around <b>to being sorry</b>. 你们回头会感到后悔的。/ He took <b>to wearing</b> black leather jackets. 他开始穿起了黑色皮夹克。/ He devoted more energy <b>to cultivating</b> friends. 他更加用心结交朋友。/ He was uniquely suited <b>to advising</b> his boss. 他特别适合于给上司敲计献策。/ ... building a two-storey dining room, or banquet hall, suitable <b>to entertaining</b> on a grand scale. (Newsweek, May 23, 2005 p. 44) ……兴建一个适合大型招待用的两层餐厅或是宴会厅。/ At UBS, we dedicate our resources <b>to solving</b> the financial issues that really matter. (Newsweek, Apr. 24, 2006, ad) 我们 UBS 把自己的力量用于解决真正要紧的金融问题。/ The plan was to convert the repair facility <b>to</b> actually <b>making</b> tractors. 计划是要把这家修理厂改成真正制造拖拉机的厂。</div><br><br>to inf. 与 to + -ing 的意义有时候会有很大的区别。例如 stoop to + -ing 或 stoop to something 是“堕落到某地步，堕落到做某事”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Craig wouldn't <b>stoop to thieving</b>. 克雷格不至于堕落到盗窃。但 stoop to inf. 则是“降低身份去做某事(与道德无关)”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She would not <b>stoop to</b> admit that she meant to rival Gilbert in schoolwork, because that would have been to acknowledge his existence which Anne persistently ignored; ... (Lucy Maud Montgomery, Anne of Green Gables) 她从不放下架子承认自己有意在学业上同吉尔伯特竞争，因为如果承认了，就等于承认了他的存在，而这是安妮所坚决不认的；……</div><br><br>
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to 与 for
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>to 与 for</b></div>to 只是简单的“对，向”；for 则带有某个与对象有关的目的。例如 sing a lullaby <b>to</b> a baby 只是给婴儿唱支摇篮曲，不一定是哄他入睡；sing a lullaby <b>for</b> a baby 则带有哄婴儿入睡的目的。不过，这个区别比较微妙，实际语言运用中也往往分不清楚。<br><br>
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to 与 of
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>to 与 of</b></div>一个表示动作的名词后面，如果加 of，就比较突出动作，而且往往已经成为事实，而用 to 则比较着重内容，动作尚未成为事实。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>solution <b>of</b> the problem 问题的解决(问题获得解决这一事实)</div><div class="ex-item">solution <b>to</b> the problem 解决问题的办法</div><div class="ex-item">the revision <b>of</b> the law 法律的修改(法律经过修改这一事实)</div><div class="ex-item">The Senate is currently investigating this revision <b>to</b> the U.S. Patriot Act. 参议院目前正在研究对《美国爱国法案》的这一修改。(是个修正案，尚未成为事实，而且着重其内容)参见 end 条。</div><br><br>
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trade
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>trade</b></div>作为动词，可以有几种不同的搭配：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 不及物动词，后面加介词 in，指“从事(某商品的)买进和卖出”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The firm <b>trades in</b> textiles. 这公司经营纺织品买卖。</div><br><br>但是要注意，trade in something 有两种可能的解读。一种是上面的那样，trade 是不及物动词，in 是个介词，something 是介词的宾语；另一种则以 in 为副词，trade in 合在一起作为一个及物动词，something 是这个及物动词的直接宾语，意思是“(买新的用品时)拿(旧的用品来)折小部分价款”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He <b>traded in</b> his old car for a new Benz. 他拿旧车来折价，买了一辆新的奔驰。如何区别，比较容易，除了通常的调换次序(看看可否将 trade in something 改为 trade something in，如果可以，in 就是副词)之外，还可以看看宾语的情况：in 如果是介词，后面的宾语应该是个泛指的商品种类；in 如果是个副词，则 trade in 后面的宾语应该是个特指的(甚至有明确所有主的)事物。而且 trade in textiles 之类的说法，通常是习惯多次的，可以用一般现在时，而 trade in his old car 只能是有限的一次或几次，除非习惯多次，通常不用一般现在时。</div><br><br>此外，trade in 这个及物动词，还有一个转义，就是“(为了另一更可取的事物而)舍弃(某事物)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Not everyone is ready to <b>trade in</b> omnivore status, but all of us can benefit from healthy dietary tweaks. 不见得人人都愿意舍弃杂食状态，但是，如果采取一些健康的饮食窍门，我们大家都会因此而受益。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 及物动词，直接宾语是复数同类事物，后面再加 with somebody，指“同某人互相交换(某种事物)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>trade</b> seats <b>with</b> him 同他交换座位</div><div class="ex-item"><b>trade</b> jokes <b>with</b> them 同他们互相开玩笑。但是这个“事物”也可以是负面的。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>trade</b> insults <b>with</b> him 同他对骂。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 及物动词，宾语是自己原有的东西，后面加 for 引入想要换来的东西，指“以某物换取另一物”(还可以加上 with somebody)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>trade</b> a pen <b>with</b> him <b>for</b> a book 拿一支笔来换取他的一本书。也可以用于抽象的事物。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Superiority is <b>traded for</b> convenience. 优质被牺牲，拿来换取方便。</div><br><br>经过转义，还可以表示“推陈出新”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Trade</b> potholes, cracks, sunken areas, loose stones and dirt <b>for</b> a smooth, solid drive ... You'll be happy you did! (L. Browe Asphalt Service ad) 让坑洞、裂缝、塌陷地面、零散碎石和泥土统统变为一条平坦结实的车道……你这样做了，会感到庆幸的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 不及物动词，后面加 with somebody，指“同某人交换(不明言的某物)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If you don't like it, I'll <b>trade with</b> you. 你如果不喜欢这个，我就同你交换一下。</div><br><br>
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train
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>train</b></div>关于 in a car 与 on a train 的用法，参见 bus 条。<br><br>
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transport 与 transportation
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>transport 与 transportation</b></div>这两个名词的用法，英式英语与美式英语中有些细微的区别。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 在英国，transport 用于指载人的交通。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Public <b>transport</b> is more friendly to the environment. 公共交通对环境更为有利。transportation 主要用于载物的交通；如果载人，则是指 1787 年开始的将罪犯流放到澳大利亚的运载。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 在美国，尤其是东北部，transport 与 transportation 都可以指载人与载物的交通运输，但载人以 transportation 用得稍多。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 此外，transport 是名词又是及物动词，transportation 则当然只能是名词。<br><br>
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trash
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>trash</b></div>参见 garbage, rubbish 与 trash 条。<br><br>
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travel
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>travel</b></div>作为名词，travel 有点特别。它通常是不可数的，不能说 <i>This is a long <b>travel</b>. 应该说 This is a long journey. 但 travel 可以用来表示“旅行的总量”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The bulk of his air <b>travel</b> was in the luxury of private aircraft. 他的空中旅行，大部分是乘坐豪华的私人飞机。另外，travel 可以用复数表示长时间的远方周游，而且表示“游记”的 travel 通常采取复数形式。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a journal of one's <b>travels</b> 某人的游记。小说《格列佛游记》英文原名就是 Gulliver's Travels。但是作为不可数名词，travel 仍然排斥 a、数词、several、many 等；不可以说 </i>go on a travel、<i>make several travels、</i>have a good travel 等。偶尔有说 his many travels 的，但不规范。</div><br><br>作为动词，travel 不一定指离开本地的长途“旅行”，即使是在同一建筑物之内的移动，也可以是 travel。例如乘电梯，就可以说 travel up 或 travel down。<br><br>
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treatment 与 therapy
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>treatment 与 therapy</b></div>treatment 是一般意义上的“治疗”，不涉及治疗的具体办法。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>be under medical <b>treatment</b> 正在治疗中</div><div class="ex-item">receive/get/undergo medical <b>treatment</b> 得到治疗</div><div class="ex-item">give a person (an) immediate <b>treatment</b> for a condition 立刻给某人治疗某病症。</div><br><br>therapy 有时候也可以代替 treatment 表示一般的治疗。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>get into <b>therapy</b> 受到治疗</div><div class="ex-item">be in <b>therapy</b> 在治疗中。但是更多的是涉及治疗的医学方法。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>physical <b>therapy</b> 理疗</div><div class="ex-item">chemo<b>therapy</b> 化疗</div><div class="ex-item">radio<b>therapy</b> 放疗</div><div class="ex-item">radium <b>therapy</b> 镭疗。中文常常译为“疗法”，很能传达这个意思。</div><br><br>
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trick
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>trick</b></div>本来意义是“奸计，诡计”，但在惯用词组 do the trick 中，没有贬义，是“起其应有作用，奏效”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I don't know what it was that <b>did the trick</b>, but I am definitely feeling better. 我不知道是什么起了作用，但我无疑觉得舒服多了。</div><br><br>trick 单独用时，也可以有正面的“好办法”的意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The <b>trick</b> is to pick the animal up by the back of its neck. 窍门就是要捏住动物的后脖子提起来。</div><br><br>
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trip
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>trip</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 同 journey 意义和用法都接近，但是同 travel 不同，是可数名词。可以指离开本市的出外旅行，也可以指市内甚至建筑物内外的走动。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>After studying the sketch plans of the hotel, he had made three trips himself to the hotel to verify details. 他研究过了旅馆的示意图之后，还亲自去了三趟旅馆查明细节。/ Taxis have meters to register the cost of the trip. 出租车有路程表，记下每次路程的费用。甚至可以指几步路的短程。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>17 million American men and women experience symptoms like frequent trips to the bathroom. 美国有 1,700 万男男女女有例如尿频的症状。/ It's late at night, which obviously means I'm making frequent trips to my refrigerator. (BioTrust Nutrition) 已经是深夜了，这意味着，我正在一次又一次地往电冰箱那里去。</div><br><br>另外，在美式英语中，make a trip 与 take a trip 意义有些不同，前者是出公差，后者是观光旅行。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> trip to 某地，虽然用 to，但不光是指“去某地的途中”，还包括到达某地之后在该地的停留过程（甚至还可以包括回程，也就是从离出发地起到回到出发地止的全过程）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>On a recent trip to Sydney, Australia, I discovered the true meaning of civilization—public toilets, lots of them, clean, neat, safe, free of graffiti, working flushes and faucets, and well stocked with toilet paper, ... (The New York Times, May 1, 2007, F7) 不久以前的一次澳大利亚悉尼之行当中，我发现了文明的真正意义——公共卫生间很多，清洁，井井有条，安全，没有乱涂乱画，抽水开关和水龙头很灵，手纸供应充分，……（发现的事情主要在到了目的地之后，不在去的途中）</div>
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troop
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>troop</b></div>这个名词用法有点特别。作为单数使用时是“一群人；一支队伍；一群牲口”，可以有复数形式。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A troop of children ran at his heels. 一群孩子跟在他后面跑。/ These animals spend a lot of time on the ground in troops. 这些牲口大部分时间是成群地在地上度过的。</div><br><br>表示“军队，部队”，说到部队有 3 万人时，可以说 30,000 troops，仿佛一个人就算一个 troop，但只能用于复数，而且通常只能用于同军事任务有关的场合（也包括作为军人得到的待遇如医疗、薪饷等）。如果说两个士兵上电影院看电影，就不说 two troops 如何如何。但是笼统谈及部队的官兵时，可以说 troops。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the treatment of wound troops and veterans 对受伤官兵和退伍军人的治疗。</div><br><br>修饰其他名词时，troop 仍然用单数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>troop withdrawal 撤兵</div><div class="ex-item">the U.S. troop buildup in Iraq 美国在伊拉克的增兵。</div><br><br>与 troop 发音相同但拼写不同的 troupe，是流动性的“剧团，马戏班”。<br><br>
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truly 与 sincerely
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>truly 与 sincerely</b></div>参见 sincerely 与 truly 条。<br><br>
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truth
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>truth</b></div>可以是“真理”，也可以是“真相”。但是，“真理”是层次很高的范畴，往往“高不可攀”，所以 truth 通常只是指“真相”，即“全部事实”，而不包括从这些事实得出的抽象道理和结论。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He's probably telling the truth. 他大概说的是真话。/ Is there any truth in the story? 这个故事有什么是真的吗？/ There is some truth in what he says. 他说的一些是事实。/ Truth to tell, I've never been there. 说真的，我从来没有去过那里。/ The truth, the whole truth and nothing but the truth. 说真话，说出全部真话，只说真话。（法律宣誓用语）在所有这些例子中，truth 同“真理”都离得很远。</div><br><br>另外，truth 后面如果有 about something or somebody，则有“内幕”的意思（往往有贬义）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the truth about the drug companies 制药公司内幕。</div><br><br>
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truthful
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>truthful</b></div>是自己做老实人说老实话，或是某一说法符合事实，或是某张肖像画很像本人。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Many patients are more truthful when they talk to the computer than when they talk to the doctor. 许多病人同电脑交谈时比同医生交谈时更加诚实。</div><br><br>
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try
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>try</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 遇到要说 try to inf. 的时候，如果 try 保持动词原形，则通常不说 try to inf. 而说 try and inf.。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Try and eat (= try to eat) something—you'll feel better if you do. 想办法吃点东西，吃点东西你会舒服点的。/ I'd like to try and pose (= try to pose) here, on television, a certain number of questions about television. (Pierre Bourdieu, On Television) 我打算在这里的电视上提出一些有关电视的问题。而且 try 和另一动词必须保持原形。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Try and do it. 试试这样做。/ I'll try and do it. 我要试试这样做。/ He did try and make the best of it. 他的确试着尽量做好。不能说 <i>if he tries and does it，或是 </i>He tried and did it. 如果 try 的形式发生了变化，就仍旧使用 try to inf.。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I tried to eat something. 我想办法吃了点东西。参见 wait 条、sure 条、go 条、come 条等。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> try to inf. 和 try + -ing 在意义和用法上有细微的差别。前者以动词不定式本身为目的，着重这个动词的“试行动作”及其本身结果（成功或不成功）；后者则另有目的，-ing 动词本身动作及其结果只是为这个目的服务的一个手段（而且通常本身成功是不成问题的），所着重的是这个手段对达到目的是否有用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Maria tried to close the window. 玛丽亚试图把窗户关上。（着重窗户关上了与否）/ Because it was very cold in her home, Maria tried closing the window and then tried turning up the heat. 由于玛丽亚家里很冷，她就关上窗户试试看（试试看能否暖和些），然后又把取暖设备温度调高试试看。/ Harold tried reinstalling (*tried to reinstall) the operating system but the computer still wouldn't work. 哈罗德把操作系统重新安装，但是电脑仍然不能运作。（重新安装成功不成问题，成问题的是电脑能否运作）/ Try turning the key the other way. It might work. 钥匙反方向转转看，也许能行。(turning the key the other way 是手段，try 的目的不是把钥匙反方向转，而是要使钥匙能开锁)</div><div class="ex-item">He tried to turn the key, but it was stuck. 他试图转动钥匙，但是钥匙卡住了不能动。(try 的目的就是转动钥匙)</div>
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turn out
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>turn out</b></div>这个词组属于第四类动词，本身是瞬时性质，但后面如果是动词不定式，则后面这个动词应该是延续的，如果是瞬时的要用 to have + pp. 形式。它在英语中用得很多，意思是“原来竟然如何”，多少带有结果发现与原先的想法不一致的含义，但有时也带有“结果竟然同预料一致”的含义。无论是两种情况中的哪一种，特点都是有一点“惊讶”的语气，与中文的“原来”或“竟然”比较接近。从动词的“体”来看，意义就是：瞬时发现原来延续的情况如何如何，或是瞬时发现原来先前发生过的一个瞬时事件留下了某个延续后果。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 可以以后面接上系动词 to be，后面的表语是形容词或名词（如果是已经发生的事，名词前的 to be 可省略）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The business turned out a success. 生意竟然做成功了。/ The dirty boy turned out (to be) a prince in disguise. 那个脏兮兮的男孩原来竟然是王子假扮的。/ The whole thing turned out to be a misunderstanding. 原来全是一场误会。/ Our fears turned out to be groundless. 我们的担心，原来是过虑了。/ The house turned out to be more expensive than we had thought. 那栋房子原来比我们想的要昂贵。参见 prove 条之(4)。</div><br><br>turn out to be 也可以有“成为”的意思，但仍然保留一点“原先没有想到，出乎意料”的语气。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Everyone is hoping that these hi-tech companies will turn out to be the Microsofts of the future. 每个人都希望这些高科技公司会成为未来的微软。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 后面也可以接上其他动词不定式（延续动词，如果是瞬时动词要用 to have + pp.）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He turned out to have a sister at the same school. 原来他有个妹妹也在同一个学校上学。/ The resort turned out to have closed a month before. 那个旅游点原来一个月以前就已经关闭了。/ The purchase turned out to have caused immense financial difficulties. 那次收购原来造成了巨大的资金困难。</div><br><br>如果后面接上的动词是个瞬时动词而又不用 to have + pp. 形式用动词不定式形式，则这个 turn out 就可能不是“原来”或“竟然”的意思，而是 turn 加 out 的原意，即“出来，出面”的行动。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Thousands of people turned out to cast their ballots. 成千上万的人出来投票。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 后面可以接上副词，表示结果。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Everything turned out well. 一切顺利。/ The photos turned out quite well. 照片洗出来相当不错。/ The transaction turned out badly for them. 那次交易，他们吃了亏。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 也可以采用 it turns/turned out (that) ... 来表示“原来竟然”（可以是延续状态，表示真相摆在那里；也可以是瞬时变化，表示真相出现）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Now it turns out he was a journalist. 现在才知道他原来是个记者。/ It turns out they were wrong. 原来是他们错了。/ It turns out that we don't use computers to enhance our math skills—we use them to expand our people skills. 我们使用电脑，原来并不是为了增长数学本领，而是为了增长待人接物的本领。</div><br><br>这个结构也可以用作前后有逗号的插入语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The man he trusts, it turns out, is a swindler. 他所相信的人原来竟然是个骗子。</div><br><br>
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twice
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>twice</b></div>参见 times 条之(3)。<br><br>
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twin
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>twin</b></div>作为“双胞胎”，twin 几乎总是以复数形式出现。但是有时也可以用单数，此时后面要有 to...，表示同什么是一对或是罕有的同类。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Another car caught his eye. It was a twin to his own. 又有一辆车子引起他注意。那是一辆同他那辆一模一样的车子。但是如果不是指一对中的另一个，而是指与众多个体形状相同，则可以后面用 of...。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was the twin of a hundred offices in Berlin. 它同柏林的上百处办公室一模一样。</div><br><br>
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two a penny
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>two a penny</b></div>表示“廉价，众多，不值钱”，也可以写作 two-a-penny。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I suppose I ought to add that he was a Count, though Counts are two-a-penny in Naples, and in season all the year round. (E. W. Hornung, Raffles, Further Adventures of the Amateur Cracksman) 我觉得我还需要补充一点，他还是个伯爵呢，虽然那不勒斯到处都是伯爵，不值钱，而且一年四季都济济一堂。</div><br><br>美式英语也作 a dime a dozen。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I don't need friends like him. They are a dime a dozen. 我不需要像他那样的朋友。这样的朋友一文不值。</div><br><br>
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Ukraine
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>Ukraine</b></div>在苏联时期，加盟共和国之一乌克兰的英文名称是 the Ukraine，前面加定冠词，但是越来越多的报刊图书不加 the。苏联解体，乌克兰独立后，世界上主要英文报刊，如 The Economist (《经济学人》)、The Guardian (《卫报》)、The Times (《泰晤士报》)等，都只说 Ukraine，不再加定冠词，而且官方与外交文件也都不加了，原因之一是认为加了 the 听起来像是一个地区而不是国家。<br><br>
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un-
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>un-</b></div>英语使用这个前缀来表示否定，不但可以避免 no 与 not 之类的否定词重复使用，而且还可以增添一些附带的语调色彩。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> un- 后面通常都是接上一个动词过去分词，而且通常都是充当主语或宾语的补足语。这个 un- + pp. 的词形，往往在词典中是找不到的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>One day the check was returned uncashed by one of Mama's friends. 有一天，支票没有兑现，就被妈妈的一个朋友退回来了。/ The reader may have drawn the conclusion or acquired the information unassisted. 读者大概已经自行得出了结论或是获得了资讯。/ This is certainly the best way to ensure that, as Carnegie put it, they do not "pass away unwept, unhonoured and unsung." (The Economist, May 28, 2005, p. 13) 这样做，肯定最好的做法，可以正如卡内基所说的，保证他们自己与世长辞时不会“没有人为他们痛哭，向他们致敬，为他们歌唱”。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> un- 后面接上动词过去分词充当主语补足语，前面的不及物动词，可以是自由的，如上例的 pass away。另外许多别的动词都可以自由使用，但是用得最多的是 go，相当于一个系动词，表示“没有被如何”（属表示瞬时动作的第四类动词）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The majority of cases go unreported. 大多数事例没有报告。（反复多次的概述，所以可以用一般现在时）/ Many of the difficulties with this theory went unanswered in your story. 按你的说法，这个理论所遇到的困难很多都没有得到解答。/ Urgent requests from his friend went unanswered. 他的朋友多次紧急的请求都没有得到回应。/ The critic may object that if it goes without saying, why not let it go unsaid? 批评者可以反驳说，既然是“不用说”，那么干吗不干脆“不说”呢？/ Her wish to volunteer abroad will not go unfulfilled. 她要到国外做志愿者的愿望，是不会落空的。/ This blunder went unnoticed through all the editing and proofreading. 这个疏忽，在所有的编辑和校对过程中都没有被发觉。</div><br><br>如果谈的是延续状态（第一类动词），go 就改为 stand。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I couldn't let his letter stand unanswered. 我不能让他的信一直得不到答复。/ No theory can stand unchanged for all time. 没有永远不变的理论。也可以用 sit。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Millions of tons of grain sat unsold in silos. 数以百万吨计的粮食堆在粮仓里卖不出去。</div><br><br>较为常用的一个作主语补足语的动词过去分词是 unassisted，一般放在句末起状语作用（“自行，不靠外力”）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The reader might draw the conclusion or acquire the information unassisted. 读者可以自行得出结论或是取得资讯。但是也有用别的过去分词（通常仍然是“帮助，支持”之类意义的）来作为主语补足语的。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The Reformation ... in the sixteenth century would have been left to fight its independent way unsupported by the moral corruption of the church from which it received the most powerful impetus. (James Anthony Froude, The Reign of Henry the Eighth) 宗教改革……从教会那里得到最为强大的推动力，但是由于教会的道德腐败，改革没有得到支持，到了 16 世纪，它便不得不单枪匹马去杀出血路。</div><br><br>一个有趣的现象是，un- 后面的过去分词往往舍弃简单常用的动词而采用比较“文绉绉”的动词，例如不用 <i>help 而用 assist，不用 </i>see 而用 observe。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She had not heard him come up the stairs, and he took a moment to study her unobserved. 她没有听见他上楼梯，他就趁她没有看见他的那一阵子端详了她一番。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> un- 后面接上动词过去分词充当宾语补足语，前面用得最多的及物动词，就是 leave。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Presley had resumed his career after a year in the U.S. Army, his absence having left his popularity undimmed. 普雷斯利（猫王）在陆军军队那里服役一年之后又重回自己原来的从业领域，他虽然曾经离开乐坛，但是声望丝毫未减。/ The police left him totally unmolested. 警察丝毫没有找他的麻烦。/ The bitterest tears shed over graves are for words left unsaid and deeds left undone. (Harriet Beecher Stowe) 坟前洒泪，最伤心莫如叹死者有话未说，有志未竟。很流行的一个用法是前面动词采取否定形式，加上后面的 un-，形成负负得正的正面强调。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They left no photo untaken. 他们把照片全都照了。习语 to leave no stone unturned (用尽一切手段)也属于这类。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> un- 的否定作用有时可以超出附在它后面的过去分词，而扩大到更大的词组甚至全句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>untroubled by the fact that ... (= not troubled by the fact that...) 并没有因为……而受到困扰（不是“因为……而没有受到困扰”）/ The French government is unmoved by U.S. criticism of its unwillingness to back war against Iraq. 法国政府对于美国批评它不愿意支持对伊拉克作战，不为所动。（不是“因为受到批评而不动”，而是“不为批评所动”）</div>但是也有一些 un- 的否定作用仅仅局限于过去分词，甚至影响不到后面的名词，也就是说，这个名词并不受到否定。如... no shock to the poor like unearned money. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 这一句，在某一中译本中译成“但那种情看来绝不是穷人得到意外之财时的不知所措”。这一句把意思译反了，应该是“再也没有像穷人得到意外之财那样震惊的了”。但是“意外之财”译得还是对的，unearned 的 un- 只否定 earned，不否定 money，所以 unearned money 不是“没有挣到的钱”（也就是没有钱），而是“钱是有的，但不是挣来的”。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 但是值得注意的是：有一些及物动词，前面加了 un-，并不是“不”或“没有”的否定意思，而是更为积极的“逆向行为”的意思，如 unbend (弄直)、unbind (解开)、unchain (解开其链条，解除约束)、unclassify (解密)、unclose (打开)、uncoil (把卷着的东西展开)、uncover (揭开)、undo (取消，废除)、undress (脱衣)、unearth (发掘出土)、unfold (张开)、unhook (解开其钩子)、unleash (发动)、unload (卸下)、unlock (开锁)、unseat (推翻)、untie (解开)、unveil (揭幕)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The habits of centuries were not to be unlearnt in a few years ... (James Bryce, The Holy Roman Empire) 几个世纪养成的习惯，不是短短几年就能摆脱掉的……</div><div class="ex-item">You've had to become left-handed, so you're going to have to unlearn that. 你本来已经不得不改用左手，现在你又需要把它改回来用右手。（这是对一个失去右臂现在装上假肢的人说的）/ Are inventors born, or are they made? Danny Hillis, who can't remember a time when he wasn't trying to make mind-blowing stuff, comes at the question, as usual, from an unexpected angle: potential inventors are un-made. (Newsweek, Oct. 10, 2005, p. 48) 发明家是天生的还是培养的？记不得自己有个什么时候不在醉心搞点新奇玩意儿的丹尼·希利斯，照样从一个令人意想不到的角度来回答这个问题：潜在的发明家，是会泯灭的。（这里的 unexpected 中的 un-，是一般的否定意义，但是 un-made 的 un-，则是表示进一步积极的“逆向行为”。）/ As our society unlearns masculinity and feminizes every stage of male life, boys pay a steep price. (National Review, May 9, 2017) 我们的社会对雄性日渐生疏，使得男性生活的每一个阶段都女性化，随之，男孩们为此付出高昂的代价。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 如果后面不是动词过去分词而是普通的形容词，则否定的前缀有 un- 和 in- (im-、il-、ir-)两种可能。究竟是哪一种，难以用简单的规则来概括。通常凡是词形保持拉丁文原形的，用 in- (im-、il-、ir-)，因为 un- 不是来自拉丁文的。但要注意，有些形容词，前面加 un- 或 in-，会产生不同的意义。参见 inhuman 与 unhuman 条。<br><br>
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unable 与 incapable
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>unable 与 incapable</b></div>通常 unable 指一时的没有能力，而 incapable 则指本质上的没有能力。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This truck is incapable of carrying more than two tons. 这辆卡车不能载重 2 吨以上。/ For several minutes he was unable to breathe normally. 他有好几分钟不能正常呼吸。</div><br><br>此外，unable 除了表示“没有能力的”之外，还可以表示“不可能的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>That way, an admissions officer will be unable to judge you unjustly because of your family background. 这样，招生人员就不会由于看到你的家庭背景而对你做出不公正的判断。（不是没有能力，而是不会做这样的事）</div>
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unaware 与 unawares
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>unaware 与 unawares</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> aware 是形容词，unaware 是它的反义词。由于 aware 除了少数特殊情况外一般要求后面有 of 短语、that 从句或间接疑问句，unaware 后面通常也要有 of 短语、that 从句或间接疑问句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They were unaware of my presence. 他们不知道我就在那里。/ Parents are often unaware how much their children know. 父母往往不知道自己孩子懂得多少。参见 aware 条。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> unawares 比 unaware 多了末尾的一个 -s，就转为副词，意思也是“不晓得”，但是通常不必要用 of、that 之类的附加成分来补充其意义，光是它本身就可以凭语境说明对什么“不晓得”。它通常同动词 take 或 catch 一起用，表示“给(某人)一个措手不及”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The earthquake took/caught them unawares. 地震突如其来，他们措手不及。但是，也有用 unaware 作宾语补足语，代替 unawares 的。</div><br><br>
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under
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>under</b></div>under 与 below 及 beneath 的异同，参见 below 条。<br><br>
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under-
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>under-</b></div>这是一个很有用的前缀，用了它，往往可以使行文更为简短。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The FDA has long been underfunded and understaffed. (U.S. News & World Report, Sept. 15-22, 2008, p. 27) 食品及药物管理局长期以来一直经费短缺，人手不足。</div><br><br>
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underestimate
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>underestimate</b></div>和 overestimate 不同，cannot be underestimated 是“不可低估”，不是“如何低估也不会过分”。但是这种说法有人反对，认为不规范。英国《卫报》2003 年 9 月 9 日第 7 版一篇文章谈到 DNA 数据库时有一句：The seriousness of the threat to individual liberty cannot be underestimated. 原意是：“对个人自由的威胁，其严重性不可低估。”但是 9 月 12 日该报就发出更正，认为：Yes it can. The writer meant that the threat is so great that it cannot be overestimated or overstated. It is a frequently recurring error. 在实际语言运用中，cannot be underestimated 很普遍，这里的 cannot 就不是表示客观上的“不可能”，而是主观上的“不应该”。关于 cannot be overestimated，参见 overestimate 条。<br><br>
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undersell
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>undersell</b></div>及物动词，商业用语，undersell somebody 就是在销售竞争中以更低的售价比过别人（这个动词直接译成中文相当拗口）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We will not be undersold, guaranteed! If you find a lower price at any of our competitors, we will meet that price. 本店保证售价不高于他人！阁下如发现有任何竞争者售价更低廉，本店定将按照该低价出售。</div><br><br>
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unemployed
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>unemployed</b></div>是“失业的”（形容词）的正式用语，但平时少用；口头说暂时的失业是 jobless 或 out of work；求职时，说自己是“待业” (between jobs)，不说“失业” (unemployed)。<br><br>
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unhuman 与 inhuman
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>unhuman 与 inhuman</b></div>参见 inhuman 与 unhuman 条。<br><br>
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unilateral 与 one-sided
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>unilateral 与 one-sided</b></div>两个形容词都有“片面的”之意，但是 unilateral 指的是对立的双方中一方单方面的行为（另一方没有对应行为）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>unilateral disarmament 单方面裁军</div><div class="ex-item">unilateral action 单方面行动。</div><br><br>one-sided 也可以指双方中一方单方面的行为。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>one-sided conversation 只有一方说话的交谈。但也可以指看法或主张“片面的”（不涉及双方）。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>one-sided view 片面的观点。</div><br><br>
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union
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>union</b></div>这个名词的意义很简单，但因此使用也很广泛。值得注意的是：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> the Union 是美国南北战争中北方政府所代表的全美国的联邦，同南方的 Confederacy 相对立（如 a Union soldier 是“北军士兵”）；后来在若干特定场合就沿用 union 这个词来代表美国全国，最常用于总统每年 1 月份面向国会两院发表的《国情咨文》 (State of the Union Address)；在其他场合，除非同州一级相对，很少用 the Union 来表示美国全国，较多用 the nation 或 the country。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Hawaii and Alaska were the last states admitted to the Union. 夏威夷和阿拉斯加是最后两个被接纳加入联邦的州。一些州的州长也面向州议会发表《州情咨文》 (State of the State Address)，由此对照，可见 Union 的意义。参见 state 条。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> union 用作普通可数名词，在美国一般指“工会”（本来“工会”在美国叫作 labor union，在英国叫作 trade union，但 labor union 逐渐简化为 union）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the union movement 工会运动</div><div class="ex-item">union negotiations 工会出面的谈判。</div><br><br>
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unite
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>unite</b></div>这个动词，人们常常将它同中文的“团结”对号入座。但是其实两者并不是完全一对一的。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 首先，如果 unite 作为及物动词，那么它的宾语必须是多个个体，或是一个本来可以分开的集体。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>unite people from all walks of life 团结各界人士</div><div class="ex-item">unite all the nation 团结全民族。如果宾语只是一个人，“团结某人”当然不可以说 *unite somebody，此时就要把 unite 作为不及物动词，加上 with，成为 unite with somebody。</div><br><br>但是，中文的及物动词“团结”，即使英文译成 unite 或 unite with，意思都没有百分之百地表达出来。因为中文“甲团结乙”，甲是主体，核心，乙只是客体，边缘（例如统一战线中，只有掌握领导权者去团结统战对象，不会统战对象去团结掌握领导权者）。但是英语不及物动词 unite + with，意思只是简单地“与某人联合”，没有主从之分。如果主语是多个个体，也是不分主从的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The three parties united to form a coalition government. 三党联合起来组成联合政府。</div><br><br>即使中文“团结”的直接宾语是个集体，“甲团结乙”也是把乙这个集体团结在甲的周围，而不是甲置身事外，去把乙这个集体本身各个成员彼此团结在一起。而这恰恰就是英语及物动词 unite 的本意 (Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary 的释义是：make people or things join together to form a unit)，也就是说，乙“团结”了，甲自己不在这个“团结”之中，并不清楚（从事理推测应该在其中，但文字上没有交代），更重要的是，看不到甲在这个“团结”中的核心地位（也只能从事理推测，既然乙的“团结”是甲促成的，促成之后甲照理应该是核心而不会“功成身退”吧）。总之，中文的及物动词“团结”，隐约含有“我主你从”的含义，这是英文 unite 或 unite with 所难以充分表达出来的。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 其次，中文“团结”这个动词，有瞬时的“从不团结变成团结，建立团结关系”的含义，同 unite 一致 (unite 基本上是个瞬时体的第四类动词)；但是它往往带有“保持团结关系”的延续含义，这是 unite 所不明确的。不过，unite 的“体”并不那么严格，所以也可以用于不严格区分瞬时或延续的场合，例如《毛泽东选集》第二卷《团结到底》一文：“对其他一切人，都要认真地团结他们。”英文是：... with all others we must unite in earnest.<br><span class="seq">(3)</span> unite 用来翻译中文的“团结”，是从政治上着眼的。而在中文中，“团结”也用于人与人的日常关系，此时 unite 就不合适。例如说某人“能团结人”，就不要说 *He can unite with everybody. 最好改为 He gets along with everybody.
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United States
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>United States</b></div>美国原先的确是由若干个 state 组成的一个复数集合体，各个 state 相当于自有其主权的独立国家。因此，从前的 United States 的确是复数的集合体，同字面上的复数一致。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The United States themselves are essentially the greatest poem. (Walt Whitman) 合众国本身就是一首最伟大的诗。随着南北战争的进行，全国日益统一，但是林肯总统在 1864 年致国会的年度咨文中，仍然用复数。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... the United States must hold themselves at liberty to increase their naval armament upon the lakes. ……美国必须保持自己增强湖上海军装备的自由。United States 何时由复数变为单数，众说纷纭。1887 年 4 月 24 日的《华盛顿邮报》(第 4 版)断言：“戴维斯先生和李将军的投降（即南北战争的结束），意味着从复数过渡到了单数。”有人则认为 United States “在概念上” (notionally) 早在华盛顿就任总统时就已经是个单数名词（见 G. H. Emerson, in The Universalist Quarterly and General Review, 1891(28), p. 49)，南北战争只是对这个历史性的变化起了明确的作用 (made the difference unmistakable)。无论历史考据如何，总之，现在 United States 已经是一个单一的国家，在当代的英语中都作为单数名词处理。唯一保留复数的，是在 these United States 这个词组中使用时。杜鲁门总统在 1948 年至 1952 年期间，在演说中用过 20 多次 these United States。联邦调查局也有以 Crime in these United States 为标题的。</div><br><br>
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university
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>university</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为泛指的教育学府起其作用时，university 在英式英语中不加定冠词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Her one aim in life is to go to university. 她平生的夙愿就是上大学。/ Anybody who passes the school-leaving baccalauréat exam can enrol at university. (The Economist, London, July 7, 2007, p. 52) (在法国，)任何人只要中学毕业考试及格就能进大学。</div><br><br>但是在美式英语中泛指也要加定冠词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>go to the university 上大学（或是到某特定的大学校园去办一件事与上学无关的事）。不过，到大专院校就读在美国更多说 go to college。参见 college 条。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 大学的专有名称，如果地名在 university 前，不加定冠词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Oxford University 牛津大学。如果 university 后面加上 of 再加地名，就要在 university 前加上定冠词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the University of Oxford。</div><br><br>同理，电影《魂断蓝桥》的英文原名 Waterloo Bridge 前面也不要 the，这是因为 Waterloo 是个专有名词（地名）；但是伦敦的“塔桥”是 the Tower Bridge，要有 the，这是因为 Tower 是个普通名词。伦敦著名的“海德公园”是 Hyde Park，没有 the；但是离它不远的“绿色公园”却是 the Green Park，因为 Green 是个形容词，不是专有名词。<br><br>
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unless
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>unless</b></div>表示“除非”，相当于英文的 if ... not ...，但是两者也有一些微妙的差别。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> unless 最常见的用法，是从句用一般现在时，主句用一般现在时或一般将来时，表示“除非……，否则就……”。所需条件（不可缺少的必要条件）是有可能实现的，因而结果也有可能在现在或者在将来实现。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Sally says she won't wait for you unless you hurry up. (Somerset Maugham, Of Human Bondage) 萨利说，你如果不快点，她就不等你了。有时候这个 unless 从句中的一般现在时也可以改为表示虚拟的动词原形，更加强调这是有待实现的条件。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Sin is not forgiven unless restitution be made. (Saint Augustine, Ep. cliii ad Macedon.) 除非做出补救，否则罪孽不得赦免。如果所需条件是过去的，则也可以在 unless 从句用一般过去时。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She would be here by now unless she was stuck in the traffic. 她除非交通受阻，要不然现在该到了。整个坐标移到过去，从句用一般过去时，主句用过去将来时，所需条件过去有可能实现，结果也有可能在过去或过去将来实现。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was told he couldn't get a job unless he had a high school degree. 人家告诉他，除非有高中毕业证书，否则他是找不到工作的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 如果对于所需条件能否实现有较大的怀疑，因而对结果能否实现也没有把握，可以在从句中不用一般现在时而用虚拟式动词，在主句中不用一般现在时或一般将来时而用 would inf. 的条件式。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My heart would feel to be a crime</div><div class="ex-item">Unless it trembled with the strings. (Edgar Allan Poe, Poems) 我的心会感到罪恶</div><div class="ex-item">除非它随着琴弦颤抖。/ Tzu-hsia said: "A gentleman lays no burdens on the people until they have learned to trust him. Unless they trusted him they would think him cruel. Until he is trusted he does not reprove. Unless he were trusted it would seem fault-finding." (Sayings of Confucius, English version by James Legge) 子夏曰：“君子信而后劳其民；未信则以为厉己也。信而后谏；未信则以为谤己也。”</div><br><br>如果所需条件在时间上要先于结果，unless 从句的谓语动词要采用过去完成时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He also claims that under the agreement the film would not be shown unless he had signed a release form. 他又声称，除非他签署过公映书，否则该影片不能放映。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> unless 也可以用来客观叙述过去习惯行为当中的例外，此时主句和从句都用一般过去时，所表示的都是事实，没有假定成分。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He did not work for me unless he had no work to do for others. 他除非在别人那里没有工作做，否则是不在我这里工作的。/ Unless he was very ill, he would be at work. 他除非病得很厉害，否则都是在工作。/ Every evening, unless he had a visitor, he rode round the city for two hours on a bus. 每天黄昏，除非有人来访，他总是乘坐公共汽车在市里兜 2 小时风。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> unless 可以用于从现在的角度对过去尚未确定的事情进行推论，此时从句谓语用一般过去时或过去完成时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We do not know why this did not happen, unless he had fallen into disfavor. 这件事情为什么没有发生，我们现在不清楚，除非是他失了宠。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> unless 还可以站在过去当时的角度对当时尚未确定的事情进行推论。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His jean jacket was soaked with what looked like blood. Unless he had a mortal wound and was hiding it, the blood wasn't his. 他的蓝牛仔外套浸透着像是鲜血的东西。除非他是受了致命重伤又掩盖着伤势，否则这些血就不是他的。/ And, indeed, unless this shoal had a machine in its stomach, how could it change its position with such astonishing rapidity? (Jules Verne, 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea) 的确，这片沙洲，除非肚子里面装着一台机器，否则它怎么能以如此惊人的速度改变位置？/ Unless he had another secret, I presume they were both my mother since they all went to the same address in Johnstown, north Wales, or to the store. (Ralph Steadman, Gonzo the Birth) 除非他另有秘密，否则我推论这两个名字都是我母亲，因为信件全都寄往北威尔士乔治城的同一个地址，或者寄到店里。</div><br><br>如果所需条件要先于结果，它可以用过去完成时来表示。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>By the original law respecting the appointment of a dictator (lex de dictatore creando) no one was eligible for this office, unless he had previously been consul. 按照有关如何推举独裁官的原有法律，任何人除非先前担任过执政官，否则没有资格。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> unless 如果用于表示现在对过去的事实做出反面的假定，则主句（有否定词，因而违反事实）以 unless 从句（本身因 unless 而已经有否定意义）的违反事实为条件。既然主句应该去掉否定词才符合事实，那么，unless 从句内部所说的事应该符合事实，unless 的否定作用应该排除。这样，乍一看来，unless 从句同 if ... not ... 从句意思是一样的，都是做出违反过去已发生的事实的假设。但是，用 if ... not ... 从句时，重点落在主句上，是从原因（从句）推论出结果（主句）；而用 unless 从句时，则重点落在从句上，是从结果（主句）推论出原因（从句），肯定从句内部所说的假设符合事实。这两个不同的推论方向，也从主句和从句出现的次序可以看得出来。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If the elephant hadn't had perfect eyesight, it wouldn't have seen the mouse. (= The elephant wouldn't have seen the mouse unless it'd had perfect eyesight.) 大象要不是眼力好，本来是不会看见耗子的。(= 大象看见了耗子，可见它眼力好。)</div>但是，如果从句中用了一些肯定了此事为事实的单词，推论就成为多此一举，就不能用 <i>unless 而只能用 if ... not ...。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If you hadn't driven so recklessly, you wouldn't have had this accident. 要不是你开车开得这么鲁莽，你本来不会出事故。这里由于有了 so，连鲁莽的程度都明确指出了，就不必再推论是否鲁莽了，所以不能改成使用 unless: </i>You wouldn't have had this accident unless you had driven so recklessly. 这个句子，如果去掉 so，则 unless 从句还是可以使用的。</div><br><br>同样，If you hadn't had that last glass of wine, this would never have happened. (你要不是最后又喝了那杯酒，这件事情本来不会发生。)这句中的 that 已经肯定了的确喝了那杯酒，再用 unless 来推论是否喝了就多此一举，所以不能用 *unless 而只能用 if ... not ...。如果去掉 that last，改为代表新知信息的 a last 或 another，就可以用 unless 从句来表示推导出的结论。有人主张 unless 不能用于违反过去事实的假设，应该改用 if ... not ...，但是他们举出的只能用 if ... not ... 的例句，从句中都是有 so 或 that 之类表示已知信息的单词。其实，其所以不能用 unless，并不是 unless 不能用于违反过去事实的假设，而是不能用一个已知信息作为推理结果；如果推导出一个新知信息，还是可以的。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 如果主从句主语相同，unless 从句的主语和谓语的第一个动词可以省略。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Don't shut down these computers unless (you are) instructed to do so. 除非提示你关上这些电脑，否则不要关上。/ Unless (he is) given sufficient warning of the consequences he will continue to misbehave. 除非给他发出足够的警告，否则他会继续调皮捣蛋。不过，这种省略的做法会使得文体过于正式，日常用语还是保留主语和谓语的第一个动词为好。</div><br><br>
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unlike
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>unlike</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 后面通常是个名词或代词成分，表示“与……不同”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's unlike any other food I've eaten. 它同我所吃过的任何食物都不一样。/ You're unlike me in this respect. 你在这方面跟我不一样。/ Unlike me, my brother is very clever. 我弟弟同我不一样，他很聪明。</div><br><br>也可以表示违反某人平常给人的印象。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How unlike you to forget my birthday! 你居然忘掉我的生日，真离奇！/ It's unlike you to be so optimistic. 你这样乐观，跟你平常可真不一样。/ It's unlike him to be late for an appointment. 跟平常不一样，他竟然在约会中迟到了。/ She's been rather unlike herself lately. 她最近有点反常。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 但是后面也可以不是名词或代词成分，unlike 修饰全句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Unlike with Katrina, Bush seems aware of possible dangers. (The Sunday Gazette, Oct. 9, 2005) 同对待卡特里娜飓风不一样，布什对于各种可能的危险似乎心中有数。</div><br><br>
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unlikely
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>unlikely</b></div>这个形容词，一般的意思是“不大可能的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He seems the most unlikely candidate for the job. 他似乎是最没有把握干这份差事的人选。</div><br><br>但是更深层的意思是“本来不可能但却成了事实的”，成了原先一般意义的反面。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They have built hotels in the most unlikely places. 他们在本来最不合适的地方盖起了宾馆。/ Capital in the 21th Century ... has become this year's most unlikely best seller, ... (A.O. Scott, in The New York Times, Aug. 1, 2014) ……《21 世纪资本论》一书……成了今年最令人意想不到的畅销书，……（不可以照字面把 this year's most unlikely best seller 译成“今年最不可能的畅销书”）</div>
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unload
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>unload</b></div>这个及物动词（趋成动词，第三类）的直接宾语，可以是承载的载体。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>unload an airplane 卸下一架飞机的货物。直接宾语也可以是从载体卸下的东西。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>unload goods from a truck 卸下一辆卡车的货物</div><div class="ex-item">The ship is unloading containers at the pier. 船正在码头卸下集装箱。unload 的反义词 load 的直接宾语也有类似情况（参见 load 条）。</div><br><br>对比 load 与 unload，可以发现，如果货物和载体都出现，load 可以有 load + 载体 + with + 货物或 load + 货物 + onto + 载体两种表达方式；unload 则只有 unload + 货物 + from + 载体一种方式（也就是说，如果 unload 以载体为直接宾语，货物就不能出现）。<br><br>
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until
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>until</b></div>中国人常见的一个错误，就是分不清两种动词体貌。而许多英语语法书，对于动词体貌同时态用法的密切关系，以及同时间状语用法（尤其是介词用法）的密切关系，也语焉不详。因此，需要牢固树立一些基本概念。<br><br>动词究其本身词义，决定了它属于哪一种“体”。到了具体句子中，再受到时态、宾语、状语等影响，表现为“貌”。动词按照其“体”的不同，大致上可以分为四大类。（详见本书附录一）现在看 until。中国人对这个介词兼连词的理解，往往由于对动词的延续体或瞬时体认识不清而发生误解和误用。首先，until 加上名词成分或是加上一个时间状语从句，与之搭配的主句，其动词如果没有被否定，则其体必须是延续的，也就是说，该主句所表示的必须是一种延续的行为或状态。一般词典上，until 的释义是“直到”，有些人就把中文的“我直到昨天才收到他的信”译成 *I received his letter until yesterday. 其实应该译成 I didn't receive his letter until yesterday. 或 Not until yesterday did I receive his letter. 这里动词 receive 是瞬时完成的，如果没有被否定，就不能用于要求表示延续状态的主句之中。而它一旦被否定了，就表示一种延续状态，符合主句的要求，意思分析起来就是“没有收到信的状态一直延续到昨天为止，到了昨天，状态发生了变化，信收到了”。<br><br>until 对前面动词要求的否定，甚至可以进一步向前移动到更前面的另一个动词（谓语动词）上面（而其实这个谓语动词在意义上并不受到否定）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The project isn't scheduled to be completed until late June. (= The project is scheduled not to be completed until late June.) 该工程预定要到 6 月下旬才完工。这个否定，在英语中是很要紧的，有时候甚至重复标出。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Both men looked up and waited for me to continue. I didn't, not until Colin asked, "When?" (Estelle Ryan, The Gauguin Connection) 他们两人抬起头来，等着我说下去。我一直没有说下去，直到科林问：“是什么时候的事？”</div><br><br>至于那些按其词义本来就是延续行为或状态的动词，未被否定，当然符合主句的要求。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I stayed there until he came. 我留在那里直到他来。</div><br><br>这里还要顺带指出，until 如果后面接上时间状语从句，这个从句中的动词必须是瞬时完成的，也不可以否定，因为 until 要求一个发生某事的“时间点”，所以可以说 <i>until he wore an overcoat 或 </i>until he didn't come。但是，英语常常可以用一个状态来表示达到这个状态的瞬时变化，此时 until 从句中可以采用这样的延续状态动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Must policy-making wait until all the data are in? 难道非得等到所有数据都齐全才能制定政策吗？</div><br><br>此外，把 until 理解为完成某一个行为的最后时限，也是不对的，例如不能说 *Have this car fixed until noon. 要把 until 改成 by 才对。<br><br>总而言之，在一个由一个主句和一个用 until 引入的从句组成的复合句中，主句必须表示延续的状态或某瞬时事件未发生的状态，而从句则必须表示某一行为或事件的完成。如果 until 作为介词，则后面的名词成分必须表示一个明确的时间点（如 until five o'clock)，不能是时间段（不能说 *until two hours)。<br><br>但是，如果不用 until 而用 by 作为介词（后面也是一个时间点而非时间段），则动词就不是延续的而是瞬时的，表示在该时间点之前完成某动作或事件。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They plan to buy a car by the end of the next year. 他们计划次年年底以前买一部车。（这里的 buy 是瞬时动词）。这里的 buy 如果改为 have，by 如果改为 until，意思就变成“他们计划拥有一辆车子直到次年年底为止（到时候把车子卖掉或送给别人）”。不过，在实际语言运用中，偶尔也有使用瞬时动词同介词 until 搭配的，但意思仍然是延续的。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The coach dismissed the trainees until 3:00 p.m. 教练让受训者解散，到下午3点再来集合。（瞬时动词 dismiss 造成的状态延续到下午3点）/ Whichever generator is affected will send a warning to control, then shut down automatically until a service crew gets here. 无论哪一个发电机受到影响，都会向操纵台发出报警信号，然后自动关机，直到维修人员赶到。（瞬时动词 shut down 造成的状态延续到 a service crew gets here 之时）/ They have hung up their tools until spring. 他们挂起了自己的工具，等到春天再使用。（瞬时动作 hang up 造成的状态延续到 spring 为止）/ ... and when you feel fatigued do not fail to stop until the muscular contraction is relieved. (Josef Hofmann, Piano Questions) ……如果感到疲倦，就一定要停止，等到肌肉的紧张松弛下来。（瞬时动作 stop 造成的状态延续到 the muscular contraction is relieved 时为止）</div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 这样，凡是使用瞬时动词的句子，如果用了 until，就往往同否定结下不解之缘。但是在中文中，则不用否定而用肯定形式来表示。句型通常有三种：(a) 最简单的是 do/did not ... until ...（这个 do 可以改用其他助动词）（直到……才……）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You mustn't sign the contract until you hear from me. 你一定要等到听到我表态才可以签署合同。/ They didn't arrive until eight o'clock. 他们直到8点钟才来到。/ The play didn't start until everyone was seated. 直到人人都就了座，剧才开演。</div><br><br>这里要注意区分动词究竟是瞬时的还是延续的。通常这种句型的动词是瞬时的，意思就是“直到……才……”。但是有时候动词是延续的，意思就不同，not 与 until 就没有那样直接的关系，而只是延续动词同 until 发生关系（延续的动作或状态发生在 until 之前，以 until 的时间点为终点），此时中文要保持否定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He simply couldn't wait until tomorrow night. 他简直没有耐心等到明天晚上。（先是 wait until tomorrow night，然后整个被 couldn't 否定；不是 couldn't wait，然后用 until tomorrow night 来限定，也就是不能理解为“他一直到明天晚上才能等待”。）</div>(b) 稍微变换一点的，是 not until ... do ...（这个 do 也可以改用其他助动词，主句主谓颠倒）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Not until I left home did I begin to understand how strange my family was. 直到我离开了家，我才开始懂得我这一家是多么的奇怪。/ Not until that evening was she able to recover her self-control. 直到那天晚上，她才恢复了自控能力。/ Not until this moment had the drama of this event truly struck Rachel. (Dan Brown, Deception Point) 直到此时，蕾切尔才真正感到这个事件是多么触目惊心。</div>(c) 变得更加复杂一点的，是 it is not until ... that ...。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was not until yesterday that I learned it. 我直到昨天才知道。/ It was not until 1911 that the first of the vitamins was identified. 直到 1911 年才发现第一批维生素。/ It was not until 1827 that the first book for the blind was published in England. 直到 1827 年，第一本供盲人阅读的书才在英国出版。/ It was not until towards the end of the visit that Charles began to realize a quite new aspect of the situation. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 查尔斯直到会面快结束时才看出这种形势之中的一个新方面。 (d) 比较少用但是有点特别的，是 it takes/took + until + 某时间点 + before + 从句，或是 it takes/took + until + 某时间点 + for + 某人或某物 + to inf.，意思也是“直到……才……”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... it could take until 2008 before production can catch up with worldwide demand for the drug. (Newsweek, Oct. 17, 2005, p. 39) ……可能要等到 2008 年，产量才能赶上全世界对这种药物的需求。/ It took until the mid-1980s for Chile to sustain a per capita income level higher than that of 1973, ... 直到 20 世纪 80 年代中期，智利的人均收入水平才高于 1973 年……</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 由此可见，有 until 出现的这类句子，英文是否定的，中文却要肯定。根本原因就是 until 有“终点”的意思，明确包含了“到了这个时间点，情况就发生变化，原先一直没有发生的事这时候发生了”的意思。如果没有这层意思，情况一直保持到某一时间点而仍然没有变化，用 until 就不合适了。例如说某人能够活到 90 岁，英文说 He'll live until 90. 意思就是他到了 90 岁就会死。如果中文不是这个意思而是说他 90 岁以后还有可能继续活下去，英文就不能用 until，要说 He'll live to be 90. 所以 until now 或 until then 之类的时间状语词组，都包含了“发生变化”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I've never been here until today. 我在今天以前一直没有到过这里。（情况发生了变化，现在到这里来了）/ Until now, you've had no choice where you bought your electricity or gas. Now the choice is yours. 从前，你从哪里买电力或煤气，是无法选择的。今天选择权在你手里。（情况发生了变化）/ And that's why no one put the pieces of this puzzle together—until now. 这就是为什么一直没有人能够把这个难题的相关信息拼到一起，但是现在不同了。</div><br><br>如果 now 的时间往前推，until then 也同样表示情况发生了变化。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She was assigned to Nebraska where, until then, the company had had no sales representation. 她被派往内布拉斯加，原先该公司在那里没有销售代理机构。（发生了变化，现在有了）/ Up until his father's death, Scot had done extremely well on the World Cup circuit. 直到他父亲去世之前，斯考特在世界杯巡回赛当中的表现一直极为出色。（他父亲去世之后他就差劲了）甚至有时候可以干脆把 until now 译成中文的“从前”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Until now users have tried to personalize their phones with straps and stickers, but ... 从前，用户们设法捆上带子或是贴上标签来标明手机是他个人的，但是，……</div><div class="ex-item">But I must beware of my own weakness too, for I never knew till now how strong are a parent's temptations to spoil an only child. (Anne Brontë, The Tenant of Wildfell Hall) 但是我对自己的脆弱也必须加以提防，因为我以前都不知道，原来做父母的是多么容易把独生的孩子惯坏，这样做的诱惑力是多么的强烈。</div><br><br>而 up to now 或 so far 或 to date 则并不包含“发生变化”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But the Senate has up to now viewed the measure more skeptically. 但是参议院直到现在仍然对这项措施抱较大的怀疑态度。/ They were using charcoal right up to my day. 直到如今，他们还一直是用煤。所以，如果表示“截至”某时间点为止的累计数量，就不用 until 而用 up to（美式英语可以用 as of）。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Albany had received about 15 inches of snow as of (*until) 4 p.m. 奥尔巴尼截至下午4时下了 15 英寸的雪。/ ... has recovered nearly 1.5 million mercury-containing thermostats to date. (The Daily Gazette, Dec. 23, 2011, B3) ……迄今已经收回了 150 万个水银温度计。而且，until 既然暗示情况发生变化，行文的意义中心就落在变化及其以后的情况，而不在 until 之前的情况，而且往往不是表示过了 until 之后会发生相反的变化，而是表示过了 until 之后情况会比目前更甚。掌握这一点，对于理解通篇意义，是有帮助的。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>American are already paying big bucks for fuel. But wait until the temperature drops. Energy officials predict those who use heating oil or natural gas could pay $400 to $600 more this year to heat their homes. (Newsweek, Oct. 10, 2005, p. 66) 美国人现在已经在燃料上花费大笔的钱财。但是，等到气温下降，情况要更厉害呢。能源官员们预计，那些家中用燃油或天然气取暖的人，今年可能要多支出 400 到 600 美元。（注意：不是“目前保持现状，等到气温下降再说”，而是“现在预计今冬气温下降后会发生什么更进一步的新情况”）/ Rule 4: If you think your teacher is tough, wait until you get a boss. (Bill Gates, 11 Rules) 第四条须知：你如果觉得老师太厉害，那么你就等到日后看雇主吧。（注意：不是“目前保持现状，等到有雇主时再说”，而是“现在就预计将来就业时会更加如何，拿来与目前相比，重点在将来更加如何”）/ "Wait till you start eating," Syd told Henry. "You'll know what seafood is all about." (Mary Higgins Clark, Weep No More, My Lady) 希德对亨利说：“等到你开始吃起来，你就会懂得海鲜是什么滋味了。”（注意：不是“目前要等着，一直等到开始吃再说”，而是“开始吃之后会如何如何”，重点在“开始吃”之后，不在“开始吃”之前。）/ If your think watching TV is exciting, wait until you really hear it. (Bose Solo TV sound system ad, in USA Today, Apr. 21, 2013) 如果你觉得看电视很带劲，那么，等到你真正听到电视，你才真的带劲呢。</div><br><br>有 until ... 短语或从句，全句的语义重点是在该时间点上发生的变化（对发生变化之前状态的否定或加码）；但是，如果 until 前加上 up 或 right up，则全句的语义重点落在发生变化之前的状态（虽然仍然承认后来发生了变化）。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 但是，实际生活比逻辑概括要丰富复杂得多。有些情况，说是现在发生了变化也可以，说是现在仍然保持未变也可以。尤其是谈到某个即将实行的计划，计划刚刚宣布，但尚未真正实行，也就是说，尚未真正“颠覆”现状。如果单从理论上说，旧的现状可以说已经是到了尽头，可以用 until now 了。但如果从实际上说，旧的现状尚未发生变化，尚不可以用 until now。这时候就出现了模棱两可的情况。在语言上也就出现 until now 可用可不用的两种选择。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Until now, all the money given away by the Gates Foundation has come from the only man above Buffett in our list of the World's Billionaires—Bill Gates. (Forbes, June 26, 2006) 迄今为止，盖茨基金会支出的钱，全都来自本刊“世界亿万富豪排行榜”上唯一排在巴菲特之前的人，即比尔·盖茨。/ Up to now, the two Gateses have been the only trustees of their foundation. 迄今为止，盖茨夫妇一直是他们那个基金会仅有的董事。</div><br><br>一些新发明、新发现，刚刚出现时还只是——种理论，现状打破了没有，也一样可以有不同的看法。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Until now, the only way astrophysicists could examine the cosmos has been to study light (electromagnetic energy) emitted and absorbed by stars, gas, and dust in a variety of wavelengths from low energy radio waves to optical photons and high energy X-ray and gamma rays. 迄今为止，天体物理学家们观察宇宙的唯一办法，就是研究各个恒星、气体和尘埃以从低能放射波到光频光子与高能 X 射线和 γ 射线的各种不同的波长所发出和吸收的光（电磁能）。而 so far 和 up to now 则通常不表示现在发生了变化，但是也不能把话说死。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's gone well so far. 迄今为止进展顺利。/ He said, however, so far his advice on the Rumsfeld situation had been considered and rejected. (Newsweek, Oct. 9, 2006, p. 38) 但是，他说，迄今为止，他有关拉姆斯菲尔德情况的忠告，经过考虑，都被拒绝了。/ Persistent hiccuping in addition to weight-loss and difficulty swallowing could be a warning sign of cancer of the esophagus, ... "Up to now, hiccups have not been recognized as a possible harbinger of cancer," Walsh told Reuters. 不断打嗝，加上体重减轻以及吞咽困难，可能是食道癌的一个警告信号，……“直到如今，打嗝一直没有被认为是以癌症的一个可能的先兆。”瓦尔什这样告诉路透社。这里的 so far 和 up to now 都是模棱两可的。甚至有些明明发生了变化的场合，也用 up to。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>That's what we all thought, up to just a short time ago. 那是我们大家直到不久以前的一致想法。这就同 until 没有多大区别了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> “灰色地带”的存在，使得人们往往对说话时有没有发生变化不加以区别。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Explosives detonate along the 1,100-foot steel center of the landmark Jamestown Bridge in North Kingstown, R.I., on Tuesday. The bridge has been a crucial link across Narragansett Bay for motorists headed to Newport since 1940. (The Daily Gazette, Apr. 19, 2006, A12) 星期二在罗得岛北金斯敦，沿着那座有标志意义的詹姆斯敦大桥的 1,100 英尺的钢质中心部分，炸药引爆了。那座桥自 1940 年以来一直是开往新港的驾车者横跨纳尔根塞特湾的一处关键枢纽。（一张照片，一座大桥被炸毁，照片发表在报上时大桥已经不存在了，但仍用 has been ... since ...）/ I've refrained up to now from commenting on the latest Joan Houlihan essay, ... (Joshua Corey, Cahiers de Corey) 迄今为止我一直没有对琼·霍利亨最近的一篇文章加以评论，……（但是后面接着就加以评论了）</div><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 如果主句的谓语动词不是瞬时的而是延续的，则这个动词不用经过否定就可以直接同 until 联系，表示“某延续动作或状态一直保持到 until 时间点为止，过了该时间点就不再保持”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I worked for a building company until the end of 1999, then I went freelance. 我曾经在一家建筑公司供职到 1999 年底，然后改为从事自由职业。/ You must wait here in the waiting room until they call your name. 你一定要在等候室一直等到人家喊你的名字。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 如果 until 从句的主语同主句的主语相同，而且从句的谓语动词是 be 的变化形式，则从句主语和谓语动词都可以省略。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The defendant is presumed innocent until (he is) proven guilty. 证实有罪之前，被告假定为无罪。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> until 前面如果有 up，则不着重否定（“直到……之时才……”），而着重肯定（延续状态或习惯动作）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Up until the middle of the 20th century, most young women were expected to marry and start a family. (The Sunday Gazette, May 9, 2010, D3) 直到 20 世纪中叶，大多数青年女子都预计要结婚成家了。</div><br><br>
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upbringing
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>upbringing</b></div>指人分别有不同的教养状况，可以用复数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... (a study) which asks whether psychopaths are born that way, or are made so by their upbringings. (The Economist, May 28, 2005, p. 82) ……问的问题是：精神病人究竟是生下来就这样的呢，还是后来被养成这个样子的。参见 life 条及 death 条。</div><br><br>
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upend
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>upend</b></div>扩大（不是仅仅增加数量，而是加入新成分）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... it is unlikely the traditionalists in the church will suddenly upend the all-male, celibate priesthood, let alone name a woman as the bishop of Rome. (The Daily Gazette, Feb. 19, 2013, A5) ……教会的传统保守派不大可能突然给那个清一色男性的、独身不娶的教士集体加进新鲜血液，更不会任命一名女性担任罗马主教。</div><br><br>
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uphill
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>uphill</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 参见 downhill 条。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> uphill 作为形容词，前面可以加上副词 very。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a very uphill battle 一场十分吃力的战斗。</div><br><br>
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up North
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>up North</b></div>参见 out West 条。<br><br>
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upon
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>upon</b></div>大体上 upon 同 on 可以换用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>rely on/upon 依靠</div><div class="ex-item">be based on/upon 基于</div><div class="ex-item">on</div><div class="ex-item">upon this occasion 在这个场合。但是还是有些区别的：</div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 首先，upon 只能是介词，而 on 还可以是副词，此时不能换成 upon。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Let's go on. 咱们继续下去吧。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 介词 on 后面是日子，或是表示“论述”，不能换成 upon。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>on Monday 在星期一</div><div class="ex-item">a book on global warming 一本关于全球变暖的书。 (3) 一些固定的用法只能用 on 而不能用 upon。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>on time 准时</div><div class="ex-item">on the telephone 打电话时。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 如果伴随动词的介词出现在句子（无论是独立句还是从句）的最末端，往往用 upon 而不用 on。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If my advice had been acted upon, the project would have worked. 要是照我当时提出的意见办，这个方案本来是能行得通的。</div><br><br>但是有些成型的用语，习惯用 on，即使到了句末也不改为 upon。例如 indict somebody on six counts（以六项罪名起诉某人），转换为 the six counts somebody was indicted on，则仍然保留 on 在句末，不换成 upon。depend on 作“依赖，取决于”解时，on 可以换成 upon，两者均可，即使句末也可以用 on。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 一些固定的动词词组或介词词组，规定只能用 upon 而不能用 on。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>depend upon it 放心依靠</div><div class="ex-item">look upon somebody/something as ... 视某人或某物为……</div><div class="ex-item">upon my word 我担保</div><div class="ex-item">once upon a time 从前有个时候</div><div class="ex-item">Christmas is upon us. 圣诞节快到了。/ Catalog available upon request. 商品目录可供索取。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 在重复的名词当中，只能用 upon，不能用 on。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>battle upon battle 一场又一场的战役</div><div class="ex-item">thousands upon thousands of people 成千上万的人。</div><br><br>
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upper
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>upper</b></div>这个形容词尽管在词义上有“较高的”之意，但是在语法上不能算作比较级。因为第一，它不能用作表语（不能说 *... is upper than ...），只能放在特指名词前面作定语；第二，它这个“较高的”的意义，只能相对于仅有的一两个“较低的”现成对象（而且往往是成双的事物的另一件，或是同质的事物），不能扩大比较范围。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the upper lip 上唇</div><div class="ex-item">the upper jaw 上颌</div><div class="ex-item">notes in the upper register 高音部音符</div><div class="ex-item">the upper Amazon 亚马逊河上游</div><div class="ex-item">upper Georgia 乔治亚州北部</div><div class="ex-item">upper freshmen 一年级下学期学生</div><div class="ex-item">the upper circle of society 上流社会</div><div class="ex-item">the upper case 大写字母。</div><br><br>与之相对应的是 lower。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>lower plants 低等植物</div><div class="ex-item">the lower lip 下唇</div><div class="ex-item">the lower part of the body 下半身</div><div class="ex-item">Lower House (= Chamber) 下议院。</div><br><br>
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up to
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>up to</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> up to 只表示最高（最多）可能达到的数量或程度，并不表示眼前就是或一律都是这么高或这么多。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>For up to 90 minutes while the tide is out, the villagers make their way 10 to 12 feet beneath the ice to collect the mussels before the frigid water returns. (National Geographic, October 1999) 潮水退去的时间最长可达 90 分钟，村民们就趁这段时间深入冰下 10 到 12 英尺的地方，赶在冰冷的水回来之前把贻贝捡走。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 美国的多家商店往往利用 up to 来吸引顾客。他们的广告常常有 up to ××% off 表示可以降价百分之多少，例如 up to 60% off，但其实只有很少一部分商品是降价 60% 的。顾客被 60% 所吸引，也就前往选购了。有些商店更加狡猾，把 ××% off 用大字号标出，只在前面加上字号小小的 up to，这就接近欺骗顾客了。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> up to + 数量，虽然以副词 up 开始，但整个可以当作一个名词成分参与句子构成。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Get up to 30 percent back on purchase. 拿回多达 30% 的货款。(up to 30 percent 作为一个名词成分，是及物动词词组 get back 的直接宾语。千万不要把 get up 连在一起，那就是“起床”了。)</div>
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up to now 与 until
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>up to now 与 until</b></div>参见 until 条之(3)。<br><br>
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used to
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>used to</b></div>首先必须分清楚，究竟是过去时的谓语动词，还是一个过去分词（起形容词作用）。前者本身就是一个谓语动词；后者不是谓语动词，要前面加上 be 之类的系动词的适当形式才能形成谓语。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> used to 作为谓语动词，表示过去的习惯，但是同时表明这个习惯现在已经没有了。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I used to think that everything going on in Colombia could be resolved in Colombia, but no. (The Washington Post, Jan. 29, 2006, A20) 我从前以为，哥伦比亚发生的什么事都可以在哥伦比亚国内解决，其实不然。/ There used to be a shop next door. 从前隔壁有一家商店。/ Things aren't what they used to be. 情况同从前已经不一样了。/ He always used to ask the same questions. 他老是提问一些问题。/ I used to smoke twenty a day but now I don't smoke at all. 我从前一天抽 20 支香烟，但是现在根本不抽了。</div><br><br>如果这个过去的习惯现在是否保持并未交代，则不用 used to 而用 would。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He would smoke a cigar after dinner. 他晚餐后习惯抽一支雪茄。used to 与 would 的区别参见 would 条之(7)。</div><br><br>而且，由于 used to 隐含了“现在已经不了”的意思，如果这个习惯一直保持终生，没有改变，则虽然人已经去世，这个习惯仅仅是随着人消失了，而不是改变了，所以也不用 used to 而用 would。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They would (*used to) end up apologizing to each other, Mom crying, Dad anguished and angry at himself for upsetting her. 他们最后总是互相道歉，妈妈哭着，爸爸因为伤了她的心而苦恼，生自己的气。但是这个区别并不十分严格，谈及已故的人终生不变的习惯，也有用 used to 的。</div><br><br>used to inf. 的否定形式是 didn't use to inf.，但是比较奇怪的是，这里本来只能是动词原形 use，但也可以是 used，即 didn't used to inf.，这在英文里是很罕见的结构。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I didn't use(d) to like opera, but now I do. 我从前不喜欢歌剧，但是现在喜欢了。另一个否定形式（较正式，不太常用）是 used not to。如上例可改为 I used not to like opera, but now I do. 这个形式可以缩写成 usedn't to inf.，如 I usedn't to like opera. 但是最常用的否定形式是在 used to inf. 前面加一个 never。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I never used to like opera. 我一直都不喜欢歌剧。</div><br><br>一般疑问句的形式是 Did ... use(d) to inf.?，也同否定形式一样是很罕见的结构。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Did you use(d) to study hard when you were a student? 你上学的时候用功吗？另一个形式是 Used ... to inf.?。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Used you to play football at school? 你在学校常打篮球吗？特殊疑问句结构也类似。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>What used he to/did he use(d) to drink after dinner? 他那时候吃过晚饭习惯喝什么东西？如果有附加疑问句（tag question），used 不能落在附加疑问句上，只能把它变为普通的 do。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You used not to like him, did (*used) you? 你当时不喜欢他，是吗？used to inf. 除了本身是一般过去时之外，还可以向“过去”再移动一格，以过去完成时的形式 had used to inf. 表示“过去又过去”的习惯（但是到了“过去”就不如此了）。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... all the old gangster movies he'd used to watch late at night sprang into his mind. (Mary Higgins Clark, Weep No More, My Lady) ……从前他深夜常常看的帮匪影片，现在全都一股脑儿涌现在他的脑海中。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> used to inf.，如果后面的动词是延续体的动词，一般指的是人生过去某一阶段当中没有说明时间段长度而且延续比较长的习惯状态或行为，不用于刚刚过去的短时期当中延续较短的反复状态或行为，也不用于已经说明了时间段长度的延续状态或行为。例如不能说 <i>I used to work very hard last month.（要说 I worked very hard last month.）或 </i>I used to live in Shanghai for five years.（要说 I lived in Shanghai for five years.）至于 used to 和 would 的区别，参见 would 条之(7)。如果后面的动词是非延续体貌的动态行为动词，则表示行为的反复进行，反复的次数必须是不确定的；如果已经说明了多少次，就不能用 used to，例如不能说 *I used to call on him twenty times when I lived there.<br><span class="seq">(3)</span> used to 作为过去分词或形容词（“对……已经习惯的”），起表语作用。这个 to 是地地道道的介词，不是动词不定式的 to；used 前面要有系动词，to 后面接上的应该是个名词、代词或动名词。尤其是当 to 后面要放上一个有动词意义的成分时，要特别注意放上一个名词或动名词，不要放上动词不定式。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I've lived in Central London for six years now, so I'm used to the noise. 我在伦敦市中心已经住了 6 年，所以对嘈杂声已经习惯了。/ I'm used to driving (<i>to drive) in London now, but it was hard at the beginning. 我已经习惯在伦敦开车了，但是一开始的时候很吃力。如果要表示“从不习惯到习惯”这个变化，常常用 get 作为系动词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You must get used to getting up (</i>to get up) early. 你要养成早起的习惯。/ He'd gotten used to working (*to work) late on weekends. 他已经习惯于周末干得很晚。</div><br><br>get used to 这个动词词组已经成为一个惯用词组，甚至它的动名词 getting used to 也成了一个地地道道的名词成分。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I will be famous for the rest of my life ... It was going to take some getting used to. (David Rosenfelt, Heart of a Killer) 我今后一辈子都会是个著名人物了。……这是一个要习惯适应的过程。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> used to inf. 作为谓语动词，由于本身已经有了 often but not always 的隐含语义，所以不可以用于时间状语从句，例如不可以说 *My wife often came to see me while I used to be in hospital. 但是 used to inf. 可以放在主句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My wife used to come to see me while I was in hospital. 我以前住院时我妻子常来看我。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 有时候 used to 两种不同用法同时出现，要注意区别。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I know how Noah feels about me. I'm used to it. It used to upset me, but it doesn't anymore. 我知道诺亚心里对我我是怎么样想的。我已经习惯了。从前我还感到难过，但是现在再也不难过了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 有时候 used to 上面两种用法都不是，而只是 use 的被动意义过去分词 + (in order) to（“元素”各自保持原状，没有“化合”），此时又需要注意不要误解。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Prescription drugs, illegally used to get high, are the second most abused type of drug by teens, right behind marijuana. (Newsweek, Oct. 15, 2007, p. 39, ad) 把处方药非法用于提神，这是青少年滥用药品的第二常用的方式，仅仅次于吸食大麻。</div><br><br>
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use²
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>use²</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为及物动词（可以是瞬时或延续动作），use 的直接宾语可以是工具（如 knife、scissors、phone、computer、car、bed、comforter 等）、消耗品（如 shampoo、oil、perfume 等）、技能（如 skill、technique 等）、场所（如 toilet、room 等）、时间（如 time）、名称（如 name、title）、有利条件等。但是如果直接宾语是人，则有“仅仅利用一下而已”的贬义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She just uses people. 她只是利用别人。/ He felt used. 他觉得自己被利用了。“用人之道”，要说 employ。此外，有利条件如果用比较抽象笼统的名词来表示，也少用 use 而多用 employ，例如 employ/use all means（采取一切办法），但如果具体了，就用 use 而不用 <i>employ。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The United States might use (</i>employ) Britain's behaviour as an excuse to put pressure on other European countries. 美国可以拿英国的做法作为一个理由，向其他欧洲国家施加压力。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作为及物动词，use 倾向于指已经处于常用状态的事物拿来实际使用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Are you using the scissors? 剪刀你在用吗？/ This camera is easy to use. 这台照相机很容易使用。/ Don't use bad language. 别讲粗话。</div><br><br>如果是将一件尚未使用的事物拿来使用（着重瞬时开始使用，隐含今后延续使用下去），最好将 use 变为名词，形成词组 put to use。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Wave power can be put to use. 波浪能是可以利用的。/ Stem cells can be put to use against sickle cell anemia. 干细胞可以用来治疗镰细胞贫血症。这个 use 前面还可以加上“好，坏”之类的形容词及其比较级。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You should put your computer to good use. 你要好好利用你的电脑。/ Atomic energy might be put to bad use. 原子能可能会使用不当。/ The funds should have been put to better use. 经费本来应当用得更为得当。“好好使用”不能说 *use well，只能说 put to good use。</div><br><br>
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use¹
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>use¹</b></div>作为名词，往往可以通过不同搭配代替形容词 useful 或被否定以代替形容词 useless，表示“有用”或“无用”，但是，在搭配上，情况比较复杂，中国人容易出错。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> use 表示“使用”行为（这是中国人最容易理解和接受的）时，是个不可数名词，即使指的是当前具体场合的使用，也不加任何冠词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The new airstrip is ready for use. 新跑道已经修好，可以使用了。/ Her suitcase had seen a lot of use. 她的衣箱已经用得很旧了。/ The steps are worn by centuries of use. 台阶经过多个世纪的踩踏，已经磨损得很厉害了。/ Please read carefully the instructions for use. 请细心阅读使用说明。/ I keep it for use in emergencies. 我把它保存下来以备应急之需。/ The elevator is in constant use. 电梯在经常使用。/ The auxiliary motors come into use when needed. 备用发动机需要时就使用。/ The fabric stretches/stretches out with use. 布料使用起来会拉长。/ For customer use only. 仅供顾客使用。/ The film is for use in teaching. 片子是供教学用的。/ This medicine is for internal use only. 这种药仅供内服。/ Make good use of your computer. (= Put your computer to good use.) 好好利用你的电脑。 (2) use 作为一个普通的可数名词，表示某事物的一项具体的用途，这也是中国人容易接受的（该事物不作主语时用 for 引入）。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The machine has many uses. 该机器用处很多。/ She has her uses. 她有她的用处。/ I might find a use for them. 我可能用得着他们。/ We found a use for the old fridge. 我们为旧冰箱找到了用途。/ It was built as a sanatorium for which apparently no use has arisen. 它原先盖起来，是要做疗养院的，但是现在看来用不上了。/ No practical use for magnets was found until the invention of the magnetic motor. 直到发明了磁电发动机，磁铁才找到了实际用途。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 作为抽象的不可数名词，use 可以表示“有用性”。但是，在搭配上，情况比较复杂：(a) 说某物对某人“有用”（肯定句），要用 be of use to somebody (of 有时可省略)，use 前可以加上表示程度的定语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It may be of some use to us in the future. 将来也许对我们有点用。/ This book will be of enormous use to you. 这本书对你将会十分有用。也可以采用肯定句的形式，加上负面的定语，表示实际上的否定。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is of little practical use. 它没有多大实际用途。</div><br><br>useful 则不光是“有用”，而且带有夸奖的意思。一般的“有用”，尤其是一时场合的“有用”，不要说 useful，要说 of use。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It turned out that only flashlights might be of use. 原来只有手电用得上。</div>(b) 用于否定句中，use 前面不要 of；no use 相当于形容词 useless。如果“无用”的是件事物，可以用这事物作主语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>These computers are no use at all unless they have Internet access. 这些电脑，除非能上互联网，否则毫无用处。</div><br><br>如果“无用”的是某行动，则通常要把这个行动用动名词（不用动词不定式）来表示，而且不能放在句首作主语，而要用形式主语 it 放句首，动名词放 no use 后面。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's no use complaining. 埋怨是没用的。/ It is no use saying, "We are doing our best." (Winston Churchill) 说什么“我们正在尽力而为”是没用的。也可以不用形式主语 it 而用真主语（仍然用系动词 be）。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>What use are precautions? (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 小心提防又有什么用？如果这个行动有逻辑主语要表达出来，这个主语可以直接放在动名词前面。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's no use you arguing with me. 你同我争吵没有用。</div><br><br>如果 use 有定语，否定时就不用 no，而改用 not 去否定动词 be，但 use 后仍然不用介词 of。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>These scissors aren't much use. 这把剪刀没多大用处。/ He felt he wasn't much use to anybody. 他感觉到自己对谁都没多大用。</div><br><br>也可以不用系动词 be 而改用 there is，此时 no use 又恢复名词词性，但是后面的动名词前面可以加介词 in（也可以不加）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There is no use (in) making such a thing. 做这样一件东西没什么用。</div>(c) 一般疑问句（是非句）通常采取 Is it any use + -ing? 的形式。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Is it any use calling her? 给她打电话管用吗？特殊疑问句通常采用 What's the use of/in + -ing? 的形式。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I've smoked so long, what's the use of quitting now? 我吸烟已经这么久了，现在戒烟又有什么用？如果谈的是什么事情已经清楚，后面的 in/of + -ing 可以省略。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>What's the use? He'll only say no. 又有什么用？他只会说不行。 (d) 值得特别注意的是：be of use to somebody 是“对某人有用”，但如果 be 改为 have，to 改为 for，成为 have use/a use for something/somebody 则是反过来，意思是“有用得着某物或某人之处”，即“需要（某物或某人）”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Your country has use for you! 你的国家需要你！/ The classroom key may be retained by the faculty member as long as he is employed and has use for the room. 只要教师在受雇期间需要使用教室，他就可以自行保管教室的钥匙。否定时表示“不需要”甚至“讨厌”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I have no use for a yes-man. 我讨厌唯唯诺诺的人。/ This department has no use for slackers. 这个部门不需要吊儿郎当的人。</div><br><br>但是 have one's uses 却是“（对他人）有用”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He had his uses though he was not a qualified employee. 尽管他不是一个合格的员工，他还是有些用的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 表示“使用（某物）的能力”或“使用（某物）的权利”，采用 the use of 的形式。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She lost the use of her legs. 她的双腿残废了。/ We gave them the use of our car. 我们让他们使用我们的车子。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 表示“运用的方式”，通常采取 somebody's use of something 的形式。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Haydn's use of the oboe in his symphonies 海顿在他的各个交响乐中对双簧管的运用手法。</div><br><br>
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utmost
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>utmost</b></div>由于这是一个含义为“至大至高的”的形容词（虽然它没有原级和比较级），所以它前面不可以放不定冠词，而是必须有特定冠词 the。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>with the utmost care 极为小心谨慎</div><div class="ex-item">of the utmost importance 至关重要</div><div class="ex-item">with the utmost haste 极其匆忙</div><div class="ex-item">to the utmost ends of the earth 直到天涯海角。</div><br><br>
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valuable 与 invaluable
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>valuable 与 invaluable</b></div>参见 flammable 与 inflammable 条。<br><br>
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variation 与 change
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>variation 与 change</b></div>variation 偏重于不同事物之间共时的差异，而不是像 change 那样偏重同一事物不同时间的变化。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The variations among individuals depend in part upon genetic determinants over which we have no control. 个人之间的差异，部分取决于遗传因子，对此我们是控制不了的。音乐上有主题(theme)和变奏(variation)，即大体上保持原有旋律的多种变换，此时按照某一主题发挥出来的变奏，称为 variation on the theme。这个意义引申到其他方面，凡是基本不变但是细节有变化的，都可以称为 variation on the theme。</div><br><br>动词 vary（可以及物，表示“使差异”；也可以不及物，表示“自己发生差异”）和它的过去分词派生的形容词 varied，也是偏重共时的差异。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>vary the menu 使菜谱多样化</div><div class="ex-item">vary from person to person 因人而异</div><div class="ex-item">Reports vary on the extent of the damage. 关于损失有多大，各个报告说法不一。/ The products vary in price. 产品价格高低不一。/ The kinds of flowers he grows are extremely varied. 他种的花卉，种类极为繁多。/ The people in our firm are from varied backgrounds. 本公司的员工，背景各不相同。/ They stopped to admire the varied scenery. 他们停下来欣赏那丰富多彩的景色。“因……不同而不同”是 vary by + 单数名词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Styles and prices may vary by store. 款式与售价各门店可能有所不同。（注意 store 用单数，无 the）</div>与共时(synchronically)或历时(diachronically)的差异相联系，change 和 vary 的区别还可以从另一个角度来理解，就是 change 是随着时间的推移而一路变下去，是单方向的，不回头的；而 vary 则没有时间先后的问题，可以随着人的注意焦点变来变去，可以反复回头，没有单独固定的方向。例如一位极为准时的家庭女教师，每个星期天几乎分秒不差地敲门提醒交谈中的父子，上教堂做礼拜的时间到了。此时：Sir Graham doubted if the timing of her knock each Sunday had varied by more than a few seconds since the day she had arrived. (Jeffrey Archer, The Fourth Estate)（格雷姆爵士甚至觉得，自从她来了之后，星期天敲门的时间，每次的差别恐怕不会超过几秒钟。）这里尽管有时间“先后”的问题，但是对“差别”的看待，不是从时间先后变化来看，而是把先后多次的敲门摆在同一个平面上来，不分先后“一视同仁”地审视对比的。如果把 varied 改为 changed，就成了把后来敲门的时间看作变化的结果，固定先后了。<br><br>但是共时差异与先后变化两者区别的界限有时候很模糊。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Y varies directly/inversely with x. y 同 x 成正比/反比。（这里 y 和 x 的变化，就很难说是同一时间点的不同情况还是先后发生的变化）/ One's physical condition varies with the climate. 人的身体状况随气候而不同。（这句也很难说究竟是共时的还是先后的）因此，vary 与 varied 也可以指一些先后的变化。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has led a varied life. 他一辈子经历了许多沧桑。/ The teacher varies his teaching materials every year. 老师用的教材每年不同。但是用了 vary，就谈不上有什么变化后固定下来的结果。</div><br><br>
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variety
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>variety</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为可数名词，可以指多个相异个体组成的整体。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The fabric comes in a variety of shades. 衣料有多种色彩。/ He helped me in a variety of ways. 他从好处方面帮助了我。/ He resigned for a variety of reasons. 他由于若干原因辞了职。</div><br><br>也可以指其中单独的一个个体。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a variety of apple 苹果的一种</div><div class="ex-item">Pears come in a great many varieties. 梨有许多品种。/ My cooking is of the "quick and simple" variety. 我的烹饪手法属于“快捷简便”一类。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作为不可数名词，意思是“多样性”，但也可以稍微转义为“独特性”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Visiting clients gives the work some variety. 登门拜访顾客，使得工作有独特性。/ We all need variety in our diet. 我们大家的饮食都需要多种多样。/ Variety is the spice of life. 多样性是生活的调味品。</div><br><br>
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verdict
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>verdict</b></div>a defense verdict 是宣布被告胜诉的判决。a plaintiff's verdict 是宣布原告胜诉的判决。a large verdict 是责成被告向原告赔偿巨额款项的判决。<br><br>
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verge
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>verge</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为名词，on the verge of 是“处于……边缘”，<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My uncle was on the verge of economic ruin. 我的伯父当时处于经济崩溃的边缘。/ We were on the verge of starting without him when he arrived. 我们正想不等他就动手的时候，他来了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 作为不及物动词，verge on 后面可以跟：(a)不带冠词的抽象名词；(b)带不定冠词的普通名词；(c)带定冠词 the 的形容词。意思都是“几乎是，近乎”，同 border on 差不多，意义多半是负面的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Her queer actions verge on madness. 她举止古怪，像是发了疯。/ Their statements often verge on nonsense. 他们的言论，往往同胡言乱语差不了多少。/ His remarks verged on a thinly veiled accusation. 他的一番话，几乎是只蒙上一层薄薄面纱的指责。/ The way the police treat us verges on the criminal. 警察那样对待我们，简直是犯罪。/ The situation verged on the catastrophic. 局势接近于一场灾难。/ The food verged on the inedible. 食品几乎到了不能食用的地步。/ Much of the US media's reaction to France and Germany's intransigence on the Iraqi war issue has verged on the xenophobic. (Europe Now, Feb. 27, 2003) 对于法德两国在伊拉克战争问题上的不通融态度，美国媒体的反应，很大一部分可以说是民族排外狂式的。但是偶尔也有不带负面意义的。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The scientific chatter, in a dim corner of the restaurant, often verged on the philosophical. 在饭馆一个僻静的角落进行的学术交谈，往往几乎是具有哲学性的。参见 border on 条。</div><br><br>
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version
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>version</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 本来，version 最原始的意义是出版物不同年代、不同出版者、不同出版地点、不同语种的“版本”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the English version of Capital《资本论》的英文版。再扩大一些，是同一文艺作品的不同表现形式。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a stage version of the movie 影片的舞台版本</div><div class="ex-item">the uncut version of Lust, Caution 影片《色·戒》的无删节版本。也可以是某一方面对某一事实的（不一定客观的）描述。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the official version of the conflict 有关冲突的官方说法</div><div class="ex-item">Yesterday afternoon the White House put out a new version of events. 昨天下午白宫对事件提出了一种新的说法。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> version 含义进一步扩大，就可以指某一有形或无形事物的一个类别形式（有隶属关系）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>an eco-friendly version of the SUV 运动型多功能汽车的一种环保车型 (version 用于汽车型号十分普遍，如 automatic version 指的就是“自动换挡汽车”。)</div><div class="ex-item">The robot comes in three versions, 500 kg, 400 kg, and 150 kg handling capacities. 机器人有三种型号，处理能力各为 500 千克、400 千克和 150 千克。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 甚至可以指某一无形事物在另一场合的特殊（甚至是面目全非的）表现形式（没有隶属关系）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a limited version of an anti-terror naval mission in the Indian Ocean (The Associated Press, Nov. 12, 2007) 在印度洋上进行的一场范围有限的反恐海军出击</div><div class="ex-item">The Caracol Festival is Makati City's version of a mardi gras with a theme centered around protection of nature and wildlife. 蜗牛节是（菲律宾）马卡迪市的四旬斋节，主题围绕着保护自然和野生动植物。/ The instability in the bond market is a concern as it could lead to the Korean version of the U.S. subprime mortgage crisis. 证券市场不稳定，令人担忧，因为这可能使得韩国次级房贷危机在韩国重演。/ Indonesia is a smaller version of India. It is a young nation that has rich resources and high consumption. 印度尼西亚是个小型的印度。它是个年轻而资源丰富，消费水平又高的国家。/ A 52-million-year-old bat might be the mammalian version of "which came first?". 一种生存于 5,200 万年前的蝙蝠，可能在哺乳动物领域引发了类似“先有蛋还是先有鸡”的问题。</div><br><br>也可以指某一有形事物的另一类似物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Tuileries Gardens, Paris's own version of New York's Central Park 杜伊勒里公园，亦即纽约中央公园的巴黎版。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 也可以指某个抽象概念的特殊形态。例如雅虎网站有一个交友征婚服务栏目，宣传语是 Find your version of happiness on Yahoo! Personals.（请到雅虎“交友”来找到您所要的幸福。）这里用 version，是表示每个人所寻求的幸福各有不同，交友的条件也因人而异。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She sometimes wondered why God had permitted such a bestial version of Duty to spoil such an innocent longing. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 有时候她感到迷惑不解，本来是为人之道的义务，为什么上帝竟然允许它采取这种兽性的形式，把好端端的一个纯真的向往糟蹋掉。</div><br><br>用 one 来代替前一个出现过的名词，偏向于限于比较具体的事物；如果比较抽象，可以用 version 而不用 one。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... one who values "soft power" more than the hard version ... (The Economist, Jan. 17, 2009, p. 11) ……一个重视“软实力”甚于重视“硬实力”的人……</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> version 甚至可以指人（当然没有隶属关系，指的是另外一个有可比之处的人）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Talking to Elizabeth was like talking to an attractive version of oneself. (Pelham Grenville Wodehouse, Uneasy Money) 同伊丽莎白交谈，就像同一个变得有吸引力的自我交谈一样。/ Perhaps it would have been possible to see in him a new Prometheus. There was here, maybe, the opportunity for a modern version of the hero who for the good of mankind exposes himself to the agonies of the damned. (Somerset Maugham, The Moon and Sixpence)（我如果这样来描写他，）说不定人们就有可能把他看作普罗米修斯再世。也许就有机会为那位为了人类的幸福而甘愿落难受苦的英雄再塑造出一个当代化身。/ Several of the current Republican contenders for president traded in wives for younger versions, but they kept the process fairly discreet. (Froma Harrop, in The Daily Gazette, Jan. 21, 2008) 当前角逐当总统的共和党人，有好几个都换过妻子，换成更年轻的，但是他们对这种事讳莫如深。</div><br><br>
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very
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>very</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> very 通常是个副词，对形容词（或另一副词）起加强作用。但是它也可以是个形容词，放在 the 和名词之间，表示“正是那个/那些”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He is the very man for such a position. 这样一个职位，他是最合适的人选。/ The very thought of it is distressing. 一想到这个，就令人心烦意乱。/ Her character is the very opposite of mine. 她的性格同我恰恰相反。/ I found the phrase at the very end of the book. 我在书的最末处找到了这句话。/ Our efforts to eradicate terrorism will go for nothing if we keep uncritical company for tactical ends with rulers who practice at home the very crimes we claim to abhor. (The New York Review of Books, Nov. 15, 2001) 如果我们为了策略上的目的，毫无原则地同一些在国内犯了我们所声称厌恶的罪行的统治者为伍，那么，我们要根除恐怖主义的努力，就会徒劳无功。</div><br><br>也可以与形容词最高级或绝对意义的形容词同用，加强最高级或绝对的语气。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>in the very best situation 在最好的情况下</div><div class="ex-item">drink to the very last drop 喝到最后一滴</div><div class="ex-item">on the very same day 就在那同一天。</div><br><br>有一些形容词，本身的词义就有绝对性，不习惯用 very 来加强，例如 absurd、awful、brilliant、essential、excellent、furious、huge、massive、enormous、perfect、splendid、terrible、wonderful 等。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 有一些由动词过去分词转来的表示心态的形容词，曾经有人认为不宜用 very 来加强语气，例如 amused、disappointed、excited、frightened、interested、pleased、puzzled、worried 等。但是其实 very 常常出现在这些单词前面。无论如何，在这类形容词前面，用 very much 代替 very，比较稳妥。这里还需要看看这个过去分词是否已经形容词化：如果已经形容词化，就可以用 very；如果还是保持动词的被动意义，就最好用 much 或 very much。例如 My boss was very interested in the new plan. 中，用了介词 in，表明 interested 已经形容词化，所以可以用 very；而在 My boss was much interested by the new plan. 中，介词 by 表明 interested 仍然是动词的被动形式，所以不宜用 very 而用 much。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> very + adj. 不能放在名词后面，例如不能说 *A man very timid is unfit for this task. 要改为 A very timid man is unfit for this task.（非常胆小的人不适合这项任务。）但是，always + adj. 则可以放在名词后面。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A man always timid is unfit for this task. 向来胆小的人不适合这次任务。</div><br><br>
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victim
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>victim</b></div>fall victim to (成为……的受害者)中的 victim，不论主语是单数还是复数，都保持单数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Having given up the protection of the British Empire's powerful fleet, American ships were falling victim to pirates from modern-day Morocco, Algeria and Libya. (Newsweek, Apr. 28, 2008, p. 26)美国的船只放弃了大英帝国强大舰队的保护，就陆续受到来自今天的摩洛哥、阿尔及利亚与利比亚的海盗的袭击。类似这样的语法现象，还出现在 hostage、prey 等名词上。</div><br><br>
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view of
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>view of</b></div>表示“对……的看法”，view 后面不一定用 on 或 about、concerning 之类的介词，用 of 即可。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>his view of the war (Newsweek, Oct. 15, 2007, p. 37)他对这场战争的看法。</div><br><br>
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view 与 vision
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>view 与 vision</b></div>两者的词义有时重合，但是 view 偏重客观外界的“景象”，vision 则偏重人自己的视力和视野。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>an apartment with an ocean view 有海景的公寓房</div><div class="ex-item">a view over the lake 湖景</div><div class="ex-item">stand up to get a better view 站起来可以看得更清楚些</div><div class="ex-item">The windows of her flat looked out on to a superb view of London. 从她公寓的窗户往外看，伦敦的美景尽收眼底。/ He had poor/normal vision. 他的视力不好/正常。/ My vision is 20-20. (= I have twenty-twenty vision.) 我的视力是 20-20。/ The curtain of reality normally blocks our vision. 现实的帷幕通常会挡住我们的视线。sight 也可以代替 vision 表示“视力”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Her sight/vision was miraculously restored. 她的视力奇迹般地恢复了。这种词义重合情况，类似的还有 glimpse 与 glance。</div><br><br>
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vindicate
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>vindicate</b></div>如果直接宾语是人，意思是“证实其清白”；如果直接宾语是事物，意思是“证实其正确”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Wilkes has protested his innocence, and indeed, his friends say he appears cheerful and confident he will be vindicated. (Newsweek, June 5, 2006, p. 32)韦尔克斯曾声称自己无罪，他的朋友们也说，他看起来很愉快，深信自己能洗刷清白。/ Their methods are vindicated by the results. 他们的方法，已经由结果证明了是正确的。/ This vindicates my faith in him. 这证明了我信任他是对的。要注意的是，无论对人还是对事，用 vindicate 都暗示先前有人对该人或该事提出过怀疑或指责，有过波折。如果是一帆风顺的，就不宜说 vindicate。</div><br><br>
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vintage
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>vintage</b></div>原意是“葡萄的收获”，但是也可以作为形容词表示“硕果累累的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a vintage Cannes Festival 一次硕果累累的戛纳电影节。</div><br><br>注意 vintage 与 vantage (“优势”)不要混淆。<br><br>
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virtual
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>virtual</b></div>本来的意义是“实际上的，事实上的”(可能同表面现象不同)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Traffic is at a virtual standstill. 交通实际上停滞了。/ He has become a virtual dictator. 他成了事实上的独裁者。但是自从电脑和互联网流行以来，网上出现了一个新的天地，这个天地就像真实的世界那样，所以就称为“像真的”(virtual)世界。但是其实这是一个虚拟的世界，所以后来 virtual 的意义走向了它的反面，成了“虚拟的”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This played a critical role in enabling the SpaceX team to design and test products virtually before constructing them physically—optimizing the chances of a successful launch. (Time, May 27, 2013, p. 13, ad)它起了关键作用，使得 SpaceX 小组能够先用虚拟方式设计与测试产品，然后才实际制造，这就大大增加了成功的可能性。</div><br><br>virtual 在英语中的意义是“共时”的(“同一时间内事实同表面现象不同”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The king was so much under the influence of his wife that she was the virtual ruler of the country. 国王处处受到妻子的左右，他妻子实际上是这个国家的统治者。</div><br><br>
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virtue
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>virtue</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为不可数名词，virtue 不加任何冠词，笼统地表示“崇高的道德”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a man of virtue 一个有道德的人</div><div class="ex-item">Virtue is its own reward. 有德者不望报。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 但是作为可数名词，意思是具体的某一种德行。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Kindness is a virtue. 与人为善是一种德行。 (3) 转用到非人的事物上，virtue 可以代表该事物笼统的“好处”和“功效”(不可数)或者一个具体的优点(可数)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There is no virtue in what he says. 他所说的没有什么可取之处。/ a medicine of dubious virtue 功效不怎么样的药物</div><div class="ex-item">The virtue of this drug is temporary. 这种药物的功效是暂时的。/ The main virtue of steel is its strength. 钢的主要优点就是结实。/ Mr. Long's speeches have the virtue of being brief. 朗格先生的演讲，优点就是简短。/ The virtue of this sewing machine is that it needs so little repair. 这种缝纫机的优点，就是它不大需要修理。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> make a virtue of necessity 是个成语(原意是把 necessity 变为 virtue)，意思是“本来做某事是迫不得已，但将计就计，顺水推舟，把坏事变好事”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Once the mayor was forced by the voters to cut his budget, he made a virtue of necessity and loudly denounced government spending. 本来市长是被选民们逼着削减预算的，但他将计就计，大声疾呼抨击政府开支过多。/ It's a long way to drive so I thought I'd make a virtue of necessity and stop off at some interesting places along the way. 有一大段路要开车，于是我就想，我可以顺水推舟，沿路开到某些有意思的地方就停一下。</div><br><br>
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vision 与 view
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>vision 与 view</b></div>参见 view 与 vision 条。<br><br>
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voter
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>voter</b></div>作为选民，voter 着重他即将投票选举，或有选举权。constituent 也表示他有选举权，但着重他是某选区(constituency)的居民，有地区性，而且没有选举时也是 constituent，就不是 voter。说全国一共有多少“选民”，此时不着重选区的划分，不好说多少 constituents。竞选时吸引“选民”，如果说的是某一特定选区的，说 constituents，如果笼统不分区的，就最好说 voters。<br><br>
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wage
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>wage</b></div>wages 虽然是复数形式，但可以作为单数名词，意义是负面的“代价，报应”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The wages of sin is death. (The Bible)罪孽的代价是死。/ ... a widespread theory of the time maintained that the wages of self-abuse was impotence. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman)……当时普遍流传一种理论，认为手淫会导致阳痿。</div><br><br>
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wage 与 salary
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>wage 与 salary</b></div>两者在中国都叫作“工资”。但 wage 主要是对体力劳动的报酬；salary 则主要是对脑力劳动的报酬。参见 salary, wage 与 pay 条。<br><br>
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wait
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>wait</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 不及物动词 wait 可以单独使用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We have been waiting and waiting and waiting and nobody has come to talk to us. 我们已经等了又等，等了又等，谁也没有来同我们谈。/ We'll just have to wait and see. 我们将只能采取观望态度。/ Sorry to have kept you waiting. 对不起，让您久等了。/ Keys cut while you wait. 配钥匙立等可取。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> wait 后面还可以加上一个动词不定式，表示“等着做某事”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She had been waiting in the queue to buy some stamps. 她一直在排队买邮票。/ I've been waiting to see you, you know. 你知道，我一直在等着见你。</div><br><br>字面上的意义，当然是“等待做某事”，但是，这个“某事”通常不是自己有意去做的，而是客观遇到的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Illegal immigrants wait to be deported at a detention camp in Tripoli. (Getty Images)非法移民在的黎波里的扣留营等待被驱逐出境。如果是自己有意主动去做的事，通常是在肯定句中，而且常常用进行时 be waiting to inf.，如 She had been waiting in the queue to buy some stamps. 否则，光秃秃的 wait to inf.，常常是带有否定意义的“不急于做某事，不愿意赶快做某事，拖着推迟，迟迟未做”(这样一个词义，许多词典中都没有收进)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Wait to conceive after Zika infection. 感染了寨卡后不要马上受孕。/ Travellers in Zika areas should wait to donate blood. 寨卡发病地区的旅行者不要马上献血。/ When we wait to be great, we miss the moment; it's gone and it's too late. 我们如果不急于此刻就奋发自强，我们就会失去时机，时不再来，为时已晚。/ Human bones found in Warren wait to be identified. What are we/you waiting for? 沃伦那里发现的人骨，尚未辨明身份。我们还要等到什么时候?</div><div class="ex-item">Don't wait to buy a PC. 快点买一部个人电脑吧。/ Don't wait to get ready for hurricane threat. 快点防备龙卷风的威胁。/ It is dangerous to wait to be examined if you're experiencing centralized pain and feeling an abnormal lump in the breast. 你如果感到乳房有集中的痛感，而且摸到有不正常的肿块，那么，拖着不去检查，就是危险的。</div><br><br>cannot wait to inf. 是“急于要做某事，不能等(但尚未真正做)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Hecouldn't wait to tell Judy. 他迫不及待待要告诉朱迪。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> wait for somebody 是“等候某人”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm waiting for a friend. 我在等一个朋友。</div><br><br>但是，wait for somebody to inf. 则是“等待某人去做某事(不是自己做，而是某人做)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Don't wait for her to meet someone else. 别等到她遇上别人了。(你看上了她，就早下决心，别错过时机。meet 的主语是 she。)/ Most people in the Pacific Northwest can hardly wait for the gray winter rains to give way to spring sunshine. (The Associated Press, Mar. 29, 2007)西北部太平洋岸地区的人，大多都迫不及待等待冬天灰暗的阴雨天让位给春天的阳光明媚。(这里如果后面没有 to give way to spring sunshine 这部分，wait for 就会成了“等待冬天阴雨来临”，而不是“等待冬天阴雨消失”。)</div><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> wait to see 不是“等待时机去看”，而是“边等边看”。当 wait 的形态保持动词原形时，就将 wait to see 改为 wait and see。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Let's wait and see what will happen. 咱们观望一下，看看会发生什么事。但是如果 wait 的动词形态有变化，就仍然要说 wait to see。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We waited to see what would happen. 我们观望一下，看看会发生什么事情。参见 try 条、go 条、come 条等。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> wait 后面与之搭配的介词，除了 for 之外，还有 on，意义同 for 相似，但有微妙的差别。on 后面的直接宾语如果是人，wait on 是饭馆中为用餐的客人提供“服务”。直接宾语如果是事物，wait on 也是“等候”的意思，但是同 wait for 不同的是，这个“等待”，暗示了“等到了之后下一步采取措施”或“等到了再说”的意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm waiting on a call from New York. 我在等着纽约来的电话。(接过电话之后再做决定夺)</div><div class="ex-item">She is waiting on the result of a blood test. 她在等着验血结果。(看验血结果如何再决定下一步)如果直接宾语后面还有动词不定式，则这个动词不定式的逻辑主语就是 wait on 的直接宾语，意思仍然是“等待某人或某事物如何如何之后再走下一步”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He is waiting on his boss to retire. 他在等待着他的上司退休。(或是取而代之，或是向新任上司重申被原上司否定了的方案)</div><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> wait 通常是个不及物动词，但在 wait something/somebody out 词组中可以作为及物动词，意思是“先按兵不动，等到某件不利的事或某个有碍的人消失了再动手”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm afraid there's a bad storm. It would be better if we waited it out. 恐怕有一场很厉害的暴风雨。咱们最好等它过去了再说。/ As was the case under Hoover, many businesses decided to wait Roosevelt out and hold onto their cash for future investment. (Wes Vernon, "'Fixing' the Economy", in RenewAmerica, Oct. 27, 2008)同上一次胡佛执政时一样，许多企业决定等着罗斯福下台，先暂时把自己的现款保存着，以备日后投资。</div><br><br>
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wait 与 await
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>wait 与 await</b></div>两者都是表示延续行动的第二类动词，其区别是：await 是个及物动词，wait 是个不及物动词，而且用法和含义都有细微的差别。<br><br>await 必须有直接宾语，而且作一般的“人等人”(即主语和宾语都是人)解时不惯用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We're awaiting more news. 我们在等待更多的消息。/ Please await furtherinstructions. 请等候进一步的指示。/ This is a day we have long awaited. 这是我们盼望已久的一天。/ The result still awaits confirmation. 结果尚有待确认。但也有主语宾语都是人的。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Two gentlemen were awaiting us in the station ... (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes)有两位先生在车站等候着我们……</div><br><br>主语可以是一件涉及及人的遭遇或使命。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Who knows what fate awaits us. 哪知道有什么命运在等待着我们。/ A warm welcome awaited them. 热烈的欢迎等待着他们。/ One of the biggest tasks awaiting Abe is restoring relations with Japan's neighbors. 等待着安倍的最重大的任务之一，是恢复日本同各邻国的关系。</div><br><br>如果是“人等事物”，说 wait for 或 await 都可以，但是含义有细微的差别。wait for 含有“等待时间很短，即将到来”的意思，而 await 则含有“耐心等待”的意思。如 He waited/was waiting for the committee's decision. (他等候着委员会的决定。)意思是委员会正在审议，很快就会把决定告诉他。如果说 He awaited the committee's decision. 那就是他“有待于”委员会如何决定，说不定问题根本还没有提上日程。<br><br>下级向上级说 I await your answer. 意思可以是“请您好好考虑再给我批复(但不要因为时间久了就忘掉了)”。但如果说 I'm waiting for your answer. 那就是“就等着您批复”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>When the third round of chemo was finished, in September 2001, Michael returned home to await the results. (Reader's Digest, Jan. 2008, p. 83)2010 年 9 月第三轮化疗做完后，迈克尔就回家等候结果。(这里用 await 而不用 wait for，表示不是急着等候)</div>
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wake
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>wake</b></div>作为名词，wake 指船只在水面上驶过带出的尾波或航迹，但是意义也可以扩大为某人走过留下的一段路或某一事件留下的余波。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>As the President made his way toward his office, he sensed whispering in his wake. (Dan Brown, Deception Point)总统向自己办公室走去的时候，感觉到自己后面有窃窃私语的声音。/ in the wake of the revolution 经过革命之后</div><div class="ex-item">The hurricane let a trail of destruction in its wake. 飓风所过之处，留下了种种破坏。</div><br><br>
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wake, wake up, waken, awake 与 awaken
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>wake, wake up, waken, awake 与 awaken</b></div>这几个单词和词组，意义和用法大同小异。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> wake 除了上条作为名词之外，作“睡醒”解时只能是动词(不可以作为形容词)。无论后面加不加上副词 up，都是同义，都是瞬时体的第四类动词，都可以是及物或不及物动词。作为不及物动词是“自己一觉醒来”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She had just woken from a deep sleep. 她刚刚熟睡醒过来。作为及物动词是“叫醒”或“吵醒”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Wake me up at six o'clock. 请 6 点钟喊醒我。/ The children woke me up. 孩子们把我吵醒了。</div><br><br>醒过来时看到的周围景象用 to 引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They woke to a clear blue sky. 他们一觉醒来，天空晴朗，一片蔚蓝色。也可以转义为“从不注意到注意”，注意的对象也用 to 引入。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They need to be woken up to this threat. 需要提醒他们看到这个威胁。 (2) 瞬时动作的动词，本来不可以加上 -ing 词尾来表示延续状态，但是 waking 却是个例外，它作为动词现在分词并且转变为形容词，可以表示“处于清醒状态的”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Waking or sleeping, it's always on my mind. 无论是睡着还是醒着，这件事情一直压在我心头。(注意本来是瞬时动词的 wake，同本来是延续动词的 sleep 一起加 -ing 并列。)但是 waking 不可以用作表语代替 awake，例如不能说 *He was waking. 而且多用来修饰人以外的附属事物而不修饰人。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>his waking hours 他醒着没睡的时间</div><div class="ex-item">a waking nightmare 白天的噩梦。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> awake 作为动词意义与 wake 相同，也是瞬时体的第四类动词，也可以是及物或不及物动词，但后面不能加 up，而且主要用于书面，而且用过去时态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She awoke to a day of brilliant sunshine. 她一觉醒来，一片艳阳天。也可以用被动语态。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I was awoken by the sound of footsteps. 我被脚步声吵醒了。awake 也可以是形容词(但不能放在名词前作定语)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Is the baby awake yet? 婴儿醒过来了没有?</div><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> waken 和 awaken 只用于十分正式的场合。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I was wakened by a knock at the door. 我被一下敲门声吵醒了。尤其是 awaken 主要用于文学作品。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The Prince awakened the Sleeping Beauty with a kiss. 王子吻了一下睡美人，把她唤醒了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> awaken 的动名词 awakening 已经是十足的名词，意思是“觉醒，觉悟”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>political awakening 政治觉悟</div><div class="ex-item">class awakening 阶级觉悟。</div><br><br>
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wall
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>wall</b></div>中国人的心目中，“墙壁”只是房子的，大不到哪里去。但是在英语中，“城墙”也叫 wall。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the Great Wall 万里长城。</div><br><br>
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want
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>want</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> want 除了一般都知道的“想要什么”和“想做某事”的意义之外，还可以有“(非自己本意的)需要某物或需要做什么”的意思(甚至主语可以不是人)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You'll want your umbrella. 你会需要雨伞的。/ You want a number 65 bus. 你要乘 65 路公共汽车。/ He will want to see a doctor. 他将需要看医生。/ The garage wants a coat of paint. 车库需要粉刷一层。/ The boy wants a good thrashing. 这个男孩子欠一顿打。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> want 的直接宾语后面可以有一个简单的副词或动词过去分词作宾语补足语，译成中文时这个宾语补足语往往要译成主动或被动的动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Do you want him back? 你想要他回来吗?</div><div class="ex-item">I didn't want you involved. 我不想把你也扯进去。/ We want the brand in user's presence 24/7. 我们想让该品牌随时都出现在用户面前。/ There are people we are still concerned about and people (= terrorists) we want arrested and questions we need answered. (The Washington Post, Aug. 12, 2006)还有一些我们不放心，有一些我们希望能够抓住，有一些问题我们需要答案。/ They want animal suffering kept to a minimum. 他们想把动物的痛苦减到最低限度。/ There are a few more oils the painter wants hung. 还有一些油画是画家想挂起来的。/ But what the voters want done about the economy? (Michael Barone, in U.S. News & World Report, Apr. 21, 2008, p. 51)但是选民们希望对经济采取什么办法呢?宾语补足语也可以是个介词词组，此时要特别注意不要把这个本来修饰名词成分(宾语)的介词词组误认为状语成分。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Russia said it wants the written deal in place before resuming shipments, ... (The Associated Press, Jan. 10, 2009)俄罗斯说，它需要这个书面协议先办妥，然后才能恢复供气，……</div><br><br>want 的直接宾语还可以充当“兼语”，即后面一个动词不定式的主语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>What do you want me to do? 你要我做些什么? 后面也可以用动词现在分词，此时就加强了后面动词的延续意义。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He wants you waiting for him in his office when he gets there. 他要你在他回到他办公室时就在等着他。(如果 waiting 改为 to wait，就减弱了“他回到他办公室之前你就应该提前到”的语气，而且 wait 这个延续时间段应该把 he gets there 这个瞬时时间点包含在内，用 to wait 不大自然。)</div>没有直接宾语，want 作为不及物动词，后面也可以加上副词 in 或 out，省略动词 come 或 go。这个用法，原先流行于美国的中西部，但现在已经扩大到全美。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I think the cat wants in. 我看猫要进来。/ This is the last time I'm asking you—do you want in or not? 我这是最后一次问你了——你到底参加不参加?</div><div class="ex-item">The dog wants out. 狗要出去。/ He wanted out of the jail cell so badly he started to scream. 他拼命想离开牢房，急得叫喊起来。/ Jennifer is fed up with her husband. She just wants out of the marriage. 詹尼弗对丈夫厌倦至极。她一心要把这个婚离掉。</div><br><br>
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wanted 与 wanting
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>wanted 与 wanting</b></div>作为动词 want 的过去分词，wanted 可以有好的意思(“需要，诚聘”)，例如美国许多商店的招聘店员告示，标题就是 Help wanted。报上登广告征聘卡车司机是 Truck driver wanted. 但是警察通缉逃犯的告示，也用 wanted 作为标题。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a "most wanted" list “要犯通缉”名单。(注意 wanted 不是 list 的修饰语)</div><div class="ex-item">wanted notice 通缉告示(wanted 也不是 notice 的修饰语)</div><div class="ex-item">He is wanted for murder. 他因为谋杀罪被通缉。/ He is one of the most wanted criminals in the United States. 他是美国最被大力通缉的罪犯之一。</div><br><br>wanting 则是一个形容词(但通常只能作表语)，意思是“有缺陷的，不完善的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>American leadership is wanting, but it is still wanted. (Hillary Clinton)美国的领导作用是有缺陷的，但仍然是需要的。</div><br><br>
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war
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>war</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 在语法上，同 language 差不多，表示笼统概念的“战争”(与“和平”相对)，war 只能是单数，前面不加任何冠词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Peace isn't just the absence of war. 单单没有战争，并不就算是和平了。</div><br><br>表示具体某一次或多次的战争，则视情况，可以单数也可以复数，可以加也可以不加定冠词或不定冠词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They fought in the war against Britain. 他们在那场战争中对英国作战。/ They had lost two wars. 他们已经打输了两场战争。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> “对……的战争”，war 后面通常用 against，后面的名词可以是国家、人或抽象事物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>war against the Axis 反轴心国战争</div><div class="ex-item">the U.S. war against Iraq 美国对伊拉克的战争</div><div class="ex-item">an undeclared war against American women 对美国妇女的不宣而战</div><div class="ex-item">war against terror 反恐之战</div><div class="ex-item">small victories in the war against ovarian cancer 抗击卵巢癌获得的一些小胜利。</div><br><br>如果后面是比较抽象的事物，则 against 也可以改用 on。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>war on terror 反恐之战</div><div class="ex-item">war on drugs 缉毒之战</div><div class="ex-item">war on poverty 对贫穷之战。但是 war on 后面有时候也可以是国家。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Stop the war on Iran before it starts! 趁对伊朗还未开战就先阻止战争!</div>如果后面是个短小的代词，则最好用 against 而不用 on。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Yes, cancer as we know it remains a fearsome foe, killing well over half a million Americans each year despite the well-funded, 40-year-old war against (*on) it. (U.S. News & World Report, Nov. 3-10, 2008, p. 46)是的，我们所认识的癌症，现在依然是一个可怕的敌人，尽管 40 年来花了大量的经费与它作战。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> war 指战争的整体，包括打仗、动员、后方等；warfare 则意义比较狭窄，指战争的具体方式。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>psychological warfare 心理战</div><div class="ex-item">guerilla warfare 游击战</div><div class="ex-item">positional warfare 阵地战</div><div class="ex-item">mobile warfare 运动战</div><div class="ex-item">chemical warfare 化学战</div><div class="ex-item">nuclear warfare 核大战。因此，warfare 绝不能同 peace 相对。与“兵法”相联系的“战争”，则只能用 warfare，不能用 war。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>"Know thine enemy" is the first rule of warfare (*war). “知己知彼”是战争的第一条规则。</div><br><br>2006 年 10 月 23 日美联社的一条电讯，标题是 "GOP losses could spark partisan warfare"。这里的 warfare 其实指的是“游击战”，partisan 用的是双关意义“游击的”和“党派的”。这里的意思是：一旦民主党在 2006 年 11 月国会中期选举中夺回多数席位，共和党就会失去一统天下的地位，两党就会转而进行分散的一个个法案的争夺，又是党派之争，又是游击战。总之，war 与 warfare (中文都是“战争”)的区别，正像 treatment 与 therapy (中文都是“治疗”)的区别。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 在美国历史上，Secretary of War 的职权范围前后发生过一些变化。这同 war 的含义范围有关。人类的战争，最初总是在陆地上进行的，后来才增添了水上和空中的战争。美国历史初期，Secretary of War 及其所主管的 Department of War，相当于现在的“国防部部长”(Secretary of Defense)和“国防部”(Department of Defense)，尽管名义上主管全面军事，实际上仍是以陆军为主。但是后来海军的重要性逐渐提高，到了 1796 年，内阁中增添了 Secretary of the Navy，于是 Secretary of War 的职权范围就缩小成了实际上的“陆军部部长”，但是名称仍然长期沿用(由于历史习惯，美国名不副实的现象很多，例如救济穷人的“食物券”food stamps，原先的确是一张张纸面的“券”，但是现在电子化了，根本没有什么“券”，但名称未改)。直到 1947 年，才正式设立了“国防部”(Department of Defense)和作为总统内阁成员的“国防部部长”(Secretary of Defense)，下辖“陆军部部长”(Secretary of the Army)、“海军部部长”(Secretary of the Navy)和“空军部部长”(Secretary of the Air Force)，但这三军“部长”都不是总统内阁成员。也就是说，Secretary of War 在美国经历了从“管全面军事”到“挂名 War，其实名实不符，只管陆军”，再到“索性改名为 Army，名实相符，只管陆军”的沿革。<br><br>
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warfare
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>warfare</b></div>同 war 的区别，参见 war 条之(3)。<br><br>
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warm
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>warm</b></div>通常指给人良好舒适感觉的“温暖的，暖和的”，甚至用来指抽象的、精神上的“热烈的”(例如“热烈欢迎”a warm welcome)。也可以指不是对抗意义上的“热烈的，有生气的”讨论。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>(The subject) has been very warmly discussed in recent decades, ... (Otto Jespersen, The Philosophy of Grammar)(这个题目)近几十年来经过非常热烈的讨论，……而 heated discussion 则是“激烈的辩论”。</div><br><br>但是有时候在特定的语境中，也可以指不舒适的“热的”，尤其是天气。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The coal stocks were diminishing faster than anticipated, probably due to unseasonably warm weather and heavy use of air-conditioners. 煤的存量比预计减少得快，原因大概是天气热得不合时令，空调大量使用。</div><br><br>但是，究竟是“过热的”还是“暖和的”，大多数场合可以从语境或上下文看出。同天气无关时，通常都是“暖和的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Get warm by the fire. 来烤烤火吧。/ Keep your room warm. 别让你房间冷了。尤其是 nice and warm/warm and nice/warm and cosy，就更加排除了“过热的”的可能。</div><br><br>Florida is much warmer than Michigan. 这一句，如果是冬天说的，warm 就是“暖和的”，但如果是夏天说的，warm 就是“炎热的”了。<br><br>如果是天气“过热的”，没有语境或上下文，用 warm 就可能有歧义，还是用 hot 更好。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's hot (*warm) today. 今天很热。</div><br><br>
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wary 与 weary
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>wary 与 weary</b></div>两者都是形容词，但是发音和词义都不相同。前者意思是“留神的，小心的，提防的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>keep a wary eye on somebody 密切提防某人</div><div class="ex-item">be wary of somebody 小心提防某人。后者意思是“疲倦的，厌倦的”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She was weary of his childishness. 她对他的幼稚举止感到厌烦。/ I had grown weary of her complaints. 她老是埋怨，我都听烦了。/ "People are war weary and wary," says Domke, a Boston-area Republican. (U.S. News & World Report, Dec. 24, 2007, p. 40)波士顿地区的共和党人多姆克说：“人们对战争又厌倦又担心。”</div><br><br>
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was
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>was</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 凡是遇到 was/were + 过去分词，一般都是表示被动的意思，这个形式既可以表示“(过去当时)发生了什么被动的变化”，也可以表示“(过去当时)处于什么状态”。我们只好多加小心，从上下文加以区别。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Please wait to be seated. 请等候安排座位。这一句的 be seated 可以肯定是瞬时的被动变化。但是，They were all seated at the table. 这一句，离开上下文，就有两种可能，一种是“他们全都被安排坐到了餐桌旁边”(被动变化)，另一种可能就是“他们全都在餐桌旁边坐着”(延续状态)。同样，The house was built on a hill. 可以是“房子是盖在小山上的”，也可以是“房子在小山上盖起来了”。The laptop was plugged into a socket in a corner. 可以是“手提电脑是连着墙角的一个插座的”(延续状态)，也可以是“手提电脑被连上了墙角的一个插座”(被动变化)。The bar was closed. 这一句，可以是“酒吧被关了门”，也可以是“酒吧关着门”(如果说 The bar was closed at 8:00 p.m. 就可以判断是被动变化。如果说 The bar was already closed. 则可以判断是延续状态)。在大多数情况下，是被动变化还是延续状态，还是可以凭整个语境判别的。</div><br><br>was + 过去分词表示经常性的延续状态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was blessed with an exceptional memory. 他具有非凡的记忆力。/ The rocky, windswept island was completely deserted. 那个大风劲吹的岩石小岛，完全一片荒芜。(状态，非被动变化)</div><div class="ex-item">The audience was prohibited from smoking. 不许观众吸烟。/ Poultry was hung from hooks in the shop. 店里有禽肉挂在钩子上。/ The small bar opposite where she stood was lighted by bulbs from three glass openings made to resemble portholes in the ceiling above. 她站着的地方对面的小酒吧，用头顶天板上三个仿舷窗的玻璃孔洞里面的灯泡照明。(状态，非被动变化)</div><div class="ex-item">Two coffeepots were filled and steaming. 两个咖啡壶，装得满满的，冒着蒸汽。(were filled 可能是被动变化，也可能是状态，但有 steaming 与之并列，可见是状态。)</div>was + 过去分词表示暂时性的延续状态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She was tempted to telephone him back. 她心里老是想给他回个电话。</div><br><br>有时候，可以从个别动词的过去分词看出 was + 过去分词究竟是过去发生的变化还是过去的延续状态。例如 The door was closed. 有两种可能，一是“门被关起来了”，一是“门是关着的”。但是 The door was opened. 则只能是“门被打开了”。要说“门是开着的”就要用形容词 open: The door was open. 但这只是由于个别动词的作用，不是一般规律。<br><br>如果有对动作加以修饰的状语成分，就可以判定是过去被动变化而不是过去状态，例如 The door was closed quietly. 只能是“门被轻轻地关起来了”(过去被动变化)。<br><br>有时候，表语的形式也能启示区别。例如 They were drunk. 是一次性的“喝醉了”，They were drunken. 是习惯性的“酗酒状态”。有时候，即使是瞬时动词的被动语气，也可以不表示“发生了什么新的被动变化”，而是用来提出一个判断(“是……的”)，在原有的已知信息范围内对之加以具体化(因而也是新知信息，但只是局部新知的信息，不能理解成或译成全部新知的信息)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A Sunday night house fire that killed a woman and injured four firefighters was intentionally set. 星期天晚上的一场使一名妇女丧生和四名消防队员受伤的火灾，是故意纵的火。(不译“被故意纵了”)</div><div class="ex-item">Soldier who died in Texas was dehydrated. (The Associated Press, Headline, June 13, 2007)在得克萨斯州丧生的士兵是死于脱水。(不译“已经脱了水”)</div>这样的局部新知信息，并不限于被动语态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They brought this on themselves. 他们遇到这样的麻烦是自找的。(不译“他们自找了这样的麻烦”)</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 正如前面 was + 过去分词的不同意义所示，动词 be 既可以表示延续的状态，也可以表示瞬时的变化。be 的这种双重作用，并不仅限于被动语气，还可以出现在 be + 形容词这种结构中。即使不是被动语气，be 也可以是瞬时的。例如两个人的约会，甲按时赴约到达，但是乙迟迟未到。如果乙最后还是来到了，事后说 He was late. 这个 was 就是第四类动词，表示一个“总结”(“他来晚了”)。如果不是事后总结归纳，而是事后描述甲当时苦苦等候的情况(不知乙怎么样了，来还是不来)，说 He was late. 意思就是“他迟迟不来”，此时 was 就是第一类动词(无限延续状态)。两者中译文是很不一样的。如何区别，要取决于上下文和语境。be 在英语中常常表示“开始进入某一状态”(第四类动词)，例如 Give me a shout when you're ready. 中的 are ready 就不是表示延续状态，而是表示从 not ready 到 ready 的变化。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 现在说过去如何，这个“说”的被动形式不用过去时态，要用现在时态，但是后面的动词不定式要用 to have + pp.。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Louis XIV is (*was) reported to have bathed twice in his long, athletic life, but was considered fastidious because he changed his shirt three times a day. (The New York Times, OP-ED, Nov. 27, 2007, A31)路易十四据说(是现在的考据)虽然长寿而且好运动，但一生只洗了两次澡，不过他因为一天要换三次衬衣，而在当时被人认为过于挑剔。</div><br><br>
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wash
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>wash</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 这个动词如果作为及物动词，它的直接宾语通常是“需要洗干净的东西”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She washed and ironed his clothes. 她给他洗烫衣服。</div><br><br>要注意，这是一个延续性的动作，本身不带完成意义。表示过程的完成，往往要把 wash 变为名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'll give the car a wash. 我要洗一下车子。或者可以在最末加上一个 clean。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>wash the shirt clean 把衬衣洗干净。</div><br><br>如果直接宾语是“污垢”，通常要说 wash off 或是加上其他副词，这就成为瞬时动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Let's try to wash the stain off. 咱们试试看把污点洗掉。/ She washed the shampoo out of her hair. 她把头发上的洗发水冲洗掉。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 如果作为不及物动词，wash 可以表示：(a) “自己洗脸洗手”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She prefers to wash in cold water. 她喜欢洗冷水。表示过程的完成，就用名词，说 have a wash。</div>(b) “洗杯盘”或“洗衣服”。表示过程的完成，就说 do the dishes 或 do the washing。(c) “(衣服)好洗不好洗”(延续状态)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This shirt washes well. 这件衬衣好洗。/ My jacket washes clean easily. 我的外衣容易洗干净。</div>(d) (加上副词，可以表示延续的性质，也可以表示事件的发生) “(污秽)能否洗掉”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The stain will wash out. 污点会洗掉的。</div><br><br>
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waste
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>waste</b></div>作为名词，单数是抽象意义的“浪费，白费”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a waste of time 白费时间</div><div class="ex-item">a waste of effort 白费力气</div><div class="ex-item">waste in the health care system 医保制度的浪费现象</div><div class="ex-item">Don't you think it's a waste of money? 你不觉得这是白白花钱吗?</div><div class="ex-item">The waste of food here is dreadful. 这里的食物浪费简直惊人。/ He let his talent to go to waste. 他让自己的才干白白浪费掉了。用单数也可以指某一特定单纯的“废料”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>nuclear waste 核废料</div><div class="ex-item">human waste 人类粪便。</div><br><br>但是如果是杂七杂八的“废物，垃圾”，则要用复数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>hazardous household wastes 有害的家居废料。此时虽然是复数，但却接近于不可数名词，前面可以用 many (偏向于废料的种类)，也可以用 much (偏向于多种废料的总量)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Many wastes do not burn or burn incompletely. 许多(种)废料不能燃烧，或者不能完全燃烧。/ But the pond can still be subject to pollution, if it receives too much wastes that deplete the limited dissolved oxygen. 但是，池塘如果容纳太多废料，消耗掉了数量有限的溶解氧，则仍然可能受到污染。</div><br><br>
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waste no time in + -ing
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>waste no time in + -ing</b></div>有一个很有趣的故事说明了 waste no time in + -ing 可能有的歧义。英国维多利亚女王的首相本杰明·迪斯雷利(Benjamin Disraeli, 1804—1881)很幽默，善于运用双关语，对于一些人给他送来的劣质作品，常常是这样答复的：Dear Sir: I thank you for sending me a copy of your book, which I shall waste no time in reading. 后半句既可以理解为“我将立即拜读”，也可以理解为“我将不浪费时间去阅读”。问题在于 waste no time 后面的 -ing 动词究竟是瞬时的还是延续的。如果是瞬时的，waste no time 说的是在实现该瞬时动作之前不浪费任何时间，也就是“立即去做某事”。如果后面动词是延续的，则 waste no time 说的是“不浪费任何时间在这个延续动作上”。而从 read 这个动词的延续体来看，前一种理解是不大能成立的，除非把它看作“阅读”过程的瞬时开始。同样，lose no time in + -ing 也可以有这样的歧义。<br><br>但如果没有 in + -ing，则只有“立刻(做某事)”一个意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was then my turn to help Mr McCormick. I could hear him shouting, encouraging me in no uncertain terms to waste no time. (John Darnton, The Darwin Conspiracy)于是轮到我要去救助麦克考尔克先生了。我听得到他在叫喊，明确无误地催促我立刻前往。</div><br><br>
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watchdog
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>watchdog</b></div>原意是“看门狗”，但是现在已经没有贬义，转义为“专门监督不良行为的团体或个人”，反而获得了褒义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), a UN nuclear watchdog 联合国核监督机构——国际原子能机构。</div>“看门狗”改用 guard dog 来表示。<br><br>
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watch 与 see
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>watch 与 see</b></div>参见 see 条之(2)。<br><br>
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wave
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>wave</b></div>谈到海面的风浪概况，无论是汹涌还是平静，都较少照中文字字对应那样用 wave 或 waves 加前置定语，而多用 seas 加前置定语(参见 seas 条)。这是因为 wave 主要着重每一个单独的水波，即使是复数 waves，也不构成强烈的“汪洋大海、波浪翻滚”的印象。因此，wave 的单数往往可以用来表示某个抽象状况发展达到的猛烈高峰。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a wave of revolutionary fervor 革命热忱的高峰</div><div class="ex-item">A wave of nausea came over him. 他感到一阵恶心。/ There has been a wave of terrorist attacks. 发生了一连串的恐怖袭击。</div><br><br>
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way out
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>way out</b></div>形式上是两个单词，其实可以当作一个名词（“出路”）。表示“摆脱……的出路”，后面可以用 from 或 of。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Find a <b>way out from</b> the middle of an enemy jungle and shoot their soldiers to score maximum points. 找到脱离敌人丛林中心的出路并射中敌军士兵，以取得最高分数。（游戏说明）/ Ancient traditions of yoga offer a <b>way out from</b> the pains of modern life. 古老的瑜伽传统提供了一条摆脱现代生活各种痛苦的出路。/ Is there a <b>way out of</b> the nuclear impasse? 有摆脱核僵局的出路吗？/ Agrarian Reform: a <b>way out of</b> hunger and poverty for millions of impoverished small farmers. 土地改革：千万贫困小农摆脱饥饿与贫穷的一条出路。/ But the <b>way out of</b> this stalemate is not to pack up and go home. (Fareed Zakaria, in <i>Newsweek</i>, Nov. 6, 2006, p. 28) 但是，摆脱这个僵局的出路，并不是卷起铺盖回家。</div><br><br>与 way out 相反的是 way in，也可以当作一个名词来使用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But with anyluck at all, he could find a <b>way in</b>. 但是他如果运气好一些，就能够找到进去的路。</div><br><br>但是有时候 way out 也可以用于字面意义，表示临时出去的路而不是“摆脱困境”的“出路”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Neither she nor Milly looked up at Orsini when he passed their desks on his <b>way out</b>. (Mary Higgins Clark, <i>I'll Be Seeing You</i>) 奥尔西尼走出去时，经过她和米莉的桌子，但是她们俩都没有抬头看他一眼。</div><br><br>
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way¹
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>way¹</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 可以作为一般的名词使用，表示“方式，办法”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Work while you work. Play while you play. This is the way to be happy and gay. 干时干。玩时玩。这样过日子，快乐又安然。/ That is the way that most people find is easiest to rememberOhm's Law. 那是大多数人认为最容易记住欧姆定律的办法。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> way 后面可以有对它加以修饰的定语从句。按照正规的句法结构，应该在 way 之后加上 in which 然后再接上从句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Reports provide numerous examples of the way in which the courts have dealt with specific cases. 一些报道提供了许多例子，说明法院是如何审理一些个案的。</div><br><br>但是后面这个 in which 常常省略。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She praised the Daily Mirror for the way it has highlighted Somalia's plight. 她称赞《每日镜报》重点报道索马里惨状的做法。/ She has gone to a hotel in secret, the way she might go to meet a lover. (Michael Cunningham, The Hours)她秘密地去了一家旅馆，用这个办法，她就可以私会情人。/ The way he said it made the name sound like orchids and honey. 他说出这个名字时的语气，使得这个名字听起来香如兰，甜如蜜。有时候不单独用 the way 而在其后面加上 that 代替 in which 来后接方式状语从句。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>After reviewing the way that the Defense Department oversees its most sensitive intelligence and operational programs last year, ... (Joe Conason, in The Daily Gazette, July 22, 2010, A9)审阅了国防部去年如何督导那些最敏感的情报与作战项目之后，……</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> way 前面加上介词 in，后面用或不用 in which 引入从句，成为 in the way (in which) ...，可以形成一个状语成分，对主句的内容加以修饰。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>By asking the question in the way I did, I gave people something to chew on. 我用我的那个办法提问，就让人们有点东西可以反复斟酌。此时，in the way 实际上成了一个连词成分，引入方式状语从句。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 但是，连前面这个 in 也常常省略，结果就剩下 the way 作为主句和从句之间的联系，此时 the way 实际上就成了一个主从连词，引入方式状语从句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Let people see information electronically and browse it exactly the way they want. 就让大家看电子资讯，爱怎样浏览就怎样浏览。/ If he acts the way it pleases him, he won't be invited any more. 他如果我行我素，就再也不邀请他了。/ Certainly from what I've heard, things would never have happened the way they did. 的确，按照我所听到的，事情本来不至于弄成那个样子。/ Everything she sees feels as if it's pinned to the day the way etherized butterflies are pinned to a board. (Michael Cunningham, The Hours)她无论看见什么，都似乎钉在这一天上面，就像那些被醚麻醉了的蝴蝶钉在木板上一样。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 哪些有 way 的词组是状语(后面不引入从句)，哪些是主从连词成分(后面引入从句)，取决于这个词组本身的意义完全不完全：完全了就是状语；不完全，需要后面再添加说明(即接上从句)，就是连词成分(常常以 the way 形式出现)。<br><br>意思完全的作状语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's longer this way. 这样走更远了。/ It doesn't work that way. 那不是办法。/ Let's go a different way. 咱们换条路吧。/ We'll go your way. 我们就照你的办。/ Try to see it my way. 你站在我的角度想一想。/ You're going the wrong way. 你们走错路了。/ She'll go her own way. 她要我行我素。/ They thought they would win that way. 他们觉得自己那样做就能胜利。/ Do it the usual way. 平常怎么做就怎么做。/ They fought racism in their own small way. 他们在力所能及的小范围内反对了种族主义。意思不完全的需接从句。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We left the apartment <b>the way</b> it was. 我们保持公寓的原样，离开了。/ It's not <b>the way</b> it looks. 看来如此，实际上并不如此。/ We'll never finish <b>the way</b> things are going. 这样下去，咱们永远完不了。/ She cooks chicken <b>the way</b> I like. 她用我喜欢的方式烧鸡。/ Moore had arranged the seating on Rumsfeld's plane <b>the way</b> everything was done in Congress, by seniority. (<i>Newsweek</i>, Oct. 9, 2006, p. 34) 莫尔原先已经按照国会凡事都按资排辈的办法排好了拉姆斯菲尔德飞机上的座位次序。/ Everybody is aware of <b>the</b> disorganized <b>way</b> the Senate and the House carry on their work. 人人都知道参众两院的工作是进行得多么杂乱无章。（但是以 the way 引人的从句，不但可以是方式状语从句，也可以是名词从句。）<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I don't like <b>the way</b> he runs things. 我不喜欢他办事的方式。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> way 前面有一个物主代词(my way、your way、his way 等)，作状语词组，除了可以表示“照某人的办法”外，还可以表示“向着某人这个方向”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>America won. Reagan won. Gorbachev came <b>his</b> (=Reagan's) <b>way</b>. (<i>The New York Review of Books</i>, Nov. 4, 2004, p. 27) 美国赢了。里根赢了。戈尔巴乔夫向里根靠拢了。/ He occasionally glanced <b>their way</b>. 他偶尔朝他们那边看看。/ Little white lies (of all sorts) are tossed <b>our way</b> daily. 每天都有人向我们撒（各式各样）无伤大雅的谎。/ The Republican Party is sending money <b>their candidate's way</b>. 共和党正在给他们的候选人寄钱。/ ... the Massachusetts senator (= Edward Kennedy) is in a position to help Obama court voting groups who so far have tilted <b>Clinton's way</b>. (<i>The Associated Press</i>, Jan. 28, 2008) ……这位麻省的参议员现在可以帮助奥巴马把迄今一直倒向希拉里的选民争取过来。/ Will this push those disgruntled Hillary voters <b>McCain's way</b>? (Jim Vandehei and John F. Harris, in <i>Politico</i>, Aug. 30, 2008) 这会把那些耿耿于怀的支持希拉里的选民推到麦凯恩一边吗？但是只能用 my way、his way、X's way 等形式，不能用 the way of X 这个形式。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> in the way of 表示将前面所说的某一比较笼统的事物进一步加以具体化的限定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He received very little <b>in the way of</b> wages. 他在工资上所得很少。/ We didn't find much <b>in the way of</b> fossils. 在化石方面，我们的发现不多。/ What else have you got today <b>in the way of</b> problems? 你今天还遇到过些什么问题？/ They were also used to having him reappear without much <b>in the way of</b> warning. 他常常不那么事先通知一声就出现，他们对此也习以为常了。/ He wondered what that meant, too tired to do much <b>in the way of</b> thinking. (Tom Clancy, <i>Executive Orders</i>) 他琢磨这是怎么一回事，但是他太累了，无法多动脑筋。</div><br><br>by way of 同 in the way of 意义相近，可以用来表示某人或某物的作用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Americans salvaged and returned it (= the HMS <i>Resolute</i>, a British ship that sank in American waters during the 1850s) to the United Kingdom, and a grateful Queen Victoria ordered a desk made from its oaken timbers <b>by way of</b> official thanks. (Tom Clancy, <i>Clear and Present Danger</i>) 美国人把船打捞起来，送还给了英国，维多利亚女王感激之余，下令拿船上的橡木造了一张书桌，以表正式的谢意。/ You are a very strange creature <b>by way of</b> a friend! (Jane Austen, <i>Pride and Prejudice</i>) 你这种朋友真是世上少有！ (8) in the way 也有挡路的意思。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The person <b>in the way</b> has to be eased out of the way. (Frederick Forsyth, <i>The Fist of God</i>) 挡路的人，必须除掉。</div><br><br>get in the way of 或 get in one's way 是“妨碍，挡路”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Getting older shouldn't <b>get in the way of</b> enjoying your bathroom. 变老不应该妨碍你享受洗澡的乐趣。/ But he didn't intend to let anything <b>get in his way</b>. 但是他不打算让任何事情挡住他的路。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(9)</span> in a ... way 相当于副词 -ly。如果要减弱语气，固然可以说 somewhat + -ly，但是也可以说 in a ... sort/kind of way。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Most people in the West sensed this <b>in a</b> vague <b>sort of way</b>. 西方的人，对此大多有隐隐约约的感觉。/ act <b>in a</b> Hollywood <b>kind of way</b> 采取有点好莱坞味道的方式来表演。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(10)</span> a ways 是美式英语一个特殊的不合语法的现象，意义同 a way (一段路程)相近，但是稍为突出这个路程“比较长”的意义，a way 则纯粹中性，不暗示其长短。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Is there <b>a way</b> to go to the store without passing any traffic lights? 有没有路通到那商店不必经过红绿灯的？/ He still has <b>a ways</b> to go before he's done. 他仍然有很长的路要走，才能把事情办完。</div><br><br>
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way¹
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>way¹</b></div>本来是个名词，但可以当作副词用，表示“远远”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>way</b> below 远远在下面</div><div class="ex-item"><b>way</b> overused 过分使用</div><div class="ex-item">I'm <b>way</b> beyond that. 我根本就不屑那种事情。/ Jabba's insolence was <b>way</b> out of line. 贾巴横变得太离谱了。/ He's <b>way</b> below the standard required. 他远远低于要求的标准。/ I'm <b>way</b> over forty. 我远远超过 40 岁了。/ They're <b>way</b> ahead of us. 他们远远领先我们。/ We're thankful it (= Hurricane Ophelia) slid by <b>way</b> off shore. 真是万幸，奥菲利娅旋风从远离海岸的地方滑过去了。（注意：这里的 by 是副词，同动词 slid (slide 的过去时)合在一起构成一个惯用词组，way 也是副词而不是名词，修饰 off shore。千万不要把 by way 连在一起误作介词 + 名词。）/ He was up <b>way</b> past bedtime. 睡觉时间早就过了，他还没上床。（这里的 up 作形容词用，是“没有躺下”，past 作介词用，是“已经经过”；way 修饰 past，表示“过了很久”；up way past 在一起，也容易引起理解上的困惑。）</div>
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weapon 与 arms
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>weapon 与 arms</b></div>参见 arm 条。<br><br>
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wear
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>wear</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为及物动词，最基本的词义就是“穿着(衣物)”。是个表示延续状态的第一类动词，表示“衣服已经穿在身上”的状态(put on 则表示“从未穿到穿上”的瞬时动作)。表示经常性的穿着状态，用一般时；表示一时的穿着状态，用进行时。中国人往往对这个动态与静态的区别不敏感，要特别注意。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> wear 的直接宾语包括的范围比“衣服”要大得多，可以包括胡须、首饰、眼镜、助听器、耳机、脸上临时戴上的小物件等等。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was often seen <b>wearing</b> flecks of his breakfast in a bushy beard that was turning gray. 人们常常看见他那变灰色的胡须上还带着早餐食物残渣。</div><br><br>而且更加特别的是，还可以包括发型、化妆和脸部表情。这不但中国人难以习惯，就连另一些操欧洲语言的人也不容易适应。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She <b>wore</b> her hair shoulder length in a tangled mass of curls. 她把头发留成一大把卷发，长及肩头。/ He <b>wears</b> his long hair in a ponytail. 他留长头发，梳成马尾辫。/ She <b>wore</b> no makeup. 她不施脂粉。/ What perfume are you <b>wearing</b>? 你用的什么香水？/ A trader <b>wears</b> a bewildered look as he works in the crude oil futures pit at the NY Mercantile Exchange on Monday. 一个交易商星期一在纽约商品交易所的原油期货交易部工作时显示出迷惑为难的表情。/ She <b>wore</b> a huge smile. 她满面笑容。/ A few <b>wore</b> angry, tired faces. 有几个人一脸愠怒疲乏的样子。/ He rarely smiled and often <b>wore</b> a worried frown. 他很少露笑容，而常常是忧心忡忡地皱着眉头。/ Thus his familiar face, <b>wearing</b> its most soulful expression as he discoursed with the unemployed, was on network news that night and in next day's newspapers. 他同失业职工交谈时摆出一副最热情的表情，这副人们熟悉的面孔当天晚上就在网络新闻上出现，第二天就见报。/ He was conscious of how difficult it was to <b>wear</b> the guise of friendly hospitality in the presence of such a scoundrel. 他意识到，在这样一个恶棍面前，假装出一副友善殷勤的样子，是多么的困难。/ He was ecstatic to find himself among familiar company, something that was clearly evident by the ear-to-ear smile he <b>wore</b> on his face. 他对自己回到了亲人当中感到兴高采烈，这种心情，从他那咧嘴大笑的面容，可以清楚地看出来。/ Now he <b>wore</b> a wide grin. 现在他笑嘻嘻地张着嘴。/ She <b>wears</b> her age well. 她不显老。</div><br><br>尤其值得注意的是：同一个 wear 后面，往往既出现表示衣物、首饰之类的宾语，也同时出现表现其他东西或是脸部表情的宾语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He <b>wore</b> wire-rimmed <b>glasses</b> and a <b>beard</b>. 他戴着金丝框眼镜，留着胡须。/ The older man also <b>wore</b> a severe dark <b>suit</b> and severe facial <b>expressions</b>. 那个年纪大些的人，也一样穿着颜色深重的衣装，脸上一副严肃的表情。</div><br><br>wear 是“穿着”衣服的静态(第一类动词)，与之对应的动态动词(第四类动词)是 put on。同样，与静态的 wear (“呈现某种表情”)相对的动态动词，也是 put on。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... the Americans flew home <b>wearing</b> smiles that were almost certainly not just <b>put on</b> for the cameras. (<i>London Review of Books</i>, Aug. 16, 2007) ……飞回本国时，美国人满脸笑容，这个笑容，几乎可以肯定不单纯是摆出来供照相做样子的。/ Her humor did not exactly irritate him, but it seemed unusually and unwelcomely artificial, as if it were something she had <b>put on</b> with her French hat and her new pelisse ... (John Fowles, <i>The French Lieutenant's Woman</i>) 其实，她的幽默倒没有使他恼火，但是听起来却非常做作，使人讨厌，这正像她那法式小帽和皮外套上的装饰品一样，……</div><br><br>
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wed
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>wed</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> wed 的词形变化有些特别，过去式是规则的 wedded，但过去分词却同原形一样是 wed。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They got <b>wed</b> two months later. 他们两个月后结了婚。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> wed 与 marry 同义，但比较古旧。派生的名词 wedding 与 marriage 则用法上差别比较大。参见 wedding 与 marriage 条。<br><br>
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wedding
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>wedding</b></div>指的是“结婚的行动”，尤其是“婚礼”，参见 wedding 与 marriage 条。<br><br>
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wedding 与 marriage
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>wedding 与 marriage</b></div>wedding 偏重结婚的仪式，marriage 则更多指婚姻关系的开始或存在。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm going to a <b>wedding</b> this weekend. 这个周末我要参加一个婚礼。</div><br><br>凡是同具体的婚礼而不是同抽象的婚姻关系有关的事物，都用 wedding 修饰。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>wedding</b> cake 婚礼蛋糕</div><div class="ex-item"><b>wedding</b> dress 结婚礼服</div><div class="ex-item"><b>wedding</b> presents 结婚礼物</div><div class="ex-item"><b>wedding</b> ring 结婚戒指</div><div class="ex-item"><b>wedding</b> night 新婚之夜。</div><br><br>
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weigh
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>weigh</b></div>作为及物动词，weigh 可以有具体的“衡量其重量”或“(本身)有多重”以及抽象的“衡量其分量”的意思。用于抽象意义时，可以单独衡量某一抽象事物的重要性，也可以再加上 against 来同另一抽象事物做比较。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We should carefully <b>weigh</b> the consequences of this move. 我们必须仔细衡量这一做法的后果。(单一抽象事物)</div><div class="ex-item">Ms. Barra must <b>weigh</b> the risk of drawing Mr. Trump's fire by leaving the council <b>against</b> potential fallout on GM or its brands from a consumer backlash against CEOs who won't speak out. (<i>Jalopnik</i>, Aug. 17, 2017) 巴拉女士必须衡量两者的利弊：一方面是如果退出委员会，就会招来特朗普先生的怒火；另一方面则是公司主管们如果闭口不表态，又会引起消费者的反弹，对通用汽车公司及其品牌有潜在的后果。(这一句的 weigh 后面很长很复杂，但要抓住 against 作为两种后果的分水岭。)</div>
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welcome
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>welcome</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 可以是名词、形容词(除了个别情况如 a <b>welcome</b> relief “如释重负”，通常不放在名词前)和动词。作为动词，它与 come 不同，是个规则动词，过去式和过去分词都是 welcomed。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> welcome 作为形容词时，一般作表语。(a) 是“受欢迎的”(具体某次)或“值得被欢迎的”(人的品格或物的性质)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You're always <b>welcome</b> here. 这里随时都欢迎您。/ He knows how to makepeople feel <b>welcome</b>. 他很会把客人招呼得满意高兴。/ I didn't feel <b>welcome</b>. 我感到自己不受欢迎。/ An extra pair of hands is always <b>welcome</b>. 多双手来帮忙，总是好的。</div>(b) welcome to + 某地，这种用法，常见于对刚刚来到某地的人表示欢迎。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Welcome to</b> Beijing! 欢迎来到北京！（一般只能对刚到北京的人这样说）/ <b>Welcome to visit</b> Beijing! 欢迎来/去到北京！（人还在他处）/ R. M.'s family wrote that I <b>was welcome to visit</b>. (John Darnton, <i>The Darwin Conspiracy</i>) R. M. 一家写信欢迎我去作客。（去之前）不过，一些旅游广告，也用 welcome to 这样的句子招徕尚未到来的顾客。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Welcome to</b> the sunniest spot on the Atlas. 欢迎前来地图上阳光最灿烂的地点。</div><br><br>即时的表示欢迎，说 we welcome sb. 是不够的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We are <b>delighted to welcome</b> them to UCLA. 我们欢迎他们来到加州大学洛杉矶分校。可能是因为 welcome 是动作，不是态度。</div><br><br>如果是回到家，就不用 to。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Welcome</b> home/back! 欢迎回到家！</div>(c) you/they are welcome to inf. 是一种采取礼貌邀请形式的允许(用一般现在时，指尚未发生但眼前即将发生的事，通常是一次性的；有时候不一定译成“欢迎”，可以译成“可以”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You're <b>welcome</b> to wait in the sitting room. 您可以在客厅等候。/ You're <b>welcome</b> to use the phone. 电话请随便使用。/ You're <b>welcome</b> to borrow my racket. 我的球拍可以借给您使用。/ You're very <b>welcome</b> to stay the night. 很欢迎您留下过夜。但是如果指的是一段时间后的将来，就用一般将来时。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You will be <b>welcome</b> to tell much more about yourself. 到时候您可以多介绍一下自己。</div><br><br>另外，也可以不用 to inf. 而用 to + 名词，表示可以把某物拿走。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You're <b>welcome</b> to these books. 这些书您可以拿走。</div>(d) 对方道谢后，回答 You're <b>welcome</b>. 这里就丝毫没有“欢迎”的意思，只是表示“别客气”。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 作为名词，只有单数形式，而且总要在前面加上形容词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was given <b>a warm welcome</b> by the President of Harvard himself. 他受到哈佛大学校长本人的热烈欢迎。/ <b>The tumultuous welcome</b> home he received there was token enough of his popularity. 他回家乡时受到的热烈欢迎，充分说明了他很得人心。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 作为及物动词，可以用主动语态，也可以用被动语态，无论主动还是被动，都可以表示“欢迎”的态度(延续体貌)，或表示一次欢迎的行动(瞬时体貌)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They <b>welcomed</b> him with open arms. 他们张开双臂热烈欢迎他。(瞬时)</div><div class="ex-item">She ran to the door and <b>welcomed</b> them in. 她跑到门口，欢迎他们进来。(瞬时)</div><div class="ex-item">Would you please <b>welcome</b> Prof. Harkins! 请大家鼓掌欢迎哈斯教授光临！/ This news is to be <b>welcomed</b>. 这个消息值得欢迎。/ He was warmly <b>welcomed</b> by her family. 他受到她家里人的热烈欢迎。(瞬时)</div><div class="ex-item">I'd <b>welcome</b> a change of scene. 我觉得换个环境也好。</div><br><br>
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well
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>well</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 本来是副词，但是可以作为形容词，但只能充当表语，不能充当定语，表示“（身体状况）良好的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm <b>well</b>. 我身体好。但不能说 <i>a well person。 (2) 要注意，有时候 well 不一定就是“好”的意思，也可能是表示程度深的“很”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Berlusconi, meanwhile, is running <b>well</b> behind the center-left opposition led by Romano Prodi in polls for elections next spring. (</i>BusinessWeek*, July 13, 2005, p. 53) 而同时，在预测明年春选举的民意调查中，贝卢斯科尼又远远落后于以罗马诺·普罗迪为首的中左反对派。（不能把 running well 连在一起理解为“进行得好”，应该把 well behind 连在一起理解为“远远落后于”）</div>
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(well-)connected
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(well-)connected</b></div>字面意义是“联系紧密的”，但是实际意义是“利害关系盘根错节的”，有贬义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... who will get the economy growing again in a way that benefits everyone, and not just a wealthy, well-connected few. (<i>U.S. News & World Report</i>, Sept. 15-22, 2008, p. 38) ……看谁能够使经济振兴，又使得人人都受益，而不光是让少数富有而又利害关系盘根错节的人受益。</div><br><br>
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west 与 western
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>west 与 western</b></div>参见 east 与 eastern 条。<br><br>
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what
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>what</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 英语常常出现以 what 引入的名词性从句，出现的场合往往是某一事物处于同当前不同的地位，需要转到另一个地位来说明。而由于 what 本身意义空泛，中文必须具体化，没有相应的词语，整个结构翻译起来比较费劲，需要随机应变，灵活处理。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>in <b>what</b> used to be the dining room 在从前常充当饭厅的房间里(what = a room that)</div><div class="ex-item">She managed to read 957 pages in <b>what</b> must have been about a day. 她用了大约一天的时间，看了 957 页。(what = a period of time that)</div><div class="ex-item">There are low-cost or generic alternatives to <b>what</b> might be a more expensive (sometimes more desirable) drug. 本来更贵(有时候也更有需求)的药物，有了成本更低廉的或是未注册的代替物。(what = a drug that)</div><div class="ex-item">The Fed is scheduled to meet next on Aug. 22 to decide whether it will raise rates for <b>what</b> would be the seventh time since June 1999. 美联储定于下次在 8 月 22 日开会决定是否提高利率，如果提高，将是 1999 年 6 月以来的第 7 次。(what = a time that)</div><div class="ex-item">(My mother) died last week at age 92, just two days after Thanksgiving, on <b>what</b> would have been the 70th anniversary of her wedding. (Ellen Goodman, in <i>The Daily Gazette</i>, Dec. 9, 2006, A9)(我母亲)上星期去世，享年 92 岁，那是在感恩节后两天，本来是她结婚 70 周年纪念日。(what = the day that)</div><div class="ex-item">We are entering <b>what</b> might be called "the Age of the Consultant." 我们正在进入一个可以称为“咨询顾问时代”的时代。(what = an age that)</div><div class="ex-item">A former doctor at Emory University School of Medicine in the United States has won <b>what</b> his lawyers said is the first libel verdict based on an anonymous Internet message. (<i>South China Morning Post</i>) 美国埃默里大学医学院以前的一位医生打赢了一场官司，据他的律师们说，这是第一个以互联网上一份匿名信件为根据得到判决的诽谤案。(what = a verdict that)</div><div class="ex-item">That, Lay's defense lawyers argue, is not enough to send a man to prison for <b>what</b> could be the rest of his life. (<i>The Washington Post</i>, Apr. 24, 2006)雷伊的辩护律师们辩护说，那并不足以判一个人到监狱里去度过自己也许是整个的余生。(what = a period of time that)</div>what 甚至可以代替一个复数的可数名词，在句中作为复数处理。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His father belonged to <b>what</b> (= the families that) <b>were</b> known as the Thousand Families, the old Persian aristocracy. 他父亲属于有名的千家族，亦即波斯的旧贵族集团。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> what 也可以作限定语放在名词前面(意义同 the 差不多)，这个名词此时“一身而二任”，既在主句中占据一个名词成分的位置，又在从句中占据一个名词成分的位置(充当主语、宾语、表语或补语，但通常作宾语)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>What little loyalty</b> he still enjoyed evaporated. 他本来仍然享有的拥护，荡然无存了。(what little loyalty 在从句中充当宾语，在主句中充当主语)</div><div class="ex-item">Susan answered <b>what questions</b> she could. 苏珊能回答的问题都回答了。(what questions 在主句中和从句中都充当宾语)</div><div class="ex-item">The president gained <b>what support</b> he needed. 总统得到了他所需要的支持。(what support 在主句中和从句中都充当宾语)</div><div class="ex-item">I can lend you <b>what books</b> you want to read. 你想看些什么书，我都可以借给你。(what books 在主句中和从句中都充当宾语)</div><div class="ex-item">... the unabated sacrifice of American life will eventually exhaust <b>what public support</b> remains for the war. (<i>Time</i>, Oct. 30, 2006, p. 32) ……美国人的生命毫无起色地牺牲下去，公众剩下的一点对战争的支持，最后也会消耗殆尽。(what public support 在主句中充当宾语，在从句中充当主语)</div><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 以 what 或其他兼作疑问代词和关系代词的单词(如 who、which、when、whose)以及 whether 引入的间接疑问句或名词性从句(由于是间接疑问句，主语谓语不颠倒)，作为长句的直接宾语，往往可以提前到句首，后面再接上主语和及物动词谓语，形成颠倒词序。信息重点落在后面的谓语上(常常是对前面宾语所指事情的处理或了解)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Some of <b>what</b> I know I am not at liberty to talk about. (<i>Newsweek</i>, Oct. 17, 2005, p. 32) 有些我知道的我也不能随便说。/ Exactly <b>what</b> troubled him, he could not define. 究竟他感到烦恼的是什么，他也说不准。/ <b>Whether</b> the word applies to a given occasion the writer has to decide for himself. 一个单词是否适用于某一特定场合，要由作者自己来决定。/ They put a coat on him—<b>whose</b> it was or <b>where</b> it might have come from, he didn't think to ask. 他们给他披上了一件外衣，至于外衣是谁的，可能是从哪里来的，他也没想到要问。/ <b>What</b> we have today, we have to find room for again. (<i>U.S. News & World Report</i>, Oct. 2, 2006, pp. 48-49) 我们人口增加到今天这么多，我们又要想办法如何容纳下这么多人了。</div><br><br>
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what about
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>what about</b></div>What about ...? 与 How about ...? 有时都表示建议，可以换用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>What/How about</b> spending the night here? 在这里过夜怎么样？/ <b>What/How about</b> a cup of coffee? 喝杯咖啡好吗？</div><br><br>但是 what about 可以用来提出一个与前面有关的新问题。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Walter can't come. <b>What about</b> Arthur? 沃尔特不能来。亚瑟怎么样？/ —I never trust anyone over thirty. —<b>What about</b> men under thirty? —我绝不信任 30 岁以上的人。—那么 30 岁以下的人呢？</div><br><br>同 how about 相似，在口语中，what about 后面也可以接上非名词成分。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>What about</b> in the room? 屋里怎样啦？参见 how about 条。</div><br><br>
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whatever
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>whatever</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 首先要明确一点：whatever 与其他几个以 -ever 结尾的单词(除了 whichever 外)如 whoever、wherever、whenever 等在词性和用法上都有些差别。(a) 同 whichever 只有词义上的差别(亦即 what 与 which 的差别)，词性上两者都可以作为代词(如 whatever you like 与 whichever you like)，也可以作为名词前的限定词(如 whatever books I could find 与 whichever books I could find)。(b) 同 whoever 除了词义的差别之外，另一个差别就是 whoever 只能作为代词，不能作为限定词。(c) 同 wherever 及 whenever 的主要差别是：whatever 无论是自己单独作为代词还是放在名词前面作为限定词，都可以作为一个关系代词，引入一个名词从句(“凡是……的”)，或作为一个主从连词，引入一个让步状语从句(“无论什么”)，而 wherever 与 whenever 则作为主从连词，只有引入让步状语从句的功能(“无论何处”与“无论何时”)，不能引入名词从句。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> whatever (以及 whichever)的语法功能，首先是引入名词从句：whatever 引入名词从句时，扮演了一个“一身而二任”的独特角色，就是既在主句中扮演一个名词成分的角色(即代表名词性从句，将这个从句作为名词成分参与主句的构成)，同时又在从句中扮演主语或直接宾语的角色。通常我们习惯于这两者分别由两个单词来担任，例如 the man who ..., the village that ...，现在碰到只有一个单词 whatever 或 whatever + 名词词组，从主句转入从句的这个过渡就可能觉得不平稳自然，需要有理性的自觉来适应(有人在从句中加进一个 that 来作主语或宾语，从中国人的语言习惯来看，似乎比较顺，但语法学者已经指出这是不正确的)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Whatever</b> (<i>Whatever <b>that</b>) you do is right. 你怎样做都是对的。/ Let Webster, or <b>whatever</b> dictionary (</i>whatever dictionary <b>that</b>) you use, be your guide. 就让《韦氏词典》或是你所用的任何一本词典来做你的指南吧。/ The bombings were intended to torpedo <b>whatever</b> conciliatory moves (<i>whatever conciliatory moves <b>that</b>) were underway. 爆炸案的意图，是要破坏任何进行中的和解举措。/ <b>Whatever</b> book (</i>Whatever book <b>that</b>) you want to look at will be sent to your office. 您想看哪本书，都将送到您的办公室。</div><br><br>whichever 在这个方面的语法作用，同 whatever 是一样的(含义的区别同 what 与 which 的区别一样)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Whichever</b> book (*Whichever book <b>that</b>) costs less is fine with us. 哪本书便宜些，对于我们就合适些。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> whatever 与 whichever 还可以引入让步状语从句。如果引入名词性从句，也就是说，这个从句成了主句中的一个名词成分，缺了它，句子结构就不完全，语义也不完全。如果引入让步状语从句，则它就不是主句中的一个名词成分，缺了它，主句的基本结构不受影响。这是从根本的语法结构来辨别从句的语法性质。无论从句在句首还是句末，都可以这样来辨别。但是，如果从句出现在句首，我们还可以凭外在标志来准确迅速地辨别。如果 whatever 或 whichever 所引入的从句在整句的句首，从句结束时有逗号就是让步状语从句；没有逗号，一气呵成，就是名词性从句。因为有逗号这个外在标志，就是说明了该从句不是主句的构成成分；没有逗号，则说明了该从句是主句的构成成分。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Whatever</b> happens will be to our advantage. 无论发生什么事，都会对我们有利。(这里从句到 happens 就结束了，直接进入主句，接上 will be，可见这是个名词性从句，充当主句的主语。)</div><div class="ex-item"><b>Whatever</b> happens, we'll meet here tonight. 无论发生什么事，我们今晚都会在这里见面。(这里从句也是到 happens 就结束，但是主句另有主语，可见这是个让步状语从句。)可见，凡是 whatever 从句先于主句而直接接上谓语的，这个从句就是名词性从句。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Whatever</b> is left is yours. 剩下的都是你的了。/ <b>Whatever</b> requests you make will be granted. 你提什么要求我都答应。</div><br><br>whatever 引入名词性从句后还可以添加插入语，用逗号隔开。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But <b>whatever</b> affection he may have had for her, as you see, was not reciprocated. 但是，他无论对她怀有多么深厚的感情，你看，这种感情都得不到回报。</div><br><br>此外，whatever 前面如果有介词管着，所引入的也必然是名词从句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Below a certain diameter, roughly 1,000 kilometers, they tend to stay <b>in whatever</b> random shape emerges from that process; ... (<i>Newsweek</i>, Sept. 4, 2006, p. 49)如果直径不足某一标准，大约 1,000 公里以下，这些星球就大都保持这个过程所形成的随意的形状；……/ Domesticating wolves would be a huge advantage <b>for whatever</b> human population does that ... 驯养狼，对于任何这样做的的人群来说，都会有很大的好处，……/ She hoped she would have the same kind of fortitude in future <b>in whatever</b> other confrontations lay ahead. 她希望自己日后无论再遇到什么考验都能同样坚强。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 当然，如果从句放在主句后面，也要根据主句结构来判断是名词性从句还是状语从句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I have to bring my family back <b>whatever happens</b>. 不管发生什么事情，我都要把我一家接回来。(这里 whatever 前面的句子结构已经完整，没有再放进一个名词成分的余地，所以很容易就能判明 whatever 引入的是个让步状语从句。)</div><div class="ex-item">She applied <b>whatever</b> strength she had left to the task. 她使出了剩下的全部气力来完成任务。(这里 whatever 前面 applied 还缺直接宾语和间接宾语，所以要 whatever 从句作直接宾语，因而必须是名词性从句，后面的 the task 作间接宾语。)</div><div class="ex-item"><b>Whichever</b> generator is affected will send a warning to control, then shut down automatically until a service crew gets here. 无论哪一个发电机受到影响，都会向操纵台发出警告信号，然后自动关机，直到维修人员赶到。(will 没有别的名词成分作为它的主语，所以 whichever generator is affected 是名词性从句，充当主句的主语。)</div>至于 wherever 与 whenever，则正如前面所指出的，它们只能引入让步状语从句，不存在如何辨别的问题。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> whatever 引入的让步状语从句，有时候不以完整的句子形式出现，只在 whatever 后面放上一个名词成分即可。此时就更加容易判明这是让步状语从句，而不是名词从句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He knew that the regime, <b>whatever</b> its historical justification, had failed to deliver on its promises. 他知道，这个体制无论历史上如何有道理都没有兑现它的诺言。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 由于 whatever 既可以作为代词，也可以作为形容词，所以如果它后面出现名词，就要注意彼此的关系。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... when Eleanor and <b>whatever</b> other ladies present were withdrew to leave the men to their brandy. 当埃莉诺和任何其他在场的女士退出，让男士们单独留下来喝白兰地的时候……(这里的 whatever 是 other ladies 的定语)</div><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> whatever 也可以作为普通的形容词使用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>For <b>whatever</b> reasons—political pressures, nationalism, low prices from Airbus—European airlines are moving away from Boeing. (<i>Newsweek</i>, Dec. 13, 2004, p. 39) 无论出于什么原因，政治压力也罢，民族主义也罢，空中巴士的低廉价格也罢，反正欧洲的航空公司正在减少使用波音飞机。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> whatever 有一个变体 whatsoever，它后来演变成为加强否定意义的副词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—Is there any truth in these rumors? —None <b>whatsoever</b>. 这些传闻有真实成分吗？—丝毫没有。/ He gave us no encouragement <b>whatsoever</b>. 他丝毫也没有给我们以鼓励。</div><br><br>但是在较早的英语(以及现代英语的某些场合)，whatsoever 可以代替 whatever 使用，引入让步状语从句或名词从句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>whatsoever</b> duties you may be called upon to perform 无论你们被号召去履行什么义务</div><div class="ex-item"><b>Whatsoever</b> odd action they find inthemselves a strong inclination to do, that impulse is concluded to be a call or direction from heaven. (John Locke, <i>An Essay Concerning Human Understanding</i>) 不管他们觉得自己心中有强烈的倾向要做多么离奇的事，这种冲动都被归结为上天的召唤或指引。</div><br><br>
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what ..., what ...
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>what ..., what ...</b></div>并列的状语，表示“又是……，又是……”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>What</b> with money, <b>what</b> with promises, he bribed the judges. 他又是拿钱，又是许诺，把法官们收买过来了。</div><br><br>
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what, which 与 who
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>what, which 与 who</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 在疑问句中，what 与 which 的区别是：which 通常指谈话双方目中都知道的一个明确的小范围当中的某一个；what 则范围广泛，数目往往不明确。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We can go this way or that way. <b>Which</b> way should we go? 咱们可以这样走，也可以那样走。该怎么走好？/ There are four umbrellas here. <b>Which</b> is yours? 这里有四把伞。哪一把是您的？which 通常用作单数代词或作为形容词修饰单数名词(“哪一个”)，但如果上下文明确，也可以用作复数代词或作为形容词修饰复数名词(“哪些”)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Which are</b> his parents? 哪两个是他的父母？/ Of the 25 paintings <b>which were</b> sold? 25 幅画，卖出了哪些？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 但是范围和数目明确与否，往往也不“明确”，此时 what 和 which 的差别就不大。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>What/Which</b> is the hottest city in the world? 世界上哪一个城市最热？/ <b>What/Which</b> train did you come on? 你坐哪一班火车来的？ (3) 如果事先或者同时出现了代表有关事物的名词，用 which(代词)时通常就在这一类事物中进行选择，用 what (代词)则不受这个范围的限制。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Which</b> is the capital of Argentina? 这些首都当中，哪一个是阿根廷的？/ <b>What</b> is the capital of Argentina? 阿根廷的首都都是哪座城市？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 出现了供选择的事物的名词，并不一定就可以用 which。如果范围不明确，数目太大难以确定，仍然以用 what 为佳。例如颜色，除非划定了只有几种颜色的有限范围，否则可以千变万化。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>What</b> (<i>Which) colour are his eyes? 他的眼睛是什么颜色的？/ <b>Which</b> colour do you prefer, <b>pink</b> or <b>yellow</b>? 您更喜欢粉红色还是黄色？/ <b>What</b> (</i>Which) is the longest river in the world? 世界上最长的河流是哪一条？(世界上河流不可胜数)</div><div class="ex-item"><b>Which</b> is the longest river—<b>the Mississippi</b>, <b>the Amazon</b>, or <b>the Nile</b>? 密西西比河、亚马逊河和尼罗河，哪一条最长？/ <b>What</b> language do they speak in Greenland? 格陵兰人讲什么语言？(一般人对格陵兰不熟悉，可供选择的语言范围很广)</div><div class="ex-item"><b>Which</b> language do they usually speak in Montreal? 蒙特利尔人通常讲什么语言？(一般知道只可能是英语或法语)</div><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 另一方面，what 与 which 还有着重内涵和着重外延的区别。例如 <b>What</b> doctors can treat this disease? 是“什么样的医生能治这个病？”，而 <b>Which</b> doctors can treat this disease? 则是“哪些医生能治这个病？”。当然，这个内涵和外延的区别，也同数量庞大和数量有限的区别有些重叠，因为从内涵着眼，就不能限定数量范围，而从外延着眼，则总要在一定范围内进行选择而不能漫无边际。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 如果指的是人而不是物，what 就要改为 who。但 which 作为代词，单独用时通常只能指物不能指人，指人时后面要加上 of them、of you、of us 之类(但如果说话时的环境已经明确了范围，也可以不加)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Which of you</b> (<i>Which) knows the formula? 你们当中哪一位知道那公式？/ —<b>Which</b> is you husband? —The one in jeans. —哪一位是您的丈夫？—那个穿牛仔裤的。如果在句中不是主语，也可以不加 of ...。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—<b>Who</b> do you want to speak to? —I want to speak to Mr. Smith. —We have two Smiths here. <b>Which/Which of them</b> do you want? —您要找谁？—我想找史密斯先生。—我们这里有两位史密斯。您要找的是哪一位？如果供选择的少数人范围在句末才出现，which of them 之类也不能用，仍然要用 who。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Who</b> (</i>Which, *Which of them) is taller—Bill or Sam? 比尔和萨姆谁高？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> what 作为形容词指某一类的单数个人比较罕见，即使这个类别范围不明确，数目含糊，名词前面仍然习惯用 which 比用 what 更为可取。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Which</b> (*What) poet do you like best? 你最喜欢哪一个诗人？但是如果名词是复数，则用 what 较为自然。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>What</b> poets do you like best? 你最喜欢哪些诗人？但是 what 比较着重从内涵角度(“什么样的”)把事物区别出来，与外延角度(“哪些”)略有区别，参见(5)。</div><br><br>
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what 与 how
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>what 与 how</b></div>两者的区别，参见 how 条之(1)。<br><br>
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what 与 who
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>what 与 who</b></div>中国人看见 what，往往觉得从它的词义“什么”来看，只能用于物，不能用于人。其实 what 也可以用于人，表示人的职业、地位、身份等，但不能表示人的姓名。也就是说，可以表示是“哪一类”的人，但不能表示是“哪个”人(这个区别，参见 identity 条)。例如问某人姓甚名谁，要说 <b>Who</b> are you? 但如果问某人是干什么的，或是同当前的事情有什么关系，就要说 <b>What</b> are you? (不要误解为“你是什么东西？”)
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wheel
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>wheel</b></div>单数有 the 不是轮子，而是方向盘，介词用 at。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I got sleepy and needed her to spell me for a while <b>at the wheel</b>. (<i>Oxford Dictionary eBook</i>) 我困了，需要她替我开一阵车子。</div><br><br>
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when
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>when</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> when 作为疑问副词引入的疑问句，其中的谓语动词所指的动作或事件，应该是已知信息，提问点落在“何时发生”上面。因此，如果指的是过去确实已经发生的事，不能用现在完成时，只能用一般过去时。例如：<b>When did</b> they arrive? (*have they arrived?) 因为现在完成时通常用来表示新知信息(一般过去时则可以表示新知或已知信息)，现在已经知道他们到达了，问的不是到了没有，而是何时到达的。<br><br>但是，如果并不是明确了已经发生某事，而是采取反诘的口气，对某事的发生加以怀疑甚至否定，此时，when 引入的疑问句，反而不应该用一般过去时，而要用现在完成时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The Western people mostly call themselves Christians. Now, Lord Jesus Christ said, Thou shall not kill. But the result, after the passage of two thousand years, is that the people of the Western countries are still killing. So, during all these years, <b>when have</b> they actually <b>accepted</b> Christianity? (Swami Prabhupada) 西方人大都自称为基督徒。那么，主耶稣基督说过，勿杀生。但是经过 2,000 年后，结果却是西方国家的人仍然在杀生。那么，在这漫长的岁月当中，他们究竟什么时候真正接受过基督教呢？/ <b>When have</b> I ever <b>had</b> a suspicion that turned out to be nothing? (Estelle Ryan, <i>The Gauguin Connection</i>) 我有哪一次的怀疑结果是落空的呢？</div><br><br>另外，即使不是采取反诘的口气，如果问者并不明确某事是否发生过，只是采取“何时发生”的问法来问“有没有发生过”，也要在 when 问句中采用现在完成时(中文用倾向于“是否”的“吗”而不用倾向于“已知其有”并进一步打听其内容的“呢”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>When have</b> you <b>said</b> something that you shouldn't have said? 你什么时候说过本来不该说的话吗？/ <b>When have</b> you <b>received</b> bad customer service? 你什么时候遇到过糟糕的客户服务吗？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 通常 when 后面引入一个完整的从句，但有时它只引入一个状语或定语性质的短语，要注意 when 到此已经“完成”了“任务”，不要再去寻找不存在的从句，而要当机立断抓住已经开始的主句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>When</b> in public (when 任务至此完成) he walked quickly, with his head bent. 在公众场合，他走得很快，低着头。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 使用 when 表示过去两个瞬时动作一先一后(when 从句的动作先于主句动作)，要特别注意，如果是紧紧相接的两个动作，作为 when 从句谓语的瞬时动词要用一般过去时；但是如果是当中相隔有空隙而且不相关的两个动作，when 从句动词要用过去完成时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>When</b> I <b>had opened</b> the window, I sat down and had a cup oftea. 我把窗子打开之后，坐了下来，喝杯茶。（当中有空隙而且不相关）/ <b>When</b> I <b>opened</b> the window, the cat jumped out. 我一打开窗，猫就跳了出去。（紧紧相接而且相关）/ <b>When</b> I <b>had written</b> my letters, I did some gardening. 我把信写完之后，干了一点园艺活。（当中有空隙而且不相关）/ <b>When</b> I <b>wrote</b> to her, she came at once. 我一写信给她，她就立刻来了。（紧紧相接而且相关）</div><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 使用 when 引入过去一个瞬时动作，如果前面主句中的谓语动词是个既可以表示延续动作又可以表示动作的瞬时开始的动词，则需要注意这个动词的时态选择。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My friends <b>were laughing when</b> I arrived at the party. 我来到联欢会时朋友们正在笑着。（新知信息可能在 when 从句，也可能在主句）/ My friends <b>laughed when</b> I arrived at the party. 我一来到联欢会，朋友们就笑起来。（when 从句的动作略先于主句的动作，而且略为带有因果关系，新知信息通常在主句）/ She <b>was crying when</b> he left. 她正哭着时，他走了。/ She <b>cried when</b> he left. 他一走，她就哭了起来。但是要注意，主句的动词必须是既可以表示延续动作又可以表示动作的瞬时开始的。如果不是这类可以“一身而二任”的动词，就没有这种情况，例如只能说 She <b>was sleeping when</b> he left. 不能说 *She slept when he left.</div><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> when 如果表示单纯的时间意义，它引入的从句中，表示瞬时动作的谓语动词不能是否定的，例如不能说 *I went home <b>when</b> he <b>didn't</b> come. 但是如果 when 并不表示时间意义，而是表示“如果”或“既然”，或是反复习惯的瞬时动作(此时 when 相当于 whenever)，就不受这个限制。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How do you know you don't like it <b>when</b> you've <b>never</b> tried it? 你既然从未试过，你怎么知道你不喜欢呢？/ I used to go home <b>when</b> (= whenever) he <b>didn't</b> come. 每当他不来，我就回家。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> when 也可以不表示单纯的时间意义，而是表示“虽然”或转折对比意义的“而，但”。此时，由于主句与从句之间没有任何时间关系，只有意义上的对比关系，因此，两句中的谓语动词在体貌和时态上没有什么限制。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He said he was 18 <b>when</b> in fact he was only 15. 他说他 18 岁了，其实只有 15 岁。/ You describe this policy as rigid and inflexible, <b>when</b> in fact it has been extremely flexible. 你们把这个政策说成是死板又不灵活，而其实它已经是极为灵活的了。/ We act as though comfort and luxury were the chief requirements of life, <b>when</b> all that we need to make us really happy is something to be enthusiastic about. (Charles Kingsley, 1819—1875) 我们待人处事，往往仿佛以舒适豪华为人生的主要要求，而其实唯一使我们过得真正幸福的，就是用热情去关注。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> when 作为引入时间状语从句的连词，它和 while 的一个区别是：when 从句可以表示一个时间点，也可以表示一个时间段，而 while 从句则只能表示一个时间段。这可以从从句谓语动词的体看出来，如果动词代表瞬时动作或事件，就只能用 when。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Tea was introduced to Europe in the early 1600's, <b>when</b> (*while) trade <b>began</b> between Europe and the Far East. 茶叶是 17 世纪初叶欧洲同远东开始通商之时传入欧洲的。(从句的 began 是瞬时动词，所以这个从句表示一个时间点，因此只能用 when。)如果 while 不表示时间而是表示对比，则另当别论。参见 while 条。</div><br><br>when 和 while 的另一个区别是：when 从句表示一个时间段时，说话者并不强烈意识到它的暂时性，反而是隐约中更为注意到这个时间段的开始；而 while 从句所表示的一个时间段，在说话者心中是暂时的，必将结束的，所以有点“趁着仍然如此的时候”，而这是 when 所不包含的意义。也就是说，when 比较着重时间段的开始，而 while 则比较着重时间段的短暂性及其必然的结束。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Strike <b>while</b> (<i>when) the iron is hot. 趁热打铁。/ Make hay <b>while</b> (</i>when) the sun shines. 晒草要趁太阳好。唐代杜秋娘的诗《金缕衣》中“花开堪折直须折”可以有两种译法，一种是：Flowers fit for plucking, you pluck <b>while</b> (<i>when) still in bloom. 另一种是：Gather your rosebuds <b>while</b> (</i>when) you may. 两种译法都用 while 而排除了 when。这些例句所强调的，都不是“时间段一开始就马上要如何”，而是“时间段结束前及早要如何”。家喻户晓的英文谚语 Work <b>while</b> (<i>when) you work; play <b>while</b> (</i>when) you play. This is the way to be happy and gay. 中之所以用 while 而不用 when，也是因为 work 和 play 都理解为生活中暂时的过程，只要求在这暂时过程中专心致志，并不要求在过程结束了之后仍然专心致志。乐府诗《长歌行》中的“少壮不努力，老大徒伤悲”，比较简单的英文译法可以是：Laziness <b>while</b> (<i>when) young spells regret <b>when</b> (</i>while) old. 值得注意的是，这里前面用 while，表示“少壮能几时”(杜甫诗《赠卫八处士》)的暂时性；而后面用 when，则表示老年不会是暂时的，而是有始无终的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> when 从句中的谓语动词，如果是延续性的，这个 when 表示一个时间段背景，主句与从句两件事情是同时发生的，或从句时间段将主句内容包含在内(一长一短)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>When</b> we lived in town we often went to the theater. 我们住在城里时常常去看戏。(同时，同长短)</div><div class="ex-item"><b>When</b> I was five I got measles. 我五岁的时候得了麻疹。(从句时间段长，包含主句内容)</div>但是如果 when 从句中的谓语动词是瞬时的(第四类动词)或是完成的(第三类动词采取一般时，即非进行时)，从句同主句两个事件的时间先后关系则是从句先，主句后。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>When</b> he saw me, he smiled and waved. 他看见了我就微笑着招了招手。/ <b>When</b> she pressed the button the elevator stopped. 她一按按钮，电梯就停住了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(9)</span> 如果 when 从句的谓语动词表示瞬时发生的事件，而 when 前面的主句表示一个延续的过程或状态或是表示一个发生了某事之后留下的状态，要注意，此时新知信息(也就是全句意义的核心)往往不在主句而在从句，主句反而是个时间框架，起衬托作用。译文应该把主句降格译成“正当……之时”的时间状语从句，从句在译文中要升格译成主句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I was reading a newspaper <b>when</b> my brother came in. 我正在看报纸的时候，我弟弟进来了。(不译“当我弟弟走进来时，我正在看报纸”)</div><div class="ex-item">We had just fallen asleep <b>when</b> the bell rang. 我们刚睡着，铃就响了。(不译“铃响时，我们刚睡着”)</div><div class="ex-item">She had been working there about four years <b>when</b> she noticed an ad in the newspaper ... 正当她已经在那里工作了 4 年的时候，她在报上看到了一则广告，……(不译“当她在报上看到……之时，她已经在那里工作了 4 年了”)</div><div class="ex-item">No sooner had he said this <b>when</b> he realized the mistake he had just made. 他刚说出了这句话，就马上觉察到自己说错了。(不译“当他觉察到自己说错了之时，他说出这句话并不更早”) 这种从句在语用意义上超出主句的“功高震主”现象，也见于 before 从句，参见 before 条。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(10)</span> 由此可见，如果有 when 从句，则主从句谓语动词的体貌与时间先后关系是：(a)主从句均为瞬时动词，从句动作先于主句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He turned round <b>when</b> she called his name. 她一喊他名字，他就转过头来。(b)主从句一延续一瞬时，瞬时动作发生在延续时间段之内，不问延续与瞬时各分配在何方。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The telephone rang <b>when</b> he was taking a bath. 电话铃响时，他正在洗澡。(主瞬从延)</div><div class="ex-item">He was taking a bath <b>when</b> the telephone rang. 他正在洗澡时，电话铃响了。(主延从瞬)但通常信息重心在后面。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(11)</span> when 可以作为疑问连词引入间接疑问句，也可以作为时间主从连词引入时间状语从句。区别的办法，首先要看 when 前面的句子成分是否齐全，是否可以成为一个单独的句子。如果句子成分齐全，还要看语义是否完整。如果语义完整，when 引入的就是时间状语从句。如果成分不齐全，缺了宾语或是其他成分，或是语义不完整，when 引入的就是间接疑问句。如 We weren't sure <b>when</b> I was going to get out of Baghdad. (<i>The Daily Gazette</i>, Dec. 26, 2006, A8)这里 when 前面的 We weren't sure 意义不完全，所以 when 引入的是间接疑问句，补充说明 sure 的具体内容：“我们当时没有把握我什么时候离开巴格达。”不是“当我正在离开巴格达之时，我们没有把握”。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(12)</span> when 从句中的动词如果是第三类动词，则 when 可能指这个动作过程的开始时、进行时或是结束(到达终点)时。例如以 when they built the bridge 为状语从句，后面可以分别接上不同的主句：(a) a local architect drew up the plans (由一位当地的建筑师画出设计图)；(b) they used the best materials (他们用了最好的材料)；(c) they solved most of their traffic problems (他们的交通问题大多数得到了解决)。在(a)情况下，when 指的是 built the bridge 开始时；在(b)情况下，when 指的是 built the bridge 的过程当中；在(c)情况下，when 指的是 built the bridge 的过程到达终点，大桥建好之时。when 究竟管 built 这个动作过程的哪一个时间点或时间段，要看上下文和语境。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(13)</span> when 引入的从句，通常是状语从句，说明主句事件发生的时间。但有时候也可以不是状语从句，而是定语从句，只是限定句中某一名词成分的时间所在。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The former president recalled the day 65 years ago ... <b>when</b> he attended the commissioning of the USS San Jacinto, ... (<i>The Associated Press</i>, Jan. 10, 2009)前总统回顾了 65 年前参加“圣哈辛托号”军舰编队服役仪式时的情形，……(这里 when 从句是修饰 the day 65 years ago 的，不是管谓语动词 recalled 的。)</div>有时候 when 引入的从句，可能既不是状语从句，也不是定语从句，而是一个名词从句(尤其是作为一个待解答的问题，充当直接宾语)，需要注意辨别。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Prosecutors don't control <b>when</b> hearings end ... (<i>Anna Salter, Fault Lines</i>)听证会何时结束，是检察官们所掌握不了的……</div><br><br>
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where
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>where</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> where 作为疑问副词或关系副词，既可以表示静态的“在”，也可以表示动态的“前往(目的地)”，但是不能单独表示“来自(原发地)”，也就是说，表示“前往”不用加上介词 to，但表示“来自”则必须加上介词 from。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The New Reality of Evolution. <b>Where</b> we came <b>from</b>. <b>Where</b> we're going. (注意：无 to) (U.S. News & World Report, July 29, 2002, cover) 进化的新现实。我们来自何处。我们去往何处。/ <b>Where</b> should completed applications be mailed? 填好的申请表应该寄往哪里？(不是问“应该在哪里(是从邮局还是从别处)寄出”，这里的 mail 已经暗示有一个目的地)</div>但是，如果动词不是 go 或 mail 之类本身暗示了有目的地的，而是另外一些目的地意念不强的，最好仍然保留 to。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Wilcox was not pursuing a suspect and police are uncertain <b>where</b> he was driving <b>to</b>. 韦尔考克斯当时并不是在追捕疑犯，警察对他开车的目的地还弄不清楚。(如果没有 to 则可能是“正在何处开车”)</div><div class="ex-item"><b>Where</b> did you disappear <b>to</b> yesterday? (Estelle Ryan, The Gauguin Connection) 昨天一天没见你，到哪里去了？又例如一篇有关美国国家航空航天局工作计划的文章 (The Daily Gazette, Mar. 7, 2010, E10)，主标题是：<b>Where</b> do we go from here? (我们将去哪里？) 这里因为有 go，所以 where 是表示动态方向的，不必加 to。副标题是：NASA ponders next U.S. destination in space. (国家航空航天局斟酌美国在太空的下一步去向。) 但文章的第一句是：<b>Where to</b> next? (下一步往何处去？) 这里因为没有动态的动词，where 表示方向目的地，就要加上一个 to，而且由于 where 是个疑问词，必须放在句首，所以 to 虽然是管 where 的，也只好“屈居”后面。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> where 作为主从连词，有时候也可以不表示地点，而是用来将主句和从句所说的两件事做一对比。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Where</b> I used to see a child who was always a bit self-conscious, I now see a young man who is infused with genuine self-assuredness because he has more tattoos than any one else he knows. (Newsweek, July 16, 2007, p. 16) 原先我常看到的，是一个总是有点害羞的小孩子，而现在我看见的，却是这样一个青年人，他因为身上的刺青比他所认识的任何人都多，而洋溢着一种真正的自信。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> where 以及作为后缀的 -where 可以表示与空间地点无关的概念：(a) 可以表示“结果，成绩”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Where</b> had you got to? Got an answer yet? 你得到了什么结果？找到了答案了吗？/ This man's friends had not gotten to <b>where</b> they were by being careless. (Dan Brown, Deception Point) 这个人的朋友们之所以能够有今天，不是靠漫不经心就能办到的。/ Showing it in his face wouldn't get her <b>anywhere</b>, but leading him to it might. 她如果把这件事情摆到他面前，不会有任何结果，但是如果引导他去得出这个结论，却可能奏效。/ This must be the first priority if the negotiation is to get <b>anywhere</b>. 如果希望谈判达成什么结果，这一点应该摆在最优先的地位。/ Calling me yellow will get you <b>nowhere</b>. 你说我是胆小鬼是没用的。/ You'll get <b>nowhere</b> with that attitude. 你采取那种态度是没用的。/ It is the nature of intelligence that many tips lead <b>nowhere</b>. (Air Force Gen. Michael V. Hayden, The Washington Post, Feb. 5, 2006, A10) 情报工作的本性，就是许多线索不会通向任何结果。/ There was some written evidence that Novack initially doubted her confession, but no indication that ever went <b>anywhere</b>. (David Rosenfelt, Heart of a Killer) 有一些文字上的证据，说明当时诺瓦克开头对她的认罪有所怀疑，但是没有任何线索能说明任何问题。where 也可以表示某人挣得的地位(正面的)或陷入的困境(负面的)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Seldom, if ever, do they get <b>where</b> they are through merit or experience. 他们当中，靠本事或者靠经验而有今天的，即使有也是凤毛麟角。</div><br><br>有时候，-place 也可以代替 -where。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In a people-ready business, every sales trip leads <b>someplace</b>. (Newsweek, Sept. 4, 2006, p. 53, ad) 开展一项成竹在胸的业务，每次商务旅行都会有所收获。</div><br><br>英语中另一些表示空间位置、距离的单词，也可以表示“成绩，收获”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This argument doesn't get anyone very <b>far</b>. 这个论据，谁都不能靠它说明多少问题。</div>(b) where 可以代替 what 表示抽象的笼统概念。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It takes a while to find another talented employee to pick up <b>where</b> the boss left off with his creative services for clients. 需要一点时间才能找到另外一位有才干的雇员来接过老板的未竟之业，向客户提供创造性的服务。</div><br><br>where 或 -where 也可以指抽象的情况或精神状态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I would describe my emotions as <b>somewhere</b> between dread and terror. (David Rosenfelt, Heart of a Killer) 我当时的心情，可以描写为介乎惧怕与恐怖之间。</div><br><br>同样，与 where 同义的 place 也可以表示一个抽象的事物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Your mood is how you are feeling: happy, sad or <b>someplace</b> in between. 你的情绪就是你的感觉如何，或则快乐，或则难过，或则介乎两者之间。</div>(c) 可以表示数量或时间点。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We spent <b>somewhere</b> around $10,000. 我们花了大约1万美元。/ There were <b>somewhere</b> between 55,000 and 60,000 men. 有大约5.5万到6万人。/ Its value is <b>anywhere</b> between 75 and 100 dollars. 它的价值在75到100美元之间。/ I don't make <b>anywhere near</b> as much money as you. 我的收入远远比不上你的。/ Average disposable income per person was 4,500 yuan ($628), <b>nowhere near</b> the $5,000 level at which economists say discretionary spending takes off. 人均可支配收入为4,500元(含628美元)，远远不及经济学家们所说的可以开始自由支出的5,000美元水平。/ There weren't <b>anywhere</b> near enough empty boxes. 空盒子远远不够。/ This church was built <b>somewhere</b> around 700 AD. 这座教堂是大约公元700年兴建的。/ But thanks to an epiphany in medicine about the very nature of cancer, most oncologists now believe in a not-too-distant future <b>where</b> (代替 when) cancer will be curable or a manageable chronic disease. (U.S. News & World Report, Nov. 3-10, 2008, p. 46) 但是，由于医学上对癌症的本质有了一个发现，现在大多数肿瘤学家都相信，在不久的将来，癌症将会成为一种可以治愈的病症，或是一种可控制的慢性病。</div><br><br>另外一些表示空间距离的单词，也可以用来表示数量。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The twenty or thirty dollars he normally carried in his wallet wasn't going to get him <b>far</b>. 他通常钱包里放着的二三十美元，不够他多久的开销。</div><br><br>由于 -where 可以表示数量，而时间段的长短也属于数量的范围，因此它不但可以如在上例中表示时间点的所在，还可以表示时间段的长短。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The time it takes for food to pass through all sections of the digestive tract can be <b>anywhere</b> from 9takes for food to pass through all sections of the digestive tract can be <b>anywhere</b> from 9 hours to over 3 days. 食物通过消化道所有各段所需的时间，从9小时到3天以上不等。/ A Grade 3 concussion, the most severe, occurs when a player loses consciousness for <b>anywhere</b> from a few seconds to several hours. (Time, Oct. 9, 2000) 三级脑震荡最为严重，运动员失去知觉，持续时间从几秒钟至几小时不等。</div><br><br>如果所表示的不是数量系列中的一个数量而是多个事物系列中的一个事物，与数量无关，则不可以用 -where 而要用 -thing。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The call might mean <b>anything</b> (*anywhere) from a medal to expulsion from service. 这次电话，结果可能多种多样，可能是颁发一枚勋章，但也可能是革除职务。</div><br><br>
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where it counts
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>where it counts</b></div>这个词组，许多词典上都查不到，大意是带有转折口气的“其实”(it 是泛指的)，例如一篇抨击 2008 年美国共和党总统候选人麦凯恩的讽刺文章，文章标题是：Neither courageous nor independent—<b>where it counts</b>. (到头来既不英勇，也不独立。)<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In fact, even malignancies that seem identical are highly complex and varied <b>where it counts</b>—in their genetic makeup. (U.S. News & World Report, Nov. 3-10, 2008, p. 46) 事实上，即使是看起来像是一回事的各种恶性肿瘤，实际上说到其基因结构上，都是十分复杂、变化多端的。</div><br><br>有时候 where it counts 也可以有其实质意义，表示“得其所”，例如有一本关于企业管理的书，书名叫作 Putting Your Leaders <b>Where It Counts</b> (《让你的领导人员尽其才》)，书的内容介绍说：Companies that systematically and continuously <b>put the right leaders in the right jobs</b> outperform companies that don't. (那些一贯不断地把适当的领导人员放到适当的岗位上的公司，就比不这样做的公司经营得更好。) 一篇关于新加坡医疗制度优越性的文章，标题是 “Singapore Medicine—Healthcare Quality <b>Where It Counts</b>” (《新加坡的医疗——医保质量表现在要害处》)，里面特别指出新加坡医院的门诊交叉感染率(这是一个要害)远远低于美国。<br><br>
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whether 与 if
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>whether 与 if</b></div>都可以表示“是否”，引入一个 yes/no 间接问句(名词从句)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 一般情况下，whether 与 if 可以换用，没有什么区别。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—Can you take care of Tommy for me? —I don't know yet <b>whether/if</b> I shall be able to look after Tommy during the Easter holidays or not. —你能替我照料汤米吗？—我还不知道能不能在复活节假期照料汤米。/ I wondered <b>whether/if</b> Paco had left the country as I hadn't seen him for some time. 我不知道帕科是不是出了国，因为我好些时候没有看见他了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 但是在以下四种情况下，只能用 whether，不能用 *if:(a) 该名词性从句放在全句之首。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Whether</b> I'll get there in time for Henry's lecture, I don't know. 我能不能及时赶去听亨利的课，还不知道。</div>(b) 该名词性从句前面有介词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I often get asked about <b>whether</b> or not you can ride if you are overweight. 常常有人问我，如果身体过重，能不能骑自行车。</div>(c) 后面接动词不定式。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I can't make up my mind <b>whether to buy</b> somenew summer clothes now or wait until the prices go down. 我打不定主意，究竟是现在就买一些新的夏季衣服好呢，还是等到价钱降下来再买好。</div>(d) 后面有两个以 or 连接的并列成分。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I wonder <b>whether</b> he is at home <b>or</b> not. 我不知道他是不是在家。/ <b>Whether</b> we go by bus <b>or</b> by train doesn't really matter. 我们坐公共汽车去还是坐火车去，其实是无所谓的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 此外，whether 不但可以引入一个名词性从句，表示“是否”，还可以引入一个让步状语从句，表示“无论是否”或“无论(两者当中何者)”(引入让步状语从句时，从句要加上 or not)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We need to leave for the airport in five minutes <b>whether</b> you've found your teddy bear <b>or not</b>. 不管你找到了你的玩具熊没有，咱们过五分钟都要动身去机场。/ I'm going to spend all of granny's money on a new kitchen <b>whether you like it or not</b>! 不管你高兴不高兴，我都要把外婆的钱全都在新厨房上！/ But the administration was unquestionably playing games with reporters, <b>whether or not</b> the president was directly involved. (Newsweek, Apr. 17, 2006, p. 26) 无论总统是否直接牵涉在内，行政当局当时是在对新闻记者耍把戏，这是毫无疑问的。/ He treated all who came to him, <b>whether</b> (they were) wealthy <b>or</b> poor, with equal concern. 凡是来找他治病的人，不问贫富，他都一视同仁悉心治疗。</div><br><br>如何辨别，方法很简单：如果去掉 whether 从句，主句的成分仍然完整无缺，这个从句就是状语从句；如果去掉 whether 从句，主句就缺了一个名词成分(主语或宾语)，这个从句就是名词性从句。<br><br>whether ... or ... 与 either ... or ... 意义和用法都不同。首先，whether ... or ... 无论是在疑问从句还是在名词性从句中，都带有疑问的语气，而 either ... or ... 则只有选择的语气，没有疑问的语气。其次，whether ... or ... 虽然列举了两个可能事项，但并没有排斥其他的可能事项，而 either ... or ... 则只容许在两个事项当中选择其一。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... demonstrators in Tehran chanted "Obama, Obama, you are <b>either</b> with us <b>or</b> with them." (Charles Krauthammer, in The Daily Gazette, May 3, 2011) ……德黑兰的示威者喊着：“奥巴马，奥巴马，你要么站在我们一边，要么站在他们一边。”</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> if 与 whether 还有一个区别。有一部分一般疑问句其实真实的意思并不是等待对方回答 yes 或 no，而只是一个邀请、请求，或是对自己的猜想求一个验证。这样的一般疑问句，如果变为间接问句，那么，通常用 if 而不用 <i>whether 来引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He asked <b>if</b> we'd like more coffee. 他问我们要不要添点咖啡。(真实意义是邀请)</div><div class="ex-item">He asked me <b>if</b> I'd pass the salt. 他问我可否把盐罐子递给他。(真实意义是请求)</div><div class="ex-item">When he told her that he preferred Bruckner to Brahms, she asked <b>if</b> he was out of his mind. 他告诉她说，他对布鲁克纳(19世纪奥地利二流作曲家)比对勃拉姆斯更为喜欢，她就问他是不是神经错乱了。(表示自己的主见，不是寻求答案) 或者发问的人心中已经有了偏好，不是可此可彼无所谓，此时间接问句也用 if 而不用 </i>whether 引入。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Go see <b>if</b> the paper's here and bring it in. 去看看报纸来了就拿进来。(希望报纸已经来了，唯有来了才能拿进来)</div><div class="ex-item">Go see <b>whether</b> the paper is here and report back. 去看看报纸来了没有，回来报告一声。(报纸来了没有都无所谓，都可以报告)</div>有时候 whether 引入的从句放在句首，而且同主句之间有逗号分开，但是后面的主句缺了一个成分(例如直接宾语)，此时 whether 从句仍然不是状语从句，而是名词性从句，充当主句所缺的成分(例如直接宾语)，只不过这个成分提前放到了句首。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Whether</b> a hidden meaning existed here or not, Langdon could not immediately say. (Dan Brown, The Da Vinci Code) 究竟这里有没有隐藏着一个意思，那是兰登一下子说不准的。</div><br><br>
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which
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>which</b></div>which 这个关系代词，有时候指的是前面的一个名词，但是有时候却是指前面的整个意思，此时要注意分辨。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She said it was an accident, <b>which</b> I know is not true. 她说那是一次事故，但我知道并非如此。/ He loves his job (<b>which</b>, unfortunately, not many people can say about their careers) because he has been able to have fun at work with his colleagues. 他喜欢他的工作(可惜得很，能这样谈到自己工作的人不多)，因为他在同同事们一起工作中找到了乐趣。(这里的 which 不是指 job，而是指 he loves his job)</div>不但如此，which 还可以跳跃到下一句，仍然指前一句的全部内容。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Some say we must accept the proposal. To <b>which</b> our response should be the following: ... 有人说我们应该接受那个建议。对此，我们应该做如下回答：……</div><div class="ex-item">The DNA code from a stray cell or two is as unique a personal document as any birth certificate... All of <b>which</b> makes experts worry that ... (U.S. News & World Report, Dec. 2, 2002, p. 58) 来自一两个离群细胞的 DNA 密码，就像任何一份出生证一样，是个人特有的证件，……这一切，使得专家们担心，……因此，遇到以 which 开始的句子，如果本句的结构解释不通(凡是 which 在句首而不是疑问词时)，就要看看这个 which 是不是上一句的“遗产”。</div><br><br>有时候 which 指的是前面的一个动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The butler sipped his dish of tea, then added, "And <b>tips</b> well." <b>Which</b> Charles, as one of the family, did not. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 男管家呷了口茶，说道：“她给小费也很大方。”在这个家庭中，查尔斯是从不给仆人小费的。(which = tip)</div>
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which ones
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>which ones</b></div>which ones 可以表示对“究竟是哪一些”这个问题的答案，此时要注意：由于这只是单独一个答案，所以必须作为单数处理，不能当作复数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The bandits killed some villagers, but <b>which ones isn't</b> (*aren't) known by the police. 匪徒们杀害了一些村民，但究竟有哪些村民被杀害，警察并不知道。</div><br><br>
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which, what 与 who
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>which, what 与 who</b></div>参见 what, which 与 who 条。<br><br>
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while
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>while</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> while 本来是个连词，引入时间从句，这个从句的谓语动词按照一般语法书的规定，应该是延续的(同 when 的区别参见 when 条)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Make hay <b>while</b> the sun shines. 晒草要趁太阳好(趁热打铁)。/ Keys cut <b>while</b> you wait. 配钥匙立等可取。</div><br><br>不过，这个从句有时候会简化，或则只剩下表语，或则只剩下状语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They don't drink <b>while</b> on duty. 他们值班时不喝酒。/ <b>While</b> prime minister of Indiabetween 1980 and 1984, Indira Gandhi had allowed Tamil militants to run training camps on Indian soil. (World Policy Journal, winter 2003/2004, p. 64) 英迪拉·甘地 1980 年至 1984 年任印度总理期间，曾经允许泰米尔分子在印度领土上举办训练营。/ <b>While</b> at the University of Illinois, he invented a powerful scientific programming language that has made him rich. 在伊利诺伊大学期间，他发明了一种功能强大的科学程序设计语言，因而致富。</div><br><br>简化后，要注意 while 引入的短语结束了就不要再继续找其实并不存在的 while 从句其他成分。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The families of the two innocent men who died <b>while behind bars</b> accused the federal government of malicious prosecution. 在监狱中死去的两名无辜的受害者的家属，指责联邦政府恶意定罪。(这里，到了 behind bars，while 的任务已经完成，就不要误以为 while 引入的是个从句，误以为这个 behind bars 只不过是从句开头的一个状语成分，而继续去“完成”这个“从句”)</div><div class="ex-item">He died of a heart attack <b>while at the controls</b> of the plane. 他在驾驶飞机时心脏病发作死去了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 但是，在实际语言中，while 引入的从句内，谓语动词也可以是瞬时的第四类动词，意思是“在某行动或事件即将发生但尚未发生的期间”(意义与 until 相近)，主句谓语动词则必须是延续的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Please wait <b>while</b> your computer <b>shuts</b> down. 请等候您的电脑关闭。/ We waited a few minutes outside his office <b>while</b> he <b>finished up</b> his meeting. 我们在他办公室外面等了几分钟，等他把会开完。/ After the appetizer, we waited <b>while</b> our hostess <b>began</b> to put the main course. 吃过了开胃菜后，我们就等候女主人开始上主菜。/ I just needed a place to stay <b>while</b> I <b>found</b> a new apartment. 我只是要有个人地方待一下，再找一处公寓。/ <b>While</b> the standoff <b>plays out</b>, home sales are plummeting. (The Associated Press, Aug. 24, 2010) 僵局相持下去(结束之前)，住房的销售量就在一直下跌。</div><br><br>不过，主句和从句，总必须有一个使用表示延续状态或过程的谓语动词，如上面几个例句中，主句的谓语动词 wait、waited、stay 等都是延续性的。也可以从句延续而主句瞬时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The shooting <b>happened while</b> the man <b>was trying</b> to evade capture by the security forces. 枪击是正当那个男子企图逃脱治安警察的抓捕时发生的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> while 引入的从句不一定表示“同时”，有时候可以表示“虽然”(此时动词体貌不受限制)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>While</b> he's not exactly brilliant, he's a good student. 他尽管算不上高才生，但也是个好学生。/ And <b>while</b> there were limits, obviously, to the closeness of Andrew's scrutiny, he was satisfied that no serious malpractice problem had existed. 安德鲁的监督，尽管严密性显然有限，但是他看到没有发生医疗事故，也就满意了。</div><br><br>在这个意义上，while 后面也可以不是从句，而是定语或状语成分。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The situation, <b>while</b> tense, seems unlikely to lead to war. 局势虽然紧张，但是看来不会导致战争。(while 后面是定语)</div><div class="ex-item">One must encourage them, <b>while</b> not raising their hopes unrealistically. 应该鼓励他们，但又不要助长他们不切实际的希望。(while 后面是状语)</div><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> while 还可以引入从句表示和另一件事对比。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm Catholic, <b>while</b> Debbie is Jewish. 我是天主教徒，黛比则是犹太教徒。这个对比，同 when 引入的对比不同。when 引入的对比是彼此相反的强烈对比，while 则只是表示两者的不同，不强调相反；而且 when 往往谈同一件事本身包含的自相矛盾，while 则往往谈两件事的差异(中文常用“则”字)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How can I ever get a job in America <b>when</b> (<i>while) I can't even speak English? 我连英语都不会说，又怎么能够在美国找到工作呢？/ How silly we are to sit around inside <b>when</b> (</i>while) outside it is so lovely. 外面这么好，咱们待在屋里多么笨。/ "But what is the good of all these vague theories," cried the banker impatiently, "<b>when</b> I have told you that I saw Arthur with the coronet in his hands?" (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes) 银行家不耐烦地大声喊叫道：“我明明已经告诉了你，我亲眼看见亚瑟手里拿着那顶王冠，你现在捧出这种种种空洞的假设，又有什么用？”</div><div class="ex-item">Fred gambled his money away <b>while</b> (<i>when) Julia spent hers all on dresses and bric-a-brac. 弗雷德把自己的钱输掉，朱莉娅则把钱花在衣服和摆设上。/ Geographically, the UK is on the periphery of Europe, <b>while</b> (</i>when) Paris is at the heart of the continent. 从地理上说，英国位于欧洲的边缘，而巴黎则是在欧洲大陆的中心。</div><br><br>
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who
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>who</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> who 作疑问句的主语，尽管回答可能是复数形式，但提问时 who 仍然要作为单数处理。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—<b>Who works</b> on Wednesdays? —We do. —谁星期三上班？—是我们。/ —<b>Who sings</b> well? —They do. —谁唱得好？—是他们。/ <b>Who is</b> winning? Republicans, conservatives, the practitioners of obstruction, ... (E. J. Dionne, in The Daily Gazette, Feb. 18, 2002, A11) 谁会赢呢？共和党人、保守派、阻挡潮流者、……</div><div class="ex-item"><b>Who is</b> advising President Trump? Here's a look at the 20 people outside the White House whom he turns to the most. (The New York Times, Apr. 17, 2017) 是哪些人给特朗普总统出主意？这里有白宫里他最常问计的 20 个人。但是 who 如果不是主语而是表语，谓语动词就依实际情况采用单数或复数形式。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Who do</b> you know those tall boys <b>are</b>? 你知道那些高大的男孩子是谁？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> who 作为关系代词，在主句为 There is ... 或 It is ... 之类的句型中，在口语中可以省略。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There's a student (<b>who</b>) wants to see you. 有个学生想见您。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 有时候单独一个 who 就可以代替“究竟是谁干的”这个问题，此时即使它在句中处于宾语地位，也不能改为 *whom。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Someone stole Mary's jewels, and we don't know <b>who</b>. 有人偷了玛丽的珠宝，我们不知道是谁。如果它在句中处于主语地位，也要注意它所代表的是一个问题，而不是一个人。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Someone stole Mary's jewels, and <b>who is</b> not likely to be discovered. 有人偷了玛丽的珠宝，是谁干的，恐怕查不出来。</div><br><br>
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whoever
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>whoever</b></div>whoever 除了不能作定语后面再加上名词，句法功能同 whichever 和 whatever 相同，就是说，既可以引入名词性从句，也可以引入让步状语从句。如果是引入名词性从句，whoever 也和 whatever 一样“一身而二任”，即既在主句中作为一个名词成分，又在从句中担任主语或宾语或表语，或其他也属名词性质的角色。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>That way, <b>whoever</b> ends up with the key will download our version of the algorithm. (Dan Brown, Digital Fortress) 这一来，任何人只要拿到钥匙，就可以下载我们的演算版本。/ <b>Whoever</b> comes is welcome. 来者是客。/ <b>Whoever</b> breaks this law deserves a fine. 凡违反本法者都应处以罚款。</div><br><br>whoever 引入让步状语从句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Whoever</b> it is, I won't open the door. 不管是谁，我都不开门。/ I hope, <b>whoever</b> you vote for in the next election, that at least you know why you are voting. 我的希望是，无论下一次选举你投谁的票，你起码能够知道自己为什么投票。</div><br><br>
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who, what 与 which
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>who, what 与 which</b></div>参见 what, which 与 who 条。<br><br>
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why
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>why</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> <b>Why don't you</b> give me a call? 不是质问“你为什么不给我来个电话？”，而是一种邀请或建议：“你给我来个电话吧。”(注意谓语动词用一般现在时，而且是个通常不用一般现在时的瞬时动词。) 因此，回答时绝对不能针对 Why ... 说 *Because ...，而要说 I will.</div><div class="ex-item">I won't.</div><div class="ex-item">I can't.<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Why don't you</b> come upstairs and I'll show you around? 请您到楼上来，我带您看看。/ Actually we do have a position in mind. <b>Why don't you</b> fill out our application? 我们的确有一个职位招聘。不妨填写一下我们的申请表。/ —<b>Why don't you</b> come to our party? —Thanks, I will. —你来参加我们的聚会吧。—谢谢，我来。</div><br><br>有时候 you 可以改为 we，表示建议大家(包括自己在内)一起去做某事。回答时同样不能说 *Because ...，只能就事论事地对这个建议表示同意或不同意。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Why don't we</b> go to the swimming-pool tomorrow? 咱们明天到游泳池去好吗？/ Before we talk business, <b>why don't we</b> order? 咱们先点菜再谈正经事好吗？</div><br><br>有时候 you 还可以改为第三人称。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Why don't they</b> send it by air? 他们用航空寄送更好嘛。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 由此可见，why 用于否定疑问句，往往不是要对方回答原因何在。有时候这种疑问句只是一种反诘，表达说话者对此加以肯定的看法。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Why shouldn't</b> they buy it? 他们当然可以相信这个说法嘛。/ <b>Why shouldn't</b> girls play baseball? 本来女孩子也可以打棒球。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> why don't you 也可以放在一个祈使句最后，形成一个问句形式的祈使句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Try it again, <b>why don't you</b>? 你再试一下吧，好吗？也可以用来表示赞成对方的打算，例如两个人打电话，一个说 I was thinking of calling at three. (我原先打算 3 点钟来拜访。) 另一个就说 Yes, <b>why don't you</b>? (你尽管来呀。)(不是“你干吗不来？”)</div><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 表示邀请或建议，why 后面也可以不加 don't you，而简单地加一个 not 再加一个没有 to 的动词不定式，此时就不限于向对方提出建议，这个建议也可以包括说话者本人在内。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—Cindy's in a bad mood. —<b>Why not</b> give her some flowers? —辛迪情绪不好。—给她送点鲜花好吗？此时回答也不能用 *Because ...，只能就事论事地对这个建议表示同意或不同意。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 如果 why 后面没有 not 就加上一个没有 to 的动词不定式，意义就是负面的“何必……呢”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Why</b> argue with him? He'll never change his mind. 何必同他争吵呢？他是绝对不会改变主意的。回答也不能用 *Because ...，只能就事论事表示同意或不同意。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 但是 Why don't you ... 的句子中如果有 any 之类的非肯定性单词(即“负面极性项”，NPI)，就仍然是问“为什么”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Why don't you</b> come to <b>any</b> of our parties? 我们的联欢会你怎么一次也不来呀？</div><br><br>此外，如果不是现在时态的 don't，而是过去时态的 didn't，则没有“邀请，建议”的意思，而是对对方之前没有做某事提出质问或批评。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Why didn't you</b> do the dishes? 你为什么没有把杯盘洗了？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> why 问句如果是对已经发生的一件事采取客观询问的口气，由于事件是已知信息，所以要用一般过去时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Why did</b> the World Trade Center collapse? 世界贸易中心大厦是为什么倒塌的？(从建筑构造等方面找原因) 但是如果有对此不以为然，带有主观质疑的口气，甚至怀疑事件的真实性，就可以用现在完成时。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Their view is, <b>why have I done</b> it so late? 他们的看法是：我为什么这么晚才这样做？(质疑，对“太晚”不以为然) 另外，why 如果引入否定问句(动词为第四类或第三类动词)，也可以用现在完成时。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Why haven't</b> you <b>responded</b> to the mail I sent you? 我发给你的邮件，你为什么没有回复？</div><br><br>
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-wide
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>-wide</b></div>这个后缀可以同表示空间范围的名词一起派生出多个形容词兼副词。熟悉与掌握这个用法，说话行文可以变得简洁。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>50% off store<b>wide</b>. 全店货物 5 折出售。(不必啰唆地说 ... all over the store) 类似的派生词还有 nation<b>wide</b> (在全国范围内)、state<b>wide</b> (在全州范围内)、county<b>wide</b> (在全县范围内)、area<b>wide</b> (在全地区范围内)、world<b>wide</b> (在全世界范围内)。还要注意的是，这些派生词可以充当形容词，也可以充当副词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>world<b>wide</b> economic depression 世界范围内的经济衰退</div><div class="ex-item">The incident made headlines world<b>wide</b> last year. 该事件去年在全世界成了头条新闻。</div><br><br>
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wide 与 broad
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>wide 与 broad</b></div>参见 broad 与 wide 条。<br><br>
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widow
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>widow</b></div>做丈夫的死了，留下的究竟是 wife 还是 widow? 这个问题，一般人可能觉得太钻牛角尖。但是写讣告时究竟用 wife 还是 widow，却是有争议的问题。许多学者认为最好用 wife，因为男的刚刚去世，说 wife 意思很清楚，而且如果说 widow，可能把女的说成丈夫未死之时已经是 widow。不过，英文报纸上的讣告，wife 和 widow两者都通用。<br><br>可能是因为重男轻女，也可能是因为女性平均寿命比男性长，在英文中，可以说某男子是个 widower，但很少说他是某女子的 widower (反过来可以说某女子是某男子的 widow)。中文也有点类似，可以说某女子是某男子的“遗孀”，说某男子是个“鳏夫”，但说他是某女子的“鳏夫”不大自然。<br><br>
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win
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>win</b></div>作为不及物动词，就是“赢了”(第三类或第四类动词)，意义很好掌握。但是作为及物动词，其意义和搭配，对于中国人来说，都有值得注意之处。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> win 不能以被打败的对手为直接宾语，例如不能说 *We <b>won</b> them in the ball game. 要说 We <b>beat</b> them in the ball game. 直接宾语应该是“比赛，搏斗”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Aren't you boys interested in who's <b>winning</b> the war? 你们男孩子难道不关心这场战争谁能打赢吗？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 直接宾语也可以是经过比赛或搏斗得到的成果。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She <b>won</b> second prize. 她获得了二等奖。/ He <b>won</b> a gold medal in the Olympics. 他在奥运会获得了一块金牌。/ The other party failed to <b>win</b> any seats. 另一个政党没有赢得任何席位。/ The opposition party <b>won</b> a convincing victory in the election. 在野党在选举中得到了令人信服的胜利。/ They have <b>won</b> business from their competitors. 他们抢走了竞争者的生意。/ The contract has been <b>won</b> by a British firm. 合同被一家英国公司赢去了。</div><br><br>有时候这两种不同内容的宾语可以并列出现。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The war educates the people. The people <b>win</b> the war, and they also <b>win</b> peace and progress. 战争教育了人民。人民赢得战争，也赢得和平和进步。(和平和进步是取得的正面结果，战争却不是。)</div>有时候也可以表示不经过比赛或搏斗而只是经过努力获得的成果。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It took me a while to <b>win</b> their confidence. 我费了好些时间才赢得了他们的信任。/ Her first novel <b>won</b> the acclaim of the critics. 她的第一本小说就赢得了批评家们的称赞。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 中国人不太习惯的一个搭配用法是：可以有双宾语，主语是一个有利的原因，间接宾语先于直接宾语，表示受惠者，直接宾语表示得到的好处。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm convinced that it was her loyalty and support that <b>won</b> me the championship. 我确信是她的忠诚和支持才使我赢得了冠军。/ This <b>won</b> her a place on the national team. 这使得她在国家队中赢得了一席之地。/ His superior finishing speed <b>won</b> him the race. 他靠超群的冲刺速度赢了这场赛跑。/ Their perseverance <b>won</b> them universal admiration. 他们坚韧的品质赢得了普遍的钦佩。/ This offensive could <b>win</b> them the war. 靠这次攻势，他们可能打赢这场战争。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> win + 某人 + over to + 某主张，是“把某人争取过来支持某主张”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has <b>won</b> several of his former opponents <b>over to</b> his ideas. 他争取到了过去反对他的一些人来支持他的主张。/ The report <b>won</b> her <b>over to</b> the protesters' cause. 那个报告把她争取了过来支持抗议者的事业。/ We <b>won</b> him over in the end. 我们终于把他争取过来了。</div><br><br>
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Windex
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>Windex</b></div>是美国一个生产玻璃清洁液的商标名称，有时候也被当作及物动词使用(“用 Windex 清洁液清洗”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... when she <b>Windexes</b> toothpaste flecks off the bathroom mirror ... (B. Mukherjee, Darkness) ……当她用 Windex 清洁液清洗浴室镜上的牙膏斑时…… 参见 Xerox 条与 FedEx 条。</div><br><br>
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winter
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>winter</b></div>前面要不要 the 的问题，参见 spring, summer, autumn 与 winter 条。<br><br>
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wipe
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>wipe</b></div>这个及物动词，可以有不同的直接宾语，不同的“体”：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 宾语是脏的、需要擦干净的东西，此时 wipe 可以是第二类动词(延续性，没有必然终点，“一直擦下去”)，也可以是第三类动词(延续性，有必然终点，“擦干净”)或第四类动词(瞬时性，“擦一下或擦掉”)。(a) 作为第二类动词，最典型的是用进行时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She was <b>wiping</b> her lips with a napkin. 她正在用餐巾揩着嘴。但是如果不用进行时，通常作为第三类动词(但也可能是第二类动词，尤其是如果有 for 引入的时间段状语)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Tip away the salt and <b>wipe</b> the pan. 把盐倒出去，把锅擦干净。(这是第三类动词的理解，较为合情理)</div><div class="ex-item">把盐倒出去，把锅擦一擦。(这是第二类或第四类动词的理解，较为不合情理)</div><div class="ex-item"><b>Wipe</b> your feet on the mat. 把脚在蹭鞋垫上擦干净吧。(第三类动词，但 Wipe your feet on the mat <b>for a few seconds</b>. 中 wipe 则是第二类动词)</div><div class="ex-item">She <b>wiped</b> the table with a damp cloth. 她用湿布擦桌子。(作为第二类动词，wipe 在此可以表示惯常动作，或是一次擦过，但不交代擦干净了没有；作为第三类动词，是“擦干净了”；作为第四类动词，是“擦一下”，可能擦干净了，也可能没有干净。)</div>(b) 作为第三类或第四类动词时，往往在宾语后加上一个表示结果的形容词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She <b>wiped</b> the mirror <b>clean</b>. 她把镜子擦干净了。/ He <b>wiped</b> the plate <b>dry</b>. 他把盘子擦干了。/ He <b>wiped</b> the muddy roots <b>clean</b> in the current. (Ernest Hemingway) 他把沾满泥的树根放到流水里擦净。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 宾语是污秽本身，亦即清除的对象。此时通常要加上方向状语，wipe 就作为第三类动词，如果时间极其短促，就作为第四类动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He <b>wiped</b> the mud <b>off</b> his hands. 他擦去了手上的泥污。/ He <b>wiped away</b> the beads of sweat on his forehead. 他揩掉了额头上的汗珠。/ He <b>wiped away</b> the blood with a paper napkin. 他用一片纸巾揩去了血迹。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 宾语是揩擦的工具。此时 wipe 可以是第二类、第三类或第四类动词，要擦净的表面常用介词 over 或 on 引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He <b>wiped</b> a handkerchief <b>over</b> his face. 他用手绢擦了脸。/ She <b>wiped</b> the cloth <b>over</b> the table. 她拿抹布擦桌子。/ Ben <b>wiped</b> his hand <b>on</b> his pants hoping for a dry handshake. (Brad Meltzer, The Tenth Justice) 本把手放在裤子上擦了擦，希望握手时手是干燥的。</div><br><br>
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-wise
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>-wise</b></div>这个后缀可以灵活地同很多名词结合，成为副词，使得啰唆的话变得简洁。它的意义大体上有四个方面： (1) “就……而言”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>price-<b>wise</b> 在价格上</div><div class="ex-item">weather-<b>wise</b> 就天气而言</div><div class="ex-item">Vacation<b>wise</b>, the most exceptional characteristic of these prosperous people is that they can come and go pretty much as they like. (Fortune, January 1939) 就度假而论，这些富人最独特的特点就是想来就来，想走就走，随心所欲。/ Map<b>wise</b>, Arno looks like an old physiology picture of an amoeba. (National Geographic, September 1945) 在地图上，阿尔诺看起来像是一幅古老的变形虫生理图。/ ... this kind of nationalist boasting is highly important propaganda-<b>wise</b>. (John Gunther, Behind the Curtain) ……这种民族主义的夸口，就宣传而言，是十分重要的。/ Most expenses were higher dollar<b>wise</b> than in 1951. (Annual Report, Jewel Tea Co., 1952) 大部分支出按美元计算的话高于 1951 年。/ ... slightly off balance yin-and-yang-<b>wise</b> ... (Cyra McFadden, The Serial) ……略微有点阴阳失调……</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> “按照……方式”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>clock<b>wise</b> 按顺时针方向</div><div class="ex-item">length<b>wise</b> 按长度算；沿着长边的方向</div><div class="ex-item">Look<b>wise</b> she was the image of her mother. Smart<b>wise</b> she wanted to be a lawyer, exactly like daddy. (J. Colins, Dangerous Kiss) 就相貌而论，她有她妈妈的影子。就聪明而论，她想同她爸爸一样当个律师。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> “像……那样子”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>crab-<b>wise</b> 像螃蟹那样(横着走)</div><div class="ex-item">ostrich-<b>wise</b> 像鸵鸟那样(遇到危险就缩头)。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> wise 已经不是后缀，仍然保持“聪明多智”的词义，表示“在……方面有一套办法”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Being water-<b>wise</b> benefits your landscape, environment, and community. 管好用水，有利于你们的景貌、环境和社区。</div><br><br>
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wise men
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>wise men</b></div>原意当然就是“智者，聪明人”。但是在基督教的传说中，却是耶稣诞生时从东方前来朝拜圣婴的“东方三贤人” (the three Wise Men of the East)，《圣经·马太福音》中又称“东方博士” (Magi of the East, magi 是拉丁文 magus 的复数，本意是“术师”)，后来 14 世纪一名神职人员在其《三王纪事》 (Historia Trium Regum) 一书中甚至说他们是波斯等三国的国王。其实《圣经·马太福音》中并没有说明他们的来历，连他们究竟是不是三个人也没有说明，只是说他们向圣婴耶稣献上了三种礼物：黄金(gold)、乳香(frankincense)、没药(myrrh)。从三种礼物，推论出了是三个人。总之，这三个人，或称 Wise Men，或称 Magi，或称 the three Kings。<br><br>wise men 既可以指一般的“智者”，也可以特指“东方三贤人”，因此，就有人利用起了这个双关的意义。19 世纪末，加拿大一条横贯东西的“加拿大太平洋铁路” (Canadian Pacific Railway) 通车。1896 年，有人替这条铁路设计了一句十分巧妙的广告语：<b>Wise Men</b> of the East Go West by CPR. 这里的 Wise Men of the East 显然借用了“东方三贤人”，但又可以指“东部的智者”(他们前往西部都乘坐“加拿大太平洋铁路”的火车)。<br><br>
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wish
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>wish</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为及物动词(属第一类动词)，wish 可以有如下搭配和意义：(a) wish to inf.，意思是“想(自己)做某事”(不交代这个愿望是否有可能实现，如果排除了不可能，就可以用 hope)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They are in love and <b>wish</b> to marry. 他们彼此相爱，打算结婚。/ I <b>wish</b> to be left alone. 我希望别人别来打扰。</div>(b) wish somebody/something to inf.，表示“想要(某人)去做某事”或“希望(某事)如何”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Tell me what you <b>wish</b> me to do. 你要我怎么做，就告诉我吧。/ I <b>wish</b> the work to be finished quickly. 我希望活快点做完。/ I <b>wish</b> my dissent to be recorded. 我希望我的不同意见能被记录下来。</div>(c) wish + somebody/something + 形容词/动词过去分词/介词短语，表示“希望(某人或某事)如何”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I <b>wish</b> her happy. 我祝她幸福。/ He <b>wish</b>ed his rival defeated. 他希望他的竞争对手遭到挫败。/ He <b>wish</b>ed his enemy in the grave. 他但愿敌人死掉。</div>(d) wish something to somebody 或 wish somebody something，表示“祝愿(某人得到)某好处”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I <b>wish</b>ed a happy journey to my friend/my friend a happy journey. 我祝我的朋友一路顺风。/ I <b>wish</b> happiness to all my friends. 我祝我的所有朋友们幸福。/ I <b>wish</b> you good luck. 祝你好运。/ I <b>wish</b> you a merry Christmas. 祝你圣诞快乐。</div><br><br>这里要注意，用 wish 是对未来的祝愿，也就是说，某好处尚未到来。如果已经到来，就不是“预祝”，而是“祝贺” (congratulate) 了，参见 congratulate 条。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> wish 与 hope 的一个最大的区别，就是 wish 可以用于明明不可能实现的愿望，甚至用于过去不可改变的事实、现在不可能实现的愿望。用于这种场合时，搭配是：wish + (that) + 使用动词虚拟语气的从句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My sister occasionally <b>wish</b>ed she were a boy. 我妹妹有时候希望自己是一个男孩。/ I often <b>wish</b> that I were really wealthy. 我常常巴不得自己真的富有起来。对过去不可改变的事实，wish 用来表示相反的“后悔”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I <b>wish</b> I <b>hadn't</b> said that. 我后悔说了那样的话。(事实是 I said that，对此表示后悔，用虚拟语气，said 改为 had said)</div>由于这个用法都是以违反事实为前提，所以也常常用来表示婉转的否定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I <b>wish</b> I could share your optimism. 我本来也很想能够同您一样乐观。(言下之意是“您那样乐观，恕我不能苟同”)</div>有时候，甚至只说 I wish 就可以表示否定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—An outside file? You're joking, right? —I <b>wish</b>. (Dan Brown, Digital Fortress) ——一份来自外面的文档吗？你是在开玩笑吧？——要是开玩笑倒好了。</div><br><br>有时候，甚至可以用 wish 加虚拟语气从句来表示懊悔。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Granted, it might be hard to lure students to such mundane offerings, but the students who don't go will <b>wish</b> they <b>did</b>. (Newsweek, Nov. 13, 2006, p. 21) 的确，拿这样世俗的课程来诱导学生是很难做到的，但是，学生不上这样的课，将来会后悔的。</div><br><br>甚至有时候连 wish 都可以索性省略，只要用 would 来代替 (= would wish)，从句用虚拟语气，就可以表示否定(如果从句是否定句，就否否得肯，表示肯定)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—It cannot concern Miss Woodruff? —<b>Would</b> that it <b>did</b> not, ma'am. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) ——不是关于伍德拉夫小姐的事吧？——要不是那就好了，太太。(回答的实在意义是“就是嘛”)</div>
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within ... of ...
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>within ... of ...</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 在空间意义上，是“离……有……多远”的意思，通常不涉及方向问题。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He filled his mug to within two-and-a-half inches of the rim. 他给自己的大杯子倒到离边缘两英寸半的高度。/ Like an exhausted climber within inches of an icy summit, ... (Mary Higgins Clark, Weep No More, My Lady) 就像一个筋疲力尽、只差几寸就到达冰雪峰顶的爬山者一样，……</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 在时间意义上，有两个方向截然相反的意义。一是“在某时间点之前多久”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>So eventually every American could be inoculated within six months of a pandemic's beginning. 这样，最后每个美国人都可以赶在流行病开始之前半年获得接种。/ Our staff is within a few weeks of completing a review of thousands of pages. 我们的工作班子再过几星期就会完成数千页的审读。</div><br><br>另一是“在某时间点之后多久”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The paint dries within minutes of being applied. 油漆上过之后，几分钟就干了。/ Within a month of her husband's death, she was back in Mexico. 她丈夫去世后一个月，她就回到了墨西哥。/ Within hours of the bombing, ten tanks and several armored vehicles rolled into the Palestinian leader's badly battered compound. (The New York Times, Sept. 20, 2002, A6) 炮击后过了几个钟头，十辆坦克和好几辆装甲车隆隆开进了那位巴勒斯坦领导人的破败的庭院。/ Most healthy adults who get the vaccine develop protection to most or all of these types within 2 to 3 weeks of getting the shot. 注射了本疫苗的健康成年人，大多数在接种了之后两到三个星期就会对大多数或所有这些菌类产生免疫。/ We can place an Englishman socially within a few seconds of his opening his mouth. 我们一听到一个英国人开口说话，几秒钟就能判明他的社会地位。</div><br><br>有时候 within 后面不一定是明确的时间数量，此时更要注意不要理解错误。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But something curious happened within a generation of that book's publication. (U.S. News & World Report, Oct. 23, 2006, p. 59) 但是那本书出版后过了一代人的时间，就发生了奇怪的事。（注意：a generation 是一个时间数量；不是“在这本书出版的一代人当中”）</div>但是，如果事情尚未发生，就不一定指时间段结束时不早不晚的特定一个时间点，而可以指一段时间之内的任何一个时间点。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Computers are returnable within 14 days of purchase with original receipt. 购买电脑后 14 天内，可以凭原来的发票退货。（不一定非得等到 14 天，买了后第二天也可以）</div>由于 within ... of ... 表示时间往往带有这种“一段时间之内的任何一个时间点”的意义，如果要表示“某时间点之前另一明确时间点”，而且表示两个时间点之间的时间段很短促，用 within ... of ... 就不能充分表示原意，此时可以说 with only ... to go before ...。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>With only two hours to go before the final decision was made, everyone was nervous. 离最后做决定只有 2 小时，人人心里都很紧张。也可以用 with ... until ...。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... recent polls have shown Obama with a lead no smaller than 7 percentage points with less than two weeks until Election Day. (The Associated Press, Oct. 23, 2008) ……最近的民意调查表明，奥巴马在离选举日不到 2 周的时候领先至少 7 个百分点。也可以只说 with (only)... to go。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>With twenty-four hours to go (before the election), Keith thought he had it sewn up. (Jeffrey Archer, The Fourth Estate) 到了（离选举）还有 24 小时的时候，凯思觉得他已经胜券在握了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 也可以后面没有 of ...，这个前面的时间点是不言自明的。此时，谓语动词可以表示瞬时动作，也可以表示延续状态（指这段时间当中发生变化的结果状态）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Within minutes I was called to his office. 几分钟后，我就被喊到他的办公室。/ Within half an hour they were eating sandwiches in the cafeteria. 半小时后，他们在餐厅吃着三明治。</div><br><br>
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without
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>without</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> without + 名词 + 动词现在分词或过去分词，意思是“没有这件事发生”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The war was over without a shot being fired. 兵不血刃，战争就结束了。/ Without anyone noticing, he slipped through the window. 谁也没有发觉，他就爬出了窗口。/ I wouldn't dare go home without the job finished. 活没干完，我不敢回家。/ One truck might have been stolen without its owner even knowing that it had been missing. 有一辆卡车可能被偷了之后连车主都不知道已经不见了。/ ... without there being any difference. ……没有任何区别。</div><br><br>without 可以有三种隐约含义。(a) 事实没有，通常 without 不出现在句首，例如不习惯说 *Without French dressing John ate salad. 要说 John ate salad without French dressing. (约翰单吃沙拉，不加法国调味酱。)(b) 如果没有，with 词组在句首句末均可。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Without French dressing John never ate salad. 没有法国调味酱，约翰就从来不吃沙拉。/ We are still on the road to catastrophe without major policy changes. (Paul Krugman, "Salvation Gets Cheap," in The New York Times, Apr. 18, 2014, A23) 如果在政策上不进行巨大的改变，我们仍然走向灾难。(c) 即使没有，with 词组多在句末。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's even possible that decarbonizing will take place without special encouragement, but we can't and shouldn't count on that. (ibid.) 即使得不到特别的鼓励，非碳化也会实行，不过我们不能也不应该将之视为当然。</div><br><br>以 that 引入的名词从句，在英语中不可以作为介词的宾语（例如不能说 *with that ..., from that ..., to that ..., in that ..., without that ... 之类），需要说 “that ... 从句中所说的事没有发生”时，一个变通的办法就是 without + 名词 + 动词现在分词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Could the Courier really be up for sale without any of his professional advisers being aware of it? (Jeffrey Archer, The Fourth Estate) 《信使报》会不会连他的那些专业顾问们都不知情就上市出售呢？/ How can he be moving between Brooklyn and Manhattan carrying her cell phone without somebody spotting him? (Mary Higgins Clark, Where Are You Now?) 他怎么能够拿着她的手机来往布什克林和曼哈顿而不被发现呢？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> without 与 with 呼应时，可以略去宾语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>those with psychopathic traits and those without (The Economist, May 28, 2005, p. 82) 有精神病态的和没有的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 作为副词，without 与 within 相对，表示空间的“外”与“内”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The door itself opened from without. 门自己从外边开了。/ She cut open the fruit and began to suck out the soft flesh within. 她把水果切开，把里面的嫩果肉吸出来。/ sagely within and kingly without 内圣外王</div><div class="ex-item">Confucian without and Legalist within 儒表法里（中译英）。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> without 后面如果是单数可数名词，要有不定冠词；如果是不可数名词，就不用冠词或加 any。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Max went out without a hat/a coat/a newspaper. 马克斯出去时没戴帽子/没穿外套/没拿报纸。/ a house without a toilet 没有洗手间的房子</div><div class="ex-item">a family without a car 没有车的人家</div><div class="ex-item">without (any) money/water/butter 没有钱/水/黄油</div><div class="ex-item">a man without (any) energy 一个没有精力的人</div><div class="ex-item">a speech without (any) passion 一篇毫无激情的演说</div><div class="ex-item">a room without (any) furniture 一个没有家具的房间。如果是复数可数名词，最好加上 any。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a test without any mistakes 一次无错误的测验。</div><br><br>
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with²
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>with²</b></div>以 with 引入的短语，可以在句中起说明情况的作用。详细说明如下：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> with + 名词 + 介词短语： (a) 在句首表示“在……情况下”（说明当时的背景）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But now, with the rest of the country desperately in need of oil, any extra will disappear fast. 但是如今国内其他地区需油迫切，有多少剩余都会很快用光。/ With the whole meeting in uproar, the chairman abandoned the attempt to take a vote. 眼看整个会场闹成一片，主席就打消了交付表决的打算。/ With the military under orders to get lighter and faster, several companies are designing new gear. 由于军方奉令要轻装化和快速化，因此好几家公司正在设计新装备。/ With only a handful of these distinctive handmade timepieces in circulation, this exquisite wristwatch could only be found in the collections of the world's most distinguished gentry. (U.S. News and World Report, ad)这种名贵的手工精制计时器只有寥寥少数在市场流通，因此这款精美的手表只能在世界上最高雅的大户的藏品中找到。/ With the talks in their 8th day, they underscored the urgency of completing the negotiations. 随着谈判进入第八天，他们强调要尽快完成谈判。/ With the country in the fledgling stages of its great democratic experiment, Washington had focused on the very concept of union itself. 正当这个国家还处于它伟大的民主试验的初始阶段时，华盛顿就专心关注联合这个概念本身。</div>(b) 放在句末表示附带的情况说明。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He opened it (= the door), but Fred's voice stopped him with his hands still on the knob. 他打开了门，但是他的手还没有离开门把，弗雷德就喊住了他。（注意这里的 with 不能理解为“用……来制止”）</div>但有时候放在句末（包括从句的句末）也可以表示主要的背景情况说明。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But if the peacekeeping force comes to Liberia with Taylor still in place, the rebels said it would only strengthen his ability to hang on to power. 但是叛军声称，如果维和部队在泰勒仍然在位之时前来利比里亚，这只会加强他抱住权力不放的能力。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> with + 名词 + 形容词：通常放在句首，表示“在……情况下”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>With defeat imminent, Hitler shot himself. 希特勒看到大势已去，就吞枪自杀。/ With jobs scarce, close to half a million people have given up looking. 由于工作机会很少，将近 50 万人放弃了求职。</div><br><br>也可以放在句末。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But how could one write history with Macaulay so close behind? (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) (在历史界，) 刚刚出了个麦考利，谁还能写出更好的史书？（这里的 behind 指“之前”，不是“之后”）</div><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> with + 名词 + 动词现在分词或过去分词：(a) 放在句首，表示“在……情况下”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>With the tree growing/grown tall, we get more shade. 树长高了，我们的树荫就多了。/ With all the family travelling in Europe, the house seems very empty. 全家都在欧洲旅行，房子就显得很空了。/ With inflation surpassing 1,000% and food increasingly scarce, the country is sliding toward disaster. 通货膨胀超过了 1,000%，食品越来越越缺，这个国家正在滑向灾难。/ With her mother gone, her thoughts turned to her own career. 她母亲既然去世了，她的思想就转到自己的事业上来。</div><br><br>with + 名词后面用动词现在分词还是过去分词，区别在于事情到底是已经完成了还是在进行中。如 With the tree growing/grown tall, we get more shade. 如果用growing，则树仍然在生长，树荫越来越大；如果用 grown，则尽管树不会停止生长，但在说话中着重树的生长已经到了某个阶段，结果是树荫大到了一定程度。(b) 放在句末，表示附带的情况说明。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>That worry is now taking on a greater resonance, with terrorism surging overseas and the CIA warning that the risks of a terror attack at home are at pre-September 11 levels. (The Daily Gazette, Oct. 21, 2002) 这种担心现在正在引起更大的共鸣，因为海外恐怖活动猖獗，而且中央情报局又发出警告，说本土遭受恐怖袭击的风险处于“9·11”前夕的水平。/ Aviation authorities said six people survived with the rest feared dead. 空运当局称，有 6 人生还，其余人恐怕已经遇难。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> with + 名词 + 动词不定式，放在句末，表示附带说明要做某事。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The new orders were for six hundred thousand units of penicillin every six hours, injected intramuscularly, with the first injection to be given at once. 新的医嘱，要每 6 小时肌肉注射青霉素 60 万单位，第一针立刻注射。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> with + 名词 + 名词：(a) 放在句首，表示“在某人或事物已经成为……的情况下”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But with the scowling mugs of Newt Gingrich and Bob Dole a fading memory, Republicans are retooling their image to appear more family-friendly. (BusinessWeek, May 30, 1999, p. 55) 但是，随着金里奇和多尔皱眉绷脸的形象在人们的记忆中逐渐淡去，共和党人现在正重整自己的形象，要显得更为维护家庭。/ But with employments claims the fastest-growing category of civil lawsuits, employers hate the proposal. (Business Week, May 3, 1999, p. 55) 但是，由于有关雇用的申诉成了民事诉讼数量增加最快的一类案件，雇主们很讨厌这个建议。</div>(b) 放在句末，表示附带的情况说明。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>OPEC is about to be dethroned, with Putin its successor. 石油输出国组织即将被赶下宝座，继承大位的是普京。/ To convince ordinary Russians to honor their tax obligations, a public example had to be made of the oligarchs — with Yukos, Russia's largest privately held company, the signature demonstration. 为了说服普通的俄罗斯人遵守纳税义务，需要把寡头们拿来惩一儆百，于是俄罗斯最大的私有公司尤科斯就成了典型的示范。/ Americans' unpaid taxes are now topping $300 billion a year, with people who underreport their income the biggest culprits. (The Associated Press, Mar. 30, 2005) 美国人没有缴纳的税款现在达到一年 3,000 亿美元之巨，而低报收入者是其中的罪魁祸首。/ Though some of these students are not planning to have children and some hope to have a family and work full time, many others, like Ms. Liu, say they will happily play a traditional female role, with motherhood their main commitment. (The New York Times, Sept. 20, 2005, A1) 尽管这些学生当中有一些并不计划生孩子，而且有一些希望成家后全职工作，但是另外有许多人像刘女士那样表示将很乐于担当传统的女性角色，以做母亲为自己的主要使命。/ That's because the federal government's overall investment in research and development is declining, with a funding freeze for the National Institute of Health a particular source of alarm to scientists and researchers. (The Sunday Gazette, July 23, 2006, A1) 这是因为联邦政府对研发事业的总投入正在削减，而对国家卫生研究院的资金调拨冻结尤其引起科学家和研究人员的担心。/ Before that, he (= Giuliani) had pulled off a near miracle in reversing New York's decline, with plummeting crime rates his crowning achievement. 在此之前，他干了一件近乎奇迹的事，扭转了纽约的衰败，而以犯罪率的猛降为他最顶峰的业绩。</div>(c) 有时 with 后面两个名词彼此之间加上一个介词 as，通常表示某人担任的角色或职务（这个表示角色或职务的后一个名词不要冠词）。例如美国有人搞民意测验，一个问题就是：Do you feel safe with Bush as president? (由布什来担任总统，你觉得安全吗？)<br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 也有一连使用几个 with 而后面跟着的成分各不相同的，用以铺陈多重的背景。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>With bombs exploding in Iraq on an almost daily basis; with 1,780 American soldiers dead; with London braced for more terror attacks; and with bitter recriminations emanating from liberals in Britain and America over Downing Street memos, yellow cake from Niger, Gitmo and more, the moment seems inauspicious to consider other serious threats to our lives and welfare. 伊拉克几乎天天都有炸弹爆炸事件；1,780 名美国军人已经牺牲；英国政府紧张防范今后的恐怖袭击；英美两国的自由派对唐宁街备忘录痛加指摘，向尼日尔采购精铀矿事件闹得风风雨雨，关塔那摩事件轰动一时……目前这个时刻，似乎不适宜于考虑其他一些涉及我们生命和福利的严重威胁。/ How could one be a creative scientist, with Lyell and Darwin still alive? Be a statesman, with Disraeli and Gladstone polarizing all the available space? (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 在科学界，莱尔和达尔文依然健在，谁还能成为一名有创见的科学家？要想搞政治吧，迪斯雷利和格莱斯顿两个山头对峙，各霸一方，谁能与之争雄？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 值得注意的是：最后一个成分（动词现在分词或过去分词、形容词、名词）有时候由于前一个成分很长而很迟才出现，此时要注意抓住前后呼应关系，不要“断了线”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He sat behind his desk with his elbows and hairy forearms braced. 他坐在办公桌后面，胳膊肘和多毛的前臂挺着。/ With its claim that Iraq was hiding chemical, biological and nuclear weapons still unproven, the Bush administration is preparing to dispatch hundreds of additional investigators to step up the search... (The Sunday Gazette, Aug. 20, 2003, A1) 布什政府原先声称伊拉克在暗藏化学、生物和核武器，但这个说法仍然没有得到证实，于是它就准备增派几百名调查人员去进一步搜查，……（注意这里的 still unproven 不是指 weapons 而是指前面的 claim）</div>
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with¹
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>with¹</b></div>中国人学英文，对 with 最熟悉的理解，无非“同……一起”和“用(某手段)”。其实 with 的含义还要复杂一些。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 许多词典没有收进的一个词义用法，是引入某人的工作单位或某顾客购物的商店或订购商品的厂家。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a pilot <b>with</b> United Airlines 一位在美国联合航空公司任职的驾驶员</div><div class="ex-item">associate professor of physics <b>with</b> the United States Air Force Academy 美国空军学院物理学副教授</div><div class="ex-item">He had been <b>with</b> FDA a year. 他曾经在食品及药物管理局干过一年。/ Are you still <b>with</b> Davis Tools? 你还在戴维斯工具店工作吗？/ He wondered how long his tenure <b>with</b> the bank could continue. 他不知道自己在那家银行还能干多久。/ I wonder if you're already insured <b>with</b> GEICO. 不知道您是否已经在 GEICO 公司买了保险。/ Thank you for shopping <b>with</b> us. 感谢光顾敝店。(不是“同我们一起购物”)</div><div class="ex-item">They placed their first orders <b>with</b> Walter Somers of Birmington for the tubes. 他们向伯明翰的瓦尔特·索默斯公司订第一批货，要购买那些管子。</div><br><br>与上面的含义相仿，with 还可以引入主客关系中的“主方”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... families unable to give cash often provide non-monetary help, such as offering to baby-sit their grandchildren or allowing adult children to move in <b>with</b> them. (U.S. News & World Report, Dec. 24, 2007, p. 52) ……拿不出现金来的人家，就常常(给成年子女)提供非钱财的支援，例如提出代为照料孙辈，或是让成年子女搬进自己家里来居住。(with them 的 them，就是开头的 families；要注意这里的 with 指“到……家中”，不是“同……一道”；to move in with them 是“搬进他们家中”，而不是“同他们一道搬进来”。) 同样，来到某人所在的某处，这个某人也可以用 with 引入。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Jack wandered back into the kitchen and then out onto the patio <b>with</b> Cindy while she grilled his steak. 杰克信步走到厨房，然后又走到庭院辛迪替他烤肉片的地方。(Cindy 本来就在 patio，不是 Jack 同她一起来到 patio。)</div><div class="ex-item">Listen to our new weekly podcasts and go behind the scenes <b>with</b> RD editors and experts. (Reader's Digest, June 2006, p. 6) 请访问我们新推出的每周播客，进入后台，会见《读者文摘》的编辑和专家。(behind the scenes 先于并统摄 with RD editors and experts，否则就成了“先会同这些人，再一起进入后台”。)</div><div class="ex-item">You must have spent a fortune on hotels during your trip. Couldn't you stay <b>with</b> your friends, or your friend's friends? 你此行住旅馆一定花了许多钱。你不能住在朋友家或者朋友的朋友家吗？/ ... I am informed that she lodged <b>with</b> a female cousin. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 我听说她寄住在一个表姐家。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 许多词典没有收进的另一个用法，是表示“向(某机构提出某问题或事项或办理某手续)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Between 1996 and 2000, the United States filed 15 cases <b>with</b> the World Trade Organization alleging violations of patent and copyright protection. 自 1996 年至 2000 年，美国向世界贸易组织提出了 15 宗声称专利权和版权受到侵犯的案件。/ If you are traveling abroad, you can register <b>with</b> the nearest US embassy or consulate. 你如果在国外旅行，可以到最近处的美国大使馆或领事馆登记。/ Youmust file the form <b>with</b> us with the correct fee within 30 days after you receive a denial letter. 您必须在收到拒绝信后 30 天之内将表格连同全额费用提交至本局。/ As of the most recent filings <b>with</b> the state Board of Elections, ... 根据已经报请州选举委员会备案的最新资料，……</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 也可以表示“向(某人)”提出某个问题(中国人可能第一个想到的介词是 to，其实不一定合适)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>President Clinton, on three occasions, raised concerns directly <b>with</b> Pakistani leaders about reports that ... (The Daily Gazette, Oct. 19, 2002, A1) 克林顿总统曾三次直接向巴基斯坦领导人表示关注，因为有报道说，……</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 可以引入一个中间传递人。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He left the flowers <b>with</b> the doorman. 他把鲜花留下，让门房转交。/ I left the letter <b>with</b> his secretary. 我把信留给他的秘书转交他。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 可以引入某事物的一个局部，对这个局部加以描绘，从而描绘了这件事情本身。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>two wheels <b>with</b> their spokes painted bright red 轮辐漆得鲜红的两个轮子</div><div class="ex-item">a restaurant <b>with</b> a Spanish owner and an Italian chef but which called itself a "French bistro" 老板是西班牙人、主厨是意大利人但却自称为“法国酒店”的一家饭馆。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 许多别的介词可以当作副词使用，如 in、on、about，但是通常人们的印象以及词典上的说明，都认为 with 只能作为介词，不可以当作副词。但是在一个特殊的场合，它可以显得像个副词。那就是以人为主语时，get something over and done with (硬着头皮勉强将某事做完，交差了事)；或是以事情为主语时，be over and done with。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I had my wisdom tooth out yesterday morning, so that's <b>over and done with</b>. 我昨天上午拔掉了智齿，事情也就算告一段落了。这个词组，在美式英语中也可以简化为 get something over with 或是 be over with。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Anything. Let's just <b>get</b> this <b>over with</b>. 算了。咱们把它做完了事。/ He skipped to the end of the chapter just to <b>get it over with</b>. 他干脆跳着看到那一章的末尾，就算了事。/ The Carter administration, no doubt, will now try to ignore the flap and <b>get</b> the renominations <b>over with</b>. (The Wall Street Journal, June 3, 1980) 卡特政府现在大概企图对此不加理会，让改变任命的事告一段落。/ This should have <b>been over with</b> already. This wasn't the plan. I don't like it. (U.S. News & World Report, Mar. 10, 2008, p. 33) 这件事本来早早就应该告一段落。原先计划不是这样的。我不喜欢这样。</div><br><br>英式英语则取 done 而弃 over，说 get something done with。其实，仔细分析一下，这个 with 其实还是没有脱离介词的性质，无论是 get something over with 还是 get something done with 当中，over with 或 done with 其实都是个宾语补足语，其中 done with 明显是词组动词 do with 的过去分词，这里 with 的介词性质一目了然。而 over with 只不过是以表语副词起与 done with 相同的宾语补足语作用。但是由于两者最后表现的形式都以没有宾语的 with 结尾，所以 with 就显得像个副词了。<br><br>
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witness
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>witness</b></div>作为及物动词（第四类动词）使用（“目击”）时，主语通常当然是人，但也可以不是人而是某段时间或某个地点，表示这个时间或这个地点发生了什么事。这是中文中较少使用而英文中甚至科技文章中也常常使用的拟人手法。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The last half of the Carboniferous Period witnessed periods of significant ice cap formation over polar landmasses. 在石炭纪后半期，极区的陆地块上面有些时期出现了大片冰冠形成的现象。/ Queen Victoria's period witnessed the expansion of Britain. 维多利亚女王时期，英国实行了扩张。/ The city witnessed riots by the local people in 1978. 1978 年，该城居民曾发生暴乱。</div><br><br>同 witness 一样，动词 see 也可以有这个用法。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Yesterday saw the resignation of the acting Interior Minister. 代内政部长昨天辞职了。/ A U.S. military spokesman said the past week had seen the highest number of car bombs and roadside bombs in Baghdad this year. (The Associated Press, Oct. 4, 2006) 一位美国军方发言人说，上周巴格达发生的汽车炸弹和路边炸弹事件，数量是今年以来最高的。</div><br><br>
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wonder
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>wonder</b></div>中文的“怀疑”一词，可以有正反两面的意义（参见 doubt 与 suspect 条），往往要从上下文以及说话时的事实背景来辨别。英文的 wonder，意义同中文的“怀疑”略有接近之处，表示“心中摸不透”（中性的）或是“猜想不见得如此”（负面的）或是“猜想可能如此”（正面的）这三种思想倾向，使用 wonder if 或 wonder whether 时都会依当时语境和说话者的心态而不同，这就直接影响到 if 或 whether 后面的从句的肯定或否定。下面分别对三种思想倾向加以说明。<br><br>大体上说，wonder 由于原意就是“惊讶”，比较接近负面的“猜想不见得如此”，而且 if 与 whether 带有询问、诘问的语气，有点像中文的反诘“难道……吗”，因而后面的从句中，肯定的偏向要用否定形式，否定的偏向要用肯定形式，也就是形式和本意恰恰相反。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 用否定形式表示肯定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I wonder if it isn't time now to think of national reunification. 我觉得，考虑国家统一，现在也许是时候了。（偏向肯定，用 not）/ It made you wonder whether the hubbub from four years ago wasn't just a small group of lunatics with an Internet connection. 这使得你觉得，4 年前的那场风波，也许只不过一小群上了互联网的疯子之所为。（偏向肯定，用 not）/ Sadly, one has to wonder whether, in fact, such suspicions may not be partly justified. (Zbigniew Brzezinski) 可惜的是，人们不得不觉得这样的怀疑的确有些许理由。（偏向肯定，用 not）/ The level of sectarian violence was so high that many wondered Iraq wasn't already in a civil war. (David Ignatius, in The Daily Gazette, Aug. 26, 2006, A9) 教派暴力冲突的水平如此之高，以至于许多人在问，伊拉克是不是已经处于内战状态。（偏向肯定，用 not）/ He said he was so worried about Iraq and the way Rumsfeld ran things that he wondered if he himself should not resign in protest. (Newsweek, Oct. 9, 2006, p. 38) 他说他对伊拉克局势以及拉姆斯菲尔德办事的方式感到忧虑，以至于是否考虑自己应该辞职表示抗议。</div><br><br>wonder 并不是唯一有这种情况的动词，许多表示“疑问”意义的动词都有这种情况。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>By the early seventeenth century a number of Spaniards were asking whether their country, corrupted by riches, was not going down the same slippery slope as Rome. 到了 17 世纪初叶，好些西班牙人就在问，他们那个因为富有而腐败的国家会不会像罗马那样顺势下滑沉沦。/ I think ... would you please send to ask if my visit were not better put off till she is recovered? (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 我想……您能不能上楼去问问，要么等她好了我再来？（倾向的意见是 my visit would be better put off）/ When she came back he asked if he should not have given her some money. (ibid.) 她走回屋子后，查尔斯问她刚才是不是该给她些钱。（这里还要注意，从句中用了 should 又加了 not，但这个 not 并不是同 should 结合来表示“本来应该不给”。这个 not 是“虚意”的，并不是真的否定，所以并不结合 should 而成为“不应”。这里只是“本来需要给或不需要给”，而不是“本来应该给或本来应该不给”，因为“应该不”与“不需要”是不同的。）</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 用肯定形式表示否定的，更为常见。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He wondered if he would ever see them again. 他生怕再也看不见他们了。/ Mysterious photos make us wonder if seeing is believing. 一些神秘的照片使我们觉得眼见不一定就可以为实。/ Antiwar clerics wonder if Bush hears their call. 反战的神职人员估计布什听不见他们的呼吁。/ People often wonder whether R. O. Korea's small economy could play fairly with the U.S. 人们往往怀疑，韩国小小的经济是否能同美国公平相处。（偏向否定，用肯定形式）/ Students wonder whether they should vote. 学生们觉得他们也许不应该投票。/ I personally wonder whether the government could survive such a scandal. 我个人觉得政府不见得经得起这样一个丑闻。/ I recognize the vibrant and important role online news agencies play in our society, but at times I wonder if they are indeed living up to their full potential and responsibilities. 网上新闻通讯社所起的重要活跃作用，我是承认的，但有时候我不知道它们是不是已经充分发挥了自己的潜力并尽到了自己的责任。（委婉的否定）/ I wonder if my wife and I will remain healthy enough to enjoy the rest of our lives. (Ben Mattlin, in Newsweek, July 24, 2006, p. 19) 我都有点担心，生怕我和妻子不能维持足够健康的身体来享受下半生。（倾向于否定，用肯定形式）/ Judging from Hwang's almost daily media appearances over the past couple of years, one might wonder if he ever had time for the research at his research lab at Seoul National University. 从黄禹锡过去几年来几乎天天都在媒体上露面来看，对于他是否有时间到国立首尔大学他的实验室里搞研究，大可提出疑问。/ Analysts wonder whether the Fed can prevent a deep economic slowdown. 分析家们怀疑美联储是否能够防止一次深刻的经济放缓。 (3) 但是，wonder if 或 wonder whether 也可以表示一种介于两种看法之间的中性态度，既不肯定，也不否定。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I wonder whether this is the right thing to do. 我不知道这样做对不对。/ She wondered if it would snow that night. 她不知道那天夜里会不会下雪。……/ I wonder if I ought to go back and apologize. (Hugh Lofting, The Story of Doctor Dolittle) 我不知道我是不是该往回走，道个歉。</div><br><br>这一层否定的意思，往往可以从从句中的 any 之类带否定意义的单词中看出来。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Critics wonder whether all the state and federal money being spent on homeland security will make the nation any safer than enforcing the laws already on the books. 批评者们觉得，联邦和各州花在国土安全上的全部金钱，比起将已经在案的法律贯彻实施，不见得就能够使国家更为安全。……/ I wonder if this had anything to do with Paul and Cindy's split. 我看这同保罗与辛迪的离异不见得有什么关系。</div><br><br>从句中如果有 or，就不是肯定或否定的问题，而是两个可能性去伪存真的问题。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We are left to wonder whether human beings are born evil or just pushed down the road to immorality due to environmental factors. 我们只好琢磨，究竟人一生下来就是性恶的呢，还是后来由于环境因素才走上了不道德之路的呢。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> I wonder if you ... 是一种很客气的请求，没有否定意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I wonder if you can help me. 不知道您能否帮帮我。/ I am wondering if you'd look after my dog while I go shopping. 我上街买东西的时候不知道您能不能替我照顾一下我的狗。用于这个意义时，不能以否定形式表示肯定，通常也不用 *whether 而用 if。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> wonder if 或 wonder whether 也可以不表示否定的怀疑而是肯定的怀疑，此时后面的从句就是肯定形式表示肯定内容，否定形式表示否定内容。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>At times I wonder if no information is better than misinformation. 有时候我简直觉得，没有信息说不定比有误导信息还好些。/ But I wonder if a crisis is needed before the effort is made to make this happen. 但是我心中琢磨，是不是需要来一次危机，才会有人做出努力来使这样的事情发生。/ Sometimes I wonder whether the world is being run by smart people who are putting us on or by imbeciles who really mean it. (Mark Twain) 我有时候觉得，摆弄这个世界的，要么是一些有意骗我们上当的聪明人，要么是一些假戏真唱的笨蛋。/ We wonder if we really lack the ability to solve issues peacefully. 我们觉得，我们好像真的缺乏和平解决问题的能力。/ Fliers wonder if there's no such thing as a free ride. 航空乘客觉得所谓免费航班说不定是子虚乌有。/ I wonder if that's the reason insects are so fond of flying into candles — because they want to turn into Snap-dragon-flies. (Lewis Carroll, Through the Looking Glass) 我想，昆虫为什么这么喜欢往蜡烛里面扑去，也许是它们想变成蜻蜓。/ If Aesop lived to see the two business leaders depicted as hare and tortoise, I wonder whether he would revise the ending by giving the hare the victory and lifting the 2,500 year-old stigma from him. 如果伊索活到现在，看见这两位商界巨头被描写成龟兔赛跑，那么，我猜想，他会把结局改写，让兔子获胜，去掉兔子身上背了 2,500 年的污点。</div><br><br>
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word
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>word</b></div>不带任何冠词的 word，表示“消息，信息”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>What word is there of thenegotiations? 有什么关于谈判的消息吗？/ There is still no word of survivors. 还没有生还者的消息。/ She sent word to us that she would be delayed. 她发消息给我们，说她可能晚到。/ I don't know how to get word to him. 我不知道如何把话传给他。/ She left word with her secretary that ... 她在她秘书那里留了话，说……/ Word has it that ... 据说……/ Word emerged from Asian retailing sources last week that ... (Newsweek, Oct. 30, 2006, p. 50) 上周从亚洲零售业人士那里传出消息，说……</div><br><br>word 前面没有不定冠词，就需要后面补充说明其内容，或者说明其来源。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Any more word from the doctors? (Merrillee Whren, Hometown Promise) 医生们还说了些什么？如果内容前面已经交代过，后面出现 word 时，就要说 the word。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Apparently the word was out. (Dan Brown, The Da Vinci Code) 显然是漏了（有关前面说过的某事的）风声。</div><br><br>
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work
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>work</b></div>这个不及物动词最通常的意思是指人在工作，但是也可以指物在起作用（或能够起作用）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The engine doesn't work. 引擎不动了。还可以更抽象一些，指某一情况可以接受。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'll be there at noon. Does it work for you? 我中午到那边去。你觉得行吗？</div><br><br>
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worker
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>worker</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 中文“工人阶级”是拿名词“工人”作定语修饰“阶级”，但英文不可以说 *worker class，只能说 working class。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 中文“工人”一般理解不包括脑力劳动者，但英文 worker 意义则比较广，连政府办事人员都可以称为 worker。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>social worker 社会工作者。</div><br><br>
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work on sb.
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>work on sb.</b></div>中文“做某人的工作”（即努力去影响他，说服他），英文也有类似的说法，而且用的单词也差不多。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We'll keep on working on him. 我们要继续做他的工作。</div><br><br>
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world
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>world</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 常常用来表示“很多，很大”。修饰名词成分，可以说 a/the world of。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There is a world of difference between A and B. A 与 B 有很大的差别。/ It did her a world of good. 这对她有很大的好处。/ A bit of fresh air will do you the world of good. 吸点新鲜空气，会对你有大有好处。修饰形容词或副词成分，可以说 worlds。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Their views are worlds apart. 他们的观点相距很远。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> for the world 用来加强否定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I wouldn't change it for the world. 我怎么也不换。</div><br><br>但是 for all the world 后面加上 as if 则表示“煞有介事，像真的似的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>for all the world as if nothing had happened 若无其事。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 在一些特殊问句中，疑问词后面有时候加上 in the world，没有任何“在世界上”的意义，只用来加强语气。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He tried to figure out what in the world could be going on. 他设法想弄清楚究竟可能正在发生什么事情。</div><br><br>
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World War
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>World War</b></div>“第二次世界大战”可以是 the II World War 或按其实际读法写出 the Second World War (注意都有 the)，但更常说的是 World War II (此时 II 就读成 Two；注意没有 the；简写为 WWII)。用序数词要放在 the 后、名词前，用基数词就要放在名词后，而且不用 the。参见 number 条之(3)。<br><br>
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worried
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>worried</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> be worried 与 worry 虽然形式上一个是被动语气，一个是主动语气，其实意义相同，而且都表示延续状态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>People worry/are worried about the safety of nuclear energy. 人们对核能的安全感到担心。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> worry 作为不及物动词，是“自己担忧”；作为及物动词，是“使(别人)担忧”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm sorry I worried you. 让您担心了，很对不起。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> worried 与 worrisome 意义不同，前者指人感到担心、忧虑，后者指事物使人担心、忧虑。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Mrs. Smith's health has been worrisome. 史密斯夫人的健康状况一度令人忧虑。</div><br><br>
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worrisome
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>worrisome</b></div>参见 worried 条。<br><br>
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worthy
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>worthy</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 这个形容词单独使用时，意思是“高尚的，正派的，当之无愧的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a worthy soldier 一个正直的军人</div><div class="ex-item">a worthy cause 一份崇高的事业</div><div class="ex-item">a worthywinner 一位当之无愧的获奖者。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 后面有 of，最原始的意义是“值得得到……的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>worthy of all praise 值得获得一片赞扬声的</div><div class="ex-item">worthy of trust 值得信赖的</div><div class="ex-item">worthy of support 值得支持的</div><div class="ex-item">worthy of notice 值得注意的</div><div class="ex-item">worthy of discussion 值得讨论的</div><div class="ex-item">worthy of the name 名不虚传的。</div><br><br>也可以是“无愧于……的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a Senator worthy of the land of Lincoln 一位无愧于林肯家乡的参议员。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 但是 worthy of 也可以用来表示“简直可以同……相比”，褒义和贬义都可以。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The U.S. military is developing gadgets worthy of James Bond movies to wage its new wars. 美国军方正在开发一些可以与詹姆斯·邦德电影中的间谍道具媲美的小机件，来用于自己的新战争。/ This is an act of censorship worthy of Joseph Goebbels. 这是一次同(纳粹宣传部长)戈培尔的做法如出一辙的书报检查。/ a story worthy of Hollywood 一个好莱坞式的故事</div><div class="ex-item">horror stories worthy of Halloween 同万圣节气氛差不多的恐怖故事</div><div class="ex-item">delusion and illusion worthy of Dickens 同狄更斯(在《双城记》开头一正一反的描述)类似的妄想和幻想</div><div class="ex-item">melodrama worthy of Puccini 普契尼式的情节传奇剧。</div><br><br>有时候 worthy of 后面的名词可以放在 worthy 前面，用或不用连字符同 worthy 连接。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>noteworthy 值得注意的</div><div class="ex-item">newsworthy 有新闻价值的</div><div class="ex-item">an Oscar-worthy performance 简直可以拿奥斯卡奖的一次表演。有时也可以不合成一个词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Nobel Prize worthy breakthrough makes antibiotics obsolete. 一项值得荣获诺贝尔奖的突破，使得抗生素变得过时。（一份医疗小册子的标题）</div>
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worth²
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>worth²</b></div>作为名词，可以前面加上货币数量，后面用 of 加上商品或交易额，表示这些商品或交易值多少钱。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Since the fall of Saddam, more than $800 million worth of construction contracts have been given to Turkish companies. (Newsweek, Oct. 17, 2004, p. 41) 自从萨达姆倒台以来，已经有价值 8 亿美元的营建合同给了土耳其公司。</div><br><br>有时前面可以不是货币数量而是时间的长短(用所有格 's)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>three years' worth of research money 3 年的研究费用</div><div class="ex-item">a month's worth of tabloids 整整一个月堆积起来的小报</div><div class="ex-item">They squeezed four years' worth of study into three. 他们把 4 年的课程压缩到 3 年。/ The walls were covered with portraits of a century's worth of New York County District Attorneys. 墙壁上挂满了一个世纪以来纽约县历任地区检察官的肖像。/ Like a peal of thunder, a career's worth of symbology and history came crashing down around him. (Dan Brown, The Da Vinci Code) 他一生的符号学和历史研究心血，就像一声雷鸣，轰然倒下，倒在他的四周。/ After a week's worth of testimony in September, a judge decided in favor of the bar. (The New York Times, Nov. 2, 2011, A18) 经过 9 月份一周时间的听证，一位法官做出了有利于律师的裁定。</div><br><br>有时候 worth 前面可以只是个表示某一数量的复数名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>several blackboards worth of equations 写满了好几块黑板的方程式。</div><br><br>中文“多长时间的什么”，一般可以逐字译成 “... 's ...”，但是这只限于后者与时间的长短关系密切的场合，如 a week's work、two days' absence 之类。如果后者同时间的长短关系不密切，就往往需要用 worth of 插在中间。有了这个 worth，后者的语义范围就可以大为扩展。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>eleven years' worth of unbearable side effects 11 年之久的难以忍受的副作用</div><div class="ex-item">9/11 was responsible for twelve years' worth of lung damage for rescuers. “9·11”事件使得救援人员肺部受到的损伤相当于 12 年的自然损耗。/ settle 50 years' worth of scores 清算 50 年的老账</div><div class="ex-item">Eleven years' worth of smoking raises breast cancer risk by 40%. 吸烟 11 年，患乳腺癌的危险就提高 40%。</div><br><br>worth 前面是时间数量时，要有 's。如果前面是货币数目，数量小或准确时需要，数量大或笼统时不需要。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>two dollars' worth of candy 2 美元的糖</div><div class="ex-item">two million dollars worth of gold 200 万美元的黄金</div><div class="ex-item">25 million pounds worth of five-pound notes have been pulped because the designer made a mistake. 由于设计者出了错，价值 2,500 万英镑的 5 英镑纸币被化成了纸浆。</div><br><br>
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worth¹
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>worth¹</b></div>这是个兼有形容词和介词的句法功能的特殊单词（在许多英语词典中只列为介词，但是介词具有如此充实的词汇意义是很罕见的）。作为形容词，它只能充当表语或后置定语，而不能充当名词的前置定语。同时，它又有介词的功能，支配后面的一个名词或动名词。也就是说，作表语，它可以参与组成 be worth something 或 be worth + -ing (除了 be 之类的系动词，不能与其他动词连用)。意思都是表示值得对前面 be 的主语施加后面那个名词或动名词所代表的动作（也就是说，worth 后面的名词或动名词虽然形式上是主动的，但是就 worth 所指的那个名词来说，意义上是被动的）。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> be worth something。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The museum is worth a visit. 这个博物馆值得参观一下。/ It's worth a try. 值得一试。/ It's not worth the trouble. 不值得惹这个麻烦。/ Don't let him upset you, he isn't worth it. 别让他伤你的心，他不配。/ It's worth a lot more than I paid for it. 它比我付出的价钱宝贵多了。/ It's a nice coat, but it isn't worth the money. 这件外套不错，但是不值这个价钱。/ This would be a big plus for environmental quality, worth the added cost per vehicle. 这样做，对于环境质量会有大裨益，值得每辆车子增加一点开支。/ It's as much as my job is worth to let you in. 让你进去了，我的饭碗就要丢了。(it 是形式主语，真主语是 to let you in)</div><div class="ex-item">... it is as much as my place is worth to let him (= my master) see me touch your money. (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes) ……要是让我的主人看见我碰你的钱，我就要丢饭碗了。</div><br><br>如果 worth 后面的名词还有附加的及物动词不定式，此时该动词的逻辑宾语就是 be worth 的主语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The all-French labels can be confusing for Americans, but these refreshing whites are worth the effort to get to know. (Newsweek, Oct. 10, 2005, p. 68) 虽然全是法文的标签可能把美国人弄糊涂，但是，这些爽心提神的白葡萄酒还是值得花费点功夫去熟悉的。(get to know 在逻辑上的直接宾语是 these refreshing whites)</div>worth 后面常常有 it，这个 it 反过来表示主语本身（被视为代价）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But after a lifetime of smoking, is it worth it to quit? 抽了一辈子的烟，值得再戒烟吗？(这里前一个 it 是形式主语，to quit 是真主语，worth 后面的 it 指作为代价的 to quit)</div>有时候 worth 作表语，后面有 it，此时 worth 前面的主语就是“值得做”的事情。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In most times and places, this bitter trade-off is worth it. (Christopher Caldwell, "What a College Education Buys," in The New York Times, Feb. 25, 2007) 在大多数时间和地点，这样割爱还是值得的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> be worth + -ing:(a) 这个 -ing 动词可以是及物动词，此时结构比较简单容易掌握，及物动词的逻辑宾语就是句首的主语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The risk is worth taking. 风险是值得冒的。/ It might be worth checking whether they've received it. 究竟他们是否已经收到，也许值得查一下。(it 是形式主语，真主语是 whether ...)</div><div class="ex-item">If a job's worth doing, it's worth doing well. 值得做的事就值得做好。</div>(b) 这个 -ing 动词可以是不及物动词，或是虽然是及物动词但另有宾语，此时仍然要表示出值得对前面主语施加某动作，这个动词就要在后面增添其他成分从而变成具有针对前面主语的及物语义。这一来，结构就复杂化，掌握就比较费力，但是只要按照这里分析的思路来分析其结构，仍然可以掌握其句法构造。此时从意义上分析，有三种可能：第一种可能是：主语是个空泛的 it，暗指当前要达到某个目的，而 be worth 后面的名词或动名词表示要付出什么代价(worth 后面的成分本身意义齐全，不需要以前面的主语为动作对象)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's worth making an appointment before you go. 值得在你去之前先预约一下。/ It is worth looking in some detail at those languages where word order is free. 值得仔细看一下那些词序自由的语言。</div><br><br>第二种可能是：主语是某个事物，be worth 后面是动名词(及物动词，如果不及物，则后面必须有介词以形成及物的意义)，以表示为了达到某个目的，值得对这个主语施加 be worth 后面所说的动作，以作为代价。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She believed strongly there was more to come and it was worth waiting for. 她坚信后面还会有东西，值得等待。/ While the other states' approaches may be too drastic for some, they are worth keeping an eye on to see how well they work. 其他州的做法在某些人看来尽管过于大刀阔斧，但是还是值得继续观察，看看这些做法起多好的作用。/ This case is not worth inquiring into. 这个案子不值得深究。/ There is something worth facing certain death for. 有些事情值得为之面对必死的命运。/ Is this worth raising hell about? 值得为此大闹一场吗？</div><br><br>第三种可能是：主语本身就代表要达到的目的，be worth 后面的名词(或动名词)不要求另有逻辑宾语(亦即没有作用对象)，也就是说，它本身意义齐全，足以表示付出的代价，不需要以前面的主语为动作对象。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Firing him isn't worththe controversy it would start. 把他解雇掉，就会引起争议，不值得。/ The new house really wasn't worth all the expense involved. 新房子花费这么大，实在不值得。/ This agreement isn't worth the paper it's written on. 这个协议，还比不上协议那张纸值钱。/ The trip was expensive but it (= the trip) was worth every penny. 此行花费不少，但是每分钱都花得值。</div><br><br>这样的句型，中国人一时不容易习惯，需要反复琢磨。<br><br>
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would
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>would</b></div>对于这个助动词，中国人很不容易掌握。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 首先，比较好懂的是：它表示以过去为出发点的将来，相当于 will 的过去式。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He told me that he would be free in a few minutes. 他当时告诉我，他再过几分钟就有空。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 但是，would 也可以用于现在，最原本的用意是表示这件事情并不确定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We've never been to a dwarf planet before. What's it like? Is it smooth, like an ice cube, or does it have cracks, which would indicate radioactive or volcanic activity? (Newsweek, Sept. 4, 2006, p. 48) 我们先前从来没有访问过一个矮行星。它是什么样子的？它是像冰块那样光滑的呢，还是上面有裂纹？如果有裂纹，就说明了有放射性活动或者火山活动。（由于目前还不能断定究竟有没有裂纹，所以后面以代表“裂纹”的 which 为主语时，这个主语所代表的事物，究竟存在不存在，还是个未知数，因而这个主语所做的事情尚不能说是现实世界中发生的事情或存在的情况，这个主语的谓语动词就不能用直陈的语气。*which indicate ... 就意味着 which 代表的事物 cracks 是现实存在的，同前面问有没有 cracks 的问题相互矛盾。而加上助动词 would，就暗示了“这些 cracks 如果有的话”这个不确定性。）/ By 5:15 a.m. Wednesday, Democrats had won 228 seats, enough for control, and were leading for another 4, which would give them 232. Republicans, who hold 229 seats in the current House, won 193and were leading in another 10, which would give them 203. (The Associated Press, Nov. 8, 2006) 到了星期三清晨 5:15，民主党人已经赢了 228 席，已经足够控制众议院，而且还在另外 4 席争夺中领先，加在一起，他们会得到 232 席。目前在众议院控制着 229 席的共和党人，赢得了 193 席，在另外的 10 席中领先，加在一起，他们会得到 203 席。（这里的 would 是表示还有一些席位尚未定归属，所以加在一起的总数是假定的。）</div><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 既然 would 可以表示不确实性，也就可以用来表示婉转，不把话说死。这样一来，would 就在婉转的话语中大量使用，成了人们在社交中“三句不离”的惯用词(有了缩写体 'd)。有时候干脆代替了直接的说法(例如只能说 Would you like ...? 不能说 *Do you like ...?)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'd say it's too late. 看来为时已晚。/ I'd have to sit down and think. 我需要坐下来想一想。/ Would you type this for me please? 请你替我把这个打下来，好吗？/ Go and call him, would you? 请你去喊他一下，行吗？</div><br><br>但是 would 由于既可以表示“实而不虚的婉转肯定”，也可以表示“虚而不实的婉转否定”，所以遇到时，要小心辨别。通常如果说 I would 如何如何，后面没有转折(尤其是 but ...)，就的确是婉转口气的“我想做某事”；但是如果后面出现转折，这个 would 就是“我本来想做某事(但是由于某种原因不能做)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'd like to go. 我(真的)想去。/ I'd like to go, but I'm really pinched for time. 我本来想去，但是时间的确太紧(所以就不能去)。在下面的对话中，由于前头已经有了否定，would 就是表示“虚而不实”：— Had I not better go at once and fetch a doctor? — Please not. He would only advise me to do what I am already doing. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) (—我是不是马上请个医生来？—请不要去。医生只会叫我做一些我正在做的事。)如果不用 would 而用 will，则是肯定医生必来。但是在下面的句子中，would 就只是“实而不虚的婉转肯定”：We would suggest changing the valve every two years. (我们建议每两年换瓣膜一次。)</div><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 这样一种不把话说死的语气，无形中包含了一个“假如如何”的条件。因此，I would/I'd 往往带有“要是我，我就一定如何”的口气。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I wouldn't worry. 要是我，我就不担心。你也不必担心。/ I would have a word with her about it. 要是我，我就一定同她好好谈一谈。(注意：这里没有 like，如果说 I would like to have a word with her about it. 就是“我自己想同她谈一谈”了。)</div>用 would 的句子，往往可以把句中的状语成分甚至定语成分作为假定条件。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Born in better times (= If he had been born in better times), he would have become a great scientist. 他假如生而逢时，本来会成为一位大科学家。/ A company manager whose judgment was bad (= If his judgment was bad, a company manager) would very soon get his company into difficulties. 一个公司经理，如果判断力差，就会很快使公司困难重重。</div><br><br>尤其是如果主语是假定的，不是实际存在的，中文干脆可以译成“要是，如果”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>An Englishman would not pronounce the word that way. 如果是个英国人，这个单词就不会有那样的念法。(不定冠词 an 加上 would，表示这个“英国人”不是实际存在的。) (5) 由此出发，would 就成了“如果如何就会如何”中后一个“如何”的助动词(用于主句，但是条件状语从句可以出现，也可以是隐含的)。美式英语多用 would，英式英语则常用 should。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'd say it's too late. 我看为时已晚。(隐含“如果你要问我怎样看的话”)</div><div class="ex-item">He would reject such an offer. 这样的建议，他会拒绝的。(隐含“如果向他提出这样的建议的话”)</div><div class="ex-item">—What chance you could be wrong on any of that? —I'd be real surprised. (Tom Clancy, Executive Orders) (—有没有可能是你估计错了呢？—那就太离奇了。(隐含“如果我估计错了”))</div><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 由于 would 既可以表示“过去的将来”(即 will 的过去时)的直陈语气，也可以表示“虚而不实”的不确定语气，所以有时候同样一句话可以有不同的理解，例如 He said he would pay if he could. 就可以理解为“他说，他付不起，假如付得起，他本来是会付的”(违反事实的虚拟语气，等于 He said, "I would pay if I could.")，或理解为“他说，他如果付得起他就一定付”(符合事实的过去将来时，等于 He said, "I will pay if I can.") (例句引自 Otto Jespersen, The Philosophy of Grammar)<br><span class="seq">(7)</span> would 可以表示过去的习惯，有点类似 used to。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>After lunch he would take a nap. 午饭后他通常睡个午觉。/ I remember you would have tea in the afternoon. 我还记得您平常下午要喝一次茶。</div><br><br>但是 would 同 used to 有区别。第一，would 后面的不定式动词，只能是瞬时动作动词，而 used to 后面则既可以是瞬时动作动词，也可以是延续动作或状态的动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I used to/would smoke twenty cigarettes a day. 我从前一天抽 20 支香烟。/ He used to (*would) be a pilot before he got married. 他结婚前当过飞行员。第二，used to 隐含强烈的“只是过去习惯，现在已经不了”的意思，would 虽然也表示“过去习惯”，但是“现在已经不了”的意义不强。第三，would 多用于书面体，used to 多用于口语体。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> would 作为纯粹意义的助动词，通常不出现在 if 引入的条件状语从句中(should 则可以，表示可能性进一步缩小)。但是如果 if 引入名词性从句，则不受此限。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He asked me if (= whether) I would do him a favor. 他问我有件事情我愿不愿意帮他忙。另外，如果 would 不作为纯粹的助动词，而是自己有语气上的意义(如“意愿，计划，打算”)，也不受此限。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They said if I would not make it up with them, they would carry me before a justice. 他们说，如果我不肯(would)同他们私了，他们就要把我送上法庭。/ If we would fly to New York, we would do it by some chartered flight. 我们如果要(would)飞纽约，就坐包机。/ A white farmer promised freedom and a piece of bottom land to his slave if he would perform some very difficult chores. (Toni Morrison, Sula) 一个白人农场主向他的奴隶表示，如果他肯干一些艰苦的活，就让他获得自由并且给他一片低洼地。</div><br><br>如果 would 与 not 一起出现，意思就是“不坚持”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If you wouldn't keep spending your money on clothes, you might be able to afford a new car. 你如果不老是把钱花在衣着上，可能就买得起一辆新车了。</div><br><br>尤其是动词 like 前面总要有 would。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Who should I contact if I would like (*I like) to make changes to my existing telephone service? 我如果要更改现在的电话业务，该联系谁？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(9)</span> would 可以表示后话。中文也常常有这样的后话，例如《史记·刺客列传·荆轲》就有：“荆卿好读书、击剑，以术说卫元君，卫元君不用。其后秦伐魏，置东郡，徙卫元君之支属于野王。”这里的“其后”就是离开了故事当时发展到的地步，一跳就跳到后来，然后又跳回来，继续说故事(有时候中国章回小说用“此是后话不表”来打发)。这样的插话，英文就用 would 来表示。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This edition (= a shorter version of War and Peace) constitutes Tolstoy's first attempt at the novel, which he published in 1866 in a Russian literary magazine. Tolstoy <b>would</b> spend another three years revising and enlarging his initial vision, ultimately producing the much longer novel familiar to modern readers. (Newsweek, Oct. 15, 2007, p. 81) 这一版是托尔斯泰最早动手尝试创作这部长篇小说的初稿，于 1866 年发表在一份俄国文学期刊上。托尔斯泰后来又花了 3 年时间，对初稿进行了修改和扩写，终于产生了现代读者们所熟悉的这部篇幅长得多的长篇小说。</div><br><br>也就是说，would 作为过去将来时的一个标志，可以有两个不同的含义：一个是过去对将来的推测或预料，尚未实现(不掺入现在的视点)；一个是叙述过去时提前说出后来实现了的另一事件(从现在的视点看，都是过去已经实现了的)，本来也可以按照事情顺序，一律用一般过去时，但是用了 would，可以守住原先的过去事件不放，加重了同后来事件的反差。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The projectile shredded Kline's map, whizzed between his legs, and exited out the top—yet another narrow miss for the bombardier-navigator, who months later, <b>would</b> be shot down twice in a week during the Battle of the Bulge. (The Associated Press, June 4, 2009) 子弹打碎了克莱恩的地图，嗖嗖从他两腿当中飞过，飞出了机顶——这是这位轰炸机领航员又一次死里逃生，且不说他几个月后在“突出部战役”中一个星期就被击落了两次。</div><br><br>这样的“提前说后话”，除了用 would 之外，还可以用 was/were to inf. 来表示。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A few years later, he <b>was to</b> lose his entire fortune. 几年之后，他就失去了自己的全部家产。/ He told me about the failures and successes of the inter-war years, the hopes and possibilities of the future and, one single fact which <b>was to</b> serve me in good stead later, that the only really secure cypher at that time was the one that is used only once. (F. W. Winterbotham, The Ultra Secret) 他向我谈到了两次大战之间的历次成败以及未来的种种机遇，还告诉我了一个日后让我受用不尽的事实，那就是，在当时，唯一可靠的密码，就是只用一次的密码。/ We <b>were to</b> learn after the war that three days later, on the seventeenth, Hitler himself came to Soissons in France for a personal conference with Rundstedt and Rommel. (ibid.) 战后我们才查明，3 天之后，即 17 日，希特勒本人亲自到达法国的苏瓦松同伦德施泰特及隆美尔会商。</div>“提前说后话”说完了之后，要回到原来的叙事主线，此时可以说 But go back to ...。例如谈到第二次世界大战的情况，当中插进了战后发现的新情况，然后又要回到战时，此时就说 But go back to 1943. (还是回过头来谈 1943 年吧。)
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Would you like ...?
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>Would you like ...?</b></div>这个词组已经司空见惯。要注意的是：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 它不限于字面上的意义(问对方是否喜欢某物或某事)，而是带有倾向性的一种邀请，而且隐含自己愿意满足对方愿望的意思，同 Do you want ...? 是不同的。因此，商店店员向顾客推销，不能说 *Do you want ...? 而要说 Would you like ...? 顾客自己说想要什么，倒是两种都可以说。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 对于 Would you like ...? 的问题如果做出否定回答，不能照问句的格式说 *No, I wouldn't like ...，而要简单地说 No, I don't want ... (最后要加个 Thanks. 以表示礼貌，或简化两句为 No, thanks.)，因为 I wouldn't like 是“我讨厌……”，不是“我不想要……”。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> Would you like ...? 问时说话者已经有了肯定的倾向性，但是如果说 Would you care (for/to) ...? 则没有这种倾向性，甚至对可能得到的肯定回答感到有点惊讶。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Would you care for</b> another helping? 您真的还想再来一份？/ <b>Would you care for</b> any bread sticks or beverage with your pizza? 您的比萨饼要不要配上面包条或是什么饮料？</div><br><br>
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wound
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>wound</b></div>要注意 wound 本身可以是个动词原形，也可以是 wind 的过去式和过去分词。<br><br>
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wound 与 injure
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>wound 与 injure</b></div>参见 injure 与 wound 条。<br><br>
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wrap
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>wrap</b></div>这个及物动词(属第四类或第三类动词)在一般词典上的释义是“包，裹，卷，缠”，但是要注意与之搭配的直接宾语，既可以是被包之物，也可以是包装材料。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Shall I <b>wrap</b> it for you? 我给您把东西包起来好吗？(宾语：东西)</div><div class="ex-item">They <b>wrapped</b> the book in brown paper. 他们用棕色纸张把书包起来。(宾语：书)</div><div class="ex-item">She <b>wrapped</b> a shawl about her. 她身上围上了一件披肩。(宾语：披肩)</div><div class="ex-item">They wrote the news on a piece of paper, <b>wrapped</b> it round a stone, and threw it into the next door garden. 他们把消息写在一张纸片上，用它包住一块石头，然后扔到隔壁的花园里。(宾语：纸片)</div>在前一个意义上，也可以说 wrap up。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He had bought a teapot and was waiting for them to <b>wrap</b> it <b>up</b>. 他刚买了一个茶壶，正在等候他们把它包起来。(宾语：茶壶)</div>但是 wrap up 又增添了转义，可以表示“(顺利)完成，到此为止，全神贯注”等意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The whole deal was <b>wrapped up</b> within a few days. 全盘交易只用了几天就谈妥了。/ That <b>wraps</b> it <b>up</b> for today. 今天就到此为止。/ He was totally <b>wrapped up</b> in his work. 他一头栽到工作里面去了。/ They were completely <b>wrapped up</b> in each other. 他们一心一意地互相迷恋。</div><br><br>
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wrong
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>wrong</b></div>这个单词主要作为形容词使用，但也可以当作副词和名词。作为形容词，它有内涵和外延的两方面意义，不应混淆。举个例子，You're <b>wrong</b>. 是从内涵来说 “你”自己本身的判断或做法有错。但 You're <b>the wrong</b> man. 则是从外延来说别人有错，把“你”误作另一个人。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 从内涵的意义(即本身有错)使用形容词 wrong，往往用作表语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The answer is <b>wrong</b>. 答案是错误的。/ The time given in the newspaper was <b>wrong</b>. 报上登载的时间是错误的。/ I thought it was silver, but I was <b>wrong</b>. 我以为那是白银，但是我错了。/ You were <b>wrong</b> in your suspicions. 你怀疑错了。/ I was <b>wrong</b> to assume that he would help me. 我还以为他会帮助我，结果错了。</div><br><br>用作放在名词之前的定语时，如果仍然是从内涵角度说明其本身有错，要在 wrong 前面加不定冠词 a (复数无冠词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The doctor ordered a series of tests to prevent <b>a wrong</b> diagnosis. 大夫嘱咐做一系列的检查，以避免误诊。/ He made a number of <b>wrong</b> assumptions. 他做出了若干错误的推断。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 从外延的意义(即被他人从多个个体中错误地选出)使用形容词 wrong，必须放在名词(不能用代词)之前，而且前面常用定冠词 the 而较少用不定冠词 a。这个 the 的使用，不完全符合逻辑，但是，如果“误中”的行为已经发生，其对象已经从外延角度确定为仅仅一个，那么，就这一点来说，用定冠词表示“唯一”也有符合逻辑之处。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You have come to <b>the wrong</b> (少用 a wrong) place. 你来错了地方。/ It's <b>the wrong</b> (少用 a wrong) time of year for cherries. 现在不是樱桃(成熟)的季节。/ One of those executed was clearly <b>the wrong</b> (<i>a wrong) man. 被处决的人当中有一个显然是冤枉的。/ <b>The wrong</b> (少用 a wrong) man was arrested. 抓错了人。(著名电影导演希区柯克在 1956 年曾经导演过一部片子，讲一个人蒙冤被逐告的故事，片名就叫作“The Wrong Man”。)</div><div class="ex-item">Miers is <b>the wrong</b> (少用 a wrong) choice for <b>the wrong</b> (少用 a wrong) reason. 米尔斯是出于错误的原因提出的错误人选。/ They are <b>the wrong</b> (</i>They are wrong) people for the job. 找他们来干这个工作是找错了人。/ The clock shows <b>the wrong</b> (少用 a wrong) time. 时钟上的时间不对。/ Too late he began to realize that he had set up in <b>the wrong</b> neighborhood. (E. Phillips Oppenheim, The Illustrious Prince) 他太晚觉察到自己创业的街区选择错了。</div><br><br>然而，即使“误中”的行为属于将来，尚未发生，其对象尚未确定，英语也习惯在 wrong 前面加上定冠词 the。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm afraid I'll make <b>the wrong</b> (少用 a wrong) decision. 我担心自己会做出错误的决定。/ They could not afford to make <b>the wrong</b> (少用 a wrong) choice. 他们如果做出错误的选择，后果是吃不消的。/ What if the cipher code falls into <b>the wrong</b> (* falls into wrong) hands? 万一密码误落他人之手怎么办？</div><br><br>用 the + 形容词来形容动作结果的对象，可以代替修饰动作的副词。the wrong 可以代替 wrongly 修饰那个表示“选择；决定”的动词：the wrong place (地点本身无所谓错误或正确，是“选择”这一行动才有错误与正确之分，用 the 来提醒这里是以形容词来代替副词)。还有其他形容词可以用 the 来让形容词代替副词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The windows were coated with dark plastic, which denied <b>the casual</b> onlooker the sight of the people inside. 车窗上贴着暗色的塑料膜，不让偶尔旁观的人看见车子里面的人。/ Anyone who passed him on the street would not have given him a secondlook, though he might have caught the eye of <b>the odd</b> unattached female. (Tom Clancy, The Teeth of the Tiger) 在街上同他碰面的人，谁都不会多瞧他一眼，虽然一个偶尔走过的单身女人也许会注视他一下。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 内涵和外延并不是互不相干的，而是互相影响的。比如说，“误诊”固然是诊断的内容(内涵)本身有错，但也可以理解为医生从若干可能的诊断当中选中了一个错误的诊断，这就可以说是这个诊断在外延意义上被错误地选中了。因此，说医生做出了 <b>a wrong</b> diagnosis 或是 <b>the wrong</b> diagnosis，都是可以的。不过，在语言上，the wrong 比 a wrong 用得更多。还要说明的一点是：英语(其实许多别的语言，甚至包括汉语，都是如此)往往使用 a 来突出形容词的信息重量，使之压倒后面的名词，例如 <b>a</b> prosperous China (一个繁荣的中国)。按照这个道理，a wrong diagnosis 本来应该更加合适，但是，和 wrong 在一起，情况就有点特殊，the 更受到偏爱。尤其是如果名词指的是被误选的人，则内涵意义上无所谓这个人“本身有错”，就更加偏向使用 the wrong 而很少使用 a wrong。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 另外，如果讲述的范围扩大一些，讲的是“发生了什么事”而不是缩小为“选择的对象是对的还是错的”，则 a wrong 反而更为通顺。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>However, the investigation team found the ill-fated aircraft flew <b>a wrong</b> route at the end of the mission ... 但是，调查组发现，该失事飞机在飞行任务快结束时飞了一条错误的航道，……(尽管飞机飞行必然有其航道，但是这里首先注意的不是飞机飞了哪条航道，而是飞机出了些什么事，例如引擎发生故障，或是遇到恶劣天气，等等。如果用 the wrong route，首先第一个提出的问题就缩小到飞机飞了哪条航道，这不符合一步步推理缩小范围的先后次序。这同接到人家打错号码的电话不同，因为接了电话一听到不对头，第一个反应就是“号码对不对”，不大可能把问题扩大到会不会有其他的故障。)</div><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 还需要特别注意的是：wrong 作为前置定语，往往不是指它所修饰的人或事物“犯了错误”(内涵)，而是指句子谓语所指的行为出了错误(对象的外延错了)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>America's universities are rejecting the <b>wrong</b> kids—and undermining the idea of merit. (Fareed Zakaria, "The Thin-Envelope Crisis," in Time, Apr. 15, 2013, p. 18) 美国的大学在排斥不该排斥的孩子们，而且在挖空从优录取的宗旨。</div><br><br>
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wrongful
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>wrongful</b></div>这个形容词意义同 wrong 有些区别，主要是指法律或组织措施上的“冤枉的”或“不当的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>wrongful</b> dismissal 不当解雇</div><div class="ex-item"><b>wrongful</b> arrest 错捕</div><div class="ex-item"><b>wrongful</b> conviction 错误定罪</div><div class="ex-item"><b>wrongful</b> execution 错误处决。也可以指“不正当的，非法的”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>wrongful</b> concealment of assets 非法隐瞒资产。</div><br><br>
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Xerox
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>Xerox</b></div>原先是一家以生产复印机出名的公司的名称，后来又成了代表这种机器的普通名词，再后来干脆可以用作及物动词(仍然保留大写)，表示“用复印机复印”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'll <b>Xerox</b> these documents at the office and get a set to you tonight. 我会在办公室复印这些文件，今天晚上给你一份。参见 FedEx 条。</div><br><br>
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yes
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>yes</b></div>在英国，餐饮店的侍者前来请客人点菜，或是出租车司机请上了车的乘客说明要开到哪里，单单问一个提高声调并稍为拖长的 Yes? 即可。<br><br>
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Yes, I do.
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>Yes, I do.</b></div>在教堂举行婚礼时，神父或牧师照例要分别问新郎和新娘：Do you take ×× as your lawful wife/husband, to have and to hold, from this day forward, for better or for worse, for richer or for poorer, in sickness and in health, to love and to cherish until death do you part? (你是否愿意娶/嫁给××为你的合法妻子/丈夫，从今天起，与她/他厮守终生，无论是祸是福，或穷或富，或病或健，都相亲相爱，直到死亡将你们分开？)此时新郎新娘的标准回答是 Yes, I do. 因此，Yes, I do. 成了举行婚礼的一句必用语，也成了婚礼的标志，说 Yes, I do. 就等于举行婚礼。<br><br>
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yes 与 no
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>yes 与 no</b></div>当对方的疑问句不是否定句而是正反两可的肯定句时，回答可以沿中文的思路按照情况用 yes 或 no。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—Did you see that program last night? —<b>No</b>, I didn't. —你昨天晚上看了那个节目吗？—没有。</div><br><br>但是特别要注意的是：如果对方的疑问句是否定句，回答 yes 或 no 通常不能按照中文的思路(对对方有否定意义的全句整个加以肯定或否定)，而要按照英文的思路(对对方的提问按照事实加以肯定或否定)。例如对 Didn't you see that program last night? 这样的否定疑问句，回答要按照事实，看过就是 yes，没有看过就是 no。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—Isn't it closed? —<b>Yes</b>, it is. —它没有关吧？—不，它已经关了。/ —It doesn't matter. —<b>Yes</b>, it does. —不要紧。—那可不是的。/ —Don't you like that? —Oh, <b>yes</b>, I do. —你不喜欢那个吧？—不是的，我可喜欢呢。/ —Bob doesn't like sushi. —<b>No</b>, he doesn't. —鲍勃不喜欢吃寿司。—是呀，他不喜欢。/ —This isn't going to be easy. —<b>No</b>, it's not going to be easy. —这件事情不会容易。—是的，不会容易。/ —Can't you play tennis? —<b>No</b>, I can't. —你不会打网球吧？—是呀，我不会。/ —Aren't you going out? —<b>No</b>, I'm not. —你不出去吧？—对，不出去。/ —Haven't you got a raincoat? —<b>Yes</b>, I have. —你没有雨衣吧？—不，我有的。/ —The phone isn't working. —<b>Yes</b>, it is. —电话不灵了。—不，能打的。/ "But I fear it is my duty to tell you." "We must never fear what is our duty." "<b>No</b>, ma'm." (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) “恐怕告诉您这件事是我的责任。”“对于承担责任，我们永远不能说‘恐怕’。”“是的，太太。”</div><br><br>前面我们只是从比较简单的否定疑问句来谈用 yes 或 no 进行回答的问题。其实问题比这个更为复杂，英文大多数时候与中文相反，但有时候又可能同中文一致。这里有几个复杂的因素在起作用，比较明显的因素有：动词的否定形式，特定的状语，否定的强度，主句和从句的信息分量对比。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 先看看动词形式。在否定问句中，同一时态的谓语动词可以采取两种不同的形式，例如 Does he <b>not</b> know? 或 <b>Doesn't</b> he know? 两种形式，似乎没有多大差别，但是如果回答 yes 或 no，就会有所不同。对前一句回答 yes，就是要推翻问句的否定，变为肯定(后面往往要补充 he does)。对后一句回答 yes，却可能是对问句的否定加以确认(后面可以补充 he doesn't)。这是因为前者把 not 突出，回答 yes 就是对这个突出的 not 加以反驳。而后者 not 并不突出，而是“融化”到整句之中，回答 yes 就可能只是对全句进行肯定，亦即对其否定加以确认，而回答 no 则是对其全句进行否定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>"Hombre, you okay? You <b>don't</b> look so good." "<b>No</b>, I'm fine." (John Darnton, The Darwin Conspiracy) “老兄，你没事吧？你脸色不太好。”“不，我很好。”</div><div class="ex-item">(Question) "When you got that job as you call it in the White House, you <b>didn't</b> really have any time to sit around and find out what it was all about." (Harry Truman) "<b>No, no</b>. Like I told you, I was sworn in one night, and the next morning I had to get right on to the job at hand." (Merle Miller, Plain Speaking) (问)“你一接过你所说的白宫的职务，你都来不及安坐下来环顾一下，看清楚那是怎么一回事。”(杜鲁门回答)“不是的，不是的，我刚才已经告诉你，(罗斯福总统突然去世)我晚上宣誓就职，次日早晨我就只好动手办公了。”</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 再看看特定的状语。<b>Doesn't</b> he know, <b>either</b>? (他也一样不知道吗？)由于 either 是个“负面极性项”(NPI)，它把否定笼罩加以加强，整句内在的否定意义十分强烈，如果回答时要对这个否定加以再否定使之变为肯定，单说一个 yes 是不够的，还要加上 he knows。反之，<b>Doesn't</b> he know, <b>too</b>? (他不是也一样知道吗？)由于 too 不是“负面极性项”，属于肯定意义但在句中被否定所笼罩而从其内部减弱其否定力度，整句内在的否定意义比较弱，回答时只要一个 yes 就可以，对否定加以再否定从而变为肯定。可以看到，有肯定性的副词或状语，即使是 not 不单独突出的否定问句，其否定力度也减弱，此时只消一个 yes，就足以消融其否定(此时这个 yes 就不是对否定问句的同意，而是对这个肯定副词的同意)。另外，如果否定问句(或非问句的前句)使用强调的否定词(或是有加强否定的状语)，不仅仅是一般的 not，则回答时只能跟着用 no 来对其否定表示赞同(此时就与中文相反)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>“We must <b>never</b> fear what is our duty.” “<b>No</b>, ma'am.” (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) “咱们职责所在，就绝不可以胆怯。”“是的，夫人。”</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 如果否定性问句带有信息分量很重的状语成分(不一定是加强否定的状语)，此时回答 yes 或 no 就更多的是对这个否定的承认或是反驳，而不是对问句的那个未经否定的动词再加以肯定或否定；但是有关的状语成分也可能“夺去”否定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Did he <b>once more not</b> return the books <b>on time</b>? 他又一次没有按期还书吗？(回答 yes 就是肯定“他又一次没有按期还书”；回答 no 就是否定了问句中的否定，变为肯定，即“他按期还了书”，但是，由于“又一次”也在否定回答之列，这样的回答也默认了“他可能曾经未按期还书，但这次是按期还了”的意思。)</div><div class="ex-item">Did you <b>purposely not</b> dress up <b>for this occasion</b>? 你故意没有为这个场合穿戴整齐吗？(回答 yes 就是肯定“我故意没有为这个场合穿戴整齐”；回答 no 就是否定问句中的否定，变为肯定，即“我的确为这个场合穿戴整齐了”；但由于状语“故意”也在否定回答之列，这样的回答也默认了“也许我的确没有为这个场合穿戴整齐，但却不是故意的”之意。)</div><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 如果问句(或非问句的前句)由一肯一否的主句和从句组成，回答时要看信息重心究竟是在其主句还是在其从句，来选用 yes 或 no。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>“You're sure you can't just leave it?” “<b>Yes</b> (= I'm sure), ma'am.” (Sidney Sheldon, Memories of Midnight) “你能肯定你不能干脆留下转交吗？”“是的，夫人。(我可以肯定。)”(信息重心在主句 you're sure 上。)</div><div class="ex-item">—<b>Would you mind</b> my asking if you've ever <b>taken drugs</b>, Mr. Hoover? —Absolutely <b>not</b>. —胡佛先生，可否问您是否曾经吸毒？—绝对没有。(这里问题的重心显然不在 mind 与否，而在“是否曾经吸毒”，所以回答的 not 是针对take drugs)</div><div class="ex-item">—President Trump says he knew nothing about the meeting. Do you think that's true? —<b>No</b>... He talked about it a week before. (Twitter, Mar. 5, 2018) —特朗普总统说他对这次会面一无所知。你觉得这是真的吗？—不是。他早在一星期前就谈到过这件事了。(这里问题重心不在 do you think 上，而是在是否 that's true 上。)</div>有 tag question (肯定)的否定疑问句，回答 no 是同意其否定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>“You really don't like him, do you?” “<b>No</b>.” Manny sat back in his chair. “Fortunately, I don't have to work with him.” (Estelle Ryan, The Gauguin Connection) “你的确不喜欢他，是吗？”“是的。”曼尼回坐到他的椅子上，“幸好我用不着同他共事。”</div><br><br>
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yet
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>yet</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 在问“是否已经如何”的问句中，中国人习惯用 already，但是在不带倾向性的问句中，其实应该用 yet。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Are you ready <b>yet</b>? 你准备好了没有？/ Has he left <b>yet</b>? 他走了没有？参见 already 条。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> yet、still 和 already 都是指延续状态的；如果动词是非延续的，传统英语(主要是英式英语)要求将这个非延续动词以现在完成时或过去完成时的时态出现(因为这表现了一种延续状态)；但是美式英语超越这个观念，允许非延续动词以一般过去时的时态出现。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I haven't eaten <b>yet</b>. (美式英语: I didn't eat <b>yet</b>.)我还没有吃。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> yet 放在有形容词最高级修饰的名词后面，为这个最高级形容词增添一层“历时”的意思，相当于 ever (参见 ever 条)，即“历来最……的”。也就是说，这个“最”，不是从同一时间的多个事物中比出来，而是从历史长河中先后出现的多个事物中比出来的。yet 的后面，有时候还需要再再加上补充说明，限定“最”的范围。这个补充说明可以是个介词短语，也可以是个动词过去分词，也可以是个定语从句。但是如果范围已经清楚了，就不用再加补充说明。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>his best novel <b>yet</b> 他历来所写过的最好的小说</div><div class="ex-item">the largest pearl <b>yet</b> found (= ever found) in this area 这个地区历来所发现的最大的珍珠</div><div class="ex-item">This is the best museum we've visited <b>yet</b> (= we've ever visited). 这是我们参观过的最好的博物馆。/ A presidential election without a clear winner Monday set up the <b>greatest</b> test <b>yet</b> of Mexico's young democracy, ... (The Associated Press, July 3, 2006)周一一次无人明显获胜的总统大选，使墨西哥年轻的民主制度面临历来最大的考验，……</div><div class="ex-item">Majestically, and with a solid dignity no other form of transportation <b>yet</b> devised could match, the cargo liner SS Santa Isabella edged its way along Fort Armstrong Channel and into Honolulu Harbor. “圣伊莎贝拉号”邮轮庄严宏伟，以任何迄今设计出来的交通工具都无法比拟的稳重的姿态，沿着阿姆斯特朗要塞水道，驶进檀香山港。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> have yet to inf. 表示动词不定式的动作尚未发生，有待发生。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... and Marshall, who appeared especially somnolent after a heavy lunch and <b>had yet to</b> open his mouth. ……还有马歇尔，他午餐吃得很多，显得特别困倦，还没有开口说话。/ Today's economic decline <b>has yet to</b> approach the depths of the Great Depression. (Froma Harrop, in The Daily Gazette, Jan. 16, 2009, A7)今天的经济衰退尚未接近当年大萧条的程度。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 在否定句和疑问句中，副词 yet 的位置比较特别，通常可以离开谓语，越过后面的其他成分，一直往后，放在句末。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Don't eat the pears—they aren't ripe <b>yet</b>. 这些梨你可别吃。还没有熟呢。/ She hasn't got the job <b>yet</b>. 她还没有获得那个工作。但是比较正式的说法是 yet 紧跟在 not 后面。疑问句由于没有 not，所以通常 yet 都放在句末。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Have you written the letter <b>yet</b>? 信你写了没有？/ Has Professor Hawkins arrived <b>yet</b>? 霍金斯教授到了没有？/ Have you decided what to do <b>yet</b>? (*Have you decided yet what to do?) 该怎么办你决定了没有？与主句的否定词呼应的 yet，可以放在从句后面。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I don't know what it is <b>yet</b>. 我还不知道这是什么。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> yet 作“但是”解时，与 but 常常可以互换，但有时彼此有区别。but 的前后相反含义较强，而 yet 则像只不过是从前文中留下一点局部的“异议”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The roots of education are bitter, but the fruit is sweet. 教育的根是苦的，但结的果实却是甜的。/ Time is what we want most, but what we use worst. (William Penn)时间是我们最想要的，但又是我们利用得最糟糕的。/ Money can't talk, yet it can make lies look true. 金钱不会说话，可是它能够使得谎言像真话。/ The miser acquires, yet fears to use his gains. 守财奴揽财，但却怕用财。/ It's incredible, yet true. 这难以置信，但却是事实。/ It's a small car, yet it's surprisingly spacious. 这辆车是小型的，但却宽敞得惊人。/ He has a good job, and yet he never seems to have any money. 他有一份很好的工作，但却从来都像是一贫如洗。/ We were driving on the lake bottom, yet (*but) we were more than 2,000 feet above sea level. (National Geographic, February 2018)我们车子行驶在干涸的湖底，而我们其实位于海拔 2,000 英尺的高处。</div><br><br>
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yet 与 still
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>yet 与 still</b></div>参见 still 与 yet 条。<br><br>
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you
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>you</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 古英语第二人称代词有单复数之分，单数(“你”)是 thou，复数(“你们”)是 ye。在现代英语，已经不分单复数，一律用 you。但是为了避免歧义，往往说“你们”时，后面加上个复数名词，例如 you guys (男女通用)，you gentlemen (专用于男性，较有礼貌)，you ladies (专用于女性，较有礼貌)，you folks 或 you people (男女通用)，you kids (专用于儿童)，you two (“你们俩”)。美国南方常用 you all 表示“你们”，带有亲切的口气。这个 you all 甚至有形容词性物主代词 you all's (= your)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>What are <b>you all's</b> plans for Christmas? 你们过圣诞节有什么计划吗？</div><br><br>在特殊的场合，甚至可以用一些别的词语来明确 you 所指。例如在一个警察破门逮捕罪犯团伙的场面，警察对几个不同的嫌疑犯发出命令说：<b>You by the</b> <b>wall! ... Don't start anything! Just turn around and face that wall! You other two—join him, do the same.</b> (靠墙边的那个！……不许动！转过身脸对着墙！你们另外两个，也同他一样。)<br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 打电话时一开始互相通报是谁，不能单刀直入地称“你”“我”。中文可以问“您是哪一位？”，但英文不能问 <i>Who are you? 要问 Who is <b>that</b>? (美式英语可以用 <b>this</b> 代替 <b>that</b>: Who is <b>this</b>? 或 Who's there? )或者问对方是不是某人，不能说 </i>Are you ...? 英式英语说：Hello, is <b>that</b> ...? 美式英语说 Hello, is <b>this</b> ...? 互相通报完毕之后，就可以“恢复正常”，用 you、I、me 了。参见 this 条。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 中文以及许多其他语言在第二人称的称呼上，出于礼貌考虑，比较讲究，也比较复杂。英文则几乎让 you 一统了天下，倾向于简单处理。什么“你”“您”“君”“阁下”“台端”“先生”“钧座”“我公”“明公”“贵将军”“使君”“兄”“仁兄”“吾兄”“足下”，甚至“殿下”“陛下”，往往都可以用 you 一带而过(至少不必一再重复 Your Honour、Your Excellency、Your Highness、Your Majesty 等等)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>First, Your Majesty, thanks for coming. It's great to have <b>you</b> back ... I look forward to discussing with <b>you</b> a wide range of issues of our—of mutual concern. And I look forward to <b>your</b> wise counsel and advise. (George W. Bush welcoming King Abdullah of Jordan, Dec. 4, 2003)首先，感谢陛下光临。欣逢陛下再到此地，十分高兴。……我期待着同陛下一起商讨我们共同关心的一系列事项。我等待倾听陛下睿智的意见和指教。(you 在中文中不能译成“您”，更不能译成“你”，只好一直译成“陛下”)</div><div class="ex-item">"Half a century has done nothing to diminish the respect and affection this country holds for <b>you</b>. We receive <b>you</b> again today in that same spirit." Cheney told the queen (= Queen Elizabeth II of Great Britain, visiting the U.S.) in a welcoming speech. (The Associated Press, May 4, 2007)(美国副总统)切尼在欢迎辞中对女王说：“尽管过了半个世纪，我国对陛下的敬爱丝毫未减。今天我们又抱着同样的心情迎接陛下。”</div><br><br>但是，直接用第二人称，有时候还是有点令人觉得不大妥当。因此，有时下级对上级也使用第三人称的名词来代替 you。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If <b>the captain</b> is (= If you are) tired, there is a cot in the next room. I will be glad to wake <b>the captain</b> (= you) when the truck comes in. 长官您如果累了，隔壁屋里有一张行军床。卡车一开进来，我就会喊醒长官您的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 同其他许多语言一样，you 常常可以用于泛指一般的人，此时要注意不要误解为真正的第二人称。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They never tell <b>you</b> the truth. 他们从来不说真话。(不光是对“你”或“你们”)</div><div class="ex-item">When she starts crying, <b>you</b> don't know what to do. 她一哭起来，你就简直毫无办法。/ A hot bath does <b>you</b> a world of good. 洗个热水澡大有好处。/ <b>You</b> can constantly deceive a group of people, <b>you</b> can deceive the whole people for some time, but <b>you</b> cannot deceive all the people all the time. (Abraham Lincoln)你可以一直骗住一群人，你可以骗住全体人民一段时间，但是你不能永远骗住全体人民。(这话不是对着骗子说的)</div>同中文的“你”一样，英文的 you 甚至可以用来指说话人自己。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His death took me a year to get over; not that <b>you're</b> ever really over it. 对于他的死，我过了一年才缓过来；其实你也没法真正缓过来。一年的才缓过来；其实你也没法真正缓过来。</div><br><br>英文的这个 you，甚至用得比中文的“你”更加广泛，有时候中文根本不能照译为“你”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>You</b> now have different groups ... trying to vie for power within Iraq. (U.S. Lt. Gen. Ray Odierno, in Newsweek, Jan. 8, 2007, p. 26)现在有不同的集团……在争夺伊拉克国内的权力。/ But hand-washing (in the ancient world) was more than pragmatic: it was also a sign of honor and civility, something <b>you</b> offered <b>your</b> guests, via a basin and towel, as soon as they arrived. (The New York Times, Nov. 27, 2007, A31)但是，(在古代世界，)洗手这件事不光是有实际意义：它还是礼遇与教化的一个标志，客人一到，就捧出水盆和毛巾来接待。(这里的 you 当然不可能指现在活着的人)</div><div class="ex-item">If <b>you</b> have prolonged malnutrition in kids, it will have a long-term impact on cognitive abilities. It impacts <b>your</b> ability to learn in school and to earn as an adult. (Nicholas D. Kristof, in The New York Times, Apr. 2, 2009, A27)如果儿童长期营养不足，这对他们的智力会有长远的影响。这会损害他们在学校的学业和成年后的谋生。(第一个 you 翻译时转到了“儿童”身上，第二个 you 干脆译成“他们”。)</div>有时候原先本来只是泛泛地提到“有人”如何，但是后面接着会来一个 you，其实所指的仍然是泛泛的“有人”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If there is anyone out there who still doubts that America is a place where all things are possible, ... tonight is <b>your</b> answer. (Barack Obama, victory speech, Nov. 4, 2008)如果有谁仍然对美国究竟是不是一处一切皆有可能的地方感到怀疑，那么，今天晚上，你就得到了答案。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 在感叹句中，或是表示同位关系，you 后面可以直接跟上一个名词(名词前甚至可以有形容词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>You</b> bloody fool! 你这个大傻瓜！/ <b>You</b> bad guy! 你坏！/ <b>You</b> sweetie! 心肝！/ <b>You</b> Americans are all the same. 你们美国人都一样。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 在一些昔日流传下来而为人们熟悉的固定语句中，常常不用 you 而用 thou(主格)或 thee(宾格)，不用 your 而用 thy，以保持其特殊的古旧气息。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Oh Liberty, what crimes are committed in <b>thy</b> (<i>your) name! (Last words said at the guillotine by Madame Marie-Jeanne Roland de la Platière)自由自由，世间多少罪恶假汝之名而行！/ Frailty, <b>thy</b> (</i>your) name is woman. (Shakespeare, Hamlet)弱者，你的名字是女人。</div><br><br>
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you know
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>you know</b></div>口语中说 you know 其实对方并不知道，是自己现在才第一次告诉对方。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Well, <b>you know</b> father didn't like anything <b>of the sort</b>. He wouldn't have any visitors if he could help it. (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes)其实父亲并不喜欢这样的事情。他如果能避免，就不接待任何客人。</div><br><br>
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younger
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>younger</b></div>参见 high 与 higher 条。<br><br>
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your
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>your</b></div>有时候 your 可以不是“你发出的”而是“你收到的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How to store <b>your</b> letters. 如何存放你(收到的)信件。/ Wait for <b>your</b> instructions in the mail. 请等候给你的指示邮件。/ Listen carefully to <b>your</b> instructions. 用心听着给你的指示。参见 order 条。</div><br><br>
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zero
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>zero</b></div>与一般的理解不同，zero 后面的名词如果是可数的，一定要用复数，是不可数的才可以用单数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The company has <b>zero</b> assets and <b>zero</b> liabilities. 公司既无资产也无负债。/ <b>Zero</b> degrees Centigrade is the same as 32 degrees Fahrenheit. 0 摄氏度等于 32 华氏度。(但是“在零度”也有说 at <b>zero</b> degree 的)</div><div class="ex-item">We are likely to see <b>zero</b> growth on the stock market this year. 今年股市很可能是零增长。/ You'll get <b>zero</b> help from him. 你不会得到他任何帮助的。</div><br><br>
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become
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>become</b></div>就“体”来说，是个第三类动词(即趋成动词)，也就是说，它包含了一个延续的变化过程，但是这个过程有一个必然的终点，不是无限延长的。因此，它有四个特点：<br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 它同第四类动词即达成动词一样，除了在一些特殊情况下，都不能以一般现在时的时态出现，例如不能说 *He <u><i>becomes</i></u> a composer now.<br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 如果用一个时间段来表示这个过程，就只能用 in 而不能用 for 来引入这个时间段，例如不能说 *He <u><i>became</i></u> a composer <u>for</u> five years. 而只能说 He <u><i>became</i></u> a composer <u>in</u> five years. 这是因为 in 表示“用多长时间完成某个过程”，而 for 只是表示“在某个延续过程中向前走多久”。<br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 它可以向第二类动词(表示无限延续的活动动词)靠拢，条件是采取进行时态(is becoming 或 was becoming 等)。这个时态对于第三类动词的作用，就是“磨掉”它的终点，只给它留下过程。这一来，没有终点的活动过程，也就成了无限延续的活动。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It <u><i>was becoming</i></u> more and more difficult to live on his salary. 靠他的薪金过活越来越困难。</div><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 它另一方面又可以向第四类动词(表示瞬时变化的达成动词)靠拢，条件是采取非进行的一般时(由于不能采用一般现在时，所以通常只能采用一般过去时或是现在完成时、过去完成时)。这几个时态对于第三类动词的作用，就是“磨掉”它的过程，只给它留下终点。这一来，没有过程的终点变化，也就成了瞬间的变化。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He <u><i>became</i></u> a composer five years later. 五年后他成了作曲家。</div><br><br>
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bed
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>bed</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 这个名词，使用时如果指的是“牀”供人睡觉的功能而不是“牀”这件物品，不用任何冠词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>lie in <u><i>bed</i></u> 处于卧牀状态 / stay in <u><i>bed</i></u> 停留在卧牀状态 / go to <u><i>bed</i></u> 就寝 / get into <u><i>bed</i></u> 上牀就寝 / get out of <u><i>bed</i></u> 起牀 / be sick in <u><i>bed</i></u> 卧病在牀 / Never smoke in <u><i>bed</i></u>. 千万别躺牀上吸烟。注意在这样使用时，“在牀上”用介词 <b>in</b>/<b>into</b> 而不用 <b>on</b>/<b>onto</b>，这里有“盖上被子”因而“在三维立体空间里面”的含义。动态的“上牀”就用 <b>into</b>。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It wasn't until Sir Walter climbed <u><i>into bed</i></u> that night that his wife explained to him the significance of that final resolution. (Jeffrey Archer, <i>The Fourth Estate</i>) 直到那天晚上瓦尔特爵士上牀睡觉的时候，他的妻子才向他解释最后那个决定意味着什么。但是，如果拿“牀”当作一件普通的可数物品来看待，就要使用特定冠词或不定冠词，介词也可以按一般常理把牀视为一个二维平面而用 on，例如 lie down on the <u><i>bed</i></u>。</div><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> bed (不加冠词)往往可以代替“睡觉”这个行为。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The pill should be taken right before <u><i>bed</i></u>. 药片应该在临睡时服用。</div><br><br>
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befall
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>befall</b></div>用这个及物动词(瞬时体动词，第四类动词)，中文的“(某人)遭到(某件不幸的事)”在英文中就颠倒了主语和宾语。中文的主语变成英文的宾语，中文的宾语变成英文的主语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Katrina was the biggest calamity to <u><i>befall</i></u> New Orleans. 卡特里娜飓风是新奥尔良遭受的最的灾难。/ When the United Nations hit Iraq with sweeping economic sanctions for its 1990 invasion of Kuwait, no one imagined the ensuing destruction that would <u><i>befall</i></u> thousands of the country's archaeological treasures. 当联合国因为伊拉克1990年入侵科威特而对伊拉克施加铺天盖地的经济制裁时，谁也没有想到这个国家成千上万的珍贵文物会随之遭到怎样的破坏。</div><br><br><i>befall</i> 主要指不幸的事情；happen to 可以指好事，也可以指不幸的事；fall out for 则指好事。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It might so <u><i>fall out for</i></u> anyone. 谁都可能交上这样的好运。</div><br><br>
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before
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>before</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 这个单词既可以是介词(后接名词成分)，也可以是主从连词(后接时间状语从句)，还可以是副词(后不接任何成分，作“以前”解)。要善于辨别，避免理解错误。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Twice <u><i>before</i></u> he had arranged a lunch date with George, and each time George had canceled the date at the last moment. 他以前已经有过两次同乔治午餐约会的安排，但每一次乔治都在最后一刻取消了约会。这里的 before 就既非介词(后面不可能有主格的 he)，也非主从连词(后面的 and 表明了这是两个并列分句，前面不可能是从句)，而只能是副词，从后面修饰 twice，再合起来一起修饰 he had arranged ..., 这里的 twice 起了“提醒”的作用，它要求迅速说明什么事发生了“两次”，因而部允许 before 作为介词引入一个从句，而只能作为副词。</div><br><br>此外，before 如果作连词引入从句，从句中的谓语动词就应该是表示发生了什么事件的动态动词；如果是表示延续静态的状态动词，这个 before 就很可能是副词而不是连词，该谓语动词就不是从句的而是主句的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><u><i>Before</i></u> I <u><i>thought</i></u> she was okay, not great but okay, and I referred to her on occasion. (Robin Cook, <i>Crisis</i>) 我原先以为她还可以，不算很好但还可以，所以我偶尔还把她推荐出来。</div><br><br>此外，before 有时候也可以不表示时间的“在先”，而是表示“取舍”中的“舍”，此时它常常同表示“取舍”中“取”的 <b>rather</b> 相呼应。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I would <u><i>rather</i></u> tell all my distinguished clients to jump in the lake <u><i>before</i></u> I give up one day of being at your mother's side. (Mary Higgins Clark, <i>Where Are You Now?</i>) 我宁可叫我所有尊贵的客户全都跳进湖里去，也不肯放过一天在你母亲身旁的机会。</div><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 以主从连词 before 引入的时间状语从句，如果放在大句的末处，译成中文时，因为是状语，往往要按照中文习惯提到谓语之前(通常中文词序是状语先于谓语，英文则是谓语先于状语)，但这一来，既破坏了事情的先后顺序和重点(往往重点信息最后才出来)，语气也不通顺。这时候可以采取一个变通的办法，before ... 不要译成“在……之前”，而是把“前”译成“后”，保持英文的顺序：“然后再……”或“随后……”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Each adoption paper needs to have a notary's stamp, then county, state department, and Chinese embassy or consulate stamps attached <u><i>before</i></u> the document can be sent to China. 每一份领养文件都必须有公证人盖章，然后还要加上该县、该州和中国大使馆或领事馆的公章，然后才能发往中国。(不译“在发往中国之前……”) / ... and Carson nodded, wiping her hands on a towel <u><i>before</i></u> following him out of the kitchen and across the cool red tile floor. (Pascal Mercier, <i>Night Train to Lisbon</i>) ……卡森点了点头，拿一块毛巾擦了手，然后就跟着他走出厨房，走过那凉凉的红砖地。</div><br><br>如果时间过得长，中文就用“才”字。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was three weeks <u><i>before</i></u> the body came up. 过了三周，尸首才浮起来。/ ... and then it may be another four or five days <u><i>before</i></u> they can fill a prescription. (<i>The New York Times</i>, May 1, 2007, F5) ……然后可能要再过四五天他们才能去抓药。/ Deep are the wounds that remain in the human spirit from this period. Much time must yet pass <u><i>before</i></u> they will be completely healed. (John Paul II) 这个时期留在人类心灵中的创伤很深。要过很长时间才能完全愈合。/ It could be eight years, even ten, <u><i>before</i></u> we get permission to start construction. 要过八年甚至十年我们才能得到开工的许可。/ Anyone who wants to tie into this databank from the outside has to pass a series of security gates <u><i>before</i></u> they're admitted. 任何人想要从外界进入这个数据库，都必须通过一连串的安全闸门，然后才能被放进去。/ The reader must slog through more than 400 pages <u><i>before</i></u> finally getting back to the story line. 读者需要辛辛苦苦看完 400 多页，才最后回到故事主线。</div><br><br>如果时间短，中文用“就”字。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The blackness lasted only a moment <u><i>before</i></u> it was pierced by the intense glare of media spotlights. (Dan Brown, <i>Deception Point</i>) 那片黑只持续了一会儿，就被媒体聚光灯的强烈亮光穿透了。</div><br><br>有时候主句简真“萎缩”成事实上的一个状语成分，最核心的新信息集中到了从句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was not long <u><i>before</i></u> he became invaluable to them. 这不了多久，他们就觉得他非常有用了。/ But it wasn't long <u><i>before</i></u> I began to see that the short skirt played a role in boosting my tips. (<i>Newsweek</i>, Nov. 13, 2006, p. 21) 但是不久之后，我就开始发现，穿短裙有助于我多得小费。/ ... I had not taken fifty paces <u><i>before</i></u> I heard him give a shout, and saw him waging his hand to me. (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, <i>The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes</i>) ……我还没走五十步，就听到他向我喊叫，还看见他向我挥手。甚至主句可以压缩成一个词组。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Alive, with a concussion and cuts and bruises. A few days <u><i>before</i></u> they discharge him. (Stephen Coonts, <i>The Art of War</i>) 还活着，有脑震荡以及一些割伤和瘀青。过几天就会让他出院。</div><br><br>before 从句的这种在语用(pragmatic)意义上“升格”、压倒主句的现象，也超出了语用的范围，对句法产生了一些影响。通常时间状语从句是以一般现在时代替一般将来时的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Let's give the house a thorough cleaning <u><i>before</i></u> the visitors arrive (*will arrive). 客人到之前，咱们把房子彻底打扫一下。但是，由于 before 从句在主句后面可以承载主要信息，实际上已经失去了状语从句的功能，而状语从句原本可以以一般现在时代替一般将来时，遇到这种情况，如果 before 从句所说的是比较远的将来的事，人们也就忘掉这种代替的成规，在 before 从句中也照思维逻辑用起一般将来时了。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was sentenced to two years in prison <u><i>before</i></u> he <u><i>will be deported</i></u> in his terrorism conspiracy case. 他因为恐怖阴谋案，被判处两年监禁，然后驱逐出境。/ It's just a few more years <u><i>before</i></u> the space shuttle fleet <u><i>will be</i></u> retired, according to current plans. 按照目前的计划，过不了几年，航天飞机机队就要退休了。</div><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 有时候 before 从句所指的事，其实是肯定不发生或是要避免发生的，此时也不宜译成“在……之前”(中文“在……之前”与“在没有……之时”往往同义，可对照参考)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Lucky, a giant autonomous beast now stalking Hong Kong Disneyland, walks so carefully that if it steps on an egg, it'll back off <u><i>before</i></u> breaking the shell. 现在独来独往走遍香港迪士尼乐园的互动恐龙“乐奇”走起路来十分小心，如果踩着了一个蛋，它会后退，以免踩破了蛋壳。/ Intelligence agencies had an urgent mission to find hidden plotters <u><i>before</i></u> they could strike again. (<i>The Washington Post</i>, Feb. 5, 2006, A10) 情报机关的一项迫切任务，是赶在谋害者尚未再次下手就发现他们。/ The Fed would tolerate a recession <u><i>before</i></u> again permitting inflation to go bonkers. 美联储大概会宁可容忍一次衰退，也不会再让通货膨胀成为脱缰之马。/ It's time to call Adult Protective Services <u><i>before</i></u> the 85-year-old lady sets the house on fire and forgets how to open the door to get out. 应该及时呼叫成年人保护服务机构，免得那位85岁的老太太把房子烧着还忘了怎样开门出去。/ An Army investigation in the 1970s found 18 of so-called Tiger Force soldiers had committed (in Vietnam) war crimes, but the probe was terminated <u><i>before</i></u> anyone was charged. (<i>U.S. News & World Report</i>, Sept. 6, 2004, p. 40) 20世纪70年代陆军的一项调查发现，所谓“猛虎部队”的士兵，有18人曾经(在越南)犯下战争罪行，但没等到任何人被控罪，这次调查就结束了。</div><br><br>但是，如果 before 从句的事件不可能发生或的确没有发生，则其动词不可以用一般过去时(用了一般过去时，就表示真的发生了)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He died <u><i>before</i></u> he <u><i>was to return</i></u> (*before he returned) to the U.S. 他还没回美国就去世了。当然，说“他去世了，然后回到美国”是荒谬的。</div><br><br>值得注意的是：由于 before 可以隐含否定的意义，所以一些通常同否定相联系的副词，也可以出现在 before 引入的从句之中。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><u><i>Before</i></u> she had <u><i>even</i></u> buckled herself in, the craft was airborne, banking hard across the Virginia woods. (Dan Brown, <i>Deception Point</i>) 她还没来得及扣好坐稳，直升机就离地升空，斜斜地掠过弗吉尼亚的森林。</div><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 但是有时候 before 从句所指的事也可能是肯定要发生的，此时就要译成“在……之前”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Now, will there be anything else <u><i>before</i></u> you go? 你们走之前还有什么事情吗？(变相委婉催对方走)</div><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> <b>not</b> <i>before</i> + -ing 表示“赶紧先做了某件事”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Charles Taylor ... yielded the presidency Monday ... but <u><b>not</b> <i>before</i></u> vowing "I will be back." (The Associated Press, Aug. 12, 2003) 查尔斯·泰勒……星期一让出了总统职位……但是赶紧先扬言：“我还是要回来的。” / The director bade farewell, but <u><b>not</b> <i>before</i></u> handing out some advice. 局长告别了，但告别前提出了一些忠告。 / The hurricane weakened to a tropical storm by evening, but <u><b>not</b> <i>before</i></u> swamping roads and knocking out power to more than 2.5 million people. (<i>The Daily Gazette</i>, Sept. 19, 2003, A1) 飓风到傍晚时减弱为热带风暴，但在此之前已经淹没了一些道路并且使得大约250万人遭遇停电。</div><br><br>
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before 与 ago
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>before 与 ago</b></div>参见 ago 条。<br><br>
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beggar belief
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>beggar belief</b></div>这个词组，如果放在一个名词成分后面，作为句子的谓语，则表示前面那个名词成分的内容很荒谬，无法置信。要注意的是：这里的 beggar 不是名词(“叫花子，乞丐”)，而是动词(“超出……限度之外”)。莎士比亚最早使用 beggar 作为动词(<i>beggar description</i> (“她的美貌无法形容”)的用法。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Tolstoy's powers of invention <u><i>beggar</i></u> easy description, much less summary. (<i>Newsweek</i>, Oct. 15, 2007, p. 82) 托尔斯泰的创造力，是无法轻易形容的，更是无法扼要说明的。因此，beggar belief 就是“无法置信”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>That story the driver cooked up and told the state trooper <u><i>beggars belief</i></u>. 那个开车人杜撰出来告诉交通警察的故事，全是胡扯。 / The suggestion that the bank's decision to accept Arafat's money was a noble deed undertaken in the optimistic spirit of the Oslo Accords <u><i>beggars belief</i></u>. (<i>The Atlantic Monthly</i>, Nov. 2005, p. 16) 所谓该银行之决定接受阿拉法特的存款，是本着奥斯陆协议的乐观精神而做了一件好事，这种说法，是荒天下之大谬。</div><br><br>
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begin
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>begin</b></div>这个动词(瞬时体动词，第四类动词)，学英文的人都很熟悉，但是真正用起来也有一些值得注意之处。<br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 中文说“从何时或何处开始”，但由于 begin 是个瞬时体动词，而 from 则涉及一段时间，所以规范的英文不用动态的 <i>begin from</i>。例如“10点半开始”，不说 <i>*begin from ten thirty</i>，而仍然用静态的 <u><i>begin</i></u> at ten thirty；“星期一开始”，不说 <i>*begin from Monday</i>，而仍然说 <u><i>begin</i></u> on Monday。“从第 30 页开始”是 <u><i>begin</i></u> at Page 30；但如果起点不是很明确，仍可以说 <u><i>begin</i></u> from Page 30。或者没有具体的时间间，而只是泛泛的原则规定，也用 from。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span> Warranty <i><u>begins</u></i> from the date of purchase. 产品质量保证自购买之日起生效。有些不规范的英语，即使是具体明确的时间，也用 from。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span> <i><u>begin</u></i> from October 11 自 10 月 11 日起。(参见 <i>start</i> 条)</div><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> <i>begin</i> + -ing 或 <i>begin</i> to inf. 同 <i>start</i> + -ing 或 <i>start</i> to inf. 意义相近，但是用 <i>begin</i> 比用 <i>start</i> 更多暗示所开始的是一个有意延续一段时间的过程，而 <i>start</i> 则更为着重开始的那一下子。例如 <i>begin</i> to cough 可能是自己主动的或者开始后可能延续一段时间，而 <i>start</i> to cough 则是自己控制不了而咳出来，而且开始咳后很快会停止。但是，无论是 <i>begin</i> 还是 <i>start</i>，后面用动词不定式比用动名词更倾向于延续时间较短；因此，He <i><u>began to open</u></i> all the cupboards.（“他开始将所有的柜子都打开”）不够自然，最好说 <i>began opening</i>。<br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> <i>begin</i> + -ing 与 <i>begin</i> to inf. 都可以表示开始某一延续动作或状态，所以后面的动词不可以是表示瞬时动作的第四类动词，但可以是其余的三类动词中任何一类。但 <i>begin</i> by + -ing 则是“开始时先做某事，从做某事入手”，这件“某事”可以是延续的，也可以是瞬时完成的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The doctor <i><u>began by</u></i> feeling my pulse. 医生先给我把脉。另外，虽然 <i>begin</i> + -ing 与 <i>begin</i> to inf. 都可以，但是如果 <i>begin</i> 已经用了 <i>beginning</i> 的形式，则后面就只能用动词不定式。例如 It <i><u>began</u></i> to rain. 与 It <i><u>began</u></i> raining. 都可以，但只能说 It was <i><u>beginning</u></i> to rain. 不能说 *It was beginning raining. 这个道理是很容易理解的。</div><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> <i>can't</i> (even) <i>begin</i> to inf. 是一个惯用词组，表示“根本无法做某事”，此时后面的动词可以是延续的，也可以是瞬时的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We <i><u>can't begin to</u></i> imagine. 我们简直无法想象。/ I <i><u>can't even begin to</u></i> tell you how grateful I am. 我简直没法告诉你我是多么感激。/ There were certain aspects of the case that he <i><u>could not begin to</u></i> understand. 这件事中有些方面根本理解不了。</div><br><br>同样，<i>do not</i> (even) <i>begin</i> to inf. 表示“根本不可能做某事(连开头都开不了)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>That <i><u>did not begin to</u></i> explain why she had married him. 那根本说明不了她为什么嫁给了他。/ Those measures <i><u>do not even begin to</u></i> address the problem. 那些措施根本解决不了这个问题。/ This economic measure <i><u>doesn't even begin to</u></i> deal with the problem of inflation. 这个经济措施根本处理不了通货膨胀的问题。</div><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> <i>begin</i> to inf. 如果是否定的(本来 <i>begin</i> 是第四类动词，不能用一般现在时，但在此却是第一类动词，表示延续状态，可以用一般现在时)，有时候也不能看字面理解为“不开始如何如何”，而是相当于 <i>cannot begin</i> to inf.，也就是“根本无法做某事”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Even the official numbers <i><u>do not begin to</u></i> capture the severity of the problem. 即使是官方数字也未能显示问题的严重性。/ The headlines <i><u>do not begin to</u></i> tell the story of U.S. troops injured by roadside bombs in Iraq and Afghanistan. (<i>The Star-Ledger</i>, Aug. 6, 2007)报纸的头条新闻也没有说出美国官兵在伊拉克和阿富汗被路边炸弹炸伤的情况。</div><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> <i>begin with</i> 是一个用得十分广泛的习惯词组，原先的意义是“作为开始”，但是经过发展，除了原先意义之外，还有了中文“本来”所具有的几个含义，同 <i>in the first place</i> 意义相近(参见 <i>in the first place</i> 条)。<br><br>
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able
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>able 与 capable</b></div>两个形容词意义都是“能够的”，在许多场合可以互换，但也有一些重大的区别：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 在语法构造上，<b>able</b> 后面接 <b>to inf.</b>；<b>capable</b> 后面接 <b>of + -ing</b> 或 <b>of + 名词</b>。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> <b>able</b> 指本身有能力或客观条件允许具体实现某事；<b>capable</b> 则仅指本身能力的存在，但不强调其实现。这一点，当谓语动词是现在时态时，区别尚不明显，但当谓语动词是过去时态时，就明显了。He was <b><u>capable</u></b> of + -ing 只是说明过去有此潜在的能力或客观条件(这个 <b>was</b> 是延续的)，而 He was <b><u>able</u></b> to inf. 则表明这个能力或客观条件已经在当时的具体场合起了作用(这个 <b>was</b> 是瞬间的)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 与上条有关，<b>able</b> 常指具体单独的一件事，而 <b>capable</b> 则指笼统的一类事。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> <b>able</b> 涉及的方面比较广泛，包括本人的能力、财力、拥有的时间、人际关系、规章允许范围、机遇等等；而 <b>capable</b> 则涉及面较窄，只有本人的能力、本领、物力之类。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> <b>able</b> 由于多顾及正面的要求，所以很少用于负面恶劣的行为或心态；而 <b>capable</b> 则没有这样的限制。<br><br>下面举一些例句来说明：She is <b><u>able</u></b> to recite the whole poem from memory. 她能够将全诗背诵出来。(当前马上可以兑现的一项能力)He didn't arrive in time and wasn't <b><u>able</u></b> to attend the meeting. 他没能及时赶到，参加不了会议。(客观障碍，具体的一次)A lazy student, he isn't <b><u>capable</u></b> of finishing college this year. 他这个懒学生，今年大学毕不了业。(本身条件，趋势预测)The treatments are <b><u>incapable</u></b> of curing the disease. 各种疗法都无法治愈那病症。(按现时条件对将来的预测)They <b><u>were</u></b> finally <b><u>able to</u></b> expose (*capable of exposing) him. 他们终于揭发了他。(过去时，单独具体一事，已生效；用 <b>capable</b> 则只是表示当时有此可能)The fire spread quickly, but luckily everybody was <b><u>able</u></b> to escape (*was capable of escaping). 火势蔓延很快，不过所有人都幸免于难。(过去时，单独具体一事，已生效；用 <b>capable</b> 只表示当时有此能力，此处说不通)Your son is <b><u>capable</u></b> of becoming a successful musician. 你的儿子能成为成功的音乐家。(按现时能力对将来的预测)They are <b><u>capable</u></b> of violence. 他们是劲粗也干得出来的。(干坏事的可能性)Unlike her father, she is <b><u>capable</u></b> of sympathy. 她跟她父亲不一样，是能够同情他人的。(有良好感情的趋向)If he refrained from making advances, how could she know if she was <b><u>capable</u></b> of resisting him? 如果他忍住不再挑逗，她怎能知道自己能不能顶得住？(笼统的能力)
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in accordance with
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>according to 与 in accordance with</b></div>两者在“遵照(某一规定或计划)”这个意义上(而且引入状语词组而非表语词组)可以互换。<b>according to</b> 倾向于客观“复述”，不加自己的意见，不一定自己认为就是如此。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He and his father, <b><u>according to</u></b> local gossip, haven't been in touch for years. 据当地传言，他和他父亲已经多年没有来往了。</div><br><br>句子如果是叙述动作的，<b>according to</b> 则引入这个动作的方式。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The work was done <b><u>according to</u></b> his instructions. 工作是按照他指点的那样完成的。(不是“按照他(应该把工作做了)的指点，做了工作”。)</div><div class="ex-item">They played the game <b><u>according to</u></b> the rules. 他们按照规则玩游戏。(不是“按照必须玩游戏的规则，他们玩了游戏”。)</div><b>in accordance with</b> 则是“遵照”某一规定或某一计划来做某事，没有客观“复述”的含义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b><u>In accordance with</u></b> your instructions, we have done the following: ……遵照您的指示，我们采取了如下措施：……</div><br><br>
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accountability
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>accountability, liability 与 responsibility</b></div>参见 <b>responsibility, liability</b> 与 <b>accountability</b> 条。<br><br>
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responsibility
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>accountability, liability 与 responsibility</b></div>参见 <b>responsibility, liability</b> 与 <b>accountability</b> 条。<br><br>
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across
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>across, across ... from ..., across from ... 与 from across ...</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> <b>across</b> 可以是副词，也可以是介词；而无论是副词还是介词，都可以是动态的，或者是静态的。中国人比较习惯于将 <b>across</b> 单纯理解为动态的介词(“穿过，越过”)，对于它作为动态的副词、静态的介词与副词，不是十分习惯。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> <b>across</b> 作为动态的副词，中国人还是比较容易接受的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The signalturned green and we walked <b><u>across</u></b>. 绿灯亮了，我们就穿过马路了。/ The boatman ferried them <b><u>across</u></b>. 船工把他们送到了渡口对面。/ She passed the photo <b><u>across</u></b>. 她把照片递了过来。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> <b>across</b> 作为静态的介词，意思是“位于某物的另一边”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They live just <b><u>across</u></b> the road. 他们就住在马路对面。/ The parking garage is just <b><u>across</u></b> the bridge on the left. 停车库就在桥那头左边。/ <b><u>Across</u></b> the floor in men's casual wear you could buy almost anything except British. (<i>The Sunday Times</i>, Oct. 31, 1982) 这一层楼的另一边是男便服部，那里什么都可以买到，就唯独英国货买不到。/ The idea of being in contact with all those silhouetted shadows he saw thronging before the windows and passing in and out of the doors <b><u>across</u></b> the street—it gave him a nausea. (John Fowles, <i>The French Lieutenant's Woman</i>) 他影影绰绰地看到他们涌到橱窗前，看到他们在门口进进出出，络绎不绝，他厌恶跟这些人打交道。(这里 <b>across the street</b> 中的 <b>across</b> 是静态的，意思是“在马路对面”，不是动态的“穿过马路在门口进进出出”。)</div>如果主语是两件东西，说它们 <b>across</b> 第三物，意思就是两物中间隔着第三物而相对着。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Their rooms are <b><u>across</u></b> the hall. 他们两人的房间中间隔着大厅。</div><br><br>但是，<b>across</b> 如果同 <b>from</b> 配合使用，就有如下的情况：(a) 如果要说“在 X 的对面”，英文用 <b>across from X</b> (仍然是静态的，但这里的 <b>across</b> 其实是副词而非介词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I sat next to Lori, and Peter and Anne sat <b><u>across from</u></b> us. 我坐在洛里旁边，彼得和安妮坐在我们对面。/ The supermarket is just <b><u>across from</u></b> the theater. 超市就在剧院对面。</div><br><br>英式英语则更习惯用介词 <b>opposite</b> 来代替 <b>across from</b>。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She was sitting <b><u>opposite</u></b> him. 她坐在他对面。</div>(b) 把 <b>across from</b> 颠倒为 <b>from across</b>，则恢复动态意义。<br><br>后面的名词如果指的是一个空间，而且行动所涉及的是两个个体，则意思是从这空间的一侧到另一侧。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He cried out to them <b><u>from across</u></b> the room. 他从房间的另一头向他们喊叫。</div><br><br>如果后面的名词所指的是一个区域，涉及多个个体，则意思是“来自这个区域的各处”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>messages <b><u>from across</u></b> the country 全国各地传来的信息</div><div class="ex-item">trade news <b><u>from across</u></b> the world 来自全世界的商业新闻</div><div class="ex-item">The meeting drew 1,500 participants <b><u>from across</u></b> the state. 集会吸引了全州各地 1,500 人前来参加。</div><br><br>如果后面的名词所指的是一条“线”，则意思是“在(或从)线的另一侧”(静态、动态意义都可以)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the lady <b><u>from across</u></b> the street 马路对面的那位女士。</div>
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across from ...
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>across, across ... from ..., across from ... 与 from across ...</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> <b>across</b> 可以是副词，也可以是介词；而无论是副词还是介词，都可以是动态的，或者是静态的。中国人比较习惯于将 <b>across</b> 单纯理解为动态的介词(“穿过，越过”)，对于它作为动态的副词、静态的介词与副词，不是十分习惯。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> <b>across</b> 作为动态的副词，中国人还是比较容易接受的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The signalturned green and we walked <b><u>across</u></b>. 绿灯亮了，我们就穿过马路了。/ The boatman ferried them <b><u>across</u></b>. 船工把他们送到了渡口对面。/ She passed the photo <b><u>across</u></b>. 她把照片递了过来。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> <b>across</b> 作为静态的介词，意思是“位于某物的另一边”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They live just <b><u>across</u></b> the road. 他们就住在马路对面。/ The parking garage is just <b><u>across</u></b> the bridge on the left. 停车库就在桥那头左边。/ <b><u>Across</u></b> the floor in men's casual wear you could buy almost anything except British. (<i>The Sunday Times</i>, Oct. 31, 1982) 这一层楼的另一边是男便服部，那里什么都可以买到，就唯独英国货买不到。/ The idea of being in contact with all those silhouetted shadows he saw thronging before the windows and passing in and out of the doors <b><u>across</u></b> the street—it gave him a nausea. (John Fowles, <i>The French Lieutenant's Woman</i>) 他影影绰绰地看到他们涌到橱窗前，看到他们在门口进进出出，络绎不绝，他厌恶跟这些人打交道。(这里 <b>across the street</b> 中的 <b>across</b> 是静态的，意思是“在马路对面”，不是动态的“穿过马路在门口进进出出”。)</div>如果主语是两件东西，说它们 <b>across</b> 第三物，意思就是两物中间隔着第三物而相对着。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Their rooms are <b><u>across</u></b> the hall. 他们两人的房间中间隔着大厅。</div><br><br>但是，<b>across</b> 如果同 <b>from</b> 配合使用，就有如下的情况：(a) 如果要说“在 X 的对面”，英文用 <b>across from X</b> (仍然是静态的，但这里的 <b>across</b> 其实是副词而非介词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I sat next to Lori, and Peter and Anne sat <b><u>across from</u></b> us. 我坐在洛里旁边，彼得和安妮坐在我们对面。/ The supermarket is just <b><u>across from</u></b> the theater. 超市就在剧院对面。</div><br><br>英式英语则更习惯用介词 <b>opposite</b> 来代替 <b>across from</b>。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She was sitting <b><u>opposite</u></b> him. 她坐在他对面。</div>(b) 把 <b>across from</b> 颠倒为 <b>from across</b>，则恢复动态意义。<br><br>后面的名词如果指的是一个空间，而且行动所涉及的是两个个体，则意思是从这空间的一侧到另一侧。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He cried out to them <b><u>from across</u></b> the room. 他从房间的另一头向他们喊叫。</div><br><br>如果后面的名词所指的是一个区域，涉及多个个体，则意思是“来自这个区域的各处”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>messages <b><u>from across</u></b> the country 全国各地传来的信息</div><div class="ex-item">trade news <b><u>from across</u></b> the world 来自全世界的商业新闻</div><div class="ex-item">The meeting drew 1,500 participants <b><u>from across</u></b> the state. 集会吸引了全州各地 1,500 人前来参加。</div><br><br>如果后面的名词所指的是一条“线”，则意思是“在(或从)线的另一侧”(静态、动态意义都可以)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the lady <b><u>from across</u></b> the street 马路对面的那位女士。</div>
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from across ...
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>across, across ... from ..., across from ... 与 from across ...</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> <b>across</b> 可以是副词，也可以是介词；而无论是副词还是介词，都可以是动态的，或者是静态的。中国人比较习惯于将 <b>across</b> 单纯理解为动态的介词(“穿过，越过”)，对于它作为动态的副词、静态的介词与副词，不是十分习惯。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> <b>across</b> 作为动态的副词，中国人还是比较容易接受的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The signalturned green and we walked <b><u>across</u></b>. 绿灯亮了，我们就穿过马路了。/ The boatman ferried them <b><u>across</u></b>. 船工把他们送到了渡口对面。/ She passed the photo <b><u>across</u></b>. 她把照片递了过来。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> <b>across</b> 作为静态的介词，意思是“位于某物的另一边”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They live just <b><u>across</u></b> the road. 他们就住在马路对面。/ The parking garage is just <b><u>across</u></b> the bridge on the left. 停车库就在桥那头左边。/ <b><u>Across</u></b> the floor in men's casual wear you could buy almost anything except British. (<i>The Sunday Times</i>, Oct. 31, 1982) 这一层楼的另一边是男便服部，那里什么都可以买到，就唯独英国货买不到。/ The idea of being in contact with all those silhouetted shadows he saw thronging before the windows and passing in and out of the doors <b><u>across</u></b> the street—it gave him a nausea. (John Fowles, <i>The French Lieutenant's Woman</i>) 他影影绰绰地看到他们涌到橱窗前，看到他们在门口进进出出，络绎不绝，他厌恶跟这些人打交道。(这里 <b>across the street</b> 中的 <b>across</b> 是静态的，意思是“在马路对面”，不是动态的“穿过马路在门口进进出出”。)</div>如果主语是两件东西，说它们 <b>across</b> 第三物，意思就是两物中间隔着第三物而相对着。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Their rooms are <b><u>across</u></b> the hall. 他们两人的房间中间隔着大厅。</div><br><br>但是，<b>across</b> 如果同 <b>from</b> 配合使用，就有如下的情况：(a) 如果要说“在 X 的对面”，英文用 <b>across from X</b> (仍然是静态的，但这里的 <b>across</b> 其实是副词而非介词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I sat next to Lori, and Peter and Anne sat <b><u>across from</u></b> us. 我坐在洛里旁边，彼得和安妮坐在我们对面。/ The supermarket is just <b><u>across from</u></b> the theater. 超市就在剧院对面。</div><br><br>英式英语则更习惯用介词 <b>opposite</b> 来代替 <b>across from</b>。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She was sitting <b><u>opposite</u></b> him. 她坐在他对面。</div>(b) 把 <b>across from</b> 颠倒为 <b>from across</b>，则恢复动态意义。<br><br>后面的名词如果指的是一个空间，而且行动所涉及的是两个个体，则意思是从这空间的一侧到另一侧。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He cried out to them <b><u>from across</u></b> the room. 他从房间的另一头向他们喊叫。</div><br><br>如果后面的名词所指的是一个区域，涉及多个个体，则意思是“来自这个区域的各处”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>messages <b><u>from across</u></b> the country 全国各地传来的信息</div><div class="ex-item">trade news <b><u>from across</u></b> the world 来自全世界的商业新闻</div><div class="ex-item">The meeting drew 1,500 participants <b><u>from across</u></b> the state. 集会吸引了全州各地 1,500 人前来参加。</div><br><br>如果后面的名词所指的是一条“线”，则意思是“在(或从)线的另一侧”(静态、动态意义都可以)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the lady <b><u>from across</u></b> the street 马路对面的那位女士。</div>
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across ... from ...
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>across, across ... from ..., across from ... 与 from across ...</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> <b>across</b> 可以是副词，也可以是介词；而无论是副词还是介词，都可以是动态的，或者是静态的。中国人比较习惯于将 <b>across</b> 单纯理解为动态的介词(“穿过，越过”)，对于它作为动态的副词、静态的介词与副词，不是十分习惯。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> <b>across</b> 作为动态的副词，中国人还是比较容易接受的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The signalturned green and we walked <b><u>across</u></b>. 绿灯亮了，我们就穿过马路了。/ The boatman ferried them <b><u>across</u></b>. 船工把他们送到了渡口对面。/ She passed the photo <b><u>across</u></b>. 她把照片递了过来。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> <b>across</b> 作为静态的介词，意思是“位于某物的另一边”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They live just <b><u>across</u></b> the road. 他们就住在马路对面。/ The parking garage is just <b><u>across</u></b> the bridge on the left. 停车库就在桥那头左边。/ <b><u>Across</u></b> the floor in men's casual wear you could buy almost anything except British. (<i>The Sunday Times</i>, Oct. 31, 1982) 这一层楼的另一边是男便服部，那里什么都可以买到，就唯独英国货买不到。/ The idea of being in contact with all those silhouetted shadows he saw thronging before the windows and passing in and out of the doors <b><u>across</u></b> the street—it gave him a nausea. (John Fowles, <i>The French Lieutenant's Woman</i>) 他影影绰绰地看到他们涌到橱窗前，看到他们在门口进进出出，络绎不绝，他厌恶跟这些人打交道。(这里 <b>across the street</b> 中的 <b>across</b> 是静态的，意思是“在马路对面”，不是动态的“穿过马路在门口进进出出”。)</div>如果主语是两件东西，说它们 <b>across</b> 第三物，意思就是两物中间隔着第三物而相对着。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Their rooms are <b><u>across</u></b> the hall. 他们两人的房间中间隔着大厅。</div><br><br>但是，<b>across</b> 如果同 <b>from</b> 配合使用，就有如下的情况：(a) 如果要说“在 X 的对面”，英文用 <b>across from X</b> (仍然是静态的，但这里的 <b>across</b> 其实是副词而非介词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I sat next to Lori, and Peter and Anne sat <b><u>across from</u></b> us. 我坐在洛里旁边，彼得和安妮坐在我们对面。/ The supermarket is just <b><u>across from</u></b> the theater. 超市就在剧院对面。</div><br><br>英式英语则更习惯用介词 <b>opposite</b> 来代替 <b>across from</b>。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She was sitting <b><u>opposite</u></b> him. 她坐在他对面。</div>(b) 把 <b>across from</b> 颠倒为 <b>from across</b>，则恢复动态意义。<br><br>后面的名词如果指的是一个空间，而且行动所涉及的是两个个体，则意思是从这空间的一侧到另一侧。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He cried out to them <b><u>from across</u></b> the room. 他从房间的另一头向他们喊叫。</div><br><br>如果后面的名词所指的是一个区域，涉及多个个体，则意思是“来自这个区域的各处”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>messages <b><u>from across</u></b> the country 全国各地传来的信息</div><div class="ex-item">trade news <b><u>from across</u></b> the world 来自全世界的商业新闻</div><div class="ex-item">The meeting drew 1,500 participants <b><u>from across</u></b> the state. 集会吸引了全州各地 1,500 人前来参加。</div><br><br>如果后面的名词所指的是一条“线”，则意思是“在(或从)线的另一侧”(静态、动态意义都可以)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the lady <b><u>from across</u></b> the street 马路对面的那位女士。</div>
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active
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>active 与 positive</b></div>两者在中文里都有“积极”的意思，区别参见 positive 条。<br><br>
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act
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>act 与 action</b></div>两者区别不大。一些细微的区别是：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> act 常常指单个的动作，action 则可以指范围较广的一整套行为。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The movie will have to pack all the action into less than three hours. 影片将要把全部剧情压缩到三小时之内。/ The Knopf edition (= an English version of Tolstoy's War and Peace), in contrast, comes laden with a long introduction by Pevear, heavy annotation, a historical glossary of people and places and a summary of the action. (Newsweek, Oct. 15, 2007, p. 81) 诺普夫版的译本则反之，加上了佩维阿尔的一篇长长的序言，又有大量的注释、人名地名的历史词汇表以及故事梗概。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> act 用于比较抽象和静态的行为，action 的行为则比较具体可见，而且动态意义较强。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Yet as the years passed, more Americans came to see the pardon as an act (*action) of unusual statesmanship. (Newsweek, Jan. 8, 2007, p. 32) ……然而随着岁月流逝，越来越多的美国人把这个特赦看作是一个不平常的政治家风度之举。/ The CEO vowed not to take any action that would eliminate jobs. 首席执行官许诺绝不采取任何削减工作机会的行动。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 修饰 act 的定语，通常用 act of + 名词(或动名词)来表示，这个名词或动名词是 act 的具体化或评价。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... performing numerous acts of kindness to those in need (The Times Literary Supplement, Feb. 8, 1968) ……进行许多救助危难者的行动</div><div class="ex-item">an act of arson 纵火行为</div><div class="ex-item">the act of reading 阅读行为。</div><br><br>action 的定语则通常以形容词(或名词)形式放在 action 前面。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a protest action (*an action of protest) 抗议行动</div><div class="ex-item">a political action 政治行动</div><div class="ex-item">unilateral actions 单方面行动。</div><br><br>如果 action 后面有 of + 名词，这个名词通常是 action 的施动者。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... the future of our children depends in great measure on the actions of our political leaders. (Lena L. Gitter, Children's House) ……我们孩子们的前途，在很大程度上要取决于我们那些政治领导人的行动。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> action 可以是可数名词，也可以是不可数名词；而 act 则只能是可数名词。因此，action 可以不要任何冠词；act 作单数时则通常要有 a 或 the。action 作为不可数名词时，意义是抽象而非具体个别的“行动”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>egalitarianism in action (<i>act) 见诸行动的平均主义</div><div class="ex-item">take decisive action (</i>act) 采取决定性的行动</div><div class="ex-item">press for Congressional action 敦促国会采取行动。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> action 还可以放在另一个名词前面作为其定语，这是 act 所不能的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>action movie 武打片</div><div class="ex-item">action group 行动小组</div><div class="ex-item">action level (达到政府采取行动干预的)食品含毒浓度</div><div class="ex-item">action painting 抽象派的泼洒画</div><div class="ex-item">action radius (军队的)行动半径</div><div class="ex-item">action replay 体育比赛精彩场面录像的重放。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> action 常常在观念上同 words (言词)相对，表示“实际行动”而非“空谈”(这也是 act 所不能表示的)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Their actions show them to be untrustworthy. 他们的行动表明了他们是不可信的。/ Actions speak louder than words. 行动胜过言词。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> action 还在军事上表示“战斗，作战”(act 没有这个意义)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>killed in action 阵亡</div><div class="ex-item">go into action 加入战斗</div><div class="ex-item">He'd seen action, that was plain enough from the shrapnel scar running into the right eye. 他是经历过战争的，这一点，从那个一直延伸到他右眼的弹片伤痕就可以一望而知。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> 在有些固定词组中，act 与 action 不能随便更换。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>caught in the act (<i>action) 当场抓获</div><div class="ex-item">take action (</i>act) 采取行动</div><div class="ex-item">go into action (<i>act) 采取行动</div><div class="ex-item">out of action (</i>act) 不起作用，发生故障</div><div class="ex-item">class action (*act) (法律用语)集体诉讼。</div><br><br>
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action
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>act 与 action</b></div>两者区别不大。一些细微的区别是：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> act 常常指单个的动作，action 则可以指范围较广的一整套行为。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The movie will have to pack all the action into less than three hours. 影片将要把全部剧情压缩到三小时之内。/ The Knopf edition (= an English version of Tolstoy's War and Peace), in contrast, comes laden with a long introduction by Pevear, heavy annotation, a historical glossary of people and places and a summary of the action. (Newsweek, Oct. 15, 2007, p. 81) 诺普夫版的译本则反之，加上了佩维阿尔的一篇长长的序言，又有大量的注释、人名地名的历史词汇表以及故事梗概。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> act 用于比较抽象和静态的行为，action 的行为则比较具体可见，而且动态意义较强。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Yet as the years passed, more Americans came to see the pardon as an act (*action) of unusual statesmanship. (Newsweek, Jan. 8, 2007, p. 32) ……然而随着岁月流逝，越来越多的美国人把这个特赦看作是一个不平常的政治家风度之举。/ The CEO vowed not to take any action that would eliminate jobs. 首席执行官许诺绝不采取任何削减工作机会的行动。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 修饰 act 的定语，通常用 act of + 名词(或动名词)来表示，这个名词或动名词是 act 的具体化或评价。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... performing numerous acts of kindness to those in need (The Times Literary Supplement, Feb. 8, 1968) ……进行许多救助危难者的行动</div><div class="ex-item">an act of arson 纵火行为</div><div class="ex-item">the act of reading 阅读行为。</div><br><br>action 的定语则通常以形容词(或名词)形式放在 action 前面。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a protest action (*an action of protest) 抗议行动</div><div class="ex-item">a political action 政治行动</div><div class="ex-item">unilateral actions 单方面行动。</div><br><br>如果 action 后面有 of + 名词，这个名词通常是 action 的施动者。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... the future of our children depends in great measure on the actions of our political leaders. (Lena L. Gitter, Children's House) ……我们孩子们的前途，在很大程度上要取决于我们那些政治领导人的行动。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> action 可以是可数名词，也可以是不可数名词；而 act 则只能是可数名词。因此，action 可以不要任何冠词；act 作单数时则通常要有 a 或 the。action 作为不可数名词时，意义是抽象而非具体个别的“行动”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>egalitarianism in action (<i>act) 见诸行动的平均主义</div><div class="ex-item">take decisive action (</i>act) 采取决定性的行动</div><div class="ex-item">press for Congressional action 敦促国会采取行动。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> action 还可以放在另一个名词前面作为其定语，这是 act 所不能的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>action movie 武打片</div><div class="ex-item">action group 行动小组</div><div class="ex-item">action level (达到政府采取行动干预的)食品含毒浓度</div><div class="ex-item">action painting 抽象派的泼洒画</div><div class="ex-item">action radius (军队的)行动半径</div><div class="ex-item">action replay 体育比赛精彩场面录像的重放。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> action 常常在观念上同 words (言词)相对，表示“实际行动”而非“空谈”(这也是 act 所不能表示的)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Their actions show them to be untrustworthy. 他们的行动表明了他们是不可信的。/ Actions speak louder than words. 行动胜过言词。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> action 还在军事上表示“战斗，作战”(act 没有这个意义)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>killed in action 阵亡</div><div class="ex-item">go into action 加入战斗</div><div class="ex-item">He'd seen action, that was plain enough from the shrapnel scar running into the right eye. 他是经历过战争的，这一点，从那个一直延伸到他右眼的弹片伤痕就可以一望而知。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> 在有些固定词组中，act 与 action 不能随便更换。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>caught in the act (<i>action) 当场抓获</div><div class="ex-item">take action (</i>act) 采取行动</div><div class="ex-item">go into action (<i>act) 采取行动</div><div class="ex-item">out of action (</i>act) 不起作用，发生故障</div><div class="ex-item">class action (*act) (法律用语)集体诉讼。</div><br><br>
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insult to injury
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(add) insult to injury</b></div>是习语，也可以颠倒为 injury to insult；字面上是“不但损害，而且侮辱(或辱骂)”，但是实际用起来，无论是“损害”还是“侮辱”，意义都有了转变，不一定有人对别人如何如何，而是可以作为一个架构，加上其他词语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>First, the basement flooded, and then, to add insult to injury, a pipe burst in the kitchen. 先是地下室淹了水，后来又祸不单行，厨房一条水管爆裂了。/ My car barely started this morning, and to add insult to injury, I got a flat tire in the driveway. 我的车今天早上好不容易才发动，但更糟糕的是刚开出车库就爆了一个轮胎。</div><br><br>
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add insult to injury
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(add) insult to injury</b></div>是习语，也可以颠倒为 injury to insult；字面上是“不但损害，而且侮辱(或辱骂)”，但是实际用起来，无论是“损害”还是“侮辱”，意义都有了转变，不一定有人对别人如何如何，而是可以作为一个架构，加上其他词语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>First, the basement flooded, and then, to add insult to injury, a pipe burst in the kitchen. 先是地下室淹了水，后来又祸不单行，厨房一条水管爆裂了。/ My car barely started this morning, and to add insult to injury, I got a flat tire in the driveway. 我的车今天早上好不容易才发动，但更糟糕的是刚开出车库就爆了一个轮胎。</div><br><br>
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address
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>address (v.t.)</b></div>这个及物动词(瞬时动态动词)的意义和用法，对中国人来说有点新鲜。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 宾语可以是人，此时 address 表示：(a) 在一群人面前发表演讲。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He addressed a mass meeting. 他在一次群众集会上讲了话。</div>(b) 称呼某人为(as ...)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She always addressed me as "my daughter." 她总是把我叫作“我的女儿”。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> address 表示谈论、研究、应付、处理(某件事情或某个问题)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has not addressed the issue of the strike demands. 他没有处理关于各项罢工要求的问题。/ That country has reduced national gas export to address greater domestic demand. 该国已经减少了天然气出口，以应付国内增长的需求。/ Some treatments address the symptoms, while others reduce your risk of a heart attack or stroke. 一些治疗是针对症状的，而另一些则降低你心脏病发作或脑卒中的风险。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 宾语是某个主张、建议、要求之类，address 表示“提交”，提交的对象用介词 to 引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He addressed some general remarks to the gathering. 他向会议提交了一些一般性的意见。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 宾语是信件，address 表示“致送”，收件人也是用介词 to 引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The letter is addressed to the president. 信件是致送总统的。</div><br><br>
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address v.t.
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>address (v.t.)</b></div>这个及物动词(瞬时动态动词)的意义和用法，对中国人来说有点新鲜。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 宾语可以是人，此时 address 表示：(a) 在一群人面前发表演讲。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He addressed a mass meeting. 他在一次群众集会上讲了话。</div>(b) 称呼某人为(as ...)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She always addressed me as "my daughter." 她总是把我叫作“我的女儿”。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> address 表示谈论、研究、应付、处理(某件事情或某个问题)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has not addressed the issue of the strike demands. 他没有处理关于各项罢工要求的问题。/ That country has reduced national gas export to address greater domestic demand. 该国已经减少了天然气出口，以应付国内增长的需求。/ Some treatments address the symptoms, while others reduce your risk of a heart attack or stroke. 一些治疗是针对症状的，而另一些则降低你心脏病发作或脑卒中的风险。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 宾语是某个主张、建议、要求之类，address 表示“提交”，提交的对象用介词 to 引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He addressed some general remarks to the gathering. 他向会议提交了一些一般性的意见。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 宾语是信件，address 表示“致送”，收件人也是用介词 to 引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The letter is addressed to the president. 信件是致送总统的。</div><br><br>
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admittance
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>admittance 与 admission</b></div>两者意义往往重合。但是 admission 在表示公事公办的“允许入内；接纳；录取”的行动这一点上意义比 admittance 具体，而在既可接纳进入具体场所也可接纳参加抽象组织这一点上意义又比 admittance (通常指具体场所)更广泛。由于 admission 的意义比较偏重公事公办的具体行动，所以甚至可以有复数形式表示多种的行动。admittance 则不太注意具体的行动，而是着重“接纳”的抽象意义(因而没有复数)，而且往往偏重当事人被动的角度，指一次或经常能进入某地点(通常不包括参加某组织)的资格或权利甚至道义地位。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>her admission to the club 她获准参加俱乐部</div><div class="ex-item">No admissions are permitted in the hour before closing. 闭馆前一小时停止入场。/ The admission to the movie was five dollars. 这部电影的票价是五美元。/ They don't charge admission to the museum. 博物馆是免费入场的。/ No admittance (*No admission). 请勿入内。/ As a European I can gain admittance to their home and table. (Edgar Rice Burroughs, Tarzan and the Jewels of Opar) 我是个欧洲人，我就能够进他们的家，坐上他们的餐桌。/ Anyone who picked an apple gained admittance into the golden castle, ... (Andrew Lang, The Yellow Fairy Book) 谁捡起一个苹果，谁就能够进入那座金色的城堡，……</div><div class="ex-item">It was only the man's insistence that procured him admittance at such an hour. (Jack London, Adventure) 经过一番坚持，这个人这时候才被允许进去。/ Into one house in this neighbourhood they shall never have admittance. (Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice) 这一带的人家，他们哪一家都休想进得去。</div><br><br>注意：admission 与 admittance 后面的名词(无论是场所还是组织)，介词用 to，但是如果强调“进入内部空间”，可以用 into。<br><br>
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adopted
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>adopted 与 adoptive</b></div>本来按照原有词义，adopted 是“被领养的”，adoptive 是“领养他人的”，所以“养父”应该是 adoptive father，“养子”应该是 adopted son。但是，实际使用时，往往发生混淆。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... the estate of the last of Janice's adopted parents (Erle Stanley Gardner, The Case of the Stuttering Bishop) ……詹妮斯最终的养父母的房产</div><div class="ex-item">... Mme. Gabrielle Osorio and her adoptive daughter ... (Edward T. Cone, American Scholar, Summer 1973) 加布里埃尔·奥索里奥夫人和她的养女……</div><br><br>经领养而发生的其他关系，用 adopted 或 adoptive 都可以。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>adoptive sister 或 adopted sister 继姐(妹)</div><div class="ex-item">adoptive country 或 adopted country 归化国</div><div class="ex-item">... who was knighted in his adoptive England in 1980 (Diane McWhorter, The New York Times Book Review, May 1, 1980) ……1980年他在归化地英格兰被册封为骑士。</div><br><br>
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adoptive
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>adopted 与 adoptive</b></div>本来按照原有词义，adopted 是“被领养的”，adoptive 是“领养他人的”，所以“养父”应该是 adoptive father，“养子”应该是 adopted son。但是，实际使用时，往往发生混淆。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... the estate of the last of Janice's adopted parents (Erle Stanley Gardner, The Case of the Stuttering Bishop) ……詹妮斯最终的养父母的房产</div><div class="ex-item">... Mme. Gabrielle Osorio and her adoptive daughter ... (Edward T. Cone, American Scholar, Summer 1973) 加布里埃尔·奥索里奥夫人和她的养女……</div><br><br>经领养而发生的其他关系，用 adopted 或 adoptive 都可以。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>adoptive sister 或 adopted sister 继姐(妹)</div><div class="ex-item">adoptive country 或 adopted country 归化国</div><div class="ex-item">... who was knighted in his adoptive England in 1980 (Diane McWhorter, The New York Times Book Review, May 1, 1980) ……1980年他在归化地英格兰被册封为骑士。</div><br><br>
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adversary
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>adversary, enemy 与 foe</b></div>adversary 只是“对手”，不是“仇敌”。例如比赛中的对方，或是诉讼中的对方。enemy 则是感情上或政治上对立的“敌人”或是军事上的“敌军”。foe 与enemy 相近，但是较为古旧与正式。<br><br>
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amateur
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>aficionado 与 amateur</b></div>aficionado 来自西班牙语，意思是“业余爱好者”，大体上相当于英语的 amateur。但是英语中 aficionado 与 amateur 两个单词都使用，原因是 aficionado 借用到了英语后，意义发生了细微的变化，同 amateur 有所区别。<br><br>aficionado 着重“爱好，嗜好，入迷”，甚至“有功底”，不着重其“非专业；不内行”，反而着重其“热衷于此道”的意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... and yet Grail aficionados still discussed it ad nauseam on Internet bulletin boards and worldwide-web chat rooms. (Dan Brown, The Da Vinci Code) ……但是那些圣杯迷们却仍然不厌其烦地在互联网布告栏上和网络聊天室里讨论这个问题。</div><br><br>amateur 则隐约有“非专业，水平不高”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a bunch of amateurs 一群门外汉</div><div class="ex-item">There's a big difference between an amateur video and a slick Hollywood production. 业余玩玩的录像，同地地道道的好莱坞出品，差别不可同日而语。</div><br><br>
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aficionado
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>aficionado 与 amateur</b></div>aficionado 来自西班牙语，意思是“业余爱好者”，大体上相当于英语的 amateur。但是英语中 aficionado 与 amateur 两个单词都使用，原因是 aficionado 借用到了英语后，意义发生了细微的变化，同 amateur 有所区别。<br><br>aficionado 着重“爱好，嗜好，入迷”，甚至“有功底”，不着重其“非专业；不内行”，反而着重其“热衷于此道”的意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... and yet Grail aficionados still discussed it ad nauseam on Internet bulletin boards and worldwide-web chat rooms. (Dan Brown, The Da Vinci Code) ……但是那些圣杯迷们却仍然不厌其烦地在互联网布告栏上和网络聊天室里讨论这个问题。</div><br><br>amateur 则隐约有“非专业，水平不高”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a bunch of amateurs 一群门外汉</div><div class="ex-item">There's a big difference between an amateur video and a slick Hollywood production. 业余玩玩的录像，同地地道道的好莱坞出品，差别不可同日而语。</div><br><br>
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isle
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>aisle 与 isle</b></div>两个名词发音完全相同(而且 s 都不发音)，但意义完全不同。aisle 是会场(包括教堂大厅、剧院观众席等)当中的通道以及超市货架与货架之间供顾客漫步选购的通道。此外，飞机、火车、大巴等靠中间通道的座位，叫作 the aisle seat 或 the seat on the aisle。walk down the aisle 常常指新娘在婚礼上沿着教堂大厅的过道走向祭坛。<br><br>isle 则是“岛屿”，常用于文学语言，通常比 island 小，但也用于一些表示大岛屿的专有名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the British Isles 英伦三岛，不列颠群岛。</div><br><br>
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aisle
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>aisle 与 isle</b></div>两个名词发音完全相同(而且 s 都不发音)，但意义完全不同。aisle 是会场(包括教堂大厅、剧院观众席等)当中的通道以及超市货架与货架之间供顾客漫步选购的通道。此外，飞机、火车、大巴等靠中间通道的座位，叫作 the aisle seat 或 the seat on the aisle。walk down the aisle 常常指新娘在婚礼上沿着教堂大厅的过道走向祭坛。<br><br>isle 则是“岛屿”，常用于文学语言，通常比 island 小，但也用于一些表示大岛屿的专有名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the British Isles 英伦三岛，不列颠群岛。</div><br><br>
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all-out
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>all-round, all-out 与 overall</b></div>大体上中文都是“全面的”，但是意义上有细微的差别。all-round 偏于静态的“面面俱到”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>all-round education 通才教育</div><div class="ex-item">all-round development 全面发展。用于人则表示“全才；多面手”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He's a good all-round player. 他是个出色的全能型球员。</div><br><br>all-out 则偏于动态的“全力以赴”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>an all-out offensive 全面攻势。</div><br><br>all-round 与 all-out 通常都是用来修饰人或其计划或行动，overall 则除此之外还可以用来修饰客观事物，而且往往暗含“范围广了但可能稀薄了”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>my overall impression 我的大体印象(总的概括，笼统而不具体深入)</div><div class="ex-item">overall improvement in standards of living 生活水平的普遍改善(人人都有改善，但可能每人都不多)</div><div class="ex-item">the overall situation 全局情况(面面俱到，但每个方面都只能蜻蜓点水)。</div><br><br>
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overall
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>all-round, all-out 与 overall</b></div>大体上中文都是“全面的”，但是意义上有细微的差别。all-round 偏于静态的“面面俱到”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>all-round education 通才教育</div><div class="ex-item">all-round development 全面发展。用于人则表示“全才；多面手”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He's a good all-round player. 他是个出色的全能型球员。</div><br><br>all-out 则偏于动态的“全力以赴”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>an all-out offensive 全面攻势。</div><br><br>all-round 与 all-out 通常都是用来修饰人或其计划或行动，overall 则除此之外还可以用来修饰客观事物，而且往往暗含“范围广了但可能稀薄了”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>my overall impression 我的大体印象(总的概括，笼统而不具体深入)</div><div class="ex-item">overall improvement in standards of living 生活水平的普遍改善(人人都有改善，但可能每人都不多)</div><div class="ex-item">the overall situation 全局情况(面面俱到，但每个方面都只能蜻蜓点水)。</div><br><br>
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all-round
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>all-round, all-out 与 overall</b></div>大体上中文都是“全面的”，但是意义上有细微的差别。all-round 偏于静态的“面面俱到”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>all-round education 通才教育</div><div class="ex-item">all-round development 全面发展。用于人则表示“全才；多面手”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He's a good all-round player. 他是个出色的全能型球员。</div><br><br>all-out 则偏于动态的“全力以赴”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>an all-out offensive 全面攻势。</div><br><br>all-round 与 all-out 通常都是用来修饰人或其计划或行动，overall 则除此之外还可以用来修饰客观事物，而且往往暗含“范围广了但可能稀薄了”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>my overall impression 我的大体印象(总的概括，笼统而不具体深入)</div><div class="ex-item">overall improvement in standards of living 生活水平的普遍改善(人人都有改善，但可能每人都不多)</div><div class="ex-item">the overall situation 全局情况(面面俱到，但每个方面都只能蜻蜓点水)。</div><br><br>
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all the while
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(all the) while</b></div>后面跟着动词现在分词，意思是“而同时又(一直)做着某事”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Second, the soldiers. One could not have arms negotiations without the men who controlled the arms, ... <b>all the while</b> telling themselves that the politicians who controlled the men would never give the order to launch. (Tom Clancy, The Cardinal of the Kremlin) 其次，是军人。任何人都无法进行军备谈判，除非他手下有一批人控制住武器，……而同时又一直告诉自己说，那些控制着军人的政治家们永远不会下令发射这些武器。</div><br><br>
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almost
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>almost 与 nearly</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> almost 与 nearly 常常可以互换。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I've almost/nearly finished. 我差不多做完了。/ There were almost/nearly a thousand people there. 那里有将近一千人。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 但是有时候 almost 比 nearly 更加强一些。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's nearly ten o'clock. 快十点钟了。(可能是九点三刻)</div><div class="ex-item">It's almost ten o'clock. 马上就十点钟了。(可能只差两三分钟)</div><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> nearly 前面可以再再加上增强语气的 very 或 pretty，但 almost 前面则不可。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I've very/pretty nearly (*almost) finished. 我差一点点就做完了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> almost 可以用于表示性质上的“近似”，而 nearly 则偏重数量上的接近。因此，表示“像”什么时，可以用 almost，但不可以用 nearly。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Jake is almost (*nearly) like a father to me. 杰克几乎像父亲一样对待我。/ Our dog understands everything. He's almost human. 我们的狗什么都懂。他几乎是通人性的。/ My aunt's got a strange accent. She almost sounds foreign. 我的姨妈口音很古怪。听起来像外国人。/ I almost wish I'd stayed at home. 我几乎恨不得留在家里。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> nearly 不能同否定副词或否定代词一起使用；almost 则可以同 not 除外的否定词一起使用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She's almost never/hardly ever (*nearly never) at home. 她几乎从不在家。/ Almost nobody/Hardly anybody was there. 几乎没有人在那里。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 在 everybody、everything、anybody、anything 之前，多用 almost，少用 nearly。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She likes almost everybody. 几乎所有的人她都喜欢。/ Almost anybody can do this job. 这个工作几乎谁都能做。/ He's been almost everywhere. 他几乎什么地方都去过。/ He eats almost anything. 他几乎什么都吃。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> almost 后面如果遇到 not，通常就两者合起来改为 hardly。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Hardly (<i>Almost not) a day goes by without her paying us a visit. 她几乎没有一天不来看我们一次。/ I need hardly (</i>I almost don't need) remind you that ... 我几乎不用提醒你……</div><br><br>但是偶尔也有人用 almost not 的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The menu is almost not readable in daylight. 屏幕上的菜单在白天几乎看不出来。</div><br><br>
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nearly
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>almost 与 nearly</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> almost 与 nearly 常常可以互换。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I've almost/nearly finished. 我差不多做完了。/ There were almost/nearly a thousand people there. 那里有将近一千人。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 但是有时候 almost 比 nearly 更加强一些。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's nearly ten o'clock. 快十点钟了。(可能是九点三刻)</div><div class="ex-item">It's almost ten o'clock. 马上就十点钟了。(可能只差两三分钟)</div><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> nearly 前面可以再再加上增强语气的 very 或 pretty，但 almost 前面则不可。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I've very/pretty nearly (*almost) finished. 我差一点点就做完了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> almost 可以用于表示性质上的“近似”，而 nearly 则偏重数量上的接近。因此，表示“像”什么时，可以用 almost，但不可以用 nearly。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Jake is almost (*nearly) like a father to me. 杰克几乎像父亲一样对待我。/ Our dog understands everything. He's almost human. 我们的狗什么都懂。他几乎是通人性的。/ My aunt's got a strange accent. She almost sounds foreign. 我的姨妈口音很古怪。听起来像外国人。/ I almost wish I'd stayed at home. 我几乎恨不得留在家里。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> nearly 不能同否定副词或否定代词一起使用；almost 则可以同 not 除外的否定词一起使用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She's almost never/hardly ever (*nearly never) at home. 她几乎从不在家。/ Almost nobody/Hardly anybody was there. 几乎没有人在那里。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 在 everybody、everything、anybody、anything 之前，多用 almost，少用 nearly。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She likes almost everybody. 几乎所有的人她都喜欢。/ Almost anybody can do this job. 这个工作几乎谁都能做。/ He's been almost everywhere. 他几乎什么地方都去过。/ He eats almost anything. 他几乎什么都吃。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> almost 后面如果遇到 not，通常就两者合起来改为 hardly。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Hardly (<i>Almost not) a day goes by without her paying us a visit. 她几乎没有一天不来看我们一次。/ I need hardly (</i>I almost don't need) remind you that ... 我几乎不用提醒你……</div><br><br>但是偶尔也有人用 almost not 的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The menu is almost not readable in daylight. 屏幕上的菜单在白天几乎看不出来。</div><br><br>
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alone
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>alone (adj.)</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> alone 不能用 very、too 等副词来修饰，但可以用 very much 或 all (作副词用)来修饰。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The house stands on the hillside all alone. 房子孤零零地立在山坡上。</div><br><br>也可以有比较级，不同事物彼此比较或同一事物在不同场合比较均可。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Sometimes men are more alone than women. 男人有时候比女人更孤单。/ She is more alone than ever. 她比任何时候都更加孤单。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> leave somebody/something alone 通常不是留下来某人(或某物)孤零零一个或孤立某人，而是“不打扰”他或“不惊动”他，或对某物不采取行动。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>About half the American people turned their clocks ahead for daylight saving time, while the other half left their clocks alone. 美国人大约有一半按照夏令时把时钟往前拨，而另一半人则不动时钟。</div><br><br>要注意有时候 leave 和 alone 当中会隔着很长的其他成分(即 leave 的直接宾语)，但 leave 和 alone 之间的呼应关系不能因此而中断。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They left the hospital, where we had been treating servicemen, alone for several weeks and then they abruptly shut us down at 24 hours notice. (BBC News, Mar. 29, 2008) 这所医院原本是我们用来治疗军人的，他们有几个星期没有打扰我们，但是忽然之间，通知我们 24 小时内关闭。</div><br><br>但是有时候 leave somebody/something alone 也有字面上的“单独留下某人或某物”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Don't leave the baby alone. 别把婴儿单独留下。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> let alone 可以是“暂时放下”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Do you think the study of Bach is necessary to the development of one's technique, or should one let his music alone until a later day when one's technique is in good condition? (Josef Hofmann, Piano Playing) 你觉得学习巴赫是增进自己技艺所必需的，还是说应该先把巴赫的音乐放下，等到有朝一日自己的技艺长进了再捡起来？</div><br><br>
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alone adj.
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>alone (adj.)</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> alone 不能用 very、too 等副词来修饰，但可以用 very much 或 all (作副词用)来修饰。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The house stands on the hillside all alone. 房子孤零零地立在山坡上。</div><br><br>也可以有比较级，不同事物彼此比较或同一事物在不同场合比较均可。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Sometimes men are more alone than women. 男人有时候比女人更孤单。/ She is more alone than ever. 她比任何时候都更加孤单。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> leave somebody/something alone 通常不是留下来某人(或某物)孤零零一个或孤立某人，而是“不打扰”他或“不惊动”他，或对某物不采取行动。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>About half the American people turned their clocks ahead for daylight saving time, while the other half left their clocks alone. 美国人大约有一半按照夏令时把时钟往前拨，而另一半人则不动时钟。</div><br><br>要注意有时候 leave 和 alone 当中会隔着很长的其他成分(即 leave 的直接宾语)，但 leave 和 alone 之间的呼应关系不能因此而中断。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They left the hospital, where we had been treating servicemen, alone for several weeks and then they abruptly shut us down at 24 hours notice. (BBC News, Mar. 29, 2008) 这所医院原本是我们用来治疗军人的，他们有几个星期没有打扰我们，但是忽然之间，通知我们 24 小时内关闭。</div><br><br>但是有时候 leave somebody/something alone 也有字面上的“单独留下某人或某物”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Don't leave the baby alone. 别把婴儿单独留下。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> let alone 可以是“暂时放下”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Do you think the study of Bach is necessary to the development of one's technique, or should one let his music alone until a later day when one's technique is in good condition? (Josef Hofmann, Piano Playing) 你觉得学习巴赫是增进自己技艺所必需的，还是说应该先把巴赫的音乐放下，等到有朝一日自己的技艺长进了再捡起来？</div><br><br>
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all ready
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>already 与 all ready</b></div>already 是个副词，all ready 是形容词，意义完全不同。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Are they already all ready? 他们已经全体准备好了吗？</div><br><br>
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altogether
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>altogether 与 all together</b></div>两者意义完全不同。altogether 表示“根本”，用来强调否定、区别的彻底。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The noise had stopped <b>altogether</b>. 杂音全停下来了。/ He abandoned his work <b>altogether</b>. 他索性放下了工作。/ That would be another thing <b>altogether</b>. 那根本就是另外一回事。/ She became an <b>altogether</b> different person from what she had been. 她完全变了个人。</div><br><br>all together 就是字面上的“全都在一起”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The legislators wereall together in the hall. 议员们全都到大厅来了。</div><br><br>
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all together
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>altogether 与 all together</b></div>两者意义完全不同。altogether 表示“根本”，用来强调否定、区别的彻底。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The noise had stopped <b>altogether</b>. 杂音全停下来了。/ He abandoned his work <b>altogether</b>. 他索性放下了工作。/ That would be another thing <b>altogether</b>. 那根本就是另外一回事。/ She became an <b>altogether</b> different person from what she had been. 她完全变了个人。</div><br><br>all together 就是字面上的“全都在一起”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The legislators wereall together in the hall. 议员们全都到大厅来了。</div><br><br>
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at that
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(and ...) at that</b></div>参见 and ... at that 条。<br><br>
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reply
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>answer, reply 与 respond</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 中文的“问”，除了真的提问问题求取答案之外，还有“追究责任”的意思 (例如“唯你是问，问责”)；英文 ask 则只有“提问”和“请求”的意思，没有“追究责任”的意思。但是，中文“回答”所没有的“承担责任”的意思，英文 answer 却有。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They will have to <b>answer for</b> their acts in a court of law. 他们将要在法庭上对自己的行为承担责任。/ I'll <b>answer for</b> him. 我替他负责。/ Let him <b>answer for</b> himself. 让他自己为自己负责吧。/ His parents have a lot to <b>answer for</b>. 他的父母要负很大的责任。</div><br><br>answer to somebody 是“要对某人负责” (有过错要受某人惩罚，表示状态，属第一类动词)，answer somebody (没有 to) 则只是“回答某人的提问” (表示行动，属第四类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You are to <b>answer to</b> Brian, to take your orders from him. 你要对布赖恩负责，接受他的命令。/ You'll <b>answer to me</b> if your information is not true. 你的信息如果不对，我就要唯你是问。/ He <b>answered me</b> quickly. 他很快就回答了我。</div><br><br>有趣的是，answer 的同义词 respond，派生了形容词 responsible 和名词 responsibility，都有“(负)责任”的意思，但是动词 respond 本身却只有“回答”而没有“负责任”的意思，这个意义，交给了词根根本不同的 answer (从 answer 派生的形容词 answerable to 是“对……负责的”)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> answer 与 reply to (注意要有 to 才能引入宾语) 往往可以互换，但是 answer 比较偏重答复的内容，reply to 则比较偏重答复的行为 (参见 hear 与 listen to 条、speak 与 talk 条)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>answer</b> (*reply) in the affirmative 给予肯定的回答</div><div class="ex-item">You should <b>reply to</b> this letter at once. 你应该立即回复这封信。/ The mother <b>replied</b> for the daughter. 母亲替女儿做了回答。/ Ed <b>replied</b> for all the graduates. 爱德代表全体毕业生致答词。(如果用 answered 就是“替全体毕业生负责”。) 因此，转义的“回应” (重行动不重内容)，常用 reply to。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We <b>replied to</b> the enemy's fire. 我们对敌人还了火。/ My friend <b>replied</b> with a knowing wink. 我的朋友报以会心的眼神。</div><br><br>名词 answer 和 reply 也有同样的区别。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She had only one <b>answer</b> (<i>reply) correct on the test. 她的测验题只有一道做对了。/ The invention is a good <b>answer</b> (</i>reply) to housewives' problems. 这个发明可以很好地解决家庭主妇们的难题。</div><br><br>另外，reply 还意味着“一来一往”的第二个单独的过程，如果两个过程“合而为一”，就要用 answer。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She <b>answered</b> (<i>replied to) the phone on the first ring. 电话一响她就接了。/ A middle-aged woman <b>answered</b> (</i>replied to) the door. 一个中年妇女应声开门。/ I knocked at the door, but nobody <b>answered</b> (*replied). 我敲了门，但是没有谁应声前来。许多团体或企业、机关的电话由于打来的人很多，接不过来，就用录音请人等候，说：“We'll <b>answer</b> your call promptly.” 我们将很快接听您打来的电话。这里的 answer 就是当场接听，不是事后回一个电话。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> reply 虽然不着重答复的内容，但是后面如果接上 that 从句，却可以说出答复的内容。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He <b>replied that</b> he did not know it. 他回答说不知道。/ She <b>replied that</b> no one would go. 她回答说谁都不会去。/ Asked whether their local residential environment gives a feeling of comfort and serenity, 81% of the respondents <b>replied that</b> they lived in a "pleasant environment." 对于当地居住环境是否给人以一种舒适宁静的感觉这个问题，81% 的受访者回答说他们居住在“愉快的环境”中。</div><br><br>answer 后面也可以接上 that 从句，但这种搭配多见于较古老的英语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Williams <b>answered that</b> he had no specific proposals yet. 威廉姆斯回答说，他还没有具体的建议。/ ... and when I asked him if he forgave me, he <b>answered that</b> he was not in the habit of cherishing the remembrance of vexation; ... (Charlotte Brontë, Jane Eyre) ……我问他是否原谅我时，他说他没有记恨的习惯，……</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> reply to 是对人家专门对自己发出的信息做出回答 (即单来单往)。如果该信息是普遍向公众发出的 (例如招聘公告)，自己应聘，就最好不用 reply 而用 answer 或 respond。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She <b>answered/responded to</b> an advert for a job as a cook. 她看到招聘厨师的广告，就报名称应聘了。/ ... <b>answered</b> Leila's ad for a part-time secretary. (Mary Higgins Clark, Weep No More, My Lady) ……报名称应聘雷拉征聘一名兼职秘书的广告。/ He <b>responded</b> immediately <b>to</b> an appeal for help. 他听到求救，就立即前往。(求救不是单独对他一个人的，而是向所有人发出的。)</div><div class="ex-item">When she smiled, even strangers <b>responded</b>. 她笑时，连陌生人都做出回应。</div><br><br>reply 是比较实际的一对一的“回答，答复”；respond 则是比较笼统的“回应” (可以表现为各种各样的方式，不一定是正面答复)。例如奥巴马当选美国总统后，时任伊朗总统艾哈迈迪内贾德不寻常地发来贺电，奥巴马在记者招待会上被问及这件事时做出了回答：“I will be reviewing the letter from President Ahmadinejad, and we will <b>respond</b> appropriately,” he said, leaving open the question about whether he will <b>reply</b>. (The Washington Post, Nov. 8, 2008) “我将审视来自艾哈迈迪内贾德总统的信，我们将做出适当的回应。”他说。这就留下了是否答复的问题。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> answer (也可以加上介词 to) 还有“符合(描述)”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Two men <b>answering</b> the description of the suspects tried to enter Switzerland. 两名符合关于嫌疑犯的相貌描述的男子，试图进入瑞士国境。/ They never built any aircraft remotely answering to this description. 他们从未制造过任何哪怕是稍微与描述相符合的飞机。</div><br><br>
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answer
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>answer, reply 与 respond</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 中文的“问”，除了真的提问问题求取答案之外，还有“追究责任”的意思 (例如“唯你是问，问责”)；英文 ask 则只有“提问”和“请求”的意思，没有“追究责任”的意思。但是，中文“回答”所没有的“承担责任”的意思，英文 answer 却有。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They will have to <b>answer for</b> their acts in a court of law. 他们将要在法庭上对自己的行为承担责任。/ I'll <b>answer for</b> him. 我替他负责。/ Let him <b>answer for</b> himself. 让他自己为自己负责吧。/ His parents have a lot to <b>answer for</b>. 他的父母要负很大的责任。</div><br><br>answer to somebody 是“要对某人负责” (有过错要受某人惩罚，表示状态，属第一类动词)，answer somebody (没有 to) 则只是“回答某人的提问” (表示行动，属第四类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You are to <b>answer to</b> Brian, to take your orders from him. 你要对布赖恩负责，接受他的命令。/ You'll <b>answer to me</b> if your information is not true. 你的信息如果不对，我就要唯你是问。/ He <b>answered me</b> quickly. 他很快就回答了我。</div><br><br>有趣的是，answer 的同义词 respond，派生了形容词 responsible 和名词 responsibility，都有“(负)责任”的意思，但是动词 respond 本身却只有“回答”而没有“负责任”的意思，这个意义，交给了词根根本不同的 answer (从 answer 派生的形容词 answerable to 是“对……负责的”)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> answer 与 reply to (注意要有 to 才能引入宾语) 往往可以互换，但是 answer 比较偏重答复的内容，reply to 则比较偏重答复的行为 (参见 hear 与 listen to 条、speak 与 talk 条)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>answer</b> (*reply) in the affirmative 给予肯定的回答</div><div class="ex-item">You should <b>reply to</b> this letter at once. 你应该立即回复这封信。/ The mother <b>replied</b> for the daughter. 母亲替女儿做了回答。/ Ed <b>replied</b> for all the graduates. 爱德代表全体毕业生致答词。(如果用 answered 就是“替全体毕业生负责”。) 因此，转义的“回应” (重行动不重内容)，常用 reply to。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We <b>replied to</b> the enemy's fire. 我们对敌人还了火。/ My friend <b>replied</b> with a knowing wink. 我的朋友报以会心的眼神。</div><br><br>名词 answer 和 reply 也有同样的区别。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She had only one <b>answer</b> (<i>reply) correct on the test. 她的测验题只有一道做对了。/ The invention is a good <b>answer</b> (</i>reply) to housewives' problems. 这个发明可以很好地解决家庭主妇们的难题。</div><br><br>另外，reply 还意味着“一来一往”的第二个单独的过程，如果两个过程“合而为一”，就要用 answer。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She <b>answered</b> (<i>replied to) the phone on the first ring. 电话一响她就接了。/ A middle-aged woman <b>answered</b> (</i>replied to) the door. 一个中年妇女应声开门。/ I knocked at the door, but nobody <b>answered</b> (*replied). 我敲了门，但是没有谁应声前来。许多团体或企业、机关的电话由于打来的人很多，接不过来，就用录音请人等候，说：“We'll <b>answer</b> your call promptly.” 我们将很快接听您打来的电话。这里的 answer 就是当场接听，不是事后回一个电话。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> reply 虽然不着重答复的内容，但是后面如果接上 that 从句，却可以说出答复的内容。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He <b>replied that</b> he did not know it. 他回答说不知道。/ She <b>replied that</b> no one would go. 她回答说谁都不会去。/ Asked whether their local residential environment gives a feeling of comfort and serenity, 81% of the respondents <b>replied that</b> they lived in a "pleasant environment." 对于当地居住环境是否给人以一种舒适宁静的感觉这个问题，81% 的受访者回答说他们居住在“愉快的环境”中。</div><br><br>answer 后面也可以接上 that 从句，但这种搭配多见于较古老的英语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Williams <b>answered that</b> he had no specific proposals yet. 威廉姆斯回答说，他还没有具体的建议。/ ... and when I asked him if he forgave me, he <b>answered that</b> he was not in the habit of cherishing the remembrance of vexation; ... (Charlotte Brontë, Jane Eyre) ……我问他是否原谅我时，他说他没有记恨的习惯，……</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> reply to 是对人家专门对自己发出的信息做出回答 (即单来单往)。如果该信息是普遍向公众发出的 (例如招聘公告)，自己应聘，就最好不用 reply 而用 answer 或 respond。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She <b>answered/responded to</b> an advert for a job as a cook. 她看到招聘厨师的广告，就报名称应聘了。/ ... <b>answered</b> Leila's ad for a part-time secretary. (Mary Higgins Clark, Weep No More, My Lady) ……报名称应聘雷拉征聘一名兼职秘书的广告。/ He <b>responded</b> immediately <b>to</b> an appeal for help. 他听到求救，就立即前往。(求救不是单独对他一个人的，而是向所有人发出的。)</div><div class="ex-item">When she smiled, even strangers <b>responded</b>. 她笑时，连陌生人都做出回应。</div><br><br>reply 是比较实际的一对一的“回答，答复”；respond 则是比较笼统的“回应” (可以表现为各种各样的方式，不一定是正面答复)。例如奥巴马当选美国总统后，时任伊朗总统艾哈迈迪内贾德不寻常地发来贺电，奥巴马在记者招待会上被问及这件事时做出了回答：“I will be reviewing the letter from President Ahmadinejad, and we will <b>respond</b> appropriately,” he said, leaving open the question about whether he will <b>reply</b>. (The Washington Post, Nov. 8, 2008) “我将审视来自艾哈迈迪内贾德总统的信，我们将做出适当的回应。”他说。这就留下了是否答复的问题。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> answer (也可以加上介词 to) 还有“符合(描述)”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Two men <b>answering</b> the description of the suspects tried to enter Switzerland. 两名符合关于嫌疑犯的相貌描述的男子，试图进入瑞士国境。/ They never built any aircraft remotely answering to this description. 他们从未制造过任何哪怕是稍微与描述相符合的飞机。</div><br><br>
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anymore
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>any more 与 anymore</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 关于在否定句、疑问句和非肯定语气的从句中的 anymore，有三种意见。第一种认为英语中根本没有这个单词。第二种认为 anymore 与 any more 意思和用法都一样，只是写法不同，都可以用。第三种则认为 anymore 是个副词，而 any more 则是专门放在名词前面的定语。从实际情况看来，三种意见都各有部分根据。就第三种意见来说有以下例子。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I don't buy books anymore because I don't need any more books 我再也不买书了，因为我不需要更多的书。(前面的 anymore 作为副词，后面的 any more 作前置定语，似乎可以从书面上区别清楚，但是这样的区别，实际用处不大。)在美国，any more 既可以用作名词的前置定语，也可以用作副词，anymore 则出现较少(所以第一种意见也有其事实根据)。但是美式英语中 anymore 有特别的用法，表示与过去相比的“现在”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Anymore I do that. 现在我那样干了。这样，anymore 连写成了一个单词才有其实际需要。不过，无论在肯定句还是否定句中，anymore 的写法似乎只限于美式英语(而且也不是所有的美国人都这样用)。美国的英语词典中收进 anymore 的更多些，英国词典则很少(如 1993 年版的 New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary)收进这个单词。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> any more 作为副词，在否定句(或疑问句或非肯定语气的从句)中，本来意义是程度比较的“不更多”，但是实际上的使用大多是转义的前后比较的“再也不”，需要注意辨别意义上的差别。如何辨别，要看前面是否有一个本来可能使得程度提高的意义成分，此时 not ... any more 就表示：虽然有了这个本来可以使程度提高的因素，但是它还是起不了作用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The knowledge of it did not make him like it any more. 他虽然知情，但对此仍然增加不了好感。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> not ... any more (“再也不”)还有 no more、not ... more (即略去 any)的变化形式(但语气略为减弱)。关于 no more，参见 no more 条。no more 通常放在句末，例如一种去毛剂的广告：Shave no more, with Ultra Hair Away. 使用超级去毛剂，再也不用剃毛。no more 也可以作定语，放在名词前面，尤其是用于一些醒目标题。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>No more Hiroshima. 不让广岛悲剧重演。也可以放在名词后面。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Hunger no more. 消除饥饿。也可以放在句子当中。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She (Hillary Clinton) was no more inviting when a television reporter approached her after a rally on Thursday and asked if she was "moved" by Benazir Bhutto's assassination. Clinton turned away without answering. (Los Angeles Times, Dec. 28, 2007) 一名电视采访记者在星期四的一次集会散会后向她(希拉里)走去，问她对贝纳齐尔·布托的遇刺身亡是否感到“震惊”，此时她就不像从前那样殷勤好客了。她答也不答就转身走开。</div><br><br>
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any more
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>any more 与 anymore</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 关于在否定句、疑问句和非肯定语气的从句中的 anymore，有三种意见。第一种认为英语中根本没有这个单词。第二种认为 anymore 与 any more 意思和用法都一样，只是写法不同，都可以用。第三种则认为 anymore 是个副词，而 any more 则是专门放在名词前面的定语。从实际情况看来，三种意见都各有部分根据。就第三种意见来说有以下例子。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I don't buy books anymore because I don't need any more books 我再也不买书了，因为我不需要更多的书。(前面的 anymore 作为副词，后面的 any more 作前置定语，似乎可以从书面上区别清楚，但是这样的区别，实际用处不大。)在美国，any more 既可以用作名词的前置定语，也可以用作副词，anymore 则出现较少(所以第一种意见也有其事实根据)。但是美式英语中 anymore 有特别的用法，表示与过去相比的“现在”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Anymore I do that. 现在我那样干了。这样，anymore 连写成了一个单词才有其实际需要。不过，无论在肯定句还是否定句中，anymore 的写法似乎只限于美式英语(而且也不是所有的美国人都这样用)。美国的英语词典中收进 anymore 的更多些，英国词典则很少(如 1993 年版的 New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary)收进这个单词。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> any more 作为副词，在否定句(或疑问句或非肯定语气的从句)中，本来意义是程度比较的“不更多”，但是实际上的使用大多是转义的前后比较的“再也不”，需要注意辨别意义上的差别。如何辨别，要看前面是否有一个本来可能使得程度提高的意义成分，此时 not ... any more 就表示：虽然有了这个本来可以使程度提高的因素，但是它还是起不了作用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The knowledge of it did not make him like it any more. 他虽然知情，但对此仍然增加不了好感。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> not ... any more (“再也不”)还有 no more、not ... more (即略去 any)的变化形式(但语气略为减弱)。关于 no more，参见 no more 条。no more 通常放在句末，例如一种去毛剂的广告：Shave no more, with Ultra Hair Away. 使用超级去毛剂，再也不用剃毛。no more 也可以作定语，放在名词前面，尤其是用于一些醒目标题。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>No more Hiroshima. 不让广岛悲剧重演。也可以放在名词后面。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Hunger no more. 消除饥饿。也可以放在句子当中。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She (Hillary Clinton) was no more inviting when a television reporter approached her after a rally on Thursday and asked if she was "moved" by Benazir Bhutto's assassination. Clinton turned away without answering. (Los Angeles Times, Dec. 28, 2007) 一名电视采访记者在星期四的一次集会散会后向她(希拉里)走去，问她对贝纳齐尔·布托的遇刺身亡是否感到“震惊”，此时她就不像从前那样殷勤好客了。她答也不答就转身走开。</div><br><br>
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anyone
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>anyone 与 any one</b></div>anyone 专指人，意思是泛泛的“任何人”，不必同任何集合发生关系，any 重读。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Anyone who is interested may attend. 凡感兴趣者均可参加。any one 则指某一个由多人或多事物组成的集合中的“任何”一个个体，one 重读。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Any one of those neckties will do. 那些领带哪一条都行。</div><br><br>
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any one
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>anyone 与 any one</b></div>anyone 专指人，意思是泛泛的“任何人”，不必同任何集合发生关系，any 重读。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Anyone who is interested may attend. 凡感兴趣者均可参加。any one 则指某一个由多人或多事物组成的集合中的“任何”一个个体，one 重读。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Any one of those neckties will do. 那些领带哪一条都行。</div><br><br>
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anytime
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>anytime 与 any time</b></div>anytime 是副词或主从连词。any time 则是名词短语。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> anytime 作为副词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You can borrow my car anytime. 你随时都可以借我的车子用。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> anytime 作为主从连词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You can call on me anytime you are free. 你有空随时都可以到我这里来。/ Anytime I was late, the teacher got mad. 每次我迟到，老师都会气坏。/ We have a memory bank, a full-scale computer within us, and we can draw on its record of past experiences anytime we need to do so. 我们有一个记忆库，是身体内一个完整规模的电脑，我们随时有需要，都可以从中提取过去经历的记录。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> any time 作为名词短语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Any time spent being unhappy is wasted. 任何在不快乐中度过的时间，都是浪费了的。</div><br><br>
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any time
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>anytime 与 any time</b></div>anytime 是副词或主从连词。any time 则是名词短语。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> anytime 作为副词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You can borrow my car anytime. 你随时都可以借我的车子用。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> anytime 作为主从连词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You can call on me anytime you are free. 你有空随时都可以到我这里来。/ Anytime I was late, the teacher got mad. 每次我迟到，老师都会气坏。/ We have a memory bank, a full-scale computer within us, and we can draw on its record of past experiences anytime we need to do so. 我们有一个记忆库，是身体内一个完整规模的电脑，我们随时有需要，都可以从中提取过去经历的记录。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> any time 作为名词短语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Any time spent being unhappy is wasted. 任何在不快乐中度过的时间，都是浪费了的。</div><br><br>
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anyway
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>any way 与 anyway</b></div>any way 或 in any way 是主从连词短语，在肯定句中引入方式状语从句，后面没有内容就不通。anyway 则是个副词，后面不引入任何成分。这与 any time (名词短语)和 anytime (副词或连词)情况不同。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> any way 在肯定句中充当主从连词短语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Any way you look at it, Angel City is heaven on earth for biker crowd. 不管你怎么看，天使城对骑自行车的人群来说都是人间天堂。/ You're allowed to use software any way you see fit. 你可以随意使用软件。/ Arrange you stuff any way you want. 你爱怎样安排材料就怎样安排。/ Help in any way you can. 你能用什么方式就用什么方式来帮忙。</div><br><br>美国有一句常用的俗语 any way you slice it，原意大概是切肉或切面包怎样切都无所谓，亦即“无论怎么说”(这里的 you 只是泛指，不是特定的“你”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He shouldn't have hit her, any way you slice it. 无论怎么说，他都不该打她。/ Any way you slice it, there are going to be some very unhappy people when the prizes are announced. 无论怎么说，获奖名单一揭晓，总会有人很不高兴。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 但是，需要注意的是：any way 之所以不是副词短语而是主从连词短语，是因为它本身意义不完全，需要后面有更多的话来把意思说完整。如果把 any 改为 some 或别的能把意义说完整的形容词，它就会从主从连词短语变为副词短语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>All right, we'll do it the usual way. 好吧，咱们就照平常的办法办。/ Please try to see it my way. 请替我设身处地想一想。/ He must have got to know it some way. 他一定是用什么办法打听出来了。/ Every author in some way portrays himself in his works, even if it be against his will. 每个作者总是会这样或那样地在作品中刻画出自己的形象，哪怕这是违反他本人意愿的。</div><br><br>另外，in any way (any way 很少用)前面如果有否定或疑问的词，则 in any way 就可以不是主从连词短语，而是副词短语(相当于肯定句中的 some)，在否定句中表示“根本(不)”，在疑问句或 if 从句中表示“以某种方式”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Umbilical and embryonic stem cells are not in any way interchangeable. 脐带干细胞与胚胎干细胞是根本不能互相代替的。/ You may not copy, reproduce, upload, post, distribute, republish, retransmit, or modify in any way any of the material on this site. 您不可以以任何方式抄录、复制、上传、张贴、散发、再发表、转递或是修改本网站上的任何材料。/ Do molds help human beings in any way? 霉菌对人类有什么帮助吗?</div><div class="ex-item">If you feel affected in any way by the noise, we can help. 您如果感受到了噪声的任何影响，我们可以帮助您。遇到这几种情况，any way 都不是主从连词短语，但即使如此，它同副词 anyway 的意义仍然有区别。anyway 表示“不管怎样，无论如何，反正；起码”，而且主要用于肯定句。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We can sell the car which we hardly use anyway. 车子咱们反正不怎样用，不妨卖掉。/ Anyway, I have to go. 不管怎样，我得去。/ That's what we all think, well, most of us anyway. 这是我们全体，嗯，起码是我们大多数人的想法。</div><br><br>
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any way
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>any way 与 anyway</b></div>any way 或 in any way 是主从连词短语，在肯定句中引入方式状语从句，后面没有内容就不通。anyway 则是个副词，后面不引入任何成分。这与 any time (名词短语)和 anytime (副词或连词)情况不同。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> any way 在肯定句中充当主从连词短语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Any way you look at it, Angel City is heaven on earth for biker crowd. 不管你怎么看，天使城对骑自行车的人群来说都是人间天堂。/ You're allowed to use software any way you see fit. 你可以随意使用软件。/ Arrange you stuff any way you want. 你爱怎样安排材料就怎样安排。/ Help in any way you can. 你能用什么方式就用什么方式来帮忙。</div><br><br>美国有一句常用的俗语 any way you slice it，原意大概是切肉或切面包怎样切都无所谓，亦即“无论怎么说”(这里的 you 只是泛指，不是特定的“你”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He shouldn't have hit her, any way you slice it. 无论怎么说，他都不该打她。/ Any way you slice it, there are going to be some very unhappy people when the prizes are announced. 无论怎么说，获奖名单一揭晓，总会有人很不高兴。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 但是，需要注意的是：any way 之所以不是副词短语而是主从连词短语，是因为它本身意义不完全，需要后面有更多的话来把意思说完整。如果把 any 改为 some 或别的能把意义说完整的形容词，它就会从主从连词短语变为副词短语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>All right, we'll do it the usual way. 好吧，咱们就照平常的办法办。/ Please try to see it my way. 请替我设身处地想一想。/ He must have got to know it some way. 他一定是用什么办法打听出来了。/ Every author in some way portrays himself in his works, even if it be against his will. 每个作者总是会这样或那样地在作品中刻画出自己的形象，哪怕这是违反他本人意愿的。</div><br><br>另外，in any way (any way 很少用)前面如果有否定或疑问的词，则 in any way 就可以不是主从连词短语，而是副词短语(相当于肯定句中的 some)，在否定句中表示“根本(不)”，在疑问句或 if 从句中表示“以某种方式”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Umbilical and embryonic stem cells are not in any way interchangeable. 脐带干细胞与胚胎干细胞是根本不能互相代替的。/ You may not copy, reproduce, upload, post, distribute, republish, retransmit, or modify in any way any of the material on this site. 您不可以以任何方式抄录、复制、上传、张贴、散发、再发表、转递或是修改本网站上的任何材料。/ Do molds help human beings in any way? 霉菌对人类有什么帮助吗?</div><div class="ex-item">If you feel affected in any way by the noise, we can help. 您如果感受到了噪声的任何影响，我们可以帮助您。遇到这几种情况，any way 都不是主从连词短语，但即使如此，它同副词 anyway 的意义仍然有区别。anyway 表示“不管怎样，无论如何，反正；起码”，而且主要用于肯定句。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We can sell the car which we hardly use anyway. 车子咱们反正不怎样用，不妨卖掉。/ Anyway, I have to go. 不管怎样，我得去。/ That's what we all think, well, most of us anyway. 这是我们全体，嗯，起码是我们大多数人的想法。</div><br><br>
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apprise
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>appraise 与 apprise</b></div>appraise 是“估价，评价”；apprise 则是“告知”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We'll appraise your jewelry and apprise you of the results sometime tomorrow. 我们要把您的珠宝估一下价，明天找个时候通知您。</div><br><br>
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appraise
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>appraise 与 apprise</b></div>appraise 是“估价，评价”；apprise 则是“告知”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We'll appraise your jewelry and apprise you of the results sometime tomorrow. 我们要把您的珠宝估一下价，明天找个时候通知您。</div><br><br>
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approve
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>approve 与 approve of</b></div>两者大体上都是“赞同，同意”的意思，但是细看起来有区别。<br><br>approve 是个瞬时体(第四类)动词，表示来往手续公事公办上的“予以同意”，不牵涉好坏的价值判断。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>(一个会计师可以说)I cannot approve the reimbursement because you haven't given me the receipts for your expenditure. 我不能同意报销，因为你没有交来开支的单据。/ (一个招生负责人可以说)I cannot approve your application to study law because you do not have the relevant qualifications. 我不能同意你学法律的申请，因为你不具备相应的资格。</div><br><br>而 approve of 则是个表示价值判断的延续状态动词词组(第一类动词)，表示对某事或某人有好感，予以支持或善待。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Her family approves of him. 她家人认可了他。/ I don't approve of smoking in restaurants because it is so upsetting usually for non-smokers. 我不赞成在饭馆吸烟，因为这通常使得不吸烟的人很不舒服。/ Why don't you approve of my friends? They are all good upright people. 你为什么看不惯我的这些朋友? 他们全都是正派的好人呀。对应的反义词 disapprove 与 disapprove of，用法也与 approve 和 approve of 相对应。</div><br><br>
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approve of
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>approve 与 approve of</b></div>两者大体上都是“赞同，同意”的意思，但是细看起来有区别。<br><br>approve 是个瞬时体(第四类)动词，表示来往手续公事公办上的“予以同意”，不牵涉好坏的价值判断。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>(一个会计师可以说)I cannot approve the reimbursement because you haven't given me the receipts for your expenditure. 我不能同意报销，因为你没有交来开支的单据。/ (一个招生负责人可以说)I cannot approve your application to study law because you do not have the relevant qualifications. 我不能同意你学法律的申请，因为你不具备相应的资格。</div><br><br>而 approve of 则是个表示价值判断的延续状态动词词组(第一类动词)，表示对某事或某人有好感，予以支持或善待。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Her family approves of him. 她家人认可了他。/ I don't approve of smoking in restaurants because it is so upsetting usually for non-smokers. 我不赞成在饭馆吸烟，因为这通常使得不吸烟的人很不舒服。/ Why don't you approve of my friends? They are all good upright people. 你为什么看不惯我的这些朋友? 他们全都是正派的好人呀。对应的反义词 disapprove 与 disapprove of，用法也与 approve 和 approve of 相对应。</div><br><br>
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study
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(a quick) study</b></div>名词 study 本来不可以指人，但是 a quick study 既可以指“快速的学习过程”，也可以指“很快就上手的人”（无论是一人还是多人，都用单数 a quick study）。后一个意义，原本限于很快就把台词记熟的演员。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>These kids are a quick study in their Robin Hood roles. 这些孩子在罗宾汉剧中的角色排练得很熟练。但是，词义也可以扩大为学任何东西。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Researchers are a quick study when assessing drugs for Alzheimer's. (Health and Medicine, June 18, 2008)研究人员对老年痴呆症药物进行评估时，很快就学到了东西。</div><br><br>study 还可以指事不指人。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Voters may make English a quick study. (Red Orbit, Sept. 8, 2008)选民们可以很快地把英语学完。</div><br><br>
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a quick study
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(a quick) study</b></div>名词 study 本来不可以指人，但是 a quick study 既可以指“快速的学习过程”，也可以指“很快就上手的人”（无论是一人还是多人，都用单数 a quick study）。后一个意义，原本限于很快就把台词记熟的演员。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>These kids are a quick study in their Robin Hood roles. 这些孩子在罗宾汉剧中的角色排练得很熟练。但是，词义也可以扩大为学任何东西。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Researchers are a quick study when assessing drugs for Alzheimer's. (Health and Medicine, June 18, 2008)研究人员对老年痴呆症药物进行评估时，很快就学到了东西。</div><br><br>study 还可以指事不指人。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Voters may make English a quick study. (Red Orbit, Sept. 8, 2008)选民们可以很快地把英语学完。</div><br><br>
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arise
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>arise, arouse 与 rise</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> arise 是不及物动词(过去式 arose，过去分词 arisen)，表示“出现，开始；引起注意”，主语常常是抽象事物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A discussion arose about the best way to pay. 有关最好采取哪种支付方式，发生了争论。/ Some difficulties have arisen. 出现了一些困难。/ The disagreement arose from a misunderstanding. 分歧是从一个误解产生的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 同 arise 的过去式 arose 有点相似(但拼写和读音都不同)的 arouse，则是及物动词(规则动词)，意思是“唤醒，唤起；引起，激发”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His appeal aroused no response from the public. 他的号召没有得到公众的响应。/ The rejection of the measure aroused the people to indignation. 该措施被否决，激起了人民的公愤。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> rise 是不及物动词(过去式 rose，过去分词 risen)，没有“出现”的意思，而是表示从低往高的“上升”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Prices keep rising. 物价一直在涨。/ What time does the sun rise? 太阳几点钟升起？/ Leave the dough to rise. 让面团自己发起来。/ A feeling of rage rose within him. 他心中怒气上冒。</div>
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arouse
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>arise, arouse 与 rise</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> arise 是不及物动词(过去式 arose，过去分词 arisen)，表示“出现，开始；引起注意”，主语常常是抽象事物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A discussion arose about the best way to pay. 有关最好采取哪种支付方式，发生了争论。/ Some difficulties have arisen. 出现了一些困难。/ The disagreement arose from a misunderstanding. 分歧是从一个误解产生的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 同 arise 的过去式 arose 有点相似(但拼写和读音都不同)的 arouse，则是及物动词(规则动词)，意思是“唤醒，唤起；引起，激发”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His appeal aroused no response from the public. 他的号召没有得到公众的响应。/ The rejection of the measure aroused the people to indignation. 该措施被否决，激起了人民的公愤。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> rise 是不及物动词(过去式 rose，过去分词 risen)，没有“出现”的意思，而是表示从低往高的“上升”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Prices keep rising. 物价一直在涨。/ What time does the sun rise? 太阳几点钟升起？/ Leave the dough to rise. 让面团自己发起来。/ A feeling of rage rose within him. 他心中怒气上冒。</div>
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matter of fact
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(as a) matter of fact</b></div>字面上的意思乍一看来是“的确，真的”，但是实际上的语气没有这样重。<br><br>它的用法，可以是转折语气 (对前面自己或他人说过的内容加以纠正)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But, <b>as a matter of fact</b>, it was hardly fair to blame the doctor. (Joseph Conrad, <i>The Shadow Line</i>) 但是，其实责怪医生，未免有失公平。</div><div class="ex-item">It seemed to him when he left the little bar that he had been there for hours; <b>as a matter of fact</b> barely five minutes had passed since he had left Ernestine. (E. Phillips Oppenheim, <i>A Millionaire of Yesterday</i>) 他觉得自己离开那家小酒吧时在那里已经逗留了好几个钟头，而其实他离开埃尔斯蒂娜还不到五分钟。</div><br><br>也可以是加强语气 (对前面自己或他人说过的内容再进一步加强或具体化)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I spoke to Madam Wu Yi today, <b>as a matter of fact</b>, had her into the Oval Office; wanted to thank her for bringing her delegation in, ... (George W. Bush, Press Conference, May 24, 2007) 我今天同吴仪女士交谈过，当时是请她进入总统办公室谈的；我感谢她率团前来，……</div><br><br>
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as a matter of fact
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(as a) matter of fact</b></div>字面上的意思乍一看来是“的确，真的”，但是实际上的语气没有这样重。<br><br>它的用法，可以是转折语气 (对前面自己或他人说过的内容加以纠正)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But, <b>as a matter of fact</b>, it was hardly fair to blame the doctor. (Joseph Conrad, <i>The Shadow Line</i>) 但是，其实责怪医生，未免有失公平。</div><div class="ex-item">It seemed to him when he left the little bar that he had been there for hours; <b>as a matter of fact</b> barely five minutes had passed since he had left Ernestine. (E. Phillips Oppenheim, <i>A Millionaire of Yesterday</i>) 他觉得自己离开那家小酒吧时在那里已经逗留了好几个钟头，而其实他离开埃尔斯蒂娜还不到五分钟。</div><br><br>也可以是加强语气 (对前面自己或他人说过的内容再进一步加强或具体化)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I spoke to Madam Wu Yi today, <b>as a matter of fact</b>, had her into the Oval Office; wanted to thank her for bringing her delegation in, ... (George W. Bush, Press Conference, May 24, 2007) 我今天同吴仪女士交谈过，当时是请她进入总统办公室谈的；我感谢她率团前来，……</div><br><br>
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as ... any
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>as ... any 与 as ... ever</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 从字面上看，似乎意思是“同任何一个都一样”或是“同任何时候都一样”，换句话说，就是“平淡无奇”了。但其实 any 和 ever 都有加强语气的作用，拿 as ... any 来说，也可以理解为这个 any 不是“随便普普通通的一个”，而是“哪怕是千挑万选出来的一个”，这一来，意义就变为“不比任何别的程度低”，再进一步又变为“比任何一个都更加”，也就是“最”(但是 as ... ever 情况较为复杂，请见下面(2)的解释)。这个问题，参见 any 条之(5)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> as ... ever 也有类似的情况，但是情况比较复杂。如果 as ... as ... have + pp. 当中 pp. 动词是瞬时性的，就有“从来之最”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She has as fine a figure as I have ever seen. 她的身材是我所见过最苗条的。(不是“同我所见过的一样苗条”，see 是瞬时性动词。)</div><div class="ex-item">D'Este's biography of General Patton is as thorough and balanced a treatment of this great man as I have ever seen. 德斯特写的巴顿将军的传记对这位伟人的处理，是我所看过的最为透彻、最为面面俱到的。如果 as 后面有 any 又有 ever，则“比任何一个都更加”亦即“最”的意义就更为突出。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The speech was as poetically written as any he'd ever heard. 那篇演说辞，是他所听过的写得最诗意的。(不是“同任何一个一样诗意”)但是，如果 as ... as ... have + pp. 当中 pp. 动词是延续性的，则有“与从前一样，同从前一个程度”的意思。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Factories are going at full blast, and wages are as high as they have ever been, if nothigher. 各家工厂全面开工，工资和从前一样高，甚至更高。(be 是延续动词。)</div><b>as good as</b>放在形容词前面、动词前面或动词词组之中，表示“几乎，差不多；简直是；实际上”(虽然有 good，也可以指不好的事情)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Without her glasses she was as good as blind. 她没有了眼镜，就差不多等于瞎了。/ They as good as promised him admission. 他们实际上等于答应了录取他。/ He had as good as abdicated. 他简直等于退了位。/ The Defense Ministry as good as admitted that most of the R.A.F.'s fighters are too slow. (Time, Feb. 28, 1955)国防部实际上承认了皇家空军的战斗机大部分飞得太慢。但是也有些语法学者反对将 as good as 放在谓语动词前面的用法。</div>
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as ... ever
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>as ... any 与 as ... ever</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 从字面上看，似乎意思是“同任何一个都一样”或是“同任何时候都一样”，换句话说，就是“平淡无奇”了。但其实 any 和 ever 都有加强语气的作用，拿 as ... any 来说，也可以理解为这个 any 不是“随便普普通通的一个”，而是“哪怕是千挑万选出来的一个”，这一来，意义就变为“不比任何别的程度低”，再进一步又变为“比任何一个都更加”，也就是“最”(但是 as ... ever 情况较为复杂，请见下面(2)的解释)。这个问题，参见 any 条之(5)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> as ... ever 也有类似的情况，但是情况比较复杂。如果 as ... as ... have + pp. 当中 pp. 动词是瞬时性的，就有“从来之最”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She has as fine a figure as I have ever seen. 她的身材是我所见过最苗条的。(不是“同我所见过的一样苗条”，see 是瞬时性动词。)</div><div class="ex-item">D'Este's biography of General Patton is as thorough and balanced a treatment of this great man as I have ever seen. 德斯特写的巴顿将军的传记对这位伟人的处理，是我所看过的最为透彻、最为面面俱到的。如果 as 后面有 any 又有 ever，则“比任何一个都更加”亦即“最”的意义就更为突出。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The speech was as poetically written as any he'd ever heard. 那篇演说辞，是他所听过的写得最诗意的。(不是“同任何一个一样诗意”)但是，如果 as ... as ... have + pp. 当中 pp. 动词是延续性的，则有“与从前一样，同从前一个程度”的意思。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Factories are going at full blast, and wages are as high as they have ever been, if nothigher. 各家工厂全面开工，工资和从前一样高，甚至更高。(be 是延续动词。)</div><b>as good as</b>放在形容词前面、动词前面或动词词组之中，表示“几乎，差不多；简直是；实际上”(虽然有 good，也可以指不好的事情)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Without her glasses she was as good as blind. 她没有了眼镜，就差不多等于瞎了。/ They as good as promised him admission. 他们实际上等于答应了录取他。/ He had as good as abdicated. 他简直等于退了位。/ The Defense Ministry as good as admitted that most of the R.A.F.'s fighters are too slow. (Time, Feb. 28, 1955)国防部实际上承认了皇家空军的战斗机大部分飞得太慢。但是也有些语法学者反对将 as good as 放在谓语动词前面的用法。</div>
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long as
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(as) long as</b></div>参见 as long as 与 so long as 条。<br><br>
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as long as
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(as) long as</b></div>参见 as long as 与 so long as 条。<br><br>
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assure
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>assure 与 ensure</b></div>中文翻译都是“保证”，但意义有所区别。<br><br>assure 是向对方做出保证的表示。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He <b>assured</b> them <b>of</b> his sincerity. 他向他们保证自己是真心诚意的。/ They <b>assured</b> her it was true. 他们向她保证这是真的。/ We've never had anyone like that here, I can <b>assure</b> you. 我可以向你保证，我们这里从来没有过这样的人。/ They <b>assured</b> us that they would be there. 他们向我们保证他们一定会到那边去。/ They have <b>assured</b> us <b>of</b> their support. 他们向我们保证一定支持我们。/ He tried to <b>assure</b> them that the rumor was false. 他向他们保证，传闻没有根据。</div><br><br>ensure 是采取实际措施保证事情成功。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I did everything I could to <b>ensure</b> his success (to <b>ensure</b> that he would succeed). 我用尽一切办法去保证他的成功。/ My recommendation will <b>ensure</b> you an interview. 我的推荐信可以保证你能有一次面试的机会。/ This decision <b>ensured</b> a large income for her son. 这个决定，保证了她儿子能有一大笔收入。/ <b>ensure</b> a good job for a person (= <b>ensure</b> a person a good job) 保证某人有一份好工作</div><div class="ex-item">The first duty of the state is to <b>ensure</b> that law-abiding people are protected from crime. 国家的首要义务，是保证守法人民受到保护，不受犯罪侵害。/ The door did not lock, but at least it <b>ensured</b> a reasonable amount of privacy. 门锁不起来，但是起码保证了一定程度的隐私。</div><br><br>此外，insure 则是“为……买保险”或“给……承保”的意思，同 ensure 不一样。但是由于发音相同，在英国也有人用 insure 来代替 ensure，但是由于 insure 的经济意义很突出，所以很少有反过来用 ensure 代替 insure 的。<br><br>
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ensure
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>assure 与 ensure</b></div>中文翻译都是“保证”，但意义有所区别。<br><br>assure 是向对方做出保证的表示。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He <b>assured</b> them <b>of</b> his sincerity. 他向他们保证自己是真心诚意的。/ They <b>assured</b> her it was true. 他们向她保证这是真的。/ We've never had anyone like that here, I can <b>assure</b> you. 我可以向你保证，我们这里从来没有过这样的人。/ They <b>assured</b> us that they would be there. 他们向我们保证他们一定会到那边去。/ They have <b>assured</b> us <b>of</b> their support. 他们向我们保证一定支持我们。/ He tried to <b>assure</b> them that the rumor was false. 他向他们保证，传闻没有根据。</div><br><br>ensure 是采取实际措施保证事情成功。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I did everything I could to <b>ensure</b> his success (to <b>ensure</b> that he would succeed). 我用尽一切办法去保证他的成功。/ My recommendation will <b>ensure</b> you an interview. 我的推荐信可以保证你能有一次面试的机会。/ This decision <b>ensured</b> a large income for her son. 这个决定，保证了她儿子能有一大笔收入。/ <b>ensure</b> a good job for a person (= <b>ensure</b> a person a good job) 保证某人有一份好工作</div><div class="ex-item">The first duty of the state is to <b>ensure</b> that law-abiding people are protected from crime. 国家的首要义务，是保证守法人民受到保护，不受犯罪侵害。/ The door did not lock, but at least it <b>ensured</b> a reasonable amount of privacy. 门锁不起来，但是起码保证了一定程度的隐私。</div><br><br>此外，insure 则是“为……买保险”或“给……承保”的意思，同 ensure 不一样。但是由于发音相同，在英国也有人用 insure 来代替 ensure，但是由于 insure 的经济意义很突出，所以很少有反过来用 ensure 代替 insure 的。<br><br>
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as
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>as 与 like</b></div>参见 like 与 as 条。
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like
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>as 与 like</b></div>参见 like 与 as 条。
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at once
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(at) once</b></div>这个状语词组有几个不同的意义和用法：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> “立刻，马上”，修饰过去、现在和将来的一瞬时动作。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Come here at once. 你马上过来。/ The audience at once greeted him warmly. 观众立刻热烈欢迎他。/ He started at once to compose a reply to Anna. 他立刻写信回复安娜。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> “在同一时间内”，修饰过去、现在或将来的多个同时实行的瞬间动作。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You can't be doing two things at once. 两件事不能同时做。/ No bank could everpay off its creditors if they all demanded their money at once. 任何银行，如果债权人全都同时来索债，都是无法支付的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 表示“同时”具有多个延续的状态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The book is at once funny and instructive. 这本书既有趣又有教育意义。/ From childhood, he was evidently at once rebellious and precocious. 他从小就显得既顽皮又早熟。</div><br><br>at once 前面可以加 all，也同样有上述三个意义。但是用于第一个意义(“立刻，马上”)时，all at once 多出现在句首。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>All at once there was someone knocking on the door. 突然有人敲门。/ All at once, his serious expression softened into a grin. 突然，他严肃的表情变得柔和起来。用于第二个和第三个意义(“几件事情同时发生”或“几个状态同时存在”)时，all at once 多出现在句末。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She wanted to laugh and weep all at once. 她同时又想笑又想哭。/ She is a teacher, housewife, and mother all at once. 她是老师，同时又是家庭主妇，又是母亲。</div><br><br>
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stake
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(at) stake</b></div>参见 issue 条之(3)。<br><br>
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at stake
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(at) stake</b></div>参见 issue 条之(3)。<br><br>
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attend
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>attend 与 attend to</b></div>两者在意义上和用法上都十分接近，都从“注意 (听讲或办事)”这个基本意义出发，可以是瞬时的动作，也可以是延续的动作，但是也有一些细微的差别。两者的共同点和差别如下：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 如果表示一次性的参加某一集会，通常用 attend，但有时候也说 attend to。 <div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>At night she <b>attended</b> a state banquet at Buckingham Palace. 她晚上参加了白金汉宫的一次国宴。/ He <b>attended to</b> a fancy dress ball. 他参加了一场绚丽的化装舞会。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 如果表示一次性的照料或医治，通常用 attend to，表示长期例行的照料或医治，就用 attend (不加 to)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A doctor who happened to be on the scene <b>attended to</b> (<i>attended) her. 当时恰巧在现场的一位医生对她进行了救治。/ Dr. Jones has <b>attended</b> (</i>attended to) our family these twenty years. 琼斯大夫20年来一直给我们一家人看病。/ Are you being <b>attended to</b> (*attended)? 您已经有人接待了吗? (店员问顾客的话)</div>但是一次性也有用 attend 而不用 attend to 的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I beg to inform you that I was yesterday called into a neighbor's in Vauxhall Walk to <b>attend</b> a young lady who had been suddenly taken ill. (Wilkie Collins, No Name) 谨向您报告，昨天我被叫去了沃霍尔区的一个住户家，去救治一位忽然病倒的年轻女士。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 表示“作为某一现象的共生迹象或必然后果” (此时主语不是人而是抽象事物)，要用 attend，不可以用 attend to。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Success often <b>attends</b> hard work. 努力常会成功。/ High fever <b>attends</b> malaria. 疟疾有高烧症状。但是可以用 attend upon。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Tidal waves <b>attend upon</b> (或 attend) earthquakes. 地震时会发生海啸。/ Many dangers <b>attend upon</b> (或 attend) the expedition. 这次远征，有许多危险。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 凡是表示“长期出席 (某机构) 参加听讲”，只能用及物动词 attend，不能用 attend to。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She <b>attended</b> (<i>attended to) a racially mixed school. 她曾在一所种族混合的学校就读。/ He <b>attended</b> (</i>attended to) Prof. Smith's lectures and took copious notes. 他听了史密斯教授的课，做了大量的笔记。/ She <b>attended</b> (*attended to) a Methodist church and taught a children's Sunday school class for many years. 她多年来都到一所卫理公会教堂做礼拜，而且一直教一个儿童主日学班。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 如果 attend 表示“对……给予注意”或“对……加以处理”，要用 attend to，不用 attend。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I've got some unfinished business to <b>attend to</b> (<i>attend). 我有未完成的工作要处理。/ The staff will helpfully <b>attend to</b> (</i>attend) your needs. 工作人员将会悉心照料您的需要。/ I must get this tooth <b>attended to</b> (<i>attended). 我这颗牙必须治一下。/ Will you <b>attend to</b> (</i>attend) the fire while we're out? 我们出去了，你能照看一下火炉吗?</div><div class="ex-item"><b>Attend to</b> (<i>Attend) your own business. 别多管闲事。/ Please <b>attend to</b> (</i>attend) what I say. 我说的话，请你好好听着。/ You won't succeed unless you <b>attend to</b> (*attend) your work. 你除非用心干活，否则不会成功。</div><br><br>
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attend to
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>attend 与 attend to</b></div>两者在意义上和用法上都十分接近，都从“注意 (听讲或办事)”这个基本意义出发，可以是瞬时的动作，也可以是延续的动作，但是也有一些细微的差别。两者的共同点和差别如下：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 如果表示一次性的参加某一集会，通常用 attend，但有时候也说 attend to。 <div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>At night she <b>attended</b> a state banquet at Buckingham Palace. 她晚上参加了白金汉宫的一次国宴。/ He <b>attended to</b> a fancy dress ball. 他参加了一场绚丽的化装舞会。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 如果表示一次性的照料或医治，通常用 attend to，表示长期例行的照料或医治，就用 attend (不加 to)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A doctor who happened to be on the scene <b>attended to</b> (<i>attended) her. 当时恰巧在现场的一位医生对她进行了救治。/ Dr. Jones has <b>attended</b> (</i>attended to) our family these twenty years. 琼斯大夫20年来一直给我们一家人看病。/ Are you being <b>attended to</b> (*attended)? 您已经有人接待了吗? (店员问顾客的话)</div>但是一次性也有用 attend 而不用 attend to 的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I beg to inform you that I was yesterday called into a neighbor's in Vauxhall Walk to <b>attend</b> a young lady who had been suddenly taken ill. (Wilkie Collins, No Name) 谨向您报告，昨天我被叫去了沃霍尔区的一个住户家，去救治一位忽然病倒的年轻女士。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 表示“作为某一现象的共生迹象或必然后果” (此时主语不是人而是抽象事物)，要用 attend，不可以用 attend to。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Success often <b>attends</b> hard work. 努力常会成功。/ High fever <b>attends</b> malaria. 疟疾有高烧症状。但是可以用 attend upon。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Tidal waves <b>attend upon</b> (或 attend) earthquakes. 地震时会发生海啸。/ Many dangers <b>attend upon</b> (或 attend) the expedition. 这次远征，有许多危险。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 凡是表示“长期出席 (某机构) 参加听讲”，只能用及物动词 attend，不能用 attend to。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She <b>attended</b> (<i>attended to) a racially mixed school. 她曾在一所种族混合的学校就读。/ He <b>attended</b> (</i>attended to) Prof. Smith's lectures and took copious notes. 他听了史密斯教授的课，做了大量的笔记。/ She <b>attended</b> (*attended to) a Methodist church and taught a children's Sunday school class for many years. 她多年来都到一所卫理公会教堂做礼拜，而且一直教一个儿童主日学班。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 如果 attend 表示“对……给予注意”或“对……加以处理”，要用 attend to，不用 attend。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I've got some unfinished business to <b>attend to</b> (<i>attend). 我有未完成的工作要处理。/ The staff will helpfully <b>attend to</b> (</i>attend) your needs. 工作人员将会悉心照料您的需要。/ I must get this tooth <b>attended to</b> (<i>attended). 我这颗牙必须治一下。/ Will you <b>attend to</b> (</i>attend) the fire while we're out? 我们出去了，你能照看一下火炉吗?</div><div class="ex-item"><b>Attend to</b> (<i>Attend) your own business. 别多管闲事。/ Please <b>attend to</b> (</i>attend) what I say. 我说的话，请你好好听着。/ You won't succeed unless you <b>attend to</b> (*attend) your work. 你除非用心干活，否则不会成功。</div><br><br>
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caution
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>attention 与 caution</b></div>一般的告示上，用 attention 的多半后面内容比较长，而且往往是好的消息。用 caution 的则多半后面内容是简短的，而且往往是提醒其注意危险，一望而知。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Attention students. Looking for a job with great hours? Come join our team! 学生们注意。你在找钟点合适的活儿干吗？来加入我们的队伍吧。/ Caution, Wet Floor. 注意，地面有水。</div><br><br>
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at ...
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>at ..., we ...</b></div>许多公司刊登广告或启事，一开头提到本公司如何如何时，用公司名字作主语 (第三人称而不是第一人称) 听起来有点置身事外，不太合适；用“我们”作主语又不能放上公司名字；中文的“本公司”或“敝公司”在英文中又不易表达，而且还是放不上公司名称。所以通常就用“at + 公司名称，we 如何如何”这种表达法。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>At</b> T. Rowe Price, <b>we</b> believe ... 我们普信集团深信……</div><div class="ex-item"><b>At</b> Samsung, <b>we</b> realize that to succeed in business we must also succeed in life. 我们三星公司深知，要事业有成，就必须生活亦有成。/ <b>At</b> UBS, <b>we</b> dedicate our resources to solving the financial issues that really matter. (Newsweek, Apr. 24, 2006, back cover) 我们瑞银集团致力于解决真正重要的金融问题。/ <b>At</b> Toyota, <b>we</b> purchase more than $28 billion in U.S. parts, materials, goods, and services every year. (Newsweek, Nov. 20, 2006, p. 3) 我们丰田公司每年在美国采购280亿美元以上的部件、材料、货物和劳务。</div><br><br>at ..., we ... 这个用法，也用于 we 的宾格。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Max needs to liquidate these luxury watches so he came to <b>us at</b> NextTen. (Newsweek, Oct. 10, 2005, p. 56, ad) 马克斯需要把这批豪华手表脱手，所以他就来找我们 NextTen 公司了。</div><br><br>
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we ...
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>at ..., we ...</b></div>许多公司刊登广告或启事，一开头提到本公司如何如何时，用公司名字作主语 (第三人称而不是第一人称) 听起来有点置身事外，不太合适；用“我们”作主语又不能放上公司名字；中文的“本公司”或“敝公司”在英文中又不易表达，而且还是放不上公司名称。所以通常就用“at + 公司名称，we 如何如何”这种表达法。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>At</b> T. Rowe Price, <b>we</b> believe ... 我们普信集团深信……</div><div class="ex-item"><b>At</b> Samsung, <b>we</b> realize that to succeed in business we must also succeed in life. 我们三星公司深知，要事业有成，就必须生活亦有成。/ <b>At</b> UBS, <b>we</b> dedicate our resources to solving the financial issues that really matter. (Newsweek, Apr. 24, 2006, back cover) 我们瑞银集团致力于解决真正重要的金融问题。/ <b>At</b> Toyota, <b>we</b> purchase more than $28 billion in U.S. parts, materials, goods, and services every year. (Newsweek, Nov. 20, 2006, p. 3) 我们丰田公司每年在美国采购280亿美元以上的部件、材料、货物和劳务。</div><br><br>at ..., we ... 这个用法，也用于 we 的宾格。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Max needs to liquidate these luxury watches so he came to <b>us at</b> NextTen. (Newsweek, Oct. 10, 2005, p. 56, ad) 马克斯需要把这批豪华手表脱手，所以他就来找我们 NextTen 公司了。</div><br><br>
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avenge
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>avenge 与 revenge</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为及物动词，avenge 的搭配有点特别。它的宾语是原先受到损害的人或者是原先所受到的损害，意义也就是“替……报仇”或“报……之仇”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was determined to avenge his father's death. 他决心要报杀父之仇。/ Our brothers will avenge us. 我们的兄弟们会替我们报仇的。</div><br><br>通常是替别人特别是自己的亲人报仇，但 avenge 也可以用于为自己报仇，此时就说 avenge oneself on/upon somebody for something (为自己向某人报……之仇)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> revenge 与 avenge 意义相近，但 avenge 偏重于“善与恶”的对立与“维护公道”，而 revenge 则更多带有“私怨，仇恨”，与其说是“报仇”，不如说是“报复”，通常限于“为自己报复”，但偶尔也可以指为亲人复仇。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He revenged his dead father. 他替死去的父亲报了仇。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> revenge 比 avenge 更多用作名词，搭配常是 take revenge on somebody (报复某人)；如果用作动词时常用搭配也同 avenge 一样是 revenge oneself on/upon somebody for something (为自己向某人报……仇)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I must revenge myself upon him for this insult. 我一定报复他给我的这个侮辱。</div><br><br>有些词典认为动词 revenge 不能将原先所受到的损害以名词形式作其直接宾语，但是实际语言中也有这样用的例子：... she is out to revenge her father's death. (Geoffrey Godsell, in The Christian Science Monitor, Sept. 14, 1979) ……她一心要报杀父之仇。/ ... resolving to revenge the flagrant insult ... (Oliver Goldsmith, The Citizen of the World) ……一心要报复这个公然的侮辱……<br><br>
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revenge
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>avenge 与 revenge</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为及物动词，avenge 的搭配有点特别。它的宾语是原先受到损害的人或者是原先所受到的损害，意义也就是“替……报仇”或“报……之仇”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was determined to avenge his father's death. 他决心要报杀父之仇。/ Our brothers will avenge us. 我们的兄弟们会替我们报仇的。</div><br><br>通常是替别人特别是自己的亲人报仇，但 avenge 也可以用于为自己报仇，此时就说 avenge oneself on/upon somebody for something (为自己向某人报……之仇)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> revenge 与 avenge 意义相近，但 avenge 偏重于“善与恶”的对立与“维护公道”，而 revenge 则更多带有“私怨，仇恨”，与其说是“报仇”，不如说是“报复”，通常限于“为自己报复”，但偶尔也可以指为亲人复仇。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He revenged his dead father. 他替死去的父亲报了仇。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> revenge 比 avenge 更多用作名词，搭配常是 take revenge on somebody (报复某人)；如果用作动词时常用搭配也同 avenge 一样是 revenge oneself on/upon somebody for something (为自己向某人报……仇)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I must revenge myself upon him for this insult. 我一定报复他给我的这个侮辱。</div><br><br>有些词典认为动词 revenge 不能将原先所受到的损害以名词形式作其直接宾语，但是实际语言中也有这样用的例子：... she is out to revenge her father's death. (Geoffrey Godsell, in The Christian Science Monitor, Sept. 14, 1979) ……她一心要报杀父之仇。/ ... resolving to revenge the flagrant insult ... (Oliver Goldsmith, The Citizen of the World) ……一心要报复这个公然的侮辱……<br><br>
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median
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>average, median 与 mean</b></div>这三个形容词意义相近，但是略有不同。average 指平均值，即从低到高各个数相加之后再除以数目。median 指中位数，即居于中间位置的一个数。mean 指平均值，与 average 相似。假设有五个值，4、6、8、12、15，则平均值为 9，中位数为 8。<br><br>此外，average 还可以表示“普普通通的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The average family spends $35 a day on food. 普通一户人家一天花在食品上的开支是 35 美元。</div><br><br>
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average
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>average, median 与 mean</b></div>这三个形容词意义相近，但是略有不同。average 指平均值，即从低到高各个数相加之后再除以数目。median 指中位数，即居于中间位置的一个数。mean 指平均值，与 average 相似。假设有五个值，4、6、8、12、15，则平均值为 9，中位数为 8。<br><br>此外，average 还可以表示“普普通通的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The average family spends $35 a day on food. 普通一户人家一天花在食品上的开支是 35 美元。</div><br><br>
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prevent
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>avoid 与 prevent</b></div>两者有相同之处，也有区别。相同之处都是可以表示预先防范某件不利之事发生 (可以是表示一个连续过程的第二类动词，也可以是表示瞬时达到了防范目的的第四类动词或是借用来表示习惯的第一类动词)，但是动词的内涵及其作用对象都有一些不同。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 最大的一个不同之处，是 avoid 着重消极的“躲开，避开” (对于对象本身并不产生影响)，而 prevent 则着重积极采取措施来“挡住，使之 (在这个具体场合) 失效” (对于对象本身产生了影响)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Try to avoid (<i>prevent) the rush-hour traffic. 要设法避开交通高峰时间。/ It was an attempt to avoid (</i>prevent) the draft. 那是企图逃避兵役。/ These methods prevent pregnancy. 这些方法可以避孕。/ Stir the custard occasionally to prevent skin forming. 蛋糊要不时搅拌，以免结皮。/ Smear Vaseline on to your baby's skin to prevent soreness. 给您的婴儿皮肤上涂抹凡士林，以免疼痛。/ prevent (<i>avoid) forgery of passports 防止伪造护照</div><div class="ex-item">prevent (</i>avoid) a financial crisis 防止金融危机。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 由于 avoid 对于对象本身并不产生影响，所以它的对象可以是人、物、事，而 prevent 的对象 (不是指形式上的宾语) 既然受到影响，就不能是人或具体的物，而只能是抽象的事。(a) 对人 (或动物)，要用 avoid 来表示“躲开”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Why are you avoiding (<i>preventing) me? 你干吗老是躲我？/ If you want to avoid (</i>prevent) the crowds, it's best to come on a weekday. 你如果要躲开人群，最好是别赶周末来。/ The driver had ample time to brake or swerve and avoid the woman. 司机当时有充分的时间，可以刹车或是转个弯，躲开那位妇女。/ Avoid the dog and you will avoid a dog bite. 躲开狗，就不会被狗咬。</div><br><br>但是 prevent 的直接宾语也可以是人，意思不是“躲开”，而是“妨碍其达到目的”，这其实是 prevent sb. from doing something 略去了 from doing something。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'll come at two if nothing prevents me (= if nothing prevents me from coming). 如果没有什么阻碍的话，我将于两点钟前来。/ I've made up my mind to go, so don't try to prevent me (= don't try to prevent me from going). 我已经打定了主意要去，你就别阻拦我了。有时候甚至连这个人称宾语也可以省略 (此时 prevent 成了不及物动词)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She will come if nothing prevents. 如果没什么障碍，她会来的。</div>(b) 对物，也要用 avoid 来表示“躲开，躲避”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The horse veered to avoid the tree. 马转身要躲开那棵树。/ She braked sharply to avoid another car. 她来了个急刹车，躲开另一辆车。/ Expertly he zigzagged his way across the field, avoiding the deeper gullies. 他驾轻就熟地弯弯扭扭越过田野，躲开那些更深的沟槽。/ He avoids the elevator. 他不喜欢乘电梯。/ Avoid unhealthy foods such as hamburger and chips. 避免吃汉堡包和炸土豆条等不健康的食品。/ It is better to avoid all food colours. 倒不如避免所有食品色素。 (c) 对事，如果措施较为积极，而且抽象的对象在这个具体场合缩小为一个单独的个案时，两者均可用。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>avoid/prevent a quarrel 避免一场争吵</div><div class="ex-item">avoid/prevent bloodshed 防止发生流血事件。通常 prevent 的宾语表示比较严重的后果，如果后果并不严重，还是用 avoid 好些。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Book early to avoid (*prevent) disappointment. 及早订票，以免向隅。</div><br><br>但是如果措施是消极而不是积极的，尽管对象已经个案化了，措施对于对象本身仍不产生影响，那就仍然不宜用 prevent。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Avoid (<i>prevent) bad company. 别同不三不四的人来往。/ Try to avoid (</i>prevent) wasteful duplication of effort. 要设法避免重复劳动，造成浪费。/ Avoid (<i>prevent) strenuous exercise in the evening. 晚间要避免剧烈运动。/ He avoided (</i>prevented) this tricky question and talked in generalities. 他避开了这个难题，只是泛泛而谈。</div><br><br>有一家公司的雇员须知中有一句：Avoid verbal orders. 原意本来是提醒雇员发出指示尽量用文字而少用口头，但是由于 avoid 通常的对象是已经存在的事物，结果意思变成了“对别人的口头指示要躲开”。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> avoid 的主语通常是人，prevent 的主语则人、物、事均可。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Early diagnosis and treatment can usually prevent (*avoid) blindness. 及早诊断与治疗，通常可以防止失明。但是日常的文字和语言中，avoid 的主语也常常可以是措施而不是人。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Proper diagnosis will avoid treatment errors. 诊断得当，可以避免治疗出错。/ A kid-size heart valve will avoid invasive surgery. (UCLA Medicine Magazine, Winter 2007) 采用一种儿童型的心脏瓣膜，可以免除介入性的外科手术。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 由于 prevent 有 pre- 这个前缀，“事先预防”的含义比 avoid 重，所以 avoid 常用干临时的躲避，而 prevent 则多少有点事先觉察，而且有点一先一后的时间差。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The pilot had to take emergency action to avoid (<i>prevent) a disaster. 飞行员只好采取紧急行动，以避免一场灾难。/ He narrowly avoided (</i>prevented) an accident. 他险些发生事故。</div><br><br>但是，prevent 的这个“时间差”，只限于 prevent 后面直接跟着表示所要防止的事情作直接宾语。如果是 prevent sb./sth. (from) doing something 的结构，就没有这个时间差，而是当场采取措施或施加作用，当场阻止某人或某物去做某事。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They tried to prevent us from leaving. 他们试图不让我们走。/ The police prevented the riot (from) breaking out. 警察防止了骚乱的爆发。/ The firemen fought to prevent flying sparks from setting fire to neighboring roofs. 消防队员们努力奋战，不让那些飞溅的火花烧到旁边房子的屋顶。</div><br><br>prevent 的主语还可以是一个不利的因素，使得某件本来有利的事情未能实现，此时就更加没有“事先防止”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Flu prevented her from attending her daughter's confirmation. 她因为害了流感，未能参加她女儿的坚信礼。</div><br><br>prevent 本来是个表示瞬时达到“防止”目的的第四类动词，但是主语如果是某个规章，则可以表示“禁止，不准”，此时它就是一个表示延续状态的第一类动词，可以有一般现在时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The club constitution prevents women from becoming full members. 俱乐部章程不准妇女成为正式会员。/ City laws prevent horses from working between 13:00 and 17:00 under the baking summer sun. 市政法律禁止夏季下午 1 时至 5 时在烈日下役使马匹。 (5) 在搭配上，avoid 只有一个直接宾语 (名词或动名词)，这个名词如果来自及物动词，则 avoid 的主语是这个及物动词的逻辑宾语。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They are cheating but are sophisticated enough to avoid detection. 他们在作弊，但是干得十分巧妙，可以避免被查出。(detect 的逻辑宾语是 they。)</div><div class="ex-item">He couldn't avoid humiliation. 他无法避免丢脸。(humiliate 的逻辑宾语是 he。)</div>avoid 后面的直接宾语如果是个动名词，则 avoid 的主语也就是动名词的逻辑主语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He could not avoid laughing. 他忍不住笑了起来。/ Avoid drinking on an empty stomach. 避免空腹喝酒。/ He avoided giving a direct answer. 他避免正面回答。/ Avoid drawing attention to yourself. 别让人注意你。/ They avoid going out alone after dark. 他们避免天黑后出门。/ An easy way to cut the amount of fat in your diet is to avoid eating red meat. 减肥的一个简便办法，就是避免吃红肉。</div><br><br>如果 avoid 的主语不是后面动名词的逻辑主语而是其宾语，就要把这个动名词改为被动式 being pp.。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'd managed to avoid being noticed until then. 直到那时以前，我一直能够不让人家注意到我。/ He'd managed to avoid being sidetracked by Schneider's problems. 他一直避免了因为施奈德的问题而被撂到一旁。/ Women have to dress modestly, to avoid being harassed by the locals. 妇女们只好衣着简朴，以免被当地人骚扰。</div><br><br>如果 avoid 后面的动名词另有主语，则可以在这个动名词前加上相应的物主代词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I endeavored to avoid his seeing me. 我尽量设法不让他看见我。</div><br><br>prevent 可以后面只有一个直接宾语，也可以直接宾语后面再加上 from + -ing (from 可以省略，avoid 则不可以有 from)，这个区别，上面许多例句中都可以看出。<br><br>
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await
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>await 与 wait</b></div>两者的区别，参见 wait 与 await 条。<br><br>
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away from
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(away) from</b></div>有时候作表语的 away from ... (前面通常有一个表示距离或差距的名词成分)可以略去 away 而只剩下 from ...，此时要注意，是前面的名词成分修饰 from ... (说明距离有多远)，而不是 from ... 修饰前面的名词成分。参见 away 条。<br><br>
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awful
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>awesome 与 awful</b></div>两者有相当大的区别。<br><br>awesome 往往有褒义，表示“了不起的，令人肃然起敬的，壮观的”，尽管有时也带有“令人生畏的”的负面意义。例如 2009 年 1 月美国一艘以前总统老布什命名的航空母舰举行编队服役典礼，当时的总统小布什在典礼上说：Laura and I are thrilled to be here to help commission an awesome ship and to honor an awesome man. 劳拉和我来到这里来，协助一艘了不起的军舰编队服役，并且向一位了不起的人物致敬，十分激动。<br><br>awful 则主要是负面的“可怕的，邪恶的，狰狞的”之意。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This is a story about the fascinating business of pharmaceuticals, with its awesome power for good and awful potential for evil. 这是一个有关那使人眼花缭乱的医药行业的故事，这个行业既有惊人的能力造福人群，也有可怕的潜能作为害。/ Oh, Christ, it was awful! 天哪！太可怕了！另外，awful 也可以表示一般的“很糟糕”的意思。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The food was bad and the service was awful. 饭菜很差，服务更是糟透了。参见 terrible 与 terrific 条。B b</div>
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awesome
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>awesome 与 awful</b></div>两者有相当大的区别。<br><br>awesome 往往有褒义，表示“了不起的，令人肃然起敬的，壮观的”，尽管有时也带有“令人生畏的”的负面意义。例如 2009 年 1 月美国一艘以前总统老布什命名的航空母舰举行编队服役典礼，当时的总统小布什在典礼上说：Laura and I are thrilled to be here to help commission an awesome ship and to honor an awesome man. 劳拉和我来到这里来，协助一艘了不起的军舰编队服役，并且向一位了不起的人物致敬，十分激动。<br><br>awful 则主要是负面的“可怕的，邪恶的，狰狞的”之意。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This is a story about the fascinating business of pharmaceuticals, with its awesome power for good and awful potential for evil. 这是一个有关那使人眼花缭乱的医药行业的故事，这个行业既有惊人的能力造福人群，也有可怕的潜能作为害。/ Oh, Christ, it was awful! 天哪！太可怕了！另外，awful 也可以表示一般的“很糟糕”的意思。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The food was bad and the service was awful. 饭菜很差，服务更是糟透了。参见 terrible 与 terrific 条。B b</div>
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an
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>a 与 an</b></div>一般教科书都指出，以辅音开头的单词，前面用 <b>a</b>；以元音开头的单词，前面用 <b>an</b>；另外，以字母 <b>h</b> 开头的单词，如果 <b>h</b> 发音，前面用 <b>a</b>，如果 <b>h</b> 不发音，前面用 <b>an</b>。但是，在英国和加拿大，有时候有些本来 <b>h</b> 发音的单词，前面仍然用 <b>an</b>。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b><u>an</u></b> historian</div><div class="ex-item"><b><u>an</u></b> historical reference</div><div class="ex-item"><b><u>an</u></b> historical display</div><div class="ex-item"><b><u>an</u></b> hereditary disease</div><div class="ex-item"><b><u>an</u></b> habitual liar。而美式英语则在这些场合仍然通用 <b>a</b> 而很少用 <b>an</b>。原因是：这些单词，头一个音节都是轻读的，在英国和加拿大，人们发音时这个轻读音节的 <b>h</b> 往往很弱，接近于以元音开头，所以就用 <b>an</b>，做分开音节之用。但是，这种情况还需要进一步分析。例如 <b>historical</b> 和 <b>historic</b> 情况就不相同，前者比后者多出一个音节，因而第一音节 <b>his-</b> 的发音就不如后者清楚，所以即使在英国和加拿大，也多说 <b><u>a</u></b> historic occasion 而少说 <b><u>an</u></b> historic occasion。又例如 <b>hotel</b> 的第一个音节虽然不重读，但仍然带有次重音，所以英国人和加拿大人也多说 <b><u>a</u></b> hotel 而少说 <b><u>an</u></b> hotel。</div><br><br>
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flag
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>banner 与 flag</b></div>有细微的区别，flag 更多是就“旗帜”的物质意义而言，banner 则兼有物质与表示信仰、忠诚等象征意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>under the banner of social reform 在社会改革的旗帜下。但是，表示投降“举”的“白旗”是 white flag 或 flag of surrender。“国旗”是 flag 而不是 banner。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>navigate under the Panamanian flag 悬挂巴拿马国旗航行</div><div class="ex-item">Their coffins were draped with American flags. 他们的灵柩盖着美国国旗。</div><br><br>
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banner
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>banner 与 flag</b></div>有细微的区别，flag 更多是就“旗帜”的物质意义而言，banner 则兼有物质与表示信仰、忠诚等象征意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>under the banner of social reform 在社会改革的旗帜下。但是，表示投降“举”的“白旗”是 white flag 或 flag of surrender。“国旗”是 flag 而不是 banner。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>navigate under the Panamanian flag 悬挂巴拿马国旗航行</div><div class="ex-item">Their coffins were draped with American flags. 他们的灵柩盖着美国国旗。</div><br><br>
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bear
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>bear (v.t.)</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 最原始的含义，是延续性的“支撑”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The ice on the lake is much too thin to bear your weight. 湖上的冰太薄，支撑不住你的体重。/ The table can bear several vases. 桌子能承受几个花瓶的重量。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 另一个含义，是延续性的“容忍”或“忍受”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He bore his grief with dignity. 他为了尊严忍受着悲痛。/ The waiting was too much to bear. 等得令人不耐烦。/ I can't bear her! 我受不了她！</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 非延续性的“负担”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Postage will be borne by us. 邮费由我们承担。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 延续性的“经得起”，直接宾语可以是名词或代词，也可以是由动名词或带有后续成分的词组。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This cloth bears washing. 这种布料很耐洗。/ His argument doesn't bear close scrutiny. 他的论据是经不起细察的。/ He can't bear being criticized. 他经不起批评。/ It doesn't bear thinking about. 这件事不堪设想。/ What she said doesn't bear repeating. 她所说的话，简直不能再复述一遍。（参见 worth' 条。）</div><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 延续性的“bear + 动词不定式”，通常采取否定形式，表示“不忍”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I can't bear to watch. 我不忍心目睹。/ I can't bear to think what might have happened! 本来会发生什么事，我真不忍设想！</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 延续性的“携带”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The armed police bear riot shields. 武警携带防暴盾牌。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 延续性的“心中抱有”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She's no one to bear resentment. 她不是个好记仇的人。/ He bore no great affection for them. 他对他们没有什么好感。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> 延续性的“带有”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It bears all the signs of a professional job. 它带有专业工作成果的一切标志。/ His account bears little relation to the truth. 他所说的情况，同事实很不相符。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(9)</span> 瞬时性的“生育”，可以用于人和动植物。用于人的时候，要注意：(a) 以被动语态表示某人出生的情况，参见 born 条。(b) 以主动语态表示妇女的生育活动，bear 用于概括性的综述，不具体单独表示某一次的分娩（具体一次的用 give birth to）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She only bore (<i>gave birth to) one child. 她只生了一个孩子。/ She gave birth to (</i>bore) a boy yesterday. 她昨天生下了一个男孩。/ His wife bore him two daughters and a son. 他妻子给他生了两女一男。/ Wal-Mart's buyers even learned to chart the Chinese calendar. They stocked up on diapers in the Year of the Monkey because it's considered a lucky year to bear children. (Newsweek, Oct. 30, 2006, p. 52) 沃尔玛的采购人员甚至学会了查考中国日历。他们在猴年进了大量婴儿尿布，因为据说这一年生孩子很吉利。</div>(c) 植物长出叶子、开花、结果，也用 bear 表示，不分具体一次还是概括总述。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The cherry tree bears beautiful blossom in spring. 那棵樱桃树每到春天就开出美丽的花朵。/ Some plants only bear fruit once every twenty-five years. 有些植物每25年才结一次果。</div><br><br>
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bear v.t.
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>bear (v.t.)</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 最原始的含义，是延续性的“支撑”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The ice on the lake is much too thin to bear your weight. 湖上的冰太薄，支撑不住你的体重。/ The table can bear several vases. 桌子能承受几个花瓶的重量。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 另一个含义，是延续性的“容忍”或“忍受”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He bore his grief with dignity. 他为了尊严忍受着悲痛。/ The waiting was too much to bear. 等得令人不耐烦。/ I can't bear her! 我受不了她！</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 非延续性的“负担”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Postage will be borne by us. 邮费由我们承担。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 延续性的“经得起”，直接宾语可以是名词或代词，也可以是由动名词或带有后续成分的词组。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This cloth bears washing. 这种布料很耐洗。/ His argument doesn't bear close scrutiny. 他的论据是经不起细察的。/ He can't bear being criticized. 他经不起批评。/ It doesn't bear thinking about. 这件事不堪设想。/ What she said doesn't bear repeating. 她所说的话，简直不能再复述一遍。（参见 worth' 条。）</div><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 延续性的“bear + 动词不定式”，通常采取否定形式，表示“不忍”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I can't bear to watch. 我不忍心目睹。/ I can't bear to think what might have happened! 本来会发生什么事，我真不忍设想！</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 延续性的“携带”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The armed police bear riot shields. 武警携带防暴盾牌。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 延续性的“心中抱有”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She's no one to bear resentment. 她不是个好记仇的人。/ He bore no great affection for them. 他对他们没有什么好感。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> 延续性的“带有”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It bears all the signs of a professional job. 它带有专业工作成果的一切标志。/ His account bears little relation to the truth. 他所说的情况，同事实很不相符。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(9)</span> 瞬时性的“生育”，可以用于人和动植物。用于人的时候，要注意：(a) 以被动语态表示某人出生的情况，参见 born 条。(b) 以主动语态表示妇女的生育活动，bear 用于概括性的综述，不具体单独表示某一次的分娩（具体一次的用 give birth to）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She only bore (<i>gave birth to) one child. 她只生了一个孩子。/ She gave birth to (</i>bore) a boy yesterday. 她昨天生下了一个男孩。/ His wife bore him two daughters and a son. 他妻子给他生了两女一男。/ Wal-Mart's buyers even learned to chart the Chinese calendar. They stocked up on diapers in the Year of the Monkey because it's considered a lucky year to bear children. (Newsweek, Oct. 30, 2006, p. 52) 沃尔玛的采购人员甚至学会了查考中国日历。他们在猴年进了大量婴儿尿布，因为据说这一年生孩子很吉利。</div>(c) 植物长出叶子、开花、结果，也用 bear 表示，不分具体一次还是概括总述。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The cherry tree bears beautiful blossom in spring. 那棵樱桃树每到春天就开出美丽的花朵。/ Some plants only bear fruit once every twenty-five years. 有些植物每25年才结一次果。</div><br><br>
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for
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>because 与 as, since 及 for</b></div>四者都可以引导原因从句，表示“因为”，但是有重大的差别：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 四者当中，只有 because 能够把原因当作唯一的新知信息加以突出。其余三者当中，as 与 since（引入的从句放在句首）常常只是把已经知道的事情作为原因一带而过，或者即使是新知信息也不加以强调；而 for（引入的从句放在句末）虽然引入新知信息作为原因，但只摆在次要的地位。至于 because，它引入的原因状语从句通常包含新知信息，主句则可能是新知信息，也可能是已知信息。His electricity was cut off (,) because he had not paid his bill. 这句当中，如果 off 后面保留逗号（此时 because 从句是个“外加状语”/ disjunct），中文可以译成“他被停了供电，因为他没有付清账单”（因和果都是新知信息）。如果没有逗号（此时 because 从句是个“附加状语”/ adjunct），可能因和果都是新知信息，也可能果是已知信息，只有因才是新知信息（译成“他之所以被停了电，是因为没有付清账单”）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He's at home, because I've just spoken to him. 他是在家的，因为我刚刚同他交谈过。（“我刚刚同他交谈过”不能理解为“他在家”的原因。）/ He's at home because he's not feeling well. 他留在家里，是因为身体不舒服。（“身体不舒服”是“他留在家里”的原因。）而如果把 because 换成 since、as 或 for，都不能起到将原因提升为唯一新知信息的作用。所以可以说，要将原因突出作为唯一的新知信息（“之所以……是因为……”），只能使用前面没有逗号的 because，而 since、as、for 等都不能使用。正是因为如此，回答 why 问句只能用 because。 (2) 传统语法认为 for 是并列连词而 because 则是主从连词，也就是说，for 引入的是并列句的第二分句，而 because 引入的则是原因状语从句。但是，除了上面说过的区别外，because 与 for 表示原因在许多方面意义十分接近，这样的区分实际意义已经不大（但是 because 前面可以依主句是否为新知信息而加或不加逗号，for 前面则必须加逗号，主句必然是新知信息）。两者都可以表示客观因果关系中的原因；如果要表示主观判断的根据，就要看说话重点放在哪里。如果重点在结论，根据只是一个附带说明，就通常多用 for。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They must have fallen asleep, for the light is out. 他们一定已经睡着了，你看灯是灭了的。/ It is morning, for the birds are singing. 早上了，鸟都在叫了。如果重点在根据，就多用 because。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You didn't tell me the truth, because I found the money in your room. 你没有给我说真话，因为我发现钱在你屋里。这样的句子不能用 as 或 since，因为着重提出主观判断的根据，必然要说出新知信息，不能一带而过。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 从 because 的例子可以看出，往往新旧信息在英文中不一定直接显示区别，要看上下文和语境；但是用中文表达时，通常在本句中就要显示差别，不能逐字翻译了事。（这里要顺便说明：一个成分是否为独立的新信息，同它在句子中的语法地位无关。往往主语、主句等语法地位极其重要的成分并不包含独立的新信息；反之，状语、从句甚至定语之类语法地位较低的成分，却可能包含独立的新信息，甚至是唯一的新信息。这是“主述位切分”即 functional sentence perspective 的一个十分重要的基本概念。）<br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 有时候 because 从句是唯一的新信息，而其前面的主句却是已知的新信息，这种情况，如果主句之前再加主句，这个再加的主句，只同 because 从句发生意义上的关系，同原先的主句（已经降格为名词从句）在意义上不相干，不要产生误解和误译。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But there has been such chaos since the dictator's fall that it's now common to hear Iraqis yearn for the order imposed by his strong-arm rule. Even some Americans share that sentiment. "I feel like we should let Saddam out of jail and say, 'Sorry, we didn't realize you were so brutal because you had to be'," a member of a U.S. Special Operations unit told Newsweek after a hard day's fighting in Fallujah in 2004. (Newsweek, Jan. 8, 2007, p. 22) 但是，自从独裁者垮台以来，局势如此混乱，以至于现在往往可以听到伊拉克人怀念他的铁腕统治下强加的秩序。甚至一些美国人也有同感。2004年费卢杰的一整天鏖战之后，美国特种部队的一名成员告诉《新闻周刊》说：“我觉得我们应该把萨达姆释放出狱，对他说：‘对不起，我们原先不知道你之所以如此暴虐是不得已的。’” (不要译为“我们原先不知道你因为不得已而如此暴虐”) 这里的 we didn't realize 的内容绝对不是 you were so brutal (已知信息)，而是 because you had to be (新知信息)。 (5) 有时候 because 前面有两个或两个以上的意义单位（一个单位不一定是一个句子，也可以只是一个句子成分，例如状语），此时要注意辨别哪一个是 because 引入的原因状语从句所管的结果。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The similarity of dress as well as their equivalently bricklike habitus and dark hair gave them the superficial appearance of twins as long as they weren't together, because the man in the spectator area was at least one and a half times the size of Tony Fasano. (Robin Cook, Crisis) 他们两人穿着差不多的衣服，同样有砖头似的体型和深色头发，所以看起来像是一对双胞胎兄弟，但是只有他们两人不在一起时才给人这种感觉，因为旁听席上的那个人的身材起码有托尼·法萨诺的 1.5 倍大。（两个意义单位，一主一从，主是带谓语的 ... gave them the superficial appearance of twins，从是状语词组 as long as they weren't together，而后面的 because ... 只管 as long as ... 部分，不管 ... gave them ... 部分。）</div><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 有时候习惯在 because 前面加上 not least，成为 not least because，表示“其中一个重要原因是……”，意思即是“并非最次要的原因是……”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was an evening that Charles would normally have enjoyed; not least perhaps because the doctor permitted himself little freedoms of language and fact in some of his tales, ... (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 一般说来，这样的晚上查尔斯本应该兴高采烈，也许原因之一是医生在讲故事时没有像以前那么古板，语言的运用和情节的叙述都稍许随便了些，……</div><br><br>
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since
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>because 与 as, since 及 for</b></div>四者都可以引导原因从句，表示“因为”，但是有重大的差别：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 四者当中，只有 because 能够把原因当作唯一的新知信息加以突出。其余三者当中，as 与 since（引入的从句放在句首）常常只是把已经知道的事情作为原因一带而过，或者即使是新知信息也不加以强调；而 for（引入的从句放在句末）虽然引入新知信息作为原因，但只摆在次要的地位。至于 because，它引入的原因状语从句通常包含新知信息，主句则可能是新知信息，也可能是已知信息。His electricity was cut off (,) because he had not paid his bill. 这句当中，如果 off 后面保留逗号（此时 because 从句是个“外加状语”/ disjunct），中文可以译成“他被停了供电，因为他没有付清账单”（因和果都是新知信息）。如果没有逗号（此时 because 从句是个“附加状语”/ adjunct），可能因和果都是新知信息，也可能果是已知信息，只有因才是新知信息（译成“他之所以被停了电，是因为没有付清账单”）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He's at home, because I've just spoken to him. 他是在家的，因为我刚刚同他交谈过。（“我刚刚同他交谈过”不能理解为“他在家”的原因。）/ He's at home because he's not feeling well. 他留在家里，是因为身体不舒服。（“身体不舒服”是“他留在家里”的原因。）而如果把 because 换成 since、as 或 for，都不能起到将原因提升为唯一新知信息的作用。所以可以说，要将原因突出作为唯一的新知信息（“之所以……是因为……”），只能使用前面没有逗号的 because，而 since、as、for 等都不能使用。正是因为如此，回答 why 问句只能用 because。 (2) 传统语法认为 for 是并列连词而 because 则是主从连词，也就是说，for 引入的是并列句的第二分句，而 because 引入的则是原因状语从句。但是，除了上面说过的区别外，because 与 for 表示原因在许多方面意义十分接近，这样的区分实际意义已经不大（但是 because 前面可以依主句是否为新知信息而加或不加逗号，for 前面则必须加逗号，主句必然是新知信息）。两者都可以表示客观因果关系中的原因；如果要表示主观判断的根据，就要看说话重点放在哪里。如果重点在结论，根据只是一个附带说明，就通常多用 for。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They must have fallen asleep, for the light is out. 他们一定已经睡着了，你看灯是灭了的。/ It is morning, for the birds are singing. 早上了，鸟都在叫了。如果重点在根据，就多用 because。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You didn't tell me the truth, because I found the money in your room. 你没有给我说真话，因为我发现钱在你屋里。这样的句子不能用 as 或 since，因为着重提出主观判断的根据，必然要说出新知信息，不能一带而过。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 从 because 的例子可以看出，往往新旧信息在英文中不一定直接显示区别，要看上下文和语境；但是用中文表达时，通常在本句中就要显示差别，不能逐字翻译了事。（这里要顺便说明：一个成分是否为独立的新信息，同它在句子中的语法地位无关。往往主语、主句等语法地位极其重要的成分并不包含独立的新信息；反之，状语、从句甚至定语之类语法地位较低的成分，却可能包含独立的新信息，甚至是唯一的新信息。这是“主述位切分”即 functional sentence perspective 的一个十分重要的基本概念。）<br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 有时候 because 从句是唯一的新信息，而其前面的主句却是已知的新信息，这种情况，如果主句之前再加主句，这个再加的主句，只同 because 从句发生意义上的关系，同原先的主句（已经降格为名词从句）在意义上不相干，不要产生误解和误译。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But there has been such chaos since the dictator's fall that it's now common to hear Iraqis yearn for the order imposed by his strong-arm rule. Even some Americans share that sentiment. "I feel like we should let Saddam out of jail and say, 'Sorry, we didn't realize you were so brutal because you had to be'," a member of a U.S. Special Operations unit told Newsweek after a hard day's fighting in Fallujah in 2004. (Newsweek, Jan. 8, 2007, p. 22) 但是，自从独裁者垮台以来，局势如此混乱，以至于现在往往可以听到伊拉克人怀念他的铁腕统治下强加的秩序。甚至一些美国人也有同感。2004年费卢杰的一整天鏖战之后，美国特种部队的一名成员告诉《新闻周刊》说：“我觉得我们应该把萨达姆释放出狱，对他说：‘对不起，我们原先不知道你之所以如此暴虐是不得已的。’” (不要译为“我们原先不知道你因为不得已而如此暴虐”) 这里的 we didn't realize 的内容绝对不是 you were so brutal (已知信息)，而是 because you had to be (新知信息)。 (5) 有时候 because 前面有两个或两个以上的意义单位（一个单位不一定是一个句子，也可以只是一个句子成分，例如状语），此时要注意辨别哪一个是 because 引入的原因状语从句所管的结果。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The similarity of dress as well as their equivalently bricklike habitus and dark hair gave them the superficial appearance of twins as long as they weren't together, because the man in the spectator area was at least one and a half times the size of Tony Fasano. (Robin Cook, Crisis) 他们两人穿着差不多的衣服，同样有砖头似的体型和深色头发，所以看起来像是一对双胞胎兄弟，但是只有他们两人不在一起时才给人这种感觉，因为旁听席上的那个人的身材起码有托尼·法萨诺的 1.5 倍大。（两个意义单位，一主一从，主是带谓语的 ... gave them the superficial appearance of twins，从是状语词组 as long as they weren't together，而后面的 because ... 只管 as long as ... 部分，不管 ... gave them ... 部分。）</div><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 有时候习惯在 because 前面加上 not least，成为 not least because，表示“其中一个重要原因是……”，意思即是“并非最次要的原因是……”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was an evening that Charles would normally have enjoyed; not least perhaps because the doctor permitted himself little freedoms of language and fact in some of his tales, ... (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 一般说来，这样的晚上查尔斯本应该兴高采烈，也许原因之一是医生在讲故事时没有像以前那么古板，语言的运用和情节的叙述都稍许随便了些，……</div><br><br>
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because
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>because 与 as, since 及 for</b></div>四者都可以引导原因从句，表示“因为”，但是有重大的差别：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 四者当中，只有 because 能够把原因当作唯一的新知信息加以突出。其余三者当中，as 与 since（引入的从句放在句首）常常只是把已经知道的事情作为原因一带而过，或者即使是新知信息也不加以强调；而 for（引入的从句放在句末）虽然引入新知信息作为原因，但只摆在次要的地位。至于 because，它引入的原因状语从句通常包含新知信息，主句则可能是新知信息，也可能是已知信息。His electricity was cut off (,) because he had not paid his bill. 这句当中，如果 off 后面保留逗号（此时 because 从句是个“外加状语”/ disjunct），中文可以译成“他被停了供电，因为他没有付清账单”（因和果都是新知信息）。如果没有逗号（此时 because 从句是个“附加状语”/ adjunct），可能因和果都是新知信息，也可能果是已知信息，只有因才是新知信息（译成“他之所以被停了电，是因为没有付清账单”）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He's at home, because I've just spoken to him. 他是在家的，因为我刚刚同他交谈过。（“我刚刚同他交谈过”不能理解为“他在家”的原因。）/ He's at home because he's not feeling well. 他留在家里，是因为身体不舒服。（“身体不舒服”是“他留在家里”的原因。）而如果把 because 换成 since、as 或 for，都不能起到将原因提升为唯一新知信息的作用。所以可以说，要将原因突出作为唯一的新知信息（“之所以……是因为……”），只能使用前面没有逗号的 because，而 since、as、for 等都不能使用。正是因为如此，回答 why 问句只能用 because。 (2) 传统语法认为 for 是并列连词而 because 则是主从连词，也就是说，for 引入的是并列句的第二分句，而 because 引入的则是原因状语从句。但是，除了上面说过的区别外，because 与 for 表示原因在许多方面意义十分接近，这样的区分实际意义已经不大（但是 because 前面可以依主句是否为新知信息而加或不加逗号，for 前面则必须加逗号，主句必然是新知信息）。两者都可以表示客观因果关系中的原因；如果要表示主观判断的根据，就要看说话重点放在哪里。如果重点在结论，根据只是一个附带说明，就通常多用 for。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They must have fallen asleep, for the light is out. 他们一定已经睡着了，你看灯是灭了的。/ It is morning, for the birds are singing. 早上了，鸟都在叫了。如果重点在根据，就多用 because。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You didn't tell me the truth, because I found the money in your room. 你没有给我说真话，因为我发现钱在你屋里。这样的句子不能用 as 或 since，因为着重提出主观判断的根据，必然要说出新知信息，不能一带而过。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 从 because 的例子可以看出，往往新旧信息在英文中不一定直接显示区别，要看上下文和语境；但是用中文表达时，通常在本句中就要显示差别，不能逐字翻译了事。（这里要顺便说明：一个成分是否为独立的新信息，同它在句子中的语法地位无关。往往主语、主句等语法地位极其重要的成分并不包含独立的新信息；反之，状语、从句甚至定语之类语法地位较低的成分，却可能包含独立的新信息，甚至是唯一的新信息。这是“主述位切分”即 functional sentence perspective 的一个十分重要的基本概念。）<br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 有时候 because 从句是唯一的新信息，而其前面的主句却是已知的新信息，这种情况，如果主句之前再加主句，这个再加的主句，只同 because 从句发生意义上的关系，同原先的主句（已经降格为名词从句）在意义上不相干，不要产生误解和误译。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But there has been such chaos since the dictator's fall that it's now common to hear Iraqis yearn for the order imposed by his strong-arm rule. Even some Americans share that sentiment. "I feel like we should let Saddam out of jail and say, 'Sorry, we didn't realize you were so brutal because you had to be'," a member of a U.S. Special Operations unit told Newsweek after a hard day's fighting in Fallujah in 2004. (Newsweek, Jan. 8, 2007, p. 22) 但是，自从独裁者垮台以来，局势如此混乱，以至于现在往往可以听到伊拉克人怀念他的铁腕统治下强加的秩序。甚至一些美国人也有同感。2004年费卢杰的一整天鏖战之后，美国特种部队的一名成员告诉《新闻周刊》说：“我觉得我们应该把萨达姆释放出狱，对他说：‘对不起，我们原先不知道你之所以如此暴虐是不得已的。’” (不要译为“我们原先不知道你因为不得已而如此暴虐”) 这里的 we didn't realize 的内容绝对不是 you were so brutal (已知信息)，而是 because you had to be (新知信息)。 (5) 有时候 because 前面有两个或两个以上的意义单位（一个单位不一定是一个句子，也可以只是一个句子成分，例如状语），此时要注意辨别哪一个是 because 引入的原因状语从句所管的结果。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The similarity of dress as well as their equivalently bricklike habitus and dark hair gave them the superficial appearance of twins as long as they weren't together, because the man in the spectator area was at least one and a half times the size of Tony Fasano. (Robin Cook, Crisis) 他们两人穿着差不多的衣服，同样有砖头似的体型和深色头发，所以看起来像是一对双胞胎兄弟，但是只有他们两人不在一起时才给人这种感觉，因为旁听席上的那个人的身材起码有托尼·法萨诺的 1.5 倍大。（两个意义单位，一主一从，主是带谓语的 ... gave them the superficial appearance of twins，从是状语词组 as long as they weren't together，而后面的 because ... 只管 as long as ... 部分，不管 ... gave them ... 部分。）</div><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 有时候习惯在 because 前面加上 not least，成为 not least because，表示“其中一个重要原因是……”，意思即是“并非最次要的原因是……”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was an evening that Charles would normally have enjoyed; not least perhaps because the doctor permitted himself little freedoms of language and fact in some of his tales, ... (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 一般说来，这样的晚上查尔斯本应该兴高采烈，也许原因之一是医生在讲故事时没有像以前那么古板，语言的运用和情节的叙述都稍许随便了些，……</div><br><br>
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going to inf.
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(be) going to inf.</b></div>be going to inf. 作将来时 will inf. 和 shall inf. 的补充形式，它的意义是“当前眼下已经有此将来事件发生的现成依据”，其中包括依靠主观意志可以操纵的行为或与主观意志无关的事件。<br><br>主观意志可以操纵的行为 (大体上是某人现在打算将来做某事)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>What are you going to do today? 你今天委干些什么？/ I'm going to call on some friends. 我打算去拜访一些朋友。这种打算，应该是比较实际可行的。试比较：I intend to punish them. 我打算惩罚他们。/ I'm going to punish them. 我要惩罚他们。前一句只是一个打算，可能只是气话，不一定有这样的权威和能力；而后一句则比较有把握做到。一般这个说法通常是指不久之后要实行的行动。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We're going to live in the country. 我们要到乡下居住了。(意思是很快就要去了)</div>与主观意志无关的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There's going to be a storm this evening. 今天晚上会有暴风雨。/ This wall is going to fall down. 这堵墙要倒塌了。还可以包括被主观意志所作用的被动句。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This bench is going to be painted green. 这张长凳要漆成绿色。</div><br><br>要注意的是：用 be going to inf. 通常要当前已经有了将来发生某事的现成根据，而且这个根据不是模棱两可的。所以如果有一个“如果……”从句，be going to inf. 就不合适。例如 *If you accept that job, you're never going to regret it. 要改为 If you accept that job, you'll never regret it. 你如果接受那个职位，你将永远不会后悔的。因为 if ... 表示接受与否尚未未定，也就是当前尚未存在将来发生某事的现成根据。<br><br>I'm going to inf. 同 I'll inf. 还有一个区别，就是前者通常在说话之前事先已经计划好要做此事，因此不能用于对答中临时做出的回应或许诺。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You did not hear me, I'll (<i>I'm going to) repeat. 我说的你没有听见，我再说一遍。又如有人来访，传达室的人告诉来客说主人不在，说 but I'll tell him you've been here (这不是马上要做的事)，或是告诉来客说主人在，说 Come in please, and I'll (</i>I'm going to) tell him you're here. (这是马上要做的事)。两者都用一般将来时。</div><br><br>还要注意的是：上面所说的 be going to inf. 中的 be 都限于现在时 (要做某事或要发生某事，比较确定)。如果是过去时 was/were going to inf.，这个动词不定式的内容就是尚未实现的，是否实现了，要看后文。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was going to sue me, but I persuaded him it was pointless. 他本来要跟我打官司，但是我说服了他，让他知道那是没用的。</div><br><br>
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be going to inf.
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(be) going to inf.</b></div>be going to inf. 作将来时 will inf. 和 shall inf. 的补充形式，它的意义是“当前眼下已经有此将来事件发生的现成依据”，其中包括依靠主观意志可以操纵的行为或与主观意志无关的事件。<br><br>主观意志可以操纵的行为 (大体上是某人现在打算将来做某事)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>What are you going to do today? 你今天委干些什么？/ I'm going to call on some friends. 我打算去拜访一些朋友。这种打算，应该是比较实际可行的。试比较：I intend to punish them. 我打算惩罚他们。/ I'm going to punish them. 我要惩罚他们。前一句只是一个打算，可能只是气话，不一定有这样的权威和能力；而后一句则比较有把握做到。一般这个说法通常是指不久之后要实行的行动。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We're going to live in the country. 我们要到乡下居住了。(意思是很快就要去了)</div>与主观意志无关的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There's going to be a storm this evening. 今天晚上会有暴风雨。/ This wall is going to fall down. 这堵墙要倒塌了。还可以包括被主观意志所作用的被动句。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This bench is going to be painted green. 这张长凳要漆成绿色。</div><br><br>要注意的是：用 be going to inf. 通常要当前已经有了将来发生某事的现成根据，而且这个根据不是模棱两可的。所以如果有一个“如果……”从句，be going to inf. 就不合适。例如 *If you accept that job, you're never going to regret it. 要改为 If you accept that job, you'll never regret it. 你如果接受那个职位，你将永远不会后悔的。因为 if ... 表示接受与否尚未未定，也就是当前尚未存在将来发生某事的现成根据。<br><br>I'm going to inf. 同 I'll inf. 还有一个区别，就是前者通常在说话之前事先已经计划好要做此事，因此不能用于对答中临时做出的回应或许诺。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You did not hear me, I'll (<i>I'm going to) repeat. 我说的你没有听见，我再说一遍。又如有人来访，传达室的人告诉来客说主人不在，说 but I'll tell him you've been here (这不是马上要做的事)，或是告诉来客说主人在，说 Come in please, and I'll (</i>I'm going to) tell him you're here. (这是马上要做的事)。两者都用一般将来时。</div><br><br>还要注意的是：上面所说的 be going to inf. 中的 be 都限于现在时 (要做某事或要发生某事，比较确定)。如果是过去时 was/were going to inf.，这个动词不定式的内容就是尚未实现的，是否实现了，要看后文。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was going to sue me, but I persuaded him it was pointless. 他本来要跟我打官司，但是我说服了他，让他知道那是没用的。</div><br><br>
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one's to inf.
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(be) one's to inf.</b></div>这是英语中常用的句法结构(后面的动词必须是及物动词)，意思是“某事物属于某人所有，因此某人可以或应该对之施加某行动”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The future is yours to create. 你自己的前途，由你来创造。/ The world is yours to change. 世界是你们的，该由你们来改造。/ UCLA's legacy is yours to fulfill. 加州大学洛杉矶分校的校风，该由你们(这些毕业生)来发扬。/ The trial issue is yours to keep. 赠送试阅的这一期归您所有并保存。/ His pay is hers to spend. 他挣的工资，由她来花。/ Whatever the wife owned before her marriage is hers to keep. 妻子婚前的财产，仍归妻子所有。/ Their nation's future is theirs to decide. 他们国家民族的前途，是由他们自己来决定的。/ The record of the White House is now his (= Obama's) to defend. (The Associated Press, Sept. 24, 2010) 白宫的纪录现在是由他来保持了。</div><br><br>如果强调排他，可以在 one's 后面加上 alone。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They believe these controls are theirs alone to exercise. 他们以为这些控制手段属他们专有，只有他们才能把持。/ It happens that the social contract between the government and the governed seems to be his alone to write. 政府和被治理者之间的社会契约，简直像是应该由他一手来起草的。</div><br><br>
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be one's to inf.
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(be) one's to inf.</b></div>这是英语中常用的句法结构(后面的动词必须是及物动词)，意思是“某事物属于某人所有，因此某人可以或应该对之施加某行动”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The future is yours to create. 你自己的前途，由你来创造。/ The world is yours to change. 世界是你们的，该由你们来改造。/ UCLA's legacy is yours to fulfill. 加州大学洛杉矶分校的校风，该由你们(这些毕业生)来发扬。/ The trial issue is yours to keep. 赠送试阅的这一期归您所有并保存。/ His pay is hers to spend. 他挣的工资，由她来花。/ Whatever the wife owned before her marriage is hers to keep. 妻子婚前的财产，仍归妻子所有。/ Their nation's future is theirs to decide. 他们国家民族的前途，是由他们自己来决定的。/ The record of the White House is now his (= Obama's) to defend. (The Associated Press, Sept. 24, 2010) 白宫的纪录现在是由他来保持了。</div><br><br>如果强调排他，可以在 one's 后面加上 alone。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They believe these controls are theirs alone to exercise. 他们以为这些控制手段属他们专有，只有他们才能把持。/ It happens that the social contract between the government and the governed seems to be his alone to write. 政府和被治理者之间的社会契约，简直像是应该由他一手来起草的。</div><br><br>
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beside
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>beside 与 besides</b></div>beside 是介词，表示“在旁边”的空间意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We stood beside the canyon. 我们站在峡谷旁边。</div><br><br>besides 也可以是介词，但却表示抽象的“除此之外(还有)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Besides the lecture there was a concert. 除了讲座，还举行了音乐会。/ There are three othercandidates besides yourself. 除了你自己，还有另外三个人选。/ Besides being old, she was also extremely deaf. 她不但年老，而且还非常耳背。另外，besides 还可以是副词，也是“除此之外(还有)”的意思(主要用于列举理由，不可以用于列举具体事物)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I am too tired to go, and besides, it is late. 我太累，不去了，何况时间也晚了。由于不可以用于列举具体事物，所以不太说：She likes playing the piano. Besides, she likes singing. (她喜欢弹钢琴。而且她还喜欢唱歌。)但是，besides 前面如果有否定词，“除此之外(再另加，但原先的仍保留)”与“排除在外不算”的两种意思(中文的“除此之外”也同样有这样两种不同的含义)之间的区别在此就消失了，只表示后者。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>nobody besides you and me 除了你和我再也没有别人。</div><br><br>
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besides
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>beside 与 besides</b></div>beside 是介词，表示“在旁边”的空间意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We stood beside the canyon. 我们站在峡谷旁边。</div><br><br>besides 也可以是介词，但却表示抽象的“除此之外(还有)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Besides the lecture there was a concert. 除了讲座，还举行了音乐会。/ There are three othercandidates besides yourself. 除了你自己，还有另外三个人选。/ Besides being old, she was also extremely deaf. 她不但年老，而且还非常耳背。另外，besides 还可以是副词，也是“除此之外(还有)”的意思(主要用于列举理由，不可以用于列举具体事物)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I am too tired to go, and besides, it is late. 我太累，不去了，何况时间也晚了。由于不可以用于列举具体事物，所以不太说：She likes playing the piano. Besides, she likes singing. (她喜欢弹钢琴。而且她还喜欢唱歌。)但是，besides 前面如果有否定词，“除此之外(再另加，但原先的仍保留)”与“排除在外不算”的两种意思(中文的“除此之外”也同样有这样两种不同的含义)之间的区别在此就消失了，只表示后者。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>nobody besides you and me 除了你和我再也没有别人。</div><br><br>
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from ... to ...
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>between ... and ... 与 from ... to ...</b></div>between A 时间点 and B 时间点，意义和用法不同于 from A 时间点 to B 时间点。前者指 A 至 B 时间段中的某一时间点，同瞬时动词连用；后者指自 A 到 B 的整个时间段的始终，同延续动词连用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Bill posted (瞬时动词) the parcel between 9 and 10 o'clock. 比尔在 9 点和 10 点之间寄出了包裹。/ Angela worked (延续动词) from 9 to 10 o'clock. 安杰拉从 9 点工作到 10 点。</div><br><br>between ... and ... 与 from ... to ... 的这个“点”与“段”的区别，甚至也表现在非时间的表述上。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Richard is between 40 and 45 (<i>from 40 to 45) years old. 理查德年纪大约在 40 和 45 岁之间。(只能是当中的一“点”。)但是：Prices vary from 100 to 250 dollars (</i>between 100 and 250 dollars). 价格自 100 到 250 美元不等。(vary 要求有一个“段”幅度，而不是当中的一“点”。)</div>
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between ... and ...
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>between ... and ... 与 from ... to ...</b></div>between A 时间点 and B 时间点，意义和用法不同于 from A 时间点 to B 时间点。前者指 A 至 B 时间段中的某一时间点，同瞬时动词连用；后者指自 A 到 B 的整个时间段的始终，同延续动词连用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Bill posted (瞬时动词) the parcel between 9 and 10 o'clock. 比尔在 9 点和 10 点之间寄出了包裹。/ Angela worked (延续动词) from 9 to 10 o'clock. 安杰拉从 9 点工作到 10 点。</div><br><br>between ... and ... 与 from ... to ... 的这个“点”与“段”的区别，甚至也表现在非时间的表述上。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Richard is between 40 and 45 (<i>from 40 to 45) years old. 理查德年纪大约在 40 和 45 岁之间。(只能是当中的一“点”。)但是：Prices vary from 100 to 250 dollars (</i>between 100 and 250 dollars). 价格自 100 到 250 美元不等。(vary 要求有一个“段”幅度，而不是当中的一“点”。)</div>
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bored
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>bored 与 boring</b></div>两者分别是及物动词 bore 的过去分词与现在分词。bore 的意思是“使人感到烦闷”，因而 bored 就是“感到烦闷”，而 boring 则保持了“使人感到烦闷的”的主动意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A bored guest is a boring guest. 客人烦闷了，会使主人也烦闷。英语中有相当多的动词都有这种“使人感到如何”的意义，而“感到如何”的个人，倒不一定真的是“被”如何如何，他的感觉很可能只是自发的，但是在语言上仍然要采取被动式，例如 excited、interested、amazed、frightened、surprised、astonished、stunned、pleased、embarrassed。英语学习者容易按照自己的心理，认为这种感觉既然是自发的，不见得是被诱发的，就应该用主动的 -ing，所以常常出现 <i>I'm boring...、</i>I'm interesting in...、<i>I'm exciting...、</i>I'm amazing...、*I'm surprising... 之类的错句。</div><br><br>
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boring
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>bored 与 boring</b></div>两者分别是及物动词 bore 的过去分词与现在分词。bore 的意思是“使人感到烦闷”，因而 bored 就是“感到烦闷”，而 boring 则保持了“使人感到烦闷的”的主动意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A bored guest is a boring guest. 客人烦闷了，会使主人也烦闷。英语中有相当多的动词都有这种“使人感到如何”的意义，而“感到如何”的个人，倒不一定真的是“被”如何如何，他的感觉很可能只是自发的，但是在语言上仍然要采取被动式，例如 excited、interested、amazed、frightened、surprised、astonished、stunned、pleased、embarrassed。英语学习者容易按照自己的心理，认为这种感觉既然是自发的，不见得是被诱发的，就应该用主动的 -ing，所以常常出现 <i>I'm boring...、</i>I'm interesting in...、<i>I'm exciting...、</i>I'm amazing...、*I'm surprising... 之类的错句。</div><br><br>
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leg
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(break a) leg</b></div>参见 break a leg 条。<br><br>
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bring
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>bring 与 take</b></div>首先，按照一般字面上的理解，bring 是“拿来”，take 是“拿去”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A mother asks a boy setting out for school to take a note to the teacher and to bring home a reply. (Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of Synonyms)一个母亲叫出门上学的男孩子带一张便条去给老师，并把老师的回条带回家来。/ A farmer takes his cattle to the market and brings back a supply of sugar, flour, and fresh meat. (ibid.)一位农民把自己的牲口赶到集市去，带回来一些糖、面粉和鲜肉。但是有些美国语言学家认为两者的区别在美国已经不大。</div><br><br>再深入一步考察，可以说，只要所指的目的地是说话者自己或者对方有任何一方所在的，就可以用 bring，而如果目的地是双方都不在的，英式英语就必须用take，但美式英语常常用 bring。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This is a nice restaurant. Thanks for bringing me here. (双方都在此)这家饭馆真不错。谢谢你带我到这里来。/ Let's have another drink, and then I'll take (美式英语 bring) you home. (双方都不在此)咱们再来一杯，回头我送你回家。/ Can we come over on Sunday? We'll bring a picnic. (打电话时说；对方到时会在此)我们星期天过来行吗？我们会带些野餐食品。/ Let's go and see them on Sunday. We can take (美式英语 bring) a picnic. (双方都不在此)咱们星期天去看他们好吗？咱们可以带些野餐食品去。</div><br><br>其次，这个“在此”，不光是指说话时的现在，也可以指说话时特定的过去或将来。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—Where's the report? —I brought it to you when you were in Mr. Allen's office. Don't you remember? (对方过去特定时间所在)—报告在哪里？—你在艾伦先生办公室的时候我把报告送给你了。你不记得了吗？/ I'll arrive at the hotel at six o'clock. Can you bring me the car at six thirty? (自己将来特定时间所在)我 6 点钟到达旅馆。你能 6 点半给我把车子送来吗？</div><br><br>另外，凡是参加说话者或听者去他处的行动(这个“去”的行动本身是 go，但是参加是 come)，参加时带来人或物是 bring 而不是 *take。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm taking the kids to the cinema tonight. Would you like to come with us and bring Caroline? 我今天晚上要带孩子去看电影。你带卡罗琳跟我们一起去好吗？(参见 come 与 go 条)</div>最后，即使既非说话者，亦非说话对方，而是第三人，但成了话语的中心人物，此时，以他所在的地点为目的地，带东西去也说 bring 而不说 *take。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He heard nothing for months. Then one day his brother brought him a letter. 他好多个月听不到一点音信。忽然有一天，他弟弟给他送来了一封信。</div><br><br>
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wide
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>broad 与 wide</b></div>这两个形容词往往可以互换。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a broad/wide street 一条宽阔的马路</div><div class="ex-item">a broad/wide valley 一片宽阔的峡谷</div><div class="ex-item">a broad/wide ribbon 一条很宽的缎带。</div><br><br>两者也有如下一些区别：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> broad 着重大片面积的“宽广”(通常是“有标记的”，marked)，而 wide 则着重两点之间的测量距离(通常是“无标记的”，unmarked，但也可以是“有标记的”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The canal was as narrow as 300 yards wide (无标记). 运河很窄，只有 300 码宽。/ Broad (有标记) to the North (c. 4,600 mi</div><div class="ex-item">7,400 km wide (无标记)), Africa straddles the equator and stretches c. 5,000 mi (8,050 km) from Cape Blanc (Tunisia) in the north to Cape Agulhas (South Africa) in the south. (Columbia Encyclopedia)非洲北端宽(宽度约 4,600 英里即 7,400 公里)，跨越赤道，向南伸展约 5,000 英里(8,050 公里)，从布朗角(突尼斯)直到阿古利斯角(南非)。前一例句的 narrow，从根本上否定了后面的 wide 有任何“很宽阔”的意思；后一例句开头的 broad，是指地域的广阔，括号里的 wide，则是实际的测量数字，各司其职。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 用于“有标记的”之意时，broad 着重事物本身所充满的面积，而 wide 则可以指空缺的距离。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a <b><u>wide</u></b> (<i>broad) gap 一个很宽的缺口</div><div class="ex-item">The boy stood there with his eyes <b><u>wide</u></b> (</i>broad) with amazement. 那个男孩子站在那里，诧异地睁着双眼。/ Open the door <b><u>wide</u></b> (<i>broad). 把门开得大大的。/ a <b><u>broad</u></b> (</i>wide) leaf 一片宽阔的树叶</div><div class="ex-item">a <b><u>broad</u></b>-headed (<i>wide-headed) tack 大头图钉</div><div class="ex-item"><b><u>broad</u></b>-shouldered (</i>wide-shouldered) 宽肩的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 用于抽象事物，broad 和 wide 的用法则往往遵从习惯，难以概括为规律。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a <b><u>broad</u></b> range of courses 范围很广的课程</div><div class="ex-item"><b><u>broad</u></b> implications 广泛的后果</div><div class="ex-item">in its <b><u>broad</u></b> sense 就其广义而言</div><div class="ex-item"><b><u>broad</u></b> construction 广义解释（美国法律用语）/ <b><u>broad</u></b>-spectrum antibiotic 广谱抗生素</div><div class="ex-item">a <b><u>wide</u></b> variety of things 五花八门的东西</div><div class="ex-item">We stock a <b><u>wide</u></b> selection of imported goods. 本店存有众多进口货物供选购。/ <b><u>Wider</u></b> debate on this subject is essential. 这个问题有必要进行更加广泛的讨论。/ Her interests are <b><u>wide</u></b>. 她的兴趣很广泛。/ Ours is the newspaper with the <b><u>widest</u></b> circulation. 本报是销售范围最广的报纸。/ There is <b><u>wide</u></b> agreement among academics that ... 学术界大都一致认为……</div><div class="ex-item">Their style of music has <b><u>wide</u></b> appeal. 他们的音乐风格很受欢迎。</div><br><br>
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broad
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>broad 与 wide</b></div>这两个形容词往往可以互换。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a broad/wide street 一条宽阔的马路</div><div class="ex-item">a broad/wide valley 一片宽阔的峡谷</div><div class="ex-item">a broad/wide ribbon 一条很宽的缎带。</div><br><br>两者也有如下一些区别：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> broad 着重大片面积的“宽广”(通常是“有标记的”，marked)，而 wide 则着重两点之间的测量距离(通常是“无标记的”，unmarked，但也可以是“有标记的”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The canal was as narrow as 300 yards wide (无标记). 运河很窄，只有 300 码宽。/ Broad (有标记) to the North (c. 4,600 mi</div><div class="ex-item">7,400 km wide (无标记)), Africa straddles the equator and stretches c. 5,000 mi (8,050 km) from Cape Blanc (Tunisia) in the north to Cape Agulhas (South Africa) in the south. (Columbia Encyclopedia)非洲北端宽(宽度约 4,600 英里即 7,400 公里)，跨越赤道，向南伸展约 5,000 英里(8,050 公里)，从布朗角(突尼斯)直到阿古利斯角(南非)。前一例句的 narrow，从根本上否定了后面的 wide 有任何“很宽阔”的意思；后一例句开头的 broad，是指地域的广阔，括号里的 wide，则是实际的测量数字，各司其职。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 用于“有标记的”之意时，broad 着重事物本身所充满的面积，而 wide 则可以指空缺的距离。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a <b><u>wide</u></b> (<i>broad) gap 一个很宽的缺口</div><div class="ex-item">The boy stood there with his eyes <b><u>wide</u></b> (</i>broad) with amazement. 那个男孩子站在那里，诧异地睁着双眼。/ Open the door <b><u>wide</u></b> (<i>broad). 把门开得大大的。/ a <b><u>broad</u></b> (</i>wide) leaf 一片宽阔的树叶</div><div class="ex-item">a <b><u>broad</u></b>-headed (<i>wide-headed) tack 大头图钉</div><div class="ex-item"><b><u>broad</u></b>-shouldered (</i>wide-shouldered) 宽肩的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 用于抽象事物，broad 和 wide 的用法则往往遵从习惯，难以概括为规律。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a <b><u>broad</u></b> range of courses 范围很广的课程</div><div class="ex-item"><b><u>broad</u></b> implications 广泛的后果</div><div class="ex-item">in its <b><u>broad</u></b> sense 就其广义而言</div><div class="ex-item"><b><u>broad</u></b> construction 广义解释（美国法律用语）/ <b><u>broad</u></b>-spectrum antibiotic 广谱抗生素</div><div class="ex-item">a <b><u>wide</u></b> variety of things 五花八门的东西</div><div class="ex-item">We stock a <b><u>wide</u></b> selection of imported goods. 本店存有众多进口货物供选购。/ <b><u>Wider</u></b> debate on this subject is essential. 这个问题有必要进行更加广泛的讨论。/ Her interests are <b><u>wide</u></b>. 她的兴趣很广泛。/ Ours is the newspaper with the <b><u>widest</u></b> circulation. 本报是销售范围最广的报纸。/ There is <b><u>wide</u></b> agreement among academics that ... 学术界大都一致认为……</div><div class="ex-item">Their style of music has <b><u>wide</u></b> appeal. 他们的音乐风格很受欢迎。</div><br><br>
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association
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(by) association</b></div>by association 有“由于连带关系”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>guilt <b>by association</b> 株连</div><div class="ex-item">responsibility <b>by association</b> 连带责任</div><div class="ex-item">scandal <b>by association</b> 连累卷入的丑闻。</div><br><br>
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by association
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(by) association</b></div>by association 有“由于连带关系”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>guilt <b>by association</b> 株连</div><div class="ex-item">responsibility <b>by association</b> 连带责任</div><div class="ex-item">scandal <b>by association</b> 连累卷入的丑闻。</div><br><br>
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by the
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>by 与 by the</b></div>by 后面接上一个表示地点或实体的单数名词 (不带定冠词 the)，表示“依……的不同而不同”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Return and exchange rules vary <b><u>by</u></b> store. 退换货办法，各家商店不同。/ This percentage will vary <b><u>by</u></b> school. 这个百分比，各校各有不同。</div><br><br>如果后面接上一个表示数量单位或时间单位的单数名词，表示“按每个……计算”，此时这个名词前面就要有 the。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>John rents this house <b><u>by the</u></b> month. 约翰按月租用这座房子。/ They are paid <b><u>by the</u></b> hour. 他们的工资按小时计算。/ She sells apples <b><u>by the</u></b> dozen. 她一打一打地出售苹果。/ We sell crackers <b><u>by the</u></b> carton. 我们整箱整箱地出售饼干。此时 the 丝毫没有特指的意义。</div><br><br>但是，如果不是“按 (重量、体积等的) 单位计算”，而是“按重量、体积等的范畴计算”，则 by 后面不要 the。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The package is sold <b><u>by weight</u></b> (<i>by the weight), not <b><u>by volume</u></b> (</i>by the volume). 包裹按重量而不是按体积销售。试比较：The package is sold <b><u>by the kilo</u></b>, not <b><u>by the cubic centimeter</u></b>. 包裹按千克而不是按立方厘米销售。 # Cc</div>
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... enough
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(can't) ... enough</b></div>enough 与 cannot/could not 连用时，意思是“无法达到应有的程度”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I <i>can't</i> thank you <i>enough</i>. 我不知怎样谢你才好。</div><br><br>另外，cannot have <i>enough</i> of something 或 cannot get <i>enough</i> of something 是常用的说法，但少见有词典收入，意思大致是：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 对某事物爱不释手，乐此不疲，或是全神贯注，或是不厌其烦。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There is one thing in the world that I <i>cannot have enough of</i>: music. 世界上有一样东西是我乐此不疲的，那就是音乐。/ Power and wealth have this addictive quality; there are many people who <i>cannot have enough of</i> it, and we must always be vigilant about those who have been smitten with these addictions. 权势和财富就是有这种使人上瘾的作用；许多人乐此不疲，我们必须对那些染上这个嗜好的人一直保持警惕。/ Americans are thirsty for information about the Civil War; they <i>cannot get enough of</i> it. 美国人如饥似渴地要找有关南北战争的材料；他们陶醉于此。/ If you <i>can't get</i> <i>enough of</i> this year's still-unpredictable contest for the White House, you shouldn't miss our Campaign 2008 coverage. (U.S. News & World Report, Mar. 17, 2008, p. 6)如果您密切关注今年尚未有定论的白宫争夺战，您就不能错过本刊的 2008 年竞选报道。/ He said his paper "<i>can't get enough of</i> the election." (<i>The New York Observer</i>, Feb. 19, 2008)他说他的报馆“对这次大选充分关注”。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 对某物的需要多多益善。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The items we use heavily are: blankets, tents, flashlights, paper towels, milk powder and bottled water. We <i>cannot have enough of</i> these items. 我们大量使用的物品是：毛毯、帐篷、手电筒、纸巾、奶粉和瓶装水。这些物品对我们是多多益善。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 从某事物中得到无穷无尽的好处，受用不尽。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You <i>can never have enough of</i> Nature. (Henry David Thoreau)大自然让人受用不尽。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 对某一喜爱的事物尽情享用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This cheese is delicious; I <i>cannot eat enough of</i> it. 这种干酪很好吃，我吃了就停不下来。/ If you <i>cannot have enough of</i> seeing water rolling beneath you as you while away the time daydreaming, then opt for the full day cruises. 您如果喜欢一面打瞌睡消磨时间，一面看着您脚底下流水潺潺，流连忘返，那么您就挑选全天的海上旅游吧。有时也可以省略 of it。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Carlo's first parachute jump was the most exhilarating physical experience of his life. It was like flying with God. Carlo <i>could not get enough</i> ... the silence ... the floating ... (Dan Brown, <i>Angels and Demons</i>)卡洛第一次跳伞，是他有生以来最兴奋的一次经历。简直是同上帝一起飞翔。卡洛纵情享受……万籁无声……漂浮空中……</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 老是重复某一观点或某一故事。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We have a tendency to revert to the "Noble poor", the law-abiding ghetto dweller, and we <i>cannot have enough of</i> the story of the rich man's difficulties in passing through the Eye of the Needle. 我们有一个倾向，就是喜欢反复谈论什么“高尚的穷人”亦即遵纪守法的贫民窟居民如何如何，而总是免不了大谈特谈富人难以穿过针眼的故事。(意思是以此自我安慰，而不去努力解决现实的贫富差距悬殊的问题。)</div>此外，动词的进行时态被否定，后面加上 enough，此时否定的意义变为肯定，表示“没完没了地做某事”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We're <i>not</i> getting a big <i>enough</i> jolt from our coffee, sodas and energy drinks these days. (<i>Reader's Digest</i>, Oct. 2007, p. 24)这些日子，我们老是拿我们的咖啡、苏打水和能量饮料来提神。</div><br><br>如果不是否定，而是肯定的 have enough of something (第三类或第四类动词)，那么意思就是“尝够了……的滋味，对……领教够了”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>As much as he sympathized with Craig, he'd <i>had enough of</i> his funk at lunch. 尽管他同情克雷格，但是他在吃中饭时对克雷格的消沉泄气已经领教够了。</div><br><br>
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can't ... enough
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(can't) ... enough</b></div>enough 与 cannot/could not 连用时，意思是“无法达到应有的程度”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I <i>can't</i> thank you <i>enough</i>. 我不知怎样谢你才好。</div><br><br>另外，cannot have <i>enough</i> of something 或 cannot get <i>enough</i> of something 是常用的说法，但少见有词典收入，意思大致是：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 对某事物爱不释手，乐此不疲，或是全神贯注，或是不厌其烦。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There is one thing in the world that I <i>cannot have enough of</i>: music. 世界上有一样东西是我乐此不疲的，那就是音乐。/ Power and wealth have this addictive quality; there are many people who <i>cannot have enough of</i> it, and we must always be vigilant about those who have been smitten with these addictions. 权势和财富就是有这种使人上瘾的作用；许多人乐此不疲，我们必须对那些染上这个嗜好的人一直保持警惕。/ Americans are thirsty for information about the Civil War; they <i>cannot get enough of</i> it. 美国人如饥似渴地要找有关南北战争的材料；他们陶醉于此。/ If you <i>can't get</i> <i>enough of</i> this year's still-unpredictable contest for the White House, you shouldn't miss our Campaign 2008 coverage. (U.S. News & World Report, Mar. 17, 2008, p. 6)如果您密切关注今年尚未有定论的白宫争夺战，您就不能错过本刊的 2008 年竞选报道。/ He said his paper "<i>can't get enough of</i> the election." (<i>The New York Observer</i>, Feb. 19, 2008)他说他的报馆“对这次大选充分关注”。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 对某物的需要多多益善。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The items we use heavily are: blankets, tents, flashlights, paper towels, milk powder and bottled water. We <i>cannot have enough of</i> these items. 我们大量使用的物品是：毛毯、帐篷、手电筒、纸巾、奶粉和瓶装水。这些物品对我们是多多益善。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 从某事物中得到无穷无尽的好处，受用不尽。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You <i>can never have enough of</i> Nature. (Henry David Thoreau)大自然让人受用不尽。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 对某一喜爱的事物尽情享用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This cheese is delicious; I <i>cannot eat enough of</i> it. 这种干酪很好吃，我吃了就停不下来。/ If you <i>cannot have enough of</i> seeing water rolling beneath you as you while away the time daydreaming, then opt for the full day cruises. 您如果喜欢一面打瞌睡消磨时间，一面看着您脚底下流水潺潺，流连忘返，那么您就挑选全天的海上旅游吧。有时也可以省略 of it。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Carlo's first parachute jump was the most exhilarating physical experience of his life. It was like flying with God. Carlo <i>could not get enough</i> ... the silence ... the floating ... (Dan Brown, <i>Angels and Demons</i>)卡洛第一次跳伞，是他有生以来最兴奋的一次经历。简直是同上帝一起飞翔。卡洛纵情享受……万籁无声……漂浮空中……</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 老是重复某一观点或某一故事。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We have a tendency to revert to the "Noble poor", the law-abiding ghetto dweller, and we <i>cannot have enough of</i> the story of the rich man's difficulties in passing through the Eye of the Needle. 我们有一个倾向，就是喜欢反复谈论什么“高尚的穷人”亦即遵纪守法的贫民窟居民如何如何，而总是免不了大谈特谈富人难以穿过针眼的故事。(意思是以此自我安慰，而不去努力解决现实的贫富差距悬殊的问题。)</div>此外，动词的进行时态被否定，后面加上 enough，此时否定的意义变为肯定，表示“没完没了地做某事”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We're <i>not</i> getting a big <i>enough</i> jolt from our coffee, sodas and energy drinks these days. (<i>Reader's Digest</i>, Oct. 2007, p. 24)这些日子，我们老是拿我们的咖啡、苏打水和能量饮料来提神。</div><br><br>如果不是否定，而是肯定的 have enough of something (第三类或第四类动词)，那么意思就是“尝够了……的滋味，对……领教够了”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>As much as he sympathized with Craig, he'd <i>had enough of</i> his funk at lunch. 尽管他同情克雷格，但是他在吃中饭时对克雷格的消沉泄气已经领教够了。</div><br><br>
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carat
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>carat, caret 与 karat</b></div>三个单词非常相似，发音也差不多，但是释义不同。carat 是宝石重量单位“克拉”，也是黄金纯度单位“开”。caret 是印刷校样上用的“脱字号”或“补注号”。karat 是 carat 表示黄金纯度单位“开”时的另一种写法。<br><br>
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caret
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>carat, caret 与 karat</b></div>三个单词非常相似，发音也差不多，但是释义不同。carat 是宝石重量单位“克拉”，也是黄金纯度单位“开”。caret 是印刷校样上用的“脱字号”或“补注号”。karat 是 carat 表示黄金纯度单位“开”时的另一种写法。<br><br>
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karat
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>carat, caret 与 karat</b></div>三个单词非常相似，发音也差不多，但是释义不同。carat 是宝石重量单位“克拉”，也是黄金纯度单位“开”。caret 是印刷校样上用的“脱字号”或“补注号”。karat 是 carat 表示黄金纯度单位“开”时的另一种写法。<br><br>
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ceremonial
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>ceremonial 与 ceremonious</b></div>两个形容词都来自名词 ceremony (“仪式；礼仪”)。但前者指事物，后者指人(“彬彬有礼的”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Weddings are ceremonial occasions. 婚礼是讲究礼节的场合。/ He is a ceremonious person. 他是个彬彬有礼的人。</div><br><br>
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ceremonious
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>ceremonial 与 ceremonious</b></div>两个形容词都来自名词 ceremony (“仪式；礼仪”)。但前者指事物，后者指人(“彬彬有礼的”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Weddings are ceremonial occasions. 婚礼是讲究礼节的场合。/ He is a ceremonious person. 他是个彬彬有礼的人。</div><br><br>
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alter
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>change 与 alter</b></div>两个动词，意义相近，但有些不同。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> change 作为不及物动词时，可以指主语所代表的某事物内部发生变化(但该事物仍是该事物，这是因为主语事物仍然存在)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The weather changed suddenly. 天气骤然变化。(weather 并不变为他物)</div><div class="ex-item">The signal changed from red to green. 交通信号灯由红变绿。(笼统的 signal 仍然存在)</div><div class="ex-item">She's changed a lot during the last few years. 这几年来她变了很多。(she 还是 she)也可以指该事物发生变化后不复存在，变成另一事物(主语事物消失)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Her smile changed to a frown. 她从微笑变为皱眉。(smile 不复存在)</div><div class="ex-item">The witch changed into a princess. 女巫化身成为一个公主。(witch 起码表面上不复存在)</div><div class="ex-item">Winter changed to spring. 冬去春来。(winter 不复存在)</div>change 作为不及物动词时，还可以表示(非主语)由一物转向另一物的变化(主要指衣物和交通工具)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He changed from one make of car to another. 他由一种车换成了另一种。/ Passengers must change here for Chicago. 乘客到芝加哥去要在这里换乘。/ We have to change at Victoria. 我们要在维多利亚换车。/ I'm going upstairsto change. 我去楼上换衣服。/ She changed into a black dress. 她换上了一条黑色的连衣裙。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> change 作为及物动词，主要是表示将某事物换为另一事物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The sorcerer changed her into a stone. 魔术师将她变成一块石头。这一点，同 alter 有比较明显的区别。比如 alter a dress 是对连衣裙加以改动(如加宽或收窄)，而 change a dress 则是根本不穿它，换成另一件。不过，alter 偶尔也可以指变为另一物的“更换”，但仍然指对本身的改动以至于变成另一物，而不是简单的不要这个要那个。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>alter the storeroom into a bedroom 把储藏室改成卧室。</div><br><br>另外，alter 和 change 作为及物动词，都可以接一个表示大种类事物的直接宾语，这个事物本身持续存在，不变为另一事物，但是具体内容或表现形式发生变化。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We'll have to alter/change our plans. 我们将要改变计划。/ Research indicates that increasing water temperatures and rising sea levels can alter/change the distribution of cold water and warm water species. 研究表明，海水温度上升以及海平面升高，可能使得冷水生物和温水生物的分布状况发生变化。(distribution 概念不变，实际内容发生变化。)</div>但是，如果是从一个事物转为另一个事物，即使这两个事物的概念用同一个名词来表达，通常也用 change 而不用 alter。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>change position 改变地位</div><div class="ex-item">change color 改变颜色</div><div class="ex-item">change gear 换挡</div><div class="ex-item">change one's address 换地址</div><div class="ex-item">change one's job 换工作</div><div class="ex-item">change one's doctor 换个医生</div><div class="ex-item">Let's change the subject. 咱们换个话题吧。/ She changed her name from Bronowski to Brown. 她把自己的姓从布罗诺夫斯基改为布朗。</div><br><br>
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cheap
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>cheap 与 inexpensive</b></div>价廉的商品是 cheap (但 cheap 有时也给人以“质次”的印象)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This is a cheap piece of workmanship. 这件东西做工很简陋。/ This coat was made with cheap fur. 这件外套是用廉价皮毛做的。而 inexpensive 则可以有“价廉物美”(即使不美也不低劣)的意义，而在实际价格上给人的印象则比 cheap 高一些。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She bought an inexpensive but attractive suit. 她买了一套价钱相宜但又很吸引人的衣服。/ Jack purchased an inexpensive car whose value equaled its cost. 杰克买了一辆价格相宜的车子，从它的质量看，价钱是合算的。商店的售货员和老板，几乎从来不说自己的货物 cheap，都是说 inexpensive。</div><br><br>价格在中文中可以说“便宜”，但英文的 price、salary、wage、pay 等不可以说 cheap (反义也不可以说 dear 或 expensive)，要说 low (反义说 high)。<br><br>
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inexpensive
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>cheap 与 inexpensive</b></div>价廉的商品是 cheap (但 cheap 有时也给人以“质次”的印象)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This is a cheap piece of workmanship. 这件东西做工很简陋。/ This coat was made with cheap fur. 这件外套是用廉价皮毛做的。而 inexpensive 则可以有“价廉物美”(即使不美也不低劣)的意义，而在实际价格上给人的印象则比 cheap 高一些。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She bought an inexpensive but attractive suit. 她买了一套价钱相宜但又很吸引人的衣服。/ Jack purchased an inexpensive car whose value equaled its cost. 杰克买了一辆价格相宜的车子，从它的质量看，价钱是合算的。商店的售货员和老板，几乎从来不说自己的货物 cheap，都是说 inexpensive。</div><br><br>价格在中文中可以说“便宜”，但英文的 price、salary、wage、pay 等不可以说 cheap (反义也不可以说 dear 或 expensive)，要说 low (反义说 high)。<br><br>
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childish
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>childish 与 childlike</b></div>前者是“幼稚的”(有贬义)；后者是“童真可爱的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Don't be so childish! 别这样孩子气!</div><div class="ex-item">I thought her nice but rather childish. 我觉得她很不错，但相当孩子气。/ She looked at us with her big, childlike eyes. 她用一双天真烂漫的大眼睛看着我们。(-ish 常常有贬义；-like 则常常不褒不贬，甚至带有一点欣赏的语气。)</div>
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childlike
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>childish 与 childlike</b></div>前者是“幼稚的”(有贬义)；后者是“童真可爱的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Don't be so childish! 别这样孩子气!</div><div class="ex-item">I thought her nice but rather childish. 我觉得她很不错，但相当孩子气。/ She looked at us with her big, childlike eyes. 她用一双天真烂漫的大眼睛看着我们。(-ish 常常有贬义；-like 则常常不褒不贬，甚至带有一点欣赏的语气。)</div>
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classic
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>classic 与 classical</b></div>两者表示“古典的”时意义相同，但是习惯上各与不同的名词搭配。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>classic style 古典风格</div><div class="ex-item">classical education 古典教育</div><div class="ex-item">classical music 古典音乐(可能 classic music 读音不方便)。有时候 classical 可以代替 classic。如 classical style，但是反过来就不可以，例如不可以说 *classic education。</div><br><br>classic 还有“典型的”之意，此时 classical 就不能代替它。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The painting is a classic example of sixteenth century Venetian art. 这幅画是16世纪威尼斯美术的代表作。/ This movie is one of the classic works of the Hollywood cinema. 这部片子是一部典型的好莱坞电影作品。/ You could call it a classic case of supply meeting demand. 这也不妨叫作供应应于求的一个典型事例。</div><br><br>
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classical
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>classic 与 classical</b></div>两者表示“古典的”时意义相同，但是习惯上各与不同的名词搭配。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>classic style 古典风格</div><div class="ex-item">classical education 古典教育</div><div class="ex-item">classical music 古典音乐(可能 classic music 读音不方便)。有时候 classical 可以代替 classic。如 classical style，但是反过来就不可以，例如不可以说 *classic education。</div><br><br>classic 还有“典型的”之意，此时 classical 就不能代替它。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The painting is a classic example of sixteenth century Venetian art. 这幅画是16世纪威尼斯美术的代表作。/ This movie is one of the classic works of the Hollywood cinema. 这部片子是一部典型的好莱坞电影作品。/ You could call it a classic case of supply meeting demand. 这也不妨叫作供应应于求的一个典型事例。</div><br><br>
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clean
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>clean 与 cleanse</b></div>这两个及物动词，意义相近，而且都属于第三类动词（“进行洗涤清理”）兼第四类动词（“洗干净，清理好”）。但是 clean 用于表示洗涤日常具体的事物，与之搭配的直接宾语，既可以是衣物之类或身体部分，也可以是被洗掉的污秽。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She was <b>cleaning</b> her teeth. 她正在刷牙。（宾语：牙齿）/ The fluid is used to <b>clean</b> grease from the hands. 该液体用于清洗手上的油污。（宾语：油污）类似这样的宾语游离现象，参见 purge 条、scatter 条、sow 条、sprinkle 条、swarm 条等。</div><br><br>cleanse 的搭配与 clean 相同，但用于具体事物时则只限于医疗范围。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She helped him to <b>cleanse</b> a wound. 她帮他清洗伤口。此外更多是用于抽象事物（“净化”），要洗净的事物作直接宾语，要去掉的东西用 of 引入。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>cleanse</b> one's heart of rancor (= <b>cleanse</b> rancor from one's heart) 消除心中的怨恨</div><div class="ex-item">be <b>cleansed of</b> sin 洗去罪孽得清洁</div><div class="ex-item">The whole world must be <b>cleansed of</b> the evil from which half the world has been freed. (Harry S. Truman, broadcast, May 8, 1945) 如今半个世界已经清除了邪恶，但是整个世界还必须清除邪恶。“种族清洗”是 ethnic <b>cleansing</b>。</div><br><br>但是，clean 往往隐约意味着某具体事物原先肮脏不洁，所以商业上的各种用于人体甚至用于居室环境的洗涤剂，不叫 cleaner，而用比较“高雅”的 cleanser，或 cleansing lotion、cleansing milk 之类。cleaner 则留给房屋的打扫工，女的打扫工叫 cleaning lady。另外，cleaner 或 dry cleaner 还指“干洗店”。<br><br>另外一个同 cleanse 意义相近而且搭配相同的动词是 purge，它在精神领域的抽象意义上可以同 cleanse 互换。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>purge</b> one's conscience 净化自己的良心</div><div class="ex-item">be <b>purged of</b> all suspicion 洗刷了一切怀疑。但是 purge 可以用于政治方面而 cleanse 不能。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>purge</b> the party <b>of</b> renegades (= <b>purge</b> renegades <b>from</b> the party) 清除党内的叛变分子。</div><br><br>
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cleanse
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>clean 与 cleanse</b></div>这两个及物动词，意义相近，而且都属于第三类动词（“进行洗涤清理”）兼第四类动词（“洗干净，清理好”）。但是 clean 用于表示洗涤日常具体的事物，与之搭配的直接宾语，既可以是衣物之类或身体部分，也可以是被洗掉的污秽。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She was <b>cleaning</b> her teeth. 她正在刷牙。（宾语：牙齿）/ The fluid is used to <b>clean</b> grease from the hands. 该液体用于清洗手上的油污。（宾语：油污）类似这样的宾语游离现象，参见 purge 条、scatter 条、sow 条、sprinkle 条、swarm 条等。</div><br><br>cleanse 的搭配与 clean 相同，但用于具体事物时则只限于医疗范围。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She helped him to <b>cleanse</b> a wound. 她帮他清洗伤口。此外更多是用于抽象事物（“净化”），要洗净的事物作直接宾语，要去掉的东西用 of 引入。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>cleanse</b> one's heart of rancor (= <b>cleanse</b> rancor from one's heart) 消除心中的怨恨</div><div class="ex-item">be <b>cleansed of</b> sin 洗去罪孽得清洁</div><div class="ex-item">The whole world must be <b>cleansed of</b> the evil from which half the world has been freed. (Harry S. Truman, broadcast, May 8, 1945) 如今半个世界已经清除了邪恶，但是整个世界还必须清除邪恶。“种族清洗”是 ethnic <b>cleansing</b>。</div><br><br>但是，clean 往往隐约意味着某具体事物原先肮脏不洁，所以商业上的各种用于人体甚至用于居室环境的洗涤剂，不叫 cleaner，而用比较“高雅”的 cleanser，或 cleansing lotion、cleansing milk 之类。cleaner 则留给房屋的打扫工，女的打扫工叫 cleaning lady。另外，cleaner 或 dry cleaner 还指“干洗店”。<br><br>另外一个同 cleanse 意义相近而且搭配相同的动词是 purge，它在精神领域的抽象意义上可以同 cleanse 互换。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>purge</b> one's conscience 净化自己的良心</div><div class="ex-item">be <b>purged of</b> all suspicion 洗刷了一切怀疑。但是 purge 可以用于政治方面而 cleanse 不能。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>purge</b> the party <b>of</b> renegades (= <b>purge</b> renegades <b>from</b> the party) 清除党内的叛变分子。</div><br><br>
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climate
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>climate 与 weather</b></div>两者在英文中是不同的。climate 指一个地区一般的气候状况，是“气候”；weather 则是某日或某一段时期的特殊气候状况，是“天气”。所以，只能有 weather forecast (天气预报)，不能有 *climate forecast (气候预报)。<br><br>
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weather
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>climate 与 weather</b></div>两者在英文中是不同的。climate 指一个地区一般的气候状况，是“气候”；weather 则是某日或某一段时期的特殊气候状况，是“天气”。所以，只能有 weather forecast (天气预报)，不能有 *climate forecast (气候预报)。<br><br>
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close
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>close 与 open</b></div>两者作为动词，彼此是反义词；但是作为形容词，就不是反义词。open 无论是动词还是形容词，都有“开”的意思(当然用法不同)，但是 close 作为动词与作为形容词，意义就大不相同(发音也有差别，作动词时词尾念 /z/)。close 作为动词，有“关闭”之意，但是作为形容词，它的基本含义是“紧密的，密切的，贴近的”。例如成语 keep a <b>close</b> eye on somebody/something 是“密切注意某人或某事的动静”，不能把 close eye 误解为“闭上眼睛”或“闭上的眼睛”。“闭上眼睛”的 close 应该是动词 (close your eyes)；如果要表示“闭上的眼睛”，close 就要改为过去分词 (with <b>closed</b> eyes)。商店开门营业挂出 Open 牌子，关门休息挂出的是 Closed 而不是 Close。Keep your cell phone <b>close</b>. 不是“把你的手机关掉”，而是“把你的手机带在身边”。<br><br>close 还可以表示人与人之间关系的密切。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>And we were very <b>close</b>. (John Darnton, <i>The Darwin Conspiracy</i>) 我们当时关系很密切。（不必说 close to each other）</div>因此，open 作为及物和不及物动词，反义词都是 close。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The door <b>was opened/opened</b> at 9:00. 九点钟开了门。/ The door <b>was closed/closed</b> at 9:00. 九点钟关了门。但是 open 作为形容词，反义词却是 closed。这样一来，open 可以区别瞬时动作(用作动词：The door <b>was opened</b>.)或延续状态(用作形容词：The door <b>was open</b>.)，而 close 则无法区别(除非作为不及物动词，表示“自行关闭”)，因为 be closed 既可以表示瞬时发生的动作，也可以表示延续着的状态。The door <b>was closed</b> at 9:00. 既可以表示“门在九点钟时关上了”，也可以表示“门在九点钟时是关着的”。参见 was 条。</div><br><br>
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shut
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>close 与 shut</b></div>两个动词(及物和不及物)的意思都是“关闭”（都是瞬时体），但是在用法上有下列不同：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> close 和 shut 都可以用于门窗、通道和整个建筑物以及其他可开可闭的东西。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I can't <b>close/shut</b> the window. Can you help me? 窗户我关不起来。你能帮一下忙吗？/ The shop <b>closes/shuts</b> at five o'clock. 这家店五点钟关门。/ Open your mouth and <b>close/shut</b> your eyes. 请张开嘴，闭上眼睛。</div><br><br>但是如果涉及及要关在里面或外面的物品或人或动物，就只能用 shut，不能用close。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I <b>shut</b> (<i>closed) the letters in my desk drawer and locked it. 我把信都放进了书桌抽屉锁起来。/ The pigs were <b>shut</b> (</i>closed) in a cage. 猪被关到了笼子里。/ He <b>shut</b> (<i>closed) the cats out of the house. 他把猫关到房子外面。/ She <b>shut</b> (</i>closed) herself in her bedroom and refused to come out. 她把自己关在卧室里，不肯出来。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> close 和 shut 的过去分词 closed 和 shut 都可以当作形容词使用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The post office is <b>closed/shut</b> on Saturday afternoon. 邮局星期六下午关门。但是 closed 既可以用作表语，也可以用作前置定语。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>closed</b> doors 紧闭的门 (*shut doors: shut 只能用作表语或后置定语)。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> close 的动作比较温和，shut 的动作比较猛烈。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>As we watched, he <b>closed</b> (<i>shut) his eyes for the last time. 我们看着他最后闭上了眼睛。/ He <b>shut</b> (</i>closed) his ears to what his parents said. 他对父母所说的话充耳不闻。/ She <b>shut</b> (<i>closed) her fingers in the door. 她关门夹住了手指。/ Her skirt got <b>shut</b> (</i>closed) in the door. 她的裙子被门夹住了。/ They <b>shut</b> (<i>closed) the door in his face. 他们给他吃了闭门羹。/ (牙医对病人说) <b>Close</b> (</i>Shut) your mouth, please. 请把嘴闭上。/ (喝令人家住口说) <b>Shut</b> (<i>Close) your mouth. 闭嘴。一栋大楼，如果出告示说星期天关闭，就说：This building is <b>closed</b> (</i>shut) on Sunday.</div>
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cloth
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>cloth, clothes, clothing 与 garment</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> cloth 是作为做衣服、被褥、窗帘等的原料的“布料”，是个不可数名词。日常语言中较少用这个名词，较多用的是 material 或 fabric。如果用作可数名词，a cloth 则是一块“抹布”。这个名词作为不可数名词时，没有复数。<br><br>clothes 形式上是 cloth 的复数，其实意义并不相同，可以说它是另外一个单词。clothes 是一个复数形式的不可数名词，用于笼统地指“衣物”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>cloth</b> for <b>clothes</b> 用来做衣服的布料</div><div class="ex-item"><b>Clothes</b> were lying all over the room. 屋里到处乱丢着衣物。clothes 不能加上可数的单位(例如不能说 *a piece of clothes)。如果要加上可数的单位，要用另一个也是笼统地指“衣物”的不可数名词(单数) clothing。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>an item</div><div class="ex-item">an article</div><div class="ex-item">a piece of <b>clothing</b>。</div><br><br>另外，clothing 还有比 clothes 更为笼统、抽象、概括而且也更为正式的含义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>clothing</b> factory 服装厂</div><div class="ex-item"><b>clothing</b> industry 服装业</div><div class="ex-item">The big concern has been with food, <b>clothing</b>, and shelter for everyone. 曾经最大的问题是如何让让人人都有衣食住。</div><br><br>garment 则多用于工商业。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>garment industry 服装行业。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> clothes 是一个复数的不可数名词，前面不能加准确数目的数词(不能说 *five clothes，但可以说 several clothes 或 a few clothes)。本来应该说 many clothes，不应该说 much clothes，但是由于 clothes 已经仿佛是一个混沌的整体，接近于 water、air 之类，所以人们常常说 much clothes。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How <b>much clothes</b> do kids really need? 孩子们真正需要多少衣服？/ Most new parents I talk to say they usually wind up with too <b>much clothes</b>. Sometimes their baby grows so fast that they only wear an outfit once. 我交谈过的新手父母多数都说，他们添置的衣服，到头来是嫌多了。有时候，他们的婴儿长得很快，一件衣服只穿一次。但是，衣服总是一件件可以分开的，同 water、air 等不能分开的物质终究有些不同，所以仍然是 many clothes 较为规范。另外，用代词来指代 clothes 时，仍然用 they。</div><br><br>
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clothes
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>cloth, clothes, clothing 与 garment</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> cloth 是作为做衣服、被褥、窗帘等的原料的“布料”，是个不可数名词。日常语言中较少用这个名词，较多用的是 material 或 fabric。如果用作可数名词，a cloth 则是一块“抹布”。这个名词作为不可数名词时，没有复数。<br><br>clothes 形式上是 cloth 的复数，其实意义并不相同，可以说它是另外一个单词。clothes 是一个复数形式的不可数名词，用于笼统地指“衣物”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>cloth</b> for <b>clothes</b> 用来做衣服的布料</div><div class="ex-item"><b>Clothes</b> were lying all over the room. 屋里到处乱丢着衣物。clothes 不能加上可数的单位(例如不能说 *a piece of clothes)。如果要加上可数的单位，要用另一个也是笼统地指“衣物”的不可数名词(单数) clothing。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>an item</div><div class="ex-item">an article</div><div class="ex-item">a piece of <b>clothing</b>。</div><br><br>另外，clothing 还有比 clothes 更为笼统、抽象、概括而且也更为正式的含义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>clothing</b> factory 服装厂</div><div class="ex-item"><b>clothing</b> industry 服装业</div><div class="ex-item">The big concern has been with food, <b>clothing</b>, and shelter for everyone. 曾经最大的问题是如何让让人人都有衣食住。</div><br><br>garment 则多用于工商业。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>garment industry 服装行业。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> clothes 是一个复数的不可数名词，前面不能加准确数目的数词(不能说 *five clothes，但可以说 several clothes 或 a few clothes)。本来应该说 many clothes，不应该说 much clothes，但是由于 clothes 已经仿佛是一个混沌的整体，接近于 water、air 之类，所以人们常常说 much clothes。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How <b>much clothes</b> do kids really need? 孩子们真正需要多少衣服？/ Most new parents I talk to say they usually wind up with too <b>much clothes</b>. Sometimes their baby grows so fast that they only wear an outfit once. 我交谈过的新手父母多数都说，他们添置的衣服，到头来是嫌多了。有时候，他们的婴儿长得很快，一件衣服只穿一次。但是，衣服总是一件件可以分开的，同 water、air 等不能分开的物质终究有些不同，所以仍然是 many clothes 较为规范。另外，用代词来指代 clothes 时，仍然用 they。</div><br><br>
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garment
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>cloth, clothes, clothing 与 garment</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> cloth 是作为做衣服、被褥、窗帘等的原料的“布料”，是个不可数名词。日常语言中较少用这个名词，较多用的是 material 或 fabric。如果用作可数名词，a cloth 则是一块“抹布”。这个名词作为不可数名词时，没有复数。<br><br>clothes 形式上是 cloth 的复数，其实意义并不相同，可以说它是另外一个单词。clothes 是一个复数形式的不可数名词，用于笼统地指“衣物”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>cloth</b> for <b>clothes</b> 用来做衣服的布料</div><div class="ex-item"><b>Clothes</b> were lying all over the room. 屋里到处乱丢着衣物。clothes 不能加上可数的单位(例如不能说 *a piece of clothes)。如果要加上可数的单位，要用另一个也是笼统地指“衣物”的不可数名词(单数) clothing。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>an item</div><div class="ex-item">an article</div><div class="ex-item">a piece of <b>clothing</b>。</div><br><br>另外，clothing 还有比 clothes 更为笼统、抽象、概括而且也更为正式的含义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>clothing</b> factory 服装厂</div><div class="ex-item"><b>clothing</b> industry 服装业</div><div class="ex-item">The big concern has been with food, <b>clothing</b>, and shelter for everyone. 曾经最大的问题是如何让让人人都有衣食住。</div><br><br>garment 则多用于工商业。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>garment industry 服装行业。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> clothes 是一个复数的不可数名词，前面不能加准确数目的数词(不能说 *five clothes，但可以说 several clothes 或 a few clothes)。本来应该说 many clothes，不应该说 much clothes，但是由于 clothes 已经仿佛是一个混沌的整体，接近于 water、air 之类，所以人们常常说 much clothes。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How <b>much clothes</b> do kids really need? 孩子们真正需要多少衣服？/ Most new parents I talk to say they usually wind up with too <b>much clothes</b>. Sometimes their baby grows so fast that they only wear an outfit once. 我交谈过的新手父母多数都说，他们添置的衣服，到头来是嫌多了。有时候，他们的婴儿长得很快，一件衣服只穿一次。但是，衣服总是一件件可以分开的，同 water、air 等不能分开的物质终究有些不同，所以仍然是 many clothes 较为规范。另外，用代词来指代 clothes 时，仍然用 they。</div><br><br>
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clothing
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>cloth, clothes, clothing 与 garment</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> cloth 是作为做衣服、被褥、窗帘等的原料的“布料”，是个不可数名词。日常语言中较少用这个名词，较多用的是 material 或 fabric。如果用作可数名词，a cloth 则是一块“抹布”。这个名词作为不可数名词时，没有复数。<br><br>clothes 形式上是 cloth 的复数，其实意义并不相同，可以说它是另外一个单词。clothes 是一个复数形式的不可数名词，用于笼统地指“衣物”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>cloth</b> for <b>clothes</b> 用来做衣服的布料</div><div class="ex-item"><b>Clothes</b> were lying all over the room. 屋里到处乱丢着衣物。clothes 不能加上可数的单位(例如不能说 *a piece of clothes)。如果要加上可数的单位，要用另一个也是笼统地指“衣物”的不可数名词(单数) clothing。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>an item</div><div class="ex-item">an article</div><div class="ex-item">a piece of <b>clothing</b>。</div><br><br>另外，clothing 还有比 clothes 更为笼统、抽象、概括而且也更为正式的含义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>clothing</b> factory 服装厂</div><div class="ex-item"><b>clothing</b> industry 服装业</div><div class="ex-item">The big concern has been with food, <b>clothing</b>, and shelter for everyone. 曾经最大的问题是如何让让人人都有衣食住。</div><br><br>garment 则多用于工商业。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>garment industry 服装行业。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> clothes 是一个复数的不可数名词，前面不能加准确数目的数词(不能说 *five clothes，但可以说 several clothes 或 a few clothes)。本来应该说 many clothes，不应该说 much clothes，但是由于 clothes 已经仿佛是一个混沌的整体，接近于 water、air 之类，所以人们常常说 much clothes。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How <b>much clothes</b> do kids really need? 孩子们真正需要多少衣服？/ Most new parents I talk to say they usually wind up with too <b>much clothes</b>. Sometimes their baby grows so fast that they only wear an outfit once. 我交谈过的新手父母多数都说，他们添置的衣服，到头来是嫌多了。有时候，他们的婴儿长得很快，一件衣服只穿一次。但是，衣服总是一件件可以分开的，同 water、air 等不能分开的物质终究有些不同，所以仍然是 many clothes 较为规范。另外，用代词来指代 clothes 时，仍然用 they。</div><br><br>
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coffee
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>coffee 与 café</b></div>coffee 是“喝的咖啡”；café 是“咖啡馆”。英语这个区别，在法语、西班牙语、葡萄牙语、德语中都不存在，都是“咖啡”同“咖啡馆”不分，一律叫作 café。<br><br>
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Colombia
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>Columbia 与 Colombia</b></div>中文译名都是“哥伦比亚”，都出自发现美洲的哥伦布，但是第 4 个字母的拼法不同，一个用 u，一个用 o。哥伦布原是意大利热那亚(Genoa)人，他的姓名，意大利文是 Cristoforo Colombo，但是后来“拉丁化”成了 Christopherus Columbus，也就是说，o 变成了 u，这个拉丁化的姓氏 Columbus 也就为英文所用了。Columbia 是美国人给自己国家取的派生于 Columbus 的名称。1791 年，为了纪念哥伦布 1492 年发现美洲 300 年，美国将今天的首都华盛顿特区命名为“哥伦比亚区” (Territory of Columbia)。从此，Columbia 这个名称在美国就“走红”了，许多大小地区都取名为 Columbia。但是，当年哥伦布是替西班牙国王发现美洲的，所以他的西班牙文姓名 Cristóbal Colón 在西班牙语国家是家喻户晓的。南美洲国家“哥伦比亚” (Colombia) 也是按照他的姓氏取名的，但是保持了西班牙文中的字母 o。结果是，同一个哥伦布，在美国派生了 Columbia，在南美洲派生了 Colombia。哥伦比亚大学 (University of Columbia) 不在南美洲国家哥伦比亚，而是位于美国纽约市。<br><br>
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Columbia
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>Columbia 与 Colombia</b></div>中文译名都是“哥伦比亚”，都出自发现美洲的哥伦布，但是第 4 个字母的拼法不同，一个用 u，一个用 o。哥伦布原是意大利热那亚(Genoa)人，他的姓名，意大利文是 Cristoforo Colombo，但是后来“拉丁化”成了 Christopherus Columbus，也就是说，o 变成了 u，这个拉丁化的姓氏 Columbus 也就为英文所用了。Columbia 是美国人给自己国家取的派生于 Columbus 的名称。1791 年，为了纪念哥伦布 1492 年发现美洲 300 年，美国将今天的首都华盛顿特区命名为“哥伦比亚区” (Territory of Columbia)。从此，Columbia 这个名称在美国就“走红”了，许多大小地区都取名为 Columbia。但是，当年哥伦布是替西班牙国王发现美洲的，所以他的西班牙文姓名 Cristóbal Colón 在西班牙语国家是家喻户晓的。南美洲国家“哥伦比亚” (Colombia) 也是按照他的姓氏取名的，但是保持了西班牙文中的字母 o。结果是，同一个哥伦布，在美国派生了 Columbia，在南美洲派生了 Colombia。哥伦比亚大学 (University of Columbia) 不在南美洲国家哥伦比亚，而是位于美国纽约市。<br><br>
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view
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(come in/into) view</b></div>这样一个动词词组，其意义有点复杂，有时甚至相反。<br><br>首先，in/into view 后面没有 of 时，是 in/into view 前面所指的人或物“处在(不明言的某人)的视线之内”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There was not a man in view on the street. 街上空无一人。/ Always keep your child in view while you walk in the street. 在街上走路要千万看住孩子。</div><br><br>其次，如果前面加上动词 come 或类似意义的动词，而后面没有 of，意思是“进入(不明言的某人)的视线之内”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Sarah's dark figure came into view. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman)莎拉的黑影出现在她们眼前。/ As the position of the Earth changes with the seasons, different constellations come into view. 地球的位置随着季节的变换而变化，各个不同的星座也就相继显现。</div><br><br>如果主语是人，of 的宾语是物，当然是“人看见物”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>At last we came in view of the mountaintop. 我们终于看到了山顶。/ As we come into view of a pond, a mix of mallards and American black ducks edges farther away, and we see a hybrid. (Colin Rees, Derek Thomas, Birds of a Feather: Seasonal Changes on Both Sides of the Atlantic)我们看到一个池塘时，一群混杂的绿头鸭和美洲黑鸭正往远处挤去，我们看见一只杂交种。/ A few miles after losing sight of St. Margaret's Bay, we come into view of Mahone Bay, and soon arrive at the village of Chester at its head. (Tourists' guide) of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island)圣玛格丽特湾从我们视线中消失之后，再过几英里，我们就看到了马洪湾，不久就到达了该湾顶端的切斯特村。/ When the officers came into view of the other vehicle, the vehicle pulled back into the driveway, and the driver turned off the lights. 警官们看见另一辆车时，那辆车就开回私宅车道，司机把车灯都灭了。/ About a mile into the hike you will come into view of the Marching Men, a line of tall spires that stand atop a rock fin in a row much like soldiers in formation. (Hike to Tower Arch, Utah)登山约 1 英里，你就会看见“行军士兵像”，那是一片岩石上面的一排高耸的尖形体，很像排队行进的士兵。/ The last pirate to come into view of their weapons is standing at the front of the lifeboat. (Captain Phillips)最后一个看见他们武器的海盗，站在救生艇的前端。</div><br><br>但是如果双方都是人，是谁看见谁，就可能有歧义，要靠上下文和语境来判断。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You can see the ridge where the Union troops came into view of the confederates. 你可以看见那座山脉，(美国内战的)北军在那里进入了南军的视野 (=北军在那里看得见南军)。/ Thus she emerged in full view of the two women at the cottage door, ... (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman)于是牛奶房门口的两个女人一眼便认出她是谁了……有时候，凭事理可以判断是谁看见谁。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Everytime he would come into view of another crowd, the shouting would start up again. (President Bill Clinton)他每次走进另一个人群的视野，人们就又呼喊起来。/ The faithful servant thought to himself for a long time how to approach the matter, for it was difficult even to come into view of the king's daughter. (Grimm 006: Faithful Johannes)忠心的仆人心里琢磨了很久，想要怎样才能接近主人，因为哪怕是让国王的女儿看见自己，也是很难做到的。有时候，是双方互相看见。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Fitz had put on a limp as they'd come into view of the doorman, who had smiled and let them through, offering Sam a large leather volume to sign. (Michael Collier, Doctor Who and the Taint)费茨先装作瘸腿，他们走到了守门人跟前，守门人对他们笑了笑，让他们进去，并且递给萨姆一大叠皮革材料，请他签名。</div><br><br>主语也可以是人所在的地点、建筑物或交通工具，人看见物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Thus, the ship Cirne of the captain Diogo Fernandes Pereira, came into view of Réunion Island on 9 February 1507. 这样，船长迪奥戈·费尔南德斯·佩雷拉的“西尔尼号”船在 1507 年 2 月 9 日驶到了能望见留尼汪岛之处。/ A new group of sunspots that has come into view of Earth has the attention of the U.S. Space Weather Prediction Center. (Bloomberg, Those Sunspots Approaching Earth Could Bring Blackouts)从地球能看见的一组新的太阳黑子，引起了美国太空天气预报中心的注意。</div><br><br>但主语也可以是被看见之物，of 的宾语才是看见的主体。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A chance to encounter these animals is hardly probable, only mountain eagles soaring over the slopes can come into view of the mountain tourist. (Uzbekistani Mountains)能遇到这些动物的机会是很渺茫的，只有那些飞越山坡的山鹰可以让游客看得见。/ If, during dinner, a ship came into view of Chantilly, Lee always kept another looking glass—also made of mahogany—within easy reach ... (J. Kent McGaughy, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia: A Portrait of an American Revolutionary)如果在进餐时有船只来到尚蒂伊能看见之处，李就一直在够得着的地方备着另一个望远镜(也是红木制造的)，……</div><br><br>of 的宾语有时候可以不是有知觉的人或动物，而是一个接受形象的工具或仪器。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>As the platform rotated around the camera, a scene would come into view of the camera. (Wikipedia, The TV Wheel)平台围绕着摄影机旋转时，一个场景就会出现在摄影机上。/ And he has the patience to sit and wait for the specimen to come into view of his camera to snap a good shot. (Nate Yuen at the Tagami & Powell Gallery)他有耐心坐着等待标本出现在他的摄影机上，让他好好地照上一张。</div><br><br>
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come in view
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(come in/into) view</b></div>这样一个动词词组，其意义有点复杂，有时甚至相反。<br><br>首先，in/into view 后面没有 of 时，是 in/into view 前面所指的人或物“处在(不明言的某人)的视线之内”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There was not a man in view on the street. 街上空无一人。/ Always keep your child in view while you walk in the street. 在街上走路要千万看住孩子。</div><br><br>其次，如果前面加上动词 come 或类似意义的动词，而后面没有 of，意思是“进入(不明言的某人)的视线之内”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Sarah's dark figure came into view. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman)莎拉的黑影出现在她们眼前。/ As the position of the Earth changes with the seasons, different constellations come into view. 地球的位置随着季节的变换而变化，各个不同的星座也就相继显现。</div><br><br>如果主语是人，of 的宾语是物，当然是“人看见物”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>At last we came in view of the mountaintop. 我们终于看到了山顶。/ As we come into view of a pond, a mix of mallards and American black ducks edges farther away, and we see a hybrid. (Colin Rees, Derek Thomas, Birds of a Feather: Seasonal Changes on Both Sides of the Atlantic)我们看到一个池塘时，一群混杂的绿头鸭和美洲黑鸭正往远处挤去，我们看见一只杂交种。/ A few miles after losing sight of St. Margaret's Bay, we come into view of Mahone Bay, and soon arrive at the village of Chester at its head. (Tourists' guide) of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island)圣玛格丽特湾从我们视线中消失之后，再过几英里，我们就看到了马洪湾，不久就到达了该湾顶端的切斯特村。/ When the officers came into view of the other vehicle, the vehicle pulled back into the driveway, and the driver turned off the lights. 警官们看见另一辆车时，那辆车就开回私宅车道，司机把车灯都灭了。/ About a mile into the hike you will come into view of the Marching Men, a line of tall spires that stand atop a rock fin in a row much like soldiers in formation. (Hike to Tower Arch, Utah)登山约 1 英里，你就会看见“行军士兵像”，那是一片岩石上面的一排高耸的尖形体，很像排队行进的士兵。/ The last pirate to come into view of their weapons is standing at the front of the lifeboat. (Captain Phillips)最后一个看见他们武器的海盗，站在救生艇的前端。</div><br><br>但是如果双方都是人，是谁看见谁，就可能有歧义，要靠上下文和语境来判断。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You can see the ridge where the Union troops came into view of the confederates. 你可以看见那座山脉，(美国内战的)北军在那里进入了南军的视野 (=北军在那里看得见南军)。/ Thus she emerged in full view of the two women at the cottage door, ... (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman)于是牛奶房门口的两个女人一眼便认出她是谁了……有时候，凭事理可以判断是谁看见谁。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Everytime he would come into view of another crowd, the shouting would start up again. (President Bill Clinton)他每次走进另一个人群的视野，人们就又呼喊起来。/ The faithful servant thought to himself for a long time how to approach the matter, for it was difficult even to come into view of the king's daughter. (Grimm 006: Faithful Johannes)忠心的仆人心里琢磨了很久，想要怎样才能接近主人，因为哪怕是让国王的女儿看见自己，也是很难做到的。有时候，是双方互相看见。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Fitz had put on a limp as they'd come into view of the doorman, who had smiled and let them through, offering Sam a large leather volume to sign. (Michael Collier, Doctor Who and the Taint)费茨先装作瘸腿，他们走到了守门人跟前，守门人对他们笑了笑，让他们进去，并且递给萨姆一大叠皮革材料，请他签名。</div><br><br>主语也可以是人所在的地点、建筑物或交通工具，人看见物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Thus, the ship Cirne of the captain Diogo Fernandes Pereira, came into view of Réunion Island on 9 February 1507. 这样，船长迪奥戈·费尔南德斯·佩雷拉的“西尔尼号”船在 1507 年 2 月 9 日驶到了能望见留尼汪岛之处。/ A new group of sunspots that has come into view of Earth has the attention of the U.S. Space Weather Prediction Center. (Bloomberg, Those Sunspots Approaching Earth Could Bring Blackouts)从地球能看见的一组新的太阳黑子，引起了美国太空天气预报中心的注意。</div><br><br>但主语也可以是被看见之物，of 的宾语才是看见的主体。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A chance to encounter these animals is hardly probable, only mountain eagles soaring over the slopes can come into view of the mountain tourist. (Uzbekistani Mountains)能遇到这些动物的机会是很渺茫的，只有那些飞越山坡的山鹰可以让游客看得见。/ If, during dinner, a ship came into view of Chantilly, Lee always kept another looking glass—also made of mahogany—within easy reach ... (J. Kent McGaughy, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia: A Portrait of an American Revolutionary)如果在进餐时有船只来到尚蒂伊能看见之处，李就一直在够得着的地方备着另一个望远镜(也是红木制造的)，……</div><br><br>of 的宾语有时候可以不是有知觉的人或动物，而是一个接受形象的工具或仪器。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>As the platform rotated around the camera, a scene would come into view of the camera. (Wikipedia, The TV Wheel)平台围绕着摄影机旋转时，一个场景就会出现在摄影机上。/ And he has the patience to sit and wait for the specimen to come into view of his camera to snap a good shot. (Nate Yuen at the Tagami & Powell Gallery)他有耐心坐着等待标本出现在他的摄影机上，让他好好地照上一张。</div><br><br>
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(come in) view
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(come in/into) view</b></div>这样一个动词词组，其意义有点复杂，有时甚至相反。<br><br>首先，in/into view 后面没有 of 时，是 in/into view 前面所指的人或物“处在(不明言的某人)的视线之内”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There was not a man in view on the street. 街上空无一人。/ Always keep your child in view while you walk in the street. 在街上走路要千万看住孩子。</div><br><br>其次，如果前面加上动词 come 或类似意义的动词，而后面没有 of，意思是“进入(不明言的某人)的视线之内”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Sarah's dark figure came into view. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman)莎拉的黑影出现在她们眼前。/ As the position of the Earth changes with the seasons, different constellations come into view. 地球的位置随着季节的变换而变化，各个不同的星座也就相继显现。</div><br><br>如果主语是人，of 的宾语是物，当然是“人看见物”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>At last we came in view of the mountaintop. 我们终于看到了山顶。/ As we come into view of a pond, a mix of mallards and American black ducks edges farther away, and we see a hybrid. (Colin Rees, Derek Thomas, Birds of a Feather: Seasonal Changes on Both Sides of the Atlantic)我们看到一个池塘时，一群混杂的绿头鸭和美洲黑鸭正往远处挤去，我们看见一只杂交种。/ A few miles after losing sight of St. Margaret's Bay, we come into view of Mahone Bay, and soon arrive at the village of Chester at its head. (Tourists' guide) of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island)圣玛格丽特湾从我们视线中消失之后，再过几英里，我们就看到了马洪湾，不久就到达了该湾顶端的切斯特村。/ When the officers came into view of the other vehicle, the vehicle pulled back into the driveway, and the driver turned off the lights. 警官们看见另一辆车时，那辆车就开回私宅车道，司机把车灯都灭了。/ About a mile into the hike you will come into view of the Marching Men, a line of tall spires that stand atop a rock fin in a row much like soldiers in formation. (Hike to Tower Arch, Utah)登山约 1 英里，你就会看见“行军士兵像”，那是一片岩石上面的一排高耸的尖形体，很像排队行进的士兵。/ The last pirate to come into view of their weapons is standing at the front of the lifeboat. (Captain Phillips)最后一个看见他们武器的海盗，站在救生艇的前端。</div><br><br>但是如果双方都是人，是谁看见谁，就可能有歧义，要靠上下文和语境来判断。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You can see the ridge where the Union troops came into view of the confederates. 你可以看见那座山脉，(美国内战的)北军在那里进入了南军的视野 (=北军在那里看得见南军)。/ Thus she emerged in full view of the two women at the cottage door, ... (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman)于是牛奶房门口的两个女人一眼便认出她是谁了……有时候，凭事理可以判断是谁看见谁。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Everytime he would come into view of another crowd, the shouting would start up again. (President Bill Clinton)他每次走进另一个人群的视野，人们就又呼喊起来。/ The faithful servant thought to himself for a long time how to approach the matter, for it was difficult even to come into view of the king's daughter. (Grimm 006: Faithful Johannes)忠心的仆人心里琢磨了很久，想要怎样才能接近主人，因为哪怕是让国王的女儿看见自己，也是很难做到的。有时候，是双方互相看见。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Fitz had put on a limp as they'd come into view of the doorman, who had smiled and let them through, offering Sam a large leather volume to sign. (Michael Collier, Doctor Who and the Taint)费茨先装作瘸腿，他们走到了守门人跟前，守门人对他们笑了笑，让他们进去，并且递给萨姆一大叠皮革材料，请他签名。</div><br><br>主语也可以是人所在的地点、建筑物或交通工具，人看见物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Thus, the ship Cirne of the captain Diogo Fernandes Pereira, came into view of Réunion Island on 9 February 1507. 这样，船长迪奥戈·费尔南德斯·佩雷拉的“西尔尼号”船在 1507 年 2 月 9 日驶到了能望见留尼汪岛之处。/ A new group of sunspots that has come into view of Earth has the attention of the U.S. Space Weather Prediction Center. (Bloomberg, Those Sunspots Approaching Earth Could Bring Blackouts)从地球能看见的一组新的太阳黑子，引起了美国太空天气预报中心的注意。</div><br><br>但主语也可以是被看见之物，of 的宾语才是看见的主体。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A chance to encounter these animals is hardly probable, only mountain eagles soaring over the slopes can come into view of the mountain tourist. (Uzbekistani Mountains)能遇到这些动物的机会是很渺茫的，只有那些飞越山坡的山鹰可以让游客看得见。/ If, during dinner, a ship came into view of Chantilly, Lee always kept another looking glass—also made of mahogany—within easy reach ... (J. Kent McGaughy, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia: A Portrait of an American Revolutionary)如果在进餐时有船只来到尚蒂伊能看见之处，李就一直在够得着的地方备着另一个望远镜(也是红木制造的)，……</div><br><br>of 的宾语有时候可以不是有知觉的人或动物，而是一个接受形象的工具或仪器。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>As the platform rotated around the camera, a scene would come into view of the camera. (Wikipedia, The TV Wheel)平台围绕着摄影机旋转时，一个场景就会出现在摄影机上。/ And he has the patience to sit and wait for the specimen to come into view of his camera to snap a good shot. (Nate Yuen at the Tagami & Powell Gallery)他有耐心坐着等待标本出现在他的摄影机上，让他好好地照上一张。</div><br><br>
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come into view
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(come in/into) view</b></div>这样一个动词词组，其意义有点复杂，有时甚至相反。<br><br>首先，in/into view 后面没有 of 时，是 in/into view 前面所指的人或物“处在(不明言的某人)的视线之内”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There was not a man in view on the street. 街上空无一人。/ Always keep your child in view while you walk in the street. 在街上走路要千万看住孩子。</div><br><br>其次，如果前面加上动词 come 或类似意义的动词，而后面没有 of，意思是“进入(不明言的某人)的视线之内”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Sarah's dark figure came into view. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman)莎拉的黑影出现在她们眼前。/ As the position of the Earth changes with the seasons, different constellations come into view. 地球的位置随着季节的变换而变化，各个不同的星座也就相继显现。</div><br><br>如果主语是人，of 的宾语是物，当然是“人看见物”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>At last we came in view of the mountaintop. 我们终于看到了山顶。/ As we come into view of a pond, a mix of mallards and American black ducks edges farther away, and we see a hybrid. (Colin Rees, Derek Thomas, Birds of a Feather: Seasonal Changes on Both Sides of the Atlantic)我们看到一个池塘时，一群混杂的绿头鸭和美洲黑鸭正往远处挤去，我们看见一只杂交种。/ A few miles after losing sight of St. Margaret's Bay, we come into view of Mahone Bay, and soon arrive at the village of Chester at its head. (Tourists' guide) of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island)圣玛格丽特湾从我们视线中消失之后，再过几英里，我们就看到了马洪湾，不久就到达了该湾顶端的切斯特村。/ When the officers came into view of the other vehicle, the vehicle pulled back into the driveway, and the driver turned off the lights. 警官们看见另一辆车时，那辆车就开回私宅车道，司机把车灯都灭了。/ About a mile into the hike you will come into view of the Marching Men, a line of tall spires that stand atop a rock fin in a row much like soldiers in formation. (Hike to Tower Arch, Utah)登山约 1 英里，你就会看见“行军士兵像”，那是一片岩石上面的一排高耸的尖形体，很像排队行进的士兵。/ The last pirate to come into view of their weapons is standing at the front of the lifeboat. (Captain Phillips)最后一个看见他们武器的海盗，站在救生艇的前端。</div><br><br>但是如果双方都是人，是谁看见谁，就可能有歧义，要靠上下文和语境来判断。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You can see the ridge where the Union troops came into view of the confederates. 你可以看见那座山脉，(美国内战的)北军在那里进入了南军的视野 (=北军在那里看得见南军)。/ Thus she emerged in full view of the two women at the cottage door, ... (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman)于是牛奶房门口的两个女人一眼便认出她是谁了……有时候，凭事理可以判断是谁看见谁。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Everytime he would come into view of another crowd, the shouting would start up again. (President Bill Clinton)他每次走进另一个人群的视野，人们就又呼喊起来。/ The faithful servant thought to himself for a long time how to approach the matter, for it was difficult even to come into view of the king's daughter. (Grimm 006: Faithful Johannes)忠心的仆人心里琢磨了很久，想要怎样才能接近主人，因为哪怕是让国王的女儿看见自己，也是很难做到的。有时候，是双方互相看见。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Fitz had put on a limp as they'd come into view of the doorman, who had smiled and let them through, offering Sam a large leather volume to sign. (Michael Collier, Doctor Who and the Taint)费茨先装作瘸腿，他们走到了守门人跟前，守门人对他们笑了笑，让他们进去，并且递给萨姆一大叠皮革材料，请他签名。</div><br><br>主语也可以是人所在的地点、建筑物或交通工具，人看见物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Thus, the ship Cirne of the captain Diogo Fernandes Pereira, came into view of Réunion Island on 9 February 1507. 这样，船长迪奥戈·费尔南德斯·佩雷拉的“西尔尼号”船在 1507 年 2 月 9 日驶到了能望见留尼汪岛之处。/ A new group of sunspots that has come into view of Earth has the attention of the U.S. Space Weather Prediction Center. (Bloomberg, Those Sunspots Approaching Earth Could Bring Blackouts)从地球能看见的一组新的太阳黑子，引起了美国太空天气预报中心的注意。</div><br><br>但主语也可以是被看见之物，of 的宾语才是看见的主体。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A chance to encounter these animals is hardly probable, only mountain eagles soaring over the slopes can come into view of the mountain tourist. (Uzbekistani Mountains)能遇到这些动物的机会是很渺茫的，只有那些飞越山坡的山鹰可以让游客看得见。/ If, during dinner, a ship came into view of Chantilly, Lee always kept another looking glass—also made of mahogany—within easy reach ... (J. Kent McGaughy, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia: A Portrait of an American Revolutionary)如果在进餐时有船只来到尚蒂伊能看见之处，李就一直在够得着的地方备着另一个望远镜(也是红木制造的)，……</div><br><br>of 的宾语有时候可以不是有知觉的人或动物，而是一个接受形象的工具或仪器。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>As the platform rotated around the camera, a scene would come into view of the camera. (Wikipedia, The TV Wheel)平台围绕着摄影机旋转时，一个场景就会出现在摄影机上。/ And he has the patience to sit and wait for the specimen to come into view of his camera to snap a good shot. (Nate Yuen at the Tagami & Powell Gallery)他有耐心坐着等待标本出现在他的摄影机上，让他好好地照上一张。</div><br><br>
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(come into) view
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(come in/into) view</b></div>这样一个动词词组，其意义有点复杂，有时甚至相反。<br><br>首先，in/into view 后面没有 of 时，是 in/into view 前面所指的人或物“处在(不明言的某人)的视线之内”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There was not a man in view on the street. 街上空无一人。/ Always keep your child in view while you walk in the street. 在街上走路要千万看住孩子。</div><br><br>其次，如果前面加上动词 come 或类似意义的动词，而后面没有 of，意思是“进入(不明言的某人)的视线之内”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Sarah's dark figure came into view. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman)莎拉的黑影出现在她们眼前。/ As the position of the Earth changes with the seasons, different constellations come into view. 地球的位置随着季节的变换而变化，各个不同的星座也就相继显现。</div><br><br>如果主语是人，of 的宾语是物，当然是“人看见物”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>At last we came in view of the mountaintop. 我们终于看到了山顶。/ As we come into view of a pond, a mix of mallards and American black ducks edges farther away, and we see a hybrid. (Colin Rees, Derek Thomas, Birds of a Feather: Seasonal Changes on Both Sides of the Atlantic)我们看到一个池塘时，一群混杂的绿头鸭和美洲黑鸭正往远处挤去，我们看见一只杂交种。/ A few miles after losing sight of St. Margaret's Bay, we come into view of Mahone Bay, and soon arrive at the village of Chester at its head. (Tourists' guide) of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island)圣玛格丽特湾从我们视线中消失之后，再过几英里，我们就看到了马洪湾，不久就到达了该湾顶端的切斯特村。/ When the officers came into view of the other vehicle, the vehicle pulled back into the driveway, and the driver turned off the lights. 警官们看见另一辆车时，那辆车就开回私宅车道，司机把车灯都灭了。/ About a mile into the hike you will come into view of the Marching Men, a line of tall spires that stand atop a rock fin in a row much like soldiers in formation. (Hike to Tower Arch, Utah)登山约 1 英里，你就会看见“行军士兵像”，那是一片岩石上面的一排高耸的尖形体，很像排队行进的士兵。/ The last pirate to come into view of their weapons is standing at the front of the lifeboat. (Captain Phillips)最后一个看见他们武器的海盗，站在救生艇的前端。</div><br><br>但是如果双方都是人，是谁看见谁，就可能有歧义，要靠上下文和语境来判断。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You can see the ridge where the Union troops came into view of the confederates. 你可以看见那座山脉，(美国内战的)北军在那里进入了南军的视野 (=北军在那里看得见南军)。/ Thus she emerged in full view of the two women at the cottage door, ... (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman)于是牛奶房门口的两个女人一眼便认出她是谁了……有时候，凭事理可以判断是谁看见谁。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Everytime he would come into view of another crowd, the shouting would start up again. (President Bill Clinton)他每次走进另一个人群的视野，人们就又呼喊起来。/ The faithful servant thought to himself for a long time how to approach the matter, for it was difficult even to come into view of the king's daughter. (Grimm 006: Faithful Johannes)忠心的仆人心里琢磨了很久，想要怎样才能接近主人，因为哪怕是让国王的女儿看见自己，也是很难做到的。有时候，是双方互相看见。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Fitz had put on a limp as they'd come into view of the doorman, who had smiled and let them through, offering Sam a large leather volume to sign. (Michael Collier, Doctor Who and the Taint)费茨先装作瘸腿，他们走到了守门人跟前，守门人对他们笑了笑，让他们进去，并且递给萨姆一大叠皮革材料，请他签名。</div><br><br>主语也可以是人所在的地点、建筑物或交通工具，人看见物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Thus, the ship Cirne of the captain Diogo Fernandes Pereira, came into view of Réunion Island on 9 February 1507. 这样，船长迪奥戈·费尔南德斯·佩雷拉的“西尔尼号”船在 1507 年 2 月 9 日驶到了能望见留尼汪岛之处。/ A new group of sunspots that has come into view of Earth has the attention of the U.S. Space Weather Prediction Center. (Bloomberg, Those Sunspots Approaching Earth Could Bring Blackouts)从地球能看见的一组新的太阳黑子，引起了美国太空天气预报中心的注意。</div><br><br>但主语也可以是被看见之物，of 的宾语才是看见的主体。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A chance to encounter these animals is hardly probable, only mountain eagles soaring over the slopes can come into view of the mountain tourist. (Uzbekistani Mountains)能遇到这些动物的机会是很渺茫的，只有那些飞越山坡的山鹰可以让游客看得见。/ If, during dinner, a ship came into view of Chantilly, Lee always kept another looking glass—also made of mahogany—within easy reach ... (J. Kent McGaughy, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia: A Portrait of an American Revolutionary)如果在进餐时有船只来到尚蒂伊能看见之处，李就一直在够得着的地方备着另一个望远镜(也是红木制造的)，……</div><br><br>of 的宾语有时候可以不是有知觉的人或动物，而是一个接受形象的工具或仪器。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>As the platform rotated around the camera, a scene would come into view of the camera. (Wikipedia, The TV Wheel)平台围绕着摄影机旋转时，一个场景就会出现在摄影机上。/ And he has the patience to sit and wait for the specimen to come into view of his camera to snap a good shot. (Nate Yuen at the Tagami & Powell Gallery)他有耐心坐着等待标本出现在他的摄影机上，让他好好地照上一张。</div><br><br>
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come
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>come 与 go</b></div>用 come 还是 go，有下列的辨别标准：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 目的地为说话时双方任何一方的所在地，用 come。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—Maria, would you <b>come</b> here, please? —I'm <b>coming</b> (*going). —玛丽亚，你到这里来好吗？—我就来。/ I want to <b>come</b> over there! You can put me in the spare bedroom. Or I'll sleep on the sofa. 我想到你那边去！你可以安置我睡客房。要不然我就睡沙发。</div><br><br>到了人家的门口，问是否可以进入，由于这是眼前对方的所在地，也用 come，说：May I <b>come</b> in?<br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 双方任何一方过去或将来的所在地，但这个过去或将来是正在谈论中的焦点时间。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Will you <b>come</b> and visit me in hospital when I have my operation? 我动手术的时候，你会到医院来探望我吗？/ He <b>came</b> to see me in my office yesterday. 他昨天到我办公室看我。/ Susan can't <b>come</b> to your birthday party. 苏珊不能来参加你的生日庆祝会。/ Many thanks for your letter and kind invitation. Since I don't have anything fixed yet for the summer holidays, I'd be delighted to <b>come</b>. 谢谢你的来信和盛情邀请。我暑假尚没有预定的活动，所以我将很高兴前来。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 说话双方任何一方前往他处(动作本身用 go)，参与一起去的动作一般用 come 而不用 *go (中文仍然用“去”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We're <b>going</b> to the cinema tonight. Would you like to <b>come</b> with us? 我们今晚看电影去。你跟我们一起去吗？/ —My father is sick; I have to make a trip to Seattle. I thought I'd leave Monday. —Should I <b>come</b> with you? —我父亲病了，我要到西雅图去一趟。我想星期一动身。—要不要我陪你去？但是，有时候如果是说话者参加对方到远处去的行程，也可以用 go 而不用 come。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>That's another reason why I want to <b>go</b> with you. 这是我要同你一起去的又一个理由。</div><br><br>双方都可能去但该地点主要同其中一方关系密切，用 come 时表示另一方比较紧密配合参与，用 go 则表示另一方虽然也去，但态度上保持一定的距离。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Come/Go</b> and meet me at my favorite restaurant in Washington Street. 到华盛顿街那家我最喜欢的饭馆同我会面吧。这里用 come 表示双方关系比较融洽，可能是好朋友；用 go 则有点“公事公办”的口气。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Oh, you're acting in <i>Othello</i> tomorrow night, are you? I'll <b>come/go</b> and watch you from the gallery. 哦，你明天晚上参加《奥赛罗》演出吗？我去戏院楼座观看你的表演。这里用 come 表示很感兴趣，盼望对方演出成功；用 go 则是一般的好奇去看看，比较冷淡。</div><br><br>可见，遇到英文的 come，要斟酌究竟相当于中文的“来”还是“去”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>著名小说《廊桥遗梦》 (<i>The Bridges of Madison County</i>) 中，Robert Kincaid 在 Francesca 家中幽会的最后一天，劝 Francesca 同他一起私奔，说：<b>Come</b> (*Go) travel with me. 改编为电影时，这句话改为：<b>Come away</b> with me. 可见，本来 away 通常要同 go 一起连用，它的方向同 come 有点格格不入，但由于是“同我一起去”，而且是作为一对私奔的情侣，彼此关系密切，即使有了 away，仍然可以用 come。</div><br><br>又例如英国小说家毛姆 (Somerset Maugham) 的《月亮和六便士》 (<i>The Moon and Sixpence</i>) 中有一段讲到两个人参加葬礼后坐马车回巴黎市区，途中进行交谈：“You'd better <b>come</b> and have lunch with me,” I said to Dirk. “I'll tell him to drop us in the Place Pigalle.” 中译文(傅惟慈译本)是：“你还是来同我一起吃午饭吧，”我对戴尔克说，“我告诉马车夫在皮卡尔广场停车好不好？”但是谈话的双方同坐在一辆马车上，这个 come 译成“来”是不妥当的，其实相当于中文的“去”。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 目的地为说话双方之外已经成为话题中心(在间接叙述中尤其是在小说中)的另一个人的所在地，也用 come 而不用 go。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He begged her to <b>come</b> back to him. 他求她回到他那里去。比较：He begged her to <b>go</b> back to her family. 他求她回到自己家去。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> come 与 go 用法上的区别，归根到底是说话者视角的不同。这个区别，甚至扩大到习语词组，例如 <b>come</b> out on strike (实行罢工)是从罢工者外部的角度来看的，而 <b>go</b> out on strike 虽然意义相同，但却是从罢工者内部的角度来看的。<br><br>
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comic
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>comic 与 comical</b></div>两者没有多大的区别，但 comic 常常指有意的滑稽逗笑，comical 则倾向于自己无意但客观效果是逗人发笑。comic 常常可以代替 comical。<br><br>
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comical
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>comic 与 comical</b></div>两者没有多大的区别，但 comic 常常指有意的滑稽逗笑，comical 则倾向于自己无意但客观效果是逗人发笑。comic 常常可以代替 comical。<br><br>
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common sense
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>common sense 与 common knowledge</b></div>common sense 中文一般译成“常识”，但不是指地球绕太阳转、水是氢氧化合物之类经过学习启发才获得的知识，而是人单凭其本能就具有的先天感知与判断能力，例如“黑的不可能白”“人的年龄不能减只能加”等等。经过传播，家喻户晓的信息(不需学习，但也不是先天所知)，是 common knowledge。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is <b>common knowledge</b> (<i>common sense) that Spanish is spoken in Mexico. 尽人皆知，墨西哥人是讲西班牙语的。/ It is <b>common knowledge</b> (</i>common sense) that the purpose of respiration is to furnish to the tissues the oxygen needed and to remove the carbon dioxide produced by the metabolism. 尽人皆知，呼吸的目的，是要向机体组织供给所需的氧，并排出新陈代谢所产生的二氧化碳。/ It is <b>common sense</b> (*common knowledge) that you cannot buy friendship. 友谊是买不来的，这是常识。但是也有两可的情况。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is <b>common sense/common knowledge</b> that a rock is heavier out of water than it is under water. 石头离开了水，就(感觉上)比在水下重，这是常识。</div><br><br>
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common knowledge
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>common sense 与 common knowledge</b></div>common sense 中文一般译成“常识”，但不是指地球绕太阳转、水是氢氧化合物之类经过学习启发才获得的知识，而是人单凭其本能就具有的先天感知与判断能力，例如“黑的不可能白”“人的年龄不能减只能加”等等。经过传播，家喻户晓的信息(不需学习，但也不是先天所知)，是 common knowledge。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is <b>common knowledge</b> (<i>common sense) that Spanish is spoken in Mexico. 尽人皆知，墨西哥人是讲西班牙语的。/ It is <b>common knowledge</b> (</i>common sense) that the purpose of respiration is to furnish to the tissues the oxygen needed and to remove the carbon dioxide produced by the metabolism. 尽人皆知，呼吸的目的，是要向机体组织供给所需的氧，并排出新陈代谢所产生的二氧化碳。/ It is <b>common sense</b> (*common knowledge) that you cannot buy friendship. 友谊是买不来的，这是常识。但是也有两可的情况。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is <b>common sense/common knowledge</b> that a rock is heavier out of water than it is under water. 石头离开了水，就(感觉上)比在水下重，这是常识。</div><br><br>
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compile
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>compile 与 compose</b></div>compile 主要指编写一本书。compose 主要指创作一件精神产品，如诗歌、乐曲、文章、报告。有时两者意义有重合交叉之处，但是编书肯定不能用 compose 而要用 compile。<br><br>
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compose
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>compile 与 compose</b></div>compile 主要指编写一本书。compose 主要指创作一件精神产品，如诗歌、乐曲、文章、报告。有时两者意义有重合交叉之处，但是编书肯定不能用 compose 而要用 compile。<br><br>
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complement
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>complement 与 compliment</b></div>是两个不同的单词，各种词典上都解释得很清楚：前者为“补充”，后者为“称赞”。但是由于发音相同，因此容易弄错。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The two characters complement (*compliment) each other. 两个角色互为补充。</div><br><br>
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compliment
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>complement 与 compliment</b></div>是两个不同的单词，各种词典上都解释得很清楚：前者为“补充”，后者为“称赞”。但是由于发音相同，因此容易弄错。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The two characters complement (*compliment) each other. 两个角色互为补充。</div><br><br>
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complex
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>complex 与 complicated</b></div>这两个形容词意义相近，但略有不同。complex 着重内部组成成分数量之多，complicated 则不重数量，而主要强调各个组成部分之间错综复杂的互动关系（如“牵一发而动全身”）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The mechanism of jet engines is complex. 喷气引擎的构造是复杂的。/ The problems of poverty are complicated. 贫穷的问题是错综复杂的。</div><br><br>
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complicated
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>complex 与 complicated</b></div>这两个形容词意义相近，但略有不同。complex 着重内部组成成分数量之多，complicated 则不重数量，而主要强调各个组成部分之间错综复杂的互动关系（如“牵一发而动全身”）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The mechanism of jet engines is complex. 喷气引擎的构造是复杂的。/ The problems of poverty are complicated. 贫穷的问题是错综复杂的。</div><br><br>
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face
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>confront 与 face</b></div>参见 face 与 confront 条。<br><br>
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confront
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>confront 与 face</b></div>参见 face 与 confront 条。<br><br>
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consent
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>conscientious, conscious 与 consent</b></div>三个单词有点相像，但意义完全不同。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> conscientious 是“认真的，勤奋的”之意。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She was her usual conscientious self. 她仍然像平常一样认真。/ He'd been doing his job conscientious for many years. 他已经勤奋工作了多年。/ Their son is a conscientious student. 他们的儿子是个用功的学生。西方社会有些出于宗教、道德或哲学原因拒绝服兵役的人，被称为 conscientious objector，有些国家的法律承认他们拒绝服兵役的权利，但规定要他们从事非战斗的公益劳役作为代替。这个特殊的名词，有时候被转义用来指与兵役无关的“温和的反对者”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Mr. Trump's predecessor was no conscientious objector in the presidential war against the press. (<i>The Globe and Mail</i>, Feb. 23, 2017) 特朗普先生的前任，作为总统在对报界的作战中，并不是一个温文尔雅的对手。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> conscious 是“有意识的”之意，但除了 become conscious (恢复知觉，醒过来)以及前面加上 politically 或 socially 表示“有政治意识的”或“有社会意识的”，或是前面加上名词组成复合形容词(如 protocol-conscious“讲究礼仪的”、face-conscious“讲面子的”、clothes-conscious“讲究衣着的”、fashion-conscious“讲究时髦的”、age-conscious“在乎年龄的”、health-conscious“注意养生的”)之外，通常后面要加上 of ... 或 that ... 作为补充说明；conscious of 是“意识到”某事物(某事物如果是句子则用 conscious that ...)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She became conscious of Rudolph looking at her. 她觉察到了鲁道夫正在注视着她。/ I was conscious that he had changed his tactics. 我觉察到他改变了策略。</div><br><br>conscious of 还有一个意义，就是“很在意，很看重”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He is conscious of his limited achievements. 他对自己有限的一点成就也很在意。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> consent 同上面两个单词没有任何关系，作为名词，是“同意，答应”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She had threatened to marry without her parents' consent. 她曾经扬言父母不同意也结婚。/ It is a splendid idea. I give my consent. 这是个了不起的主意。我表示同意。</div><br><br>consent 也可以作为动词(后面加动词不定式或 to something)，是“同意”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Would you consent to work for us? 你同意为我们工作吗？/ He consented to the removal of the flags. 他同意把旗子挪开。</div><br><br>
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conscientious
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>conscientious, conscious 与 consent</b></div>三个单词有点相像，但意义完全不同。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> conscientious 是“认真的，勤奋的”之意。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She was her usual conscientious self. 她仍然像平常一样认真。/ He'd been doing his job conscientious for many years. 他已经勤奋工作了多年。/ Their son is a conscientious student. 他们的儿子是个用功的学生。西方社会有些出于宗教、道德或哲学原因拒绝服兵役的人，被称为 conscientious objector，有些国家的法律承认他们拒绝服兵役的权利，但规定要他们从事非战斗的公益劳役作为代替。这个特殊的名词，有时候被转义用来指与兵役无关的“温和的反对者”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Mr. Trump's predecessor was no conscientious objector in the presidential war against the press. (<i>The Globe and Mail</i>, Feb. 23, 2017) 特朗普先生的前任，作为总统在对报界的作战中，并不是一个温文尔雅的对手。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> conscious 是“有意识的”之意，但除了 become conscious (恢复知觉，醒过来)以及前面加上 politically 或 socially 表示“有政治意识的”或“有社会意识的”，或是前面加上名词组成复合形容词(如 protocol-conscious“讲究礼仪的”、face-conscious“讲面子的”、clothes-conscious“讲究衣着的”、fashion-conscious“讲究时髦的”、age-conscious“在乎年龄的”、health-conscious“注意养生的”)之外，通常后面要加上 of ... 或 that ... 作为补充说明；conscious of 是“意识到”某事物(某事物如果是句子则用 conscious that ...)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She became conscious of Rudolph looking at her. 她觉察到了鲁道夫正在注视着她。/ I was conscious that he had changed his tactics. 我觉察到他改变了策略。</div><br><br>conscious of 还有一个意义，就是“很在意，很看重”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He is conscious of his limited achievements. 他对自己有限的一点成就也很在意。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> consent 同上面两个单词没有任何关系，作为名词，是“同意，答应”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She had threatened to marry without her parents' consent. 她曾经扬言父母不同意也结婚。/ It is a splendid idea. I give my consent. 这是个了不起的主意。我表示同意。</div><br><br>consent 也可以作为动词(后面加动词不定式或 to something)，是“同意”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Would you consent to work for us? 你同意为我们工作吗？/ He consented to the removal of the flags. 他同意把旗子挪开。</div><br><br>
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consult
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>consult 与 consult with</b></div>consult somebody 倾向于表示“向比自己更懂的人征求意见，请教”；consult with somebody 则倾向于“平等协商”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If your baby is losing weight, you should consult your doctor promptly. 你的婴儿如果掉体重，就应该赶快去看医生。/ I ought to consult with my wife first. 我要先同我妻子商量一下。/ The U.S. should consult with its European allies about any important world issue. 任何重大的世界性问题，美国都应该同它的欧洲盟国协商。</div><br><br>consult something 中，这个 something 是固定存在的某件可供查阅的东西，因此不能说 *consult someone's opinion。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He consulted his watch. 他看了看手表。/ She consulted the papers on her desk. 她查阅了桌上的文件。/ We'd better consult the dictionary. 咱们最好还是查字典。/ Let's consult the city map. 咱们查一下市内交通图。</div><br><br>
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consult with
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>consult 与 consult with</b></div>consult somebody 倾向于表示“向比自己更懂的人征求意见，请教”；consult with somebody 则倾向于“平等协商”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If your baby is losing weight, you should consult your doctor promptly. 你的婴儿如果掉体重，就应该赶快去看医生。/ I ought to consult with my wife first. 我要先同我妻子商量一下。/ The U.S. should consult with its European allies about any important world issue. 任何重大的世界性问题，美国都应该同它的欧洲盟国协商。</div><br><br>consult something 中，这个 something 是固定存在的某件可供查阅的东西，因此不能说 *consult someone's opinion。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He consulted his watch. 他看了看手表。/ She consulted the papers on her desk. 她查阅了桌上的文件。/ We'd better consult the dictionary. 咱们最好还是查字典。/ Let's consult the city map. 咱们查一下市内交通图。</div><br><br>
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contagious
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>contagious 与 infectious</b></div>两个形容词都是“传染的”，但用法略有不同。早期有人认为 contagious 是“接触传染的”，infectious 是“媒介传染的”，contagious 是 infectious 的一种。后来有人认为两者的区别是 contagious 强调其传染之迅速，infectious 强调其传染威力之巨大，但根据似嫌不足。不过可以肯定的是：contagious 转义可以指好的和不好的事情，infectious 转义则几乎都是指好的事情。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>European leaders felt terrorism could become contagious. (Edward Girardet, in <i>The Christian Science Monitor</i>, Apr. 3, 1980) 欧洲领导人们觉得，恐怖主义可能成为一种传染病。/ ... the women's enthusiasm so contagious, that I for one could not keep my heart from beating faster. (Germaine Greer, in <i>Harper's Magazine</i>, October 1972) ……妇女们的热烈心情传染得这么厉害，就拿我来说，我也无法不让心脏更快地跳动。/ ... with an enthusiasm that can be infectious ... (Tony Schwartz, in <i>The New York Times Book Review</i>, Dec. 9, 1979) ……那种热烈，是可能传染开来的……</div><br><br>
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infectious
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>contagious 与 infectious</b></div>两个形容词都是“传染的”，但用法略有不同。早期有人认为 contagious 是“接触传染的”，infectious 是“媒介传染的”，contagious 是 infectious 的一种。后来有人认为两者的区别是 contagious 强调其传染之迅速，infectious 强调其传染威力之巨大，但根据似嫌不足。不过可以肯定的是：contagious 转义可以指好的和不好的事情，infectious 转义则几乎都是指好的事情。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>European leaders felt terrorism could become contagious. (Edward Girardet, in <i>The Christian Science Monitor</i>, Apr. 3, 1980) 欧洲领导人们觉得，恐怖主义可能成为一种传染病。/ ... the women's enthusiasm so contagious, that I for one could not keep my heart from beating faster. (Germaine Greer, in <i>Harper's Magazine</i>, October 1972) ……妇女们的热烈心情传染得这么厉害，就拿我来说，我也无法不让心脏更快地跳动。/ ... with an enthusiasm that can be infectious ... (Tony Schwartz, in <i>The New York Times Book Review</i>, Dec. 9, 1979) ……那种热烈，是可能传染开来的……</div><br><br>
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contemptible
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>contemptible 与 contemptuous</b></div>前者是被动的“可鄙的，下贱的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You're showing a contemptible lack of courage. 你表现出了一种可鄙的怯懦。后者则是主动的“(对某人或某事)表示鄙视的，高傲的”，这个某人或某事前面用介词 of。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Snobs are usually contemptuous of people they feel to be beneath them. 势利小人觉得有谁地位比他们低，就看不起谁。</div><br><br>
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contemptuous
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>contemptible 与 contemptuous</b></div>前者是被动的“可鄙的，下贱的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You're showing a contemptible lack of courage. 你表现出了一种可鄙的怯懦。后者则是主动的“(对某人或某事)表示鄙视的，高傲的”，这个某人或某事前面用介词 of。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Snobs are usually contemptuous of people they feel to be beneath them. 势利小人觉得有谁地位比他们低，就看不起谁。</div><br><br>
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continual
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>continual 与 continuous</b></div>continual 是“反复不停地发生的”，如电话铃声。continuous 则是“连续不断的”，如流水。<br><br>
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continuous
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>continual 与 continuous</b></div>continual 是“反复不停地发生的”，如电话铃声。continuous 则是“连续不断的”，如流水。<br><br>
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contribute
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>contribute 与 contribution</b></div>这两个词的意义都不一定限于正面的“贡献”，也可以表示负面的“助长作用”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>air travel's contribution to global warming 航空交通对全球变暖的影响</div><div class="ex-item">Soaring land prices contribute to the high cost of housing. 地价飞涨，使得建房成本很高。/ His carelessness contributed to the accident. 他的粗心大意，也是造成事故的一个原因。/ Smoking is a major factor contributing to lung cancer. 吸烟是引起肺癌的一个主要因素。</div><br><br>
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contribution
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>contribute 与 contribution</b></div>这两个词的意义都不一定限于正面的“贡献”，也可以表示负面的“助长作用”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>air travel's contribution to global warming 航空交通对全球变暖的影响</div><div class="ex-item">Soaring land prices contribute to the high cost of housing. 地价飞涨，使得建房成本很高。/ His carelessness contributed to the accident. 他的粗心大意，也是造成事故的一个原因。/ Smoking is a major factor contributing to lung cancer. 吸烟是引起肺癌的一个主要因素。</div><br><br>
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contentious
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>controversial 与 contentious</b></div>两个都是涉及“争议”的形容词。但是前者主要指事情，后者主要指人。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A contentious man will find every issue controversial. 爱争议的人，遇到什么事情都觉得是个有争议的问题。不过，如果对某个人究竟应该褒还是贬，意见不一致，也可以说这是个有争议的人物(a controversial personage)。</div><br><br>
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controversial
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>controversial 与 contentious</b></div>两个都是涉及“争议”的形容词。但是前者主要指事情，后者主要指人。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A contentious man will find every issue controversial. 爱争议的人，遇到什么事情都觉得是个有争议的问题。不过，如果对某个人究竟应该褒还是贬，意见不一致，也可以说这是个有争议的人物(a controversial personage)。</div><br><br>
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convince
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>convince 与 persuade</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> convince 与 persuade 在意义上的区别原来比较明确。convince 是说服某人相信某一说法符合事实或某一主张是正确的；persuade 则是说服某人去采取某行动。所以在搭配上是 convince somebody that ...、convince somebody of something、persuade somebody to inf.。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A father may convince his son that his room needs straightening but be unable to persuade him to do anything about it. 一个做父亲的可以说服儿子承认他的房间需要整理一番，但又可能说服不了儿子去动手干起来。但是在现代英语中，这个释义上与搭配上的界限已经模糊，两者已经可以互换：convince somebody to inf.、persuade somebody that ...、persuade somebody of something 的搭配也已经普遍使用。be persuaded that ... 或 be persuaded of something 也可以代替 be convinced that ... 或 be convinced of something 表示“确信”的状态。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Rumsfeld convinced Garner to stay temporarily. (Newsweek, Oct. 9, 2006, p. 35)拉姆斯菲尔德说服了加尔纳暂时留下来。/ I learned a lesson from that, and decided that the best way to convince Kim Jong-il to change his mind on a nuclear weapons program is to have others send the same message. (George W. Bush, Oct. 11, 2006)我由此得到了一个教训，明确了，要说服金正日在核武器计划上改变主意，最好的办法，是由别人来向他发出同样的信息。/ ... and it will require a great deal more evidence than is ever likely to be available, thank God, to persuade me that Tiberius was as blameless a monarch as King George V. (Somerset Maugham, The Moon and Sixpence)……要想劝说我让我把罗马暴君提比略看作是同英王乔治五世一样的一位毫无瑕疵的君主，也需要远比手头掌握的多得多的证据，但是谢天谢地，这种证据看来很难找到。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> convince 是个趋成动词(第三类动词)，是表示经过一段过程后动作完成，达到了目的。如果只是在进行说服工作，对方还没有听从，就不能直接用，但是可以加以“过程化”，说 try to convince。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Before you try to convince anyone else, be sure you are convinced, and if you cannot convince yourself, drop the subject. 你在设法说服任何别人之前，先要确定你自己已经是信服了的，如果你连自己也说服不了，那你就放弃这个话题吧。(这里 try to convince 不能改为 convince，因为说的是开口去说服别人，还谈不上别人听不听，cannot convince 中的 convince 指的才是达到说服目的。)前面 Rumsfeld convinced Garner to stay temporarily. 一例，也可以看出 convince 是达到了说服的目的。至于 persuade，有人主张它只是表示“努力说服”的过程，不包括“说服了”的结果，但是也有人认为 persuade 同 convince 一样，也可以指经过过程之后达到终点的瞬时动作。</div><br><br>
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persuade
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>convince 与 persuade</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> convince 与 persuade 在意义上的区别原来比较明确。convince 是说服某人相信某一说法符合事实或某一主张是正确的；persuade 则是说服某人去采取某行动。所以在搭配上是 convince somebody that ...、convince somebody of something、persuade somebody to inf.。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A father may convince his son that his room needs straightening but be unable to persuade him to do anything about it. 一个做父亲的可以说服儿子承认他的房间需要整理一番，但又可能说服不了儿子去动手干起来。但是在现代英语中，这个释义上与搭配上的界限已经模糊，两者已经可以互换：convince somebody to inf.、persuade somebody that ...、persuade somebody of something 的搭配也已经普遍使用。be persuaded that ... 或 be persuaded of something 也可以代替 be convinced that ... 或 be convinced of something 表示“确信”的状态。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Rumsfeld convinced Garner to stay temporarily. (Newsweek, Oct. 9, 2006, p. 35)拉姆斯菲尔德说服了加尔纳暂时留下来。/ I learned a lesson from that, and decided that the best way to convince Kim Jong-il to change his mind on a nuclear weapons program is to have others send the same message. (George W. Bush, Oct. 11, 2006)我由此得到了一个教训，明确了，要说服金正日在核武器计划上改变主意，最好的办法，是由别人来向他发出同样的信息。/ ... and it will require a great deal more evidence than is ever likely to be available, thank God, to persuade me that Tiberius was as blameless a monarch as King George V. (Somerset Maugham, The Moon and Sixpence)……要想劝说我让我把罗马暴君提比略看作是同英王乔治五世一样的一位毫无瑕疵的君主，也需要远比手头掌握的多得多的证据，但是谢天谢地，这种证据看来很难找到。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> convince 是个趋成动词(第三类动词)，是表示经过一段过程后动作完成，达到了目的。如果只是在进行说服工作，对方还没有听从，就不能直接用，但是可以加以“过程化”，说 try to convince。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Before you try to convince anyone else, be sure you are convinced, and if you cannot convince yourself, drop the subject. 你在设法说服任何别人之前，先要确定你自己已经是信服了的，如果你连自己也说服不了，那你就放弃这个话题吧。(这里 try to convince 不能改为 convince，因为说的是开口去说服别人，还谈不上别人听不听，cannot convince 中的 convince 指的才是达到说服目的。)前面 Rumsfeld convinced Garner to stay temporarily. 一例，也可以看出 convince 是达到了说服的目的。至于 persuade，有人主张它只是表示“努力说服”的过程，不包括“说服了”的结果，但是也有人认为 persuade 同 convince 一样，也可以指经过过程之后达到终点的瞬时动作。</div><br><br>
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cord
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>cord 与 chord</b></div>这两个名词，读音完全相同，但是用法有些差别。<br><br>cord 是“绳索；电线”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>power cord 电源线</div><div class="ex-item">Tie your packages with sturdy cord. 用结实的绳子把你的包裹捆起来。</div><br><br>chord 主要是音乐用语和修辞用语，在音乐上指“和弦”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>major chord大三和弦(如 C-E-G)</div><div class="ex-item">minor chord 小三和弦(如 A-C-E)</div><div class="ex-item">The pianist played the opening chords. 钢琴师弹出了开场的和弦。在修辞上，可以用 chord 表示“心弦”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>That struck a chord with her. 那拨动了她的心弦。/ The speech struck the right chord with the audience. 演讲恰好拨动了观众的心弦。</div><br><br>
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chord
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>cord 与 chord</b></div>这两个名词，读音完全相同，但是用法有些差别。<br><br>cord 是“绳索；电线”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>power cord 电源线</div><div class="ex-item">Tie your packages with sturdy cord. 用结实的绳子把你的包裹捆起来。</div><br><br>chord 主要是音乐用语和修辞用语，在音乐上指“和弦”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>major chord大三和弦(如 C-E-G)</div><div class="ex-item">minor chord 小三和弦(如 A-C-E)</div><div class="ex-item">The pianist played the opening chords. 钢琴师弹出了开场的和弦。在修辞上，可以用 chord 表示“心弦”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>That struck a chord with her. 那拨动了她的心弦。/ The speech struck the right chord with the audience. 演讲恰好拨动了观众的心弦。</div><br><br>
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corps
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>corps, corpse 与 corpus</b></div>三个名词，都出自拉丁文 corpus，但是经过不同的演变途径，发展到现在，意义已经完全不同。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> corps 的 p 和 s 都不发音(英式英语连连 r 也不发音，美式英语 r 发音；复数与单数同形，但 s 发音)，意思是“队伍，兵团，建制军”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Medical Corps 医疗队</div><div class="ex-item">Marine Corps 海军陆战队</div><div class="ex-item">Peace Corps 和平队。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> corpse 的 p 和 s 都发音(英式英语也是 r 不发音，美式英语 r 发音)，意思从拉丁文 corpus (身体)转义为“尸体”。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> corpus 来自拉丁文(复数亦同拉丁文的 corpora，也可以是 corpuses)，原意是“身体”(body)，但可以转义指解剖学上的“体”或书籍文件的集合体。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>corpus luteum (解剖学)黄体</div><div class="ex-item">corpus striatum (解剖学)纹状体</div><div class="ex-item">corpus callosum (解剖学)胼胝体</div><div class="ex-item">corpus juris 法令大全</div><div class="ex-item">the corpus of Tolstoy's works 托尔斯泰作品大全。</div><br><br>
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corpse
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>corps, corpse 与 corpus</b></div>三个名词，都出自拉丁文 corpus，但是经过不同的演变途径，发展到现在，意义已经完全不同。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> corps 的 p 和 s 都不发音(英式英语连连 r 也不发音，美式英语 r 发音；复数与单数同形，但 s 发音)，意思是“队伍，兵团，建制军”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Medical Corps 医疗队</div><div class="ex-item">Marine Corps 海军陆战队</div><div class="ex-item">Peace Corps 和平队。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> corpse 的 p 和 s 都发音(英式英语也是 r 不发音，美式英语 r 发音)，意思从拉丁文 corpus (身体)转义为“尸体”。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> corpus 来自拉丁文(复数亦同拉丁文的 corpora，也可以是 corpuses)，原意是“身体”(body)，但可以转义指解剖学上的“体”或书籍文件的集合体。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>corpus luteum (解剖学)黄体</div><div class="ex-item">corpus striatum (解剖学)纹状体</div><div class="ex-item">corpus callosum (解剖学)胼胝体</div><div class="ex-item">corpus juris 法令大全</div><div class="ex-item">the corpus of Tolstoy's works 托尔斯泰作品大全。</div><br><br>
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corpus
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>corps, corpse 与 corpus</b></div>三个名词，都出自拉丁文 corpus，但是经过不同的演变途径，发展到现在，意义已经完全不同。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> corps 的 p 和 s 都不发音(英式英语连连 r 也不发音，美式英语 r 发音；复数与单数同形，但 s 发音)，意思是“队伍，兵团，建制军”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Medical Corps 医疗队</div><div class="ex-item">Marine Corps 海军陆战队</div><div class="ex-item">Peace Corps 和平队。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> corpse 的 p 和 s 都发音(英式英语也是 r 不发音，美式英语 r 发音)，意思从拉丁文 corpus (身体)转义为“尸体”。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> corpus 来自拉丁文(复数亦同拉丁文的 corpora，也可以是 corpuses)，原意是“身体”(body)，但可以转义指解剖学上的“体”或书籍文件的集合体。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>corpus luteum (解剖学)黄体</div><div class="ex-item">corpus striatum (解剖学)纹状体</div><div class="ex-item">corpus callosum (解剖学)胼胝体</div><div class="ex-item">corpus juris 法令大全</div><div class="ex-item">the corpus of Tolstoy's works 托尔斯泰作品大全。</div><br><br>
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council
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>counsel 与 council</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 两者发音相同，但意义有区别。前者是“咨询，劝告，献策”；后者是“议事机构，地方议会”。有趣的是：这两个不同的英文名词，都源自拉丁文的 consiliu，唯有到了英文，才在书写上发生了差别。counsel 还可以指人，是诉讼中的一方的律师或法律顾问，此时它的复数形式与单数相同(但是复数形式只用来指诉讼一方的律师团多名成员)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The counsel were able to agree. 律师们达成了一致意见。</div><br><br>但是，作“咨询，劝告，献策”解时，可以是不可数名词或可数名词，作为可数名词时复数加 s。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>More moderate counsels prevailed. 更为温和的意见占了上风。此外，美国遇到有涉及政府要员的重大案件(例如克林顿总统的性丑闻)，往往指派一名“独立稽查员”(independent counsel)负责调查，此时 counsel 就是单独一个人，如果是复数，要加 s。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 从 council 派生的 councillor (美式英语是 councilor)，是 council 的成员。要注意的是：council 如果前面还有形容词，这个形容词可以直接搬到 councillor 前面。如香港特别行政区的立法会，英文叫作 Legislative Council，它的议员，就叫作 Legislative Councillor，不必啰里啰唆叫 Member of the Legislative Council，更不要叫 Councillor of the Legislative Council。有关这个语言形式问题，请参见 gold medalist 条。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> councillor 有一个容易混淆的同音词 counsellor (美式英语是 counselor)，指的是在专业上提供咨询意见的顾问人员，而不是某个 council 的议员。外交使馆的“参赞”，也不是某个 council 的成员，而是使节的参谋人员，所以不叫 councillor，而叫 counsellor，尽管发音是一样的。<br><br>
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counsel
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>counsel 与 council</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 两者发音相同，但意义有区别。前者是“咨询，劝告，献策”；后者是“议事机构，地方议会”。有趣的是：这两个不同的英文名词，都源自拉丁文的 consiliu，唯有到了英文，才在书写上发生了差别。counsel 还可以指人，是诉讼中的一方的律师或法律顾问，此时它的复数形式与单数相同(但是复数形式只用来指诉讼一方的律师团多名成员)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The counsel were able to agree. 律师们达成了一致意见。</div><br><br>但是，作“咨询，劝告，献策”解时，可以是不可数名词或可数名词，作为可数名词时复数加 s。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>More moderate counsels prevailed. 更为温和的意见占了上风。此外，美国遇到有涉及政府要员的重大案件(例如克林顿总统的性丑闻)，往往指派一名“独立稽查员”(independent counsel)负责调查，此时 counsel 就是单独一个人，如果是复数，要加 s。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 从 council 派生的 councillor (美式英语是 councilor)，是 council 的成员。要注意的是：council 如果前面还有形容词，这个形容词可以直接搬到 councillor 前面。如香港特别行政区的立法会，英文叫作 Legislative Council，它的议员，就叫作 Legislative Councillor，不必啰里啰唆叫 Member of the Legislative Council，更不要叫 Councillor of the Legislative Council。有关这个语言形式问题，请参见 gold medalist 条。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> councillor 有一个容易混淆的同音词 counsellor (美式英语是 counselor)，指的是在专业上提供咨询意见的顾问人员，而不是某个 council 的议员。外交使馆的“参赞”，也不是某个 council 的成员，而是使节的参谋人员，所以不叫 councillor，而叫 counsellor，尽管发音是一样的。<br><br>
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nation
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>country, nation 与 state</b></div>在中文中都是“国家”，但英语中有所区别：country 指的主要自然地理意义上的；nation 指的主要人文、民族意义上的；state 则着重政治方面的。<br><br>
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ox
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>cow, ox, bull 与 buffalo</b></div>cow 是“母牛”，给人的主要印象是“奶牛”。<br><br>ox 是公牛，给人的主要印象是“强壮力大”，所以有 a blow that would fell an ox (简直可以把牛打翻的一拳)和 as strong as an ox (像公牛那样强壮)的说法。<br><br>bull 也是公牛，给人的主要印象是“鲁莽，野性”，所以有 like a bull in a china shop (如同公牛闯进瓷器店)的说法。股市上相对于“熊市”的“牛市”的“牛”，就是 bull。<br><br>buffalo 则是“水牛”，一般对英美人来说象征意义不大。<br><br>
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cow
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>cow, ox, bull 与 buffalo</b></div>cow 是“母牛”，给人的主要印象是“奶牛”。<br><br>ox 是公牛，给人的主要印象是“强壮力大”，所以有 a blow that would fell an ox (简直可以把牛打翻的一拳)和 as strong as an ox (像公牛那样强壮)的说法。<br><br>bull 也是公牛，给人的主要印象是“鲁莽，野性”，所以有 like a bull in a china shop (如同公牛闯进瓷器店)的说法。股市上相对于“熊市”的“牛市”的“牛”，就是 bull。<br><br>buffalo 则是“水牛”，一般对英美人来说象征意义不大。<br><br>
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crazy
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>crazed 与 crazy</b></div>两个形容词都有“疯狂的，疯癫的”或“狂热的”之意。但是：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> crazed 偏重一时由某原因造成的状态，crazy 则偏重状态本身的持续。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>crazed with grief 伤心欲狂</div><div class="ex-item">They were crazed by the famine and pestilence of that last bitter winter. (American Guide Series: Washington)他们由于去年寒冬的饥荒和疫病而心烦意乱。/ You're not crazy and you never were and you're not going to be, unless you keep on making such a commotion about nothing. (Nancy Hale)你并不疯，从来都不，将来都不疯，将来也不会疯，除非你一直这样无事生非。/ ... (she) works fine, but goes crazy if she hears Murdoch's voice—just sweats and trembles all over. (Gerald Beaumont)……她干活干得不错，但是，只要听到默多克的声音，她就发疯，满头大汗，浑身发抖。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 复合词 X-crazed 的 X 是造成 crazed 的原因。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a drug-crazed killer 一个因为服用毒品而变得疯狂的杀手。</div><br><br>X-crazy 的 X 则是 crazy 的对象。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a drug-crazy tramp 一个发狂追求毒品的流浪汉</div><div class="ex-item">The kids were Nintendo-crazy. 孩子们玩任天堂电子游戏玩疯了。</div><br><br>
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crazed
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>crazed 与 crazy</b></div>两个形容词都有“疯狂的，疯癫的”或“狂热的”之意。但是：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> crazed 偏重一时由某原因造成的状态，crazy 则偏重状态本身的持续。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>crazed with grief 伤心欲狂</div><div class="ex-item">They were crazed by the famine and pestilence of that last bitter winter. (American Guide Series: Washington)他们由于去年寒冬的饥荒和疫病而心烦意乱。/ You're not crazy and you never were and you're not going to be, unless you keep on making such a commotion about nothing. (Nancy Hale)你并不疯，从来都不，将来都不疯，将来也不会疯，除非你一直这样无事生非。/ ... (she) works fine, but goes crazy if she hears Murdoch's voice—just sweats and trembles all over. (Gerald Beaumont)……她干活干得不错，但是，只要听到默多克的声音，她就发疯，满头大汗，浑身发抖。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 复合词 X-crazed 的 X 是造成 crazed 的原因。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a drug-crazed killer 一个因为服用毒品而变得疯狂的杀手。</div><br><br>X-crazy 的 X 则是 crazy 的对象。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a drug-crazy tramp 一个发狂追求毒品的流浪汉</div><div class="ex-item">The kids were Nintendo-crazy. 孩子们玩任天堂电子游戏玩疯了。</div><br><br>
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credible
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>credible 与 creditable</b></div>credible 是“可信的，靠得住的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>credible testimony 可靠的证词。</div><br><br>creditable 则是“声誉好的，值得赞扬的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>creditable behaviour 良好的行为表现。</div><br><br>
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creditable
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>credible 与 creditable</b></div>credible 是“可信的，靠得住的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>credible testimony 可靠的证词。</div><br><br>creditable 则是“声誉好的，值得赞扬的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>creditable behaviour 良好的行为表现。</div><br><br>
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sin
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>crime 与 sin</b></div>crime 指尘世法律上的犯罪，sin 则指宗教上、道德上的犯罪或“罪愆”。sinner 是宗教意义上的“罪人”（有说法是人人都是“罪人”），criminal 则是法律意义上的“罪犯”（只有很少数人是“罪犯”）。<br><br>
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crime
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>crime 与 sin</b></div>crime 指尘世法律上的犯罪，sin 则指宗教上、道德上的犯罪或“罪愆”。sinner 是宗教意义上的“罪人”（有说法是人人都是“罪人”），criminal 则是法律意义上的“罪犯”（只有很少数人是“罪犯”）。<br><br>
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critique
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>criticism 与 critique</b></div>criticism 同中文的“批评”基本上相等，有两个略微不同的含义，一个是负面的“指出其错误”，一个是中性的“评论其优点和缺点”（例如“文艺批评”）。critique 则是一个学术用语，是中性的，指对某一题目进行深入分析的学术著作、文章 (criticism 不是著作或文章，只是批评意见)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Critique of Political Economy 《政治经济学批判》</div><div class="ex-item">Critique of Pure Reason 《纯粹理性批判》。这里中文的“批判”，不是加以否定。</div><br><br>但是 critique 有时候也用来代替 criticism，表示负面的“批判”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Kant's critique of resistance is also misunderstood if one uses it to attack the legitimacy of civil disobedience. (Paul Guyer, The Cambridge Companion to Kant) 如果有谁用康德对抗的批判来攻击公民不服从的合法性，那也是对这种批判的误解。</div><br><br>critique 主要作为名词，但是也可以作为及物动词，词义同 criticize 有些区别。criticize 多是负面的“指出其错误”，critique 则倾向于“评论”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was standing in the lobby, critiquing whatever sports event had been on the tube that evening. 他站在门廊那里，评论着当天晚上电视里的那些体育盛事。</div><br><br>
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criticism
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>criticism 与 critique</b></div>criticism 同中文的“批评”基本上相等，有两个略微不同的含义，一个是负面的“指出其错误”，一个是中性的“评论其优点和缺点”（例如“文艺批评”）。critique 则是一个学术用语，是中性的，指对某一题目进行深入分析的学术著作、文章 (criticism 不是著作或文章，只是批评意见)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Critique of Political Economy 《政治经济学批判》</div><div class="ex-item">Critique of Pure Reason 《纯粹理性批判》。这里中文的“批判”，不是加以否定。</div><br><br>但是 critique 有时候也用来代替 criticism，表示负面的“批判”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Kant's critique of resistance is also misunderstood if one uses it to attack the legitimacy of civil disobedience. (Paul Guyer, The Cambridge Companion to Kant) 如果有谁用康德对抗的批判来攻击公民不服从的合法性，那也是对这种批判的误解。</div><br><br>critique 主要作为名词，但是也可以作为及物动词，词义同 criticize 有些区别。criticize 多是负面的“指出其错误”，critique 则倾向于“评论”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was standing in the lobby, critiquing whatever sports event had been on the tube that evening. 他站在门廊那里，评论着当天晚上电视里的那些体育盛事。</div><br><br>
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crowd behavior
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>crowd behavio(u)r</b></div>参见 herd behavio(u)r 条。<br><br>
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crowd behavio r
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>crowd behavio(u)r</b></div>参见 herd behavio(u)r 条。<br><br>
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crowd behaviour
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>crowd behavio(u)r</b></div>参见 herd behavio(u)r 条。<br><br>
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packed
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>crowded 与 packed</b></div>这两个由动词过去分词转变成的形容词，都是“拥挤的”之意，通常可以互换，但也有细微的差别。crowded 给人以“人多乱哄哄（而且不规则地动来动去）”的印象；packed 则来自动词 pack (装载)，较多给人以“塞满的，填充满载的”（比较静止有序）的印象，例如惯用词组 play to packed houses (演出全场爆满)，表示所有座位都坐满了人（仍然是静止有序的，不是人山人海乱成一团的），此处的 packed 就不可以用 crowded 来代替。此外，crowded 主要指人多，如果不是人而是物，即使是移动着的物，也用 packed 而不用 crowded。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Route 1 is packed (*crowded) every morning with rush-hour traffic. 一号公路每天早上高峰时间都挤满了车辆。</div><br><br>
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crowded
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>crowded 与 packed</b></div>这两个由动词过去分词转变成的形容词，都是“拥挤的”之意，通常可以互换，但也有细微的差别。crowded 给人以“人多乱哄哄（而且不规则地动来动去）”的印象；packed 则来自动词 pack (装载)，较多给人以“塞满的，填充满载的”（比较静止有序）的印象，例如惯用词组 play to packed houses (演出全场爆满)，表示所有座位都坐满了人（仍然是静止有序的，不是人山人海乱成一团的），此处的 packed 就不可以用 crowded 来代替。此外，crowded 主要指人多，如果不是人而是物，即使是移动着的物，也用 packed 而不用 crowded。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Route 1 is packed (*crowded) every morning with rush-hour traffic. 一号公路每天早上高峰时间都挤满了车辆。</div><br><br>
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cure of
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>cure of 与 cure to (cure for)</b></div>参见 solution 条。<br><br>
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cure to
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>cure of 与 cure to (cure for)</b></div>参见 solution 条。<br><br>
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cure to cure for
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>cure of 与 cure to (cure for)</b></div>参见 solution 条。<br><br>
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cure of 与 cure to
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>cure of 与 cure to (cure for)</b></div>参见 solution 条。<br><br>
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cure to (cure for)
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>cure of 与 cure to (cure for)</b></div>参见 solution 条。<br><br>
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cure of 与 cure to cure for
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>cure of 与 cure to (cure for)</b></div>参见 solution 条。<br><br>
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customer
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>customer, client, guest 与 patron</b></div>通常一家商店或超市的顾客叫作 customer。一个提供脑力服务的人（如律师、会计师）的顾客叫作 client。旅馆的客人叫作 guest。餐饮业的顾客叫作 patron；到剧院观看演出的观众个人也叫作 patron (集体不分听众还是观众都叫作 audience)；到图书馆看书、借书（包括其他活动）的读者个人也同样叫作 patron；到多家商店连成一片的商业中心（美国称 mall）逛商店或吃饭（不是专门上哪一家商店）的顾客也称 patron。但是 patron 也有文化慈善机构赞助人的意思。值得注意的是：在美国，找政府机关办事的老百姓个人也叫 customer 或 client，参见 client 条。<br><br>
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habit
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>custom 与 habit</b></div>custom 更多指整个社会的风俗习惯，habit 则更多指个人的习惯。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>These tribes have strange customs. 这些部落有一些奇怪的风俗习惯。/ Nail-biting is one of her bad habits. 爱咬手指甲，是她的一个坏习惯。但是如果是生活规律，个人的也可以叫作 custom。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has a custom of getting up early and going for a walk. 他习惯早起散步。</div><br><br>
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custom
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>custom 与 habit</b></div>custom 更多指整个社会的风俗习惯，habit 则更多指个人的习惯。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>These tribes have strange customs. 这些部落有一些奇怪的风俗习惯。/ Nail-biting is one of her bad habits. 爱咬手指甲，是她的一个坏习惯。但是如果是生活规律，个人的也可以叫作 custom。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has a custom of getting up early and going for a walk. 他习惯早起散步。</div><br><br>
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dark eye
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>dark eye 与 black eye</b></div>参见 black 条。<br><br>
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black eye
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>dark eye 与 black eye</b></div>参见 black 条。<br><br>
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dark
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>dark 与 darkness</b></div>dark 本来是形容词，但也可以作为名词使用，此时它与 darkness 意义差不多，但是用法有些区别：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> dark 偏向于“在黑暗中的消极后果”（还可以转义，表示“不明情况”），darkness 则往往与“同黑暗相对应的行动或事物”相关（转义时，指“黑暗，邪恶”而不指“情况不明”）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The kids are afraid of the dark. 孩子们怕黑。/ They always kept you in the dark (<i>darkness). 他们一直把你蒙在鼓里。/ They're working completely in the dark. 他们完全是在盲目地工作。/ light shining in the darkness (</i>dark) 黑暗中照耀着的亮光</div><div class="ex-item">fly alone in the darkness (*dark) 在黑夜中单机飞行</div><div class="ex-item">the powers of darkness 黑暗势力。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> dark 表示原义与转义，通常都带特定冠词 the (原义用于“一天当中的天黑时”则无冠词)。darkness 表原义时也带特定冠词 the，转义表示“黑暗，邪恶”时则无冠词。此外，dark 通常前面只能放 morning、evening 之类的形容词，很少放表示程度强弱的形容词，而 darkness 则可以（此时无任何冠词）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>before dark 天黑前</div><div class="ex-item">after dark 天黑后</div><div class="ex-item">the morning dark 黎明前的黑暗</div><div class="ex-item">The building was in complete/total darkness. 那栋建筑物一片漆黑。</div><br><br>
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darkness
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>dark 与 darkness</b></div>dark 本来是形容词，但也可以作为名词使用，此时它与 darkness 意义差不多，但是用法有些区别：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> dark 偏向于“在黑暗中的消极后果”（还可以转义，表示“不明情况”），darkness 则往往与“同黑暗相对应的行动或事物”相关（转义时，指“黑暗，邪恶”而不指“情况不明”）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The kids are afraid of the dark. 孩子们怕黑。/ They always kept you in the dark (<i>darkness). 他们一直把你蒙在鼓里。/ They're working completely in the dark. 他们完全是在盲目地工作。/ light shining in the darkness (</i>dark) 黑暗中照耀着的亮光</div><div class="ex-item">fly alone in the darkness (*dark) 在黑夜中单机飞行</div><div class="ex-item">the powers of darkness 黑暗势力。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> dark 表示原义与转义，通常都带特定冠词 the (原义用于“一天当中的天黑时”则无冠词)。darkness 表原义时也带特定冠词 the，转义表示“黑暗，邪恶”时则无冠词。此外，dark 通常前面只能放 morning、evening 之类的形容词，很少放表示程度强弱的形容词，而 darkness 则可以（此时无任何冠词）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>before dark 天黑前</div><div class="ex-item">after dark 天黑后</div><div class="ex-item">the morning dark 黎明前的黑暗</div><div class="ex-item">The building was in complete/total darkness. 那栋建筑物一片漆黑。</div><br><br>
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dependent
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>dependence 与 dependent</b></div>参见 independence from 与 independent of 条。<br><br>
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dependence
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>dependence 与 dependent</b></div>参见 independence from 与 independent of 条。<br><br>
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desert
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>desert 与 dessert</b></div>两个单词完全不同。desert 重音在第一音节时是名词，即“沙漠”；重音在后面音节时是及物动词，即“出走，逃离，开小差离开”。dessert (重音在末音节)则是午晚餐最后的甜食。<br><br>
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dessert
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>desert 与 dessert</b></div>两个单词完全不同。desert 重音在第一音节时是名词，即“沙漠”；重音在后面音节时是及物动词，即“出走，逃离，开小差离开”。dessert (重音在末音节)则是午晚餐最后的甜食。<br><br>
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desk
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>desk 与 table</b></div>参见 table 与 desk 条。<br><br>
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table
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>desk 与 table</b></div>参见 table 与 desk 条。<br><br>
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differ from
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>differ from 与 differ with</b></div>两者都是延续体，表示状态。前者是“与……不同”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The petunia differs from the camellia. 矮牵牛花与山茶花不同。后者是“与……有分歧”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The defense counsel differs with the prosecutor. 辩护律师同检察官看法不一致。differs from the camellia. 矮牵牛花与山茶花不同。后者是“与……有分歧”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The defense counsel differs with the prosecutor. 辩护律师同检察官看法不一致。</div><br><br>
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differ with
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>differ from 与 differ with</b></div>两者都是延续体，表示状态。前者是“与……不同”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The petunia differs from the camellia. 矮牵牛花与山茶花不同。后者是“与……有分歧”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The defense counsel differs with the prosecutor. 辩护律师同检察官看法不一致。differs from the camellia. 矮牵牛花与山茶花不同。后者是“与……有分歧”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The defense counsel differs with the prosecutor. 辩护律师同检察官看法不一致。</div><br><br>
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difficulty
<div class="entry"><h1>difficulty 与 形容词 difficult 相类似，“做某事往往遇到的困难”，可以在 difficulty 后面直接接上动名词，不必加上介词 in 再加动名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has difficulty understanding English. 他理解英文有困难。/ She had great difficulty walking. 她走路十分吃力。这个用法，往往是指经常的状态。如果是一时的状态，最好用 have a difficult time + -ing。参见 busy 条。</h1></div>但是也有加上介词 in 再加动名词的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The writer, an old man with a white mustache, had some difficulty in getting into bed. (Sherwood Anderson, Winesburg, Ohio) 作家是个留了白色胡子的老人，上床睡觉有点困难。/ ... and the reader is lost in a maze, from which he has great difficulty in extricating himself. (J. M. D. Meiklejohn, English translator of Immanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason, in "Translator's Preface" to the book) ……读者犹如堕入五里雾中，难以脱身。</div><br><br>
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“做某事往往遇到的困难”
<div class="entry"><h1>difficulty 与 形容词 difficult 相类似，“做某事往往遇到的困难”，可以在 difficulty 后面直接接上动名词，不必加上介词 in 再加动名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has difficulty understanding English. 他理解英文有困难。/ She had great difficulty walking. 她走路十分吃力。这个用法，往往是指经常的状态。如果是一时的状态，最好用 have a difficult time + -ing。参见 busy 条。</h1></div>但是也有加上介词 in 再加动名词的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The writer, an old man with a white mustache, had some difficulty in getting into bed. (Sherwood Anderson, Winesburg, Ohio) 作家是个留了白色胡子的老人，上床睡觉有点困难。/ ... and the reader is lost in a maze, from which he has great difficulty in extricating himself. (J. M. D. Meiklejohn, English translator of Immanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason, in "Translator's Preface" to the book) ……读者犹如堕入五里雾中，难以脱身。</div><br><br>
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形容词 difficult 相类似
<div class="entry"><h1>difficulty 与 形容词 difficult 相类似，“做某事往往遇到的困难”，可以在 difficulty 后面直接接上动名词，不必加上介词 in 再加动名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has difficulty understanding English. 他理解英文有困难。/ She had great difficulty walking. 她走路十分吃力。这个用法，往往是指经常的状态。如果是一时的状态，最好用 have a difficult time + -ing。参见 busy 条。</h1></div>但是也有加上介词 in 再加动名词的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The writer, an old man with a white mustache, had some difficulty in getting into bed. (Sherwood Anderson, Winesburg, Ohio) 作家是个留了白色胡子的老人，上床睡觉有点困难。/ ... and the reader is lost in a maze, from which he has great difficulty in extricating himself. (J. M. D. Meiklejohn, English translator of Immanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason, in "Translator's Preface" to the book) ……读者犹如堕入五里雾中，难以脱身。</div><br><br>
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往往是指经常的状态。如果是一时的状态
<div class="entry"><h1>difficulty 与 形容词 difficult 相类似，“做某事往往遇到的困难”，可以在 difficulty 后面直接接上动名词，不必加上介词 in 再加动名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has difficulty understanding English. 他理解英文有困难。/ She had great difficulty walking. 她走路十分吃力。这个用法，往往是指经常的状态。如果是一时的状态，最好用 have a difficult time + -ing。参见 busy 条。</h1></div>但是也有加上介词 in 再加动名词的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The writer, an old man with a white mustache, had some difficulty in getting into bed. (Sherwood Anderson, Winesburg, Ohio) 作家是个留了白色胡子的老人，上床睡觉有点困难。/ ... and the reader is lost in a maze, from which he has great difficulty in extricating himself. (J. M. D. Meiklejohn, English translator of Immanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason, in "Translator's Preface" to the book) ……读者犹如堕入五里雾中，难以脱身。</div><br><br>
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可以在 difficulty 后面直接接上动名词
<div class="entry"><h1>difficulty 与 形容词 difficult 相类似，“做某事往往遇到的困难”，可以在 difficulty 后面直接接上动名词，不必加上介词 in 再加动名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has difficulty understanding English. 他理解英文有困难。/ She had great difficulty walking. 她走路十分吃力。这个用法，往往是指经常的状态。如果是一时的状态，最好用 have a difficult time + -ing。参见 busy 条。</h1></div>但是也有加上介词 in 再加动名词的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The writer, an old man with a white mustache, had some difficulty in getting into bed. (Sherwood Anderson, Winesburg, Ohio) 作家是个留了白色胡子的老人，上床睡觉有点困难。/ ... and the reader is lost in a maze, from which he has great difficulty in extricating himself. (J. M. D. Meiklejohn, English translator of Immanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason, in "Translator's Preface" to the book) ……读者犹如堕入五里雾中，难以脱身。</div><br><br>
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最好用 have a difficult time + -ing。参见 busy 条。
<div class="entry"><h1>difficulty 与 形容词 difficult 相类似，“做某事往往遇到的困难”，可以在 difficulty 后面直接接上动名词，不必加上介词 in 再加动名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has difficulty understanding English. 他理解英文有困难。/ She had great difficulty walking. 她走路十分吃力。这个用法，往往是指经常的状态。如果是一时的状态，最好用 have a difficult time + -ing。参见 busy 条。</h1></div>但是也有加上介词 in 再加动名词的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The writer, an old man with a white mustache, had some difficulty in getting into bed. (Sherwood Anderson, Winesburg, Ohio) 作家是个留了白色胡子的老人，上床睡觉有点困难。/ ... and the reader is lost in a maze, from which he has great difficulty in extricating himself. (J. M. D. Meiklejohn, English translator of Immanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason, in "Translator's Preface" to the book) ……读者犹如堕入五里雾中，难以脱身。</div><br><br>
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dirty
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>dirty 与 soiled</b></div>通常日常穿脏了还没有洗的衣物，不说 <i>dirty (这个词的意思太重，有贬义)，要说 soiled。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She went into the bedroom to strip the soiled (</i>dirty) sheets. 她进卧室去掀掉脏床单。</div><br><br>但是，如果不打算排除贬义，甚至故意保持贬义，就用 dirty 而不用 soiled。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>wash one's dirty linen in public 家丑外扬</div><div class="ex-item">wash one's dirty linen at home 家丑不外扬。</div><br><br>
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soiled
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>dirty 与 soiled</b></div>通常日常穿脏了还没有洗的衣物，不说 <i>dirty (这个词的意思太重，有贬义)，要说 soiled。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She went into the bedroom to strip the soiled (</i>dirty) sheets. 她进卧室去掀掉脏床单。</div><br><br>但是，如果不打算排除贬义，甚至故意保持贬义，就用 dirty 而不用 soiled。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>wash one's dirty linen in public 家丑外扬</div><div class="ex-item">wash one's dirty linen at home 家丑不外扬。</div><br><br>
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disapprove
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>disapprove 与 disapprove of</b></div>用法与 approve 和 approve of 相对应。但是 disapprove 作为及物动词，是美式英语用法，英式英语不大流行。通常都是用 disapprove of (但加上 of 只能作为表示状态的延续动词，不能表示一时具体的“不同意”行为)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it. (Voltaire) 我不赞成你说的话，但是我誓死捍卫你说这话的权利。disapprove 可作为及物动词，使用被动语态。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His proposal was disapproved. 他的建议被否定了。</div><br><br>
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disapprove of
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>disapprove 与 disapprove of</b></div>用法与 approve 和 approve of 相对应。但是 disapprove 作为及物动词，是美式英语用法，英式英语不大流行。通常都是用 disapprove of (但加上 of 只能作为表示状态的延续动词，不能表示一时具体的“不同意”行为)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it. (Voltaire) 我不赞成你说的话，但是我誓死捍卫你说这话的权利。disapprove 可作为及物动词，使用被动语态。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His proposal was disapproved. 他的建议被否定了。</div><br><br>
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invent
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>discover 与 invent</b></div>一个是“发现”，另一个是“发明”，在中文中也是十分清楚、不容易混淆的。可以 discover a medicinal herb (发现一种草药)，但只能 invent a medicine (发明一种药物)。<br><br>
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discover
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>discover 与 invent</b></div>一个是“发现”，另一个是“发明”，在中文中也是十分清楚、不容易混淆的。可以 discover a medicinal herb (发现一种草药)，但只能 invent a medicine (发明一种药物)。<br><br>
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uninterested
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>disinterested 与 uninterested</b></div>两者意义上有差别。<br><br>uninterested 相当于 not interested。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... but the greater part of the young gentlemen having no particular parents to speak of, were wholly uninterested in the thing. (Charles Dickens, Nicholas Nickleby) ……但是这些年轻人大多都谈不上自己的父母，对这件事情完全不感兴趣。</div><br><br>disinterested 则是“不图实利的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Disinterested intellectual curiosity is the life-blood of real civilization. (G. M. Trevelyan, English Social History) 不图实利的求知欲，是真正的文明所赖的血脉。/ His choice is disinterested, at least, for he must know my father can give her nothing. (Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice) 至少他选中这个对象不是为了有利可图，因为他一定知道我父亲没有一点钱给她。</div><br><br>disinterested 也可以有“不置可否的，超然的”之意。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A clergymen cannot be disinterested about theology, nor a soldier about war. (Bertrand Russell, Education and the Good Life) 一个牧师不可能超然于神学，一个军人也不可能超然于战争。</div><br><br>但是 disinterested 有时候也向 uninterested 靠拢。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>When I grow tired or disinterested in anything, I experience a disgust. (Jack London, letter, Feb. 24, 1914) 当我感到疲倦，对任何事情都不感兴趣的时候，我就感到厌恶。/ Those spotted are usually taught so slowly they grow disinterested and quit. (The New York Times, June 25, 1967) 那些被注意的人，受到的教导往往很缓慢，因此就冷淡下来，退出了。</div><br><br>
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disinterested
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>disinterested 与 uninterested</b></div>两者意义上有差别。<br><br>uninterested 相当于 not interested。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... but the greater part of the young gentlemen having no particular parents to speak of, were wholly uninterested in the thing. (Charles Dickens, Nicholas Nickleby) ……但是这些年轻人大多都谈不上自己的父母，对这件事情完全不感兴趣。</div><br><br>disinterested 则是“不图实利的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Disinterested intellectual curiosity is the life-blood of real civilization. (G. M. Trevelyan, English Social History) 不图实利的求知欲，是真正的文明所赖的血脉。/ His choice is disinterested, at least, for he must know my father can give her nothing. (Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice) 至少他选中这个对象不是为了有利可图，因为他一定知道我父亲没有一点钱给她。</div><br><br>disinterested 也可以有“不置可否的，超然的”之意。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A clergymen cannot be disinterested about theology, nor a soldier about war. (Bertrand Russell, Education and the Good Life) 一个牧师不可能超然于神学，一个军人也不可能超然于战争。</div><br><br>但是 disinterested 有时候也向 uninterested 靠拢。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>When I grow tired or disinterested in anything, I experience a disgust. (Jack London, letter, Feb. 24, 1914) 当我感到疲倦，对任何事情都不感兴趣的时候，我就感到厌恶。/ Those spotted are usually taught so slowly they grow disinterested and quit. (The New York Times, June 25, 1967) 那些被注意的人，受到的教导往往很缓慢，因此就冷淡下来，退出了。</div><br><br>
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dis_posal
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>dis_posal 与 disposition</b></div>两个名词都派生于动词 dispose，但是各有各的意义和用法。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> disposal 一方面继承了 dispose 的瞬时动态意义(“处理掉，解决，干掉”)，另一方面又在 at the disposal of somebody (或 at somebody's disposal) 这个词组中新获得了延续状态的意义(但这是唯一的变化)。<br><br>表示瞬时动态意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... the disposal of 300 tons of solid waste ... (Annual Report, Eastman Kodak Co.) ……处理了 300 吨固体废料……</div><div class="ex-item">Arrangements were made for the disposal of the body. 做出了如何处理尸体的安排。</div><br><br>表示延续静态意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm at your disposal. 有何吩咐，请别客气。/ ... to place the facilities of both institutions at the disposal of graduate students. (Current Biography, December 1964) ……把两校的校舍交给研究生使用。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> disposition 基本上是静态的，表示人的“性格”、事物的“格局”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She is of a cheerful disposition. 她性格活泼。/ the disposition of furniture in the room室内家具的布置</div><div class="ex-item">the disposition of God 上帝的安排，天意。</div><br><br>
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disposition
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>dis_posal 与 disposition</b></div>两个名词都派生于动词 dispose，但是各有各的意义和用法。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> disposal 一方面继承了 dispose 的瞬时动态意义(“处理掉，解决，干掉”)，另一方面又在 at the disposal of somebody (或 at somebody's disposal) 这个词组中新获得了延续状态的意义(但这是唯一的变化)。<br><br>表示瞬时动态意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... the disposal of 300 tons of solid waste ... (Annual Report, Eastman Kodak Co.) ……处理了 300 吨固体废料……</div><div class="ex-item">Arrangements were made for the disposal of the body. 做出了如何处理尸体的安排。</div><br><br>表示延续静态意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm at your disposal. 有何吩咐，请别客气。/ ... to place the facilities of both institutions at the disposal of graduate students. (Current Biography, December 1964) ……把两校的校舍交给研究生使用。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> disposition 基本上是静态的，表示人的“性格”、事物的“格局”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She is of a cheerful disposition. 她性格活泼。/ the disposition of furniture in the room室内家具的布置</div><div class="ex-item">the disposition of God 上帝的安排，天意。</div><br><br>
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unsatisfied
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>dissatisfied 与 unsatisfied</b></div>两者意义上有些区别。<br><br>unsatisfied 通常指“愿望，要求；好奇心”之类，而且往往经过一个过程后仍然得不到满足。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... a large unsatisfied demand for education at university level (The Times Literary Supplement, Feb. 5, 1970)……大量得不到满足的接受大学教育的要求。</div><br><br>dissatisfied 则是静态的“心怀不满的”，而且主要指人。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... the young adult is dissatisfied more often with the job than the older worker. (Dale B. Harris, Automation, Education and Human Values)……年轻人比老年一些的工人对工作更为不满意。</div><br><br>
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dissatisfied
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>dissatisfied 与 unsatisfied</b></div>两者意义上有些区别。<br><br>unsatisfied 通常指“愿望，要求；好奇心”之类，而且往往经过一个过程后仍然得不到满足。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... a large unsatisfied demand for education at university level (The Times Literary Supplement, Feb. 5, 1970)……大量得不到满足的接受大学教育的要求。</div><br><br>dissatisfied 则是静态的“心怀不满的”，而且主要指人。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... the young adult is dissatisfied more often with the job than the older worker. (Dale B. Harris, Automation, Education and Human Values)……年轻人比老年一些的工人对工作更为不满意。</div><br><br>
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distinct
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>distinct, distinctive 与 distinguished</b></div>这三个形容词意义各不相同。distinct 是“清楚明确的”(本身对内)，扩大为“与众不同的”(对外区别，常用 from)。distinctive 单纯是“与众不同的”(着重对外区别，不注重对内)。distinguished 则是“杰出的，卓越的，高贵的”(意义原先是对外区别，转为本身对内)。<br><br>
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distinctive
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>distinct, distinctive 与 distinguished</b></div>这三个形容词意义各不相同。distinct 是“清楚明确的”(本身对内)，扩大为“与众不同的”(对外区别，常用 from)。distinctive 单纯是“与众不同的”(着重对外区别，不注重对内)。distinguished 则是“杰出的，卓越的，高贵的”(意义原先是对外区别，转为本身对内)。<br><br>
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distinguished
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>distinct, distinctive 与 distinguished</b></div>这三个形容词意义各不相同。distinct 是“清楚明确的”(本身对内)，扩大为“与众不同的”(对外区别，常用 from)。distinctive 单纯是“与众不同的”(着重对外区别，不注重对内)。distinguished 则是“杰出的，卓越的，高贵的”(意义原先是对外区别，转为本身对内)。<br><br>
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do it
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>do it 与 do so</b></div>两者都是用来代替前面提到过的一个行动。用法上的区别，有一种说法是：do it 是有意识的行动；do so 则可以是无意识的行为。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—When you chop off a chicken's head and it's already dead, it still kicks a few times. —Why does it do so? —你把一只鸡的头砍掉，它就已经死了，但它还踢几下脚。 —它为什么这样？(鸡已经死了，不可能是有意识的行为，所以不用 do it 而用 do so。)</div><div class="ex-item">The old man fell on his way to church. I'm sorry to hear that he did so/that. 老人在去教堂的路上摔倒了。我听到他出事心里很难过。</div><br><br>但是在实际语言运用中，无意识的行动也有用 do it 的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Of course I am going to misspeak, and I've done it on numerous occasions, and I probably will do it in the future. (John McCain, The Washington Post, Apr. 7, 2007)当然，我会说错话的，我曾经多次说错话，今后大概也会说错话。</div><br><br>
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ship!
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(Don't give up the) ship!</b></div>由于历史关系，英语中有关航海的用语较多。Don't give up the ship!（不要弃船！）也可以用于同航海无关的场合，表示“要坚持，不要打退堂鼓”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—I'm having a devil of a time with calculus. I think I want to drop the course. —Keep trying. Don't give up the ship. —微积分把我弄得好苦。我想还是退出这一门课吧。—继续试试看。别打退堂鼓。</div><br><br>
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Don't give up the ship!
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(Don't give up the) ship!</b></div>由于历史关系，英语中有关航海的用语较多。Don't give up the ship!（不要弃船！）也可以用于同航海无关的场合，表示“要坚持，不要打退堂鼓”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—I'm having a devil of a time with calculus. I think I want to drop the course. —Keep trying. Don't give up the ship. —微积分把我弄得好苦。我想还是退出这一门课吧。—继续试试看。别打退堂鼓。</div><br><br>
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breath
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(don't hold your) breath</b></div>直译是“别屏住呼吸”，但是实际意义是叫对方“不要耐心等待(事情不会马上发生的)”。因为如果等待的事情马上到来，通常人们就会屏住呼吸。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—The front yard is such a mess. —Bill's supposed to rake the leaves. —Don't hold your breath. He never does his share of the work. —前院乱得一塌糊涂。—应该是比尔把树叶扫在一起。—等着吧。他那一份活儿他是从来不干的。/ Don't hold your breath. You're dealing with a bureaucracy from another planet. 你就硬着头皮等下去吧。你碰上的是来自另一个星球的官僚集团。/ He said he would be in touch if anything came up but then told us we shouldn't hold our breath. (Michael Christopher Mahan, An Internal Affair)他说，有什么新情况可以联系他，但是又告诉我们不要以为马上会有什么结果。</div><br><br>
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don't hold your breath
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(don't hold your) breath</b></div>直译是“别屏住呼吸”，但是实际意义是叫对方“不要耐心等待(事情不会马上发生的)”。因为如果等待的事情马上到来，通常人们就会屏住呼吸。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—The front yard is such a mess. —Bill's supposed to rake the leaves. —Don't hold your breath. He never does his share of the work. —前院乱得一塌糊涂。—应该是比尔把树叶扫在一起。—等着吧。他那一份活儿他是从来不干的。/ Don't hold your breath. You're dealing with a bureaucracy from another planet. 你就硬着头皮等下去吧。你碰上的是来自另一个星球的官僚集团。/ He said he would be in touch if anything came up but then told us we shouldn't hold our breath. (Michael Christopher Mahan, An Internal Affair)他说，有什么新情况可以联系他，但是又告诉我们不要以为马上会有什么结果。</div><br><br>
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dose
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>dosage 与 dose</b></div>dosage 是经常服用某一药物的规定剂量；dose 则是具体某次服用的剂量。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Last night, before going to bed, I took a large dose (<i>dosage) of castor oil. 我昨夜临睡前服用了大剂量的蓖麻油。</div><div class="ex-item">She took twice the prescribed dose (</i>dosage) of sleeping tablets. 她服用了双倍于处方剂量的安眠药。(虽然是 prescribed，但仍然是具体一次而不是普遍的剂量。)</div>
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dosage
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>dosage 与 dose</b></div>dosage 是经常服用某一药物的规定剂量；dose 则是具体某次服用的剂量。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Last night, before going to bed, I took a large dose (<i>dosage) of castor oil. 我昨夜临睡前服用了大剂量的蓖麻油。</div><div class="ex-item">She took twice the prescribed dose (</i>dosage) of sleeping tablets. 她服用了双倍于处方剂量的安眠药。(虽然是 prescribed，但仍然是具体一次而不是普遍的剂量。)</div>
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doubtful
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>doubtful 与 dubious</b></div>均可以表示：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> (人)抱有怀疑态度的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm very dubious/doubtful about the whole idea. 我对整个主张十分怀疑。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> (事物)可疑的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is dubious/doubtful whether he'll accept. 他会不会接受很难说。</div><br><br>
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suspect
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>doubt 与 suspect</b></div>两者的区别十分重要。两者在中文里都译成“怀疑”，但是 doubt 是从反面对某事物加以怀疑，即认为它可能不真；suspect 则是从正面加以怀疑，即认为它可能是真的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I really doubt Tankado ever meant for it to go this far. I suspect he intended to be around to stop it. (Dan Brown, Digital Fortress)我真的怀疑丹角不见得有意把事情闹得这样大。我猜想他原来是打算亲自出马加以制止的。</div><br><br>但是，doubt 在较早期的英语里也可以有从正面加以怀疑而认为可能属实的含义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>“All is not well. I doubt some foul play. (Shakespeare, Hamlet)事情有些不妙。我想这里面一定有奸人的恶计。(现代文本则将这个 doubt 改为 suspect。)”</div><br><br>
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dove
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>dove 与 pigeon</b></div>中文都是“鸽子”，但是在英文中两者的象征意义不同，不能混用。dove 羽毛雪白，是和平、善良的象征，所以“和平鸽”要说 dove of peace。pigeon 则羽毛黑白掺杂，一般用作信鸽，甚至供食用，在英语中它的象征意义是“傻瓜”，英语俚语 pigeon 是容易受骗上当的人。在赌博中，老千、骗子是 rook (乌鸦)，上当的傻瓜就是 pigeon (鸽子)。英国作家萨克雷(William Makepeace Thackeray)就写过一本小说——《乌鸦上尉和鸽子先生》(Captain Rook and Mr. Pigeon)。<br><br>因此，政治上的“鸽派”是 the doves，不是 the pigeons。“鹰派”是 the hawks，不是 the eagles，因为 hawk 象征着“好战”，而 eagle 所象征的主要悬“勇敢，不死”。这两个名词还派生出相应的形容词 dovish 和 hawkish，又再派生出抽象名词 dovishness (鸽派倾向)和 hawkishness (鹰派倾向)。<br><br>
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pigeon
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>dove 与 pigeon</b></div>中文都是“鸽子”，但是在英文中两者的象征意义不同，不能混用。dove 羽毛雪白，是和平、善良的象征，所以“和平鸽”要说 dove of peace。pigeon 则羽毛黑白掺杂，一般用作信鸽，甚至供食用，在英语中它的象征意义是“傻瓜”，英语俚语 pigeon 是容易受骗上当的人。在赌博中，老千、骗子是 rook (乌鸦)，上当的傻瓜就是 pigeon (鸽子)。英国作家萨克雷(William Makepeace Thackeray)就写过一本小说——《乌鸦上尉和鸽子先生》(Captain Rook and Mr. Pigeon)。<br><br>因此，政治上的“鸽派”是 the doves，不是 the pigeons。“鹰派”是 the hawks，不是 the eagles，因为 hawk 象征着“好战”，而 eagle 所象征的主要悬“勇敢，不死”。这两个名词还派生出相应的形容词 dovish 和 hawkish，又再派生出抽象名词 dovishness (鸽派倾向)和 hawkishness (鹰派倾向)。<br><br>
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... do you think ...
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>... do you think (suppose) ...</b></div>在 Why do you think we are in Iraq? 这个问句中，why 管的不是 do you think (不是“你为什么以为我们到了伊拉克？”)，而是 we are in Iraq。所以全句应该译成：“你认为我们是为什么到了伊拉克的？”这里比较容易“引人上当”的一个情况是本来同 why 没有关系的 do you think 用了倒装词序，而真正同 why 相连的 we are in Iraq 却反而用了正常词序。do you think 其实是中间插进去的，如果去掉，句子就是倒装的 Why are we in Iraq? 不过，如果问的事情是尽人皆知的事实，如“我们到了伊拉克”，理解错误的可能性不大。有些事情，还不十分确定，就有可能误解误译。例如 Why do you think global warming is being ignored? “全球变暖”的说法，目前还有争议，是否被忽视，也不见得意见一致。这一句就有可能误解为“你为什么认为全球变暖在受到忽视？”，其实应该理解为“全球变暖在受到忽视，你认为原因何在？”。<br><br>另外，在有些句子中，... do you think/suppose ... 后面的部分缺了一些成分，必须同全句开头处的疑问词结合才有意义(缺了 why 仍可以有意义，但缺了别的疑问词就不完全)，此时更可以判断句首的疑问词同 do you think/suppose 不相干。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>What do you think Jane's hair is like? 你觉得简的头发怎么样？</div><div class="ex-item">How do you suppose I'd look going back begging Congress to lift sanctions I could have vetoed in the first place? 对于制裁，我本来就可以加以否决，但是没有否决，到现在回过头来要我哀求国会取消，你看我如果这样做会成何体统？(这里的 look 不是“看”，而是“给别人一个印象”的意思，参见 look 条。什么印象，后面没有下文。原来 look 是同句首的 how 联系的，意义上相当于 how would I look ... )</div>同这一句一样，如果句首的疑问词同 do you think 显然没有语义上的联系，就不容易误解了。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How far do you think it is to the next town? 你觉得离下一个镇还有多远？</div><div class="ex-item">Who do you think is to blame? 你认为是谁之过？</div><br><br>值得注意的是：... do，后面的动词不定式的动词，通常是一个表示判断或看法的动词。如果是一个表示情绪的动词，由于情绪所涉及的内容不涉及疑问而只能是针对一个事实，因此句首的疑问词就不是管后面的从句，而是管以 you 为主语的主句了。试比较下面两句：Why do you think that Mary did it? (你觉得玛丽为什么这样做？) Why do you regret that Mary did it? (你为什么对玛丽这样做感到遗憾？)前一句的 why 管的是 Mary did it，后一句的 why 管的是 do you regret，这是因为 regret 不涉及对某一原因的判断。<br><br>有时候 ... do you 后面不是一个从句，而只是动词的补充成分(这个补充成分仍然包含尚待确定的内容)，但是 do you 前面的疑问词仍然不是同 do you 相联系，而是同这个补充成分相联系。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>And how do you propose doing that? (Jeffrey Archer, The Fourth Estate)那么按你的意思该怎么样做呢？(how 管 doing that，不管 do you propose)</div>有时候，... do you ... 可以转换为另外一个也是形式上颠倒的主句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Who is it time for John to visit? 现在是约输该访问谁的时候？</div><br><br>
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... do you think suppose ...
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>... do you think (suppose) ...</b></div>在 Why do you think we are in Iraq? 这个问句中，why 管的不是 do you think (不是“你为什么以为我们到了伊拉克？”)，而是 we are in Iraq。所以全句应该译成：“你认为我们是为什么到了伊拉克的？”这里比较容易“引人上当”的一个情况是本来同 why 没有关系的 do you think 用了倒装词序，而真正同 why 相连的 we are in Iraq 却反而用了正常词序。do you think 其实是中间插进去的，如果去掉，句子就是倒装的 Why are we in Iraq? 不过，如果问的事情是尽人皆知的事实，如“我们到了伊拉克”，理解错误的可能性不大。有些事情，还不十分确定，就有可能误解误译。例如 Why do you think global warming is being ignored? “全球变暖”的说法，目前还有争议，是否被忽视，也不见得意见一致。这一句就有可能误解为“你为什么认为全球变暖在受到忽视？”，其实应该理解为“全球变暖在受到忽视，你认为原因何在？”。<br><br>另外，在有些句子中，... do you think/suppose ... 后面的部分缺了一些成分，必须同全句开头处的疑问词结合才有意义(缺了 why 仍可以有意义，但缺了别的疑问词就不完全)，此时更可以判断句首的疑问词同 do you think/suppose 不相干。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>What do you think Jane's hair is like? 你觉得简的头发怎么样？</div><div class="ex-item">How do you suppose I'd look going back begging Congress to lift sanctions I could have vetoed in the first place? 对于制裁，我本来就可以加以否决，但是没有否决，到现在回过头来要我哀求国会取消，你看我如果这样做会成何体统？(这里的 look 不是“看”，而是“给别人一个印象”的意思，参见 look 条。什么印象，后面没有下文。原来 look 是同句首的 how 联系的，意义上相当于 how would I look ... )</div>同这一句一样，如果句首的疑问词同 do you think 显然没有语义上的联系，就不容易误解了。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How far do you think it is to the next town? 你觉得离下一个镇还有多远？</div><div class="ex-item">Who do you think is to blame? 你认为是谁之过？</div><br><br>值得注意的是：... do，后面的动词不定式的动词，通常是一个表示判断或看法的动词。如果是一个表示情绪的动词，由于情绪所涉及的内容不涉及疑问而只能是针对一个事实，因此句首的疑问词就不是管后面的从句，而是管以 you 为主语的主句了。试比较下面两句：Why do you think that Mary did it? (你觉得玛丽为什么这样做？) Why do you regret that Mary did it? (你为什么对玛丽这样做感到遗憾？)前一句的 why 管的是 Mary did it，后一句的 why 管的是 do you regret，这是因为 regret 不涉及对某一原因的判断。<br><br>有时候 ... do you 后面不是一个从句，而只是动词的补充成分(这个补充成分仍然包含尚待确定的内容)，但是 do you 前面的疑问词仍然不是同 do you 相联系，而是同这个补充成分相联系。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>And how do you propose doing that? (Jeffrey Archer, The Fourth Estate)那么按你的意思该怎么样做呢？(how 管 doing that，不管 do you propose)</div>有时候，... do you ... 可以转换为另外一个也是形式上颠倒的主句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Who is it time for John to visit? 现在是约输该访问谁的时候？</div><br><br>
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do
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>do 与 make</b></div>弄清楚了该用 do 还是 make，不但自己写作、翻译、说话时可以用得正确，而且有时候也有助于正确理解，不至于发生理解错误。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Vice President Dick Cheney said the press had “made the job of defending against further terrorist attacks more difficult.” (Time, July 10, 2006, p. 6)这里的 made the job 是不是“做这个……工作”呢？不是的，同 job 搭配的应该是 do。这里用 made，一定另有文章。原来 made 是同最末的 more difficult 遥相呼应的，意思是“使得……更为困难”。全句可以译为：“迪克·切尼副总统说，新闻界‘已经使得今后防御恐怖袭击的工作更为困难’。”</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 如果通常说的是不确定的事情，或是某项工作，用 do。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>What shall we do? 咱们怎么办？</div><div class="ex-item">You can do what you want. 你想怎么办就怎么办。</div><div class="ex-item">I'm going to do the housework a bit later. 我稍晚一点要干家务活。</div><br><br>如果说的是创造某事物，用 make。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The performance made a great impression on me. 演出给我留下了深刻的印象。</div><div class="ex-item">You could have made a good profit. 你本来可以获得一大笔利润。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 有许多固定使用 do 的搭配。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Sarah is doing research on this topic. 萨拉正在对这个问题进行研究。</div><div class="ex-item">Helen does her best to help him. 海伦尽力帮助他。</div><div class="ex-item">Earthquakes do a lot of damage. 地震能造成巨大的损害。</div><div class="ex-item">James is authorized to do business in China. 詹姆斯获准在中国做生意。</div><div class="ex-item">It does more harm than good. 它弊多利少。</div><div class="ex-item">Louise does the shopping at weekends. 路易丝在周末上街购物。</div><div class="ex-item">Will you do me a favour? 您能帮我一个忙吗？</div><div class="ex-item">Please do this exercise now. 现在请做这个练习。</div><div class="ex-item">He was doing a documentary on the case. 他正在拍摄有关此案的一部纪录片。</div><div class="ex-item">I'm doing my doctorate in psychology at UCLA. 我现在在加州大学洛杉矶分校攻读心理学博士学位。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 有许多固定使用 make 的搭配。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I have to make three phone calls. 我要打三个电话。</div><div class="ex-item">She has made all the arrangements for the conference. 她已经为会议进行了一切安排。</div><div class="ex-item">Harry is expected to make the final decision. 预计要由哈里做出最后决定。</div><div class="ex-item">Did you manage to make a reservation for a room? 你预订好房间了吗？</div><div class="ex-item">Don't make noise! 别吵！</div><div class="ex-item">She is fond of making fun of her friends. 她喜欢开朋友们的玩笑。</div><br><br>We can make this work. 中的 make 是“使得”的意思，this 是不定代词，不是修饰 work 的指示形容词，work 也不是名词，而是不及物动词。“干工作”的“干”，应该是 do，不是 make。所以全句的意思是“我们能够让这件事办成”，不是“我们能够干这个工作”。<br><br>
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dread
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>dread 与 afraid</b></div>参见 afraid 条之(3)。<br><br>
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drunk
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>drunk 与 drunken</b></div>两者都是从动词 drink 的过去分词演变来的形容词，意义都是“喝醉了的”。<br><br>drunken 用作定语，放在名词前面，表示一时的状况。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a drunken driver 喝醉了的司机</div><div class="ex-item">drunken driving 醉酒开车。如果用作表语，则表示“常常酗酒的”。</div><br><br>drunk 用作表语，放在系动词后面，则表示一时的状况。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>get dead/beastly/blind drunk 喝得酩酊大醉</div><div class="ex-item">The policeman himself was drunk. 警察自己就是醉醺醺的。/ He came to work drunk. 他来上班时醉醺醺的。但在美式英语中，drunk 常常放在 driver 或 driving 前作定语，表示一时的状况。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... the Europeans are particularly tough on drunk driving ……欧洲人对醉酒开车处罚特别严厉</div><div class="ex-item">... about three Americans are killed and 80 are injured by drunk drivers every hour of every day. (Newsweek, Sept. 13, 1982) ……在美国每天每小时被醉酒开车者撞死的大约有 3 个人，撞伤的有 80 个人。</div><br><br>
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drunken
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>drunk 与 drunken</b></div>两者都是从动词 drink 的过去分词演变来的形容词，意义都是“喝醉了的”。<br><br>drunken 用作定语，放在名词前面，表示一时的状况。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a drunken driver 喝醉了的司机</div><div class="ex-item">drunken driving 醉酒开车。如果用作表语，则表示“常常酗酒的”。</div><br><br>drunk 用作表语，放在系动词后面，则表示一时的状况。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>get dead/beastly/blind drunk 喝得酩酊大醉</div><div class="ex-item">The policeman himself was drunk. 警察自己就是醉醺醺的。/ He came to work drunk. 他来上班时醉醺醺的。但在美式英语中，drunk 常常放在 driver 或 driving 前作定语，表示一时的状况。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... the Europeans are particularly tough on drunk driving ……欧洲人对醉酒开车处罚特别严厉</div><div class="ex-item">... about three Americans are killed and 80 are injured by drunk drivers every hour of every day. (Newsweek, Sept. 13, 1982) ……在美国每天每小时被醉酒开车者撞死的大约有 3 个人，撞伤的有 80 个人。</div><br><br>
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duty
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>duty 与 obligation</b></div>两者都是“义务”，常常可以互换。<br><br>obligation 偏重按照法律、契约或世俗习惯眼前具体应该采取的行动(民法的“债”，用英文讲就是 obligation)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He is under the obligation of supporting his aged mother. 他负有供养年迈母亲的义务。/ Paying taxes is an obligation of citizenship. 纳税是一项公民义务。</div><br><br>duty 更多涉及职务、道义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>public duties 公务</div><div class="ex-item">on night duty 值夜班</div><div class="ex-item">As a doctor, it is my duty to preserve life. 作为医生，我的职责是救死扶伤。</div><br><br>
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obligation
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>duty 与 obligation</b></div>两者都是“义务”，常常可以互换。<br><br>obligation 偏重按照法律、契约或世俗习惯眼前具体应该采取的行动(民法的“债”，用英文讲就是 obligation)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He is under the obligation of supporting his aged mother. 他负有供养年迈母亲的义务。/ Paying taxes is an obligation of citizenship. 纳税是一项公民义务。</div><br><br>duty 更多涉及职务、道义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>public duties 公务</div><div class="ex-item">on night duty 值夜班</div><div class="ex-item">As a doctor, it is my duty to preserve life. 作为医生，我的职责是救死扶伤。</div><br><br>
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hawk
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>eagle 与 hawk</b></div>参见 dove 与 pigeon 条。<br><br>
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eagle
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>eagle 与 hawk</b></div>参见 dove 与 pigeon 条。<br><br>
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soon
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>early 与 soon</b></div>early 与 soon 所管的，都是一个瞬时的动作、事件或变化，不是一个延续不变的固定状态(如果是一直存在的固定状态，就无所谓“早”与“晚”)。但是两者在同什么“时间”观念联系这一点上有所不同。early 联系的是“时间段”(就是在某时间段内的早期)；soon 联系的是“时间点”(就是在某时间点之后不久)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> early 所联系的“时间段”，更准确一点说，是“定位时间段”。也就是说，说话的人心中有了一个位置固定了的“时间段”，如“今天上午”“下个月”“某人的大学时代”。此时 early 起的作用，就是说明“(某事发生)在这个时间段的早期(或是这个时间段开始后不久)”。说是“联系”，其实这个时间段，可以明说出来，也可以“心照不宣”“你知我知”。<br><br>可以明说出来。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Voltaire perceived very early in life that to be needy was to be dependent. (John Morley) 伏尔泰十分年轻的时候就已经觉察到人穷就只好仰赖他人。</div><br><br>可以“心照不宣”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Early to bed and early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise. (Benjamin Franklin) 早睡早起，让人既健康、富裕，又聪明。(“晚上”和“早晨”这些时间段不必说出。)</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> soon 所联系的“时间点”，通常是更加前面的一个时间点，表示在这个较早的时间点之后不久，就发生 soon 所修饰的动作、事件或变化。同样，这个“时间点”，可以明说出来，也可以“心照不宣”。<br><br>可以明说出来。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>White Americans are far more likely than their black counterparts to die soon after the death of a spouse. 美国白人，在配偶去世后不久自己也去世的可能性远远大于黑人。</div><br><br>也可以“心照不宣”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I hope you will find your wallet very soon. 但愿你很快就能找到你的钱包。(“现在”这个时间点“心照不宣”)也可以从前后文推论出前一个“时间点”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I called, and he soon appeared. 我打了电话，他很快就来了。(called 隐含了前一个时间点。)</div><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 进一步观察 early 和 soon 的区别，可以拿医生同病人预约看病时间为例。医生请病人下一次 come early，是在“从几点钟到几点钟的门诊时间段”当中“早点来”(“来”就成了个“时间点”，作为随后看病的时间参照点)，这样，医生就可以 attend him soon (早来早看，“早”来是 early，“早”看是 soon)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> early 还有另外一个意义，是同“时间点”相联系的，就是“比预定或要求的时间点早”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We had dinner early. 我们晚饭吃得比平常早。/ The baby arrived two weeks early. 婴儿早产了两周。但即便如此，也隐含了一个时间段(通常晚饭自下午五六点钟到七八点钟这个时间段，以及怀孕后期的时间段，early 就是在这个时间段范围内的时间点。)。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> early 和 soon，作为副词，都可以有比较级(earlier 与 sooner)和最高级(the earliest 和 the soonest)，但是有一定的使用范围。earlier 可以自由使用做比较。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>earlier that night 那天晚上稍早的时候(相对于后来的某一时间点而言)</div><div class="ex-item">I mentioned that problem earlier on. 我早些时候提过这个问题了。(相对于现在而言，on 用来加强语气)最高级 the earliest 多用作形容词，用作副词时通常只出现在词组 at the earliest 中。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They won't be here till nine at the earliest. 他们最早也得 9 点才到这里来。</div><br><br>sooner 不能随便使用，通常出现在有 than 做比较的句型或 sooner or later 之类的固定词组中。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>No sooner said than done. 说时迟，那时快，事情就办了。no sooner ... than ... 译成中文，最好否定变为肯定，原先的“发生 X 不比发生 Y 早”要处理成“一发生 X 就马上发生 Y”。</div><br><br>由于人们心中以“此时此刻”为参照点或是以“此时此刻起到将来某时止的一个时间段”为参照范围，两者容易重合，所以 the earliest 与 the soonest 有时候也可以互换。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The earliest/The soonest I can arrive is 3 p.m. 我最早也得下午 3 点才能到达。除此之外，soonest 作为副词，很少使用。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> sooner 还有一个转义用法，即失去时间先后意义，变为好恶取舍。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Sooner you than me. 宁可是你而不是我。/ I'd sooner not go, to be honest. 老实说，我宁可不去。/ Sooner than go against her principles, she handed in her notice. 她不愿违背自己的原则，就提交了辞职信。</div><br><br>soon 的原级在词组 would as soon inf. as inf. 或 would as soon (that)中也有优劣取舍的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We'd as soon (that) you didn't tell our father. 我们希望你最好还是别告诉我们父亲。(didn't 是虚拟语气，不是过去时)</div><div class="ex-item">I'd as soon quit as work under a boss like that. 要我在这样一个上司的领导下工作，倒不如离开的好。/ I'd just as soon stay home (as go out). 我宁可待在家里(也不出去)。</div><br><br>
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east
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>east 与 eastern</b></div>east、west、north、south 与 eastern、western、northern、southern 放在地名前面，往往含义不同。前者通常指比较明确范围的一个地域(例如界限明确的国家或行政区)，后者则较多指一个只有大体范围的地理区域。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>South Africa 南非(一个国家)</div><div class="ex-item">Southern Africa 南部非洲(地理概念，几个国家)</div><div class="ex-item">North Carolina 北卡罗来纳州(美国一个州)</div><div class="ex-item">Northern Virginia (美国)弗吉尼亚州北部</div><div class="ex-item">West Virginia 西弗吉尼亚州(美国一个州)</div><div class="ex-item">Western Europe 西欧。但也有相反的情况。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>East (*Eastern) Asia 东亚(地理概念，几个国家)</div><div class="ex-item">Northern Ireland 北爱尔兰(英国的一个行政区域)。</div><br><br>
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eastern
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>east 与 eastern</b></div>east、west、north、south 与 eastern、western、northern、southern 放在地名前面，往往含义不同。前者通常指比较明确范围的一个地域(例如界限明确的国家或行政区)，后者则较多指一个只有大体范围的地理区域。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>South Africa 南非(一个国家)</div><div class="ex-item">Southern Africa 南部非洲(地理概念，几个国家)</div><div class="ex-item">North Carolina 北卡罗来纳州(美国一个州)</div><div class="ex-item">Northern Virginia (美国)弗吉尼亚州北部</div><div class="ex-item">West Virginia 西弗吉尼亚州(美国一个州)</div><div class="ex-item">Western Europe 西欧。但也有相反的情况。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>East (*Eastern) Asia 东亚(地理概念，几个国家)</div><div class="ex-item">Northern Ireland 北爱尔兰(英国的一个行政区域)。</div><br><br>
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heart out
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(eat your) heart out</b></div>Eat your heart out. 这个句子的意义比较复杂：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 十分嫉恨。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Michael will eat his heart out when he hears about Jenipher's engagement. 迈克尔如果听到珍妮弗订婚的消息，一定会妒忌得要死。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 在祈使句中，声称自己比对方高出一筹。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—Wish I could afford anecktie like that. —Eat your heart out. —我也能弄到像那样的一条领带就好了。—那你就望穿秋水吧。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 如果这句话后面或前面加上一个名人的名字，就带有开玩笑的自夸意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Eat your heart out, Pavarotti. (一个歌唱家表演成功，开玩笑说)我赛过你了，帕瓦罗蒂。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 作为陈述句(加上主语)，意思是“某事使得某人妒恨得要死”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Her marriage will eat his heart out. 她的婚事会使得他妒恨得要死。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 这句话因为字面上的意思是“把你的心都吃出来”，所以还成了一些食品商和食肆招徕顾客的口号，用五花八门的美术装饰标出来，这时其意义已经大不相同了。<br><br>
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eat your heart out
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(eat your) heart out</b></div>Eat your heart out. 这个句子的意义比较复杂：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 十分嫉恨。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Michael will eat his heart out when he hears about Jenipher's engagement. 迈克尔如果听到珍妮弗订婚的消息，一定会妒忌得要死。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 在祈使句中，声称自己比对方高出一筹。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—Wish I could afford anecktie like that. —Eat your heart out. —我也能弄到像那样的一条领带就好了。—那你就望穿秋水吧。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 如果这句话后面或前面加上一个名人的名字，就带有开玩笑的自夸意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Eat your heart out, Pavarotti. (一个歌唱家表演成功，开玩笑说)我赛过你了，帕瓦罗蒂。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 作为陈述句(加上主语)，意思是“某事使得某人妒恨得要死”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Her marriage will eat his heart out. 她的婚事会使得他妒恨得要死。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 这句话因为字面上的意思是“把你的心都吃出来”，所以还成了一些食品商和食肆招徕顾客的口号，用五花八门的美术装饰标出来，这时其意义已经大不相同了。<br><br>
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economy
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>economics 与 economy</b></div>economics 是“经济学”，economy 是“经济”。但是“政治经济学”是 political economy。美国有的大学设有 political economics 课程，但同亚当·斯密及马克思那里的古典式的政治经济学(political economy)不完全相同。economy 本来是个不可数名词，但是可以用复数 economies 指多国或多地区的经济。<br><br>
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economics
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>economics 与 economy</b></div>economics 是“经济学”，economy 是“经济”。但是“政治经济学”是 political economy。美国有的大学设有 political economics 课程，但同亚当·斯密及马克思那里的古典式的政治经济学(political economy)不完全相同。economy 本来是个不可数名词，但是可以用复数 economies 指多国或多地区的经济。<br><br>
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economic
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>economic 与 economical</b></div>两个形容词译成中文都可以是“经济的”，但实际含义不同。economic 指“经济方面的，经济学上的”，而 economical 则是“经济节约的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>What has gone wrong with the economic system during the last ten years? 近十年来的经济制度究竟出了什么毛病？/ a period of economic crisis 一段经济危机时期</div><div class="ex-item">This system was extremely economical because it ran on half-price electricity. 这个系统极为经济，因为它使用的是半价电力。economical 也可以指人“节俭的”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She thought of herself as an economical housewife. 她自认为是个节俭的家庭主妇。</div><br><br>但是，economic 和 economical 有时候也互相“侵入”对方的领域。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the political, economical and cultural history of Europe (Geoffrey Bruun, in New York Herald Tribune Weekly Book Review, June 21, 1953) 欧洲的政治、经济、文化史</div><div class="ex-item">Each country was considered carefully for its economical and weather status. 对每一个国家，都按其经济与天气情况加以仔细的考虑。</div><br><br>economic 也可以指某一产业“有经济价值的，值得经营的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We have to keep fares high enough to make it economic for the service to continue. 我们不得不把收费维持在足够高的水平，以使得这项事业值得继续经营下去。</div><br><br>还要注意的是：economic 与 economical 的副词都是 economically，需要看整句甚至上下文来辨别其意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The region is extremely unevenly developed economically. 该地区经济发展极为不平衡。(来自 economic)</div><div class="ex-item">We live very economically. 我们的生活十分节俭。(来自 economical) 一个辨别的办法，就是看看 economically 能否前面加上 more、very 之类的副词，如果可以，就是从 economical 派生来的；如果不可以，原来的形容词就是 economic。</div><br><br>
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economical
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>economic 与 economical</b></div>两个形容词译成中文都可以是“经济的”，但实际含义不同。economic 指“经济方面的，经济学上的”，而 economical 则是“经济节约的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>What has gone wrong with the economic system during the last ten years? 近十年来的经济制度究竟出了什么毛病？/ a period of economic crisis 一段经济危机时期</div><div class="ex-item">This system was extremely economical because it ran on half-price electricity. 这个系统极为经济，因为它使用的是半价电力。economical 也可以指人“节俭的”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She thought of herself as an economical housewife. 她自认为是个节俭的家庭主妇。</div><br><br>但是，economic 和 economical 有时候也互相“侵入”对方的领域。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the political, economical and cultural history of Europe (Geoffrey Bruun, in New York Herald Tribune Weekly Book Review, June 21, 1953) 欧洲的政治、经济、文化史</div><div class="ex-item">Each country was considered carefully for its economical and weather status. 对每一个国家，都按其经济与天气情况加以仔细的考虑。</div><br><br>economic 也可以指某一产业“有经济价值的，值得经营的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We have to keep fares high enough to make it economic for the service to continue. 我们不得不把收费维持在足够高的水平，以使得这项事业值得继续经营下去。</div><br><br>还要注意的是：economic 与 economical 的副词都是 economically，需要看整句甚至上下文来辨别其意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The region is extremely unevenly developed economically. 该地区经济发展极为不平衡。(来自 economic)</div><div class="ex-item">We live very economically. 我们的生活十分节俭。(来自 economical) 一个辨别的办法，就是看看 economically 能否前面加上 more、very 之类的副词，如果可以，就是从 economical 派生来的；如果不可以，原来的形容词就是 economic。</div><br><br>
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electric
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>electric 与 electrical</b></div>electric 主要指“靠电能工作的”或是“在电路工作范围之内”的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><i>electric</i> circuit 电路</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electric</i> current 电流</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electric</i> field 电场</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electric</i> resistance 电阻</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electric</i> charge 电荷</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electric</i> power 电能</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electric</i> cell 电池</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electric</i> plug 电插头</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electric</i> socket 电插座</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electric</i> heater 电热器</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electric</i> blanket 电热毯</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electric</i> razor 电剃须刀</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electric</i> towel 电热风烘手器</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electric</i> guitar 电吉他。</div><br><br>electrical 主要指“与供电或用电有关的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><i>electrical</i> engineer 电气工程师</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electrical</i> engineering 电气工程</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electrical</i> company 电力公司</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electrical</i> fault 电力故障。</div><br><br>但是两者的用法也有界限不清的地方。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><i>electric</i> bill 电费账单</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electrical</i> appliances 电气用具</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electrical</i> equipment 电力设备。</div><br><br>
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electrical
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>electric 与 electrical</b></div>electric 主要指“靠电能工作的”或是“在电路工作范围之内”的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><i>electric</i> circuit 电路</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electric</i> current 电流</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electric</i> field 电场</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electric</i> resistance 电阻</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electric</i> charge 电荷</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electric</i> power 电能</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electric</i> cell 电池</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electric</i> plug 电插头</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electric</i> socket 电插座</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electric</i> heater 电热器</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electric</i> blanket 电热毯</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electric</i> razor 电剃须刀</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electric</i> towel 电热风烘手器</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electric</i> guitar 电吉他。</div><br><br>electrical 主要指“与供电或用电有关的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><i>electrical</i> engineer 电气工程师</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electrical</i> engineering 电气工程</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electrical</i> company 电力公司</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electrical</i> fault 电力故障。</div><br><br>但是两者的用法也有界限不清的地方。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><i>electric</i> bill 电费账单</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electrical</i> appliances 电气用具</div><div class="ex-item"><i>electrical</i> equipment 电力设备。</div><br><br>
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lift
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>elevator 与 lift</b></div>都是“电梯”，前者是美式英语，后者是英式英语。<br><br>
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elevator
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>elevator 与 lift</b></div>都是“电梯”，前者是美式英语，后者是英式英语。<br><br>
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emergence
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>emergency 与 emergence</b></div>意义根本不同。前者是“紧急状况”，后者是动词 emerge (显现，露出)的派生名词。emergency 作为抽象名词，可以是以不可数的抽象状态，也可以是可数的“一次紧急事件”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This door should only be used in <i>an emergency</i>. 这道门唯有遇到紧急情况才可以使用。/ The hospital will cater only for <i>emergencies</i>. 医院将只收急诊病人。此外，emergency 还可以放在另一个名词前面作其定语。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><i>emergency room</i> (<i>emergent room) 急诊室</div><div class="ex-item">The government had to take </i>emergency action<i> (</i>emergent action). 政府不得不采取应急行动。/ The Prime Minister has called an <i>emergency meeting</i> (<i>emergent meeting). 总理召开了紧急会议。/ The plane is carrying </i>emergency supplies<i> (</i>emergent supplies) for refugees. 飞机装载着给难民的救急物资。/ They escaped through an <i>emergency exit</i> (*emergent exit). 他们从一个紧急出口逃了出去。这是因为形容词 emergent 不是同 emergency 相对应，而是同 emergence 相对应。但是“新兴国家”就是 emergent nations。</div><br><br>
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emergency
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>emergency 与 emergence</b></div>意义根本不同。前者是“紧急状况”，后者是动词 emerge (显现，露出)的派生名词。emergency 作为抽象名词，可以是以不可数的抽象状态，也可以是可数的“一次紧急事件”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This door should only be used in <i>an emergency</i>. 这道门唯有遇到紧急情况才可以使用。/ The hospital will cater only for <i>emergencies</i>. 医院将只收急诊病人。此外，emergency 还可以放在另一个名词前面作其定语。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><i>emergency room</i> (<i>emergent room) 急诊室</div><div class="ex-item">The government had to take </i>emergency action<i> (</i>emergent action). 政府不得不采取应急行动。/ The Prime Minister has called an <i>emergency meeting</i> (<i>emergent meeting). 总理召开了紧急会议。/ The plane is carrying </i>emergency supplies<i> (</i>emergent supplies) for refugees. 飞机装载着给难民的救急物资。/ They escaped through an <i>emergency exit</i> (*emergent exit). 他们从一个紧急出口逃了出去。这是因为形容词 emergent 不是同 emergency 相对应，而是同 emergence 相对应。但是“新兴国家”就是 emergent nations。</div><br><br>
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emerge
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>emerge 与 immerge</b></div>这两个动词，发音完全相同，但是意思却截然相反。emerge 是“显现，露出”；immerge 却是“浸入，埋头，隐没”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The submarine <i>emerged</i> right before our eyes. 潜艇显现在我们眼前。/ The dog <i>immerged</i> into the darkness of the night. 狗钻到夜幕中消失了。</div><br><br>由于发音相同，一般英美人很少使用 immerge 这个词，改用 immerse，甚至许多词典都不收录 immerge 而只收录 immerse。作为英语学习者，最好不用 immerge 而用 immerse，尤其是在表示“埋头钻研”时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He <i>immersed himself</i> in academic studies. 他埋头从事学术研究。</div><br><br>
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immerge
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>emerge 与 immerge</b></div>这两个动词，发音完全相同，但是意思却截然相反。emerge 是“显现，露出”；immerge 却是“浸入，埋头，隐没”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The submarine <i>emerged</i> right before our eyes. 潜艇显现在我们眼前。/ The dog <i>immerged</i> into the darkness of the night. 狗钻到夜幕中消失了。</div><br><br>由于发音相同，一般英美人很少使用 immerge 这个词，改用 immerse，甚至许多词典都不收录 immerge 而只收录 immerse。作为英语学习者，最好不用 immerge 而用 immerse，尤其是在表示“埋头钻研”时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He <i>immersed himself</i> in academic studies. 他埋头从事学术研究。</div><br><br>
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emigrant
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>emigrant 与 immigrant</b></div>中文都叫“移民”，但英文中前者含义是“迁出旧地的移民”，后者是“迁入新地的移民”。注意前者只有一个字母 m，后者有两个。<br><br>
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immigrant
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>emigrant 与 immigrant</b></div>中文都叫“移民”，但英文中前者含义是“迁出旧地的移民”，后者是“迁入新地的移民”。注意前者只有一个字母 m，后者有两个。<br><br>
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ended
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>ended 与 ending</b></div>作为形容词，两者都可以加上补充说明，作定语放在名词后面。但是 ended 指“已经结束了的”，而 ending 则指“将要结束的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The report covers the decade <i>ended</i> in 1999. 报告涉及的期间，是到 1999 年结束的 10 年。/ He is enrolled in a course <i>ending</i> next year. 他参加了一个明年结束的课程。</div><br><br>
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ending
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>ended 与 ending</b></div>作为形容词，两者都可以加上补充说明，作定语放在名词后面。但是 ended 指“已经结束了的”，而 ending 则指“将要结束的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The report covers the decade <i>ended</i> in 1999. 报告涉及的期间，是到 1999 年结束的 10 年。/ He is enrolled in a course <i>ending</i> next year. 他参加了一个明年结束的课程。</div><br><br>
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endemic
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>endemic 与 epidemic</b></div>前者是“地方病”，后者是“流行病，时疫”。此外，endemic 是医学用语“皮下的”。三者词义差别很大，不要混淆。<br><br>
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epidemic
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>endemic 与 epidemic</b></div>前者是“地方病”，后者是“流行病，时疫”。此外，endemic 是医学用语“皮下的”。三者词义差别很大，不要混淆。<br><br>
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end up
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>end up 与 end</b></div>两者都是瞬时动词(第四类动词)。主要区别是：end 是“结束”，着重在末端的一瞬间，而且“结束”了，就告一段落，后来情况如何并不在意(信息重心就在 end 上)。不及物动词的主语或及物动词的宾语，所代表的事物，就此消失，没有下文。<br><br>end up 则是“经过了一段有意义的过程后达到某个对后来有重要性的结果”，实际上相当于一个类似 become 的系动词。它作为不及物动词时的主语，或是作为及物动词时的宾语，其所代表的事物并没有消失，而是达到了一个新的状态。<br><br>end 无论作为及物还是不及物动词，不要求任何补充说明(因为“结束”了就完了，后来如何无所谓)。end up 则必须要有主语补足语(有时候接近表语)作为其补充说明(达到什么结果，进入什么新的状态，留下什么后果，这是信息重心，所以不可或缺)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> end 可以作为及物动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He <i>ended</i> his own life. 他自杀了。(his own life 不复存在)</div><div class="ex-item">How about a cup of coffee to <i>end</i> the meal? 这顿饭最后来一杯咖啡好吗？(the meal 不复存在)</div><div class="ex-item">This scene <i>ends</i> the movie. 影片以这个场面结束。(the movie 在银幕上不复存在) end 也可以作为不及物动词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The concert <i>ends</i> at eleven. 音乐会 11 点结束。(concert 不复存在)</div><div class="ex-item">His career <i>ended</i> tragically. 他的事业可悲地结束了。(career 不复存在)</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> end up 不一定表示“最后的结局”，它可能只是总过程中的一个中间阶段，不排除以后还有“戏”。(a) 主语补足语最常见的形式是动词现在分词，这个动词可以是延续的，也可以是瞬时的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He <i>ended up marrying</i> his high school sweetheart. 他最后同高中时的恋人结了婚。(marry 瞬时)</div><div class="ex-item">I <i>ended up doing</i> it myself. 结果还是我自己做了。(do 瞬时)</div><div class="ex-item">Be thankful for what you have; you'll <i>end up having</i> more. If you concentrate on what you don't have, you will never, ever have enough. (Oprah Winfrey)有了多少都感恩，结果就会有更多。没有什么就耿耿于怀，那就永远不会足够。(have 延续)</div>(b) 主语补足语另一个常见的形式是动词过去分词，有被动意义，可以表示延续状态，也可以表示瞬时行动。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>No wonder the president <i>ended up</i> impeached. 怪不得总统受到了弹劾。/ A black teenager from Chicago allegedly whistled at a white woman and <i>ended up</i> beaten and shot to death by local bigots. (PBS, <i>American Experience: The Murder of Emmett Till</i>)一名来自芝加哥的黑人少年，据说是向一位白人妇女吹口哨，结果被当地的顽固分子殴打并开枪打死。</div>(c) 主语补足语是个形容词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I must be doing something to make them angry because they always <i>end up</i> furious at me. 我一定是做了什么惹他们生气的事，因为他们老是对我发火。</div>(d) 主语补足语另一个形式是介词短语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Many people <i>ended up</i> in the emergency room. 许多人后来只好去看急诊。/ More minorities <i>ended up</i> with high-cost mortgages. 更多的少数族裔，到头来只是背着高成本的房贷。/ A nine-foot alligator that blocked traffic on a South Florida highway will <i>end up</i> on the menu and on store shelves. (The Associated Press, Apr. 21, 2008)一条曾经阻断南佛罗里达高速公路交通的九尺长鳄鱼，将要上到菜单和商店货架上。/ We <i>ended up</i> behind another building that was deserted. 我们来到了另一座废弃的建筑物后面。</div>(e) 主语补足语是个名词(有时候前面加个 as)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Who would have thoughthe would <i>end up</i> (as) President? 当年谁曾料到他竟会当上总统？/ He <i>ended up</i> the big winner. 他成了个大赢家。/ Who'd have guessed that he'd <i>end up</i> such a big shot? (Mary Higgins Clark, <i>Nighttime Is My Time</i>)谁会猜想到他竟然会成为这样一个大人物？</div><br><br>主语如果不是人，end up 和后面的名词成分之间通常需要有 as。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A stolen Stradivarius cello almost <i>ended up as</i> a CD holder. 一把失窃的斯特拉迪瓦里大提琴几乎变成了一个 CD 盒子。/ The League of Nations <i>ended up as</i> debris. 国际联盟最终成为废墟。</div><br><br>
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motor
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>engine 与 motor</b></div>通常两者可以互换，但是略有分别。用蒸汽推动的发动机是 engine (多说 steam engine，少说 steam motor)；用燃油推动的发动机是 engine 或 motor；用电力推动的电动机多称 motor，较少称 engine。原因可能是 engine (与 engineering 同源于拉丁文 ingenium “才智，灵巧”)是从机械结构的复杂巧妙着眼，刚发明蒸汽机时，人们主要是惊讶于其传动装置的巧妙。等到后来，人们的注意力就从机械结构转到了动力能源上面，而 motor 则主要是“动”的意思。<br><br>
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engine
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>engine 与 motor</b></div>通常两者可以互换，但是略有分别。用蒸汽推动的发动机是 engine (多说 steam engine，少说 steam motor)；用燃油推动的发动机是 engine 或 motor；用电力推动的电动机多称 motor，较少称 engine。原因可能是 engine (与 engineering 同源于拉丁文 ingenium “才智，灵巧”)是从机械结构的复杂巧妙着眼，刚发明蒸汽机时，人们主要是惊讶于其传动装置的巧妙。等到后来，人们的注意力就从机械结构转到了动力能源上面，而 motor 则主要是“动”的意思。<br><br>
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enormity
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>enormity 与 enormousness</b></div>前者指“大规模的邪恶”，后者指“庞大，巨大”。许多人往往把前者当作后者使用，但最好避免。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The <i>enormity</i> of this mass murder shocked the entire world. 这次大规模杀害，其性质之恶使得全世界震惊。/ The <i>enormousness</i> (*enormity) of our new college stadium made us gasp in delight. 我们学院的新运动场规模之大，使得我们心花怒放。</div><br><br>
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enormousness
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>enormity 与 enormousness</b></div>前者指“大规模的邪恶”，后者指“庞大，巨大”。许多人往往把前者当作后者使用，但最好避免。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The <i>enormity</i> of this mass murder shocked the entire world. 这次大规模杀害，其性质之恶使得全世界震惊。/ The <i>enormousness</i> (*enormity) of our new college stadium made us gasp in delight. 我们学院的新运动场规模之大，使得我们心花怒放。</div><br><br>
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enter
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>enter 与 enter into</b></div>enter 基本上属于第四类动词(瞬时动态动词)，可以及物，也可以不及物(enter into)。如何区别用法，大体上如下：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 表示具体的“进入”某空间，是及物动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><i>enter</i> the church (<i>enter into the church, </i>enter in the church)进入教堂。通常不能有被动语态，但是如果是静态的房屋布置描述或是习惯性的室内活动描述，可以以房间为主语，采取 be entered 这样的被动语态。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The treatment rooms <i>were entered</i> through these doors. (Mary Higgins Clark, <i>Weep No More, My Lady</i>)治疗室是从这些门进去的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 表示“进入”某组织或机构，也是及物动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><i>enter</i> the university 进大学</div><div class="ex-item"><i>enter</i> Parliament 进入国会当议员。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 表示“进入”某个活动领域，也是及物动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><i>enter</i> politics 进入政界</div><div class="ex-item"><i>enter</i> the priesthood 当牧师。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 但是，表示“参与”一时的活动(有时候 enter 可能有点“启动”的意思)，是不及物动词，要有 into。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><i>enter into</i> a discussion 争论起来</div><div class="ex-item"><i>enter into</i> negotiations 进行谈判</div><div class="ex-item"><i>enter into</i> an agreement 达成协议。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 表示“参加(比赛、考试)”，是及物动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><i>enter</i> a game 参加博弈</div><div class="ex-item"><i>enter</i> the competition 参赛。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 表示“进入”某一段时期，是及物动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I <i>entered</i> my second year at university. 我进入了念大学的第二年。/ The economy <i>entered</i> a period of low growth. 经济进入了低增长时期。/ The strike is <i>entering</i> its third week. 罢工正在进入第三周。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 在叙述中“进入”某一范围，是不及物动词，要有 into。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Nor shall I <i>enter into</i> details concerning the ensuing half-dozen nights. (Katherine Anne Porter, <i>Ladies' Home Journal</i>, August 1971)至于后来那几个晚上的情况，我也不一一细述了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> 表示“掺杂其中起作用，干预”，是不及物动词(可以转为延续静态的第一类动词)，要有 into。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My feelings didn't <i>enter into</i> my decision. 我做出的决定，并不掺杂感情上的成分。/ Money doesn't <i>enter into</i> it at all. 这里面根本没有金钱上的考虑。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(9)</span> 表示某一自然物“进入”另一自然物，是及物动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The sewage <i>enters</i> (*enters into) the sea untreated. 污水没有经过处理就流入大海。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(10)</span> 如果从上下文或语境中已经可以看出“进入”何处，单独一个不及物动词 enter 就已经足够，当然不用直接宾语，也不用 into。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We stopped talking as soon as we saw him <i>enter</i>. 我们一看见他进来，就停止交谈了。此时即使有其他介词短语，也不是 enter 所不可缺少的补充说明。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... he had come to America, probably <i>entering</i> at the port of Charleston, SC. (<i>Dictionary of American Biography</i>)……他到了美国，大概是从南卡罗来纳州的查尔斯顿港入境的。剧本中说“(某人)上(场)”，英文是 enter (*enters) + 某人。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Enter Othello. 奥赛罗上。主谓要颠倒，不能用第三人称单数动词(其实这是舞台导演的命令句)。</div><br><br>
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enter into
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>enter 与 enter into</b></div>enter 基本上属于第四类动词(瞬时动态动词)，可以及物，也可以不及物(enter into)。如何区别用法，大体上如下：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 表示具体的“进入”某空间，是及物动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><i>enter</i> the church (<i>enter into the church, </i>enter in the church)进入教堂。通常不能有被动语态，但是如果是静态的房屋布置描述或是习惯性的室内活动描述，可以以房间为主语，采取 be entered 这样的被动语态。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The treatment rooms <i>were entered</i> through these doors. (Mary Higgins Clark, <i>Weep No More, My Lady</i>)治疗室是从这些门进去的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 表示“进入”某组织或机构，也是及物动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><i>enter</i> the university 进大学</div><div class="ex-item"><i>enter</i> Parliament 进入国会当议员。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 表示“进入”某个活动领域，也是及物动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><i>enter</i> politics 进入政界</div><div class="ex-item"><i>enter</i> the priesthood 当牧师。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 但是，表示“参与”一时的活动(有时候 enter 可能有点“启动”的意思)，是不及物动词，要有 into。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><i>enter into</i> a discussion 争论起来</div><div class="ex-item"><i>enter into</i> negotiations 进行谈判</div><div class="ex-item"><i>enter into</i> an agreement 达成协议。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 表示“参加(比赛、考试)”，是及物动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><i>enter</i> a game 参加博弈</div><div class="ex-item"><i>enter</i> the competition 参赛。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 表示“进入”某一段时期，是及物动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I <i>entered</i> my second year at university. 我进入了念大学的第二年。/ The economy <i>entered</i> a period of low growth. 经济进入了低增长时期。/ The strike is <i>entering</i> its third week. 罢工正在进入第三周。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 在叙述中“进入”某一范围，是不及物动词，要有 into。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Nor shall I <i>enter into</i> details concerning the ensuing half-dozen nights. (Katherine Anne Porter, <i>Ladies' Home Journal</i>, August 1971)至于后来那几个晚上的情况，我也不一一细述了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> 表示“掺杂其中起作用，干预”，是不及物动词(可以转为延续静态的第一类动词)，要有 into。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My feelings didn't <i>enter into</i> my decision. 我做出的决定，并不掺杂感情上的成分。/ Money doesn't <i>enter into</i> it at all. 这里面根本没有金钱上的考虑。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(9)</span> 表示某一自然物“进入”另一自然物，是及物动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The sewage <i>enters</i> (*enters into) the sea untreated. 污水没有经过处理就流入大海。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(10)</span> 如果从上下文或语境中已经可以看出“进入”何处，单独一个不及物动词 enter 就已经足够，当然不用直接宾语，也不用 into。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We stopped talking as soon as we saw him <i>enter</i>. 我们一看见他进来，就停止交谈了。此时即使有其他介词短语，也不是 enter 所不可缺少的补充说明。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... he had come to America, probably <i>entering</i> at the port of Charleston, SC. (<i>Dictionary of American Biography</i>)……他到了美国，大概是从南卡罗来纳州的查尔斯顿港入境的。剧本中说“(某人)上(场)”，英文是 enter (*enters) + 某人。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Enter Othello. 奥赛罗上。主谓要颠倒，不能用第三人称单数动词(其实这是舞台导演的命令句)。</div><br><br>
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envious
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>envy, envious, jealous 与 jealousy</b></div>参见 jealous 与 jealousy 条。<br><br>
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jealous
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>envy, envious, jealous 与 jealousy</b></div>参见 jealous 与 jealousy 条。<br><br>
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jealousy
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>envy, envious, jealous 与 jealousy</b></div>参见 jealous 与 jealousy 条。<br><br>
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special
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>especial 与 special</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> especial 作为形容词很罕见，一般都是 special (特别的，专门的，格外的)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a <b>special</b> offer 特别献礼（广告用语）/ a <b>special</b> price 特价</div><div class="ex-item">a <b>special</b> feature 特稿</div><div class="ex-item"><b>special</b> powers 特殊权力</div><div class="ex-item">a <b>special</b> edition 特刊</div><div class="ex-item">our <b>special</b> correspondent 本报特派记者</div><div class="ex-item">I wear this dress only on <b>special</b> occasions. 我唯有在特殊场合才穿这身衣服。/ My <b>special</b> interest is medieval poetry. 我特别感兴趣的是中世纪诗歌。/ Each contestant is tested on his <b>special</b> subject. 对每个参赛者都测试他本人的专业水平。/ Have you anybody <b>special</b> in mind? 你心目中没有具体的人选？/ Today is a very <b>special</b> day for me. 今天对我来说是很不平凡的日子。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 副词 especially 与 specially 常常同义，可以互换。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was not (<b>e)specially</b> cold. 当时并不特别冷。</div><br><br>但有时 especially 与 specially 仍然有区别。<br><br>especially 偏重程度上的“格外，尤其是”（往往用来修饰作状语的介词短语、从句，以及句中的名词成分）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We play a lot of tennis, <b>especially</b> on Sundays. 我们常打网球，尤其是在星期天。/ We go skiing quite a lot, <b>especially</b> in February. 我们常去滑雪，尤其是在二月份。/ I drink a lot of coffee, <b>especially</b> when I'm working. 我喝很多咖啡，尤其是工作的时候。/ The children are very noisy, <b>especially</b> when we have visitors. 孩子们很吵闹，尤其是我们来客人的时候。/ I like all kinds of fruit, <b>especially</b> apples. 我样样水果都喜欢，尤其是苹果。/ All my family like music. My father, <b>especially</b>, goes to as many concerts as he can. 我全家都喜欢音乐。尤其是我的父亲，凡是音乐会，他能去的都去。</div><br><br>specially 则偏重目的或对象方面的“特地，专门”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>These shoes were <b>specially</b> made for me. 这双鞋是为我特制的。/ The song was <b>specially</b> written for his birthday. 那首歌曲是特地为他的生日写的。/ I bought it <b>specially</b> for you. 这是我特地买给你的。/ Why did you choose that one <b>specially</b>? 你为什么偏偏挑中了那一个？</div><br><br>
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especial
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>especial 与 special</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> especial 作为形容词很罕见，一般都是 special (特别的，专门的，格外的)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a <b>special</b> offer 特别献礼（广告用语）/ a <b>special</b> price 特价</div><div class="ex-item">a <b>special</b> feature 特稿</div><div class="ex-item"><b>special</b> powers 特殊权力</div><div class="ex-item">a <b>special</b> edition 特刊</div><div class="ex-item">our <b>special</b> correspondent 本报特派记者</div><div class="ex-item">I wear this dress only on <b>special</b> occasions. 我唯有在特殊场合才穿这身衣服。/ My <b>special</b> interest is medieval poetry. 我特别感兴趣的是中世纪诗歌。/ Each contestant is tested on his <b>special</b> subject. 对每个参赛者都测试他本人的专业水平。/ Have you anybody <b>special</b> in mind? 你心目中没有具体的人选？/ Today is a very <b>special</b> day for me. 今天对我来说是很不平凡的日子。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 副词 especially 与 specially 常常同义，可以互换。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was not (<b>e)specially</b> cold. 当时并不特别冷。</div><br><br>但有时 especially 与 specially 仍然有区别。<br><br>especially 偏重程度上的“格外，尤其是”（往往用来修饰作状语的介词短语、从句，以及句中的名词成分）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We play a lot of tennis, <b>especially</b> on Sundays. 我们常打网球，尤其是在星期天。/ We go skiing quite a lot, <b>especially</b> in February. 我们常去滑雪，尤其是在二月份。/ I drink a lot of coffee, <b>especially</b> when I'm working. 我喝很多咖啡，尤其是工作的时候。/ The children are very noisy, <b>especially</b> when we have visitors. 孩子们很吵闹，尤其是我们来客人的时候。/ I like all kinds of fruit, <b>especially</b> apples. 我样样水果都喜欢，尤其是苹果。/ All my family like music. My father, <b>especially</b>, goes to as many concerts as he can. 我全家都喜欢音乐。尤其是我的父亲，凡是音乐会，他能去的都去。</div><br><br>specially 则偏重目的或对象方面的“特地，专门”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>These shoes were <b>specially</b> made for me. 这双鞋是为我特制的。/ The song was <b>specially</b> written for his birthday. 那首歌曲是特地为他的生日写的。/ I bought it <b>specially</b> for you. 这是我特地买给你的。/ Why did you choose that one <b>specially</b>? 你为什么偏偏挑中了那一个？</div><br><br>
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estimate
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>estimate 与 estimation</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 两者都有“评价，估价”的意义，有时候可以互换。但是 estimate 多用于对具体事物的“评估”，estimation 多用于对人或对抽象事物的“评价”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His <b>estimate</b> of the storm-related damages ran into the billions. 暴风雨造成的损失，他估计有数十亿元之巨。/ In the <b>estimation</b> of his countrymen, he was a great man. 在他本国同胞的心目中，他是个伟人。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> estimation of 后面是主动者还是被动者？如果 in the estimation of 后面是人，则这个人是主动者（“按照某人做出的评价”）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>In the estimation of</b> Picasso's friends, it acts like a memorandum for him. (<i>Janet Flanner, in The New Yorker, Mar. 9, 1957</i>) 在毕加索的朋友们看来，那像是给他的一份备忘录。但是如果 the 改为物主代词，则这个代词所代表的人是主动者，of 后面无论是人还是事物，都是被动者。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>his</b> own <b>estimation of</b> certain modern composers (<i>Warwick Braithwaite, The Conductor's Art</i>) 他本人对当代某些作曲家的评价。至于 of 后面不是人而是事物，那就更不可能是主动者。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>To divert interest from the poet to the poetry is a laudable aim: for it would conduce to a juster <b>estimation of</b> actual poetry, good and bad. (<i>T. S. Eliot</i>) 把注意力从诗人那里转移到诗本身那里去，是一个值得称道的目标：因为这一来，就有可能对真正的诗歌，无论好的坏的，都做出更为公正的评价。（参见 aggression 条）</div>
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estimation
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>estimate 与 estimation</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 两者都有“评价，估价”的意义，有时候可以互换。但是 estimate 多用于对具体事物的“评估”，estimation 多用于对人或对抽象事物的“评价”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His <b>estimate</b> of the storm-related damages ran into the billions. 暴风雨造成的损失，他估计有数十亿元之巨。/ In the <b>estimation</b> of his countrymen, he was a great man. 在他本国同胞的心目中，他是个伟人。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> estimation of 后面是主动者还是被动者？如果 in the estimation of 后面是人，则这个人是主动者（“按照某人做出的评价”）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>In the estimation of</b> Picasso's friends, it acts like a memorandum for him. (<i>Janet Flanner, in The New Yorker, Mar. 9, 1957</i>) 在毕加索的朋友们看来，那像是给他的一份备忘录。但是如果 the 改为物主代词，则这个代词所代表的人是主动者，of 后面无论是人还是事物，都是被动者。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>his</b> own <b>estimation of</b> certain modern composers (<i>Warwick Braithwaite, The Conductor's Art</i>) 他本人对当代某些作曲家的评价。至于 of 后面不是人而是事物，那就更不可能是主动者。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>To divert interest from the poet to the poetry is a laudable aim: for it would conduce to a juster <b>estimation of</b> actual poetry, good and bad. (<i>T. S. Eliot</i>) 把注意力从诗人那里转移到诗本身那里去，是一个值得称道的目标：因为这一来，就有可能对真正的诗歌，无论好的坏的，都做出更为公正的评价。（参见 aggression 条）</div>
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everyone
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>everybody 与 everyone</b></div>意义与用法完全相同，但 everyone 稍微正式一些。<br><br>
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everyday
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>everyday 与 every day</b></div>前者是形容词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>an <b>everyday</b> occurrence 每天常见的事情，家常便饭。</div><br><br>后者是状语词组。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It happens <b>every day</b>. 这是天天都发生的。</div><br><br>
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every day
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>everyday 与 every day</b></div>前者是形容词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>an <b>everyday</b> occurrence 每天常见的事情，家常便饭。</div><br><br>后者是状语词组。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It happens <b>every day</b>. 这是天天都发生的。</div><br><br>
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every one
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>everyone 与 every one</b></div>前者专门指人，即没有范围限制的“任何人”。后者必须即时或先前交代一个范围，而且这个范围可以是人，也可以是事物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In this small office, <b>everyone</b> knows <b>everyone</b>. 这个小办公室，人人都互相认识。/ <b>Every one</b> of these ties suits me fine. 这些领带都适合我。注意：无论前者还是后者，作主语时，谓语动词都要用单数，但意义是指全体。</div><br><br>
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example
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>example 与 instance</b></div>参见 instance 与 example 条。<br><br>
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instance
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>example 与 instance</b></div>参见 instance 与 example 条。<br><br>
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excess
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>excess 与 excessive</b></div>首先，excess 可以是名词或形容词，而 excessive 只能是形容词。excess 作为名词时指其超出或多出的那部分。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You can throw away any <b>excess</b>. 多余的你可以扔掉。excessive 则指某一数量或某一抽象对象过多，其整体超出了某个原有的量或标准。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>excessive price 过高的价格</div><div class="ex-item">excessive praise 过誉</div><div class="ex-item">excessive demand 过高的要求。excess 作为形容词时，指“多出的部分”，而 excessive 则指“应有 + 多出”的整体。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>excess luggage (英式英语为 baggage) 超重行李，即行李当中超出免费携带的那部分</div><div class="ex-item">excessive luggage 免费与超重行李的总和</div><div class="ex-item">trim the excess (<i>excessive) fat off the meat 将肉上多余的肥油去掉</div><div class="ex-item">the excess (</i>excessive) million dollars 多出的那 100 万美元。</div><br><br>
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excessive
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>excess 与 excessive</b></div>首先，excess 可以是名词或形容词，而 excessive 只能是形容词。excess 作为名词时指其超出或多出的那部分。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You can throw away any <b>excess</b>. 多余的你可以扔掉。excessive 则指某一数量或某一抽象对象过多，其整体超出了某个原有的量或标准。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>excessive price 过高的价格</div><div class="ex-item">excessive praise 过誉</div><div class="ex-item">excessive demand 过高的要求。excess 作为形容词时，指“多出的部分”，而 excessive 则指“应有 + 多出”的整体。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>excess luggage (英式英语为 baggage) 超重行李，即行李当中超出免费携带的那部分</div><div class="ex-item">excessive luggage 免费与超重行李的总和</div><div class="ex-item">trim the excess (<i>excessive) fat off the meat 将肉上多余的肥油去掉</div><div class="ex-item">the excess (</i>excessive) million dollars 多出的那 100 万美元。</div><br><br>
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expire
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>expire 与 mature</b></div>都是“到预定期限”的意思，但是有些不同。<br><br>expire 是“到期失效”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My passport is due to expire in three months. 我的护照再过三个月就要失效了。/ The lease on the house had expired. 房子的租约已经到期了。</div><br><br>mature 则恰恰相反，是“期满生效”，例如一笔定期存款到了期，就可以按照预定利率提取。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>These bonds mature in 2020. 这些债券 2020 年期满兑现。</div><br><br>
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mature
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>expire 与 mature</b></div>都是“到预定期限”的意思，但是有些不同。<br><br>expire 是“到期失效”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My passport is due to expire in three months. 我的护照再过三个月就要失效了。/ The lease on the house had expired. 房子的租约已经到期了。</div><br><br>mature 则恰恰相反，是“期满生效”，例如一笔定期存款到了期，就可以按照预定利率提取。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>These bonds mature in 2020. 这些债券 2020 年期满兑现。</div><br><br>
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fairly
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>fairly 与 rather</b></div>两者都可以用来修饰形容词或另一副词，表示“有相当高的程度，但并不很高”。但是：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 通常 fairly 用来修饰正面意义的形容词或副词，而 rather 则用来修饰负面意义的形容词或副词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Tom is fairly clever, but Peter is rather stupid. 汤姆相当聪明，但是彼得却相当傻。/ I walk fairly fast but he walks rather slowly. 我走得相当快，但是他却相当慢。</div><br><br>两者也都可以用来修饰形容词化了的动名词和过去分词，也是有正负面之分。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a fairly interesting film 一部很有意思的影片</div><div class="ex-item">a rather boring book 一本相当乏味的书</div><div class="ex-item">He was fairly relaxed; she was rather tense. 他相当放松；她却相当紧张。 (2) 说 a rather heavy box 或 rather a heavy box (一个相当沉重的箱子)均可，但只能说 a fairly light box，不能说 *fairly a light box。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 有些形容词或副词，本身的意义无所谓正面或负面，但是用 fairly 修饰时表示主观喜欢，用 rather 修饰时表示主观不喜欢。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The soup is fairly/rather hot. 用 fairly 时表示说话者喜欢喝热汤，用 rather 时表示说话者嫌汤太热。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> rather 也可以用于某些正面意义的形容词或副词，此时它的意义有了变化，从“相当”变为“很，十分”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She is rather clever. 她很聪明，赞扬的语气比 fairly 更强。例如说 it is a rather good play，意思就可能是推荐这出剧；而说 it is a fairly good play，意思只是“这出剧还可以”。有时候 rather 甚至可以表示一种出人意料的正面评价。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>— I suppose the house was filthy. — No, as a matter of fact it was rather clean. — 我猜想那栋房子当时一定很脏。— 不，其实它挺干净的。</div><br><br>
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fewer
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>fewer 与 less</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> fewer 是 few 的比较级，修饰可数名词；less 是 little 的比较级，修饰不可数名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Because fewer people attended the convention this year, there was a lot less noise. 由于今年参加大会的人少了，嘈杂的声音就小多了。但是，在实际使用中，许多人往往在可数名词前用 less 代替 fewer。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I've got less problems than I used to have. 我现在遇到的问题比以前少了。不过，这种用法，有人认为不正确。尤其是当用于人时，多说 fewer people 而少说 less people。(参见 less 与 fewer 条)</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> fewer 与 less 后面的名词如果没有限定词，就直接放在 fewer 或 less 之后。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Fewer people make their own bread these days. 现在，自己做面包的人更少了。</div><div class="ex-item">If you want to lose weight, eat less food. 想减轻体重，就少吃点。</div><br><br>但是，如果这个名词是有限定词的，或者是个代词，fewer 或 less 后面要加上 of 才能接上这个名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'd like to spend less of my time answering letters. 我真想少花点时间写回信。</div><div class="ex-item">At the college reunions, there are fewer of us each year. 我们回大学参加返校活动的人一年比一年少。</div><br><br>
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fit
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>fit, fitted, suitable 与 suited</b></div>这几个形容词，意义都是“适合的”，在大多数场合可以互换。但是除了相同点之外，也有些差别。 (1) fit 可以指人、物、抽象情况，后面可以用 for 引入另一名词，也可以用动词不定式 (该名词是动词不定式的逻辑主语，如果是被动通常要说 to be + pp.，如另有逻辑主语则要用 for 引入)。(a) fit 可以用于人。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a fit nominee 一个合适的提名人选</div><div class="ex-item">fit for the position 适合担任此职位</div><div class="ex-item">He is fit to carry out the plan. 他适合实施该计划。</div><br><br>be fit to inf. (inf. 是个瞬时动词) 还有“马上要如何如何”的负面意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She was fit to cry. 她马上要哭起来了。</div><div class="ex-item">I walked and walked till I was fit to drop. 我走呀走，直到马上要倒下来。</div>(b) fit 可以用于物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a feast fit for a king 一场适合国王享用的盛宴</div><div class="ex-item">water not fit to drink 不适宜饮用的水</div><div class="ex-item">a seaside town fit for old people to live in 适合老年人居住的海滨小镇</div><div class="ex-item">a car only fit for the scrapheap 一辆只适合扔到废铁堆去的汽车</div><div class="ex-item">fields fit to be planted 适宜耕种的田野</div><div class="ex-item">a wooden image movable and fit to be carried in procession (George Santayana) 一个可移动的、适合在迎神赛会上抬着的木制神像。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 以上的 fit，可以用 suitable 来代替，但是 suitable 后面不习惯用动词不定式，通常只用 for 或 to 加名词或 for 加动名词。<br><br>可以指人。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>suitable for the job 适合干这工作的。</div><br><br>可以指物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>books suitable for children 适合儿童阅读的书</div><div class="ex-item">disposable diapers suitable for babies up to 8 pounds 适合 8 磅以下婴儿使用的一次性尿布</div><div class="ex-item">These shoes are not suitable for walking (*to walk). 这些鞋子不适合走路。</div><br><br>可以指抽象事物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His conduct was not suitable to the occasion. 他的行为，同这个场合不适应。</div><div class="ex-item">The problem is suitable for class discussion. 这个问题适合进行课堂讨论。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> fitted 同 fit 一样可以指人的素质和条件适合某一角色，但是 fitted 通常不用来指具体物件或是抽象事物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She is well fitted for this job. 她很适合干这个工作。</div><div class="ex-item">Those best fitted to the work will be chosen. 最适合这工作的会被选上。</div><br><br>suited 的意义和用法，同 fitted 差不多。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He doesn't seem suited for the role. 他似乎不适合这个角色。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> fit 除了派生出 fitted 形式外，还有一个 fitting 形式。fitting 的意义通常限于对一件事的看法尤其是做法，认为它“恰如其分”或是“理所当然”。fitting 通常用于 it is fitting that ... 的句型 (that 可以略去)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... given that I have acted wrongly, it is fitting that I suffer the unpleasant experience of remorse. (Ramon M. Lemos, Rights, Goods, and Democracy) ……我既然做错了，那我遭到悔不当初的不愉快经历，就是理所当然的。</div><div class="ex-item">It is fitting that we honor the life of a great American in a church who derived his inspiration from the church. It is fitting that we honor this great American in a church because, out of the church comes the notion of equality and justice. (George W. Bush, honoring Martin Luther King, Jr. Jan. 20, 2003) 我们今天到教堂来缅怀一位从教会获取灵感的伟大的美国人，这是合适的。我们到教堂来缅怀这位伟大的美国人，其所以合适，是因为平等与正义的观念是来自教会的。fitting 也可以作前置定语放在名词前面。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We should offer fitting thanks to God. 我们应该向上帝表示应有的感恩。</div><br><br>要加强语气时，除了说 it is very fitting that ... 之外，还可以说 it is only fitting that ...。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>So it was only fitting that county Democrats would return the favor Tuesday night. (The Daily Gazette, Feb. 6, 2008, A1) 本县的民主党人星期二晚上表示报答，那是题中应有之义。</div><br><br>it is fitting that 有时候还可以有“恰巧对应”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is fitting that 500 years after Augustus built this port, his empire would end here. 奥古斯都建立起这个港口后 500 年，他的那个帝国恰巧在这里结束。也可以有“并非偶然”的意思。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is fitting that the most sublime works in all of Europe would come from such a dynamic life. 全欧洲最了不起的作品，来自此人动荡的一生，这并非偶然。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 与 it is fitting that 相类似，形容词 fit 也有同样结构的用法 (这是 suitable、suited、fitted 都没有的)，但不能光说 it is fit that，要在 fit 前面加上 only 或 quite；如果是否定句，则可以不加，径直说 it is not fit that (从句中的谓语动词用虚拟式的 should，没有“应该”之意，或者用动词原形作为虚拟式)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is not fit that you should stay here. (= It is not fit for you to stay here.) 你留在这里是不合适的。</div><div class="ex-item">It is very important that we pursue space travel, and as Mars is our next-door-neighbor, it is only fit that we go there first. 我们进行太空旅行是十分重要的，而由于火星是我们的近邻，我们先到火星去是很合适的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 在 fit 前面加上及物动词 see、find 或 think，可以略去形式宾语 it (只有 see、find 与 think 后面可以略去 it)，再在后面加动词不定式作真宾语，表示“觉得 (做某事) 是合适的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He didn't think/see fit to recognize me. 他觉得认出我不合适。</div><div class="ex-item">Do as you think/see fit. 你觉得怎样合适就怎样办。</div><div class="ex-item">He saw fit to go to the ball without his fiancée. 他觉得，不带未婚妻，自己一个人去舞会，是合适的。如果不用 fit 而用 suitable，则形式宾语 it 就不能省略。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We found it suitable to upgrade the interface. 我们觉得，把界面升级是合适的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> fit 前面加上系动词 feel 或 keep，意义就从“合适的”变为“身体健康的；精力充沛的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He felt fit to travel. 他觉得自己有精力去旅行。</div><div class="ex-item">The team was fit for the game. 球队精力充沛地备战。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> 作为动词，fit 更多指某衣物或其他物件“合 (某人的身材)”，suit 则更多指某抽象事物“合 (某人的状况或需要)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A 58 bike frame will fit me perfectly. 五八的自行车架子就完全合我身材。</div><div class="ex-item">The dress fits me perfectly. 这套衣服完全合我身。</div><div class="ex-item">Sitting in the middle of the row will suit me perfectly. 坐在一排的中间，对我再合适不过了。</div><br><br>
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fitted
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>fit, fitted, suitable 与 suited</b></div>这几个形容词，意义都是“适合的”，在大多数场合可以互换。但是除了相同点之外，也有些差别。 (1) fit 可以指人、物、抽象情况，后面可以用 for 引入另一名词，也可以用动词不定式 (该名词是动词不定式的逻辑主语，如果是被动通常要说 to be + pp.，如另有逻辑主语则要用 for 引入)。(a) fit 可以用于人。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a fit nominee 一个合适的提名人选</div><div class="ex-item">fit for the position 适合担任此职位</div><div class="ex-item">He is fit to carry out the plan. 他适合实施该计划。</div><br><br>be fit to inf. (inf. 是个瞬时动词) 还有“马上要如何如何”的负面意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She was fit to cry. 她马上要哭起来了。</div><div class="ex-item">I walked and walked till I was fit to drop. 我走呀走，直到马上要倒下来。</div>(b) fit 可以用于物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a feast fit for a king 一场适合国王享用的盛宴</div><div class="ex-item">water not fit to drink 不适宜饮用的水</div><div class="ex-item">a seaside town fit for old people to live in 适合老年人居住的海滨小镇</div><div class="ex-item">a car only fit for the scrapheap 一辆只适合扔到废铁堆去的汽车</div><div class="ex-item">fields fit to be planted 适宜耕种的田野</div><div class="ex-item">a wooden image movable and fit to be carried in procession (George Santayana) 一个可移动的、适合在迎神赛会上抬着的木制神像。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 以上的 fit，可以用 suitable 来代替，但是 suitable 后面不习惯用动词不定式，通常只用 for 或 to 加名词或 for 加动名词。<br><br>可以指人。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>suitable for the job 适合干这工作的。</div><br><br>可以指物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>books suitable for children 适合儿童阅读的书</div><div class="ex-item">disposable diapers suitable for babies up to 8 pounds 适合 8 磅以下婴儿使用的一次性尿布</div><div class="ex-item">These shoes are not suitable for walking (*to walk). 这些鞋子不适合走路。</div><br><br>可以指抽象事物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His conduct was not suitable to the occasion. 他的行为，同这个场合不适应。</div><div class="ex-item">The problem is suitable for class discussion. 这个问题适合进行课堂讨论。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> fitted 同 fit 一样可以指人的素质和条件适合某一角色，但是 fitted 通常不用来指具体物件或是抽象事物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She is well fitted for this job. 她很适合干这个工作。</div><div class="ex-item">Those best fitted to the work will be chosen. 最适合这工作的会被选上。</div><br><br>suited 的意义和用法，同 fitted 差不多。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He doesn't seem suited for the role. 他似乎不适合这个角色。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> fit 除了派生出 fitted 形式外，还有一个 fitting 形式。fitting 的意义通常限于对一件事的看法尤其是做法，认为它“恰如其分”或是“理所当然”。fitting 通常用于 it is fitting that ... 的句型 (that 可以略去)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... given that I have acted wrongly, it is fitting that I suffer the unpleasant experience of remorse. (Ramon M. Lemos, Rights, Goods, and Democracy) ……我既然做错了，那我遭到悔不当初的不愉快经历，就是理所当然的。</div><div class="ex-item">It is fitting that we honor the life of a great American in a church who derived his inspiration from the church. It is fitting that we honor this great American in a church because, out of the church comes the notion of equality and justice. (George W. Bush, honoring Martin Luther King, Jr. Jan. 20, 2003) 我们今天到教堂来缅怀一位从教会获取灵感的伟大的美国人，这是合适的。我们到教堂来缅怀这位伟大的美国人，其所以合适，是因为平等与正义的观念是来自教会的。fitting 也可以作前置定语放在名词前面。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We should offer fitting thanks to God. 我们应该向上帝表示应有的感恩。</div><br><br>要加强语气时，除了说 it is very fitting that ... 之外，还可以说 it is only fitting that ...。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>So it was only fitting that county Democrats would return the favor Tuesday night. (The Daily Gazette, Feb. 6, 2008, A1) 本县的民主党人星期二晚上表示报答，那是题中应有之义。</div><br><br>it is fitting that 有时候还可以有“恰巧对应”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is fitting that 500 years after Augustus built this port, his empire would end here. 奥古斯都建立起这个港口后 500 年，他的那个帝国恰巧在这里结束。也可以有“并非偶然”的意思。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is fitting that the most sublime works in all of Europe would come from such a dynamic life. 全欧洲最了不起的作品，来自此人动荡的一生，这并非偶然。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 与 it is fitting that 相类似，形容词 fit 也有同样结构的用法 (这是 suitable、suited、fitted 都没有的)，但不能光说 it is fit that，要在 fit 前面加上 only 或 quite；如果是否定句，则可以不加，径直说 it is not fit that (从句中的谓语动词用虚拟式的 should，没有“应该”之意，或者用动词原形作为虚拟式)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is not fit that you should stay here. (= It is not fit for you to stay here.) 你留在这里是不合适的。</div><div class="ex-item">It is very important that we pursue space travel, and as Mars is our next-door-neighbor, it is only fit that we go there first. 我们进行太空旅行是十分重要的，而由于火星是我们的近邻，我们先到火星去是很合适的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 在 fit 前面加上及物动词 see、find 或 think，可以略去形式宾语 it (只有 see、find 与 think 后面可以略去 it)，再在后面加动词不定式作真宾语，表示“觉得 (做某事) 是合适的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He didn't think/see fit to recognize me. 他觉得认出我不合适。</div><div class="ex-item">Do as you think/see fit. 你觉得怎样合适就怎样办。</div><div class="ex-item">He saw fit to go to the ball without his fiancée. 他觉得，不带未婚妻，自己一个人去舞会，是合适的。如果不用 fit 而用 suitable，则形式宾语 it 就不能省略。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We found it suitable to upgrade the interface. 我们觉得，把界面升级是合适的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> fit 前面加上系动词 feel 或 keep，意义就从“合适的”变为“身体健康的；精力充沛的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He felt fit to travel. 他觉得自己有精力去旅行。</div><div class="ex-item">The team was fit for the game. 球队精力充沛地备战。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> 作为动词，fit 更多指某衣物或其他物件“合 (某人的身材)”，suit 则更多指某抽象事物“合 (某人的状况或需要)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A 58 bike frame will fit me perfectly. 五八的自行车架子就完全合我身材。</div><div class="ex-item">The dress fits me perfectly. 这套衣服完全合我身。</div><div class="ex-item">Sitting in the middle of the row will suit me perfectly. 坐在一排的中间，对我再合适不过了。</div><br><br>
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suited
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>fit, fitted, suitable 与 suited</b></div>这几个形容词，意义都是“适合的”，在大多数场合可以互换。但是除了相同点之外，也有些差别。 (1) fit 可以指人、物、抽象情况，后面可以用 for 引入另一名词，也可以用动词不定式 (该名词是动词不定式的逻辑主语，如果是被动通常要说 to be + pp.，如另有逻辑主语则要用 for 引入)。(a) fit 可以用于人。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a fit nominee 一个合适的提名人选</div><div class="ex-item">fit for the position 适合担任此职位</div><div class="ex-item">He is fit to carry out the plan. 他适合实施该计划。</div><br><br>be fit to inf. (inf. 是个瞬时动词) 还有“马上要如何如何”的负面意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She was fit to cry. 她马上要哭起来了。</div><div class="ex-item">I walked and walked till I was fit to drop. 我走呀走，直到马上要倒下来。</div>(b) fit 可以用于物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a feast fit for a king 一场适合国王享用的盛宴</div><div class="ex-item">water not fit to drink 不适宜饮用的水</div><div class="ex-item">a seaside town fit for old people to live in 适合老年人居住的海滨小镇</div><div class="ex-item">a car only fit for the scrapheap 一辆只适合扔到废铁堆去的汽车</div><div class="ex-item">fields fit to be planted 适宜耕种的田野</div><div class="ex-item">a wooden image movable and fit to be carried in procession (George Santayana) 一个可移动的、适合在迎神赛会上抬着的木制神像。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 以上的 fit，可以用 suitable 来代替，但是 suitable 后面不习惯用动词不定式，通常只用 for 或 to 加名词或 for 加动名词。<br><br>可以指人。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>suitable for the job 适合干这工作的。</div><br><br>可以指物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>books suitable for children 适合儿童阅读的书</div><div class="ex-item">disposable diapers suitable for babies up to 8 pounds 适合 8 磅以下婴儿使用的一次性尿布</div><div class="ex-item">These shoes are not suitable for walking (*to walk). 这些鞋子不适合走路。</div><br><br>可以指抽象事物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His conduct was not suitable to the occasion. 他的行为，同这个场合不适应。</div><div class="ex-item">The problem is suitable for class discussion. 这个问题适合进行课堂讨论。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> fitted 同 fit 一样可以指人的素质和条件适合某一角色，但是 fitted 通常不用来指具体物件或是抽象事物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She is well fitted for this job. 她很适合干这个工作。</div><div class="ex-item">Those best fitted to the work will be chosen. 最适合这工作的会被选上。</div><br><br>suited 的意义和用法，同 fitted 差不多。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He doesn't seem suited for the role. 他似乎不适合这个角色。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> fit 除了派生出 fitted 形式外，还有一个 fitting 形式。fitting 的意义通常限于对一件事的看法尤其是做法，认为它“恰如其分”或是“理所当然”。fitting 通常用于 it is fitting that ... 的句型 (that 可以略去)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... given that I have acted wrongly, it is fitting that I suffer the unpleasant experience of remorse. (Ramon M. Lemos, Rights, Goods, and Democracy) ……我既然做错了，那我遭到悔不当初的不愉快经历，就是理所当然的。</div><div class="ex-item">It is fitting that we honor the life of a great American in a church who derived his inspiration from the church. It is fitting that we honor this great American in a church because, out of the church comes the notion of equality and justice. (George W. Bush, honoring Martin Luther King, Jr. Jan. 20, 2003) 我们今天到教堂来缅怀一位从教会获取灵感的伟大的美国人，这是合适的。我们到教堂来缅怀这位伟大的美国人，其所以合适，是因为平等与正义的观念是来自教会的。fitting 也可以作前置定语放在名词前面。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We should offer fitting thanks to God. 我们应该向上帝表示应有的感恩。</div><br><br>要加强语气时，除了说 it is very fitting that ... 之外，还可以说 it is only fitting that ...。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>So it was only fitting that county Democrats would return the favor Tuesday night. (The Daily Gazette, Feb. 6, 2008, A1) 本县的民主党人星期二晚上表示报答，那是题中应有之义。</div><br><br>it is fitting that 有时候还可以有“恰巧对应”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is fitting that 500 years after Augustus built this port, his empire would end here. 奥古斯都建立起这个港口后 500 年，他的那个帝国恰巧在这里结束。也可以有“并非偶然”的意思。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is fitting that the most sublime works in all of Europe would come from such a dynamic life. 全欧洲最了不起的作品，来自此人动荡的一生，这并非偶然。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 与 it is fitting that 相类似，形容词 fit 也有同样结构的用法 (这是 suitable、suited、fitted 都没有的)，但不能光说 it is fit that，要在 fit 前面加上 only 或 quite；如果是否定句，则可以不加，径直说 it is not fit that (从句中的谓语动词用虚拟式的 should，没有“应该”之意，或者用动词原形作为虚拟式)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is not fit that you should stay here. (= It is not fit for you to stay here.) 你留在这里是不合适的。</div><div class="ex-item">It is very important that we pursue space travel, and as Mars is our next-door-neighbor, it is only fit that we go there first. 我们进行太空旅行是十分重要的，而由于火星是我们的近邻，我们先到火星去是很合适的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 在 fit 前面加上及物动词 see、find 或 think，可以略去形式宾语 it (只有 see、find 与 think 后面可以略去 it)，再在后面加动词不定式作真宾语，表示“觉得 (做某事) 是合适的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He didn't think/see fit to recognize me. 他觉得认出我不合适。</div><div class="ex-item">Do as you think/see fit. 你觉得怎样合适就怎样办。</div><div class="ex-item">He saw fit to go to the ball without his fiancée. 他觉得，不带未婚妻，自己一个人去舞会，是合适的。如果不用 fit 而用 suitable，则形式宾语 it 就不能省略。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We found it suitable to upgrade the interface. 我们觉得，把界面升级是合适的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> fit 前面加上系动词 feel 或 keep，意义就从“合适的”变为“身体健康的；精力充沛的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He felt fit to travel. 他觉得自己有精力去旅行。</div><div class="ex-item">The team was fit for the game. 球队精力充沛地备战。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> 作为动词，fit 更多指某衣物或其他物件“合 (某人的身材)”，suit 则更多指某抽象事物“合 (某人的状况或需要)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A 58 bike frame will fit me perfectly. 五八的自行车架子就完全合我身材。</div><div class="ex-item">The dress fits me perfectly. 这套衣服完全合我身。</div><div class="ex-item">Sitting in the middle of the row will suit me perfectly. 坐在一排的中间，对我再合适不过了。</div><br><br>
</>
suitable
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>fit, fitted, suitable 与 suited</b></div>这几个形容词，意义都是“适合的”，在大多数场合可以互换。但是除了相同点之外，也有些差别。 (1) fit 可以指人、物、抽象情况，后面可以用 for 引入另一名词，也可以用动词不定式 (该名词是动词不定式的逻辑主语，如果是被动通常要说 to be + pp.，如另有逻辑主语则要用 for 引入)。(a) fit 可以用于人。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a fit nominee 一个合适的提名人选</div><div class="ex-item">fit for the position 适合担任此职位</div><div class="ex-item">He is fit to carry out the plan. 他适合实施该计划。</div><br><br>be fit to inf. (inf. 是个瞬时动词) 还有“马上要如何如何”的负面意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She was fit to cry. 她马上要哭起来了。</div><div class="ex-item">I walked and walked till I was fit to drop. 我走呀走，直到马上要倒下来。</div>(b) fit 可以用于物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a feast fit for a king 一场适合国王享用的盛宴</div><div class="ex-item">water not fit to drink 不适宜饮用的水</div><div class="ex-item">a seaside town fit for old people to live in 适合老年人居住的海滨小镇</div><div class="ex-item">a car only fit for the scrapheap 一辆只适合扔到废铁堆去的汽车</div><div class="ex-item">fields fit to be planted 适宜耕种的田野</div><div class="ex-item">a wooden image movable and fit to be carried in procession (George Santayana) 一个可移动的、适合在迎神赛会上抬着的木制神像。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 以上的 fit，可以用 suitable 来代替，但是 suitable 后面不习惯用动词不定式，通常只用 for 或 to 加名词或 for 加动名词。<br><br>可以指人。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>suitable for the job 适合干这工作的。</div><br><br>可以指物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>books suitable for children 适合儿童阅读的书</div><div class="ex-item">disposable diapers suitable for babies up to 8 pounds 适合 8 磅以下婴儿使用的一次性尿布</div><div class="ex-item">These shoes are not suitable for walking (*to walk). 这些鞋子不适合走路。</div><br><br>可以指抽象事物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His conduct was not suitable to the occasion. 他的行为，同这个场合不适应。</div><div class="ex-item">The problem is suitable for class discussion. 这个问题适合进行课堂讨论。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> fitted 同 fit 一样可以指人的素质和条件适合某一角色，但是 fitted 通常不用来指具体物件或是抽象事物。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She is well fitted for this job. 她很适合干这个工作。</div><div class="ex-item">Those best fitted to the work will be chosen. 最适合这工作的会被选上。</div><br><br>suited 的意义和用法，同 fitted 差不多。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He doesn't seem suited for the role. 他似乎不适合这个角色。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> fit 除了派生出 fitted 形式外，还有一个 fitting 形式。fitting 的意义通常限于对一件事的看法尤其是做法，认为它“恰如其分”或是“理所当然”。fitting 通常用于 it is fitting that ... 的句型 (that 可以略去)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... given that I have acted wrongly, it is fitting that I suffer the unpleasant experience of remorse. (Ramon M. Lemos, Rights, Goods, and Democracy) ……我既然做错了，那我遭到悔不当初的不愉快经历，就是理所当然的。</div><div class="ex-item">It is fitting that we honor the life of a great American in a church who derived his inspiration from the church. It is fitting that we honor this great American in a church because, out of the church comes the notion of equality and justice. (George W. Bush, honoring Martin Luther King, Jr. Jan. 20, 2003) 我们今天到教堂来缅怀一位从教会获取灵感的伟大的美国人，这是合适的。我们到教堂来缅怀这位伟大的美国人，其所以合适，是因为平等与正义的观念是来自教会的。fitting 也可以作前置定语放在名词前面。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We should offer fitting thanks to God. 我们应该向上帝表示应有的感恩。</div><br><br>要加强语气时，除了说 it is very fitting that ... 之外，还可以说 it is only fitting that ...。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>So it was only fitting that county Democrats would return the favor Tuesday night. (The Daily Gazette, Feb. 6, 2008, A1) 本县的民主党人星期二晚上表示报答，那是题中应有之义。</div><br><br>it is fitting that 有时候还可以有“恰巧对应”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is fitting that 500 years after Augustus built this port, his empire would end here. 奥古斯都建立起这个港口后 500 年，他的那个帝国恰巧在这里结束。也可以有“并非偶然”的意思。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is fitting that the most sublime works in all of Europe would come from such a dynamic life. 全欧洲最了不起的作品，来自此人动荡的一生，这并非偶然。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 与 it is fitting that 相类似，形容词 fit 也有同样结构的用法 (这是 suitable、suited、fitted 都没有的)，但不能光说 it is fit that，要在 fit 前面加上 only 或 quite；如果是否定句，则可以不加，径直说 it is not fit that (从句中的谓语动词用虚拟式的 should，没有“应该”之意，或者用动词原形作为虚拟式)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is not fit that you should stay here. (= It is not fit for you to stay here.) 你留在这里是不合适的。</div><div class="ex-item">It is very important that we pursue space travel, and as Mars is our next-door-neighbor, it is only fit that we go there first. 我们进行太空旅行是十分重要的，而由于火星是我们的近邻，我们先到火星去是很合适的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 在 fit 前面加上及物动词 see、find 或 think，可以略去形式宾语 it (只有 see、find 与 think 后面可以略去 it)，再在后面加动词不定式作真宾语，表示“觉得 (做某事) 是合适的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He didn't think/see fit to recognize me. 他觉得认出我不合适。</div><div class="ex-item">Do as you think/see fit. 你觉得怎样合适就怎样办。</div><div class="ex-item">He saw fit to go to the ball without his fiancée. 他觉得，不带未婚妻，自己一个人去舞会，是合适的。如果不用 fit 而用 suitable，则形式宾语 it 就不能省略。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We found it suitable to upgrade the interface. 我们觉得，把界面升级是合适的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> fit 前面加上系动词 feel 或 keep，意义就从“合适的”变为“身体健康的；精力充沛的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He felt fit to travel. 他觉得自己有精力去旅行。</div><div class="ex-item">The team was fit for the game. 球队精力充沛地备战。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> 作为动词，fit 更多指某衣物或其他物件“合 (某人的身材)”，suit 则更多指某抽象事物“合 (某人的状况或需要)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A 58 bike frame will fit me perfectly. 五八的自行车架子就完全合我身材。</div><div class="ex-item">The dress fits me perfectly. 这套衣服完全合我身。</div><div class="ex-item">Sitting in the middle of the row will suit me perfectly. 坐在一排的中间，对我再合适不过了。</div><br><br>
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flammable
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>flammable 与 inflammable</b></div>尽管后者有前缀 in-，但这个 in- 没有否定的意思。两者都是“易燃的” (科研用语似乎多用 flammable，工业用语似乎多用 inflammable，但是美国一些换液化气罐的地点在告示牌上常用 flammable 而不用 inflammable)。只有 inflammable 可以转义为“易发火的，易怒的；冲突一触即发的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There was an inflammable confrontation between the two countries. 两国彼此对峙，冲突一触即发。为“易发火的，易怒的；冲突一触即发的”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There was an inflammable confrontation between the two countries. 两国彼此对峙，冲突一触即发。in- 没有否定意义的情况，又参见 inhabitable 与 habitable 条。</div><br><br>有时候，in- 有否定意义，但是有 in- 和没有 in- “殊途同归”。例如 valuable 是“宝贵的”，invaluable 是“宝贵得无法估价的”，结果实际意义又重合了 (当然，invaluable 意义似乎更重一些)。<br><br>
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inflammable
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>flammable 与 inflammable</b></div>尽管后者有前缀 in-，但这个 in- 没有否定的意思。两者都是“易燃的” (科研用语似乎多用 flammable，工业用语似乎多用 inflammable，但是美国一些换液化气罐的地点在告示牌上常用 flammable 而不用 inflammable)。只有 inflammable 可以转义为“易发火的，易怒的；冲突一触即发的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There was an inflammable confrontation between the two countries. 两国彼此对峙，冲突一触即发。为“易发火的，易怒的；冲突一触即发的”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There was an inflammable confrontation between the two countries. 两国彼此对峙，冲突一触即发。in- 没有否定意义的情况，又参见 inhabitable 与 habitable 条。</div><br><br>有时候，in- 有否定意义，但是有 in- 和没有 in- “殊途同归”。例如 valuable 是“宝贵的”，invaluable 是“宝贵得无法估价的”，结果实际意义又重合了 (当然，invaluable 意义似乎更重一些)。<br><br>
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meat
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>flesh 与 meat</b></div>两者的区别，参见 meat 与 flesh 条。另外，flesh 还有几个特别的意义和用法：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 虽然不能指食用的动物肉，但是可以指食用的植物果实中的肉质。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Cut the avocado in half and remove the flesh. 把鳄梨切成两半，把里面的肉拿掉。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> “灵” (soul) 与 “肉” (flesh) 在哲学和宗教中常常是一对对立的概念。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> flesh 还有“肉体感官 (享受)”的意义，甚至指色欲。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the comforts and pleasures of the flesh 肉体的舒适和享乐。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> flesh and blood 可以表示：(a) “骨肉至亲” (注意英文不用“骨”而用“血”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How can I do it? They're my flesh and blood! 我怎能这样做？他们是我的亲骨肉啊！</div>(b) “血肉之躯，凡胎” (注意在这里中英文都用“血”和“肉”，但英文先“肉”后“血”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm only flesh and blood after all. 我终究是个血肉凡胎呀。</div><div class="ex-item">Even metaphorical wars can have flesh-and-blood casualties. (The New York Times, Nov. 27, 2007, F5) 即使是打比方的战争，也可能有真正血肉的伤亡。</div>(c) “活生生的，有鼻子有眼的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a flesh-and-blood princess 一个活生生的公主。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> pound of flesh 有个典故。莎士比亚戏剧《威尼斯商人》中放高利贷者夏洛克借给巴萨尼奥一笔款，条件是到期不能归还就要割他身上的一磅肉。后来 pound of flesh 成了惯用语，指苛刻的报复。要注意的是，extract one's pound of flesh，这个 flesh 不是 one 身上的，而是 one 所索取的。<br><br>
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flesh
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>flesh 与 meat</b></div>两者的区别，参见 meat 与 flesh 条。另外，flesh 还有几个特别的意义和用法：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 虽然不能指食用的动物肉，但是可以指食用的植物果实中的肉质。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Cut the avocado in half and remove the flesh. 把鳄梨切成两半，把里面的肉拿掉。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> “灵” (soul) 与 “肉” (flesh) 在哲学和宗教中常常是一对对立的概念。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> flesh 还有“肉体感官 (享受)”的意义，甚至指色欲。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the comforts and pleasures of the flesh 肉体的舒适和享乐。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> flesh and blood 可以表示：(a) “骨肉至亲” (注意英文不用“骨”而用“血”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How can I do it? They're my flesh and blood! 我怎能这样做？他们是我的亲骨肉啊！</div>(b) “血肉之躯，凡胎” (注意在这里中英文都用“血”和“肉”，但英文先“肉”后“血”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm only flesh and blood after all. 我终究是个血肉凡胎呀。</div><div class="ex-item">Even metaphorical wars can have flesh-and-blood casualties. (The New York Times, Nov. 27, 2007, F5) 即使是打比方的战争，也可能有真正血肉的伤亡。</div>(c) “活生生的，有鼻子有眼的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a flesh-and-blood princess 一个活生生的公主。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> pound of flesh 有个典故。莎士比亚戏剧《威尼斯商人》中放高利贷者夏洛克借给巴萨尼奥一笔款，条件是到期不能归还就要割他身上的一磅肉。后来 pound of flesh 成了惯用语，指苛刻的报复。要注意的是，extract one's pound of flesh，这个 flesh 不是 one 身上的，而是 one 所索取的。<br><br>
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floor
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>floor 与 storey</b></div>两者都是指“楼层”，一般可以互换 (storey 在美式英语中为 story)。不过，说建筑物内部具体的第几层，用 floor 比用 storey 多些，如 on the fifth floor。说楼层的数量或几层楼 (尤其是从建筑物外部的角度来说)，则较多用 storey。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the upperstoreys of the building 大楼的上面几层</div><div class="ex-item">a multi-storey building 一幢多层的大楼</div><div class="ex-item">a billboard several stories in height 有好几层楼高的广告牌。但这并不是绝对的，也可以说 the upper floors of the building 和 a multi-floor building。</div><br><br>此外，楼层的编号，英美有差别。美国的排法同中国相同，底层是一楼 (first floor)，上一层是二楼 (second floor)，以此类推。英国则底层是 ground floor，上一层是一楼 (first floor)，再上一层是二楼，以此类推，总之，比美国和中国少算一层。<br><br>
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storey
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>floor 与 storey</b></div>两者都是指“楼层”，一般可以互换 (storey 在美式英语中为 story)。不过，说建筑物内部具体的第几层，用 floor 比用 storey 多些，如 on the fifth floor。说楼层的数量或几层楼 (尤其是从建筑物外部的角度来说)，则较多用 storey。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the upperstoreys of the building 大楼的上面几层</div><div class="ex-item">a multi-storey building 一幢多层的大楼</div><div class="ex-item">a billboard several stories in height 有好几层楼高的广告牌。但这并不是绝对的，也可以说 the upper floors of the building 和 a multi-floor building。</div><br><br>此外，楼层的编号，英美有差别。美国的排法同中国相同，底层是一楼 (first floor)，上一层是二楼 (second floor)，以此类推。英国则底层是 ground floor，上一层是一楼 (first floor)，再上一层是二楼，以此类推，总之，比美国和中国少算一层。<br><br>
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soccer
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>football 与 soccer</b></div>前者是美国以外对足球的叫法，在美国则专指美式足球。美国以 soccer 称普通足球。soccer 一词来自英国 1863 年制定足球规则的足球协会(Football Association)。为了与其他足球种类相区别，从 association 中取 soc 三个字母，形成 soccer 一词，传入了美国，英国反而不用。<br><br>
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football
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>football 与 soccer</b></div>前者是美国以外对足球的叫法，在美国则专指美式足球。美国以 soccer 称普通足球。soccer 一词来自英国 1863 年制定足球规则的足球协会(Football Association)。为了与其他足球种类相区别，从 association 中取 soc 三个字母，形成 soccer 一词，传入了美国，英国反而不用。<br><br>
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forbid
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>forbid 与 prohibit</b></div>参见 prohibit 与 forbid 条。<br><br>
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prohibit
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>forbid 与 prohibit</b></div>参见 prohibit 与 forbid 条。<br><br>
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for that matter
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(for that) matter</b></div>这个词组，通常可以用来代替前面说过的一个肯定或否定的动词，避免重复。通常的用法是：前面说了一句“主—谓—状”结构的句子，后面一句放一个同前句的状语不同的另一个状语，句末在逗号后 (或没有逗号) 加上 (或在句中插入) for thatmatter，表示“在另一种情境下做前面的事，也是一样”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's fun to play in the mud, but not so fun to get stuck in it. Or anywhere else <b>for that matter</b> (= Or to get stuck anywhere else). (STP ad) 在泥地里玩耍是很有趣的，但是陷在泥地里可就不那么有趣了。陷在任何别处也都不那么有趣。</div><div class="ex-item">You can have it with rice or pasta; or both, <b>for that matter</b> (= or have it with both). 这可以伴着米饭或者面条吃；也可以两样同时伴着吃。</div><div class="ex-item">I wouldn't tell you; or anyone else, <b>for that matter</b> (= or tell any one else). 我不会告诉你，也不会告诉任何其他人。</div><div class="ex-item">I know that I shall have some fuss with wife about that; and, <b>for that matter</b>, about Tom, too. (Harriet Beecher Stowe, <i>Uncle Tom's Cabin</i>) 我知道，我一定会同老婆因为这件事，也因为汤姆的事，闹得有点不愉快。</div><div class="ex-item">Also, I've been reading Spencer's <i>Philosophy of Style</i>, and found out a lot of what was the matter with me or my writing, rather, and <b>for that matter</b> with most of the writing that is published every month in the magazines. (Jack London, <i>Martin Eden</i>) 而且我一直在看斯宾塞的《风格哲学》，找出了我自己的问题或是我写作中的问题，而且同样也找出了杂志上每个月刊登的大多数文章的问题。</div><br><br>但是有时候后面一句可以不略去前句的谓语，再重复一次，此时 for that matter 就只有强调“同样”的状语意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He's shaking with the cold. So am I, <b>for that matter</b> (= So am I). 他冷得发抖。我也是。</div><div class="ex-item">Plus there are some parts that really bug me. How does Holmes make a living? Never once does he actually charge these people for his services. Where does his cash come from? And <b>for that matter</b> (= likewise) where does Watson get his money from? 小说中有些地方简直让我莫名其妙。福尔摩斯是靠什么过活的? 他一次也没有向人家索取过服务费用。他的钱是从哪里来的? 同样，华生的钱又是从哪里来的?</div><div class="ex-item">I don't know why she wanted to fly to Salt Lake City in this weather, or why she wanted to fly at all <b>for that matter</b>. 我不知道这样的天气，她为什么还想飞到盐湖城去，而且本来往哪里飞都不合适嘛。</div><br><br>
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flee
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>free 与 flee</b></div>要注意发音和意义的不同。前者是形容词，后者是动词(“逃走，逃离”)。另外，与 flee 同音的 flea 是名词(“跳蚤”)。有一个拿 free 与 flea 发音相近来开玩笑的例子，说一家商店非常肮脏，蚊虫跳蚤到处都是，门口贴了告示：Buy one get one <b>flea</b>. 这是仿效 Buy one get one <b>free</b> (买一送一)，但却成了“买一奉送跳蚤一只”。<br><br>
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in/on
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>from 与 in/on</b></div>take a plate <b>from</b> the drawer 与 take a plate <b>in</b> the drawer 都是说得通的，语义相同，但是句法构造有差别。用 from 时，from the drawer 是个状语，修饰动词 take (“从抽屉里拿出一个盘子”)；用 in 时，in the drawer 是个后置定语，修饰名词 plate (“拿出抽屉里的一个盘子”)。take a book <b>from</b> the shelve 与 take a book <b>on</b> the shelve 也有同样的区别。<br><br>
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from 与 in
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>from 与 in/on</b></div>take a plate <b>from</b> the drawer 与 take a plate <b>in</b> the drawer 都是说得通的，语义相同，但是句法构造有差别。用 from 时，from the drawer 是个状语，修饰动词 take (“从抽屉里拿出一个盘子”)；用 in 时，in the drawer 是个后置定语，修饰名词 plate (“拿出抽屉里的一个盘子”)。take a book <b>from</b> the shelve 与 take a book <b>on</b> the shelve 也有同样的区别。<br><br>
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from 与 on
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>from 与 in/on</b></div>take a plate <b>from</b> the drawer 与 take a plate <b>in</b> the drawer 都是说得通的，语义相同，但是句法构造有差别。用 from 时，from the drawer 是个状语，修饰动词 take (“从抽屉里拿出一个盘子”)；用 in 时，in the drawer 是个后置定语，修饰名词 plate (“拿出抽屉里的一个盘子”)。take a book <b>from</b> the shelve 与 take a book <b>on</b> the shelve 也有同样的区别。<br><br>
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fun
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>fun 与 funny</b></div>fun 本来是名词，当作形容词用时基本上保留了名词的全部意义，尤其是积极正面的意义：“有趣的，让人快乐的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's <b>fun</b> to play in the mud, but not so <b>fun</b> to get stuck in it. (STP ad) 在泥里玩耍是有趣的，但是陷在泥里可就不那么有趣了。</div><br><br>funny 则从“好玩的，有趣的”有时候转为“奇怪的，离奇的，不正常的；不严肃的”，从而兼有正面和负面的两种意义。负面意义的例如：Don't be <b>funny</b>. 别乱开玩笑。/ I'm not being <b>funny</b>, but ... 我可不是开玩笑，但是……<br><br>又例如一本小说中某男子追忆亡妻时的内心独白：<b>Funny</b>, the thought, she's burried in Gate of Heaven Cemetery, but for me it's as though her body is always here. (Mary Higgins Clark, <i>While My Pretty One Sleeps</i>) (奇怪，她埋葬在天堂之门坟场，但我总是觉得她的遗体是在这里。)书中另一处谈及一个可疑人物：So when I saw him sneaking around last Thursday afternoon, I thought something was <b>funny</b>. (ibid.) (上星期四下午我看见他在那里鬼鬼祟祟地徘徊，我就觉得有点蹊跷。)这两个例句中，funny 都丝毫没有“有趣的，好玩的”之意。书中另一处谈到“有趣的”时，就用 fun 作为形容词，不用 funny: Last night was <b>fun</b>, wasn't it? 昨天的聚会很带劲吧？<br><br>因此，早在 1936 年，Ian Hay 在他的小说 <i>The Housemaster</i> 中，就有一句：What do you mean, <b>funny</b>? <b>Funny peculiar</b> or <b>funny ha-ha</b>? 这就将 funny 的意义区分为 funny peculiar (奇特)和 funny ha-ha (逗人哈哈大笑)。后来这个区别为许多人所沿用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They might be men: they certainly were <b>funny</b> (<b>funny peculiar</b> not <b>funny ha-ha</b>). (Madison Bently, review of <i>Statement on Race</i>, in <i>The American Journal of Psychology</i>, Vol. 65, No. 1, 1952) 他们可能是男子汉：他们的确很好玩(是奇特古怪的好玩而不是有趣好玩的好玩)。美国还出了一部喜剧片子就叫 <i>Funny Ha-Ha</i>。这些事例，都说明了 funny 词义的两重性，而这是形容词 fun 所没有的。</div><br><br>由于 funny 有“离奇的，不正常的”的负面意义，所以以 Funny how ... 开始的句子，可以用来反驳自己认为荒谬的见解。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Funny How</b> Focus Is Always on Israel (Title of Mona Charen's article, in <i>The Daily Gazette</i>, Jan. 16, 2009, A7) 眼睛总是盯着以色列，多离奇。(为以色列辩护，认为大家对以色列责备过多)但是 Funny how ... 也可以用来表示说话者对某一奇异但却真实的情况表示惊讶但加以接受或承认。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Funny how</b> you can tell if something is good news or bad just by the sound of the voice. (Anna Salter, <i>Fault Lines</i>) 说也奇怪，是好消息还是坏消息，听听说话的声调，就可以分辨出来。</div><br><br>
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funny
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>fun 与 funny</b></div>fun 本来是名词，当作形容词用时基本上保留了名词的全部意义，尤其是积极正面的意义：“有趣的，让人快乐的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's <b>fun</b> to play in the mud, but not so <b>fun</b> to get stuck in it. (STP ad) 在泥里玩耍是有趣的，但是陷在泥里可就不那么有趣了。</div><br><br>funny 则从“好玩的，有趣的”有时候转为“奇怪的，离奇的，不正常的；不严肃的”，从而兼有正面和负面的两种意义。负面意义的例如：Don't be <b>funny</b>. 别乱开玩笑。/ I'm not being <b>funny</b>, but ... 我可不是开玩笑，但是……<br><br>又例如一本小说中某男子追忆亡妻时的内心独白：<b>Funny</b>, the thought, she's burried in Gate of Heaven Cemetery, but for me it's as though her body is always here. (Mary Higgins Clark, <i>While My Pretty One Sleeps</i>) (奇怪，她埋葬在天堂之门坟场，但我总是觉得她的遗体是在这里。)书中另一处谈及一个可疑人物：So when I saw him sneaking around last Thursday afternoon, I thought something was <b>funny</b>. (ibid.) (上星期四下午我看见他在那里鬼鬼祟祟地徘徊，我就觉得有点蹊跷。)这两个例句中，funny 都丝毫没有“有趣的，好玩的”之意。书中另一处谈到“有趣的”时，就用 fun 作为形容词，不用 funny: Last night was <b>fun</b>, wasn't it? 昨天的聚会很带劲吧？<br><br>因此，早在 1936 年，Ian Hay 在他的小说 <i>The Housemaster</i> 中，就有一句：What do you mean, <b>funny</b>? <b>Funny peculiar</b> or <b>funny ha-ha</b>? 这就将 funny 的意义区分为 funny peculiar (奇特)和 funny ha-ha (逗人哈哈大笑)。后来这个区别为许多人所沿用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They might be men: they certainly were <b>funny</b> (<b>funny peculiar</b> not <b>funny ha-ha</b>). (Madison Bently, review of <i>Statement on Race</i>, in <i>The American Journal of Psychology</i>, Vol. 65, No. 1, 1952) 他们可能是男子汉：他们的确很好玩(是奇特古怪的好玩而不是有趣好玩的好玩)。美国还出了一部喜剧片子就叫 <i>Funny Ha-Ha</i>。这些事例，都说明了 funny 词义的两重性，而这是形容词 fun 所没有的。</div><br><br>由于 funny 有“离奇的，不正常的”的负面意义，所以以 Funny how ... 开始的句子，可以用来反驳自己认为荒谬的见解。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Funny How</b> Focus Is Always on Israel (Title of Mona Charen's article, in <i>The Daily Gazette</i>, Jan. 16, 2009, A7) 眼睛总是盯着以色列，多离奇。(为以色列辩护，认为大家对以色列责备过多)但是 Funny how ... 也可以用来表示说话者对某一奇异但却真实的情况表示惊讶但加以接受或承认。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Funny how</b> you can tell if something is good news or bad just by the sound of the voice. (Anna Salter, <i>Fault Lines</i>) 说也奇怪，是好消息还是坏消息，听听说话的声调，就可以分辨出来。</div><br><br>
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garbage
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>garbage, rubbish 与 trash</b></div>三个词大体上都是指“垃圾”，但是美式英语 garbage 指的是潮湿容易变坏的厨房废物如蛋壳、菜帮子、骨头之类，trash 则专指废纸和其他干燥的废品。rubbish 则两者都包括在内。<br><br>
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genial
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>genial 与 genius</b></div>genius 是“天才”，但是 genial 却与“天才”无关，表示“宜人的，舒适的；亲切的，和蔼的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a <b>genial</b> climate 温和的气候</div><div class="ex-item">a <b>genial</b> smile 和蔼的笑容</div><div class="ex-item">He's a <b>genius</b> of a composer. 他是个天才的作曲家。(不说：*He's a <b>genial</b> composer.)</div>
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genius
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>genial 与 genius</b></div>genius 是“天才”，但是 genial 却与“天才”无关，表示“宜人的，舒适的；亲切的，和蔼的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a <b>genial</b> climate 温和的气候</div><div class="ex-item">a <b>genial</b> smile 和蔼的笑容</div><div class="ex-item">He's a <b>genius</b> of a composer. 他是个天才的作曲家。(不说：*He's a <b>genial</b> composer.)</div>
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give as good as gets
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>give as good as (one) gets</b></div>是“打个平手，毫不逊色”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>When you are a woman working with a lot of men, you have to be able to <b>give as good as</b> you <b>get</b>. 作为女人，你如果同许多男子一起工作，你就要干得毫不逊色。/ He had a black eye and a couple of bruises, but he <b>gave as good as</b> he <b>got</b>, or better. 他被打肿了眼睛，几处负伤，但是他不落下风，还占了点上风。</div><br><br>
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give as good as one gets
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>give as good as (one) gets</b></div>是“打个平手，毫不逊色”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>When you are a woman working with a lot of men, you have to be able to <b>give as good as</b> you <b>get</b>. 作为女人，你如果同许多男子一起工作，你就要干得毫不逊色。/ He had a black eye and a couple of bruises, but he <b>gave as good as</b> he <b>got</b>, or better. 他被打肿了眼睛，几处负伤，但是他不落下风，还占了点上风。</div><br><br>
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glad to inf.
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>glad to inf., glad to be + -ing 与 glad to have + pp.</b></div>be glad to inf. 是“乐于做某事”(只是一种意向，尚未实行)；be glad to be + -ing 则是“正在做某事，对此感到高兴”(正在实行)；be glad to have + pp. 则是“已经做了某事，对此感到高兴”(已经实行，事后高兴)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm <b>glad to help</b> you. 我很乐意帮助你。/ I'm <b>glad to be helping</b> you. 我现在在帮助你，对此感到很高兴。/ I'm <b>glad to have helped</b> you. 我帮助了你，对此感到很高兴。但 glad to see you 是“很高兴现在看见你”。</div><br><br>
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glad to be + -ing
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>glad to inf., glad to be + -ing 与 glad to have + pp.</b></div>be glad to inf. 是“乐于做某事”(只是一种意向，尚未实行)；be glad to be + -ing 则是“正在做某事，对此感到高兴”(正在实行)；be glad to have + pp. 则是“已经做了某事，对此感到高兴”(已经实行，事后高兴)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm <b>glad to help</b> you. 我很乐意帮助你。/ I'm <b>glad to be helping</b> you. 我现在在帮助你，对此感到很高兴。/ I'm <b>glad to have helped</b> you. 我帮助了你，对此感到很高兴。但 glad to see you 是“很高兴现在看见你”。</div><br><br>
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glad to have + pp.
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>glad to inf., glad to be + -ing 与 glad to have + pp.</b></div>be glad to inf. 是“乐于做某事”(只是一种意向，尚未实行)；be glad to be + -ing 则是“正在做某事，对此感到高兴”(正在实行)；be glad to have + pp. 则是“已经做了某事，对此感到高兴”(已经实行，事后高兴)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm <b>glad to help</b> you. 我很乐意帮助你。/ I'm <b>glad to be helping</b> you. 我现在在帮助你，对此感到很高兴。/ I'm <b>glad to have helped</b> you. 我帮助了你，对此感到很高兴。但 glad to see you 是“很高兴现在看见你”。</div><br><br>
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glance
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>glance 与 glimpse</b></div>glance 无论作为名词还是动词，都是人做出的主动行为，表示“一瞥”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>shoot a <b>glance</b> at 瞥见</div><div class="ex-item">She <b>glanced</b> up from her book. 她把目光从书上移开。/ Take a <b>glance</b> at the morning paper. 你把早报浏览一眼吧。</div><br><br>glimpse 则无论作为名词还是动词，都是非主动的“瞥见”或“一瞥”所看到的景象。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I <b>glimpsed</b> the bird as it flew past me. 那只鸟飞过我身旁时我瞥见一眼。/ Unfortunately, parents still see only a <b>glimpse</b> of the world in which their teens live. (<i>Newsweek</i>, Oct. 15, 2007, p. 39, ad) 可惜，父母对于他们青少年儿女所生活的世界，仍然只看到一鳞半爪。</div><br><br>glance 和 glimpse 作为动词，都属于瞬时的第四类动词。<br><br>glimpse 偶尔也有当作主动行为的(因为有时候主动、不主动界限不太分明)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... this helps them, I think, <b>glimpse</b> around the next corner of history. (Jack Newfield, in <i>Evergreen Review</i>, June 1967) ……我觉得这有助于他们去观察历史的下一个转角。</div><br><br>
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glimpse
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>glance 与 glimpse</b></div>glance 无论作为名词还是动词，都是人做出的主动行为，表示“一瞥”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>shoot a <b>glance</b> at 瞥见</div><div class="ex-item">She <b>glanced</b> up from her book. 她把目光从书上移开。/ Take a <b>glance</b> at the morning paper. 你把早报浏览一眼吧。</div><br><br>glimpse 则无论作为名词还是动词，都是非主动的“瞥见”或“一瞥”所看到的景象。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I <b>glimpsed</b> the bird as it flew past me. 那只鸟飞过我身旁时我瞥见一眼。/ Unfortunately, parents still see only a <b>glimpse</b> of the world in which their teens live. (<i>Newsweek</i>, Oct. 15, 2007, p. 39, ad) 可惜，父母对于他们青少年儿女所生活的世界，仍然只看到一鳞半爪。</div><br><br>glance 和 glimpse 作为动词，都属于瞬时的第四类动词。<br><br>glimpse 偶尔也有当作主动行为的(因为有时候主动、不主动界限不太分明)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... this helps them, I think, <b>glimpse</b> around the next corner of history. (Jack Newfield, in <i>Evergreen Review</i>, June 1967) ……我觉得这有助于他们去观察历史的下一个转角。</div><br><br>
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(go a) long
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(go a) long (way)</b></div>go a long way 可以有正面与负面的意义，取决于它前面说的是“能够”还是“必须”。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 如果是“能够” (前面有助动词 can、may 或表示将来时的 will)，意思是“能够用很长一段时间；能够起相当大的作用”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A little will go a long way if it's used sparingly. (Charles Dickens, <i>The Life and Adventures of Nicholas Nickleby</i>) 省着点用，一点点也能用很久。/ Ah, if I could give it a name it might go a long way toward solving the case. (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, <i>The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes</i>) 啊，我如果能给它取个名称，那么离破案也就不远了。/ Your example would go a long way. (Anna Sewell, <i>Black Beauty</i>) 你的范例将会起很大作用。/ A compliment can go a long way in easing a woman's anxiety over her looks. 一个妇女，如果对自己容貌不满 意，恭维她一句，就可以对缓解这种忧虑起很大作用。/ You'll go a long way with ideas like that. 你有那样的想法，一定可以大有作为。</div><br><br>但前面也可以没有任何助动词，也是表示“(已经) 起着相当大的作用” (但通常不用进行时 <i>is going a long way)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Soap and water go a long way in preventing avian influenza. 肥皂和水对预防禽流感用处很大。/ ... Hollywood's portrayal of the U.S., in a thousand films like this one, goes a long way toward creating that anti-American sentiment in the first place. (Mona Charen, in </i>The Daily Gazette*, Nov. 20, 2008, A9) ……好莱坞在千百部类似这样的影片中对美国形象的刻画，本来就对于制造那种反美情绪起着很大的作用。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 如果是“必须”，意思就是“要走很长的路”，转义为“要进行许多的工作，要克服许多麻烦”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He had to go a long way before he came to the river, ... (Andrew Lang, <i>The Yellow Fairy Book</i>) 他走了很长的路，才走到河边，……</div><div class="ex-item">The rules and regulations associated with receiving the fund are complicated and students have to go a long way to prove their financial position. 领取款项的规章条例很复杂，学生们要办许多手续，才能证明自己的经济状况。/ We would have had to go a long way to find a nicer place to live, where the mountains meet the sea. 我们要是想另找一处更适宜居住的依山靠海的地方，那就会大费周章。</div><br><br>至于 have a long way to go，由于它的意思是“必须”，所以意义当然是属于负面的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>(Hillary) Clinton has a long way to go to outrun her husband's shadow. (<i>The Sydney Morning Herald</i>, May 25, 2006) 希拉里要走出她丈夫的阴影可不容易。</div><br><br>但是如果不用于 go 而用 come，则意思是对已经发生的事情的一种回顾，就不可能表示“必须”，因而意义就不是负面而是正面的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This kind of surgery has come a long way. 这种外科手术已经起过很大的作用。</div><br><br>
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(go a) long way
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(go a) long (way)</b></div>go a long way 可以有正面与负面的意义，取决于它前面说的是“能够”还是“必须”。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 如果是“能够” (前面有助动词 can、may 或表示将来时的 will)，意思是“能够用很长一段时间；能够起相当大的作用”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A little will go a long way if it's used sparingly. (Charles Dickens, <i>The Life and Adventures of Nicholas Nickleby</i>) 省着点用，一点点也能用很久。/ Ah, if I could give it a name it might go a long way toward solving the case. (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, <i>The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes</i>) 啊，我如果能给它取个名称，那么离破案也就不远了。/ Your example would go a long way. (Anna Sewell, <i>Black Beauty</i>) 你的范例将会起很大作用。/ A compliment can go a long way in easing a woman's anxiety over her looks. 一个妇女，如果对自己容貌不满 意，恭维她一句，就可以对缓解这种忧虑起很大作用。/ You'll go a long way with ideas like that. 你有那样的想法，一定可以大有作为。</div><br><br>但前面也可以没有任何助动词，也是表示“(已经) 起着相当大的作用” (但通常不用进行时 <i>is going a long way)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Soap and water go a long way in preventing avian influenza. 肥皂和水对预防禽流感用处很大。/ ... Hollywood's portrayal of the U.S., in a thousand films like this one, goes a long way toward creating that anti-American sentiment in the first place. (Mona Charen, in </i>The Daily Gazette*, Nov. 20, 2008, A9) ……好莱坞在千百部类似这样的影片中对美国形象的刻画，本来就对于制造那种反美情绪起着很大的作用。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 如果是“必须”，意思就是“要走很长的路”，转义为“要进行许多的工作，要克服许多麻烦”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He had to go a long way before he came to the river, ... (Andrew Lang, <i>The Yellow Fairy Book</i>) 他走了很长的路，才走到河边，……</div><div class="ex-item">The rules and regulations associated with receiving the fund are complicated and students have to go a long way to prove their financial position. 领取款项的规章条例很复杂，学生们要办许多手续，才能证明自己的经济状况。/ We would have had to go a long way to find a nicer place to live, where the mountains meet the sea. 我们要是想另找一处更适宜居住的依山靠海的地方，那就会大费周章。</div><br><br>至于 have a long way to go，由于它的意思是“必须”，所以意义当然是属于负面的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>(Hillary) Clinton has a long way to go to outrun her husband's shadow. (<i>The Sydney Morning Herald</i>, May 25, 2006) 希拉里要走出她丈夫的阴影可不容易。</div><br><br>但是如果不用于 go 而用 come，则意思是对已经发生的事情的一种回顾，就不可能表示“必须”，因而意义就不是负面而是正面的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This kind of surgery has come a long way. 这种外科手术已经起过很大的作用。</div><br><br>
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along
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(go) along 与 (get) along</b></div>两者相似，但意义有些不同。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> go along 原来的意义是“前往(已知的某处)”(瞬间体的第四类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I went along to the meeting. 我前去开会。/ You should go along and have a look. 你应该去瞧一下。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 但是 go along 也可以指“继续进行本来正在做的事情”(延续体的第二类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Learning how to become a parent takes time. It's a skill you learn as you go along. 学习如何当父母，是要费时间的。这是一种边干边学的本领。/ It's fine to ask questions as we go along, but it's better if you wait until we have finished. 我们边讲，大家也可以边提问题，不过最好等到我们讲完之后再问。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 如果主语是事情而不是人，go along (延续体的第二类动词)表示“进行得如何”(必须有副词表示“如何”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My life is going along nicely. 我的日子过得很好。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> go along 还可以表示“同意或接受(某一已知的主张)，答应(某一已知的要求)”(瞬间体的第四类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The agreement will make them the highest-paid pilots in the industry, if union members go along. 按照协议，只要工会会员们答应，他们会成为本行业工资最高的飞行员。/ He had only gone along out of concern for his two grandsons. 他之所以答应，仅仅是为了两个孙子着想。</div><br><br>通常只需说 go along 即可，但也可以加上 with ...，说明“同意什么”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The president has announced a plan to cut taxes, and Congress is likely to go along with it. 总统宣布了一项减税计划，国会大概会同意。</div><br><br>如果不是自己“同意”或“接受”，而是“使得别人同意或接受”，就可以说 bring somebody along (with)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>bring France and other Security Council members along with the resolution 使法国和安理会其他理事国接受这个决议。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 与 go along 不同，come along 只有(非预料中的)“前来”与“发生”的意义(都是属于瞬间体的第四类动词)，也可以表示事情迄今“顺利进行中”(属于延续体的第二类动词)，但没有“同意，接受”的意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was lucky you came along. 幸亏你来了。/ She always thinks some guy is going to come along and fix her life. 她总是觉得，会碰上一个小伙子，安排好她的一生。/ Pentagon spokesman Williams says the talks are coming along quite well. 五角大楼发言人威廉姆斯说，谈判进展良好。</div><br><br>此外，come along 还可以用于催促。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Come along. No sense in your standing around. 走吧。你待在这里没什么意思。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> get along 的意义与 go along 不同。首先，go along 倾向于指一时的“同意，接受，答应”，而 get along 虽然用了通常是瞬时体的 get，但是却主要是延续体的“相处融洽”(因此可以用一般现在时)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They had always gotten along, even when they sparred. 他们即使争吵，也总是相处得不错。/ My kids and their cousins really get along with each other. 我的孩子们同他们的表兄弟相处得很不错。/ It isimpossible to get along with him. 同他无法相处。/ There you have to go along to get along. 在那里，要随和将就，才能搞好关系。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 如果不涉及同他人的关系，get along 表示“过正常日子”(也是延续体的第二类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You can't get along without water. 没有水是没法生活的。</div><br><br>
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go along
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(go) along 与 (get) along</b></div>两者相似，但意义有些不同。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> go along 原来的意义是“前往(已知的某处)”(瞬间体的第四类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I went along to the meeting. 我前去开会。/ You should go along and have a look. 你应该去瞧一下。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 但是 go along 也可以指“继续进行本来正在做的事情”(延续体的第二类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Learning how to become a parent takes time. It's a skill you learn as you go along. 学习如何当父母，是要费时间的。这是一种边干边学的本领。/ It's fine to ask questions as we go along, but it's better if you wait until we have finished. 我们边讲，大家也可以边提问题，不过最好等到我们讲完之后再问。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 如果主语是事情而不是人，go along (延续体的第二类动词)表示“进行得如何”(必须有副词表示“如何”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My life is going along nicely. 我的日子过得很好。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> go along 还可以表示“同意或接受(某一已知的主张)，答应(某一已知的要求)”(瞬间体的第四类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The agreement will make them the highest-paid pilots in the industry, if union members go along. 按照协议，只要工会会员们答应，他们会成为本行业工资最高的飞行员。/ He had only gone along out of concern for his two grandsons. 他之所以答应，仅仅是为了两个孙子着想。</div><br><br>通常只需说 go along 即可，但也可以加上 with ...，说明“同意什么”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The president has announced a plan to cut taxes, and Congress is likely to go along with it. 总统宣布了一项减税计划，国会大概会同意。</div><br><br>如果不是自己“同意”或“接受”，而是“使得别人同意或接受”，就可以说 bring somebody along (with)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>bring France and other Security Council members along with the resolution 使法国和安理会其他理事国接受这个决议。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 与 go along 不同，come along 只有(非预料中的)“前来”与“发生”的意义(都是属于瞬间体的第四类动词)，也可以表示事情迄今“顺利进行中”(属于延续体的第二类动词)，但没有“同意，接受”的意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was lucky you came along. 幸亏你来了。/ She always thinks some guy is going to come along and fix her life. 她总是觉得，会碰上一个小伙子，安排好她的一生。/ Pentagon spokesman Williams says the talks are coming along quite well. 五角大楼发言人威廉姆斯说，谈判进展良好。</div><br><br>此外，come along 还可以用于催促。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Come along. No sense in your standing around. 走吧。你待在这里没什么意思。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> get along 的意义与 go along 不同。首先，go along 倾向于指一时的“同意，接受，答应”，而 get along 虽然用了通常是瞬时体的 get，但是却主要是延续体的“相处融洽”(因此可以用一般现在时)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They had always gotten along, even when they sparred. 他们即使争吵，也总是相处得不错。/ My kids and their cousins really get along with each other. 我的孩子们同他们的表兄弟相处得很不错。/ It isimpossible to get along with him. 同他无法相处。/ There you have to go along to get along. 在那里，要随和将就，才能搞好关系。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 如果不涉及同他人的关系，get along 表示“过正常日子”(也是延续体的第二类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You can't get along without water. 没有水是没法生活的。</div><br><br>
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get along
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(go) along 与 (get) along</b></div>两者相似，但意义有些不同。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> go along 原来的意义是“前往(已知的某处)”(瞬间体的第四类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I went along to the meeting. 我前去开会。/ You should go along and have a look. 你应该去瞧一下。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 但是 go along 也可以指“继续进行本来正在做的事情”(延续体的第二类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Learning how to become a parent takes time. It's a skill you learn as you go along. 学习如何当父母，是要费时间的。这是一种边干边学的本领。/ It's fine to ask questions as we go along, but it's better if you wait until we have finished. 我们边讲，大家也可以边提问题，不过最好等到我们讲完之后再问。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 如果主语是事情而不是人，go along (延续体的第二类动词)表示“进行得如何”(必须有副词表示“如何”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My life is going along nicely. 我的日子过得很好。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> go along 还可以表示“同意或接受(某一已知的主张)，答应(某一已知的要求)”(瞬间体的第四类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The agreement will make them the highest-paid pilots in the industry, if union members go along. 按照协议，只要工会会员们答应，他们会成为本行业工资最高的飞行员。/ He had only gone along out of concern for his two grandsons. 他之所以答应，仅仅是为了两个孙子着想。</div><br><br>通常只需说 go along 即可，但也可以加上 with ...，说明“同意什么”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The president has announced a plan to cut taxes, and Congress is likely to go along with it. 总统宣布了一项减税计划，国会大概会同意。</div><br><br>如果不是自己“同意”或“接受”，而是“使得别人同意或接受”，就可以说 bring somebody along (with)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>bring France and other Security Council members along with the resolution 使法国和安理会其他理事国接受这个决议。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 与 go along 不同，come along 只有(非预料中的)“前来”与“发生”的意义(都是属于瞬间体的第四类动词)，也可以表示事情迄今“顺利进行中”(属于延续体的第二类动词)，但没有“同意，接受”的意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was lucky you came along. 幸亏你来了。/ She always thinks some guy is going to come along and fix her life. 她总是觉得，会碰上一个小伙子，安排好她的一生。/ Pentagon spokesman Williams says the talks are coming along quite well. 五角大楼发言人威廉姆斯说，谈判进展良好。</div><br><br>此外，come along 还可以用于催促。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Come along. No sense in your standing around. 走吧。你待在这里没什么意思。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> get along 的意义与 go along 不同。首先，go along 倾向于指一时的“同意，接受，答应”，而 get along 虽然用了通常是瞬时体的 get，但是却主要是延续体的“相处融洽”(因此可以用一般现在时)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They had always gotten along, even when they sparred. 他们即使争吵，也总是相处得不错。/ My kids and their cousins really get along with each other. 我的孩子们同他们的表兄弟相处得很不错。/ It isimpossible to get along with him. 同他无法相处。/ There you have to go along to get along. 在那里，要随和将就，才能搞好关系。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 如果不涉及同他人的关系，get along 表示“过正常日子”(也是延续体的第二类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You can't get along without water. 没有水是没法生活的。</div><br><br>
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(go) along
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(go) along 与 (get) along</b></div>两者相似，但意义有些不同。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> go along 原来的意义是“前往(已知的某处)”(瞬间体的第四类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I went along to the meeting. 我前去开会。/ You should go along and have a look. 你应该去瞧一下。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 但是 go along 也可以指“继续进行本来正在做的事情”(延续体的第二类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Learning how to become a parent takes time. It's a skill you learn as you go along. 学习如何当父母，是要费时间的。这是一种边干边学的本领。/ It's fine to ask questions as we go along, but it's better if you wait until we have finished. 我们边讲，大家也可以边提问题，不过最好等到我们讲完之后再问。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 如果主语是事情而不是人，go along (延续体的第二类动词)表示“进行得如何”(必须有副词表示“如何”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My life is going along nicely. 我的日子过得很好。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> go along 还可以表示“同意或接受(某一已知的主张)，答应(某一已知的要求)”(瞬间体的第四类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The agreement will make them the highest-paid pilots in the industry, if union members go along. 按照协议，只要工会会员们答应，他们会成为本行业工资最高的飞行员。/ He had only gone along out of concern for his two grandsons. 他之所以答应，仅仅是为了两个孙子着想。</div><br><br>通常只需说 go along 即可，但也可以加上 with ...，说明“同意什么”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The president has announced a plan to cut taxes, and Congress is likely to go along with it. 总统宣布了一项减税计划，国会大概会同意。</div><br><br>如果不是自己“同意”或“接受”，而是“使得别人同意或接受”，就可以说 bring somebody along (with)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>bring France and other Security Council members along with the resolution 使法国和安理会其他理事国接受这个决议。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 与 go along 不同，come along 只有(非预料中的)“前来”与“发生”的意义(都是属于瞬间体的第四类动词)，也可以表示事情迄今“顺利进行中”(属于延续体的第二类动词)，但没有“同意，接受”的意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was lucky you came along. 幸亏你来了。/ She always thinks some guy is going to come along and fix her life. 她总是觉得，会碰上一个小伙子，安排好她的一生。/ Pentagon spokesman Williams says the talks are coming along quite well. 五角大楼发言人威廉姆斯说，谈判进展良好。</div><br><br>此外，come along 还可以用于催促。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Come along. No sense in your standing around. 走吧。你待在这里没什么意思。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> get along 的意义与 go along 不同。首先，go along 倾向于指一时的“同意，接受，答应”，而 get along 虽然用了通常是瞬时体的 get，但是却主要是延续体的“相处融洽”(因此可以用一般现在时)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They had always gotten along, even when they sparred. 他们即使争吵，也总是相处得不错。/ My kids and their cousins really get along with each other. 我的孩子们同他们的表兄弟相处得很不错。/ It isimpossible to get along with him. 同他无法相处。/ There you have to go along to get along. 在那里，要随和将就，才能搞好关系。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 如果不涉及同他人的关系，get along 表示“过正常日子”(也是延续体的第二类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You can't get along without water. 没有水是没法生活的。</div><br><br>
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(get) along
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(go) along 与 (get) along</b></div>两者相似，但意义有些不同。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> go along 原来的意义是“前往(已知的某处)”(瞬间体的第四类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I went along to the meeting. 我前去开会。/ You should go along and have a look. 你应该去瞧一下。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 但是 go along 也可以指“继续进行本来正在做的事情”(延续体的第二类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Learning how to become a parent takes time. It's a skill you learn as you go along. 学习如何当父母，是要费时间的。这是一种边干边学的本领。/ It's fine to ask questions as we go along, but it's better if you wait until we have finished. 我们边讲，大家也可以边提问题，不过最好等到我们讲完之后再问。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 如果主语是事情而不是人，go along (延续体的第二类动词)表示“进行得如何”(必须有副词表示“如何”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My life is going along nicely. 我的日子过得很好。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> go along 还可以表示“同意或接受(某一已知的主张)，答应(某一已知的要求)”(瞬间体的第四类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The agreement will make them the highest-paid pilots in the industry, if union members go along. 按照协议，只要工会会员们答应，他们会成为本行业工资最高的飞行员。/ He had only gone along out of concern for his two grandsons. 他之所以答应，仅仅是为了两个孙子着想。</div><br><br>通常只需说 go along 即可，但也可以加上 with ...，说明“同意什么”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The president has announced a plan to cut taxes, and Congress is likely to go along with it. 总统宣布了一项减税计划，国会大概会同意。</div><br><br>如果不是自己“同意”或“接受”，而是“使得别人同意或接受”，就可以说 bring somebody along (with)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>bring France and other Security Council members along with the resolution 使法国和安理会其他理事国接受这个决议。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 与 go along 不同，come along 只有(非预料中的)“前来”与“发生”的意义(都是属于瞬间体的第四类动词)，也可以表示事情迄今“顺利进行中”(属于延续体的第二类动词)，但没有“同意，接受”的意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was lucky you came along. 幸亏你来了。/ She always thinks some guy is going to come along and fix her life. 她总是觉得，会碰上一个小伙子，安排好她的一生。/ Pentagon spokesman Williams says the talks are coming along quite well. 五角大楼发言人威廉姆斯说，谈判进展良好。</div><br><br>此外，come along 还可以用于催促。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Come along. No sense in your standing around. 走吧。你待在这里没什么意思。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> get along 的意义与 go along 不同。首先，go along 倾向于指一时的“同意，接受，答应”，而 get along 虽然用了通常是瞬时体的 get，但是却主要是延续体的“相处融洽”(因此可以用一般现在时)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They had always gotten along, even when they sparred. 他们即使争吵，也总是相处得不错。/ My kids and their cousins really get along with each other. 我的孩子们同他们的表兄弟相处得很不错。/ It isimpossible to get along with him. 同他无法相处。/ There you have to go along to get along. 在那里，要随和将就，才能搞好关系。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 如果不涉及同他人的关系，get along 表示“过正常日子”(也是延续体的第二类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You can't get along without water. 没有水是没法生活的。</div><br><br>
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along 与 along
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(go) along 与 (get) along</b></div>两者相似，但意义有些不同。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> go along 原来的意义是“前往(已知的某处)”(瞬间体的第四类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I went along to the meeting. 我前去开会。/ You should go along and have a look. 你应该去瞧一下。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 但是 go along 也可以指“继续进行本来正在做的事情”(延续体的第二类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Learning how to become a parent takes time. It's a skill you learn as you go along. 学习如何当父母，是要费时间的。这是一种边干边学的本领。/ It's fine to ask questions as we go along, but it's better if you wait until we have finished. 我们边讲，大家也可以边提问题，不过最好等到我们讲完之后再问。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 如果主语是事情而不是人，go along (延续体的第二类动词)表示“进行得如何”(必须有副词表示“如何”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My life is going along nicely. 我的日子过得很好。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> go along 还可以表示“同意或接受(某一已知的主张)，答应(某一已知的要求)”(瞬间体的第四类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The agreement will make them the highest-paid pilots in the industry, if union members go along. 按照协议，只要工会会员们答应，他们会成为本行业工资最高的飞行员。/ He had only gone along out of concern for his two grandsons. 他之所以答应，仅仅是为了两个孙子着想。</div><br><br>通常只需说 go along 即可，但也可以加上 with ...，说明“同意什么”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The president has announced a plan to cut taxes, and Congress is likely to go along with it. 总统宣布了一项减税计划，国会大概会同意。</div><br><br>如果不是自己“同意”或“接受”，而是“使得别人同意或接受”，就可以说 bring somebody along (with)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>bring France and other Security Council members along with the resolution 使法国和安理会其他理事国接受这个决议。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 与 go along 不同，come along 只有(非预料中的)“前来”与“发生”的意义(都是属于瞬间体的第四类动词)，也可以表示事情迄今“顺利进行中”(属于延续体的第二类动词)，但没有“同意，接受”的意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was lucky you came along. 幸亏你来了。/ She always thinks some guy is going to come along and fix her life. 她总是觉得，会碰上一个小伙子，安排好她的一生。/ Pentagon spokesman Williams says the talks are coming along quite well. 五角大楼发言人威廉姆斯说，谈判进展良好。</div><br><br>此外，come along 还可以用于催促。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Come along. No sense in your standing around. 走吧。你待在这里没什么意思。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> get along 的意义与 go along 不同。首先，go along 倾向于指一时的“同意，接受，答应”，而 get along 虽然用了通常是瞬时体的 get，但是却主要是延续体的“相处融洽”(因此可以用一般现在时)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They had always gotten along, even when they sparred. 他们即使争吵，也总是相处得不错。/ My kids and their cousins really get along with each other. 我的孩子们同他们的表兄弟相处得很不错。/ It isimpossible to get along with him. 同他无法相处。/ There you have to go along to get along. 在那里，要随和将就，才能搞好关系。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 如果不涉及同他人的关系，get along 表示“过正常日子”(也是延续体的第二类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You can't get along without water. 没有水是没法生活的。</div><br><br>
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go along 与 along
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(go) along 与 (get) along</b></div>两者相似，但意义有些不同。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> go along 原来的意义是“前往(已知的某处)”(瞬间体的第四类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I went along to the meeting. 我前去开会。/ You should go along and have a look. 你应该去瞧一下。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 但是 go along 也可以指“继续进行本来正在做的事情”(延续体的第二类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Learning how to become a parent takes time. It's a skill you learn as you go along. 学习如何当父母，是要费时间的。这是一种边干边学的本领。/ It's fine to ask questions as we go along, but it's better if you wait until we have finished. 我们边讲，大家也可以边提问题，不过最好等到我们讲完之后再问。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 如果主语是事情而不是人，go along (延续体的第二类动词)表示“进行得如何”(必须有副词表示“如何”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My life is going along nicely. 我的日子过得很好。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> go along 还可以表示“同意或接受(某一已知的主张)，答应(某一已知的要求)”(瞬间体的第四类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The agreement will make them the highest-paid pilots in the industry, if union members go along. 按照协议，只要工会会员们答应，他们会成为本行业工资最高的飞行员。/ He had only gone along out of concern for his two grandsons. 他之所以答应，仅仅是为了两个孙子着想。</div><br><br>通常只需说 go along 即可，但也可以加上 with ...，说明“同意什么”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The president has announced a plan to cut taxes, and Congress is likely to go along with it. 总统宣布了一项减税计划，国会大概会同意。</div><br><br>如果不是自己“同意”或“接受”，而是“使得别人同意或接受”，就可以说 bring somebody along (with)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>bring France and other Security Council members along with the resolution 使法国和安理会其他理事国接受这个决议。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 与 go along 不同，come along 只有(非预料中的)“前来”与“发生”的意义(都是属于瞬间体的第四类动词)，也可以表示事情迄今“顺利进行中”(属于延续体的第二类动词)，但没有“同意，接受”的意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was lucky you came along. 幸亏你来了。/ She always thinks some guy is going to come along and fix her life. 她总是觉得，会碰上一个小伙子，安排好她的一生。/ Pentagon spokesman Williams says the talks are coming along quite well. 五角大楼发言人威廉姆斯说，谈判进展良好。</div><br><br>此外，come along 还可以用于催促。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Come along. No sense in your standing around. 走吧。你待在这里没什么意思。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> get along 的意义与 go along 不同。首先，go along 倾向于指一时的“同意，接受，答应”，而 get along 虽然用了通常是瞬时体的 get，但是却主要是延续体的“相处融洽”(因此可以用一般现在时)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They had always gotten along, even when they sparred. 他们即使争吵，也总是相处得不错。/ My kids and their cousins really get along with each other. 我的孩子们同他们的表兄弟相处得很不错。/ It isimpossible to get along with him. 同他无法相处。/ There you have to go along to get along. 在那里，要随和将就，才能搞好关系。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 如果不涉及同他人的关系，get along 表示“过正常日子”(也是延续体的第二类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You can't get along without water. 没有水是没法生活的。</div><br><br>
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along 与 get along
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(go) along 与 (get) along</b></div>两者相似，但意义有些不同。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> go along 原来的意义是“前往(已知的某处)”(瞬间体的第四类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I went along to the meeting. 我前去开会。/ You should go along and have a look. 你应该去瞧一下。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 但是 go along 也可以指“继续进行本来正在做的事情”(延续体的第二类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Learning how to become a parent takes time. It's a skill you learn as you go along. 学习如何当父母，是要费时间的。这是一种边干边学的本领。/ It's fine to ask questions as we go along, but it's better if you wait until we have finished. 我们边讲，大家也可以边提问题，不过最好等到我们讲完之后再问。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 如果主语是事情而不是人，go along (延续体的第二类动词)表示“进行得如何”(必须有副词表示“如何”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My life is going along nicely. 我的日子过得很好。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> go along 还可以表示“同意或接受(某一已知的主张)，答应(某一已知的要求)”(瞬间体的第四类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The agreement will make them the highest-paid pilots in the industry, if union members go along. 按照协议，只要工会会员们答应，他们会成为本行业工资最高的飞行员。/ He had only gone along out of concern for his two grandsons. 他之所以答应，仅仅是为了两个孙子着想。</div><br><br>通常只需说 go along 即可，但也可以加上 with ...，说明“同意什么”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The president has announced a plan to cut taxes, and Congress is likely to go along with it. 总统宣布了一项减税计划，国会大概会同意。</div><br><br>如果不是自己“同意”或“接受”，而是“使得别人同意或接受”，就可以说 bring somebody along (with)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>bring France and other Security Council members along with the resolution 使法国和安理会其他理事国接受这个决议。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 与 go along 不同，come along 只有(非预料中的)“前来”与“发生”的意义(都是属于瞬间体的第四类动词)，也可以表示事情迄今“顺利进行中”(属于延续体的第二类动词)，但没有“同意，接受”的意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was lucky you came along. 幸亏你来了。/ She always thinks some guy is going to come along and fix her life. 她总是觉得，会碰上一个小伙子，安排好她的一生。/ Pentagon spokesman Williams says the talks are coming along quite well. 五角大楼发言人威廉姆斯说，谈判进展良好。</div><br><br>此外，come along 还可以用于催促。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Come along. No sense in your standing around. 走吧。你待在这里没什么意思。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> get along 的意义与 go along 不同。首先，go along 倾向于指一时的“同意，接受，答应”，而 get along 虽然用了通常是瞬时体的 get，但是却主要是延续体的“相处融洽”(因此可以用一般现在时)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They had always gotten along, even when they sparred. 他们即使争吵，也总是相处得不错。/ My kids and their cousins really get along with each other. 我的孩子们同他们的表兄弟相处得很不错。/ It isimpossible to get along with him. 同他无法相处。/ There you have to go along to get along. 在那里，要随和将就，才能搞好关系。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 如果不涉及同他人的关系，get along 表示“过正常日子”(也是延续体的第二类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You can't get along without water. 没有水是没法生活的。</div><br><br>
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go along 与 get along
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(go) along 与 (get) along</b></div>两者相似，但意义有些不同。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> go along 原来的意义是“前往(已知的某处)”(瞬间体的第四类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I went along to the meeting. 我前去开会。/ You should go along and have a look. 你应该去瞧一下。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 但是 go along 也可以指“继续进行本来正在做的事情”(延续体的第二类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Learning how to become a parent takes time. It's a skill you learn as you go along. 学习如何当父母，是要费时间的。这是一种边干边学的本领。/ It's fine to ask questions as we go along, but it's better if you wait until we have finished. 我们边讲，大家也可以边提问题，不过最好等到我们讲完之后再问。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 如果主语是事情而不是人，go along (延续体的第二类动词)表示“进行得如何”(必须有副词表示“如何”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My life is going along nicely. 我的日子过得很好。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> go along 还可以表示“同意或接受(某一已知的主张)，答应(某一已知的要求)”(瞬间体的第四类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The agreement will make them the highest-paid pilots in the industry, if union members go along. 按照协议，只要工会会员们答应，他们会成为本行业工资最高的飞行员。/ He had only gone along out of concern for his two grandsons. 他之所以答应，仅仅是为了两个孙子着想。</div><br><br>通常只需说 go along 即可，但也可以加上 with ...，说明“同意什么”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The president has announced a plan to cut taxes, and Congress is likely to go along with it. 总统宣布了一项减税计划，国会大概会同意。</div><br><br>如果不是自己“同意”或“接受”，而是“使得别人同意或接受”，就可以说 bring somebody along (with)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>bring France and other Security Council members along with the resolution 使法国和安理会其他理事国接受这个决议。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 与 go along 不同，come along 只有(非预料中的)“前来”与“发生”的意义(都是属于瞬间体的第四类动词)，也可以表示事情迄今“顺利进行中”(属于延续体的第二类动词)，但没有“同意，接受”的意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was lucky you came along. 幸亏你来了。/ She always thinks some guy is going to come along and fix her life. 她总是觉得，会碰上一个小伙子，安排好她的一生。/ Pentagon spokesman Williams says the talks are coming along quite well. 五角大楼发言人威廉姆斯说，谈判进展良好。</div><br><br>此外，come along 还可以用于催促。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Come along. No sense in your standing around. 走吧。你待在这里没什么意思。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> get along 的意义与 go along 不同。首先，go along 倾向于指一时的“同意，接受，答应”，而 get along 虽然用了通常是瞬时体的 get，但是却主要是延续体的“相处融洽”(因此可以用一般现在时)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They had always gotten along, even when they sparred. 他们即使争吵，也总是相处得不错。/ My kids and their cousins really get along with each other. 我的孩子们同他们的表兄弟相处得很不错。/ It isimpossible to get along with him. 同他无法相处。/ There you have to go along to get along. 在那里，要随和将就，才能搞好关系。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 如果不涉及同他人的关系，get along 表示“过正常日子”(也是延续体的第二类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You can't get along without water. 没有水是没法生活的。</div><br><br>
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go back to inf.
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>go back to inf. 与 go back to + -ing</b></div>前者 的含义包括了位置的移动 (“回去做某事”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He went back to take a shower. 他回去洗了个澡。</div><br><br>后者 的含义则是比较抽象的“重新恢复做某事”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Catherine went back to studying the accounts. (Mary Higgins Clark, I'll Be Seeing You) 凯瑟琳又重新核查账目。</div><br><br>
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go back to + -ing
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>go back to inf. 与 go back to + -ing</b></div>前者 的含义包括了位置的移动 (“回去做某事”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He went back to take a shower. 他回去洗了个澡。</div><br><br>后者 的含义则是比较抽象的“重新恢复做某事”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Catherine went back to studying the accounts. (Mary Higgins Clark, I'll Be Seeing You) 凯瑟琳又重新核查账目。</div><br><br>
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luck + -ing
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(good) luck + -ing</b></div>这样的结构，可以不是对“已经有了这样的好运气”表示祝贺，而是一个假设，即“假如能如何如何，就算好运气了”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Another (research) predicts that by 2009, the average worker will spend 41 percent of his or her day dealing with e-mail. Good luck keeping up. (<i>Reader's Digest</i>, October 2007, p. 21) 另一项研究预计，到了 2009 年，一般的工作者每天将要花 41% 的时间来处理电子邮件。能跟得上，算你运气好。(参见 lucky 条之 (2))</div>
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good luck + -ing
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(good) luck + -ing</b></div>这样的结构，可以不是对“已经有了这样的好运气”表示祝贺，而是一个假设，即“假如能如何如何，就算好运气了”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Another (research) predicts that by 2009, the average worker will spend 41 percent of his or her day dealing with e-mail. Good luck keeping up. (<i>Reader's Digest</i>, October 2007, p. 21) 另一项研究预计，到了 2009 年，一般的工作者每天将要花 41% 的时间来处理电子邮件。能跟得上，算你运气好。(参见 lucky 条之 (2))</div>
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go on + -ing
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>go on + -ing 与 go on to inf.</b></div>这两个不同的搭配，意义也大不相同。<br><br>go on + -ing 是原来在做某事，现在继续做下去 (现在分词的动词必须是延续体的)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She went on reading. 她继续看她的书。/ You can't go on being a student forever. 你不可能永远当学生。go on to inf. 则是前面某事做完了，下一步去做另一件事 (动词不定式的动词通常是瞬时体的)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She went on to explain that ... 她接着又解释说……</div><br><br>
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go on to inf.
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>go on + -ing 与 go on to inf.</b></div>这两个不同的搭配，意义也大不相同。<br><br>go on + -ing 是原来在做某事，现在继续做下去 (现在分词的动词必须是延续体的)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She went on reading. 她继续看她的书。/ You can't go on being a student forever. 你不可能永远当学生。go on to inf. 则是前面某事做完了，下一步去做另一件事 (动词不定式的动词通常是瞬时体的)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She went on to explain that ... 她接着又解释说……</div><br><br>
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go through
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>go through 与 go through with</b></div>两者用法和意义都有些不同。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> go through 是个短语动词，但可以及物或不及物。如果 through 作为介词，go through 就相当于及物动词；如果 through 作为副词，则 go through 相当于不及物动词。<br><br>作为及物的短语动词，go through 的直接意义是“穿透；查遍；耗尽”，属于第三类或第四类动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The nail went through all three boards. 钉子把三块板全都穿透了。/ He spent quite a while going through his desk, looking for the papers. 他花了好长时间翻遍办公桌，找那些文件。/ We have gone through all the aspirin again! 我们的阿司匹林又用光了！</div><br><br>用于抽象转义，则大体上有点“过一遍”的意思，比较着重“从头到尾经历某个过程”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I always start the day by going through my email. 我每天一开始总是先检查一遍电子邮件。/ She went through the company's accounts, looking for evidence of fraud. 她从头到尾查遍了公司的账目，寻找舞弊的证据。/ The pickles went through a number of processes before they were packed. 泡菜经过了若干工序，然后才包装。/ I would like to go through it again, so I can be sure to understand it. 我打算再温习一遍，这样就有把握能理解。/ You can't believe what I've gone through. 我的遭遇，你真的难以相信。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> go through 中的 through 如果是副词，整个短语动词就相当于一个不及物动词，此时它是个第四类动词，意义就是“获得通过，走通”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I sent the board of directors an proposal. I hope it goes through. 我向董事会提交了一份建议书。希望能被采纳。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> go through with 本来是不及物的短语动词 go through 加上介词 with，又回过头来成为一个及物的短语动词，但是有了新的意义，是“(不顾一切地) (把某事) 干到底” (属于第三类或第四类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I have to go through with it, no matter what. 无论如何我都要把事情办成。/ I hoped he wasn't really going through with the plan. 我当时希望他不是真的在把计划推行到底。</div><br><br>
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go through with
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>go through 与 go through with</b></div>两者用法和意义都有些不同。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> go through 是个短语动词，但可以及物或不及物。如果 through 作为介词，go through 就相当于及物动词；如果 through 作为副词，则 go through 相当于不及物动词。<br><br>作为及物的短语动词，go through 的直接意义是“穿透；查遍；耗尽”，属于第三类或第四类动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The nail went through all three boards. 钉子把三块板全都穿透了。/ He spent quite a while going through his desk, looking for the papers. 他花了好长时间翻遍办公桌，找那些文件。/ We have gone through all the aspirin again! 我们的阿司匹林又用光了！</div><br><br>用于抽象转义，则大体上有点“过一遍”的意思，比较着重“从头到尾经历某个过程”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I always start the day by going through my email. 我每天一开始总是先检查一遍电子邮件。/ She went through the company's accounts, looking for evidence of fraud. 她从头到尾查遍了公司的账目，寻找舞弊的证据。/ The pickles went through a number of processes before they were packed. 泡菜经过了若干工序，然后才包装。/ I would like to go through it again, so I can be sure to understand it. 我打算再温习一遍，这样就有把握能理解。/ You can't believe what I've gone through. 我的遭遇，你真的难以相信。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> go through 中的 through 如果是副词，整个短语动词就相当于一个不及物动词，此时它是个第四类动词，意义就是“获得通过，走通”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I sent the board of directors an proposal. I hope it goes through. 我向董事会提交了一份建议书。希望能被采纳。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> go through with 本来是不及物的短语动词 go through 加上介词 with，又回过头来成为一个及物的短语动词，但是有了新的意义，是“(不顾一切地) (把某事) 干到底” (属于第三类或第四类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I have to go through with it, no matter what. 无论如何我都要把事情办成。/ I hoped he wasn't really going through with the plan. 我当时希望他不是真的在把计划推行到底。</div><br><br>
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grateful
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>grateful 与 thankful</b></div>参见 thankful 与 grateful 条。<br><br>
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thankful
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>grateful 与 thankful</b></div>参见 thankful 与 grateful 条。<br><br>
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had better
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(had) better</b></div>had better inf. (注意不定式没有 to)是很常用的结构，但是它的用法和含义比较微妙。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 如果主语是 you，口气就比较强硬(比 should 和 ought to 重，但比 must 轻)，有点居高临下的“规劝，忠告，正告”的意思，甚至可能有点强制或威胁。使用时要小心。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You'd better do exactly as I say. 你还是一五一十照我说的办好。/ You'd better not complain! 你还是别埋怨的好!</div><div class="ex-item">You'd better help me. If you don't, there'll be trouble. 你还是给我帮帮忙好。你不帮，事情就麻烦了。</div><br><br>另外，在形式上，往往 you had 或 you'd 略去，只剩下 better。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Better do your homework right now. 你最好还是现在就做功课。主语是第一人称或第三人称时不可以省略，但 had 或其缩写形 'd 可以省略。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 以 I 为主语时，表示自己打算马上或者很快要做某事(不用于长远的计划)，是自言自语，但带有求对方理解或支持的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'd better go. 我该走了。/ It's seven o'clock. I'd better put the meat in the oven. 已经 7 点钟了。我该把肉放进炉子里去了。/ I'd better introduce myself. 让我来自我介绍吧。</div><br><br>但是要注意的是：这件“某事”如果是不特指的(用 a 来表示)，就不是客观已经存在的，而只是主观寻求或假设的。例如双方在打电话，甲觉得谈得太长了，不耐烦，就说 I have to go to a meeting now. It starts in five minutes. 但不可以说 <i>I'd better go to a meeting now. It starts in five minutes. 这是因为 had better 表示一种“寻求”，后面的 a meeting 并不是真正的客观存在(所以说“五分钟内开始”就不真实，听起来像是说谎)，而 have to 则表示这里 a meeting 是真正的客观存在。主语是 we 时，是建议对方和自己一起做某事。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We'd better go now. 咱们还是现在就走吧。此时可以加一个“附加疑问”(tag question)缓和语气：We'd better go now, hadn't we? 回答同意，可以说 Yes, we had. (不能说 </i>we'd) 或 Yes, we'd better. <span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We'd better not be late for the Ambassador's party. It would be unforgivable to arrive late. 大使的招待会咱们千万别晚到了。如果迟到，就是不可原谅的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 以第三人称为主语，表示说话者认为主语所指的人应该如何如何。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He'd better take his medicine regularly. 他应该准时服药。/ Lisa decided she'd better smile back. 丽莎决定还是报以微笑为妥。同第一、第二人称作主语的情况不同，以第三人称作主语时，可以把主动句转换成被动句。也就是说，第一、第二人称作主语时，had better 属于“主语意向”(subject orientation)；而第三人称作主语时，had better 可以属于“话语意向”(discourse orientation)，亦即这个“最好如何如何”可以“替主语所指的某人着想，对主语所指的某人提出强烈要求”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They'd better buy me a Christmas present or I shall never forgive them. 他们识相就买一件圣诞礼物给我，要不然我永远不会原谅他们。也可以转换为被动式，原来的直接宾语变为主语，此时就不是专门替某个人着想(即不再是“主语意向”)，只是泛泛指出“最好如何如何”(即变成了“话语意向”)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We conclude that agriculture had better be included in the goods chapter. 我们的结论是，农业最好列在商品一章中。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> had better 没有“比……更……”的意思，不能用来做比较。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>*I had better rest at home than go out in the rain. 我宁可待在家里，也不冒雨出门。这一句应该改为 I would rather rest at home than go out in the rain. 或者 I had better rest at home instead of going out in the rain.</div><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 也有不用 better 而用 best 的，但是这个用法带有一点古旧气息(同中文的“最好”倒是不谋而合)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You had best go home early. 你最好还是早点回家。否定形式是 had best not go; 疑问形式是 "had/hadn't + 主语 + best go ..."。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> had better inf. 的否定形式通常是 had better not inf.，也就是说，had better 这个表示“应该”的意义不受否定，而只是否定后面的 inf.。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You had better not go today. 你今天最好别去。有人用 hadn't better inf.，这在一般情况下是不正确的；但是，如果对方先说了 had better inf.，你要纠正他，说他说得不对，却可以采用 hadn't better inf. 的结构，意思是对 had better 加以否定，一直否定到动词不定式。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—We'd better leave now. —No, we hadn't better leave now—we've still got a lot of work to do. ——咱们现在最好走吧。——不，咱们现在走不好。还有许多活要干呢。如果说 We had better not leave now. 那就是双方都一致认为有必要采取某种行动，只是在采取什么行动这一点上双方相反，一个是耍走，一个是不走。</div><br><br>had better inf. 如果又是否定又是疑问句，就有“建议(做某事)”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>And now had we better not descend? (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 咱们现在是否可以下去了?</div><div class="ex-item">"Had we better not go and see who it is?" said she, "the servants are out." "I think we had," replied I. (Jane Austen, Love and Friendship, in Jane Austen's Complete Novels) “咱们去看看是谁好吗?”她说，“仆人们都已经走了。”“我看咱们该去一下。”我回答说。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> wonder 之类的动词(参见 wonder 条)，有时候后面的 whether 或 if 从句形式上是否定而实际上是肯定。此时可以说 hadn't better inf.，实际意义是 had better inf.，此时反而不能用 *had better not inf.，因为形式上的否定应该落在 had better 上。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I wonder if we hadn't better call him before we leave. 我觉得咱们是不是走之前最好给他打个电话。</div><br><br>
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hare
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>hare 与 rabbit</b></div>参见 rabbit 与 hare 条。<br><br>
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rabbit
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>hare 与 rabbit</b></div>参见 rabbit 与 hare 条。<br><br>
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haste
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>haste 与 hurry</b></div>这两个同义词，意义相近，都可以表示 “匆忙” 甚至 “草率”。但是 haste 除了负面的 “草率” 之外，还可以表示中性的 “连忙”，hurry 则通常带有 “草率” 的贬义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I was in such haste (<i>hurry) to be here before you went to bed. (John Fowles, </i>The French Lieutenant's Woman*) 我是急着在你睡觉前赶回来呀。</div><br><br>
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heart
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(have a) heart</b></div>是央求对方通融的话。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Have a heart, officer. I wasn't going all so fast. 警官，通融一下吧。我并没有开这么快。</div><br><br>
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have a heart
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(have a) heart</b></div>是央求对方通融的话。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Have a heart, officer. I wasn't going all so fast. 警官，通融一下吧。我并没有开这么快。</div><br><br>
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another thought coming
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(have got) another thought coming</b></div>have got another thought coming 是一个来历很复杂的说法。最原先是 have gotanother <b>thing</b> coming，意思是“得到与所追求的大不相同的结果；大失所望”。例如 20 世纪 40 年代的电影描写黑社会帮匪互相争夺地盘的对白：You got away with it this time, but if you think you're gonna keep stealing from Mr. XX, you <b>got another thing coming</b>. 这次你是得逞了，但你如果以为可以一直偷 XX 先生的东西，那你就大错特错了。但是有人认为 thing 意义不明确，就改为 think (作名词用)，意义是“产生另一种想法，由于发现情况与所追求的相反而产生另一种想法；大失所望”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Young man, if you think I'm not aware of what you did last night, you'<b>ve got another think coming</b>. 年轻人，如果你以为我不知道你昨天夜里干了些什么，那你就大错特错了。但是有人指出，think 作为名词很不自然，所以就有人把 think 改为 thought。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They cannot hold the president of the United States hostage. If they think they're going to rewrite this bill and Barack Obama is going to walk away from what he is trying to do for the American people, they'<b>ve got another thought coming</b>. 他们不能劫持美国总统。他们如果以为自己可以改写这个法案，以为奥巴马会放弃自己力图为美国人民造福的措施，那么，他们就大错特错了。</div><br><br>
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have got another thought coming
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(have got) another thought coming</b></div>have got another thought coming 是一个来历很复杂的说法。最原先是 have gotanother <b>thing</b> coming，意思是“得到与所追求的大不相同的结果；大失所望”。例如 20 世纪 40 年代的电影描写黑社会帮匪互相争夺地盘的对白：You got away with it this time, but if you think you're gonna keep stealing from Mr. XX, you <b>got another thing coming</b>. 这次你是得逞了，但你如果以为可以一直偷 XX 先生的东西，那你就大错特错了。但是有人认为 thing 意义不明确，就改为 think (作名词用)，意义是“产生另一种想法，由于发现情况与所追求的相反而产生另一种想法；大失所望”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Young man, if you think I'm not aware of what you did last night, you'<b>ve got another think coming</b>. 年轻人，如果你以为我不知道你昨天夜里干了些什么，那你就大错特错了。但是有人指出，think 作为名词很不自然，所以就有人把 think 改为 thought。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They cannot hold the president of the United States hostage. If they think they're going to rewrite this bill and Barack Obama is going to walk away from what he is trying to do for the American people, they'<b>ve got another thought coming</b>. 他们不能劫持美国总统。他们如果以为自己可以改写这个法案，以为奥巴马会放弃自己力图为美国人民造福的措施，那么，他们就大错特错了。</div><br><br>
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got
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(have) got (to)</b></div>have got to 其实是在 have to 当中加了一个 got，意义同 have to 是一样的：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> “必须”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We've all got to get up early tomorrow. 我们大家明天都要早起。(后面的动词不定式是瞬时的动态动词)</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> “一定是”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You've got to be kidding. 你一定是在开玩笑吧。/ It's got to be there! 它一定在那那边！(后面的动词不定式是延续的状态动词) (参见 have 条)</div>
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got to
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(have) got (to)</b></div>have got to 其实是在 have to 当中加了一个 got，意义同 have to 是一样的：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> “必须”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We've all got to get up early tomorrow. 我们大家明天都要早起。(后面的动词不定式是瞬时的动态动词)</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> “一定是”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You've got to be kidding. 你一定是在开玩笑吧。/ It's got to be there! 它一定在那那边！(后面的动词不定式是延续的状态动词) (参见 have 条)</div>
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have got to
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(have) got (to)</b></div>have got to 其实是在 have to 当中加了一个 got，意义同 have to 是一样的：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> “必须”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We've all got to get up early tomorrow. 我们大家明天都要早起。(后面的动词不定式是瞬时的动态动词)</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> “一定是”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You've got to be kidding. 你一定是在开玩笑吧。/ It's got to be there! 它一定在那那边！(后面的动词不定式是延续的状态动词) (参见 have 条)</div>
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nerve to inf.
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(have the) nerve to inf.</b></div>这里的 nerve 不是“神经”，是“勇气，颜面”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>And he <b>had the nerve to</b> call his failure a victory! 他还有脸把自己的失败称作胜利！</div><br><br>
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have the nerve to inf.
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(have the) nerve to inf.</b></div>这里的 nerve 不是“神经”，是“勇气，颜面”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>And he <b>had the nerve to</b> call his failure a victory! 他还有脸把自己的失败称作胜利！</div><br><br>
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“有”
<div class="entry"><b>have 与 “有”</b>通常中文的 “有” 相当于英文的 have。但是需要注意的是，英文的 have 一般只用于下列场合。(a) 比较固定的占有关系。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has a new car. 他买了一辆新车。/ The house has four windows. 这座房子有四扇窗。(b) 整体对于局部的不可分割的占有关系。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has broad shoulders. 他肩头宽。这样的占有关系在中文中也常常不用 “有” 来表达。</div><br><br>如果是下列场合，就最好不要简单地用 have 来表示 “有”，而可以采取其他表达方式：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 只是一时的占有，此时用了 have 之后还要在直接宾语后面加上短短的一个介词短语来表示占有的临时性：(a) 如果主语是人，就加上 “with + 主语代词” (此时中文也不习惯说 “有”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—Does he drink? —Well, he has a bottle with him. —他喝酒吗? —是呀，他拿着一个酒瓶。/ She had a flower with her. 她拿着一朵花。在这类句子中，没有后面的 with ... 就不很自然。</div>(b) 如果主语和直接宾语都是具体事物，就加上 “in/on + 主语代词”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My sock has a hole in it. (= There is a hole in my sock.) 我的一只袜子破了一个洞。或者在句末加上另外一种介词短语。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... a lot of wealthy retired people including physicians, who, like him, had time on their hands. (<i>U.S. News & World Report</i>, Oct. 14, 2002, p. 61) ……许多富有的退休者，其中有医生，都像他一样有空闲。如果是非物质的，可以不用 in 或 on，而用 to。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It has a nice sound to it. 它响着一个悦耳的声音。</div><br><br>即使不是 have，有 “具有” 词义的介词 with，也需要后面加一个介词短语，才显得自然。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>White shirts, shoulder boards with stripes on them. (Tom Clancy, <i>Executive Orders</i>) 白衬衣，肩章上面有条纹。/ ... carried a heavy stick with a knob to it. (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, <i>The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes</i>) ……拿着一根上面有镍头的沉重的手杖。</div>(c) 如果主语是具体或抽象事物，而直接宾语则是比较抽象的事物，就加上 “to/about + 主语代词”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It has a nice ring/sound to it. 这听起来还很不错。(to 表示一时的现象)</div><div class="ex-item">The place has a certain charm about it. 这地方有点吸引人之处。(不是一时，而是经常的属性，用 about)</div><div class="ex-item">The Constitution has the aura of the sacred about it. (<i>Time</i>, July 6, 1987) 宪法带有一种神圣的光环。(about 表示本质的属性)</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 表示 “拥有，占有”，不一定非用 have，可以区别 “有 (正面的东西)” 和 “有 (负面的东西)”，分别采用各种不同的其他动词。例如：(a) 说某个人有某种情况或性质，不一定要用直接的 “某人 + have + 某情况” 这种句型，而是可以用 “there is + 某情况 + about + 某人” 句型，这样似乎更合乎英文的习惯。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There was much to admire about this man, but so much also to merit disdain. (Tom Clancy, <i>Clear and Present Danger</i>) 这个人有许多令人钦佩之处，也同样有许多值得鄙视之处。有时候 “某人” 也可以改为某抽象载体。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... if there's anything about an economy, it's that it's constantly in transition. (<i>U.S. News &</i> <i>World Report</i>, June 7, 2004, p. 38) 如果说经济有什么特点，那就是经济是经常不断地处于过渡状态之中的。更多的例句，参见 about 条。</div><br><br>如果双方都是比较抽象的事物，就用 “to + 较大的一方 (也是载体，但更为笼统)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There was some truth to that, she thought. 她觉得那里面也有真实之处。/ And there seems to be an upside to all this. (<i>Newsweek</i>, July 16, 2007, p. 16) 看来这一切也有好的一面。/ Yet there are virtues to living here. (<i>Newsweek</i>, Sept. 11, 2006, p. 13) 住在这里有这里的好处。</div><br><br>如果占有关系是比较固定的，只要较小的一方是比较抽象的性质，则较大的一方，即使是比较具体的事物，也用 to 来引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There is a soul to an army as well as to the individual man, ... (<i>U.S. News & World Report</i>, Oct. 28, 2002, p. 44) 军队同人一样，也是有灵魂的，……</div>(b) 如果说的是某个人 “有” 某种比较抽象的性质，而且指的是说话者得到的一时的印象，就用 about 而不用 to。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There's something different about her. 她显得有点异样。/ There was a defiant manner about this young man. 这个青年带有一种桀骜不驯的神情。/ There's something so selfish and insincere about him. 他给人一种自私和虚伪的印象。</div>(c) 表示 “有” 好的比较具体的东西，可以用 boast 或 be blessed with。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The city boasts a population of 1.3 million. 该市有 130 万人口。/ These enterprises boast the country's best research and development capability. 这些企业拥有国内最好的研发能力。</div>(d) 表示 “配备有” 某一具体事物，可以用 be supplied/provided with。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The lungs are supplied with a dense network of capillaries. 肺具有密密麻麻网络状的毛细血管。/ The plane is provided with eight emergency exits. 该飞机备有八处紧急出口。如果该具体事物是有突出地位的，可以用及物动词 feature。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The exhibition featured some new products. 展览会有一些新产品展出。</div>(e) 表示 “有” 好的比较抽象的东西，可以用 enjoy 或 possess。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Thus, Eurasian societies in the time of Columbus enjoyed big advantages over Native American societies in food production, germs, technology (including weapons). (Jared Diamond, <i>Guns, Germs, and Steel</i>) 在哥伦布时期，欧亚大陆的各个社群，在粮食生产、微生物、科技 (包括武器) 方面，比之美洲的土著社群，具有巨大的优势。/ Sean McMeekin's account possesses the large merit that it tells a story little known to Western readers, drawing extensively upon German sources. (<i>The New York Review of Books</i>, Dec. 9, 2010, p. 44) 肖恩·麦克米金的说辞，其一个巨大的优点，就是它大量引用德文材料，说出了西方读者所不熟悉的一个故事。但是 possess 也可以转换为被动语态 (其实意义仍然是主动的)，改为 be possessed of。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... and his enormous limbs showed that he was possessed of unusual strength of body and of character. (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, <i>The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes</i>) ……他那粗壮的四肢，显示出他具有不寻常的体力和意志力。</div>(f) 表示 “有” 负面的比较抽象的性质，可以用 suffer from、be fraught with、be riddled with 等。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Such an approach is fraught with danger. 这样的做法有危险。/ Such narrowly focused accounts of world history suffer from three disadvantages. (Jared Diamond, <i>Guns, Germs, and Steel</i>) 对世界历史做出如此范围狭窄的陈述，这样做，有三个不利之处。/ The project, although clearly successful in limited areas, is still bedeviled with so many problems. 方案尽管在一些有限的领域显然成功，但是仍然有这么多的问题。/ Both Democrats and Republicans have argued that our tax code is riddled with wasteful, complicated loopholes that punish businesses investing here, and reward companies that keep profits abroad. (Barack Obama, State of the Union, Jan. 28, 2014) 无论民主党人还是共和党人，都曾经声称，我们的税则有一些浪费的、复杂的漏洞，惩罚了在国内投资的企业，而奖励了那些把利润留在国外的公司。</div>(g) 表示 “包含有” 某一比较具体的事物或因素，可以用 carry。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>One book carried a reference to the curious fact that in 1866 ... (John Darnton, <i>The Darwin Conspiracy</i>) 有一本书里面提到 1866 年的一件怪事……</div><div class="ex-item">It's legal, but carries risks you should know about. 这是合法的，但是有风险，你需要知道。/ Johns Hopkins carried a lot of prestige. (Tom Clancy, <i>Executive Orders</i>) 约翰斯·霍普金斯大学很有声望。</div>(h) 表示 “有” 某一可正面可负面的比较抽象的性质，可以用 hold、present 等及物动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It held some special meaning for her. 它对她有某种特殊的意义。/ The discussion presents considerable theoretical interest. (Otto Jespersen, <i>The Philosophy of Grammar</i>) 讨论有很深的理论意义。</div>(i) 表示 “触及，遇到有” 某一客观条件或状况，可以用 know 或 see (但是通常用于否定句)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Love knows no borders. 爱是没有界限的。/ Their greed knows no limit. 他们贪得无厌。/ The government sees no reason to comply with such a demand. 政府没有理由答应这样的要求。/ Some programs, including foreign aid, are expected to see big reductions in Trump's proposal. (HuffPost, Feb. 28, 2017) 有些项目，包括援外项目，预计在特朗普的建议中会有很大的削减。</div>(j) 有时候可以主宾对调而避免单调地用动词 have 来表示 “具有”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If these qualities describe you (= you have these qualities), we encourage you to take the next step and apply to Bucknell. (Bucknell University admissions statement) 你如果具备这些品质，我们就鼓励你走出下一步，申请到巴克内尔大学就读。/ ... only five cars graced its parking lot. (Marta Perry, <i>Restless Hearts</i>) ……停车场只有五辆车。</div><br><br>
</>
have
<div class="entry"><b>have 与 “有”</b>通常中文的 “有” 相当于英文的 have。但是需要注意的是，英文的 have 一般只用于下列场合。(a) 比较固定的占有关系。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has a new car. 他买了一辆新车。/ The house has four windows. 这座房子有四扇窗。(b) 整体对于局部的不可分割的占有关系。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has broad shoulders. 他肩头宽。这样的占有关系在中文中也常常不用 “有” 来表达。</div><br><br>如果是下列场合，就最好不要简单地用 have 来表示 “有”，而可以采取其他表达方式：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 只是一时的占有，此时用了 have 之后还要在直接宾语后面加上短短的一个介词短语来表示占有的临时性：(a) 如果主语是人，就加上 “with + 主语代词” (此时中文也不习惯说 “有”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—Does he drink? —Well, he has a bottle with him. —他喝酒吗? —是呀，他拿着一个酒瓶。/ She had a flower with her. 她拿着一朵花。在这类句子中，没有后面的 with ... 就不很自然。</div>(b) 如果主语和直接宾语都是具体事物，就加上 “in/on + 主语代词”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My sock has a hole in it. (= There is a hole in my sock.) 我的一只袜子破了一个洞。或者在句末加上另外一种介词短语。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... a lot of wealthy retired people including physicians, who, like him, had time on their hands. (<i>U.S. News & World Report</i>, Oct. 14, 2002, p. 61) ……许多富有的退休者，其中有医生，都像他一样有空闲。如果是非物质的，可以不用 in 或 on，而用 to。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It has a nice sound to it. 它响着一个悦耳的声音。</div><br><br>即使不是 have，有 “具有” 词义的介词 with，也需要后面加一个介词短语，才显得自然。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>White shirts, shoulder boards with stripes on them. (Tom Clancy, <i>Executive Orders</i>) 白衬衣，肩章上面有条纹。/ ... carried a heavy stick with a knob to it. (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, <i>The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes</i>) ……拿着一根上面有镍头的沉重的手杖。</div>(c) 如果主语是具体或抽象事物，而直接宾语则是比较抽象的事物，就加上 “to/about + 主语代词”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It has a nice ring/sound to it. 这听起来还很不错。(to 表示一时的现象)</div><div class="ex-item">The place has a certain charm about it. 这地方有点吸引人之处。(不是一时，而是经常的属性，用 about)</div><div class="ex-item">The Constitution has the aura of the sacred about it. (<i>Time</i>, July 6, 1987) 宪法带有一种神圣的光环。(about 表示本质的属性)</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 表示 “拥有，占有”，不一定非用 have，可以区别 “有 (正面的东西)” 和 “有 (负面的东西)”，分别采用各种不同的其他动词。例如：(a) 说某个人有某种情况或性质，不一定要用直接的 “某人 + have + 某情况” 这种句型，而是可以用 “there is + 某情况 + about + 某人” 句型，这样似乎更合乎英文的习惯。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There was much to admire about this man, but so much also to merit disdain. (Tom Clancy, <i>Clear and Present Danger</i>) 这个人有许多令人钦佩之处，也同样有许多值得鄙视之处。有时候 “某人” 也可以改为某抽象载体。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... if there's anything about an economy, it's that it's constantly in transition. (<i>U.S. News &</i> <i>World Report</i>, June 7, 2004, p. 38) 如果说经济有什么特点，那就是经济是经常不断地处于过渡状态之中的。更多的例句，参见 about 条。</div><br><br>如果双方都是比较抽象的事物，就用 “to + 较大的一方 (也是载体，但更为笼统)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There was some truth to that, she thought. 她觉得那里面也有真实之处。/ And there seems to be an upside to all this. (<i>Newsweek</i>, July 16, 2007, p. 16) 看来这一切也有好的一面。/ Yet there are virtues to living here. (<i>Newsweek</i>, Sept. 11, 2006, p. 13) 住在这里有这里的好处。</div><br><br>如果占有关系是比较固定的，只要较小的一方是比较抽象的性质，则较大的一方，即使是比较具体的事物，也用 to 来引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There is a soul to an army as well as to the individual man, ... (<i>U.S. News & World Report</i>, Oct. 28, 2002, p. 44) 军队同人一样，也是有灵魂的，……</div>(b) 如果说的是某个人 “有” 某种比较抽象的性质，而且指的是说话者得到的一时的印象，就用 about 而不用 to。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There's something different about her. 她显得有点异样。/ There was a defiant manner about this young man. 这个青年带有一种桀骜不驯的神情。/ There's something so selfish and insincere about him. 他给人一种自私和虚伪的印象。</div>(c) 表示 “有” 好的比较具体的东西，可以用 boast 或 be blessed with。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The city boasts a population of 1.3 million. 该市有 130 万人口。/ These enterprises boast the country's best research and development capability. 这些企业拥有国内最好的研发能力。</div>(d) 表示 “配备有” 某一具体事物，可以用 be supplied/provided with。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The lungs are supplied with a dense network of capillaries. 肺具有密密麻麻网络状的毛细血管。/ The plane is provided with eight emergency exits. 该飞机备有八处紧急出口。如果该具体事物是有突出地位的，可以用及物动词 feature。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The exhibition featured some new products. 展览会有一些新产品展出。</div>(e) 表示 “有” 好的比较抽象的东西，可以用 enjoy 或 possess。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Thus, Eurasian societies in the time of Columbus enjoyed big advantages over Native American societies in food production, germs, technology (including weapons). (Jared Diamond, <i>Guns, Germs, and Steel</i>) 在哥伦布时期，欧亚大陆的各个社群，在粮食生产、微生物、科技 (包括武器) 方面，比之美洲的土著社群，具有巨大的优势。/ Sean McMeekin's account possesses the large merit that it tells a story little known to Western readers, drawing extensively upon German sources. (<i>The New York Review of Books</i>, Dec. 9, 2010, p. 44) 肖恩·麦克米金的说辞，其一个巨大的优点，就是它大量引用德文材料，说出了西方读者所不熟悉的一个故事。但是 possess 也可以转换为被动语态 (其实意义仍然是主动的)，改为 be possessed of。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... and his enormous limbs showed that he was possessed of unusual strength of body and of character. (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, <i>The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes</i>) ……他那粗壮的四肢，显示出他具有不寻常的体力和意志力。</div>(f) 表示 “有” 负面的比较抽象的性质，可以用 suffer from、be fraught with、be riddled with 等。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Such an approach is fraught with danger. 这样的做法有危险。/ Such narrowly focused accounts of world history suffer from three disadvantages. (Jared Diamond, <i>Guns, Germs, and Steel</i>) 对世界历史做出如此范围狭窄的陈述，这样做，有三个不利之处。/ The project, although clearly successful in limited areas, is still bedeviled with so many problems. 方案尽管在一些有限的领域显然成功，但是仍然有这么多的问题。/ Both Democrats and Republicans have argued that our tax code is riddled with wasteful, complicated loopholes that punish businesses investing here, and reward companies that keep profits abroad. (Barack Obama, State of the Union, Jan. 28, 2014) 无论民主党人还是共和党人，都曾经声称，我们的税则有一些浪费的、复杂的漏洞，惩罚了在国内投资的企业，而奖励了那些把利润留在国外的公司。</div>(g) 表示 “包含有” 某一比较具体的事物或因素，可以用 carry。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>One book carried a reference to the curious fact that in 1866 ... (John Darnton, <i>The Darwin Conspiracy</i>) 有一本书里面提到 1866 年的一件怪事……</div><div class="ex-item">It's legal, but carries risks you should know about. 这是合法的，但是有风险，你需要知道。/ Johns Hopkins carried a lot of prestige. (Tom Clancy, <i>Executive Orders</i>) 约翰斯·霍普金斯大学很有声望。</div>(h) 表示 “有” 某一可正面可负面的比较抽象的性质，可以用 hold、present 等及物动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It held some special meaning for her. 它对她有某种特殊的意义。/ The discussion presents considerable theoretical interest. (Otto Jespersen, <i>The Philosophy of Grammar</i>) 讨论有很深的理论意义。</div>(i) 表示 “触及，遇到有” 某一客观条件或状况，可以用 know 或 see (但是通常用于否定句)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Love knows no borders. 爱是没有界限的。/ Their greed knows no limit. 他们贪得无厌。/ The government sees no reason to comply with such a demand. 政府没有理由答应这样的要求。/ Some programs, including foreign aid, are expected to see big reductions in Trump's proposal. (HuffPost, Feb. 28, 2017) 有些项目，包括援外项目，预计在特朗普的建议中会有很大的削减。</div>(j) 有时候可以主宾对调而避免单调地用动词 have 来表示 “具有”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If these qualities describe you (= you have these qualities), we encourage you to take the next step and apply to Bucknell. (Bucknell University admissions statement) 你如果具备这些品质，我们就鼓励你走出下一步，申请到巴克内尔大学就读。/ ... only five cars graced its parking lot. (Marta Perry, <i>Restless Hearts</i>) ……停车场只有五辆车。</div><br><br>
</>
have 与 “有”
<div class="entry"><b>have 与 “有”</b>通常中文的 “有” 相当于英文的 have。但是需要注意的是，英文的 have 一般只用于下列场合。(a) 比较固定的占有关系。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has a new car. 他买了一辆新车。/ The house has four windows. 这座房子有四扇窗。(b) 整体对于局部的不可分割的占有关系。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has broad shoulders. 他肩头宽。这样的占有关系在中文中也常常不用 “有” 来表达。</div><br><br>如果是下列场合，就最好不要简单地用 have 来表示 “有”，而可以采取其他表达方式：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 只是一时的占有，此时用了 have 之后还要在直接宾语后面加上短短的一个介词短语来表示占有的临时性：(a) 如果主语是人，就加上 “with + 主语代词” (此时中文也不习惯说 “有”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>—Does he drink? —Well, he has a bottle with him. —他喝酒吗? —是呀，他拿着一个酒瓶。/ She had a flower with her. 她拿着一朵花。在这类句子中，没有后面的 with ... 就不很自然。</div>(b) 如果主语和直接宾语都是具体事物，就加上 “in/on + 主语代词”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My sock has a hole in it. (= There is a hole in my sock.) 我的一只袜子破了一个洞。或者在句末加上另外一种介词短语。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... a lot of wealthy retired people including physicians, who, like him, had time on their hands. (<i>U.S. News & World Report</i>, Oct. 14, 2002, p. 61) ……许多富有的退休者，其中有医生，都像他一样有空闲。如果是非物质的，可以不用 in 或 on，而用 to。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It has a nice sound to it. 它响着一个悦耳的声音。</div><br><br>即使不是 have，有 “具有” 词义的介词 with，也需要后面加一个介词短语，才显得自然。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>White shirts, shoulder boards with stripes on them. (Tom Clancy, <i>Executive Orders</i>) 白衬衣，肩章上面有条纹。/ ... carried a heavy stick with a knob to it. (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, <i>The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes</i>) ……拿着一根上面有镍头的沉重的手杖。</div>(c) 如果主语是具体或抽象事物，而直接宾语则是比较抽象的事物，就加上 “to/about + 主语代词”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It has a nice ring/sound to it. 这听起来还很不错。(to 表示一时的现象)</div><div class="ex-item">The place has a certain charm about it. 这地方有点吸引人之处。(不是一时，而是经常的属性，用 about)</div><div class="ex-item">The Constitution has the aura of the sacred about it. (<i>Time</i>, July 6, 1987) 宪法带有一种神圣的光环。(about 表示本质的属性)</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 表示 “拥有，占有”，不一定非用 have，可以区别 “有 (正面的东西)” 和 “有 (负面的东西)”，分别采用各种不同的其他动词。例如：(a) 说某个人有某种情况或性质，不一定要用直接的 “某人 + have + 某情况” 这种句型，而是可以用 “there is + 某情况 + about + 某人” 句型，这样似乎更合乎英文的习惯。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There was much to admire about this man, but so much also to merit disdain. (Tom Clancy, <i>Clear and Present Danger</i>) 这个人有许多令人钦佩之处，也同样有许多值得鄙视之处。有时候 “某人” 也可以改为某抽象载体。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... if there's anything about an economy, it's that it's constantly in transition. (<i>U.S. News &</i> <i>World Report</i>, June 7, 2004, p. 38) 如果说经济有什么特点，那就是经济是经常不断地处于过渡状态之中的。更多的例句，参见 about 条。</div><br><br>如果双方都是比较抽象的事物，就用 “to + 较大的一方 (也是载体，但更为笼统)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There was some truth to that, she thought. 她觉得那里面也有真实之处。/ And there seems to be an upside to all this. (<i>Newsweek</i>, July 16, 2007, p. 16) 看来这一切也有好的一面。/ Yet there are virtues to living here. (<i>Newsweek</i>, Sept. 11, 2006, p. 13) 住在这里有这里的好处。</div><br><br>如果占有关系是比较固定的，只要较小的一方是比较抽象的性质，则较大的一方，即使是比较具体的事物，也用 to 来引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There is a soul to an army as well as to the individual man, ... (<i>U.S. News & World Report</i>, Oct. 28, 2002, p. 44) 军队同人一样，也是有灵魂的，……</div>(b) 如果说的是某个人 “有” 某种比较抽象的性质，而且指的是说话者得到的一时的印象，就用 about 而不用 to。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There's something different about her. 她显得有点异样。/ There was a defiant manner about this young man. 这个青年带有一种桀骜不驯的神情。/ There's something so selfish and insincere about him. 他给人一种自私和虚伪的印象。</div>(c) 表示 “有” 好的比较具体的东西，可以用 boast 或 be blessed with。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The city boasts a population of 1.3 million. 该市有 130 万人口。/ These enterprises boast the country's best research and development capability. 这些企业拥有国内最好的研发能力。</div>(d) 表示 “配备有” 某一具体事物，可以用 be supplied/provided with。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The lungs are supplied with a dense network of capillaries. 肺具有密密麻麻网络状的毛细血管。/ The plane is provided with eight emergency exits. 该飞机备有八处紧急出口。如果该具体事物是有突出地位的，可以用及物动词 feature。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The exhibition featured some new products. 展览会有一些新产品展出。</div>(e) 表示 “有” 好的比较抽象的东西，可以用 enjoy 或 possess。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Thus, Eurasian societies in the time of Columbus enjoyed big advantages over Native American societies in food production, germs, technology (including weapons). (Jared Diamond, <i>Guns, Germs, and Steel</i>) 在哥伦布时期，欧亚大陆的各个社群，在粮食生产、微生物、科技 (包括武器) 方面，比之美洲的土著社群，具有巨大的优势。/ Sean McMeekin's account possesses the large merit that it tells a story little known to Western readers, drawing extensively upon German sources. (<i>The New York Review of Books</i>, Dec. 9, 2010, p. 44) 肖恩·麦克米金的说辞，其一个巨大的优点，就是它大量引用德文材料，说出了西方读者所不熟悉的一个故事。但是 possess 也可以转换为被动语态 (其实意义仍然是主动的)，改为 be possessed of。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... and his enormous limbs showed that he was possessed of unusual strength of body and of character. (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, <i>The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes</i>) ……他那粗壮的四肢，显示出他具有不寻常的体力和意志力。</div>(f) 表示 “有” 负面的比较抽象的性质，可以用 suffer from、be fraught with、be riddled with 等。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Such an approach is fraught with danger. 这样的做法有危险。/ Such narrowly focused accounts of world history suffer from three disadvantages. (Jared Diamond, <i>Guns, Germs, and Steel</i>) 对世界历史做出如此范围狭窄的陈述，这样做，有三个不利之处。/ The project, although clearly successful in limited areas, is still bedeviled with so many problems. 方案尽管在一些有限的领域显然成功，但是仍然有这么多的问题。/ Both Democrats and Republicans have argued that our tax code is riddled with wasteful, complicated loopholes that punish businesses investing here, and reward companies that keep profits abroad. (Barack Obama, State of the Union, Jan. 28, 2014) 无论民主党人还是共和党人，都曾经声称，我们的税则有一些浪费的、复杂的漏洞，惩罚了在国内投资的企业，而奖励了那些把利润留在国外的公司。</div>(g) 表示 “包含有” 某一比较具体的事物或因素，可以用 carry。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>One book carried a reference to the curious fact that in 1866 ... (John Darnton, <i>The Darwin Conspiracy</i>) 有一本书里面提到 1866 年的一件怪事……</div><div class="ex-item">It's legal, but carries risks you should know about. 这是合法的，但是有风险，你需要知道。/ Johns Hopkins carried a lot of prestige. (Tom Clancy, <i>Executive Orders</i>) 约翰斯·霍普金斯大学很有声望。</div>(h) 表示 “有” 某一可正面可负面的比较抽象的性质，可以用 hold、present 等及物动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It held some special meaning for her. 它对她有某种特殊的意义。/ The discussion presents considerable theoretical interest. (Otto Jespersen, <i>The Philosophy of Grammar</i>) 讨论有很深的理论意义。</div>(i) 表示 “触及，遇到有” 某一客观条件或状况，可以用 know 或 see (但是通常用于否定句)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Love knows no borders. 爱是没有界限的。/ Their greed knows no limit. 他们贪得无厌。/ The government sees no reason to comply with such a demand. 政府没有理由答应这样的要求。/ Some programs, including foreign aid, are expected to see big reductions in Trump's proposal. (HuffPost, Feb. 28, 2017) 有些项目，包括援外项目，预计在特朗普的建议中会有很大的削减。</div>(j) 有时候可以主宾对调而避免单调地用动词 have 来表示 “具有”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If these qualities describe you (= you have these qualities), we encourage you to take the next step and apply to Bucknell. (Bucknell University admissions statement) 你如果具备这些品质，我们就鼓励你走出下一步，申请到巴克内尔大学就读。/ ... only five cars graced its parking lot. (Marta Perry, <i>Restless Hearts</i>) ……停车场只有五辆车。</div><br><br>
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healthy
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>healthy 与 healthful</b></div>healthy 表示人的健康状况良好。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>healthy people 健康的人们</div><div class="ex-item">a healthy baby 一个健康的婴儿</div><div class="ex-item">healthy skin 健康的皮肤</div><div class="ex-item">healthy appetite 好胃口。</div><br><br>healthful 则指“有益于健康的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>healthful foods 健康食品。</div><br><br>但是，healthy 这个形容词越来越多地被用来代替 healthful。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>healthy seaside air 有益健康的滨海空气</div><div class="ex-item">a healthy diet for a healthy baby 用健康的饮食抚养健康的婴儿</div><div class="ex-item">Hard beds are healthier than soft ones. 硬板床比软床更有益于健康。尤其是涉及气候的时候用 healthy 的现象更多。healthy climate (有益健康的气候)这样的说法已经约定俗成。这个单词，在旅游广告上用得特别多。不过，最好还是注意两者的区别。</div><br><br>
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healthful
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>healthy 与 healthful</b></div>healthy 表示人的健康状况良好。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>healthy people 健康的人们</div><div class="ex-item">a healthy baby 一个健康的婴儿</div><div class="ex-item">healthy skin 健康的皮肤</div><div class="ex-item">healthy appetite 好胃口。</div><br><br>healthful 则指“有益于健康的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>healthful foods 健康食品。</div><br><br>但是，healthy 这个形容词越来越多地被用来代替 healthful。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>healthy seaside air 有益健康的滨海空气</div><div class="ex-item">a healthy diet for a healthy baby 用健康的饮食抚养健康的婴儿</div><div class="ex-item">Hard beds are healthier than soft ones. 硬板床比软床更有益于健康。尤其是涉及气候的时候用 healthy 的现象更多。healthy climate (有益健康的气候)这样的说法已经约定俗成。这个单词，在旅游广告上用得特别多。不过，最好还是注意两者的区别。</div><br><br>
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health
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>health 与 body</b></div>参见 body 条。<br><br>
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hear
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>hear 与 listen to</b></div>hear 本来是人的一种不自主的感觉状态，是第一类动词；转义为被动的瞬时感受，是第四类动词。listen to 则是自主的感觉活动，本身可以无限延续，是第二类动词。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> hear 与 listen to 的区别，一般都认为无意与有意的区别。hear 是不管你愿意不愿意，耳朵里总是要听到的。listen to 则是自己注意去倾听。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I heard a loud noise downstairs. 我听到楼下嘈杂的声音。/ He is listening to a tape. 他正在听一盘录音带。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 问 Can you hear me? 是问对方(例如打电话的对方)听得清楚不清楚。Do you hear me? 则是问对方是否在注意听着(有提醒对方注意的意思，但比较委婉，还是有意停留在听觉范围，不单刀直入地质问 Are you listening to me? )。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 打电话时，如果听不清楚，就说 I can't hear you. 但是如果听得清楚，用不着 can，说 I hear you clearly. 即可(hear 不用进行时)。如果前后对比，现在听清楚了，可以把 hear 用进行时来表达，即 I'm hearing you better now. 这是因为如果通话质量一直良好，hear 就处于一贯无变化的静态，所以不用进行时；而如果通话质量时好时坏，hear 就处于暂时状态，所以用进行时。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 除了有意和无意的区别之外，hear 和 listen to 还有一个很重要的区别，就是 listen to 所着重的是“倾听”的这种感官作用，而 hear 所着重的是所“听到”的内容(这一点同 speak 与 talk 的区别相仿)。因此，涉及所听内容而不单是“听”这个生理感官活动时，原则上就用 hear 而不用 listen to。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>All the relatives were gathered to hear (<i>listen to) the lawyer read the will. 所有亲属都集合到一起，听律师宣读遗嘱。/ Don't believe everything you hear (</i>listen to). 你别听到什么就信什么。/ When she arrived, I was listening to (*hearing) a record of Brendel playing Beethoven. 她来时，我正在听着一张布伦德尔弹奏贝多芬乐曲的唱片。（着重点在当时进行中的“听着”这一活动，而不是所听到的内容。）/ I once heard Brendel playing all the Beethoven concertos. 我曾经听过布伦德尔弹奏贝多芬的所有协奏曲。（着重点在所听到的内容，而不是当时“听”的活动。）</div><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 但是，并非所有涉及听的内容的句子都用 hear 而不用 listen to。有时候反而用 listen 而不用 hear。区别就在于：如果“听到”的内容是客观情况的描述，用 hear。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I hear (= I have heard) you changed your job. 我听说你调换工作了。/ I hear (that 常省略) he has been ill since last month. 我听说他自从上个月起就病倒了。/ I hear (= I have heard) you've seen Blanche. (Somerset Maugham, The Moon and Sixpence) 我听说你见过勃朗什。</div><br><br>如果“听到”的内容是对自己的建议或劝告，就用 listen (to)(包含有“倾听，听从”甚至“照办”的含义，可以参考中文的“听话”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I told him but he wouldn't listen (<i>hear). 我跟他说了，但是他听不进去。/ If only I'd listened to (</i>heard) my mother! 我要是当时听妈妈的话就好了！有时候，listen to 的意义(按照上下文)没有“听从，照办”那样重，只是“不拒绝听一下”某个意见。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I can't promise anything, but I'll listen to what he has to say. 我不能许下任何诺言，不过他有什么话要说，我也会听。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 由于 hear 着重听到的内容，所以“聆听，听取”他人的申述，都用 hear 而不用 listen to。而且，hear 本来通常不用进行时态，但是在这个意义上可以用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The court is hearing evidence this afternoon. 法院今天下午听取证词。“听证会”或是“申诉面谈”都采取 hear 的动名词 hearing 而不用 listening。</div><br><br>但是，如果强调专业性的“聆听(并且加以分析做出结论)”而不是“(偶然听来)道听途说”，则仍然用 listen to 而不用 hear。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Now, Mr. Jabez Wilson here has been good enough to call upon me this morning, and to begin a narrative which promises to be one of the most singular which I have listened to for some time. You have heard me remark that the strangest and most unique things are very often connected not with the larger but with the smaller crimes, ... (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes) 这位贾贝兹·威尔逊先生今天上午首先来访问了我，他讲了一件事情，这肯定是我这一段时间以来所听过的最独特的事情之一。你曾经听我说过，那些最离奇最独特的事情，往往与之联系着的，不是一些大的，而是一些小的犯罪案件，……(前面用 listen to，是因为福尔摩斯对来客谈的情况总是细心聆听分析，而后面用 hear，是因为福尔摩斯谈到华生听他发表议论，要自我谦虚，不便说 listen to。)</div><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> hear 还有一个意义用进行时态(只能用现在完成进行时或将来进行时)，就是一次或陆续“收到音信”或“得知情况”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I've been hearing all about your accident. 关于您的事故，我一直都有得到消息。/ You'll be hearing about the new scheme at our next meeting. 咱们下一次开会，你就会听到有关新方案的情况。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> Did I hear (somebody) say ...? 这样的句型，意思是“我听说……，是真的吗？”，并不是对自己是否听到产生疑问，而是要核实自己原先听到的消息。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Did I hear Juliane say she knew you in college? (Merrillee Whren, Hometown Promise) 我听朱莉安说她在大学认识你，是吗？</div><br><br>
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listen to
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>hear 与 listen to</b></div>hear 本来是人的一种不自主的感觉状态，是第一类动词；转义为被动的瞬时感受，是第四类动词。listen to 则是自主的感觉活动，本身可以无限延续，是第二类动词。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> hear 与 listen to 的区别，一般都认为无意与有意的区别。hear 是不管你愿意不愿意，耳朵里总是要听到的。listen to 则是自己注意去倾听。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I heard a loud noise downstairs. 我听到楼下嘈杂的声音。/ He is listening to a tape. 他正在听一盘录音带。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 问 Can you hear me? 是问对方(例如打电话的对方)听得清楚不清楚。Do you hear me? 则是问对方是否在注意听着(有提醒对方注意的意思，但比较委婉，还是有意停留在听觉范围，不单刀直入地质问 Are you listening to me? )。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 打电话时，如果听不清楚，就说 I can't hear you. 但是如果听得清楚，用不着 can，说 I hear you clearly. 即可(hear 不用进行时)。如果前后对比，现在听清楚了，可以把 hear 用进行时来表达，即 I'm hearing you better now. 这是因为如果通话质量一直良好，hear 就处于一贯无变化的静态，所以不用进行时；而如果通话质量时好时坏，hear 就处于暂时状态，所以用进行时。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 除了有意和无意的区别之外，hear 和 listen to 还有一个很重要的区别，就是 listen to 所着重的是“倾听”的这种感官作用，而 hear 所着重的是所“听到”的内容(这一点同 speak 与 talk 的区别相仿)。因此，涉及所听内容而不单是“听”这个生理感官活动时，原则上就用 hear 而不用 listen to。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>All the relatives were gathered to hear (<i>listen to) the lawyer read the will. 所有亲属都集合到一起，听律师宣读遗嘱。/ Don't believe everything you hear (</i>listen to). 你别听到什么就信什么。/ When she arrived, I was listening to (*hearing) a record of Brendel playing Beethoven. 她来时，我正在听着一张布伦德尔弹奏贝多芬乐曲的唱片。（着重点在当时进行中的“听着”这一活动，而不是所听到的内容。）/ I once heard Brendel playing all the Beethoven concertos. 我曾经听过布伦德尔弹奏贝多芬的所有协奏曲。（着重点在所听到的内容，而不是当时“听”的活动。）</div><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 但是，并非所有涉及听的内容的句子都用 hear 而不用 listen to。有时候反而用 listen 而不用 hear。区别就在于：如果“听到”的内容是客观情况的描述，用 hear。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I hear (= I have heard) you changed your job. 我听说你调换工作了。/ I hear (that 常省略) he has been ill since last month. 我听说他自从上个月起就病倒了。/ I hear (= I have heard) you've seen Blanche. (Somerset Maugham, The Moon and Sixpence) 我听说你见过勃朗什。</div><br><br>如果“听到”的内容是对自己的建议或劝告，就用 listen (to)(包含有“倾听，听从”甚至“照办”的含义，可以参考中文的“听话”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I told him but he wouldn't listen (<i>hear). 我跟他说了，但是他听不进去。/ If only I'd listened to (</i>heard) my mother! 我要是当时听妈妈的话就好了！有时候，listen to 的意义(按照上下文)没有“听从，照办”那样重，只是“不拒绝听一下”某个意见。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I can't promise anything, but I'll listen to what he has to say. 我不能许下任何诺言，不过他有什么话要说，我也会听。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 由于 hear 着重听到的内容，所以“聆听，听取”他人的申述，都用 hear 而不用 listen to。而且，hear 本来通常不用进行时态，但是在这个意义上可以用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The court is hearing evidence this afternoon. 法院今天下午听取证词。“听证会”或是“申诉面谈”都采取 hear 的动名词 hearing 而不用 listening。</div><br><br>但是，如果强调专业性的“聆听(并且加以分析做出结论)”而不是“(偶然听来)道听途说”，则仍然用 listen to 而不用 hear。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Now, Mr. Jabez Wilson here has been good enough to call upon me this morning, and to begin a narrative which promises to be one of the most singular which I have listened to for some time. You have heard me remark that the strangest and most unique things are very often connected not with the larger but with the smaller crimes, ... (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes) 这位贾贝兹·威尔逊先生今天上午首先来访问了我，他讲了一件事情，这肯定是我这一段时间以来所听过的最独特的事情之一。你曾经听我说过，那些最离奇最独特的事情，往往与之联系着的，不是一些大的，而是一些小的犯罪案件，……(前面用 listen to，是因为福尔摩斯对来客谈的情况总是细心聆听分析，而后面用 hear，是因为福尔摩斯谈到华生听他发表议论，要自我谦虚，不便说 listen to。)</div><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> hear 还有一个意义用进行时态(只能用现在完成进行时或将来进行时)，就是一次或陆续“收到音信”或“得知情况”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I've been hearing all about your accident. 关于您的事故，我一直都有得到消息。/ You'll be hearing about the new scheme at our next meeting. 咱们下一次开会，你就会听到有关新方案的情况。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> Did I hear (somebody) say ...? 这样的句型，意思是“我听说……，是真的吗？”，并不是对自己是否听到产生疑问，而是要核实自己原先听到的消息。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Did I hear Juliane say she knew you in college? (Merrillee Whren, Hometown Promise) 我听朱莉安说她在大学认识你，是吗？</div><br><br>
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sky
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>heaven 与 sky</b></div>参见 sky 与 heaven 条。<br><br>
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heaven
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>heaven 与 sky</b></div>参见 sky 与 heaven 条。<br><br>
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herd behavior
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>herd behavio(u)r</b></div>指蔓延性的人群心理造成的起哄现象。例如抢购商品、银行挤兑等等，又称 crowd behavio(u)r。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In a panic, fear takes control. Herd behavior swiftly triumphs. (Newsweek, Oct. 15, 2007, p. 45) 在恐慌中，恐惧感占据了人心。起哄现象就迅速一统天下。</div><br><br>
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herd behavio r
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>herd behavio(u)r</b></div>指蔓延性的人群心理造成的起哄现象。例如抢购商品、银行挤兑等等，又称 crowd behavio(u)r。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In a panic, fear takes control. Herd behavior swiftly triumphs. (Newsweek, Oct. 15, 2007, p. 45) 在恐慌中，恐惧感占据了人心。起哄现象就迅速一统天下。</div><br><br>
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herd behaviour
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>herd behavio(u)r</b></div>指蔓延性的人群心理造成的起哄现象。例如抢购商品、银行挤兑等等，又称 crowd behavio(u)r。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In a panic, fear takes control. Herd behavior swiftly triumphs. (Newsweek, Oct. 15, 2007, p. 45) 在恐慌中，恐惧感占据了人心。起哄现象就迅速一统天下。</div><br><br>
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he who ...he ... who
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>he who ...&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="ex-item"&gt;he ... who</b></div>要注意这里的 he (同 who 之间没有逗号)不是“他”，而是“任何人”的意思(he 本身并不需要再加任何限制性定语，而 he 与 who 之间没有逗号表明 who 从句是限制性的，按理就不能加在 he 后面)，加上 who ... 就是“凡是……的人”。这种句型，多用于格言谚语之类。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He who dares, wins. 勇者赢。/ He who hesitates is lost. 犹豫者必败。/ He who has a thousand friends has not a friend to spare, and he who has one enemy will meet him everywhere. (Ali ibn Abi Talib) 交友千人，无一多余；树敌一人，处处狭路。/ He who sows the wind, reaps the storm. 闯祸者自作孽。/ He who knows not, and knows not that he knows not, is a fool. 不知而又不知己之不知者为愚。/ He who laughs last laughs best. 谁笑在最后，谁就笑得最开心。/ He who waits to do a great deal of good at once will never do anything. (Samuel Johnson) 等待将来一下子把许多事一起做好，势必一事无成。</div><br><br>有时候 he 与 who 当中可以隔开。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How they manage to subsist, he only who sees into all mysteries can tell; ... (Washington Irving, Tales of the Alhambra: To Which Are Added Legends of the Conquest of Spain) 他们是如何度日的，只有看透一切奥秘的人才能弄清楚；……</div><br><br>有时候 who 引入的从句可以移到后面，同 he 分隔开。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He is lost who hesitates. 犹豫者必失。/ There was excellent wild-duck shooting in the fens, remarkably good fishing, a small but select library, taken over, as I understood, from a former occupant and a tolerable cook, so that he would be a fastidious man who could not put in a pleasant month there. (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes) 那里的沼泽，是很好的打野鸭的去处，还可以钓鱼，还有一批数量不大但是精选的藏书，据我了解，是从先前的那位主人那里接管过来的，另外还有一个还过得去的厨师，所以，一个人如果在这里不能愉快快过上一个月，那么，这个人就未免太挑剔了。</div><br><br>有时候(但较罕见)也可以用 he that 代替 he who。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He that is without sin among you, let him first cast a stone at her. (New Testament, John 8:7) 你们中间谁是没有罪的，谁就可以先拿石头打她。among you, let him first cast a stone at her. (New Testament, John 8:7) 你们中间谁是没有罪的，谁就可以先拿石头打她。</div><br><br>he who 的这个泛指功能，甚至适用于 he 变为 him 的场合。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Everything comes to him who waits. (谚语) 耐心等候者凡事必成。/ It may hate him who dares to scrutinise and expose—to raise the gilding, and show base metal under it—to penetrate the sepulchre, and reveal charnel relics: but hate as it will, it is indebted to him. (Charlotte Brontë, Jane Eyre) 世人也许憎恨那个敢于探究和暴露、敢于刮去镀金展现下面劣质金属、敢于进入坟墓展现里面的尸骸的人，可是，恨尽管恨，世人还是受惠于他。</div><br><br>有时候，he who 还可以有复数形式 they who，但很少用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Ah, blessed they</div><div class="ex-item">Who leave completed tasks of love to stay</div><div class="ex-item">And answer mutely for them, being dead, ... (Caroline Norton, The Lady of La Garaye) 他们有福了，/ 离开人世，却留下了已竟姻缘</div><div class="ex-item">冥冥中默默替它承担，……</div><br><br>
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high
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>high 与 higher</b></div>higher 如果用来修饰生物、器官、教育、学科，就不是 high 的比较级，也不是真正进行比较，只是表示“高级，高等”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>higher education 高等教育</div><div class="ex-item">higher algebra 高等代数</div><div class="ex-item">Man is a higher animal. 人是高等动物。/ “Higher animals” is a catch-all term for vertebrates other than than fish. “高等动物”是除了鱼类之外所有脊椎动物的统称。与此相类似的形容词，还有 lower、upper、younger 等。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Ameba is a lower (*low) animal. 变形虫是一种低等动物。/ lower school (英国的)初中</div><div class="ex-item">the Lower Danube 多瑙河下游</div><div class="ex-item">Lower Egypt 下埃及</div><div class="ex-item">the upper classes 上层阶级</div><div class="ex-item">the upper reaches of the Yellow River 黄河上游</div><div class="ex-item">the younger generation 年轻一代。</div><br><br>从这些例子，可以领悟到，英语对于“比较更如何”有一种“偏爱”，这是其他欧洲语言所不常见的。例如有名的《简明牛津词典》英文是 The Shorter Oxford Dictionary，“小安的列斯群岛”英文是 the Lesser Antilles，“莱茵河上游地区”英文是 the Upper Rhine。<br><br>甚至一些副词，英语也偏爱比较级。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You're better informed when you read The New York Times every day. You get more Washington news, more foreign news. 如果你每天阅读《纽约时报》，你将会获得很多信息。你会了解到更多的美国政府的新闻和国外的新闻。</div><br><br>
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higher
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>high 与 higher</b></div>higher 如果用来修饰生物、器官、教育、学科，就不是 high 的比较级，也不是真正进行比较，只是表示“高级，高等”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>higher education 高等教育</div><div class="ex-item">higher algebra 高等代数</div><div class="ex-item">Man is a higher animal. 人是高等动物。/ “Higher animals” is a catch-all term for vertebrates other than than fish. “高等动物”是除了鱼类之外所有脊椎动物的统称。与此相类似的形容词，还有 lower、upper、younger 等。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Ameba is a lower (*low) animal. 变形虫是一种低等动物。/ lower school (英国的)初中</div><div class="ex-item">the Lower Danube 多瑙河下游</div><div class="ex-item">Lower Egypt 下埃及</div><div class="ex-item">the upper classes 上层阶级</div><div class="ex-item">the upper reaches of the Yellow River 黄河上游</div><div class="ex-item">the younger generation 年轻一代。</div><br><br>从这些例子，可以领悟到，英语对于“比较更如何”有一种“偏爱”，这是其他欧洲语言所不常见的。例如有名的《简明牛津词典》英文是 The Shorter Oxford Dictionary，“小安的列斯群岛”英文是 the Lesser Antilles，“莱茵河上游地区”英文是 the Upper Rhine。<br><br>甚至一些副词，英语也偏爱比较级。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You're better informed when you read The New York Times every day. You get more Washington news, more foreign news. 如果你每天阅读《纽约时报》，你将会获得很多信息。你会了解到更多的美国政府的新闻和国外的新闻。</div><br><br>
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historic
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>historic 与 historical</b></div>前者偏重“有历史意义的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a historic building 一座有历史意义的建筑物</div><div class="ex-item">a historic expedition 一次具有历史意义的探险</div><div class="ex-item">a historic change 一次历史性的变革。但是有时候 historic 也可以指“历史上由来已久的”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>their historic fear of invasion 他们历史上由来已久的害怕外敌入侵的心理。</div><br><br>后者偏重“历史方面的，与历史有关的，历史上的，昔日的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>historical research 史学研究</div><div class="ex-item">the historical process 历史进程</div><div class="ex-item">historical events 历史事件</div><div class="ex-item">a historical figure in a work of fiction 一件虚构作品中的一个真实的历史人物。</div><br><br>
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historical
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>historic 与 historical</b></div>前者偏重“有历史意义的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a historic building 一座有历史意义的建筑物</div><div class="ex-item">a historic expedition 一次具有历史意义的探险</div><div class="ex-item">a historic change 一次历史性的变革。但是有时候 historic 也可以指“历史上由来已久的”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>their historic fear of invasion 他们历史上由来已久的害怕外敌入侵的心理。</div><br><br>后者偏重“历史方面的，与历史有关的，历史上的，昔日的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>historical research 史学研究</div><div class="ex-item">the historical process 历史进程</div><div class="ex-item">historical events 历史事件</div><div class="ex-item">a historical figure in a work of fiction 一件虚构作品中的一个真实的历史人物。</div><br><br>
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contempt
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(hold ... in) contempt</b></div>contempt (抽象名词)是“鄙视”的态度。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He felt nothing but contempt for them. 他对他们只是感到鄙夷。/ They treated him with contempt. 他们用鄙视的态度对待他。</div><br><br>hold somebody in contempt 原意是“对某人持鄙视态度”(延续状态)。“藐视法庭”这项罪名，英文叫作 contempt of court，认定某人藐视法庭，是 hold somebody in contempt of court。但是这一来，hold somebody in contempt 中，本来这个 somebody 是被鄙视的对象，后面一加上 of court 后，这个 somebody 却反而成了藐视法庭的主体。更有甚者，有时候行文连 of court 也省略掉了，结果出现了怪事，hold somebody in contempt 变成了具有两个相反意义的词组，一个是“鄙视某人”，一个是“认定某人藐视法庭”；而某人如果被认定藐视法庭(be in contempt 或 be held in contempt)，就可能被罚款或判刑。两个意义相反的 hold in contempt 如何鉴别？初步看来，法庭(还有国会)认定某人对它藐视，这是一个做出决定的行动，所以是瞬时的；而对某人持鄙视态度，则是延续的状态。因此，如果动词 hold 作为瞬时动词(第四类动词)，就是认定某人藐视法庭或藐视议会。如果动词 hold 作为延续动词(第一类动词)，那就是他人(主语)鄙视某人。<br><br>hold 作为第四类(瞬时动作)动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The House voted Thursday to hold two of President Bush's confidants in contempt for failing to cooperate with an inquiry into whether a purge of federal prosecutors was politically motivated. (<i>The Associated Press</i>, Feb. 14, 2008) 众议院于星期四表决认定，布什总统的两名心腹，由于没有配合调查一次对联邦检察官的清洗是否出于政治动机，因而犯有藐视国会的罪名。</div><br><br>hold 作为第一类(延续状态)动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Till then I hold them in contempt and feel they cannot be trusted. 直到那时，我都一直看不起他们，觉得他们不可信任。(hold 是延续状态。)/ Does it make me upset that some moms don't even try it before they put it down? Yes. Do I hold them in contempt for their choice? Not usually unless ... 有些妈妈，连试都不试一下，就放弃这个办法，我看见了会很不舒服吗？是呀。我会因为看到她们做出的选择而看不起她们吗？通常是不会的，除非…… (hold 是延续状态。)</div>
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hold ... in contempt
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(hold ... in) contempt</b></div>contempt (抽象名词)是“鄙视”的态度。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He felt nothing but contempt for them. 他对他们只是感到鄙夷。/ They treated him with contempt. 他们用鄙视的态度对待他。</div><br><br>hold somebody in contempt 原意是“对某人持鄙视态度”(延续状态)。“藐视法庭”这项罪名，英文叫作 contempt of court，认定某人藐视法庭，是 hold somebody in contempt of court。但是这一来，hold somebody in contempt 中，本来这个 somebody 是被鄙视的对象，后面一加上 of court 后，这个 somebody 却反而成了藐视法庭的主体。更有甚者，有时候行文连 of court 也省略掉了，结果出现了怪事，hold somebody in contempt 变成了具有两个相反意义的词组，一个是“鄙视某人”，一个是“认定某人藐视法庭”；而某人如果被认定藐视法庭(be in contempt 或 be held in contempt)，就可能被罚款或判刑。两个意义相反的 hold in contempt 如何鉴别？初步看来，法庭(还有国会)认定某人对它藐视，这是一个做出决定的行动，所以是瞬时的；而对某人持鄙视态度，则是延续的状态。因此，如果动词 hold 作为瞬时动词(第四类动词)，就是认定某人藐视法庭或藐视议会。如果动词 hold 作为延续动词(第一类动词)，那就是他人(主语)鄙视某人。<br><br>hold 作为第四类(瞬时动作)动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The House voted Thursday to hold two of President Bush's confidants in contempt for failing to cooperate with an inquiry into whether a purge of federal prosecutors was politically motivated. (<i>The Associated Press</i>, Feb. 14, 2008) 众议院于星期四表决认定，布什总统的两名心腹，由于没有配合调查一次对联邦检察官的清洗是否出于政治动机，因而犯有藐视国会的罪名。</div><br><br>hold 作为第一类(延续状态)动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Till then I hold them in contempt and feel they cannot be trusted. 直到那时，我都一直看不起他们，觉得他们不可信任。(hold 是延续状态。)/ Does it make me upset that some moms don't even try it before they put it down? Yes. Do I hold them in contempt for their choice? Not usually unless ... 有些妈妈，连试都不试一下，就放弃这个办法，我看见了会很不舒服吗？是呀。我会因为看到她们做出的选择而看不起她们吗？通常是不会的，除非…… (hold 是延续状态。)</div>
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honorable
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>hono(u)rable</b></div>作为代替职务或爵位的尊称，放在姓名前面，要有 the，而且首字母大写。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the Honourable William R. Gladstone 威廉·R. 格莱斯顿阁下。</div><br><br>也可以缩写为 Hon'ble 或 Hon.。同样的情况，参见 reverend 条。<br><br>
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hono rable
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>hono(u)rable</b></div>作为代替职务或爵位的尊称，放在姓名前面，要有 the，而且首字母大写。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the Honourable William R. Gladstone 威廉·R. 格莱斯顿阁下。</div><br><br>也可以缩写为 Hon'ble 或 Hon.。同样的情况，参见 reverend 条。<br><br>
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honourable
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>hono(u)rable</b></div>作为代替职务或爵位的尊称，放在姓名前面，要有 the，而且首字母大写。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the Honourable William R. Gladstone 威廉·R. 格莱斯顿阁下。</div><br><br>也可以缩写为 Hon'ble 或 Hon.。同样的情况，参见 reverend 条。<br><br>
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hopeful
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>hopeful 与 hopefully</b></div>hopeful 主要意义是指某人自己抱有希望，主语是人。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Don't be/get too hopeful. 别想得太美了。/ I don't feel at all hopeful about our future. 我对我们的前途一点也不乐观。/ They're hopeful of getting it done. 他们觉得有希望办成。</div><br><br>有时主语也可以不是人而是事物，是使得人抱有成功的希望。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a hopeful way of tackling the problem 一个也许可以解决这个问题的办法。</div><br><br>此外，hopeful 还可以作为名词，指“有希望当选者”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Walmart stores is hitting back at some leading Democratic presidential hopefuls who have joined with the company's critics recently. 沃尔玛连锁超市对一些最近参与对该公司提出批评的主要民主党总统角逐者加以反击。</div><br><br>hopefully 从事情“有希望”或“希望较大”派生出副词 hopefully，有两方面的意义。一方面是指某人(通常是句子的主语)自己抱有希望。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He smiled hopefully in their direction. 他满怀信心地向他们那边微笑。另一方面是作为说话者对全句内容的一个结果估计，既表示自己希望如此，又表示前途相当有希望。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Hopefully, Jim will have remembered. 吉姆大概会记起来的。/ These methods, hopefully, will speed up production. 这些方法大概会加快生产进度吧。/ Hopefully, this plane will get in on time so I can make my connection. 但愿这班飞机准时到达，我就来得及转机了。用于后一个意义时，hopefully 通常用逗号(如果插在句子中间就用前后双逗号)隔开。</div><br><br>但 hopefully 本来并不用来表示单纯的“但愿如此”。如果光是表示自己希望如此而实际上不大可能实现，用 hopefully 就很勉强。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Hopefully, the treaty willbe ratified. 希望条约能批准。但后面如果接着说 but it isn't likely，听起来就令人感到突兀，前面最好改为 I hope</div><div class="ex-item">We hope</div><div class="ex-item">It is hoped the treaty will be ratified.</div>
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hopefully
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>hopeful 与 hopefully</b></div>hopeful 主要意义是指某人自己抱有希望，主语是人。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Don't be/get too hopeful. 别想得太美了。/ I don't feel at all hopeful about our future. 我对我们的前途一点也不乐观。/ They're hopeful of getting it done. 他们觉得有希望办成。</div><br><br>有时主语也可以不是人而是事物，是使得人抱有成功的希望。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a hopeful way of tackling the problem 一个也许可以解决这个问题的办法。</div><br><br>此外，hopeful 还可以作为名词，指“有希望当选者”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Walmart stores is hitting back at some leading Democratic presidential hopefuls who have joined with the company's critics recently. 沃尔玛连锁超市对一些最近参与对该公司提出批评的主要民主党总统角逐者加以反击。</div><br><br>hopefully 从事情“有希望”或“希望较大”派生出副词 hopefully，有两方面的意义。一方面是指某人(通常是句子的主语)自己抱有希望。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He smiled hopefully in their direction. 他满怀信心地向他们那边微笑。另一方面是作为说话者对全句内容的一个结果估计，既表示自己希望如此，又表示前途相当有希望。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Hopefully, Jim will have remembered. 吉姆大概会记起来的。/ These methods, hopefully, will speed up production. 这些方法大概会加快生产进度吧。/ Hopefully, this plane will get in on time so I can make my connection. 但愿这班飞机准时到达，我就来得及转机了。用于后一个意义时，hopefully 通常用逗号(如果插在句子中间就用前后双逗号)隔开。</div><br><br>但 hopefully 本来并不用来表示单纯的“但愿如此”。如果光是表示自己希望如此而实际上不大可能实现，用 hopefully 就很勉强。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Hopefully, the treaty willbe ratified. 希望条约能批准。但后面如果接着说 but it isn't likely，听起来就令人感到突兀，前面最好改为 I hope</div><div class="ex-item">We hope</div><div class="ex-item">It is hoped the treaty will be ratified.</div>
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human
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>human 与 human being</b></div>两个名词都是指“人”，但是前者偏重生物学意义上的“人类”，后者则偏重“人文”方面的“人”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Dogs can hear much better than humans. 狗的听觉比人灵敏得多。/ Although avian influenza A viruses usually do not infect humans, rare cases of human infection with avian influenza A viruses have been reported. 尽管甲型禽流感病毒通常不会感染人类，但是也有一些罕见的病例报告过人类受到甲型禽流感病毒感染。/ As of March 2009, no other celestial body has been visited by human beings (<i>humans). 直到 2009 年 3 月为止，没有人类到过其他任何一个天体。/ Interpol aims to end the abuse and exploitation of human beings (</i>humans) for financial gain. 国际刑警组织力图制止那种为了经济利益而残害与剥削人的行径。/ (被奴役的人发出呼声) We are not horses. We are human beings (<i>humans). 我们不是马，我们是人。其所以用 human beings 而不用 humans，是因为这里“马”和“人”不是从生物学角度，而是从人道主义的角度来对比的。也可以从生物学角度来对比。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If we humans shared a common ancestry with apes—and if we got here by dint of the same trial-and-error slog as every other species on Earth—then... (Rick Weiss, in </i>The Sunday Gazette*, Feb. 15, 2009, C1) 如果我们人类同猿猴有同一祖先，而且如果我们之所以有今天，同地球上所有其他物种一样，靠的同样是那个千辛万苦的试错过程，那么……</div><br><br>
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human being
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>human 与 human being</b></div>两个名词都是指“人”，但是前者偏重生物学意义上的“人类”，后者则偏重“人文”方面的“人”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Dogs can hear much better than humans. 狗的听觉比人灵敏得多。/ Although avian influenza A viruses usually do not infect humans, rare cases of human infection with avian influenza A viruses have been reported. 尽管甲型禽流感病毒通常不会感染人类，但是也有一些罕见的病例报告过人类受到甲型禽流感病毒感染。/ As of March 2009, no other celestial body has been visited by human beings (<i>humans). 直到 2009 年 3 月为止，没有人类到过其他任何一个天体。/ Interpol aims to end the abuse and exploitation of human beings (</i>humans) for financial gain. 国际刑警组织力图制止那种为了经济利益而残害与剥削人的行径。/ (被奴役的人发出呼声) We are not horses. We are human beings (<i>humans). 我们不是马，我们是人。其所以用 human beings 而不用 humans，是因为这里“马”和“人”不是从生物学角度，而是从人道主义的角度来对比的。也可以从生物学角度来对比。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If we humans shared a common ancestry with apes—and if we got here by dint of the same trial-and-error slog as every other species on Earth—then... (Rick Weiss, in </i>The Sunday Gazette*, Feb. 15, 2009, C1) 如果我们人类同猿猴有同一祖先，而且如果我们之所以有今天，同地球上所有其他物种一样，靠的同样是那个千辛万苦的试错过程，那么……</div><br><br>
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suppose
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(I don't) suppose</b></div>十分客气提出请求时的用语，后面可以接上 I could inf. 或者 that you would be kind enough to inf.。亲朋好友之间，或是尊对卑，除非开玩笑，不要使用，因为带有装模作样的语气。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I don't suppose I could possibly ask you for a room, could I? 我能问您要一个房间吗？/ I don't suppose that you would be kind enough to read my novel and give me your professional opinion? (Jeffrey Archer, The Fourth Estate)不知道您能否过目一下我写的这本小说，给我提出您的专业意见？</div><br><br>
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I don't suppose
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(I don't) suppose</b></div>十分客气提出请求时的用语，后面可以接上 I could inf. 或者 that you would be kind enough to inf.。亲朋好友之间，或是尊对卑，除非开玩笑，不要使用，因为带有装模作样的语气。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I don't suppose I could possibly ask you for a room, could I? 我能问您要一个房间吗？/ I don't suppose that you would be kind enough to read my novel and give me your professional opinion? (Jeffrey Archer, The Fourth Estate)不知道您能否过目一下我写的这本小说，给我提出您的专业意见？</div><br><br>
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if only because
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(if only) because</b></div>这个词组很常见，意思比单独的 because 宽，表示这是原因之一，但不一定是唯一的原因。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Still, the new discovery should accelerate progress—if only because with the ethical issues seemingly out of the way, more scientists and money will be drawn to the field. (The New York Times, Nov. 27, 2007, F1) 不过，新的发现还是会使得进程加快，原因之一是：既然伦理上的问题看来似乎排除了，就会有更多的科学家和金钱投入这个领域。</div><br><br>
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whether
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>if 与 whether</b></div>参见 whether 与 if 条。<br><br>
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imply
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>imply 与 infer</b></div>两者(都是第二类动词)都是表示“从某个意思引申到另一个未明言的意思”，但是主体不同。imply 是说话者做出暗示或影射；infer 则是听者做出推论。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He didn't say that, but he did imply it. 他没有明说，但是他暗示了。/ What are we toinfer from their absence? 他们没有来，咱们从这里可以看出什么问题呢？许多英语为母语者也常常误用 infer 代替 imply。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><i>Do you mean to infer (应该改为 imply) I'm all wrong? 你的意思是不是说我全错了？/ </i>What are you inferring (应该改为 implying) by that? 你这样说，是什么意思？</div><br><br>
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infer
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>imply 与 infer</b></div>两者(都是第二类动词)都是表示“从某个意思引申到另一个未明言的意思”，但是主体不同。imply 是说话者做出暗示或影射；infer 则是听者做出推论。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He didn't say that, but he did imply it. 他没有明说，但是他暗示了。/ What are we toinfer from their absence? 他们没有来，咱们从这里可以看出什么问题呢？许多英语为母语者也常常误用 infer 代替 imply。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><i>Do you mean to infer (应该改为 imply) I'm all wrong? 你的意思是不是说我全错了？/ </i>What are you inferring (应该改为 implying) by that? 你这样说，是什么意思？</div><br><br>
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I'm...
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>I'm... (This is...)</b></div>打电话时一开始互相通报是谁，通常不能像中文那样直接用“你”“我”。如果双方已经认识，自我介绍“我”是谁，通常就不单刀直入地说 I'm ...，而说 This is ... 或 This is ... speaking. 互相通报过了之后，就可以“恢复正常”，用“我”“你”，同平常交谈一样。但如果对方并不认识自己，也可以一开头就自我介绍说 I am ...。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Good morning. I am Tom Edwards. 早上好。我是汤姆·爱德华兹。</div><br><br>
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I'm... This is...
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>I'm... (This is...)</b></div>打电话时一开始互相通报是谁，通常不能像中文那样直接用“你”“我”。如果双方已经认识，自我介绍“我”是谁，通常就不单刀直入地说 I'm ...，而说 This is ... 或 This is ... speaking. 互相通报过了之后，就可以“恢复正常”，用“我”“你”，同平常交谈一样。但如果对方并不认识自己，也可以一开头就自我介绍说 I am ...。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Good morning. I am Tom Edwards. 早上好。我是汤姆·爱德华兹。</div><br><br>
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charge of
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(in) charge of</b></div>参见 in charge of 条。<br><br>
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independent of
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>independence from 与 independent of</b></div>形容词 independent 后面通常用介词 of。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>judges independent of the popular will 独立于大众意志之外的法官们。</div><br><br>但是名词 independence 后面通常用介词 from (可能是因为名词后用 of 会产生“属于”的误解)。如果用了 from，则 from 之前还可以以有 of ... 表示是“谁的”independence。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the independence of the colonies from the metropolis 各个殖民地独立于宗主国。但是，也有在 independence 后面用介词 of 代替 from (只要不产生误解)，以及在 independent 后面用介词 from 代替 of 的。</div><br><br>independence 可以指一种延续的状态，但也可以指“宣布独立”或“实行独立”的瞬时事件。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... since its independence in 1948 ... 自从它 1948 年独立以来。</div><br><br>至于 dependent 与 dependence，则后面通常都用介词 on 或 upon。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the economic dependence of Tahiti on France 塔希提在经济上对法国的依赖。</div><br><br>
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independence from
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>independence from 与 independent of</b></div>形容词 independent 后面通常用介词 of。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>judges independent of the popular will 独立于大众意志之外的法官们。</div><br><br>但是名词 independence 后面通常用介词 from (可能是因为名词后用 of 会产生“属于”的误解)。如果用了 from，则 from 之前还可以以有 of ... 表示是“谁的”independence。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the independence of the colonies from the metropolis 各个殖民地独立于宗主国。但是，也有在 independence 后面用介词 of 代替 from (只要不产生误解)，以及在 independent 后面用介词 from 代替 of 的。</div><br><br>independence 可以指一种延续的状态，但也可以指“宣布独立”或“实行独立”的瞬时事件。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... since its independence in 1948 ... 自从它 1948 年独立以来。</div><br><br>至于 dependent 与 dependence，则后面通常都用介词 on 或 upon。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the economic dependence of Tahiti on France 塔希提在经济上对法国的依赖。</div><br><br>
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front
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(in) front (of)</b></div>in front of 表示静止的“在其前面”。动态的“在其前面”要说 ahead of。所以 <i>She was walking a few steps <b>in front of</b> me. 应该改为 She was walking a few steps <b>ahead of</b> me. (她走在我前面几步。)。但是 behind 可以用于动静两态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I was walking a few steps <b>behind</b> her. 我走在她后面几步。另外，表示空间位置，用 before 不如用 in front of 自然。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>In front of</b> (</i>Before) our house stands a large maple tree. 我家门前有一棵很大的枫树。</div><br><br>
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front of
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(in) front (of)</b></div>in front of 表示静止的“在其前面”。动态的“在其前面”要说 ahead of。所以 <i>She was walking a few steps <b>in front of</b> me. 应该改为 She was walking a few steps <b>ahead of</b> me. (她走在我前面几步。)。但是 behind 可以用于动静两态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I was walking a few steps <b>behind</b> her. 我走在她后面几步。另外，表示空间位置，用 before 不如用 in front of 自然。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>In front of</b> (</i>Before) our house stands a large maple tree. 我家门前有一棵很大的枫树。</div><br><br>
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in front
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(in) front (of)</b></div>in front of 表示静止的“在其前面”。动态的“在其前面”要说 ahead of。所以 <i>She was walking a few steps <b>in front of</b> me. 应该改为 She was walking a few steps <b>ahead of</b> me. (她走在我前面几步。)。但是 behind 可以用于动静两态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I was walking a few steps <b>behind</b> her. 我走在她后面几步。另外，表示空间位置，用 before 不如用 in front of 自然。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>In front of</b> (</i>Before) our house stands a large maple tree. 我家门前有一棵很大的枫树。</div><br><br>
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in front of
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(in) front (of)</b></div>in front of 表示静止的“在其前面”。动态的“在其前面”要说 ahead of。所以 <i>She was walking a few steps <b>in front of</b> me. 应该改为 She was walking a few steps <b>ahead of</b> me. (她走在我前面几步。)。但是 behind 可以用于动静两态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I was walking a few steps <b>behind</b> her. 我走在她后面几步。另外，表示空间位置，用 before 不如用 in front of 自然。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>In front of</b> (</i>Before) our house stands a large maple tree. 我家门前有一棵很大的枫树。</div><br><br>
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ingenue
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>ingenious, ingenuous, ingenue 与 ingenuity</b></div>这几个单词拼写很相似，容易混淆，但其实意义很不相同(几百年前 ingenious 与 ingenuous 常常混用)。<br><br>ingenious 是“机灵的，足智多谋的；精巧的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>an ingenious idea 妙计</div><div class="ex-item">an ingenious machine 精巧的机器。</div><br><br>ingenuous 则是“直率的，坦白的，老实的，天真的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His expression was frank, ingenuous and engaging. 他的表情很坦诚、老实、动人。</div><br><br>ingenue (来自法文)专门指“纯真少女”，多见于文艺作品。<br><br>特别要注意的是：ingenuity 是来源于 ingenious 的名词，意思是“智慧，机智”，同 ingenuous 毫不相干。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It should not be beyond our ingenuity to secure his support. 争取得到他的支持，这不应该是我们的智慧办不到的事。/ Ingenuity in varying tactics depends on mother wit. 策略运用之妙，存乎一心。有些人鉴于 ingenuity 同 ingenuous 形式上相通而意义迥异，主张将 ingenuity 改为 ingeniety，但只是主张而已。</div><br><br>
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ingenious
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>ingenious, ingenuous, ingenue 与 ingenuity</b></div>这几个单词拼写很相似，容易混淆，但其实意义很不相同(几百年前 ingenious 与 ingenuous 常常混用)。<br><br>ingenious 是“机灵的，足智多谋的；精巧的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>an ingenious idea 妙计</div><div class="ex-item">an ingenious machine 精巧的机器。</div><br><br>ingenuous 则是“直率的，坦白的，老实的，天真的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His expression was frank, ingenuous and engaging. 他的表情很坦诚、老实、动人。</div><br><br>ingenue (来自法文)专门指“纯真少女”，多见于文艺作品。<br><br>特别要注意的是：ingenuity 是来源于 ingenious 的名词，意思是“智慧，机智”，同 ingenuous 毫不相干。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It should not be beyond our ingenuity to secure his support. 争取得到他的支持，这不应该是我们的智慧办不到的事。/ Ingenuity in varying tactics depends on mother wit. 策略运用之妙，存乎一心。有些人鉴于 ingenuity 同 ingenuous 形式上相通而意义迥异，主张将 ingenuity 改为 ingeniety，但只是主张而已。</div><br><br>
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ingenuity
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>ingenious, ingenuous, ingenue 与 ingenuity</b></div>这几个单词拼写很相似，容易混淆，但其实意义很不相同(几百年前 ingenious 与 ingenuous 常常混用)。<br><br>ingenious 是“机灵的，足智多谋的；精巧的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>an ingenious idea 妙计</div><div class="ex-item">an ingenious machine 精巧的机器。</div><br><br>ingenuous 则是“直率的，坦白的，老实的，天真的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His expression was frank, ingenuous and engaging. 他的表情很坦诚、老实、动人。</div><br><br>ingenue (来自法文)专门指“纯真少女”，多见于文艺作品。<br><br>特别要注意的是：ingenuity 是来源于 ingenious 的名词，意思是“智慧，机智”，同 ingenuous 毫不相干。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It should not be beyond our ingenuity to secure his support. 争取得到他的支持，这不应该是我们的智慧办不到的事。/ Ingenuity in varying tactics depends on mother wit. 策略运用之妙，存乎一心。有些人鉴于 ingenuity 同 ingenuous 形式上相通而意义迥异，主张将 ingenuity 改为 ingeniety，但只是主张而已。</div><br><br>
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ingenuous
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>ingenious, ingenuous, ingenue 与 ingenuity</b></div>这几个单词拼写很相似，容易混淆，但其实意义很不相同(几百年前 ingenious 与 ingenuous 常常混用)。<br><br>ingenious 是“机灵的，足智多谋的；精巧的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>an ingenious idea 妙计</div><div class="ex-item">an ingenious machine 精巧的机器。</div><br><br>ingenuous 则是“直率的，坦白的，老实的，天真的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His expression was frank, ingenuous and engaging. 他的表情很坦诚、老实、动人。</div><br><br>ingenue (来自法文)专门指“纯真少女”，多见于文艺作品。<br><br>特别要注意的是：ingenuity 是来源于 ingenious 的名词，意思是“智慧，机智”，同 ingenuous 毫不相干。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It should not be beyond our ingenuity to secure his support. 争取得到他的支持，这不应该是我们的智慧办不到的事。/ Ingenuity in varying tactics depends on mother wit. 策略运用之妙，存乎一心。有些人鉴于 ingenuity 同 ingenuous 形式上相通而意义迥异，主张将 ingenuity 改为 ingeniety，但只是主张而已。</div><br><br>
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habitable
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>inhabitable 与 habitable</b></div>同 inflammable 和 flammable 的情况相似，这里的前缀 in- 没有否定的意思，有没有都表示“可以居住的”。但是 inhabitable 用来指一片地区可供人类或禽兽居住。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Most persons feel that the Sahara Desert is not inhabitable. 人们大都觉得撒哈拉沙漠是不能住人的。habitable 则主要指建筑物可供人类居住。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This house is so flimsy that it is hardly habitable. 这栋房子太不结实了，不好居住。</div><br><br>
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inhabitable
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>inhabitable 与 habitable</b></div>同 inflammable 和 flammable 的情况相似，这里的前缀 in- 没有否定的意思，有没有都表示“可以居住的”。但是 inhabitable 用来指一片地区可供人类或禽兽居住。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Most persons feel that the Sahara Desert is not inhabitable. 人们大都觉得撒哈拉沙漠是不能住人的。habitable 则主要指建筑物可供人类居住。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This house is so flimsy that it is hardly habitable. 这栋房子太不结实了，不好居住。</div><br><br>
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inherit
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>inherit 与 succeed</b></div>这两个及物动词(瞬时体，第四类)都作“继承”解，但是搭配不同。inherit 的直接宾语是“所继承之物(具体财富或抽象特性均可)”；succeed 的直接宾语则是“所继承的先人”，如果是“所继承之物”，就要用 to 引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She inherited a fortune from her father. 她从她父亲那里继承了一笔家产。/ He has inherited his mother's patience. 他继承了母亲的耐心。/ Son succeeded father as head of the business for many generations. 好多代都是儿子继承父亲担任企业的主管。/ The eldest son succeeds to the title. 长子继承封号。</div><br><br>inherit 的直接宾语即使是人，也不是留下遗产的人，而仍然是“被留下给后人的人”。例如一位老医生退休了，他原先长期负责看病的病人，留给了一位年轻的医生负责，此时可以说年轻的医生 has inherited these patients，但并不是说他继承了这些病人的遗产。<br><br>
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inhuman
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>inhuman 与 unhuman</b></div>inhuman 是“惨无人道的，灭绝人性的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Nero was an inhuman emperor. 尼禄是个残暴的皇帝。</div><br><br>unhuman 则没有道德上的贬义，只是指“不属于人类的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The sounds issuing from the wounded man's throat were unhuman. 伤者喉咙里发出的声音，简直不像人声。/ To make mistakes is human; not to make a mistake is unhuman. 犯错误是人之常情；根本不犯错误却是不近人情了。</div><br><br>
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unhuman
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>inhuman 与 unhuman</b></div>inhuman 是“惨无人道的，灭绝人性的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Nero was an inhuman emperor. 尼禄是个残暴的皇帝。</div><br><br>unhuman 则没有道德上的贬义，只是指“不属于人类的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The sounds issuing from the wounded man's throat were unhuman. 伤者喉咙里发出的声音，简直不像人声。/ To make mistakes is human; not to make a mistake is unhuman. 犯错误是人之常情；根本不犯错误却是不近人情了。</div><br><br>
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injure
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>injure 与 wound</b></div>injured 是在意外事故中受伤；wounded 是在打仗或搏斗中受伤(对方有意造成的)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was injured by falling rocks. 他被落石砸伤了。injure 的主语可以是受伤的人，此时 injure 不是“(有意)伤害自己”，而是被动受伤。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He injured his shoulder playing football. 他踢足球伤了肩头。另外，与 wound 不同，injure 还可以指非外科意义上的损害。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Smoking injures your health. 吸烟损害健康。/ Crops were injured by the flood. 庄稼遭到了洪灾。/ The scandal severely injured his reputation. 丑闻严重损害了他的声誉。</div><br><br>wound 虽然也可以指无形的损害，但主要用于精神和感情上的损害。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Hisremarks wounded/injured her feelings deeply. 他的话深深伤害了她的感情。此外，由于 wound 对于肉体的伤害(如战斗伤害)是看得见的，所以内脏的伤害不用 wound 而用 injure 或 hurt。参见 wound 条与 hurt 条。</div><br><br>
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luck
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(in) luck 与 lucky</b></div>in luck 和 lucky 都是“运气好”的意思。但是 lucky 可以指一时的“交上好运气”，也可以指长时间的“运气好”；而 in luck 则偏向于指一时的 (而且多少有点碰巧的) “交上好运气”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We are in luck. The bank's video camera has captured the crime on video. 我们运气好。银行的监控摄像头拍到了犯罪现场的画面。</div><br><br>
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in luck
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(in) luck 与 lucky</b></div>in luck 和 lucky 都是“运气好”的意思。但是 lucky 可以指一时的“交上好运气”，也可以指长时间的“运气好”；而 in luck 则偏向于指一时的 (而且多少有点碰巧的) “交上好运气”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We are in luck. The bank's video camera has captured the crime on video. 我们运气好。银行的监控摄像头拍到了犯罪现场的画面。</div><br><br>
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(in) luck
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(in) luck 与 lucky</b></div>in luck 和 lucky 都是“运气好”的意思。但是 lucky 可以指一时的“交上好运气”，也可以指长时间的“运气好”；而 in luck 则偏向于指一时的 (而且多少有点碰巧的) “交上好运气”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We are in luck. The bank's video camera has captured the crime on video. 我们运气好。银行的监控摄像头拍到了犯罪现场的画面。</div><br><br>
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luck 与 lucky
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(in) luck 与 lucky</b></div>in luck 和 lucky 都是“运气好”的意思。但是 lucky 可以指一时的“交上好运气”，也可以指长时间的“运气好”；而 in luck 则偏向于指一时的 (而且多少有点碰巧的) “交上好运气”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We are in luck. The bank's video camera has captured the crime on video. 我们运气好。银行的监控摄像头拍到了犯罪现场的画面。</div><br><br>
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in luck 与 lucky
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(in) luck 与 lucky</b></div>in luck 和 lucky 都是“运气好”的意思。但是 lucky 可以指一时的“交上好运气”，也可以指长时间的“运气好”；而 in luck 则偏向于指一时的 (而且多少有点碰巧的) “交上好运气”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We are in luck. The bank's video camera has captured the crime on video. 我们运气好。银行的监控摄像头拍到了犯罪现场的画面。</div><br><br>
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in one's own right
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(in one's own) right</b></div>原意是“某人的身份是靠自己的权利得来，而不是靠别人的身份得来的”。例如：英国的贵族，如果父亲是公爵(duke)，长子就凭父荫享有侯爵(marquis)的头衔(父亲死后再继承公爵)。这就不是 in his own right，而是 by courtesy。如果这个长子靠自己的功勋获得爵位，就是 in his own right。但是，这个词组的适用范围，从“权利”扩大到了职业和技能的范围。例如一个诗人的妻子，如果也是诗人，就是 poetess in her own right (不是爵位或权利的问题)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Mr. Brown was chairman of the committee that invited the orchestra from Prague to open the festival. A violinist in his own right, he said that ... 布朗先生是那个邀请布拉格的乐团前来参加开幕仪式的委员会的主席。他本人也是个小提琴家，他说……</div><br><br>这个词组不但可以指人本人如何，还可以指事情本身如何(不取决于别的事)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His presence is significant in its own right. 他的到场，本身就很有意义。</div><br><br>
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question
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(in) question</b></div>in question 不是“成问题的”，而是“当前涉及的；这个，这些”，前面所修饰的名词应该是特指的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the areas in question 有关地区。</div><br><br>但是如果 in question 不作后置定语而作表语 (包括句中游离状语成分中的无系动词表语)，它就仍然保持更为实质的语义，是“成问题，无把握，不确定”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It wasn't clear whether there would be unanimous support (for the resolution), with the votes of Russia, China and Qatar still in question. (The Associated Press, Dec. 22, 2006) 但是，由于俄罗斯、中国和卡塔尔这几票仍然不确定，所以 (该决议案) 能否得到全体一致的支持，尚不明朗。</div><br><br>
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in question
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(in) question</b></div>in question 不是“成问题的”，而是“当前涉及的；这个，这些”，前面所修饰的名词应该是特指的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the areas in question 有关地区。</div><br><br>但是如果 in question 不作后置定语而作表语 (包括句中游离状语成分中的无系动词表语)，它就仍然保持更为实质的语义，是“成问题，无把握，不确定”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It wasn't clear whether there would be unanimous support (for the resolution), with the votes of Russia, China and Qatar still in question. (The Associated Press, Dec. 22, 2006) 但是，由于俄罗斯、中国和卡塔尔这几票仍然不确定，所以 (该决议案) 能否得到全体一致的支持，尚不明朗。</div><br><br>
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intent
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>intent 与 intention</b></div>两个名词的意义相同，都是“意图，打算”，只是在使用上有些区别。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> intent 比较正式，适用范围有限，不能自由搭配，通常只能用于一些比较固定的结构。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>with good/evil intent 出于善意/恶意</div><div class="ex-item">with criminal intent 以犯罪为目的</div><div class="ex-item">letter/declaration of intent 意向书</div><div class="ex-item">loitering with intent 蓄意徘徊。</div><br><br>intent 后面可以加上动词不定式表示其内容。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>with (the) intent to iron out differences 以便消除分歧</div><div class="ex-item">The conference declared its intent to organize a nation-wide movement. 会议宣布打算组织一个全国性的运动。</div><br><br>intent 还可以作为形容词，表示“专心的”或“决心的”，后面可以加上“on + 名词或动名词”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He gazed at their intent faces. 他注视他们全神贯注的脸庞。/ He was silent, intent on the meal. 他一声不响，埋头用餐。/ They were intent on keeping what they had. 他们决心保住自己的所得。/ ... the author is so intent on beingclever that he usually forgets to be anything more. (Babette Deutsch, in The Yale Review, December 1953) ……作者一心一意要显示聪明，因而往往忘掉别的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> intention 搭配比 intent 自由一些，用得也比较广一些(但是 intent 后面可以加上动词不定式表示其内容；intention 则通常不如此，要用 of + 动名词形式作定语，动词不定式只作为其表语)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was not my intention to cause trouble. 我的本意并不是要惹麻烦。/ I have every intention of going. 我一心一意想去。/ I did it with the best (of) intentions. 我这样做，纯粹出于一番好意。/ If I offended you, it was quite without intention. 如果我得罪了您，那完全是无意的。</div><br><br>派生的形容词 intentional 和副词 intentionally，都是“故意”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm sorry, it wasn't intentional. 对不起，那不是有意的。/ We didn't do it intentionally. 我们那样做不是有意的。</div><br><br>
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intention
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>intent 与 intention</b></div>两个名词的意义相同，都是“意图，打算”，只是在使用上有些区别。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> intent 比较正式，适用范围有限，不能自由搭配，通常只能用于一些比较固定的结构。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>with good/evil intent 出于善意/恶意</div><div class="ex-item">with criminal intent 以犯罪为目的</div><div class="ex-item">letter/declaration of intent 意向书</div><div class="ex-item">loitering with intent 蓄意徘徊。</div><br><br>intent 后面可以加上动词不定式表示其内容。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>with (the) intent to iron out differences 以便消除分歧</div><div class="ex-item">The conference declared its intent to organize a nation-wide movement. 会议宣布打算组织一个全国性的运动。</div><br><br>intent 还可以作为形容词，表示“专心的”或“决心的”，后面可以加上“on + 名词或动名词”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He gazed at their intent faces. 他注视他们全神贯注的脸庞。/ He was silent, intent on the meal. 他一声不响，埋头用餐。/ They were intent on keeping what they had. 他们决心保住自己的所得。/ ... the author is so intent on beingclever that he usually forgets to be anything more. (Babette Deutsch, in The Yale Review, December 1953) ……作者一心一意要显示聪明，因而往往忘掉别的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> intention 搭配比 intent 自由一些，用得也比较广一些(但是 intent 后面可以加上动词不定式表示其内容；intention 则通常不如此，要用 of + 动名词形式作定语，动词不定式只作为其表语)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was not my intention to cause trouble. 我的本意并不是要惹麻烦。/ I have every intention of going. 我一心一意想去。/ I did it with the best (of) intentions. 我这样做，纯粹出于一番好意。/ If I offended you, it was quite without intention. 如果我得罪了您，那完全是无意的。</div><br><br>派生的形容词 intentional 和副词 intentionally，都是“故意”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm sorry, it wasn't intentional. 对不起，那不是有意的。/ We didn't do it intentionally. 我们那样做不是有意的。</div><br><br>
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terms of
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(in) terms of</b></div>词组 in terms of 或 in ... terms，在英文书面上极为常用。译成中文有多种译法，要灵活掌握。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 最常用的意义，是“就……而论，在……方面”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In terms of competitiveness, China's capital was ranked fourth out of 200 Chinese cities by a latest report. 就竞争力而言，中国首都最近一次报告中排在中国 200 座城市当中的第 4 位。/ In terms of quality, his is the best report. 就质量而言，要数他的报告最好。/ September was fifth safest on record in terms of traffic deaths. 就交通事故死亡人数而言，9 月份是有记录的第五安全的月份。/ Of the top 10 magazines in terms of readers' household incomes, five were airline publications. 按照读者家庭收入排列的前 10 种杂志，就有 5 种是航空公司出版物。/ How do the two techniques compare in terms of application? 两种技术在应用方面相比如何？/ Basically I think he would be someone who complemented me in terms of character. 我基本上认为，他在性格方面可以补我之不足。/ Our goods compete in terms of product quality, reliability and above all variety. 我们的产品参与竞争，靠的是质量、可靠性，而且最主要的是靠品种。/ Wikipedia comes close to Britannica in terms of the accuracy of its science entries. 维基百科科学条目的准确性，接近《大英百科全书》。/ They have found that, in terms of both salary and career success, the sky is the limit. 他们发现了，在薪酬和事业有成方面，没有任何限定。/ These resorts remain unbeatable in terms of price. 这些旅游点收费低廉，是其他地方无法比得过的。/ Paris has played a dominant role in France, not just in political terms but also in economic power. 巴黎不但在政治上，而且也在经济实力上，在法国起了主导作用。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> “从……角度来衡量，折算成……”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The cost of air travel should be measured in terms of pollution, not just in dollars. 航空运输的成本不应该光是用钱计算，还应该从环境污染的角度来衡量。/ In absolute terms British wages remain low by European standards. 按绝对值计算，英国的工资按欧洲标准来看仍然是低的。/ In real terms the cost of driving is cheaper than a decade ago. 按实际价值计算，驾驶汽车的费用比 10 年前低廉。/ House prices have tumbled by almost 30 per cent in real terms since mid-1989. 房屋价格，按照实际价值计算，从 1989 年年中以来，下跌了几乎 30%。/ Iran must be seen in terms of its oil resources. 看伊朗要着眼于它的石油资源。/ The English aristocracy saw life in terms of duty and honor. 英国贵族是从义务和荣誉的角度来看待人生的。/ in terms of dollars (= in dollar terms) 折合成美元计算</div><div class="ex-item">a good job in terms of money (= in money terms) 从金钱角度衡量的好差事。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> “用……的语气”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Beth spoke of Dr. Hammer in laudatory terms. He abused the Admiral in the grossest terms. 贝斯对哈默博士说了很多称赞的话。对那位海军上将则痛骂了一通。/ She recounted in very general terms some of the events of recent months. 她非常简单扼要地介绍了近几个月来的某些事件。/ She told him in no uncertain terms to go away. 她用斩钉截铁的口气叫他走开。/ Not every judge, however, has the ability to explain the law in simple terms. 但是，并非每个法官都有本领通俗地解释法律。/ The video explains in simple terms how the new tax works. 视频通俗地解释了新税目是如何运作的。/ It turns out Levy is talking in metaphoricalterms. 原来列维是在打比方。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> “就……意义而说”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In broad terms, this means that the closer you live to a school, the more likely it is that your child will get a place there. 广义上来说，意思就是：你住得离一所学校越近，你的孩子在那学校得到一个名额的可能性就越大。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 从上面各项看，in terms of 的意义和用法比较广泛，往往不够明确。因此，用得相当滥。例如介绍某种文学，就是 in terms of + 它的社会作用；介绍某一作者，就是 in terms of + 他对某种体裁的影响；介绍一段历史，就是 in terms of + 该时期的经济背景；介绍某个地区的地理状况，就是 in terms of + 贸易和交通。但是，有些用 in terms of 的地方，其实改用别的说法更为妥当。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The seating arrangements, while excellent for music, are far from ideal in terms of the drama (可改为 for the drama). 座位的安排，虽然对于音乐是很好的，但对于话剧就很不理想。/ Hardships have been diminished in terms of food and clothing (全句可以改为 Shortages of food and clothing have been reduced.) 食物和衣服方面的困难已经得到缓解。/ Industrialization programs are showing results in terms of (改为 in 即可) factories going up and in terms of (同样改为 in 即可) actual production. 工业化方案正在兴建中的工厂和实际产量上显示出效果。/ The president today named a committee to evaluate the U.S. military aid program in terms of how to strengthen (可以改为 as a means of strengthening) national security. 总统今天任命了一个委员会来评估美国的军事援助项目，以使设法加强国家安全。/ In terms of (可以改为 Compared to 或 In contrast to) television's much-publicized impact on the American mind, the potentiality of its negative influence is not often mentioned. 电视对美国人心的影响得到了广泛宣扬，相形之下，它潜在的消极影响却不常被提到。</div><br><br>
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in terms of
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(in) terms of</b></div>词组 in terms of 或 in ... terms，在英文书面上极为常用。译成中文有多种译法，要灵活掌握。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 最常用的意义，是“就……而论，在……方面”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In terms of competitiveness, China's capital was ranked fourth out of 200 Chinese cities by a latest report. 就竞争力而言，中国首都最近一次报告中排在中国 200 座城市当中的第 4 位。/ In terms of quality, his is the best report. 就质量而言，要数他的报告最好。/ September was fifth safest on record in terms of traffic deaths. 就交通事故死亡人数而言，9 月份是有记录的第五安全的月份。/ Of the top 10 magazines in terms of readers' household incomes, five were airline publications. 按照读者家庭收入排列的前 10 种杂志，就有 5 种是航空公司出版物。/ How do the two techniques compare in terms of application? 两种技术在应用方面相比如何？/ Basically I think he would be someone who complemented me in terms of character. 我基本上认为，他在性格方面可以补我之不足。/ Our goods compete in terms of product quality, reliability and above all variety. 我们的产品参与竞争，靠的是质量、可靠性，而且最主要的是靠品种。/ Wikipedia comes close to Britannica in terms of the accuracy of its science entries. 维基百科科学条目的准确性，接近《大英百科全书》。/ They have found that, in terms of both salary and career success, the sky is the limit. 他们发现了，在薪酬和事业有成方面，没有任何限定。/ These resorts remain unbeatable in terms of price. 这些旅游点收费低廉，是其他地方无法比得过的。/ Paris has played a dominant role in France, not just in political terms but also in economic power. 巴黎不但在政治上，而且也在经济实力上，在法国起了主导作用。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> “从……角度来衡量，折算成……”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The cost of air travel should be measured in terms of pollution, not just in dollars. 航空运输的成本不应该光是用钱计算，还应该从环境污染的角度来衡量。/ In absolute terms British wages remain low by European standards. 按绝对值计算，英国的工资按欧洲标准来看仍然是低的。/ In real terms the cost of driving is cheaper than a decade ago. 按实际价值计算，驾驶汽车的费用比 10 年前低廉。/ House prices have tumbled by almost 30 per cent in real terms since mid-1989. 房屋价格，按照实际价值计算，从 1989 年年中以来，下跌了几乎 30%。/ Iran must be seen in terms of its oil resources. 看伊朗要着眼于它的石油资源。/ The English aristocracy saw life in terms of duty and honor. 英国贵族是从义务和荣誉的角度来看待人生的。/ in terms of dollars (= in dollar terms) 折合成美元计算</div><div class="ex-item">a good job in terms of money (= in money terms) 从金钱角度衡量的好差事。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> “用……的语气”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Beth spoke of Dr. Hammer in laudatory terms. He abused the Admiral in the grossest terms. 贝斯对哈默博士说了很多称赞的话。对那位海军上将则痛骂了一通。/ She recounted in very general terms some of the events of recent months. 她非常简单扼要地介绍了近几个月来的某些事件。/ She told him in no uncertain terms to go away. 她用斩钉截铁的口气叫他走开。/ Not every judge, however, has the ability to explain the law in simple terms. 但是，并非每个法官都有本领通俗地解释法律。/ The video explains in simple terms how the new tax works. 视频通俗地解释了新税目是如何运作的。/ It turns out Levy is talking in metaphoricalterms. 原来列维是在打比方。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> “就……意义而说”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In broad terms, this means that the closer you live to a school, the more likely it is that your child will get a place there. 广义上来说，意思就是：你住得离一所学校越近，你的孩子在那学校得到一个名额的可能性就越大。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 从上面各项看，in terms of 的意义和用法比较广泛，往往不够明确。因此，用得相当滥。例如介绍某种文学，就是 in terms of + 它的社会作用；介绍某一作者，就是 in terms of + 他对某种体裁的影响；介绍一段历史，就是 in terms of + 该时期的经济背景；介绍某个地区的地理状况，就是 in terms of + 贸易和交通。但是，有些用 in terms of 的地方，其实改用别的说法更为妥当。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The seating arrangements, while excellent for music, are far from ideal in terms of the drama (可改为 for the drama). 座位的安排，虽然对于音乐是很好的，但对于话剧就很不理想。/ Hardships have been diminished in terms of food and clothing (全句可以改为 Shortages of food and clothing have been reduced.) 食物和衣服方面的困难已经得到缓解。/ Industrialization programs are showing results in terms of (改为 in 即可) factories going up and in terms of (同样改为 in 即可) actual production. 工业化方案正在兴建中的工厂和实际产量上显示出效果。/ The president today named a committee to evaluate the U.S. military aid program in terms of how to strengthen (可以改为 as a means of strengthening) national security. 总统今天任命了一个委员会来评估美国的军事援助项目，以使设法加强国家安全。/ In terms of (可以改为 Compared to 或 In contrast to) television's much-publicized impact on the American mind, the potentiality of its negative influence is not often mentioned. 电视对美国人心的影响得到了广泛宣扬，相形之下，它潜在的消极影响却不常被提到。</div><br><br>
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air
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(in the) air 与 (on the) air</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> in the air:(a) 在空中，在飞行中。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In the air, health emergencies rise quietly. (USA Today, Mar. 11, 2008) 空中的紧急医疗案例逐渐增多。</div>(b) 令人感到在酝酿中。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Revolution was in the air. 到处都令人感到有革命的气息。/ Spring is in the air. 春意袭人。/ There's a rumour in the air that they're going to sell. 有谣传说他们要出售了。</div>(c) 悬而未决的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The project is still very much in the air. 这个项目八字还没一撇。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> on the air 是广播电视的“在播出”(前面加动词 be 是延续动作)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>be on the air 正在播出</div><div class="ex-item">He's on the air twice a week. 他每周上两次电视(电台)节目。/ The station is on the air 24 hours a day. 这个广播站每天 24 小时播放。</div>“开始播送”或是“播了出去”(瞬时动作)则是 go/come on the air。反过来，“不播送了”(瞬时动作)是 go off the air。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The transmission went suddenly offthe air. 播送忽然中断了。(英文 on 与 off 是一对反义词)</div><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> air 还可以作为及物或不及物动词，表示“播出”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They elected not to air (v.t.) it for legal reasons. 由于法律原因，他们决定不播出。/ The documentary was scheduled to air (v.i.) on Sunday. 纪录片预定星期日播出。</div><br><br>
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air 与 air
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(in the) air 与 (on the) air</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> in the air:(a) 在空中，在飞行中。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In the air, health emergencies rise quietly. (USA Today, Mar. 11, 2008) 空中的紧急医疗案例逐渐增多。</div>(b) 令人感到在酝酿中。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Revolution was in the air. 到处都令人感到有革命的气息。/ Spring is in the air. 春意袭人。/ There's a rumour in the air that they're going to sell. 有谣传说他们要出售了。</div>(c) 悬而未决的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The project is still very much in the air. 这个项目八字还没一撇。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> on the air 是广播电视的“在播出”(前面加动词 be 是延续动作)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>be on the air 正在播出</div><div class="ex-item">He's on the air twice a week. 他每周上两次电视(电台)节目。/ The station is on the air 24 hours a day. 这个广播站每天 24 小时播放。</div>“开始播送”或是“播了出去”(瞬时动作)则是 go/come on the air。反过来，“不播送了”(瞬时动作)是 go off the air。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The transmission went suddenly offthe air. 播送忽然中断了。(英文 on 与 off 是一对反义词)</div><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> air 还可以作为及物或不及物动词，表示“播出”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They elected not to air (v.t.) it for legal reasons. 由于法律原因，他们决定不播出。/ The documentary was scheduled to air (v.i.) on Sunday. 纪录片预定星期日播出。</div><br><br>
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in the air
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(in the) air 与 (on the) air</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> in the air:(a) 在空中，在飞行中。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In the air, health emergencies rise quietly. (USA Today, Mar. 11, 2008) 空中的紧急医疗案例逐渐增多。</div>(b) 令人感到在酝酿中。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Revolution was in the air. 到处都令人感到有革命的气息。/ Spring is in the air. 春意袭人。/ There's a rumour in the air that they're going to sell. 有谣传说他们要出售了。</div>(c) 悬而未决的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The project is still very much in the air. 这个项目八字还没一撇。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> on the air 是广播电视的“在播出”(前面加动词 be 是延续动作)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>be on the air 正在播出</div><div class="ex-item">He's on the air twice a week. 他每周上两次电视(电台)节目。/ The station is on the air 24 hours a day. 这个广播站每天 24 小时播放。</div>“开始播送”或是“播了出去”(瞬时动作)则是 go/come on the air。反过来，“不播送了”(瞬时动作)是 go off the air。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The transmission went suddenly offthe air. 播送忽然中断了。(英文 on 与 off 是一对反义词)</div><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> air 还可以作为及物或不及物动词，表示“播出”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They elected not to air (v.t.) it for legal reasons. 由于法律原因，他们决定不播出。/ The documentary was scheduled to air (v.i.) on Sunday. 纪录片预定星期日播出。</div><br><br>
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on the air
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(in the) air 与 (on the) air</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> in the air:(a) 在空中，在飞行中。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In the air, health emergencies rise quietly. (USA Today, Mar. 11, 2008) 空中的紧急医疗案例逐渐增多。</div>(b) 令人感到在酝酿中。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Revolution was in the air. 到处都令人感到有革命的气息。/ Spring is in the air. 春意袭人。/ There's a rumour in the air that they're going to sell. 有谣传说他们要出售了。</div>(c) 悬而未决的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The project is still very much in the air. 这个项目八字还没一撇。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> on the air 是广播电视的“在播出”(前面加动词 be 是延续动作)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>be on the air 正在播出</div><div class="ex-item">He's on the air twice a week. 他每周上两次电视(电台)节目。/ The station is on the air 24 hours a day. 这个广播站每天 24 小时播放。</div>“开始播送”或是“播了出去”(瞬时动作)则是 go/come on the air。反过来，“不播送了”(瞬时动作)是 go off the air。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The transmission went suddenly offthe air. 播送忽然中断了。(英文 on 与 off 是一对反义词)</div><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> air 还可以作为及物或不及物动词，表示“播出”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They elected not to air (v.t.) it for legal reasons. 由于法律原因，他们决定不播出。/ The documentary was scheduled to air (v.i.) on Sunday. 纪录片预定星期日播出。</div><br><br>
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(in the) air
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(in the) air 与 (on the) air</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> in the air:(a) 在空中，在飞行中。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In the air, health emergencies rise quietly. (USA Today, Mar. 11, 2008) 空中的紧急医疗案例逐渐增多。</div>(b) 令人感到在酝酿中。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Revolution was in the air. 到处都令人感到有革命的气息。/ Spring is in the air. 春意袭人。/ There's a rumour in the air that they're going to sell. 有谣传说他们要出售了。</div>(c) 悬而未决的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The project is still very much in the air. 这个项目八字还没一撇。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> on the air 是广播电视的“在播出”(前面加动词 be 是延续动作)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>be on the air 正在播出</div><div class="ex-item">He's on the air twice a week. 他每周上两次电视(电台)节目。/ The station is on the air 24 hours a day. 这个广播站每天 24 小时播放。</div>“开始播送”或是“播了出去”(瞬时动作)则是 go/come on the air。反过来，“不播送了”(瞬时动作)是 go off the air。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The transmission went suddenly offthe air. 播送忽然中断了。(英文 on 与 off 是一对反义词)</div><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> air 还可以作为及物或不及物动词，表示“播出”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They elected not to air (v.t.) it for legal reasons. 由于法律原因，他们决定不播出。/ The documentary was scheduled to air (v.i.) on Sunday. 纪录片预定星期日播出。</div><br><br>
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(on the) air
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(in the) air 与 (on the) air</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> in the air:(a) 在空中，在飞行中。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In the air, health emergencies rise quietly. (USA Today, Mar. 11, 2008) 空中的紧急医疗案例逐渐增多。</div>(b) 令人感到在酝酿中。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Revolution was in the air. 到处都令人感到有革命的气息。/ Spring is in the air. 春意袭人。/ There's a rumour in the air that they're going to sell. 有谣传说他们要出售了。</div>(c) 悬而未决的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The project is still very much in the air. 这个项目八字还没一撇。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> on the air 是广播电视的“在播出”(前面加动词 be 是延续动作)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>be on the air 正在播出</div><div class="ex-item">He's on the air twice a week. 他每周上两次电视(电台)节目。/ The station is on the air 24 hours a day. 这个广播站每天 24 小时播放。</div>“开始播送”或是“播了出去”(瞬时动作)则是 go/come on the air。反过来，“不播送了”(瞬时动作)是 go off the air。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The transmission went suddenly offthe air. 播送忽然中断了。(英文 on 与 off 是一对反义词)</div><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> air 还可以作为及物或不及物动词，表示“播出”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They elected not to air (v.t.) it for legal reasons. 由于法律原因，他们决定不播出。/ The documentary was scheduled to air (v.i.) on Sunday. 纪录片预定星期日播出。</div><br><br>
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in the air 与 on the air
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(in the) air 与 (on the) air</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> in the air:(a) 在空中，在飞行中。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In the air, health emergencies rise quietly. (USA Today, Mar. 11, 2008) 空中的紧急医疗案例逐渐增多。</div>(b) 令人感到在酝酿中。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Revolution was in the air. 到处都令人感到有革命的气息。/ Spring is in the air. 春意袭人。/ There's a rumour in the air that they're going to sell. 有谣传说他们要出售了。</div>(c) 悬而未决的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The project is still very much in the air. 这个项目八字还没一撇。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> on the air 是广播电视的“在播出”(前面加动词 be 是延续动作)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>be on the air 正在播出</div><div class="ex-item">He's on the air twice a week. 他每周上两次电视(电台)节目。/ The station is on the air 24 hours a day. 这个广播站每天 24 小时播放。</div>“开始播送”或是“播了出去”(瞬时动作)则是 go/come on the air。反过来，“不播送了”(瞬时动作)是 go off the air。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The transmission went suddenly offthe air. 播送忽然中断了。(英文 on 与 off 是一对反义词)</div><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> air 还可以作为及物或不及物动词，表示“播出”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They elected not to air (v.t.) it for legal reasons. 由于法律原因，他们决定不播出。/ The documentary was scheduled to air (v.i.) on Sunday. 纪录片预定星期日播出。</div><br><br>
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(in the) first
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(in the) first (place)</b></div>参见 in the first place 条。<br><br>
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(in the) first place
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(in the) first (place)</b></div>参见 in the first place 条。<br><br>
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turn
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(in) turn</b></div>in turn 这个词组，有两个相近但方向不同的含义：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> A 施动作于 B，B 又反过来施动作于 A（即 A→B→A，是循环反复的），中文可以说“又”或“反过来又”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Theory comes from practice and in turn guides practice. 理论来源于实践，反过来又指导实践。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> A 施动作于 B，B 又施动作于 C（即 A→B→C，是连环套的），中文也可以说“又”，但不可以说“反过来”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We got the idea from a hospital in Edinburgh, they in turn got it from a hospital in Leeds. 这个办法，我们是从爱丁堡的一家医院那里得来的，他们又是从利兹的一家医院学来的。/ They frequently sell their fruit to middlemen, who in turn sell it to factories that produce dried coconut meat, coconut husk, coconut oil and—more and more—coconut water. (Time, Dec. 17, 2012) 他们常常把果实出售给中间人，中间人又转卖给工厂制作干椰肉、椰子壳、椰油以及越来越多的椰子水。</div><br><br>有时候 in turn 可以改为 in (its、his、their) turn。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Every genius in art has demonstrated in his works the feeling of new laws, and every succeeding one has done by his precursors as his successors have in their turn done by him. (Josef Hofmann, Piano Playing) 凡是艺术天才，总是在自己的作品中显示出对新规律的预感，而每一个后继者也总是像自己的后继者对待自己那样去对待前面的天才。(do by somebody 是“对待”的意思)</div>要注意：有时候 in turn 究竟是“循环”还是“连环套”，要看语境和上下文。如 She, in turn, needs our help. 这里的意思，可能是“我们需要她的帮助，她反过来也需要我们的帮助”，但也可能是“某人需要她的帮助，她又需要我们的帮助”。但 in its/my/your/his/her/their turn 则常是“连环套”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Height and distance (from the keyboard) of your chair—which should never have arms—you should decide for yourself and once for all time; for only then can you acquire a normal hand position, which, in its turn, is a condition sine qua non for the development of your technique. (Josef Hofmann, Piano Playing) 你的椅子（椅子绝不可以有扶手）离键盘多高多远，应该由你自己决定，而且应一次性决定；因为唯有如此，你的手才可以放在正常的位置，而这又是提升你的技巧的必要条件。/ This chief word is defined (qualified, modified) by another word, which in its turn may be defined (qualified, modified) by a third word, etc. (Otto Jespersen, The Philosophy of Grammar) 中心词受到另一个单词所界定（说明，修饰），而这另一个单词又受到第三个单词所界定（说明，修饰），如此往复。</div><br><br>此外，in turn 还有“(主语或宾语)逐一（即‘连环套’），轮流（即循环）”的意思，此时就没有上述 AB 或 ABC 的相互关系。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Two men were working, hitting the anvil in turn. 两个人在干着活，轮流打着铁砧。（主语轮流）/ She went round the ward, talking to each woman in turn. 她走遍病房，同妇女们逐个交谈。（宾语逐个）</div>
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in turn
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(in) turn</b></div>in turn 这个词组，有两个相近但方向不同的含义：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> A 施动作于 B，B 又反过来施动作于 A（即 A→B→A，是循环反复的），中文可以说“又”或“反过来又”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Theory comes from practice and in turn guides practice. 理论来源于实践，反过来又指导实践。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> A 施动作于 B，B 又施动作于 C（即 A→B→C，是连环套的），中文也可以说“又”，但不可以说“反过来”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We got the idea from a hospital in Edinburgh, they in turn got it from a hospital in Leeds. 这个办法，我们是从爱丁堡的一家医院那里得来的，他们又是从利兹的一家医院学来的。/ They frequently sell their fruit to middlemen, who in turn sell it to factories that produce dried coconut meat, coconut husk, coconut oil and—more and more—coconut water. (Time, Dec. 17, 2012) 他们常常把果实出售给中间人，中间人又转卖给工厂制作干椰肉、椰子壳、椰油以及越来越多的椰子水。</div><br><br>有时候 in turn 可以改为 in (its、his、their) turn。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Every genius in art has demonstrated in his works the feeling of new laws, and every succeeding one has done by his precursors as his successors have in their turn done by him. (Josef Hofmann, Piano Playing) 凡是艺术天才，总是在自己的作品中显示出对新规律的预感，而每一个后继者也总是像自己的后继者对待自己那样去对待前面的天才。(do by somebody 是“对待”的意思)</div>要注意：有时候 in turn 究竟是“循环”还是“连环套”，要看语境和上下文。如 She, in turn, needs our help. 这里的意思，可能是“我们需要她的帮助，她反过来也需要我们的帮助”，但也可能是“某人需要她的帮助，她又需要我们的帮助”。但 in its/my/your/his/her/their turn 则常是“连环套”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Height and distance (from the keyboard) of your chair—which should never have arms—you should decide for yourself and once for all time; for only then can you acquire a normal hand position, which, in its turn, is a condition sine qua non for the development of your technique. (Josef Hofmann, Piano Playing) 你的椅子（椅子绝不可以有扶手）离键盘多高多远，应该由你自己决定，而且应一次性决定；因为唯有如此，你的手才可以放在正常的位置，而这又是提升你的技巧的必要条件。/ This chief word is defined (qualified, modified) by another word, which in its turn may be defined (qualified, modified) by a third word, etc. (Otto Jespersen, The Philosophy of Grammar) 中心词受到另一个单词所界定（说明，修饰），而这另一个单词又受到第三个单词所界定（说明，修饰），如此往复。</div><br><br>此外，in turn 还有“(主语或宾语)逐一（即‘连环套’），轮流（即循环）”的意思，此时就没有上述 AB 或 ABC 的相互关系。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Two men were working, hitting the anvil in turn. 两个人在干着活，轮流打着铁砧。（主语轮流）/ She went round the ward, talking to each woman in turn. 她走遍病房，同妇女们逐个交谈。（宾语逐个）</div>
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valuable
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>invaluable 与 valuable</b></div>参见 flammable 与 inflammable 条。<br><br>
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invaluable
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>invaluable 与 valuable</b></div>参见 flammable 与 inflammable 条。<br><br>
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entail
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>involve 与 entail</b></div>两者意义相近（“涉及”，基本上属表示事物关系的第一类动词），都是书面英语中很常用的动词，但是有细微的差别。entail 指某种必然的“由因及果”或“有甲必然有乙”的关系，involve 则指比较松散的、不一定是因果也不一定“有甲必然有乙”的关系。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Expanding the police force would entail raising taxes. 扩大警力，就要牵涉到增税。（这里的 entail 表示必然的后果，改为 involve 就不合适。）/ A successful sales campaign usually involves the distribution of samples. 要进行成功的促销活动，往往需要分送样品。（这里促销和分送样品之间并没有必然的条件关系，改为 entail 就不合适。）</div>此外，由于 entail 带有必然性，所以如果说 necessarily entail，这里的 necessarily 就是多余的。如果说 usually entail，有人认为这是自相矛盾，但也可以认为 usually 是对 entail 的“必然”意义的一种减弱。<br><br>
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involve
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>involve 与 entail</b></div>两者意义相近（“涉及”，基本上属表示事物关系的第一类动词），都是书面英语中很常用的动词，但是有细微的差别。entail 指某种必然的“由因及果”或“有甲必然有乙”的关系，involve 则指比较松散的、不一定是因果也不一定“有甲必然有乙”的关系。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Expanding the police force would entail raising taxes. 扩大警力，就要牵涉到增税。（这里的 entail 表示必然的后果，改为 involve 就不合适。）/ A successful sales campaign usually involves the distribution of samples. 要进行成功的促销活动，往往需要分送样品。（这里促销和分送样品之间并没有必然的条件关系，改为 entail 就不合适。）</div>此外，由于 entail 带有必然性，所以如果说 necessarily entail，这里的 necessarily 就是多余的。如果说 usually entail，有人认为这是自相矛盾，但也可以认为 usually 是对 entail 的“必然”意义的一种减弱。<br><br>
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it is ... of ... to ...
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>it is ... for ... to ... 与 it is ... of ... to ...</b></div>这是两个不同的句型。它们的差别在于 it is 后面的形容词的词义究竟是指人还是指事。指事就用 for，指人就用 of。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 凡是使用评价人的道德品质（有时指理智）的形容词，如 brave、careless、clever、cowardly、cruel、foolish、generous、good、nice (指为人善良)、mean、rude、selfish、silly、wicked 等，而且所指的人也在句中出现，要用 of。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is foolish of you to do such a thing. 你干这样的事情太愚蠢了。/ It was brave of him to go into the burning house to save the child. 他奋不顾身冲进着火的房子救小孩，真勇敢。/ It's very kind of you. 承蒙您的好意。/ It's not nice of little boys to do such things. 小孩子这样做是不乖的。其中凡是指人的道德品质的形容词，后面的 of 短语都不能省略。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was kind of you to help him. 你帮助了他，真是好心。(这句话不能简化为 *It was kind to help him.)</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 如果既可以指人本身的理智，也可以指某一行动或态度的理智性质（不像 kind 那样单纯指道德品质），如 clever、foolish、intelligent、silly、stupid 等，可以不用 of 介词短语引入某人，而直接对某一行动或态度加以评价。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It would be foolish to do so. 如果这样做，就是愚蠢的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 凡是单纯描述事情性质而不可能指人的形容词，如 acceptable、important、impossible、mandatory、necessary、outrageous、unbelievable 等，即使所指的人在句中出现，也不能用 of 介词短语引入，要用 for。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was not necessary for you to go there. 当时你并没有必要非去不可。/ It was not necessary to go there. 当时并没有必要非去不可。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 形容词 good 和 nice，指人时意思是道德意义上的“善良的，好心肠的”，用于这个意思时必须有 of 介词短语说明是某人，如果没有这个介词短语（即人不出现），或是改为 for 介词短语引入该人，则 good 和 nice 的意义就变成指某事物在理智意义上“有好处的，有益的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was good of her to take care of the children during their mother's absence. 孩子们的妈妈不在家，她来照应，心地真好。/ It was good for them to do exercise every morning. 他们每天早上做体操很有好处。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 有时候可以对 it is ... of ... 的结构加以调整，把 it 从主语变为宾语，此时 is 就要变为不变位的 to be。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I meant it to be very honest of me. (John Fowles, TheFrench Lieutenant's Woman) 我那样做正是老实的表现。作主语的 it 还可以改为 this (指前面说过过的行为，但少用 that)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This was perceptive of Charles, ... (ibid.) 查尔斯还是很有眼力的，……</div><br><br>
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it is ... for ... to ...
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>it is ... for ... to ... 与 it is ... of ... to ...</b></div>这是两个不同的句型。它们的差别在于 it is 后面的形容词的词义究竟是指人还是指事。指事就用 for，指人就用 of。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 凡是使用评价人的道德品质（有时指理智）的形容词，如 brave、careless、clever、cowardly、cruel、foolish、generous、good、nice (指为人善良)、mean、rude、selfish、silly、wicked 等，而且所指的人也在句中出现，要用 of。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is foolish of you to do such a thing. 你干这样的事情太愚蠢了。/ It was brave of him to go into the burning house to save the child. 他奋不顾身冲进着火的房子救小孩，真勇敢。/ It's very kind of you. 承蒙您的好意。/ It's not nice of little boys to do such things. 小孩子这样做是不乖的。其中凡是指人的道德品质的形容词，后面的 of 短语都不能省略。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was kind of you to help him. 你帮助了他，真是好心。(这句话不能简化为 *It was kind to help him.)</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 如果既可以指人本身的理智，也可以指某一行动或态度的理智性质（不像 kind 那样单纯指道德品质），如 clever、foolish、intelligent、silly、stupid 等，可以不用 of 介词短语引入某人，而直接对某一行动或态度加以评价。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It would be foolish to do so. 如果这样做，就是愚蠢的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 凡是单纯描述事情性质而不可能指人的形容词，如 acceptable、important、impossible、mandatory、necessary、outrageous、unbelievable 等，即使所指的人在句中出现，也不能用 of 介词短语引入，要用 for。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was not necessary for you to go there. 当时你并没有必要非去不可。/ It was not necessary to go there. 当时并没有必要非去不可。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 形容词 good 和 nice，指人时意思是道德意义上的“善良的，好心肠的”，用于这个意思时必须有 of 介词短语说明是某人，如果没有这个介词短语（即人不出现），或是改为 for 介词短语引入该人，则 good 和 nice 的意义就变成指某事物在理智意义上“有好处的，有益的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It was good of her to take care of the children during their mother's absence. 孩子们的妈妈不在家，她来照应，心地真好。/ It was good for them to do exercise every morning. 他们每天早上做体操很有好处。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 有时候可以对 it is ... of ... 的结构加以调整，把 it 从主语变为宾语，此时 is 就要变为不变位的 to be。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I meant it to be very honest of me. (John Fowles, TheFrench Lieutenant's Woman) 我那样做正是老实的表现。作主语的 it 还可以改为 this (指前面说过过的行为，但少用 that)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This was perceptive of Charles, ... (ibid.) 查尔斯还是很有眼力的，……</div><br><br>
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it is who...
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>it is (Xs) that/who...</b></div>这是英文常用的强调句。值得注意的是：无论 X 是单数还是复数，it is 是单数不变，that/who 后面的谓语动词则随 X 的单复数来变化。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Among the British scholars it is especially Professors Sir Randolph Quirk, Sidney Greenbaum and Geoffrey Leech who have urged me to present such a synthesis. (Jan Firbas, Functional Sentence Perspective in Written and Spoken Communication) 英国学者当中，特别是奎可爵士、格林鲍姆和李奇这三位教授敦促我拿出这份综合材料。</div><br><br>
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it is that...
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>it is (Xs) that/who...</b></div>这是英文常用的强调句。值得注意的是：无论 X 是单数还是复数，it is 是单数不变，that/who 后面的谓语动词则随 X 的单复数来变化。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Among the British scholars it is especially Professors Sir Randolph Quirk, Sidney Greenbaum and Geoffrey Leech who have urged me to present such a synthesis. (Jan Firbas, Functional Sentence Perspective in Written and Spoken Communication) 英国学者当中，特别是奎可爵士、格林鲍姆和李奇这三位教授敦促我拿出这份综合材料。</div><br><br>
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it is Xs who...
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>it is (Xs) that/who...</b></div>这是英文常用的强调句。值得注意的是：无论 X 是单数还是复数，it is 是单数不变，that/who 后面的谓语动词则随 X 的单复数来变化。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Among the British scholars it is especially Professors Sir Randolph Quirk, Sidney Greenbaum and Geoffrey Leech who have urged me to present such a synthesis. (Jan Firbas, Functional Sentence Perspective in Written and Spoken Communication) 英国学者当中，特别是奎可爵士、格林鲍姆和李奇这三位教授敦促我拿出这份综合材料。</div><br><br>
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it is Xs that...
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>it is (Xs) that/who...</b></div>这是英文常用的强调句。值得注意的是：无论 X 是单数还是复数，it is 是单数不变，that/who 后面的谓语动词则随 X 的单复数来变化。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Among the British scholars it is especially Professors Sir Randolph Quirk, Sidney Greenbaum and Geoffrey Leech who have urged me to present such a synthesis. (Jan Firbas, Functional Sentence Perspective in Written and Spoken Communication) 英国学者当中，特别是奎可爵士、格林鲍姆和李奇这三位教授敦促我拿出这份综合材料。</div><br><br>
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it is (Xs) who...
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>it is (Xs) that/who...</b></div>这是英文常用的强调句。值得注意的是：无论 X 是单数还是复数，it is 是单数不变，that/who 后面的谓语动词则随 X 的单复数来变化。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Among the British scholars it is especially Professors Sir Randolph Quirk, Sidney Greenbaum and Geoffrey Leech who have urged me to present such a synthesis. (Jan Firbas, Functional Sentence Perspective in Written and Spoken Communication) 英国学者当中，特别是奎可爵士、格林鲍姆和李奇这三位教授敦促我拿出这份综合材料。</div><br><br>
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it is (Xs) that...
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>it is (Xs) that/who...</b></div>这是英文常用的强调句。值得注意的是：无论 X 是单数还是复数，it is 是单数不变，that/who 后面的谓语动词则随 X 的单复数来变化。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Among the British scholars it is especially Professors Sir Randolph Quirk, Sidney Greenbaum and Geoffrey Leech who have urged me to present such a synthesis. (Jan Firbas, Functional Sentence Perspective in Written and Spoken Communication) 英国学者当中，特别是奎可爵士、格林鲍姆和李奇这三位教授敦促我拿出这份综合材料。</div><br><br>
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journey
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>journey, trip 与 travel</b></div>一般情况下，词义都是“旅行”。但是中文的“旅行”通常是指离开本市或本地的长途旅行，journey 与 trip 却可以指市内的交通(例如出租车的一次载客就是一个 trip)，甚至同一建筑物不同部位之间的移动(例如在停在门口的汽车与房子内部之间的步行来往)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The man made two more journeys between the VW and the house, each time carrying in two big cartons. 那个人在那辆大众牌汽车和房子之间往返了两次，每次都搬进两个大纸箱。</div><br><br>travel 则是个不可数名词，可以指离开本市的旅行，也可以指市内的来往。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His job involves a lot of travel. 他的工作要常常出差旅行。/ How much do you spend on travel to work? 你上下班的交通费要花多少？/ The cost includes travel to and from the airport. 费用包括往返机场的交通。关于 travel 的单复数问题，参见 travel 条。</div><br><br>
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just because
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(just) because</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> 本来 because 引入的从句都是原因状语从句，但是在美国非正式英语中，because 从句在一种情况下可以当作名词从句，并且升格为整句的主语，那就是 just because ... doesn't ...。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Just because he thinks it a good idea doesn't mean it's a good idea. 他觉得是好办法，不见得就是好办法。/ Just because the person who criticizes you is an idiot doesn't make him wrong. 批评你的人是个白痴，不等于他就是错了。有时候 just because ... 仍然保持状语从句地位，另由一个 it 来充当整句的主语（有时是形式主语，有时是真主语）。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Just because he has lived in the U.S., it does not follow that he is good at English. 他在美国居住过，并不等于他的英语一定很好。（it 是形式主语，提前代表 that ...）/ Just because doctors can't find an "organic" cause—meaning that there's no evidence of a structural, biochemical, or infectious basis for the symptoms—it doesn't mean you're imagining things. 医生们找不到“器官性”的原因，也就是说，没有迹象表明这些症状有结构上、生化上或是感染上的原因，但是这并不是说这只是心理作用。</div><br><br>just because ..., it doesn't follow ... 这个句型，其实是 not ... because ... 句型（其中的“否肯肯”型）的变种，只是把被否定的 because 因果关系移到句首。参见 (not) ... because 条。<br><br>由于 just because 有“单单是这个原因（并不能造成……）”的意义，所以很容易转为“虽然……（但是……）”（这时候后面的主句甚至不必是否定句）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The exploitation is the same. Just because one perpetrator has more money the result is the same. (The Sunday Gazette, Mar. 16, 2008, A9) 剥削是一样的。尽管一方的犯罪人钱更多，结果还是一样的。</div><br><br>也可以用 merely 之类的副词代替 just。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But merely because this distinction is not significant to the physicist does not mean that it is not meaningful in other sectors of science. (Leslie A. White, The Science of Culture) 不过，这个区别，尽管对物理学家来说意义不大，但是这并不是说，在其他科学领域就没有意义了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> just 放在 because 前面，可以起一种特殊的作用，就是表示前面或后面的否定涵盖了 because 所代表的因果关系；也就是说，是否定管了 because（“不因为……而……”），而不是 because 管了否定（不是“因为……而不……”）。参见 (not) ... because 条之 (3) 与 (6)。<br><br>
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check
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(keep ... in) check</b></div>keep/hold something/somebody in check 是个惯用词组，意思是“控制住(使之不能扩大损害)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He held his anger in check. 他忍住怒火。/ We're keeping the enemy in check. 我们在牵制敌人。/ We've kept the disease in check for a year. 我们已经把这个疾病控制了一年了。put a check on/to something 也有类似的意思。</div><br><br>但是值得注意的是：keep/hold something/somebody in check 的结构中，keep/hold 同 in check 当中插进的宾语可长可短，结构可简单可复杂，容易使人眼花缭乱，使得 keep/hold 与 in check 的联系模糊，甚至断了线。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The country must keep resource and energy use enough in check so that it doesn't simply crash and burn. (Harper's Magazine, Dec. 2005, p. 51)这个国家必须牢牢控制资源和能源的使用，以免彻底崩溃。/ We should keep prices in rise in check. 我们必须控制住高涨中的物价。(这里又是 in rise，又是 in check，容易使人“迷路”，看不出 keep 和 in check 之间遥相呼应实为一体的关系。)</div><div class="ex-item">To keep those left behind in check, neighbourhood committees have been spurred into action. 为了管住那些留在后面的人，居委会动员了起来。(这里又是 left behind，又是 in check，也容易使人“迷路”，但是 those 如果没有 left behind 修饰就是没有意义的。)</div>
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touch
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(keep in) touch</b></div>对别人说 keep in touch 其实后面略去了 with me/us，意思是“请同我/我们保持联系”。同样，I want you to stay in close <b>touch</b>. 是“希望你同我保持密切联系”。be in touch 也同样可以略去 with me、with us、with you 之类的补充说明，不言自明。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>(He) ended by telling him (= his bureau chief) that he would <b>be in touch</b> ( = be in touch with him) again as soon as he landed at Heathrow. (Jeffrey Archer, The Fourth Estate) 他最后告诉他的办公室主任说，他一到达希思罗机场，就同他联系。</div><br><br>
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keep in touch
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(keep in) touch</b></div>对别人说 keep in touch 其实后面略去了 with me/us，意思是“请同我/我们保持联系”。同样，I want you to stay in close <b>touch</b>. 是“希望你同我保持密切联系”。be in touch 也同样可以略去 with me、with us、with you 之类的补充说明，不言自明。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>(He) ended by telling him (= his bureau chief) that he would <b>be in touch</b> ( = be in touch with him) again as soon as he landed at Heathrow. (Jeffrey Archer, The Fourth Estate) 他最后告诉他的办公室主任说，他一到达希思罗机场，就同他联系。</div><br><br>
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ram
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>lamb, goat 与 ram</b></div>中文山羊、绵羊、公羊、母羊、老羊、幼羊，都叫“羊”，英文却是分得很仔细的。lamb 是“小羊羔”，有“神圣；可爱”的意义。goat 则是公山羊，往往有“好色”的含义。ram 也是公山羊，有“好色；健壮”的含义。<br><br>
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goat
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>lamb, goat 与 ram</b></div>中文山羊、绵羊、公羊、母羊、老羊、幼羊，都叫“羊”，英文却是分得很仔细的。lamb 是“小羊羔”，有“神圣；可爱”的意义。goat 则是公山羊，往往有“好色”的含义。ram 也是公山羊，有“好色；健壮”的含义。<br><br>
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lamb
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>lamb, goat 与 ram</b></div>中文山羊、绵羊、公羊、母羊、老羊、幼羊，都叫“羊”，英文却是分得很仔细的。lamb 是“小羊羔”，有“神圣；可爱”的意义。goat 则是公山羊，往往有“好色”的含义。ram 也是公山羊，有“好色；健壮”的含义。<br><br>
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last year
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(in the) past year 与 last year</b></div>last year 是日历上的“去年”，与之相搭配的谓语动词要用一般过去时。in the past year 则是迄今为止的 12 个月时间(常常要跨两个日历年度)，与之相搭配的谓语动词通常用现在完成时。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>In the past year</b>, Congress <b>has approved</b> $80 billion in budget authority. 过去一年内，国会在其预算职权范围内通过的预算有 800 亿美元。/ My life has changed a lot in the past year. 我的生活在过去的一年间变化很大。/ In the past year alone, we have hired roughly half a dozen college grads with a starting salary in the mid-to high $40,000 range. 过去一年间，我们雇用了五六名大学毕业生，底薪在 45,000—50,000 美元。/ Fully 15% of Americans say there have been times in the past year they have been unable to afford food. 有整整 15% 的美国人说，过去一年间，他们曾经有过买不起食品的时候。</div><br><br>但是也有用一般过去时的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Also in the past year, an estimated 575,000 (17%) adults in the state played Lottery games to the exclusion of the other two. 也是在过去一年间，估计该州有 575,000 个成年人(17%)买过彩票，但是没有参与其他两种赌博。/ Attention should be paid to those who in the past year forgot or disregarded Mr. Jefferson's admonition that freedom of speech "cannot be limited without being lost." 有些人在过去的一年当中忘记了或者是忽视了杰弗逊先生关于言论自由“如果受到限制就等于丧失”的忠告，对于这些人，应该予以重视。尤其是如果有一个主句和一个定语从句，后者有 in the past year 这个时间状语，则通常从句谓语动词用一般过去时，主句谓语动词用现在完成时。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If any member of the campus community who died in the past year has been inadvertently omitted, contact John Edwards. 如果校友当中有过去一年间去世而漏掉未列入的，知情者请与约翰·爱德华兹联系。</div><br><br>要表示“遍及整个时间段”，可以将 in 改为 over，仍然用现在完成时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>American policy in Iraq over the past two and a half years has been a mixture of nation-building and counterinsurgency, neither with much success. (Fareed Zakaria, in Newsweek, Oct. 30, 2006, p. 49) 美国过去两年半在伊拉克的政策，是建设国家和对付暴乱两者的混合物，但是两者都不怎么成功。</div><br><br>
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in the past year
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(in the) past year 与 last year</b></div>last year 是日历上的“去年”，与之相搭配的谓语动词要用一般过去时。in the past year 则是迄今为止的 12 个月时间(常常要跨两个日历年度)，与之相搭配的谓语动词通常用现在完成时。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>In the past year</b>, Congress <b>has approved</b> $80 billion in budget authority. 过去一年内，国会在其预算职权范围内通过的预算有 800 亿美元。/ My life has changed a lot in the past year. 我的生活在过去的一年间变化很大。/ In the past year alone, we have hired roughly half a dozen college grads with a starting salary in the mid-to high $40,000 range. 过去一年间，我们雇用了五六名大学毕业生，底薪在 45,000—50,000 美元。/ Fully 15% of Americans say there have been times in the past year they have been unable to afford food. 有整整 15% 的美国人说，过去一年间，他们曾经有过买不起食品的时候。</div><br><br>但是也有用一般过去时的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Also in the past year, an estimated 575,000 (17%) adults in the state played Lottery games to the exclusion of the other two. 也是在过去一年间，估计该州有 575,000 个成年人(17%)买过彩票，但是没有参与其他两种赌博。/ Attention should be paid to those who in the past year forgot or disregarded Mr. Jefferson's admonition that freedom of speech "cannot be limited without being lost." 有些人在过去的一年当中忘记了或者是忽视了杰弗逊先生关于言论自由“如果受到限制就等于丧失”的忠告，对于这些人，应该予以重视。尤其是如果有一个主句和一个定语从句，后者有 in the past year 这个时间状语，则通常从句谓语动词用一般过去时，主句谓语动词用现在完成时。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If any member of the campus community who died in the past year has been inadvertently omitted, contact John Edwards. 如果校友当中有过去一年间去世而漏掉未列入的，知情者请与约翰·爱德华兹联系。</div><br><br>要表示“遍及整个时间段”，可以将 in 改为 over，仍然用现在完成时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>American policy in Iraq over the past two and a half years has been a mixture of nation-building and counterinsurgency, neither with much success. (Fareed Zakaria, in Newsweek, Oct. 30, 2006, p. 49) 美国过去两年半在伊拉克的政策，是建设国家和对付暴乱两者的混合物，但是两者都不怎么成功。</div><br><br>
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lawful
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>lawful, legal 与 legitimate</b></div>lawful 不但是“符合法律的”，而且是“合情合理的，应该拥有一切有关权利的”，带有一种理直气壮、伸张权利的含义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>lawful heir 合法继承人</div><div class="ex-item">lawful wife 合法妻子</div><div class="ex-item">lawful act 合法行为</div><div class="ex-item">lawful age 法定年龄(例如可以有行为能力，可以结婚，可以驾驶)。</div><br><br>legal 则是法律意义上的“合法”，更多侧重符合法律规定，多少有点“冷冰冰”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Gambling is legal in some states. 在某些州，赌博是合法的。(尽管不道德，它是合法的，你也拿它没办法；这里不宜用 lawful。)</div>legitimate 本来主要指子女是合法婚生的，但扩大的意义泛指“拥有一切有关权利的”，但不带有 lawful 的那种理直气壮的语气。例如某国的政府是经过正式手续当选执政的，是合法政府(legitimate government)，但很少说 lawful government，更少说 legal government。另外，legitimate 还可以用于与法律关系不大的事情上。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A lie may be considered legitimate if a patient's restoration to health depends on it. 如果使病人恢复健康要对他说谎，那么说谎可以算作是合情合理的。</div><br><br>
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lay
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>lay 与 lie</b></div>这是两个根本不同的动词，但是有些变化形式相同，容易混淆。主要容易混淆的就是 lie 的过去式 lay 与 lay 的动词原形相同。见下表(箭头表示容易混淆)：| 动词原形 | lay | lie || :--- | :--- | :--- || 过去式 | laid | -> lay || 过去分词 | laid | lain |此外，还要注意，lay 是及物动词，lie 则是不及物动词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Leghorns lay large eggs. 莱亨鸡下的蛋大。/ Andrew lay in the hammock all afternoon. 安德鲁一下午都躺在吊床上。/ lay low 采取低姿态，不招摇。</div><br><br>lie 如果是指“说谎”，就是规则动词：lie, lied, lied。<br><br>
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libel
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>libel 与 slander</b></div>两者都是“诽谤”。但在法律上，libel 是通过文字、图画、印刷品等进行的诽谤；slander 则是口头的诽谤。<br><br>
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slander
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>libel 与 slander</b></div>两者都是“诽谤”。但在法律上，libel 是通过文字、图画、印刷品等进行的诽谤；slander 则是口头的诽谤。<br><br>
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lit
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>lighted 与 lit</b></div>两者都是动词 light 的过去式和过去分词。lit 比 lighted 用得多些。作为接近形容词的过去分词时，使用哪一个，往往根据习惯，没有什么规律，有时用哪一个都可以。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She lit/lighted the candles. 她把蜡烛点着。/ My uncle lit/lighted his pipe. 我叔父点着了他的烟斗。有时又只能用一个而不能用另一个。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The hallway was dimly lighted. 过道的亮光很暗淡。/ They entered a well-lit vestibule. 他们走进了一个灯火辉煌的门厅。/ The star's dressing room was well lighted, but unfortunately the stage was poorly lit. 明星的更衣室灯火通明，但可惜舞台上灯光暗淡。</div><br><br>
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lighted
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>lighted 与 lit</b></div>两者都是动词 light 的过去式和过去分词。lit 比 lighted 用得多些。作为接近形容词的过去分词时，使用哪一个，往往根据习惯，没有什么规律，有时用哪一个都可以。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She lit/lighted the candles. 她把蜡烛点着。/ My uncle lit/lighted his pipe. 我叔父点着了他的烟斗。有时又只能用一个而不能用另一个。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The hallway was dimly lighted. 过道的亮光很暗淡。/ They entered a well-lit vestibule. 他们走进了一个灯火辉煌的门厅。/ The star's dressing room was well lighted, but unfortunately the stage was poorly lit. 明星的更衣室灯火通明，但可惜舞台上灯光暗淡。</div><br><br>
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lips
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>lips, mouth 与 tongue</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> lips 专门集中在说话的功能上。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>loose-lipped third parties 嘴不严的第三者</div><div class="ex-item">button/button up one's lips 守口如瓶</div><div class="ex-item">hang on the lips of somebody/somebody's lips 注意倾听某人说的话</div><div class="ex-item">on every lip/everyone's lips 成了街谈巷议的话题</div><div class="ex-item">My lips are sealed. 这件事情我一定不对任何人说。/ Rest assured that no word has passed or shall pass my lips. (John Fowles, <i>The French Lieutenant's Woman</i>) 请放心，此事我谁也没告诉过，而且永远也不会告诉任何人。/ Read my lips. No new taxes. (1988年美国总统大选中老布什的一句竞选名言) 请听清楚了。我绝不设立新税目。 (2) mouth 的两大功能——吃东西和说话，在英语中都有表现。</div><br><br>表示吃东西的功能。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>talk with one's mouth full 边吃边说</div><div class="ex-item">another (hungry) mouth to feed 又多一张嘴需要吃饭</div><div class="ex-item">make one's mouth water 使某人垂涎欲滴</div><div class="ex-item">live from hand to mouth 勉强糊口度日。</div><br><br>表示说话的功能。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>be/have a big mouth 爱多嘴</div><div class="ex-item">open one's mouth 开口说话</div><div class="ex-item">shut your mouth 闭上你的嘴</div><div class="ex-item">by/through word of mouth 通过口头相传</div><div class="ex-item">give mouth to one's grievance 诉苦</div><div class="ex-item">watch your mouth 说话规矩点。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 同中文的“舌”一样，英文的 tongue 同“说话”的关系也极为密切，甚至可以作为 language 的同义词，例如 mother tongue (母语)。不过 tongue 更主要是指语言的运用和表达，lips 则更多偏重有话说出来或不说出来以及言谈的传播。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She had a sharp and hurtful tongue. 她言词尖酸，出口伤人。/ Loose tongues cost lives. 多嘴害人命。</div><br><br>
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mouth
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>lips, mouth 与 tongue</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> lips 专门集中在说话的功能上。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>loose-lipped third parties 嘴不严的第三者</div><div class="ex-item">button/button up one's lips 守口如瓶</div><div class="ex-item">hang on the lips of somebody/somebody's lips 注意倾听某人说的话</div><div class="ex-item">on every lip/everyone's lips 成了街谈巷议的话题</div><div class="ex-item">My lips are sealed. 这件事情我一定不对任何人说。/ Rest assured that no word has passed or shall pass my lips. (John Fowles, <i>The French Lieutenant's Woman</i>) 请放心，此事我谁也没告诉过，而且永远也不会告诉任何人。/ Read my lips. No new taxes. (1988年美国总统大选中老布什的一句竞选名言) 请听清楚了。我绝不设立新税目。 (2) mouth 的两大功能——吃东西和说话，在英语中都有表现。</div><br><br>表示吃东西的功能。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>talk with one's mouth full 边吃边说</div><div class="ex-item">another (hungry) mouth to feed 又多一张嘴需要吃饭</div><div class="ex-item">make one's mouth water 使某人垂涎欲滴</div><div class="ex-item">live from hand to mouth 勉强糊口度日。</div><br><br>表示说话的功能。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>be/have a big mouth 爱多嘴</div><div class="ex-item">open one's mouth 开口说话</div><div class="ex-item">shut your mouth 闭上你的嘴</div><div class="ex-item">by/through word of mouth 通过口头相传</div><div class="ex-item">give mouth to one's grievance 诉苦</div><div class="ex-item">watch your mouth 说话规矩点。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 同中文的“舌”一样，英文的 tongue 同“说话”的关系也极为密切，甚至可以作为 language 的同义词，例如 mother tongue (母语)。不过 tongue 更主要是指语言的运用和表达，lips 则更多偏重有话说出来或不说出来以及言谈的传播。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She had a sharp and hurtful tongue. 她言词尖酸，出口伤人。/ Loose tongues cost lives. 多嘴害人命。</div><br><br>
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tongue
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>lips, mouth 与 tongue</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> lips 专门集中在说话的功能上。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>loose-lipped third parties 嘴不严的第三者</div><div class="ex-item">button/button up one's lips 守口如瓶</div><div class="ex-item">hang on the lips of somebody/somebody's lips 注意倾听某人说的话</div><div class="ex-item">on every lip/everyone's lips 成了街谈巷议的话题</div><div class="ex-item">My lips are sealed. 这件事情我一定不对任何人说。/ Rest assured that no word has passed or shall pass my lips. (John Fowles, <i>The French Lieutenant's Woman</i>) 请放心，此事我谁也没告诉过，而且永远也不会告诉任何人。/ Read my lips. No new taxes. (1988年美国总统大选中老布什的一句竞选名言) 请听清楚了。我绝不设立新税目。 (2) mouth 的两大功能——吃东西和说话，在英语中都有表现。</div><br><br>表示吃东西的功能。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>talk with one's mouth full 边吃边说</div><div class="ex-item">another (hungry) mouth to feed 又多一张嘴需要吃饭</div><div class="ex-item">make one's mouth water 使某人垂涎欲滴</div><div class="ex-item">live from hand to mouth 勉强糊口度日。</div><br><br>表示说话的功能。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>be/have a big mouth 爱多嘴</div><div class="ex-item">open one's mouth 开口说话</div><div class="ex-item">shut your mouth 闭上你的嘴</div><div class="ex-item">by/through word of mouth 通过口头相传</div><div class="ex-item">give mouth to one's grievance 诉苦</div><div class="ex-item">watch your mouth 说话规矩点。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 同中文的“舌”一样，英文的 tongue 同“说话”的关系也极为密切，甚至可以作为 language 的同义词，例如 mother tongue (母语)。不过 tongue 更主要是指语言的运用和表达，lips 则更多偏重有话说出来或不说出来以及言谈的传播。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She had a sharp and hurtful tongue. 她言词尖酸，出口伤人。/ Loose tongues cost lives. 多嘴害人命。</div><br><br>
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live
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>live 与 living</b></div>动词 live 是广义的“生存，生活”。名词 living 则偏重于物质上的“生计”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There are two types of education... One should teach us how to make a living, and the other how to live. (John Adams) 教育有两类……一类教我们如何谋生，另一类则教我们如何为人。参见 life 条之 (1)。</div><br><br>
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living
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>live 与 living</b></div>动词 live 是广义的“生存，生活”。名词 living 则偏重于物质上的“生计”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There are two types of education... One should teach us how to make a living, and the other how to live. (John Adams) 教育有两类……一类教我们如何谋生，另一类则教我们如何为人。参见 life 条之 (1)。</div><br><br>
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loath
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>loath 与 loathe</b></div>前者是形容词，表示“不喜欢的，不愿意的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I am loath to criticize him. 我不愿意批评他。</div><br><br>后者是及物动词，表示“讨厌，厌恶”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I loathe spinach. 我不喜欢吃菠菜。</div><br><br>
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loathe
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>loath 与 loathe</b></div>前者是形容词，表示“不喜欢的，不愿意的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I am loath to criticize him. 我不愿意批评他。</div><br><br>后者是及物动词，表示“讨厌，厌恶”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I loathe spinach. 我不喜欢吃菠菜。</div><br><br>
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solitude
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>loneliness 与 solitude</b></div>参见 solitude 与 loneliness 条。<br><br>
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loneliness
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>loneliness 与 solitude</b></div>参见 solitude 与 loneliness 条。<br><br>
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lose no time in + -ing
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>lose/waste no time in + -ing</b></div>这里有先后两个动词词组，前面是 lose/waste no time，后面是 in + -ing。究竟前面的否定是否也管到后面，也就是说，整个意思究竟是“不在某事上面浪费时间”，还是“不浪费时间，马上动手做某事”，这里牵涉到后面的动词究竟是瞬时体还是延续体的问题。如果是“不在某事上面浪费时间”，这件“某事”就应该是延续的；如果是“不浪费时间，马上动手做某事”，这件“某事”就应该是瞬时的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Don't lose your time in reading these books. 这些书你就别浪费时间看了。(read 是延续的第二类动词，被否定作用所包括)</div><div class="ex-item">They lost no time in provoking a schism. 他们马上就挑起了分裂。(不是“他们没有在挑起分裂上浪费时间”)</div><div class="ex-item">I've taken my resolution, so I advise you to lose no time in taking yours. (George Eliot, <i>Middlemarch: A Study of Provincial Life</i>) 我已经下了决心，所以我劝你也赶快下决心。</div><br><br>
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loose
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>lose 与 loose</b></div>前者读 /luːz/，是个不规则动词 (lose—lost—lost；名词 loss)，意思是“失去，损失”。后者读 /luːs/，是个形容词，意思是“松的，宽松的，松散的” (及物动词 loosen)。许多中国人对于单词末尾的 (s) 和 (z) 往往发音不好，听起来也分辨不出，要特别注意。<br><br>
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loud
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>loud 与 loudly</b></div>凡是修饰 speak、say、talk、shout、laugh、sing 等动词时，通常用 loud 作为副词而不用 loudly。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Speak loud and distinctly. 请讲得大声些和清楚些。但是，如果强调高声宣告重大的主张或诉求，仍然可以说 speak loudly，此时 loudly 就是信息的重心。例如美国 2006 年 11 月中期选举，民主党大胜，《时代》杂志 (<i>Time</i>, Nov. 20, 2006, p. 5) 就在目录预告中说：The people have spoken loudly. (人民高声说出了自己的心声。)</div>如果所修饰的动词不是与“说话，叫喊”有关的，就不能用 loud，要用 loudly。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A clock on the wall ticked loudly. (Daphne du Maurier, in <i>Ladies' Home Journal</i>, August 1971) 墙上一个时钟，滴滴答答声很响。</div><br><br>
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loudly
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>loud 与 loudly</b></div>凡是修饰 speak、say、talk、shout、laugh、sing 等动词时，通常用 loud 作为副词而不用 loudly。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Speak loud and distinctly. 请讲得大声些和清楚些。但是，如果强调高声宣告重大的主张或诉求，仍然可以说 speak loudly，此时 loudly 就是信息的重心。例如美国 2006 年 11 月中期选举，民主党大胜，《时代》杂志 (<i>Time</i>, Nov. 20, 2006, p. 5) 就在目录预告中说：The people have spoken loudly. (人民高声说出了自己的心声。)</div>如果所修饰的动词不是与“说话，叫喊”有关的，就不能用 loud，要用 loudly。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A clock on the wall ticked loudly. (Daphne du Maurier, in <i>Ladies' Home Journal</i>, August 1971) 墙上一个时钟，滴滴答答声很响。</div><br><br>
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luxuriant
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>luxuriant 与 luxurious</b></div>这两个形容词拼写相似，但意义差别很大。luxuriant 是指植物生长茂盛的、郁郁葱葱的。luxurious 则是指豪华奢侈的、金碧辉煌的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The castle we visited was luxurious (<i>luxuriant), and it was set in a garden of luxuriant (</i>luxurious) foliage. 我们参观的那座城堡很豪华，在一个绿树成荫的花园里。但是，连英语为母语者，也常常混淆不清。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>in luxuriant restaurants (Theodore Dreiser, <i>Sister Carrie</i>) 在豪华的餐厅里</div><div class="ex-item">a luxurious branch ... (Henry Vaughan) 一根繁茂的树枝。</div><br><br>
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luxurious
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>luxuriant 与 luxurious</b></div>这两个形容词拼写相似，但意义差别很大。luxuriant 是指植物生长茂盛的、郁郁葱葱的。luxurious 则是指豪华奢侈的、金碧辉煌的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The castle we visited was luxurious (<i>luxuriant), and it was set in a garden of luxuriant (</i>luxurious) foliage. 我们参观的那座城堡很豪华，在一个绿树成荫的花园里。但是，连英语为母语者，也常常混淆不清。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>in luxuriant restaurants (Theodore Dreiser, <i>Sister Carrie</i>) 在豪华的餐厅里</div><div class="ex-item">a luxurious branch ... (Henry Vaughan) 一根繁茂的树枝。</div><br><br>
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magic
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>magic 与 magical</b></div>magic 既可以是名词，也可以是形容词。作为名词时词义比较简单。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>practice/work/make/do magic 施魔法</div><div class="ex-item">The headache went away like magic. 头痛神奇地康复了。作为形容词，通常只能作前置定语，不能作表语。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a magic carpet 会飞的魔毯</div><div class="ex-item">a magic mirror 魔镜</div><div class="ex-item">magic spells 魔咒</div><div class="ex-item">a magic wand 魔棒</div><div class="ex-item">a magic bullet 万灵神丹。</div><br><br>magical 则只能作为形容词，但既可以作前置定语，也可以作表语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Mr. Smith has a magical way with children. 史密斯先生对付孩子真有一套奇妙的办法。/ The result was magical. 结果十分神奇。</div><br><br>两者作为形容词，有时候在意义上各有侧重。magic 着重效果之神速，magical 则着重“扑朔迷离”的气氛。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... the magic solution to the defense problem inEurope ... (J. F. Golay, in <i>The New Republic</i>, Apr. 19, 1954) …… 欧洲防务问题的神速解决办法 ……</div><div class="ex-item">... its <b>magical</b> mornings and its incomparable sunsets ... (Paul Bowles, in <i>Holiday</i>, March 1957) …… 它的那些云雾重重的清晨，和那些风光无比的日落余晖 ……</div><br><br>
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magical
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>magic 与 magical</b></div>magic 既可以是名词，也可以是形容词。作为名词时词义比较简单。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>practice/work/make/do magic 施魔法</div><div class="ex-item">The headache went away like magic. 头痛神奇地康复了。作为形容词，通常只能作前置定语，不能作表语。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a magic carpet 会飞的魔毯</div><div class="ex-item">a magic mirror 魔镜</div><div class="ex-item">magic spells 魔咒</div><div class="ex-item">a magic wand 魔棒</div><div class="ex-item">a magic bullet 万灵神丹。</div><br><br>magical 则只能作为形容词，但既可以作前置定语，也可以作表语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Mr. Smith has a magical way with children. 史密斯先生对付孩子真有一套奇妙的办法。/ The result was magical. 结果十分神奇。</div><br><br>两者作为形容词，有时候在意义上各有侧重。magic 着重效果之神速，magical 则着重“扑朔迷离”的气氛。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... the magic solution to the defense problem inEurope ... (J. F. Golay, in <i>The New Republic</i>, Apr. 19, 1954) …… 欧洲防务问题的神速解决办法 ……</div><div class="ex-item">... its <b>magical</b> mornings and its incomparable sunsets ... (Paul Bowles, in <i>Holiday</i>, March 1957) …… 它的那些云雾重重的清晨，和那些风光无比的日落余晖 ……</div><br><br>
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plurality
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>majority 与 plurality</b></div>在议会政治中，plurality 指相对多数，即得票额或所获议席比任何其他一个政党都多，但又未能过半。如果过半，就是 majority (绝对多数)。不过，“相对多数”往往用 relative majority，“绝对多数”往往用 absolute majority 表示。要注意，51% 就已经是“绝对多数”，但仍够不上中文的“绝大多数”。中文的“绝大多数”是 overwhelming majority，不是 *absolute majority。<br><br>
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something (of it)
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(make) something (of it)</b></div>参见make something of it 条。<br><br>
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make something (of it)
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(make) something (of it)</b></div>参见make something of it 条。<br><br>
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many
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>many 与 much</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 一般都知道，many 与可数名词复数连用，much 与不可数名词 (通常只有单数) 连用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The offices had so <b>many</b> occupants and were filled with so <b>much</b> furniture; it was hard to move around. 各个办公室人又多，家具又多，挤在里面转不过身。比较数量时，说“多得多”或“少得多”，more (管可数与不可数两种名词)、less (管不可数名词) 或 fewer (管可数名词) 前面要加上 many 还是 much，同样也要看后面的名词是可数还是不可数 (less 前一定是 much，fewer 前一定是 many，more 前则有两种可能)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has <b>many more</b> books than I. 他的书比我的多得多。</div><div class="ex-item">We hope one day soon <b>many fewer</b> people will die from cancer. 我们希望不久之后死于癌症的人会少得多。</div><div class="ex-item">He has <b>much more</b> money than I. 他的钱比我的多得多。如果是要强调形容词的比较级，前面是加上 much 而不能用 *many。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>John is <b>much more</b> tolerant than Smith. 约翰比史密斯宽容得多。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 英语中有少量名词虽然不可数，但却经常采取复数形式；还有一些可数名词以复数形式出现后，意义上成了一个不可以再分成原有一个个小个体的混沌整体。此时，用 many 还是 much (负面比较级用 fewer 还是 less)，就容易出现问题。如名词 oats (燕麦) 是不可数的，但又是复数形式，说 too many oats 或 too much oats 都各有其道理 (参见 oats 条)。名词 pain 的复数 pains 有了另外的“辛苦，劳苦，努力”的词义，不再是单独的一个个 pain 简单放在一起，此时，说 many pains 就十分别扭，所以尽管形式上勉强，也说 much pains，有时也说 great pains 来躲开这个令人头痛的问题 (参见 pain, painful, ache 与 hurt 条)。名词 tax 尽管本身明明是可数名词，但是复数 taxes 如果成了合在一起的一个整体，就往往可以当作一个不可数名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How <b>much taxes</b> will you have to pay? 你要付多少税金? 如果说 How <b>many taxes</b> will you have to pay? 那就可能是“你有多少个税目要交?”。同样，一些涉及款项的复数名词，如 profits、proceeds、investments 等等，都有或用 much 或用 many 的困惑问题。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 单独的 many 与 much 通常不用来修饰肯定句中的直接宾语，例如不能说 *I have <b>much</b> money. (但也有人认为 many 可以用于肯定句。) 否定句就可以用，如 I don't have <b>much</b> money. 和 We don't have <b>many</b> friends. 在肯定句中，直接宾语前面的 much 和 many 通常要用别的一些说法来代替，例如 a lot of、a great deal of、a good deal of、plenty of、a great quantity of、a large quantity of、a large number of 等等。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>One of the policemen started asking me <b>a lot of</b> questions. 其中一个警察开始向我提出了很多问题。</div><br><br>但是，much 和 many 之前如果有 too、so 或 as，就可以用于修饰肯定句中的直接宾语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They drank <b>too much</b>. 他们喝得太多了。</div><div class="ex-item">He spent <b>so much</b> money. 他花了这么多的钱。</div><div class="ex-item">She read <b>as much</b> as she could. 她尽可能大量地阅读。</div><br><br>如果放在句首作主语或主语的修饰语，many 与 much 可以用于肯定句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Many/A lot of</b> people came to the party. 许多人前来参加了联欢会。</div><div class="ex-item"><b>Much</b> will depend on what the minister says. 许多事情要取决于部长怎样说。但是 much 一般只用于正式场合，非正式场合多用代替词组 a lot。many 也常常不用而用 a lot of 或 plenty of 代替。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Plenty of</b> press secretaries have written behind-the-scenes views of the West Wing. (<i>The Associated Press</i>, Nov. 23, 2007) 许多白宫新闻发言人都写过有关白宫西厢内幕的著作。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 前面说过，many 和 much 可以用来修饰否定句中的直接宾语。在英文中，疑问句同否定句往往属于同一种范畴 (例如：肯定句用 some，否定句和疑问句就都用 any)，但是 many 和 much 在疑问句中却不像在否定句中那样畅行无阻。如果前面用 how 引导，many 和 much 当然可以用 (如 How <b>many</b> people did you invite? 和 How <b>much</b> money did you spend? )。如果前面不用 how，而且提问者期望得到肯定的回答，则直接宾语前面最好还是不用 many 而用上面说过的代替词组。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Did you take <b>a lot of</b> (*many) photos? I expect you did. 我想你一定拍了许多照片吧? 至于 much，前面不用 how，在不期望得到肯定回答的疑问句中也可以用来修饰直接宾语，但更常用的仍然是 a lot of 之类的代替词组。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Did you have <b>a lot of</div><div class="ex-item">much</b> snow last year? 你们那里去年下雪多吗?</div><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> many、much 等数量词在意义上有“有标记” (marked) 与“无标记” (unmarked) 的区别。所谓“有标记”，是说这个词在意义上有倾向性，例如 many 和 much 表示数量之多。而所谓“无标记”，则是说这个词只是表示中性的、无倾向的“数量或多或少”。对于 many 和 much 这类数量词，以及对于 old、tall、high、heavy、long、wide 这类形容词，在使用和理解时，都要区别“有标记”和“无标记”。记”，以免误用或误解。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... without a massive number of bees to flit among the blossoms, growers say, almond trees would produce scarcely a tenth as <b>many</b> nuts. (<i>Time</i>, Mar. 23, 2009, p. 9) …… 种植者说，如果没有大量的蜜蜂飞于杏花丛中，杏树生产的杏仁，连十分之一都到不了。</div><div class="ex-item">There are <b>only so many</b> ways to divide the relatively few dollars provided for community development projects. 给社区开发项目提供的拨款比较少，如何分配，办法就只有这一些。这里的 so many 不是“如此之多”，而是由于有 only 修饰，是“如此之少”。同样，问一个小孩 How <b>old</b> are you? 这个 old 就绝对不是“老”的意思。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> many 只能充当名词的前置定语，不能作表语，作表语可用 plentiful。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Even the hospital seemed mostly empty when I got there, and parking spaces were <b>plentiful</b>. (David Rosenfelt, <i>Heart of a Killer</i>) 我赶到医院时，就连医院也似乎大部分空空如也，停车位很多。</div><br><br>
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much
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>many 与 much</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 一般都知道，many 与可数名词复数连用，much 与不可数名词 (通常只有单数) 连用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The offices had so <b>many</b> occupants and were filled with so <b>much</b> furniture; it was hard to move around. 各个办公室人又多，家具又多，挤在里面转不过身。比较数量时，说“多得多”或“少得多”，more (管可数与不可数两种名词)、less (管不可数名词) 或 fewer (管可数名词) 前面要加上 many 还是 much，同样也要看后面的名词是可数还是不可数 (less 前一定是 much，fewer 前一定是 many，more 前则有两种可能)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has <b>many more</b> books than I. 他的书比我的多得多。</div><div class="ex-item">We hope one day soon <b>many fewer</b> people will die from cancer. 我们希望不久之后死于癌症的人会少得多。</div><div class="ex-item">He has <b>much more</b> money than I. 他的钱比我的多得多。如果是要强调形容词的比较级，前面是加上 much 而不能用 *many。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>John is <b>much more</b> tolerant than Smith. 约翰比史密斯宽容得多。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 英语中有少量名词虽然不可数，但却经常采取复数形式；还有一些可数名词以复数形式出现后，意义上成了一个不可以再分成原有一个个小个体的混沌整体。此时，用 many 还是 much (负面比较级用 fewer 还是 less)，就容易出现问题。如名词 oats (燕麦) 是不可数的，但又是复数形式，说 too many oats 或 too much oats 都各有其道理 (参见 oats 条)。名词 pain 的复数 pains 有了另外的“辛苦，劳苦，努力”的词义，不再是单独的一个个 pain 简单放在一起，此时，说 many pains 就十分别扭，所以尽管形式上勉强，也说 much pains，有时也说 great pains 来躲开这个令人头痛的问题 (参见 pain, painful, ache 与 hurt 条)。名词 tax 尽管本身明明是可数名词，但是复数 taxes 如果成了合在一起的一个整体，就往往可以当作一个不可数名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>How <b>much taxes</b> will you have to pay? 你要付多少税金? 如果说 How <b>many taxes</b> will you have to pay? 那就可能是“你有多少个税目要交?”。同样，一些涉及款项的复数名词，如 profits、proceeds、investments 等等，都有或用 much 或用 many 的困惑问题。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 单独的 many 与 much 通常不用来修饰肯定句中的直接宾语，例如不能说 *I have <b>much</b> money. (但也有人认为 many 可以用于肯定句。) 否定句就可以用，如 I don't have <b>much</b> money. 和 We don't have <b>many</b> friends. 在肯定句中，直接宾语前面的 much 和 many 通常要用别的一些说法来代替，例如 a lot of、a great deal of、a good deal of、plenty of、a great quantity of、a large quantity of、a large number of 等等。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>One of the policemen started asking me <b>a lot of</b> questions. 其中一个警察开始向我提出了很多问题。</div><br><br>但是，much 和 many 之前如果有 too、so 或 as，就可以用于修饰肯定句中的直接宾语。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They drank <b>too much</b>. 他们喝得太多了。</div><div class="ex-item">He spent <b>so much</b> money. 他花了这么多的钱。</div><div class="ex-item">She read <b>as much</b> as she could. 她尽可能大量地阅读。</div><br><br>如果放在句首作主语或主语的修饰语，many 与 much 可以用于肯定句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Many/A lot of</b> people came to the party. 许多人前来参加了联欢会。</div><div class="ex-item"><b>Much</b> will depend on what the minister says. 许多事情要取决于部长怎样说。但是 much 一般只用于正式场合，非正式场合多用代替词组 a lot。many 也常常不用而用 a lot of 或 plenty of 代替。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Plenty of</b> press secretaries have written behind-the-scenes views of the West Wing. (<i>The Associated Press</i>, Nov. 23, 2007) 许多白宫新闻发言人都写过有关白宫西厢内幕的著作。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 前面说过，many 和 much 可以用来修饰否定句中的直接宾语。在英文中，疑问句同否定句往往属于同一种范畴 (例如：肯定句用 some，否定句和疑问句就都用 any)，但是 many 和 much 在疑问句中却不像在否定句中那样畅行无阻。如果前面用 how 引导，many 和 much 当然可以用 (如 How <b>many</b> people did you invite? 和 How <b>much</b> money did you spend? )。如果前面不用 how，而且提问者期望得到肯定的回答，则直接宾语前面最好还是不用 many 而用上面说过的代替词组。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Did you take <b>a lot of</b> (*many) photos? I expect you did. 我想你一定拍了许多照片吧? 至于 much，前面不用 how，在不期望得到肯定回答的疑问句中也可以用来修饰直接宾语，但更常用的仍然是 a lot of 之类的代替词组。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Did you have <b>a lot of</div><div class="ex-item">much</b> snow last year? 你们那里去年下雪多吗?</div><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> many、much 等数量词在意义上有“有标记” (marked) 与“无标记” (unmarked) 的区别。所谓“有标记”，是说这个词在意义上有倾向性，例如 many 和 much 表示数量之多。而所谓“无标记”，则是说这个词只是表示中性的、无倾向的“数量或多或少”。对于 many 和 much 这类数量词，以及对于 old、tall、high、heavy、long、wide 这类形容词，在使用和理解时，都要区别“有标记”和“无标记”。记”，以免误用或误解。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... without a massive number of bees to flit among the blossoms, growers say, almond trees would produce scarcely a tenth as <b>many</b> nuts. (<i>Time</i>, Mar. 23, 2009, p. 9) …… 种植者说，如果没有大量的蜜蜂飞于杏花丛中，杏树生产的杏仁，连十分之一都到不了。</div><div class="ex-item">There are <b>only so many</b> ways to divide the relatively few dollars provided for community development projects. 给社区开发项目提供的拨款比较少，如何分配，办法就只有这一些。这里的 so many 不是“如此之多”，而是由于有 only 修饰，是“如此之少”。同样，问一个小孩 How <b>old</b> are you? 这个 old 就绝对不是“老”的意思。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> many 只能充当名词的前置定语，不能作表语，作表语可用 plentiful。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Even the hospital seemed mostly empty when I got there, and parking spaces were <b>plentiful</b>. (David Rosenfelt, <i>Heart of a Killer</i>) 我赶到医院时，就连医院也似乎大部分空空如也，停车位很多。</div><br><br>
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marriage
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>marriage 与 wedding</b></div><b>marriage</b> 指的是：(1) 结成亲事的这个事实或行动。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The bride's parents did not approve of Victoria's <b>marriage</b> to George. 新娘维多利亚的父母并不赞同她同乔治的亲事。(2) 婚姻关系或状态。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They enjoyed a long and happy <b>marriage</b>. 他们婚姻美满，地久天长。关于 marriage 表示“结婚行为”与“婚姻关系”的两重意义，参见 marry 条之 (5)。</div>
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masterly
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>masterful 与 masterly</b></div>两者都可以既指人又指事物。<br><br>指事物时，是“高超的，巧妙的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This was done with <b>masterful</b> timing. 做这件事情，时间安排得妙极了。</div><div class="ex-item">It was a <b>masterly</b> performance. 表演十分精彩。</div><br><br>但是如果指人或其行为，则意义上区别较大。masterful 主要表示该人盛气凌人、高高在上。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She knew he would be too <b>masterful</b> for her. 她知道，他盛气凌人，她会受不了。</div><div class="ex-item">His voice became more <b>masterful</b>. 他的声调更加傲慢了。masterly 则主要表示该人能力高强。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was <b>masterly</b> in dealing with people. 他同人交往很有一套。</div><br><br>
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masterful
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>masterful 与 masterly</b></div>两者都可以既指人又指事物。<br><br>指事物时，是“高超的，巧妙的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This was done with <b>masterful</b> timing. 做这件事情，时间安排得妙极了。</div><div class="ex-item">It was a <b>masterly</b> performance. 表演十分精彩。</div><br><br>但是如果指人或其行为，则意义上区别较大。masterful 主要表示该人盛气凌人、高高在上。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She knew he would be too <b>masterful</b> for her. 她知道，他盛气凌人，她会受不了。</div><div class="ex-item">His voice became more <b>masterful</b>. 他的声调更加傲慢了。masterly 则主要表示该人能力高强。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was <b>masterly</b> in dealing with people. 他同人交往很有一套。</div><br><br>
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materiel
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>material 与 materiel</b></div><b>material</b> 是个可数名词，泛指各种“材料”，就具体物质而言，可以是原料，也可以是制成品，总之是人心目中有用的物质。也可以指手写或印刷的书面材料。<b>materiel</b> 则来自法文 matériel，本来相当于英文中的形容词 material，但被英文借用后意义范围缩小，只能作为不可数名词，指军事上或工业生产上的“装备”。<br><br>
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may
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>may 与 can</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 一般认为，may 是得到允许去做某事，can 是自己有能力去做某事。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He <b>can</b> swim the channel. 他能游过海峡。</div><div class="ex-item">Children <b>may</b> swim in the pool only when there is a life-saver present. 唯有救生员在场，儿童方可以到游泳池里游泳。但是在实际用途中，can 往往“侵犯” may 的使用领域。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You <b>can</b> go when I dismiss the class, but no sooner. 等到我宣布下课，你就可以走，但未下课不能走。有时候这会造成歧义。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You <b>can</b> walk to the theatre. 你走得到剧院。/ 允许你走到剧院。需要从上下文来判别。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 如果某人客气地询问 <b>May</b> I use the telephone? 回答时最好不说 Yes, you <b>may</b>. 这样说有点高高在上恩准别人的口气 (人家用 may 是自谦，回答时如果把人家的自谦原封不动接过就成了自傲了)。最好说 Yes, of course you <b>can</b>.<br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 如果对客观可能性进行推测，肯定句只能用 may、might、could，不能用 *can (参见 can 条之 (3))。对客观可能性进行推测，否定时可以用 may 或 can，但是 may 与 can 否定时意义不同，may not 是“可能不”，cannot 是“不可能”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She may not be at home. 她可能不在家。/ She cannot be at home. 她不可能在家。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 自己说别人可以做什么事情（也就是宣布允许如何），可以用 may 或 can。但是如果是客观叙述某人已经得到允许可以如何，就不能用 <i>may (叙述过去也不能用 </i>might)，要用 can 或 be allowed to。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>These days, children can/are allowed to (<i>may) do what they like. 现在孩子爱干什么就可以干什么。/ I could/was allowed to (</i>might) read what I liked when I was a child. 我小时候爱看什么书就可以看什么书。/ Can you/Are you allowed to (*May you) park on both sides of the road here? 这条路两边都可以停车吗？但是如果间接叙述别人宣布允许如何，可以用 may。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The manager says that we may leave our coats in the toilet downstairs. 经理说我们可以把外套放在楼下的卫生间里。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> may 有两大不同的意义，即“允许”（不重读）与“估计”（重读），究竟是哪一种，取决于下列因素：(a) 主语是不是人，如果是人又是第几人称；(b) 后面的不定式动词是有意志的动作还是无意志的事件或状态，这个动词的意义对主语有利还是不利。首先，如果主语是 I，用 may 表示“允许”时，句子只能是疑问句，如 May I smoke? (<i>I may smoke. 或 </i>I may not smoke. 都是不通的。) 但主语是第二人称 you 或第三人称 he、she、they 时，则可以用 may 的陈述句表示“允许”或“不允许”。其次，may 后面的不定式动词，如果对第二与第三人称的主语有利，这个 may (无论是肯定句还是否定句) 都是表示“允许”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You may smoke. 你可以抽烟。但如果不利 (只是肯定句)，这个 may 就不是表示“允许”而是表示“估计”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You may be punished. 你可能受罚。/ You may lose your way if you don't take a map. 你如果不带地图就可能迷路。有些动词，很难判定有利还是不利，意义就可能是“允许”或“估计”两可。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He may leave tomorrow. 他可以明天离开。/ 他可能明天离开。如一份教人如何处理流鼻血的材料中说：If the bleeding has stopped, don't clean out your nose, or you may pick off the scab that has formed. (如果流血停止了，不要清理鼻腔，否则已经形成的血痂会被弄掉。) 这里的后半句不能理解为“或者你可以把已经形成的血痂弄掉”。这里的 pick off 虽然是有意志的行为，但却是不利的，是当事人犯下的错误；这里的 may 不是“允许”而是“有可能(做出不对的事)”。最后，至于非人主语，may 就当然不会有“允许”的含义，只能表示“估计”。</div><br><br>即使主语是人，may 后面的不定式动词是有意识的有利动作，如果这个不定式动词以 have + pp. 的形式出现，这个 may 也不是“允许”而是“估计”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He may have finished his work. 他估计完成工作了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> may (“估计”) 与 can (“估计”) 还有一个区别，就是 may 所表示的“可能”是当前就事论事的，而 can 则是泛泛而言的。如 The yen can be devaluated.</div><div class="ex-item">The yen may be devaluated. 前一句只是就任何货币都可能贬值而推论日元也不例外，而后一句则是就当前货币金融市场的现状做出走势的判断。再如 A friend can betray you. (朋友可能出卖你。) 这里用 can，暗示 a friend 是“虚指的某人”；而 A friend may betray you. 这里用 may 则是指“已有的朋友当中会有一个出卖你”。又如 Someone has got to be telling lies. 是指“肯定有人在撒谎” (只是肯定有此事，不涉及是谁)；而 Someone must be telling lies. 则是指“已知的人当中肯定有某个人 (可能知道是谁但不明说，也可能不知是谁，但肯定有这样一个人) 在撒谎”。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> might as well 的隐含意思是“别的不可能，就只能如此；退而求其次；勉强接受，只好如此”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Val would surely ask Juliane about his past, and the whole mess of his life would come out in that conversation. He might as well accept the inevitable. (Merrillee Whren, Hometown Promise) 瓦尔一定会向朱莉安打听他的过往，这一来他一辈子全部的糟糕事都会在那次交谈中兜出来。他只好接受不可避免的结局。</div><br><br>
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might
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>may 与 might</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> may 与 might 都可以用来表示对当前或不久的将来出现的客观情况的估计 (与一般的理解不同，might 除非出现在间接引语，否则就不是 may 的过去时)。但是 may 隐含的可能性比 might 略大。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I may go to London tomorrow. Joe might come with me. 我大概明天去伦敦。乔说不定会同我一起去。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 如果隐含“如果”的意思，则后果用 might 而不用 *may 表示。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Go to bed right now. You might feel better. 现在就上床睡觉。你会好过点的。/ Don't play with knives. You might get hurt. 别玩刀子。你会割伤的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> may have + pp. 与 might have + pp. 都可以用来表示对过去可能发生某事的一种肯定估计。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She may/might have missed her train. 她大概没有赶上火车。但是用 might 时可能有歧义，因为 might 还可以用来表示“本来当时可能如何但是结果没有如何”。如 She might have missed her train. 也可以是“她本来可能赶不上火车的，但最后还是赶上了”，要看上下文和语境。这句话用 may 时，则只有“她大概没有赶上火车”一种意义。所以，以下的几个例句中，may 都用得不对，应该改为 might。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The doctor failed to use the procedure that might (<i>may) have prolonged the patient's life. 那个手术本来可以延长病人的生命，但是医生没有采用。/ The engineer ignored the signal that might (</i>may) have prevented the crash. 工程师要是注意到那个信号，本来可以避免撞击，但是他没有理会。/ Too late he introduced the measure that might (*may) have saved the bank from failing. 那个措施本来可以使银行免于破产，但是他采取措施时为时已晚。</div><br><br>但是，如果说的是现在对过去可能发生某事或存在某状态的一种估计，尤其是学术性的考证，最好还是用 may have + pp. (这个 pp. 动词可以是瞬时的，也可以是延续的)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>(This kind of dinosaurs) were quick and flexible and had skin with scales that may have been striped. (The Associated Press, Dec. 2, 2007) (这类恐龙) 行动敏捷灵活，皮肤上有鳞甲，鳞甲上可能有条纹。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 表示祝愿，只能用 may，不能用 *might。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>May the New Year bring you all your heart desires. 祝您新年万事如意。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 表示委婉的建议，只能用 might，不能用 *may。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You might try asking him for a job. 你可以试试看问他要份工作。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 在口语中，重读 may 或 might，可以表示认为不大可能甚至不可能。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Tom may lend you the money. 汤姆不见得会把钱借给你。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 与 as well 一起，may 指笼统一般的优劣取舍，might 则指当前具体的优劣取舍。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>One may as well not know a thing at all as know it imperfectly. 一知半解，倒不如干脆一无所知。(笼统的)</div><div class="ex-item">If God were as you Calvinists say, I would not worship Him. I would rather go to Hell because I might as well be in Hell as to have to spend eternity with such a wicked, evil and untrustworthy god. 假如上帝真的像你们加尔文派所说的那样，我就不会崇拜他，我就不会宁可下地狱，因为与其跟这样一个狠毒、邪恶、不值得信任的上帝过一辈子，我倒不如到地狱里过。(当前具体的)</div>
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meet
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>meet 与 meet with</b></div>两者 (都是瞬时动词) 大体上的区别是：meet 往往指初次见面结识，meet with 则指一般的会面。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... his wife of 36 years, Janice, whom he met when she was a Navy nurse. (U.S. News & World Report, Dec. 24, 2007, p. 56) ……他同妻子詹妮斯结婚已 36 年了，初遇时，她是个海军护士。/ But we hope for brighter days to come, when friend shall meet with friend. (“Farewell to Thee”) 但愿岁月再晴朗，良朋有日能相会。而且 meet 有时候还可以是礼貌上或仪式上的迎接，不谈实质问题。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In the foyer a young woman secretary met them. 到了门厅，一个年轻的女秘书迎接了他们。</div><br><br>初次见面结交，meet somebody 中的 meet 是及物动词，以一方为主语，另一方为直接宾语。但也可以双方合在一起为主语，此时 meet 可以改作为不及物动词，不必保持作为及物动词说 *meet each other。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>John and I first met three years ago. 我和约翰是 3 年前初次见面认识的。</div><br><br>meet with 后面的宾语也可以不是人而是抽象事物，此时 meet with 的意思可以是：(1) “遇到” (瞬时动词，第四类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>meet with a warm reception 受到热烈欢迎</div><div class="ex-item">Her proposal met with resistance from her boss. 她的建议遭到了老板的反对。(2) “符合” (延续动词，第一类动词)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This quality is not often met with. 这样的质量，是很少见的。</div><br><br>
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meet with
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>meet 与 meet with</b></div>两者 (都是瞬时动词) 大体上的区别是：meet 往往指初次见面结识，meet with 则指一般的会面。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... his wife of 36 years, Janice, whom he met when she was a Navy nurse. (U.S. News & World Report, Dec. 24, 2007, p. 56) ……他同妻子詹妮斯结婚已 36 年了，初遇时，她是个海军护士。/ But we hope for brighter days to come, when friend shall meet with friend. (“Farewell to Thee”) 但愿岁月再晴朗，良朋有日能相会。而且 meet 有时候还可以是礼貌上或仪式上的迎接，不谈实质问题。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In the foyer a young woman secretary met them. 到了门厅，一个年轻的女秘书迎接了他们。</div><br><br>初次见面结交，meet somebody 中的 meet 是及物动词，以一方为主语，另一方为直接宾语。但也可以双方合在一起为主语，此时 meet 可以改作为不及物动词，不必保持作为及物动词说 *meet each other。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>John and I first met three years ago. 我和约翰是 3 年前初次见面认识的。</div><br><br>meet with 后面的宾语也可以不是人而是抽象事物，此时 meet with 的意思可以是：(1) “遇到” (瞬时动词，第四类动词)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>meet with a warm reception 受到热烈欢迎</div><div class="ex-item">Her proposal met with resistance from her boss. 她的建议遭到了老板的反对。(2) “符合” (延续动词，第一类动词)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This quality is not often met with. 这样的质量，是很少见的。</div><br><br>
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momently
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>momentarily 与 momently</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> momentarily 有三种不同的意义。第一种意义是(美式英语用法)“从现在算起很快就要(发生某事)”，同表示瞬时动作的第四类动词连用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We will arrive momentarily in Chicago. 我们马上就要抵达芝加哥了。/ The manager is on another line, but he'll be with you momentarily. 经理在打另外一个电话，但很快就会来同您谈的。(这里的 be with 有 come to talk with 的瞬间动作意义)/ Momentarily he had finished his work. (E. Phillips Oppenheim, The Vanished Messenger) 他很快就干完了他的工作。这个用法，有许多人认为不正确。</div><br><br>第二种意义是“(某过程)只延续很短促的一个时间段”，同表示延续状态或动作的动词(第一或第二类)连用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>“Oh, nothing at all, my dear,” replied the countess, a slight flush momentarily coloring her already pink cheek. (Edgar Rice Burroughs, The Return of Tarzan) “啊，亲爱的，没事。”伯爵夫人回答说，她那本来已经绯红的脸颊又冒出了一阵短暂的红晕。</div><br><br>第三种意义是“逐渐”，同第二类动词连用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The brilliant light increased momentarily in beauty. 灿烂的亮光变得越来越美丽。/ A small minority, mainly strangers, would look long at her in casually passing by, and grow momentarily fascinated by her freshness, and wonder if they would ever see her again... (Thomas Hardy, Tess of the D'Urbervilles: A Pure Woman) 有少数人，主要是一些陌生人，在她偶尔经过时许久注视着她，对她的娇嫩越来越入迷，不知道会不会再看见她……</div><br><br>另外要注意的是：英式英语中这个副词重音落在第一个音节，但是在美式英语中常常落在 -ta- 上。许多以 -ary 结尾的形容词，加上 ly 变为副词，发音都有这个变化。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> momently 则是“随时”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>momently expecting a letter 等待一封随时会到来的信。</div><br><br>
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momentarily
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>momentarily 与 momently</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> momentarily 有三种不同的意义。第一种意义是(美式英语用法)“从现在算起很快就要(发生某事)”，同表示瞬时动作的第四类动词连用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We will arrive momentarily in Chicago. 我们马上就要抵达芝加哥了。/ The manager is on another line, but he'll be with you momentarily. 经理在打另外一个电话，但很快就会来同您谈的。(这里的 be with 有 come to talk with 的瞬间动作意义)/ Momentarily he had finished his work. (E. Phillips Oppenheim, The Vanished Messenger) 他很快就干完了他的工作。这个用法，有许多人认为不正确。</div><br><br>第二种意义是“(某过程)只延续很短促的一个时间段”，同表示延续状态或动作的动词(第一或第二类)连用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>“Oh, nothing at all, my dear,” replied the countess, a slight flush momentarily coloring her already pink cheek. (Edgar Rice Burroughs, The Return of Tarzan) “啊，亲爱的，没事。”伯爵夫人回答说，她那本来已经绯红的脸颊又冒出了一阵短暂的红晕。</div><br><br>第三种意义是“逐渐”，同第二类动词连用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The brilliant light increased momentarily in beauty. 灿烂的亮光变得越来越美丽。/ A small minority, mainly strangers, would look long at her in casually passing by, and grow momentarily fascinated by her freshness, and wonder if they would ever see her again... (Thomas Hardy, Tess of the D'Urbervilles: A Pure Woman) 有少数人，主要是一些陌生人，在她偶尔经过时许久注视着她，对她的娇嫩越来越入迷，不知道会不会再看见她……</div><br><br>另外要注意的是：英式英语中这个副词重音落在第一个音节，但是在美式英语中常常落在 -ta- 上。许多以 -ary 结尾的形容词，加上 ly 变为副词，发音都有这个变化。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> momently 则是“随时”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>momently expecting a letter 等待一封随时会到来的信。</div><br><br>
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-er
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>more 与 -er</b></div>英语形容词的比较级(最高级)在形式上比其他语言复杂，大体上单音节形容词在词尾后加上 -er (最高级加上 -est)，多音节形容词则在前面加上 more (最高级加上 most)，少数以 -y、-er、-ow、-ble 结尾的双音节形容词也采取 -er (-est) 形式(如 happier、cleverer、narrower、abler)。少数单音节形容词，如 real、right、wrong，却不能采取 -er (-est) 形式而必须在前面加上 more (most)。中国人比较容易犯的错误，往往是图简单，遇到单音节形容词也随便在前面加上一个 more 了事。尤其是往往把对 the more ... the more ... (“越……就越……” )的记忆固定化，例如有时候就出现这样的错句：*The more he grew old, the more interested he was in science. 这句应该改为：The older he grew, the more interested he was in science. (他年纪越大，就越是对科学感兴趣。)但是，采取哪一种形式，也有一些特殊情况：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 如果后面没有 than，而是重复两次比较级以表示“越来越……”，则两种形式都可以用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The road was getting more and more steep/steeper and steeper. 路越来越陡。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 同一事物两种情状相互比较，不能用 -er，只能用 more。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He's more lazy than stupid. (不能说 *He's lazier than stupid.) 他与其说是愚蠢，不如说是懒惰。</div><br><br>
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more
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>more 与 -er</b></div>英语形容词的比较级(最高级)在形式上比其他语言复杂，大体上单音节形容词在词尾后加上 -er (最高级加上 -est)，多音节形容词则在前面加上 more (最高级加上 most)，少数以 -y、-er、-ow、-ble 结尾的双音节形容词也采取 -er (-est) 形式(如 happier、cleverer、narrower、abler)。少数单音节形容词，如 real、right、wrong，却不能采取 -er (-est) 形式而必须在前面加上 more (most)。中国人比较容易犯的错误，往往是图简单，遇到单音节形容词也随便在前面加上一个 more 了事。尤其是往往把对 the more ... the more ... (“越……就越……” )的记忆固定化，例如有时候就出现这样的错句：*The more he grew old, the more interested he was in science. 这句应该改为：The older he grew, the more interested he was in science. (他年纪越大，就越是对科学感兴趣。)但是，采取哪一种形式，也有一些特殊情况：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 如果后面没有 than，而是重复两次比较级以表示“越来越……”，则两种形式都可以用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The road was getting more and more steep/steeper and steeper. 路越来越陡。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 同一事物两种情状相互比较，不能用 -er，只能用 more。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He's more lazy than stupid. (不能说 *He's lazier than stupid.) 他与其说是愚蠢，不如说是懒惰。</div><br><br>
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mourning
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>morning 与 mourning</b></div>两者发音相同(r 在美式英语发音，在英式英语不发音)，但是意义风马牛不相及。前者是“早晨，上午”，后者是“哀悼，服丧”。<br><br>
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most of
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>most 与 most of</b></div>most + 可数名词复数，表示笼统的“大多数”；most of the + 可数名词复数，表示特定场合下特定范围内的大多数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Most children like to play. 小孩子大多爱玩。/ Most of the children in this school are under 11 years old. 本校大多数孩子不满 11 岁。</div><br><br>most 前面通常没有 the，如果有 the，则意义发生变化，不再是“……的大多数”，the most 本身单独成了个名词成分，表示“最大的收益”或“充其量的限度”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Make the most of your time. 充分利用你的时间。(注意：不要误为“你时间的最大部分”。)/ Behavior is caused by brain activity, and the most genes can do isto shape the wiring. 行为是由大脑活动引起的，基因最多只能塑造线路。(注意：不要误为“大多数基因”。)/ Jane should therefore make the most of every half hour in which she can command his attention. (Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice) 因此简就得时时刻刻留神，一看到有机会可以吸引他，就绝不会错过。</div><br><br>
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rat
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>mouse 与 rat</b></div>两者在中文中都是“老鼠”或“耗子”，但是在英语和许多其他欧洲语言中都是两个不同的单词。这原先是由于动物种属不同。在外形上，rat 比 mouse 大些。在派生意义上，rat 给人的印象是“可鄙的”，可以借用来指卑鄙小人，尤其是内奸、告密者。rat 甚至可以作为动词表示“告密”，如 rat on his best friend to the police。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You rat! 你这个畜牲！也可以表示“密谋；鬼鬼祟祟”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I smell a rat. 我觉得事有蹊跷。</div><br><br>mouse 给人的印象则更多的是“胆小，怕事”，但不邪恶卑鄙，用来指人，就是“胆小鬼”。有时甚至有点天真可爱，例如人们熟知的卡通角色“米老鼠”就是 Mickey Mouse (绝对不能说 *Mickey Rat)。另外，电脑的“鼠标”也是 mouse，如果是 rat，拿在手中就会恶心。不过，对于居家来说，mouse 和 rat 都一样是祸害，说“耗子洞”是 rathole 或是 mousehole 都可以。“捕鼠器”是 rattrap 或 mousetrap 也都可以。<br><br>
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mouse
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>mouse 与 rat</b></div>两者在中文中都是“老鼠”或“耗子”，但是在英语和许多其他欧洲语言中都是两个不同的单词。这原先是由于动物种属不同。在外形上，rat 比 mouse 大些。在派生意义上，rat 给人的印象是“可鄙的”，可以借用来指卑鄙小人，尤其是内奸、告密者。rat 甚至可以作为动词表示“告密”，如 rat on his best friend to the police。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>You rat! 你这个畜牲！也可以表示“密谋；鬼鬼祟祟”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I smell a rat. 我觉得事有蹊跷。</div><br><br>mouse 给人的印象则更多的是“胆小，怕事”，但不邪恶卑鄙，用来指人，就是“胆小鬼”。有时甚至有点天真可爱，例如人们熟知的卡通角色“米老鼠”就是 Mickey Mouse (绝对不能说 *Mickey Rat)。另外，电脑的“鼠标”也是 mouse，如果是 rat，拿在手中就会恶心。不过，对于居家来说，mouse 和 rat 都一样是祸害，说“耗子洞”是 rathole 或是 mousehole 都可以。“捕鼠器”是 rattrap 或 mousetrap 也都可以。<br><br>
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movement
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>movement 与 campaign</b></div>参见 campaign 条。<br><br>
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Mrs
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>Mrs. 与 Mrs</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 同 Mr. 或 Mr 一样，美式英语有小圆点，英式英语没有。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 按照过去的严格习惯，Mrs. 或 Mrs 后面接上的，应该是丈夫的名和姓，例如本人名字是 Mary 而丈夫名字是 John，就应该是 Mrs. John Doe 而不是 *Mrs. Mary Doe (唯有离了婚，女方才可以称为 Mrs. Mary Doe)。但是这个重男轻女的习惯多年来受到强烈冲击，许多女性放上自己的名字而不是丈夫的名字(其实用了丈夫的姓氏而不用自己本来的姓氏或是把自己本来的姓氏作为中间名，已经是对重男轻女习惯的一个妥协了)。这个问题，英国人比较拘束，美国人则比较开放。很久以来美国就流行在 Mrs. 后面放上女方自己的名字，或者放上女方本来的姓氏代替名字。时至今日，Mrs. 后面放女方自己的名字已经十分普遍，用丈夫名字的反而不流行，除非夫妇名字一起出现在请帖上：Mr. and Mrs. John Doe。例如美国前总统小布什的夫人的正式名字就是 Mrs. Laura Bush，前副总统切尼的夫人就叫 Mrs. Lynne Cheney。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 如果男方还另有头衔，这个头衔不可以并在女方的称呼上，例如不可以说 <i>Mrs. Dr. Doe 或 </i>Mrs. Prof. Doe。如果头衔是女方自己的，则可以用头衔而不用 Mrs.，或者用 Mrs. 而不用头衔。总之，不可以两者都用。<br><br>
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Mrs.
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>Mrs. 与 Mrs</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 同 Mr. 或 Mr 一样，美式英语有小圆点，英式英语没有。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 按照过去的严格习惯，Mrs. 或 Mrs 后面接上的，应该是丈夫的名和姓，例如本人名字是 Mary 而丈夫名字是 John，就应该是 Mrs. John Doe 而不是 *Mrs. Mary Doe (唯有离了婚，女方才可以称为 Mrs. Mary Doe)。但是这个重男轻女的习惯多年来受到强烈冲击，许多女性放上自己的名字而不是丈夫的名字(其实用了丈夫的姓氏而不用自己本来的姓氏或是把自己本来的姓氏作为中间名，已经是对重男轻女习惯的一个妥协了)。这个问题，英国人比较拘束，美国人则比较开放。很久以来美国就流行在 Mrs. 后面放上女方自己的名字，或者放上女方本来的姓氏代替名字。时至今日，Mrs. 后面放女方自己的名字已经十分普遍，用丈夫名字的反而不流行，除非夫妇名字一起出现在请帖上：Mr. and Mrs. John Doe。例如美国前总统小布什的夫人的正式名字就是 Mrs. Laura Bush，前副总统切尼的夫人就叫 Mrs. Lynne Cheney。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 如果男方还另有头衔，这个头衔不可以并在女方的称呼上，例如不可以说 <i>Mrs. Dr. Doe 或 </i>Mrs. Prof. Doe。如果头衔是女方自己的，则可以用头衔而不用 Mrs.，或者用 Mrs. 而不用头衔。总之，不可以两者都用。<br><br>
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Mr
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>Mr. 与 Mr</b></div>大体上相当于中文的“先生”。但是有几点要注意：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> Mr 后面加表示省略的小圆点(Mr.)，是美式英语用法；英式英语不加小圆点(Mr)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 间接提及某人时，Mr. 或 Mr 后面可以是该人的姓名全名，例如 Mr. John S. Carstairs，也可以只有该人的姓氏，例如 Mr. Carstairs。Mr. 或 Mr 后面不可以有名无姓，例如不可以说 *Mr. Bill (除非他真的姓 Bill，或是家中仆役称呼几个同姓的主人，见(4))。如果直接在交谈或信件中称呼某人(包括信件称呼)，则不可以在 Mr. 或 Mr 后面用该人的姓名全名，而只能用该人的姓氏(不过如果涉及外国人名，何者为姓何者为名有时候不清楚，也有索性放上姓名全名的)。Mrs.、Miss、Ms. 等也与此相同。但是，在信件的信封上，则要在 Mr. 或 Mr 后面放上姓名全名，不能只放上姓氏。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 提及著名的人物和同自己关系亲密的亲友时，不用 <i>Mr. 或 </i>Mr。所以，中文的“鲁迅先生”不能译成 <i>Mr. Lu Xun。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This is my friend Peter Atkins. (</i>This is my friend Mr. Peter Atkins.) 这是我的朋友彼得·阿特金斯。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 在旧时，Mr. 后面加上名字，用以在口头谈话时将同姓的一家人加以区别。例如对某场合中年纪最大或辈分最高的人，只称其姓氏 Mr. Smith，而对其余的家族成员则一一称为 Mr. James Smith、Mr. Robert Smith 等等(尤其是涉及家族企业的各个参与者时)。家中仆役对年纪最大或辈分最高者称 Mr. Smith (即只呼其姓氏)，对其余的人则不用姓氏只用名字。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Mr. Robert and Mr. Richard will be out this evening, but Mr. Edward is dining in. 罗伯特少爷和理查德少爷今天晚上出去有事，但是爱德华少爷在家吃晚饭。但随着社会风气的改变，这种称谓已经越来越少用。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 少数特定的职务头衔，例如总统、国务卿、总理、部长、大使、议长、大法官等等，直接面对面称呼时可以加上 Mr.，但不要附上姓名。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Mr. President 总统先生</div><div class="ex-item">Mr. Secretary of State 国务卿先生</div><div class="ex-item">Mr. Prime Minister 总理先生</div><div class="ex-item">Mr. Secretary of Defense 国防部长先生</div><div class="ex-item">Mr. Ambassador 大使先生</div><div class="ex-item">Mr. Speaker 议长先生</div><div class="ex-item">Mr. Justice 法官先生。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 用 Mr. 或 Mr 称呼某人，不一定带有尊敬的意思。2006 年 7 月，美国纽约州一个企图绑架女学生的罪犯被判处 12 年有期徒刑。在法庭上，受害者的父亲当面愤怒斥责被告，先称呼他为 Mr. 某某，然后痛陈被告的邪恶，最后说“我希望你坐一辈子的监狱出不来”。这可能是因为日常的语言中，直接叫某人的姓名是很没有礼貌的，都要加上个 Mr.、Miss 之类，习惯了，在罕有的斥责场合，直接称呼某个人，不加上 Mr.，难以启齿。另外，为了表示“绅士风度”，在间接提及某人时，即使是坏人，也有加上 Mr 的(主要在英国)。英国的《经济学人》(The Economist) 杂志每次提到本·拉登，都说 Mr Bin Laden。这里肯定没有任何尊敬的意思。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 尽管 Mr. 或 Mr 甚至可以放在自己认为是坏的人的名字前面，但是自报姓名时自称 Mr. (例如说 My name is Mr. Smith.) 仍然多少有点做作，不够谦虚有礼。不过，这种做法，也日渐流行。<br><br>
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Mr.
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>Mr. 与 Mr</b></div>大体上相当于中文的“先生”。但是有几点要注意：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> Mr 后面加表示省略的小圆点(Mr.)，是美式英语用法；英式英语不加小圆点(Mr)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 间接提及某人时，Mr. 或 Mr 后面可以是该人的姓名全名，例如 Mr. John S. Carstairs，也可以只有该人的姓氏，例如 Mr. Carstairs。Mr. 或 Mr 后面不可以有名无姓，例如不可以说 *Mr. Bill (除非他真的姓 Bill，或是家中仆役称呼几个同姓的主人，见(4))。如果直接在交谈或信件中称呼某人(包括信件称呼)，则不可以在 Mr. 或 Mr 后面用该人的姓名全名，而只能用该人的姓氏(不过如果涉及外国人名，何者为姓何者为名有时候不清楚，也有索性放上姓名全名的)。Mrs.、Miss、Ms. 等也与此相同。但是，在信件的信封上，则要在 Mr. 或 Mr 后面放上姓名全名，不能只放上姓氏。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 提及著名的人物和同自己关系亲密的亲友时，不用 <i>Mr. 或 </i>Mr。所以，中文的“鲁迅先生”不能译成 <i>Mr. Lu Xun。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This is my friend Peter Atkins. (</i>This is my friend Mr. Peter Atkins.) 这是我的朋友彼得·阿特金斯。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 在旧时，Mr. 后面加上名字，用以在口头谈话时将同姓的一家人加以区别。例如对某场合中年纪最大或辈分最高的人，只称其姓氏 Mr. Smith，而对其余的家族成员则一一称为 Mr. James Smith、Mr. Robert Smith 等等(尤其是涉及家族企业的各个参与者时)。家中仆役对年纪最大或辈分最高者称 Mr. Smith (即只呼其姓氏)，对其余的人则不用姓氏只用名字。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Mr. Robert and Mr. Richard will be out this evening, but Mr. Edward is dining in. 罗伯特少爷和理查德少爷今天晚上出去有事，但是爱德华少爷在家吃晚饭。但随着社会风气的改变，这种称谓已经越来越少用。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 少数特定的职务头衔，例如总统、国务卿、总理、部长、大使、议长、大法官等等，直接面对面称呼时可以加上 Mr.，但不要附上姓名。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Mr. President 总统先生</div><div class="ex-item">Mr. Secretary of State 国务卿先生</div><div class="ex-item">Mr. Prime Minister 总理先生</div><div class="ex-item">Mr. Secretary of Defense 国防部长先生</div><div class="ex-item">Mr. Ambassador 大使先生</div><div class="ex-item">Mr. Speaker 议长先生</div><div class="ex-item">Mr. Justice 法官先生。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 用 Mr. 或 Mr 称呼某人，不一定带有尊敬的意思。2006 年 7 月，美国纽约州一个企图绑架女学生的罪犯被判处 12 年有期徒刑。在法庭上，受害者的父亲当面愤怒斥责被告，先称呼他为 Mr. 某某，然后痛陈被告的邪恶，最后说“我希望你坐一辈子的监狱出不来”。这可能是因为日常的语言中，直接叫某人的姓名是很没有礼貌的，都要加上个 Mr.、Miss 之类，习惯了，在罕有的斥责场合，直接称呼某个人，不加上 Mr.，难以启齿。另外，为了表示“绅士风度”，在间接提及某人时，即使是坏人，也有加上 Mr 的(主要在英国)。英国的《经济学人》(The Economist) 杂志每次提到本·拉登，都说 Mr Bin Laden。这里肯定没有任何尊敬的意思。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 尽管 Mr. 或 Mr 甚至可以放在自己认为是坏的人的名字前面，但是自报姓名时自称 Mr. (例如说 My name is Mr. Smith.) 仍然多少有点做作，不够谦虚有礼。不过，这种做法，也日渐流行。<br><br>
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close to
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>near 与 close to</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> near 用于物质的接近，close to 用于物质或抽象的接近。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The table is <b>near/close to</b> the wall. 餐桌挨着墙。/ John remains/is/stays <b>near/close to</b> his brother. 约翰一直在他弟弟身旁。/ Michael feels <b>close to</b>/<i>near his brother. 迈克尔感到自己同弟弟很亲近。/ This attitude is/stays/remains <b>close to</b>/</i>near stupidity. 这种态度简直近乎愚蠢。/ The team was <b>close to</b>/<i>near victory. 球队差不多快要获胜了。/ Stephen is <b>close to</b>/</i>near physical collapse. 斯蒂芬的体力快要耗尽了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 表示抽象的接近(主语和补语双方都抽象)时，动词可以不用 be、stay 之类而用 come close to 或 verge on。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This attitude <b>comes close to/verges on</b> stupidity. 这种态度简直近乎愚蠢。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 但抽象的接近如果是被否定的，则不用 <i>close to 而用 near。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This problem is nowhere <b>near</b> a solution. 这个问题无从解决。但如果否定词在前面较远，也可以用 close。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Penn State's freshmen have an expected graduation rate of seventy-three percent and an actual graduation rate of eighty-five percent, for a score of plus twelve: <b>no</b> other school in the </i>U.S. News & World Report<i> top fifty comes <b>close</b>. (Malcolm Gladwell, "The Order of Things," in </i>The New Yorker*, Feb. 14, 2011) 宾州州立大学一年级学生的预期毕业率为 73%，实际毕业率为 85%，相比得分为正 12；《美国新闻与世界报道》排名的前 50 所大学中，没有任何其他一所接近这个水平。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 时间上的接近，用 close to 而不用 near。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is <b>close to</b> noon/midnight/5 o'clock. 快要中午/午夜/5 点钟了。/ Ted is <b>close to</b> 50/retirement age. 泰德快 50 岁/到退休年龄了。</div><br><br>
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necessary
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>necessary 与 necessity</b></div>有“必须，必需”(主观的)和“必然”(客观的)两个很不相同的意义。necessary 唯有作前置定语，才有“必然的”的意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This is a <b>necessary</b> consequence of progress. 这是发展必然造成的结果。necessary 作表语则一定是“必需的，需要的”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It may be <b>necessary</b> to buy a new car. 可能需要买辆新车。/ It doesn't seem <b>necessary</b> for us to meet. 看来我们没必要见面。/ Only use your car when absolutely <b>necessary</b>. 极度需要时再用你的车。但作前置定语时也可以是“必要的”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'llmake the <b>necessary</b> arrangements. 我会做必要的安排。</div><br><br>necessity 只有单数才有“必然性”的意思，但即使如此，也可以是“必要性”。有时候为了说清楚，在 necessity 前加上 logical 表示“必然”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Necessity</b> is the mother of invention. 必要为发明之母。/ We recognize the <b>necessity</b> of a written agreement. 我们认为有必要签一份书面协议。/ We were discussing the <b>necessity</b> of employing more staff. 我们当时在讨论是否有必要增加人员。/ There had never been any <b>necessity</b> for her to go out to work. 从未有任何必要叫她出去工作。/ This is, <b>of necessity</b>, a brief and incomplete account. 这是出于必要做出的简要而不完全的说明。/ Air-conditioning is an absolute <b>necessity</b> in this climate. 空调在这样的气候是绝对必需的。复数则是“各种所需之物”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Many people cannot even afford <b>basic necessities</b> such as food and clothing. 许多人连食物和衣物这样的起码必需品都买不起。</div><br><br>
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necessity
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>necessary 与 necessity</b></div>有“必须，必需”(主观的)和“必然”(客观的)两个很不相同的意义。necessary 唯有作前置定语，才有“必然的”的意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This is a <b>necessary</b> consequence of progress. 这是发展必然造成的结果。necessary 作表语则一定是“必需的，需要的”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It may be <b>necessary</b> to buy a new car. 可能需要买辆新车。/ It doesn't seem <b>necessary</b> for us to meet. 看来我们没必要见面。/ Only use your car when absolutely <b>necessary</b>. 极度需要时再用你的车。但作前置定语时也可以是“必要的”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'llmake the <b>necessary</b> arrangements. 我会做必要的安排。</div><br><br>necessity 只有单数才有“必然性”的意思，但即使如此，也可以是“必要性”。有时候为了说清楚，在 necessity 前加上 logical 表示“必然”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>Necessity</b> is the mother of invention. 必要为发明之母。/ We recognize the <b>necessity</b> of a written agreement. 我们认为有必要签一份书面协议。/ We were discussing the <b>necessity</b> of employing more staff. 我们当时在讨论是否有必要增加人员。/ There had never been any <b>necessity</b> for her to go out to work. 从未有任何必要叫她出去工作。/ This is, <b>of necessity</b>, a brief and incomplete account. 这是出于必要做出的简要而不完全的说明。/ Air-conditioning is an absolute <b>necessity</b> in this climate. 空调在这样的气候是绝对必需的。复数则是“各种所需之物”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Many people cannot even afford <b>basic necessities</b> such as food and clothing. 许多人连食物和衣物这样的起码必需品都买不起。</div><br><br>
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nonetheless
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>nevertheless 与 nonetheless</b></div>参见 nonetheless 与 nevertheless 条。<br><br>
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nevertheless
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>nevertheless 与 nonetheless</b></div>参见 nonetheless 与 nevertheless 条。<br><br>
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new
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>new 与 novel</b></div>new 只是从时间的先后说某事物是新近的，不涉及该事物的质态；novel 则有正面的“新颖的”之意。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The computer produced a completely <b>novel</b> proof of the theorem. 电脑为该定理提供了一个全新的证明。</div><br><br>
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novel
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>new 与 novel</b></div>new 只是从时间的先后说某事物是新近的，不涉及该事物的质态；novel 则有正面的“新颖的”之意。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The computer produced a completely <b>novel</b> proof of the theorem. 电脑为该定理提供了一个全新的证明。</div><br><br>
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no doubt
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(no) doubt</b></div>no doubt (副词短语)不能从字面理解为“无疑，毫无疑问”。它只是“大概，估计很可能”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>No doubt it'll rain soon. 看来很快要下雨了。</div><div class="ex-item">You'retired, no doubt. I'll make you a cup of tea. 看样子你很累了。我给你沏杯茶吧。这个 no doubt 还可以放进谓语动词词组之内。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He would have no doubt approved of the policy. 他本来大概会赞同这个方案。(注意：不要把 no doubt 误作 have 的宾语变成 have no doubt。)此外，如果真的要说“毫无疑问，肯定无疑”，就要说 there is/can be no doubt that 或 without any doubt，或者用别的词语，如 certainly 或 definitely。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There is no doubt that the world is getting warmer. 地球无疑在变暖。</div><div class="ex-item">Cycling is definitely healthier than driving. 骑自行车肯定比开汽车更有益于健康。如果要大力强调毫无疑问，可以说 beyond a doubt 或 beyond the shadow of a doubt。</div><br><br>至于 doubtless (词形像个形容词，但其实是个副词)，也是“大概，估计很可能”的意思，而不是“毫无疑问”(不过比 no doubt 更加正式)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Weeks, even months, of delicate negotiations had doubtless taken place before a deal had been struck. 大概总要经过好几个星期甚至好几个月的微妙谈判，才能实现成交。</div><div class="ex-item">As man advances in knowledge, he discovers that of his primitive conclusions some are doubtless erroneous, and many require better evidence to establish their truth incontestably. (John William Draper, History of the Intellectual Development of Europe)随着知识的增长，人类就发现，自己原先的结论，有一些大概是错误的，许多需要更可靠的证据才能无可辩驳地确定为真理。</div><br><br>doubtlessly 同 doubtless 一样都是副词，但 doubtlessly 意义是“无疑地”。<br><br>undoubtedly (也是副词)也是“大概”的意思，但肯定的意思强一些。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... she will undoubtedly be more careful next time. (Lenore Hershey, Ladies' Home Journal, January 1971)……她下一次也许会小心一些吧。</div><br><br>
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no ...
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>no ..., no ...</b></div>不是“既没有……也没有……”，而是“如果没有……，也就没有……”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>No</b> guts, <b>no</b> glory. 没有胆量就没有光荣。</div><br><br>
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north
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>north 与 northern</b></div>参见 east 与 eastern 条。<br><br>
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northern
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>north 与 northern</b></div>参见 east 与 eastern 条。<br><br>
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as + adj.
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(not) as + adj.</b></div>这里的 as，意义其实相当于 so，也就是说，not as + adj. 等于 not so + adj.。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Our students find college not as challenging. 我们的学生觉得大学功课并不费劲。</div>
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not as + adj.
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(not) as + adj.</b></div>这里的 as，意义其实相当于 so，也就是说，not as + adj. 等于 not so + adj.。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Our students find college not as challenging. 我们的学生觉得大学功课并不费劲。</div>
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... because
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(not) ... because</b></div>如果有一个否定的主句，后面加上一个由 because 引入的原因状语从句（从句和主句之间，书面上没有逗号隔开）或是由 because of 引入的状语词组，则 because 和否定的关系可以有四种意义完全不同的情况，即“否肯肯”型、“肯否肯”型、“否否肯”型、“肯否否”型（另有一种“否否否”型实际出现的可能性很微小，所以排除在外）。第一个“肯”或“否”指的是主句所说的事是否被否定；第二个“肯”或“否”指的是因果关系是否被否定；第三个“肯”或“否”指的是 because 从句中所说的事情本身是否被否定。从下列一些典型例句中，可以看出这四种情况的含义：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> I didn't leave home because I was afraid of my father. 1) “否肯肯”型——否：“我没有离开家”；肯：“因果关系成立”；肯：“我害怕我父亲”；译文：“我没有离开家，因为我害怕我父亲”。2) “肯否肯”型——肯：“我离开了家”；否：“因果关系不成立”；肯：“我害怕我父亲”；译文：“我离开了家，并不是因为我害怕我父亲，虽然我的确害怕他”。3) “否否肯”型——否：“我没有离开家”；否：“因果关系不成立”；肯：“我害怕我父亲”；译文：“我没有因为害怕父亲就离开了家，但我的确害怕他”。4) “肯否否”型——肯：“我离开了家”；否：“因果关系不成立”；否：“我不害怕我父亲”；译文：“我离开了家，并不是因为我害怕我父亲，我本来就不怕他”。可见，单单这样一个句子，就可以有四种不同的解读。但是也要注意，其之所以有这么多的不同解读，其中一个重要的原因是 because 从句的实际含义可以作两方面不同的理解，一是“因为害怕所以不敢离开家”，一是“因为害怕所以想离开家”。如果这方面的意义明确，不同解读的可能性就会随之而缩小。比如说，如果正确的理解是“因为害怕所以不敢离开家”，那么只剩下 1) “否肯肯”这种可能。用图解说明如下(粗黑线表示否定范围，✓表示不被否定):<br><br><div class="scope-visual" role="img" aria-label="not because 否定范围图解：四种肯否读法">
  <table class="scope-table">
    <tbody>
      <tr class="scope-words">
        <td class="scope-col-main">I did<u>n't</u> leave home</td>
        <td class="scope-col-because"><u>because</u></td>
        <td class="scope-col-clause">I was afraid of my father.</td>
        <td class="scope-label-head"></td>
      </tr>
      <tr>
        <td class="scope-neg"><span></span></td>
        <td class="scope-yes">✓</td>
        <td class="scope-yes">✓</td>
        <td class="scope-label">(否肯肯)</td>
      </tr>
      <tr>
        <td class="scope-yes">✓</td>
        <td class="scope-neg"><span></span></td>
        <td class="scope-yes">✓</td>
        <td class="scope-label">(肯否肯)</td>
      </tr>
      <tr>
        <td class="scope-neg scope-neg-wide" colspan="2"><span></span></td>
        <td class="scope-yes">✓</td>
        <td class="scope-label">(否否肯)</td>
      </tr>
      <tr>
        <td class="scope-yes">✓</td>
        <td class="scope-neg scope-neg-wide" colspan="2"><span></span></td>
        <td class="scope-label">(肯否否)</td>
      </tr>
    </tbody>
  </table>
</div><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> Tom did<u>n't</u> leave the party early <u>because</u> Carol was there. 同样，这一句中，究竟 Tom 是喜欢 Carol 还是讨厌她，这个背景没有交代清楚，所以四种可能都存在。如果是因为喜欢而没有早走，就只有 1) “否肯肯”这种可能，同(1)相类似。<br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> This university is very influential in Japan, <u><i>not</i> because</u> it is academically advanced. 这一句，由于 not 从谓语动词前面移到了 because 前面，排除了 1)和 3)两种可能，只剩下 2) “肯否肯”和 4) “肯否否”两种可能(区别在于 because 从句的内容是否被否定)。但是再看下文：Few graduates from this university I've ever met speak English well; their behavior is non-confident; their presentation and negotiation skills are remarkably poor. 由此可以看到，从句的内容也被列入了否定的范围，唯一的可能是 4)，即“肯否否”。<br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> Jane did<u>n't</u> purchase the white blouse <u>because</u> it suited her. 这一句，由于衣服合身有利于购买是人类起码的常识，所以 1) 的可能性排除，但是 2)、3)、4) 三种可能性仍然存在：简买了那件白色的衬衣，并不是因为衬衣合身(而是由于别的原因)；或简并没有因为那件白色的衬衣合身而买了它；或那件衬衣本来就不合身，所以简并不是因为合身才买了它的。<br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> Power does<u>n't</u> come <u>because</u> people like you. 按照常识，“别人喜欢”和“权力到来”是同一个方向的，所以 1) 的可能性排除，但是 2)、3)、4) 三种可能性仍然存在：权力到来，但不是因为人们喜欢你，尽管人们的确喜欢你；或尽管人们喜欢你，但权力并不因此而到来；或人们本来并不喜欢你，所以尽管权力到来，原因并不在此。下面另一例句，与此相类似：Hostilities did<u>n't</u> cease <u>because</u> a deal had been made. “达成妥协”同“停止敌对行动”是同一个方向的，所以 1) 的可能性排除，但是 2)、3)、4) 三种可能性仍然存在：敌对行动停止了，但并不是因为达成了妥协；或敌对行动并没有因为达成了妥协而停止；或本来就没有达成妥协，可见敌对行动虽然停止，原因并不在此。<br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> <u>No</u> one castigates Henry Ford <u>because</u> his Model-T's don't run in the Indy 500 today. 这句中的 Model-T 是福特汽车公司 1908 年最古老的型号，而 Indy 500 则是印第安纳波利斯 500 英里大奖赛。Model-T 放在 Indy 500 当然跑不动，因此，because 从句的内容是真的，不受否定。再看主句内容是否被否定。它的主语 one 是被否定的，因而主句全部被否定。最后再看 because 这个因果关系是不是被否定。既然从句内容是真的，如果因果关系成立，不受否定，就不合事理(“古老汽车现在不能跑”同“谁都不责怪福特”之间，没有因果关系，倒是可以有反意让步关系即“尽管……但并不……” )，可见因果关系在这里是被否定了的，这一句属于“否否肯”型。<br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> You must keep up your spirits, mother, and <u>not</u> be lonesome <u>because</u> I'm not at home. (Charles Dickens) 妈妈，你必须保持精神振作，不要因为我不在家就感到形单影只。这一句就只有 3) 一种可能，即“否否肯”，也就是：主句的 not be lonesome 保持否定，because 的因果关系被否定，但是从句中的 I'm not at home 保持肯定(也就是 not 不被再否定而否否得肯，仍保持否定)。<br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> 在 2008 年 8 月 25 日的美国民主党总统候选人奥巴马的提名大会上，一个卡车司机工会的主席说：There are people who are <u>not</u> going to vote for him <u>because</u> he's black. And we've got to hope that we can educate people to put aside their racism and to put their own interests No. 1. 如果孤立地看第一句，四种可能都存在，即：1)因为他是黑人而不投他的票；2)投他的票，但并不是因为他是黑人；3)不投他的票，但并不是因为他是黑人；4)投他的票，但并不是因为他是黑人(他本来就不是黑人)。当然，4)不符合事实，不能成立。剩下前面三种可能。但是看到后面一句，2)、3)两种情况都被排除，只剩下 1)。<br><br><span class="seq">(9)</span> I did <u>not</u> choose you <u>because</u> I was so innocent I could not make comparisons. (John Fowles, <i>The French Lieutenant's Woman</i>) 这句也可以有四种理解：1) “我没有选择你，因为我天真到连比较也不会” (否肯肯)；2) “我的确是天真到连比较也不会，但我选择了你，原因并不是在此” (肯否肯)；3) “我的确是天真到连比较也不会，但我之所以没有选择你，另有原因” (否否肯)；4) “我当时并不是天真到连比较也不会，所以我之所以选择了你，并非由于天真” (肯否否)。但是这是一对未婚夫妻的对话，所以“选择你”不可能被否定，1) 与 3) 被排除。再进一步，说话者不会承认自己“天真到连比较也不会”，所以 2) 也被排除，只剩下 4) 能够成立。<br><br><span class="seq">(10)</span> A man is <u>not</u> a hero <u>because</u> he can run ninety yards for a touchdown, <u>because</u> he can slap a puck one hundred miles per hour into a goal, <u>because</u> he can make a basket from thirty feet. 一个人可以打毁灭球时跑个 90 码融地得分，可以以每小时 100 英里的速度把冰球打进球门，可以从 30 英尺的远处投篮得分，但他还是算不上一个英雄。这句明显是“否否肯”型的，主句的否定有效，因果关系的否定有效，但是 because 从句的内容不受否定。<br><br><span class="seq">(11)</span> And you, ye well-known trees! — But you will continue the same. <u>No</u> leaf will decay <u>because</u> we are removed, <u>nor</u> any branch become motionless <u>although</u> we can observe you no longer! (Jane Austen, <i>Sense and Sensibility</i>) 还有你们，多么熟悉的树木；你们将依然如故。你们的叶子不会因为我们搬走了而腐烂，你们的枝条不会因为我们不能再观察了而停止摇动！这句也明显是“否否肯”型。<br><br><span class="seq">(12)</span> Robert H. Jackson (美国的杰克逊大法官): We are <u>not</u> final <u>because</u> we are infallible. 我们之所以成为终极权威，并不是因为没错。这句属于“肯否否”型。<br><br>从以上例句可以看到，not ... because ... 句型，孤立地来看，往往是多义的，要考虑到语境和上下文才能判明。但是，有时候即使从本句的一些语言现象也可以做出判断，例如：<br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 如果主句有加强否定语气的词语，或是否定方式不用 not 而用其他否定词，否定的作用就向前收缩，不影响到因果关系及从句。此时，唯一可能的是“否肯肯”型。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I did<u>n't</u> sleep <u>at all because</u> we were so excited. 我们太兴奋了，我根本没法睡着。(否肯肯) / He told his commanding officer that he had <u>no</u> intention of returning to Iraq <u>because</u> he believed that the war was morally wrong. 他告诉自己的指挥官说，他不打算回伊拉克了，因为他认为这场战争在道义上是错误的。(否肯肯) 至于主句之间如果有停顿(书面为逗号)，那就更是掐断了否定作用的延伸，使之局限在主句，例如上面(2)中的例句如果加上逗号，成为 Tom did<u>n't</u> leave the party early, <u>because</u> Carol was there. 唯一可能的解读就是：汤姆没有提早离开联欢会，因为卡洛尔在那里。</div><br><br>英语有一些动词或词组，通常只能以否定或疑问形式出现，形成固定词组，此时，否定作用就只限于固定词组(或者加上独立意义较弱的附加成分，如动词不定式)，管不到因果关系和从句内容，因而也就只剩下“否肯肯”一种可能。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>John did<u>n't bother</u> to call <u>because</u> he was too busy. 约翰懒得去打电话，因为他太忙了。/ They did<u>n't lift a finger</u> to help him <u>because</u> they hated him. 他们因为恨他，一点都没有帮他。</div><br><br>有时候 because 并不代表一件过去的事，而只是将来的一种可能原因，因果关系被否定，但从句内容不被否定(即属于“否否肯”型)。此时 because 从句同 if 从句一样，用一般现在时表示将来。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I sure do<u>n't</u> want to waste my Sunday having to come back here <u>because</u> Ethel suddenly <u>decides</u> she's got a plane to catch and needs everything in ten minutes. (Mary Higgins Clark, <i>While My Pretty One Sleeps</i>) 我真的不打算因为埃塞尔忽然决定要赶飞机，一切东西都要十分钟内齐全，就不得不回到这里把我的一个星期天耗掉。</div><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> because 如果不引入一个从句，而是以 because of 形式引入一个介词短语，则可以参考后面那个名词成分究竟是特指的(亦即已有的事物)还是不特指的(亦即尚不存在的事物)来判别 because of 这个原因的内容是否也在否定之内。如果是特指的，因果关系被否定，但是原因内容不被否定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Bush Tuesday sent a clear signal that he is <u>not</u> going to limit his policies <u>because of the</u> threat of long-term deficits. (The Associated Press, Jan. 8, 2003) 布什星期二发出了明显的信号表示，他不会因为长期的赤字威胁而限制自己的政策。(“否否肯”型或“肯否肯”型都可能，但从语境判断为“否否肯”型，因为 the 表明原因内容是确实存在的，不受否定，只是否定其为原因。) / She did<u>n't</u> get this job <u>because of her</u> beautiful looks. 她之所以得到这个工作，并不是因为她貌美。/ 她并没有因为貌美而得到这个工作。(“肯否肯”或“否否肯”都可能。)</div><br><br>但是，英语中有时候特指的东西也不一定有定冠词，所以没有定冠词有时候仍然不被否定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Doctor: Teen <u><i>Didn't</i></u> <u><i>Die</i></u> <u><i>Because</i></u> <u><i>of</i></u> Sickle Cell (报纸新闻标题) 医生称少年的死亡不是由于镰状血红细胞(按照新闻内容，该少年确实有镰状血红细胞，但医生认为死因不在于此)。</div><br><br>反过来，有时候出于风趣，明明没有的东西也当作有，在名词前面加上了表示特指的限定词，遇到时要善于辨别。例如前面的例句：She did<u>n't</u> get this job <u>because of her</u> beautiful looks. 可能她的确貌美，也可能并不貌美，要斟酌辨别。<br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> because 前面如果有加重语气或加上限制范围的副词，如 just、only、simply、chiefly 等，则 just because、only because、simply because、chiefly because 等词组整个被否定(即因果关系被否定)，原因从句的内容不受否定，主句的内容则可能被否定，也可能不被否定，要看语境和上下文(“否否肯”或“肯否肯”均可)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But science functions by inference, not just by direct observation, and the inferential sorts of evidence such as paleontology and biogeography are <u>no</u> less cogent <u>simply because</u> they're indirect. (<i>National Geographic</i>, Nov. 2004, p. 30) 但是科学是靠推导的，不单单是靠直接观察，而推导性的证据，例如古生物学和生物地理学，尽管是间接的，并不仅仅因此而降低其确凿性。(“否否肯”) / Do<u>n't</u> look down upon them <u>just because</u> they're poor. 别仅仅因为他们穷就瞧不起他们。(“否否肯”) / We do<u>n't</u> respect them <u>just because</u> they're professors. 我们并没有仅仅因为他们是教授就尊敬他们。/ 我们之所以尊敬他们，并不仅仅因为他们是教授。(“否否肯”或“肯否肯”均可能，但“否否否”不可能。) / I did<u>n't</u> come here <u>just because</u> I wanted to see her. 我之所以到这里来，并不仅仅因为想见她。(“到这里来”一事必然是事实，不可能否定，just because 又排除了对原因内容加以否定亦即“肯否否”的可能，故只剩下“肯否肯”一种可能。)</div><br><br>主句中的否定形式如果不是一般的 not 或者加强了语气，则主句的内容仍然不能逃脱否定，此时就只剩下“否否肯”一种可能。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There is <u>no</u> reason why I have to be a doctor <u>just because</u> my father is one. 尽管我父亲是个医生，也没有道理我就一定要当个医生。</div><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 如果出现两个 because，否定一个，肯定一个，则主句的谓语动词不被否定，被否定的 because 所引入的从句，其内容可能被否定，成为“肯否否”型，也可能不被否定，成为“肯否肯”型。如何区别，要看语境和上下文。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The Liberal Party of Canada did<u>n't</u> lose the last election <u>because</u> it was divided, with the Paul Martin people on one side, and the Jean Chrétien people on the other. The Liberal Party lost <u>because</u>, after 13 years, Canadians wanted a change. 加拿大自由党之所以这次选举失败，并不是因为它分裂成保罗·马丁一边和让·克雷蒂安一边。自由党的落败，是因为加拿大人经过 13 年之后想要一次变化。(第一个 because 后面的从句 it was divided 经查证是事实，不被否定，故这句属“肯否肯”型。) / I do<u>n't</u> respect him <u>because</u> he is rich but <u>because</u> he is kind to everybody. 我之所以尊敬他，并不是因为他富有，而是因为他对所有人都很和善。(第一个 because 后面的从句 he is rich 可能真，也可能不真，故这句属“肯否肯”或“肯否否”型都有可能。中文“并不是因为他富有”究竟是否真的富有，在此也同样没有交代清楚。) / This policy did<u>n't</u> fail <u>because</u> it was poorly implemented, but <u>because</u> it was wrong to begin with. 这个政策之所以失败，并不是因为执行得不好，而是因为它本来就是错误的。(第一个 because 后面的从句 it was poorly implemented 可能真，也可能不真，故这句属“肯否肯”或“肯否否”型都有可能。中文“并不是因为执行得不好”究竟执行得好不好，在此也同样没有交代清楚。)</div><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 有时候 <i>because</i> 前面某处出现的并不是 <b>not</b>，而是带有否定意义的表示比较、取舍的连词或连词短语，但是在什么被否定和什么不被否定的问题上，同使用 <b>not</b> 的情况是一样的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is far safer to stick to the original plan <u><i>than</i></u> to jump ship in midstream <u><i>because</i></u> a few shareholders are getting bored. 坚守原定计划，比之因为一些利益攸关者感到厌倦而中途换马，要安全得多。(“否否肯”型)</div><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 有时候 <i>because</i> 前面出现一个负面的动词支配一个正面的动词，此时 <i>because</i> 究竟是说明负面还是说明正面，要斟酌全文。如果 <i>because</i> 前面有 just 之类的限定词，则往往 just because 对正面动词起说明作用，又连同正面动词一起被负面动词的负面意义所涵盖。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>People <u>got tired</u> of <u>coming</u> to the rescue <u><i>just because</i></u> he (= the boy who howled "Wolf!" too often) liked the excitement. 大家结果都厌烦了，不愿仅仅因为他爱找刺激而前来救援。(just because 管 coming to the rescue，然后 coming to the rescue just because ... 一起被 got tired of 的负面意义所涵盖。)</div><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 有时候 <i>because</i> 前面出现的不是否定词，而是准否定词，此时什么被否定，什么不被否定，情况同前面出现否定词是一样的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In the end, dictators, however unpopular, despotic and incompetent, <u>rarely</u> fall <u><i>because</i></u> they have too many enemies. They fall <u><i>because</i></u> they have too few friends left. (<i>The Economist</i>, Aug. 15, 2009, p. 37) 归根到底，独裁者无论多么不得人心、暴虐、无能，他们的垮台也很少是因为树敌太多。他们垮台，是因为剩下的朋友太少。</div><br><br>
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not ... because
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(not) ... because</b></div>如果有一个否定的主句，后面加上一个由 because 引入的原因状语从句（从句和主句之间，书面上没有逗号隔开）或是由 because of 引入的状语词组，则 because 和否定的关系可以有四种意义完全不同的情况，即“否肯肯”型、“肯否肯”型、“否否肯”型、“肯否否”型（另有一种“否否否”型实际出现的可能性很微小，所以排除在外）。第一个“肯”或“否”指的是主句所说的事是否被否定；第二个“肯”或“否”指的是因果关系是否被否定；第三个“肯”或“否”指的是 because 从句中所说的事情本身是否被否定。从下列一些典型例句中，可以看出这四种情况的含义：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> I didn't leave home because I was afraid of my father. 1) “否肯肯”型——否：“我没有离开家”；肯：“因果关系成立”；肯：“我害怕我父亲”；译文：“我没有离开家，因为我害怕我父亲”。2) “肯否肯”型——肯：“我离开了家”；否：“因果关系不成立”；肯：“我害怕我父亲”；译文：“我离开了家，并不是因为我害怕我父亲，虽然我的确害怕他”。3) “否否肯”型——否：“我没有离开家”；否：“因果关系不成立”；肯：“我害怕我父亲”；译文：“我没有因为害怕父亲就离开了家，但我的确害怕他”。4) “肯否否”型——肯：“我离开了家”；否：“因果关系不成立”；否：“我不害怕我父亲”；译文：“我离开了家，并不是因为我害怕我父亲，我本来就不怕他”。可见，单单这样一个句子，就可以有四种不同的解读。但是也要注意，其之所以有这么多的不同解读，其中一个重要的原因是 because 从句的实际含义可以作两方面不同的理解，一是“因为害怕所以不敢离开家”，一是“因为害怕所以想离开家”。如果这方面的意义明确，不同解读的可能性就会随之而缩小。比如说，如果正确的理解是“因为害怕所以不敢离开家”，那么只剩下 1) “否肯肯”这种可能。用图解说明如下(粗黑线表示否定范围，✓表示不被否定):<br><br><div class="scope-visual" role="img" aria-label="not because 否定范围图解：四种肯否读法">
  <table class="scope-table">
    <tbody>
      <tr class="scope-words">
        <td class="scope-col-main">I did<u>n't</u> leave home</td>
        <td class="scope-col-because"><u>because</u></td>
        <td class="scope-col-clause">I was afraid of my father.</td>
        <td class="scope-label-head"></td>
      </tr>
      <tr>
        <td class="scope-neg"><span></span></td>
        <td class="scope-yes">✓</td>
        <td class="scope-yes">✓</td>
        <td class="scope-label">(否肯肯)</td>
      </tr>
      <tr>
        <td class="scope-yes">✓</td>
        <td class="scope-neg"><span></span></td>
        <td class="scope-yes">✓</td>
        <td class="scope-label">(肯否肯)</td>
      </tr>
      <tr>
        <td class="scope-neg scope-neg-wide" colspan="2"><span></span></td>
        <td class="scope-yes">✓</td>
        <td class="scope-label">(否否肯)</td>
      </tr>
      <tr>
        <td class="scope-yes">✓</td>
        <td class="scope-neg scope-neg-wide" colspan="2"><span></span></td>
        <td class="scope-label">(肯否否)</td>
      </tr>
    </tbody>
  </table>
</div><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> Tom did<u>n't</u> leave the party early <u>because</u> Carol was there. 同样，这一句中，究竟 Tom 是喜欢 Carol 还是讨厌她，这个背景没有交代清楚，所以四种可能都存在。如果是因为喜欢而没有早走，就只有 1) “否肯肯”这种可能，同(1)相类似。<br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> This university is very influential in Japan, <u><i>not</i> because</u> it is academically advanced. 这一句，由于 not 从谓语动词前面移到了 because 前面，排除了 1)和 3)两种可能，只剩下 2) “肯否肯”和 4) “肯否否”两种可能(区别在于 because 从句的内容是否被否定)。但是再看下文：Few graduates from this university I've ever met speak English well; their behavior is non-confident; their presentation and negotiation skills are remarkably poor. 由此可以看到，从句的内容也被列入了否定的范围，唯一的可能是 4)，即“肯否否”。<br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> Jane did<u>n't</u> purchase the white blouse <u>because</u> it suited her. 这一句，由于衣服合身有利于购买是人类起码的常识，所以 1) 的可能性排除，但是 2)、3)、4) 三种可能性仍然存在：简买了那件白色的衬衣，并不是因为衬衣合身(而是由于别的原因)；或简并没有因为那件白色的衬衣合身而买了它；或那件衬衣本来就不合身，所以简并不是因为合身才买了它的。<br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> Power does<u>n't</u> come <u>because</u> people like you. 按照常识，“别人喜欢”和“权力到来”是同一个方向的，所以 1) 的可能性排除，但是 2)、3)、4) 三种可能性仍然存在：权力到来，但不是因为人们喜欢你，尽管人们的确喜欢你；或尽管人们喜欢你，但权力并不因此而到来；或人们本来并不喜欢你，所以尽管权力到来，原因并不在此。下面另一例句，与此相类似：Hostilities did<u>n't</u> cease <u>because</u> a deal had been made. “达成妥协”同“停止敌对行动”是同一个方向的，所以 1) 的可能性排除，但是 2)、3)、4) 三种可能性仍然存在：敌对行动停止了，但并不是因为达成了妥协；或敌对行动并没有因为达成了妥协而停止；或本来就没有达成妥协，可见敌对行动虽然停止，原因并不在此。<br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> <u>No</u> one castigates Henry Ford <u>because</u> his Model-T's don't run in the Indy 500 today. 这句中的 Model-T 是福特汽车公司 1908 年最古老的型号，而 Indy 500 则是印第安纳波利斯 500 英里大奖赛。Model-T 放在 Indy 500 当然跑不动，因此，because 从句的内容是真的，不受否定。再看主句内容是否被否定。它的主语 one 是被否定的，因而主句全部被否定。最后再看 because 这个因果关系是不是被否定。既然从句内容是真的，如果因果关系成立，不受否定，就不合事理(“古老汽车现在不能跑”同“谁都不责怪福特”之间，没有因果关系，倒是可以有反意让步关系即“尽管……但并不……” )，可见因果关系在这里是被否定了的，这一句属于“否否肯”型。<br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> You must keep up your spirits, mother, and <u>not</u> be lonesome <u>because</u> I'm not at home. (Charles Dickens) 妈妈，你必须保持精神振作，不要因为我不在家就感到形单影只。这一句就只有 3) 一种可能，即“否否肯”，也就是：主句的 not be lonesome 保持否定，because 的因果关系被否定，但是从句中的 I'm not at home 保持肯定(也就是 not 不被再否定而否否得肯，仍保持否定)。<br><br><span class="seq">(8)</span> 在 2008 年 8 月 25 日的美国民主党总统候选人奥巴马的提名大会上，一个卡车司机工会的主席说：There are people who are <u>not</u> going to vote for him <u>because</u> he's black. And we've got to hope that we can educate people to put aside their racism and to put their own interests No. 1. 如果孤立地看第一句，四种可能都存在，即：1)因为他是黑人而不投他的票；2)投他的票，但并不是因为他是黑人；3)不投他的票，但并不是因为他是黑人；4)投他的票，但并不是因为他是黑人(他本来就不是黑人)。当然，4)不符合事实，不能成立。剩下前面三种可能。但是看到后面一句，2)、3)两种情况都被排除，只剩下 1)。<br><br><span class="seq">(9)</span> I did <u>not</u> choose you <u>because</u> I was so innocent I could not make comparisons. (John Fowles, <i>The French Lieutenant's Woman</i>) 这句也可以有四种理解：1) “我没有选择你，因为我天真到连比较也不会” (否肯肯)；2) “我的确是天真到连比较也不会，但我选择了你，原因并不是在此” (肯否肯)；3) “我的确是天真到连比较也不会，但我之所以没有选择你，另有原因” (否否肯)；4) “我当时并不是天真到连比较也不会，所以我之所以选择了你，并非由于天真” (肯否否)。但是这是一对未婚夫妻的对话，所以“选择你”不可能被否定，1) 与 3) 被排除。再进一步，说话者不会承认自己“天真到连比较也不会”，所以 2) 也被排除，只剩下 4) 能够成立。<br><br><span class="seq">(10)</span> A man is <u>not</u> a hero <u>because</u> he can run ninety yards for a touchdown, <u>because</u> he can slap a puck one hundred miles per hour into a goal, <u>because</u> he can make a basket from thirty feet. 一个人可以打毁灭球时跑个 90 码融地得分，可以以每小时 100 英里的速度把冰球打进球门，可以从 30 英尺的远处投篮得分，但他还是算不上一个英雄。这句明显是“否否肯”型的，主句的否定有效，因果关系的否定有效，但是 because 从句的内容不受否定。<br><br><span class="seq">(11)</span> And you, ye well-known trees! — But you will continue the same. <u>No</u> leaf will decay <u>because</u> we are removed, <u>nor</u> any branch become motionless <u>although</u> we can observe you no longer! (Jane Austen, <i>Sense and Sensibility</i>) 还有你们，多么熟悉的树木；你们将依然如故。你们的叶子不会因为我们搬走了而腐烂，你们的枝条不会因为我们不能再观察了而停止摇动！这句也明显是“否否肯”型。<br><br><span class="seq">(12)</span> Robert H. Jackson (美国的杰克逊大法官): We are <u>not</u> final <u>because</u> we are infallible. 我们之所以成为终极权威，并不是因为没错。这句属于“肯否否”型。<br><br>从以上例句可以看到，not ... because ... 句型，孤立地来看，往往是多义的，要考虑到语境和上下文才能判明。但是，有时候即使从本句的一些语言现象也可以做出判断，例如：<br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 如果主句有加强否定语气的词语，或是否定方式不用 not 而用其他否定词，否定的作用就向前收缩，不影响到因果关系及从句。此时，唯一可能的是“否肯肯”型。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I did<u>n't</u> sleep <u>at all because</u> we were so excited. 我们太兴奋了，我根本没法睡着。(否肯肯) / He told his commanding officer that he had <u>no</u> intention of returning to Iraq <u>because</u> he believed that the war was morally wrong. 他告诉自己的指挥官说，他不打算回伊拉克了，因为他认为这场战争在道义上是错误的。(否肯肯) 至于主句之间如果有停顿(书面为逗号)，那就更是掐断了否定作用的延伸，使之局限在主句，例如上面(2)中的例句如果加上逗号，成为 Tom did<u>n't</u> leave the party early, <u>because</u> Carol was there. 唯一可能的解读就是：汤姆没有提早离开联欢会，因为卡洛尔在那里。</div><br><br>英语有一些动词或词组，通常只能以否定或疑问形式出现，形成固定词组，此时，否定作用就只限于固定词组(或者加上独立意义较弱的附加成分，如动词不定式)，管不到因果关系和从句内容，因而也就只剩下“否肯肯”一种可能。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>John did<u>n't bother</u> to call <u>because</u> he was too busy. 约翰懒得去打电话，因为他太忙了。/ They did<u>n't lift a finger</u> to help him <u>because</u> they hated him. 他们因为恨他，一点都没有帮他。</div><br><br>有时候 because 并不代表一件过去的事，而只是将来的一种可能原因，因果关系被否定，但从句内容不被否定(即属于“否否肯”型)。此时 because 从句同 if 从句一样，用一般现在时表示将来。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I sure do<u>n't</u> want to waste my Sunday having to come back here <u>because</u> Ethel suddenly <u>decides</u> she's got a plane to catch and needs everything in ten minutes. (Mary Higgins Clark, <i>While My Pretty One Sleeps</i>) 我真的不打算因为埃塞尔忽然决定要赶飞机，一切东西都要十分钟内齐全，就不得不回到这里把我的一个星期天耗掉。</div><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> because 如果不引入一个从句，而是以 because of 形式引入一个介词短语，则可以参考后面那个名词成分究竟是特指的(亦即已有的事物)还是不特指的(亦即尚不存在的事物)来判别 because of 这个原因的内容是否也在否定之内。如果是特指的，因果关系被否定，但是原因内容不被否定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Bush Tuesday sent a clear signal that he is <u>not</u> going to limit his policies <u>because of the</u> threat of long-term deficits. (The Associated Press, Jan. 8, 2003) 布什星期二发出了明显的信号表示，他不会因为长期的赤字威胁而限制自己的政策。(“否否肯”型或“肯否肯”型都可能，但从语境判断为“否否肯”型，因为 the 表明原因内容是确实存在的，不受否定，只是否定其为原因。) / She did<u>n't</u> get this job <u>because of her</u> beautiful looks. 她之所以得到这个工作，并不是因为她貌美。/ 她并没有因为貌美而得到这个工作。(“肯否肯”或“否否肯”都可能。)</div><br><br>但是，英语中有时候特指的东西也不一定有定冠词，所以没有定冠词有时候仍然不被否定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Doctor: Teen <u><i>Didn't</i></u> <u><i>Die</i></u> <u><i>Because</i></u> <u><i>of</i></u> Sickle Cell (报纸新闻标题) 医生称少年的死亡不是由于镰状血红细胞(按照新闻内容，该少年确实有镰状血红细胞，但医生认为死因不在于此)。</div><br><br>反过来，有时候出于风趣，明明没有的东西也当作有，在名词前面加上了表示特指的限定词，遇到时要善于辨别。例如前面的例句：She did<u>n't</u> get this job <u>because of her</u> beautiful looks. 可能她的确貌美，也可能并不貌美，要斟酌辨别。<br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> because 前面如果有加重语气或加上限制范围的副词，如 just、only、simply、chiefly 等，则 just because、only because、simply because、chiefly because 等词组整个被否定(即因果关系被否定)，原因从句的内容不受否定，主句的内容则可能被否定，也可能不被否定，要看语境和上下文(“否否肯”或“肯否肯”均可)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But science functions by inference, not just by direct observation, and the inferential sorts of evidence such as paleontology and biogeography are <u>no</u> less cogent <u>simply because</u> they're indirect. (<i>National Geographic</i>, Nov. 2004, p. 30) 但是科学是靠推导的，不单单是靠直接观察，而推导性的证据，例如古生物学和生物地理学，尽管是间接的，并不仅仅因此而降低其确凿性。(“否否肯”) / Do<u>n't</u> look down upon them <u>just because</u> they're poor. 别仅仅因为他们穷就瞧不起他们。(“否否肯”) / We do<u>n't</u> respect them <u>just because</u> they're professors. 我们并没有仅仅因为他们是教授就尊敬他们。/ 我们之所以尊敬他们，并不仅仅因为他们是教授。(“否否肯”或“肯否肯”均可能，但“否否否”不可能。) / I did<u>n't</u> come here <u>just because</u> I wanted to see her. 我之所以到这里来，并不仅仅因为想见她。(“到这里来”一事必然是事实，不可能否定，just because 又排除了对原因内容加以否定亦即“肯否否”的可能，故只剩下“肯否肯”一种可能。)</div><br><br>主句中的否定形式如果不是一般的 not 或者加强了语气，则主句的内容仍然不能逃脱否定，此时就只剩下“否否肯”一种可能。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There is <u>no</u> reason why I have to be a doctor <u>just because</u> my father is one. 尽管我父亲是个医生，也没有道理我就一定要当个医生。</div><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 如果出现两个 because，否定一个，肯定一个，则主句的谓语动词不被否定，被否定的 because 所引入的从句，其内容可能被否定，成为“肯否否”型，也可能不被否定，成为“肯否肯”型。如何区别，要看语境和上下文。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The Liberal Party of Canada did<u>n't</u> lose the last election <u>because</u> it was divided, with the Paul Martin people on one side, and the Jean Chrétien people on the other. The Liberal Party lost <u>because</u>, after 13 years, Canadians wanted a change. 加拿大自由党之所以这次选举失败，并不是因为它分裂成保罗·马丁一边和让·克雷蒂安一边。自由党的落败，是因为加拿大人经过 13 年之后想要一次变化。(第一个 because 后面的从句 it was divided 经查证是事实，不被否定，故这句属“肯否肯”型。) / I do<u>n't</u> respect him <u>because</u> he is rich but <u>because</u> he is kind to everybody. 我之所以尊敬他，并不是因为他富有，而是因为他对所有人都很和善。(第一个 because 后面的从句 he is rich 可能真，也可能不真，故这句属“肯否肯”或“肯否否”型都有可能。中文“并不是因为他富有”究竟是否真的富有，在此也同样没有交代清楚。) / This policy did<u>n't</u> fail <u>because</u> it was poorly implemented, but <u>because</u> it was wrong to begin with. 这个政策之所以失败，并不是因为执行得不好，而是因为它本来就是错误的。(第一个 because 后面的从句 it was poorly implemented 可能真，也可能不真，故这句属“肯否肯”或“肯否否”型都有可能。中文“并不是因为执行得不好”究竟执行得好不好，在此也同样没有交代清楚。)</div><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 有时候 <i>because</i> 前面某处出现的并不是 <b>not</b>，而是带有否定意义的表示比较、取舍的连词或连词短语，但是在什么被否定和什么不被否定的问题上，同使用 <b>not</b> 的情况是一样的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is far safer to stick to the original plan <u><i>than</i></u> to jump ship in midstream <u><i>because</i></u> a few shareholders are getting bored. 坚守原定计划，比之因为一些利益攸关者感到厌倦而中途换马，要安全得多。(“否否肯”型)</div><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> 有时候 <i>because</i> 前面出现一个负面的动词支配一个正面的动词，此时 <i>because</i> 究竟是说明负面还是说明正面，要斟酌全文。如果 <i>because</i> 前面有 just 之类的限定词，则往往 just because 对正面动词起说明作用，又连同正面动词一起被负面动词的负面意义所涵盖。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>People <u>got tired</u> of <u>coming</u> to the rescue <u><i>just because</i></u> he (= the boy who howled "Wolf!" too often) liked the excitement. 大家结果都厌烦了，不愿仅仅因为他爱找刺激而前来救援。(just because 管 coming to the rescue，然后 coming to the rescue just because ... 一起被 got tired of 的负面意义所涵盖。)</div><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 有时候 <i>because</i> 前面出现的不是否定词，而是准否定词，此时什么被否定，什么不被否定，情况同前面出现否定词是一样的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In the end, dictators, however unpopular, despotic and incompetent, <u>rarely</u> fall <u><i>because</i></u> they have too many enemies. They fall <u><i>because</i></u> they have too few friends left. (<i>The Economist</i>, Aug. 15, 2009, p. 37) 归根到底，独裁者无论多么不得人心、暴虐、无能，他们的垮台也很少是因为树敌太多。他们垮台，是因为剩下的朋友太少。</div><br><br>
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nothing less than
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>nothing less than 与 nothing more than</b></div>英文常常用“否定 + 比较”来表示加强语气的肯定。nothing less than 强调该事物本身的必不可缺，相当于“唯有……才……”；nothing more than 则强调事物本身即已足够，相当于“只不过”。但是对于中国人来说，nothing more than 比较容易理解和使用，碰到 less，则只能间接地拐个弯，用否定形式(“不那么，不到那程度，不如”)再来第二个否定，心理上很不自然。正是因为如此，更需要下功夫逐渐适应。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... was <b>nothing less than</b> bloody tyranny. (Shakespeare, <i>King Henry VI</i>)这简直是血腥的暴政。/ Still the mouth remained clamped shut; and a third party might well have wondered what horror could be coming. <b>Nothing less than</b> dancing naked on the altar of the parish church would have seemed adequate. (John Fowles, <i>The French Lieutenant's Woman</i>)那张嘴依然紧紧地绷着，要是有第三者的话，他一定会惊奇不已，不明白她到底会说出何等可怕的事情。除了在教区教堂的祭坛前光着身子跳舞以外，还会有比她所说的更为可怕的事吗？(后一句直接的意思是：看来只有在教区教堂光着身子跳舞，才会够得上她会说出的可怕的事情。)</div><div class="ex-item">It was quite bitter enough, she felt, that he did not come to her, but now that she had made that advance, she felt that any withdrawal on his part would, to a woman of her class, be <b>nothing less than</b> a flaming insult. (Bram Stoker, <i>The Lair of the White Worm</i>)她觉得，他不来找她，已经够令她痛苦的了，而现在，她已做出了这样的主动示意，如果他竟然有任何在她这样高尚的女子面前退缩的表示，这就十十足足是一种侮辱。</div><br><br>nothing less than 后面不一定是名词成分。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The violinist's playing is <b>nothing less than</b> magnificent. 这位小提琴家的演奏简直是精彩极了。/ With its daring imagery, grave magnificence of language and solemn thought, it is <b>nothing less than</b> Elizabethan, and only the masters of that age could have done it justice in the rendering. (L. Cranmer-Byng, <i>A Lute of Jade</i>)它生动如画的大胆笔法、庄重高超的语言，以及严肃的思路，简直是伊丽莎白时代的作品，也唯有那个时代的大师们才能够恰如其分地加以表达。/ Expecting <b>nothing less than</b> to be murdered on the spot she covered hereyes with her hands to avoid the sight of the descending axe. (Joseph Conrad, <i>Under Western Eyes</i>)她预计自己免不了会就地被杀害，就用双手掩住眼睛，免得看见那把要掉下来的斧头。/ ... her bold plan was <b>nothing less than</b> to set the steamer adrift and float with her out into the open sea, ... (Edgar Rice Burroughs, <i>The Beasts of Tarzan</i>)……她那大胆的计划，简直就是要让那艘汽艇带着她去大海里随波漂流，……</div><br><br>
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nothing more than
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>nothing less than 与 nothing more than</b></div>英文常常用“否定 + 比较”来表示加强语气的肯定。nothing less than 强调该事物本身的必不可缺，相当于“唯有……才……”；nothing more than 则强调事物本身即已足够，相当于“只不过”。但是对于中国人来说，nothing more than 比较容易理解和使用，碰到 less，则只能间接地拐个弯，用否定形式(“不那么，不到那程度，不如”)再来第二个否定，心理上很不自然。正是因为如此，更需要下功夫逐渐适应。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... was <b>nothing less than</b> bloody tyranny. (Shakespeare, <i>King Henry VI</i>)这简直是血腥的暴政。/ Still the mouth remained clamped shut; and a third party might well have wondered what horror could be coming. <b>Nothing less than</b> dancing naked on the altar of the parish church would have seemed adequate. (John Fowles, <i>The French Lieutenant's Woman</i>)那张嘴依然紧紧地绷着，要是有第三者的话，他一定会惊奇不已，不明白她到底会说出何等可怕的事情。除了在教区教堂的祭坛前光着身子跳舞以外，还会有比她所说的更为可怕的事吗？(后一句直接的意思是：看来只有在教区教堂光着身子跳舞，才会够得上她会说出的可怕的事情。)</div><div class="ex-item">It was quite bitter enough, she felt, that he did not come to her, but now that she had made that advance, she felt that any withdrawal on his part would, to a woman of her class, be <b>nothing less than</b> a flaming insult. (Bram Stoker, <i>The Lair of the White Worm</i>)她觉得，他不来找她，已经够令她痛苦的了，而现在，她已做出了这样的主动示意，如果他竟然有任何在她这样高尚的女子面前退缩的表示，这就十十足足是一种侮辱。</div><br><br>nothing less than 后面不一定是名词成分。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The violinist's playing is <b>nothing less than</b> magnificent. 这位小提琴家的演奏简直是精彩极了。/ With its daring imagery, grave magnificence of language and solemn thought, it is <b>nothing less than</b> Elizabethan, and only the masters of that age could have done it justice in the rendering. (L. Cranmer-Byng, <i>A Lute of Jade</i>)它生动如画的大胆笔法、庄重高超的语言，以及严肃的思路，简直是伊丽莎白时代的作品，也唯有那个时代的大师们才能够恰如其分地加以表达。/ Expecting <b>nothing less than</b> to be murdered on the spot she covered hereyes with her hands to avoid the sight of the descending axe. (Joseph Conrad, <i>Under Western Eyes</i>)她预计自己免不了会就地被杀害，就用双手掩住眼睛，免得看见那把要掉下来的斧头。/ ... her bold plan was <b>nothing less than</b> to set the steamer adrift and float with her out into the open sea, ... (Edgar Rice Burroughs, <i>The Beasts of Tarzan</i>)……她那大胆的计划，简直就是要让那艘汽艇带着她去大海里随波漂流，……</div><br><br>
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not just
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>not just 与 not only</b></div>有时候两者同义，可以换用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Most people in the West, <b>not just/not only</b> the Italians, sensed this in a vague sort of way. 西方人，不仅是意大利人，大多对此都有隐隐约约的感觉。但是有时候 not just 有另外的意思，要注意它可能同 not only 有区别。例如现在许多人指责网络上的虚拟世界浪费了人们的时间，就有人辩解说：Virtual worlds are <b>not just</b> time-wasters. 这里的 not just 同 time-wasters 的关系应该是：首先 just 离开 not，同 time-wasters 联结成为一个单位，然后再同 not 联结。这样一来，just 也是从质的方面来限定 time-wasters (“区区浪费时间的玩意儿罢了”)，而 not 并不否定 just，而是否定 just time-wasters (“并不是区区浪费时间的玩意儿”)，这两种不同的用法，意义一正一反，差别很大。参见 just 条。</div><br><br>
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not only
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>not just 与 not only</b></div>有时候两者同义，可以换用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Most people in the West, <b>not just/not only</b> the Italians, sensed this in a vague sort of way. 西方人，不仅是意大利人，大多对此都有隐隐约约的感觉。但是有时候 not just 有另外的意思，要注意它可能同 not only 有区别。例如现在许多人指责网络上的虚拟世界浪费了人们的时间，就有人辩解说：Virtual worlds are <b>not just</b> time-wasters. 这里的 not just 同 time-wasters 的关系应该是：首先 just 离开 not，同 time-wasters 联结成为一个单位，然后再同 not 联结。这样一来，just 也是从质的方面来限定 time-wasters (“区区浪费时间的玩意儿罢了”)，而 not 并不否定 just，而是否定 just time-wasters (“并不是区区浪费时间的玩意儿”)，这两种不同的用法，意义一正一反，差别很大。参见 just 条。</div><br><br>
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not so much as ...
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>not so much as ... 与 not so much ... as ...</b></div>中文可以译成“与其说是……不如/毋宁说是……”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The oceans do <b>not so much</b> divide the world <b>as</b> unite it. 各个大洋与其说是把世界分割开，不如说是把世界连在一起。/ ... inspecting officers had come there <b>not so much</b> to see how Wegener ran things <b>as</b> to see how things should be run. (Tom Clancy, <i>Clear and Present Danger</i>)……视察的军官前来，与其说是要看韦杰纳如何办事情，不如说是要看事情该如何办才对。</div><br><br>
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not so much ... as ...
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>not so much as ... 与 not so much ... as ...</b></div>中文可以译成“与其说是……不如/毋宁说是……”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The oceans do <b>not so much</b> divide the world <b>as</b> unite it. 各个大洋与其说是把世界分割开，不如说是把世界连在一起。/ ... inspecting officers had come there <b>not so much</b> to see how Wegener ran things <b>as</b> to see how things should be run. (Tom Clancy, <i>Clear and Present Danger</i>)……视察的军官前来，与其说是要看韦杰纳如何办事情，不如说是要看事情该如何办才对。</div><br><br>
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not to inf.
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>not to inf. 与 to not inf.</b></div>to not inf. 按照正规的英语是不可以出现的，但是实际语言中有时也出现，原因是它比 not to inf. 含有更为主动积极的“努力防备，不做某事”的色彩，而 not to inf. 则可能被理解为“因为疏忽而没有做某事”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>And <b>to not</b> even count many citizens' votes in the process of selecting the nonrepresentative delegates is a crime! (<i>U.S. News & World Report</i>, Sept. 15-22, 2008, p. 12)在挑选无选区大会代表的过程中，竟然把许多公民的选票弃置不算，这简直是犯罪！/ Although I am told that their policy is <b>to not</b> permit contact between children and the mothers who relinquish rights over them ... (John Darnton, <i>The Darwin Conspiracy</i>)虽然我听说他们的方针是不让孩子同放弃了孩子抚养权的母亲们接触……但是有时候 not to inf. 同 to not inf. 在意义的强度上差别不大。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My eyes are dry as I ponder Joe Lieberman's decision <b>to not</b> seek re-election. (Froma Harrop, in <i>The Daily Gazette</i>, Jan. 22, 2011, A9)我在琢磨乔·利伯曼不寻求连任的决定时，眼睛干干的没有眼泪。</div><br><br>
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to not inf.
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>not to inf. 与 to not inf.</b></div>to not inf. 按照正规的英语是不可以出现的，但是实际语言中有时也出现，原因是它比 not to inf. 含有更为主动积极的“努力防备，不做某事”的色彩，而 not to inf. 则可能被理解为“因为疏忽而没有做某事”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>And <b>to not</b> even count many citizens' votes in the process of selecting the nonrepresentative delegates is a crime! (<i>U.S. News & World Report</i>, Sept. 15-22, 2008, p. 12)在挑选无选区大会代表的过程中，竟然把许多公民的选票弃置不算，这简直是犯罪！/ Although I am told that their policy is <b>to not</b> permit contact between children and the mothers who relinquish rights over them ... (John Darnton, <i>The Darwin Conspiracy</i>)虽然我听说他们的方针是不让孩子同放弃了孩子抚养权的母亲们接触……但是有时候 not to inf. 同 to not inf. 在意义的强度上差别不大。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My eyes are dry as I ponder Joe Lieberman's decision <b>to not</b> seek re-election. (Froma Harrop, in <i>The Daily Gazette</i>, Jan. 22, 2011, A9)我在琢磨乔·利伯曼不寻求连任的决定时，眼睛干干的没有眼泪。</div><br><br>
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now ... now ...
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>now ... (and) now ...</b></div>是“时而……，时而……”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... the same word used <b>now</b> as a preposition <b>and now</b> as a conjunction (Otto Jerpersen, <i>The Philosophy of Grammar</i>) ……同一个词，时而作为介词，时而作为连词</div><div class="ex-item">others (= other Chinese words) without any outward change may function <b>now</b> as substantives, <b>now</b> as verbs, <b>now</b> as adverbs, etc. (ibid.) 另一些中文词，毫无外形变化，可以时而作为名词，时而作为动词，时而作为副词，等等。</div><br><br>也可以是 <b>now ... and then</b> (此时 and 不可省略)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In extended octave playing it is well to vary the position of the wrist, <b>now</b> high <b>and then</b> low. (Josef Hofmann, <i>Piano Playing</i>) 弹奏伸展八音度时，手腕的位置最好有些变化，时高时低。</div><br><br>
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now ... and now ...
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>now ... (and) now ...</b></div>是“时而……，时而……”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... the same word used <b>now</b> as a preposition <b>and now</b> as a conjunction (Otto Jerpersen, <i>The Philosophy of Grammar</i>) ……同一个词，时而作为介词，时而作为连词</div><div class="ex-item">others (= other Chinese words) without any outward change may function <b>now</b> as substantives, <b>now</b> as verbs, <b>now</b> as adverbs, etc. (ibid.) 另一些中文词，毫无外形变化，可以时而作为名词，时而作为动词，时而作为副词，等等。</div><br><br>也可以是 <b>now ... and then</b> (此时 and 不可省略)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In extended octave playing it is well to vary the position of the wrist, <b>now</b> high <b>and then</b> low. (Josef Hofmann, <i>Piano Playing</i>) 弹奏伸展八音度时，手腕的位置最好有些变化，时高时低。</div><br><br>
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no
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>no 与 not</b></div>本来，系动词(be、become 之类)后面接上表语，如果要否定，按理应该加上一个 not。但是英语在某些情况下加的不是 not 而是 no。这些特定情况有：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 表语是名词，强调“根本不是”或“并不是”(中文“并不”就是对原先的一个猜测加以否定)，用 no 代替 not a 时，a 要去掉。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Miss Hannah, of course, is <b>no</b> relative of Edith at all. 当然，汉娜小姐并不是伊迪丝的亲戚。/ Virginians loved to dance and he was <b>no</b> exception. 弗吉尼亚州的人喜欢跳舞，他也不例外。/ This is <b>no</b> easy matter. 这并不是一件容易的事。/ His biographers are <b>no</b> apologists. 为他写传记的作者们并不是什么卫道士。/ It's <b>no</b> trouble. 没事儿。/ She has a good voice, but she's <b>no</b> Callas. 她嗓子很好，但她还比不上卡拉斯。/ It's <b>no</b> masterpiece, but it's well written. 这还算不上一篇杰作，但的确写得不错。/ He was <b>no</b> fool. 他可不是傻瓜。/ That was <b>no</b> problem. 那不是问题。/ The demise of Europe's constitution is <b>no</b> reason to celebrate. (<i>BusinessWeek</i>, July 13, 2005, p. 53) 欧洲宪法的寿终正寝，并不是一件乐事。/ This was <b>no</b> small extra burden. 这个额外负担可不轻。/ Their triumph was <b>no</b> fluke. 他们的胜利不是侥幸得来的。在一些语义上相当于表语的宾补前，也常用 no 而不用 *not a。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Finding his visitor apparently <b>no</b> threat, he opened the door. 他发现他的访客显然没有威胁，就打开了门。</div><br><br>但是如果表语破例用了复数名词代替单数，就要用 not 而不用 *no。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was <b>not friends</b> with his co-workers. 他同自己的同事们也不交朋友。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 在形容词或副词比较级之前，用 no 表示原先已经如何，现在也没有什么改变(如果用 not 则不交代原先如何，只是进行对比)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's <b>no</b> better. 情况一样糟。/ The application should be submitted <b>no</b> later than August 21. 申请表最迟要在 8 月21号之前递交。/ He was <b>no</b> happier for knowing it. 他知道了，也没有觉得更加高兴一些。/ The process left them <b>no</b> better off than before. 经历了这个过程，他们的处境还是和从前一样糟。/ The radio is <b>no</b> bigger than a matchbox. 收音机只有一个火柴盒那么大。/ In terms of paperwork, domestic adoptions are <b>no</b> less laborious than international. 就办手续而言，国内认养并不比国际认养简便。/ Many newspapers have done <b>no</b> better. 许多报纸的情况也不见得好多少。/ She felt she was <b>no</b> nearer to her goal than she was when she had first arrived in New York. 她感到自己的目标同初到纽约时一样遥不可及。/ The doctor was <b>no</b> closer to being able to help his patient. 医生对于他的病人，仍然一样束手无策。/ A chain is <b>no</b> stronger than its weakest link. 整条链条有多结实，以最薄弱的一环有多结实为准。/ The study of more than 2,000 patients found that those who underwent the expensive procedure, known as angioplasty, in non-emergency situations were <b>no</b> less likely to suffer a heart attack or die than those who ... (<i>The Washington Post</i>, Mar. 27, 2007, A01)这种费用昂贵的手术，通称血管成形术，而对2000多名病人的调查发现，在非急诊情况下进行这种手术的人，比起……的人，心脏病发作与死亡的危险并不会有所减低。表示“差别”的形容词，也同形容词比较级一样“欢迎”no。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In Miami, it is <b>no</b> different. 迈阿密的情况也一样。/ The situation is <b>no</b> different from what it used to be. 情况同从前没有多大差别。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> no more/less than 与 not more/less than 的区别也是前者先肯定了原先的一方“并不多”或“并不少”，而后者则对原先一方的“多”或“少”不加评论，只是做简单的比较。简单地说，no more than 相当于 only; not more than 相当于 at most; no less than 相当于 as much as; not less than 相当于 at least。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has <b>no more than</b> 10,000 dollars. 他只有一万美元。/ He has <b>not more than</b> 10,000 dollars. 他最多也只有一万美元。/ He has <b>no less than</b> 10,000 dollars. 他有一万美元之多。/ He has <b>not less than</b> 10,000 dollars. 他起码也有一万美元。</div><br><br>
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not
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>no 与 not</b></div>本来，系动词(be、become 之类)后面接上表语，如果要否定，按理应该加上一个 not。但是英语在某些情况下加的不是 not 而是 no。这些特定情况有：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 表语是名词，强调“根本不是”或“并不是”(中文“并不”就是对原先的一个猜测加以否定)，用 no 代替 not a 时，a 要去掉。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Miss Hannah, of course, is <b>no</b> relative of Edith at all. 当然，汉娜小姐并不是伊迪丝的亲戚。/ Virginians loved to dance and he was <b>no</b> exception. 弗吉尼亚州的人喜欢跳舞，他也不例外。/ This is <b>no</b> easy matter. 这并不是一件容易的事。/ His biographers are <b>no</b> apologists. 为他写传记的作者们并不是什么卫道士。/ It's <b>no</b> trouble. 没事儿。/ She has a good voice, but she's <b>no</b> Callas. 她嗓子很好，但她还比不上卡拉斯。/ It's <b>no</b> masterpiece, but it's well written. 这还算不上一篇杰作，但的确写得不错。/ He was <b>no</b> fool. 他可不是傻瓜。/ That was <b>no</b> problem. 那不是问题。/ The demise of Europe's constitution is <b>no</b> reason to celebrate. (<i>BusinessWeek</i>, July 13, 2005, p. 53) 欧洲宪法的寿终正寝，并不是一件乐事。/ This was <b>no</b> small extra burden. 这个额外负担可不轻。/ Their triumph was <b>no</b> fluke. 他们的胜利不是侥幸得来的。在一些语义上相当于表语的宾补前，也常用 no 而不用 *not a。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Finding his visitor apparently <b>no</b> threat, he opened the door. 他发现他的访客显然没有威胁，就打开了门。</div><br><br>但是如果表语破例用了复数名词代替单数，就要用 not 而不用 *no。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was <b>not friends</b> with his co-workers. 他同自己的同事们也不交朋友。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 在形容词或副词比较级之前，用 no 表示原先已经如何，现在也没有什么改变(如果用 not 则不交代原先如何，只是进行对比)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's <b>no</b> better. 情况一样糟。/ The application should be submitted <b>no</b> later than August 21. 申请表最迟要在 8 月21号之前递交。/ He was <b>no</b> happier for knowing it. 他知道了，也没有觉得更加高兴一些。/ The process left them <b>no</b> better off than before. 经历了这个过程，他们的处境还是和从前一样糟。/ The radio is <b>no</b> bigger than a matchbox. 收音机只有一个火柴盒那么大。/ In terms of paperwork, domestic adoptions are <b>no</b> less laborious than international. 就办手续而言，国内认养并不比国际认养简便。/ Many newspapers have done <b>no</b> better. 许多报纸的情况也不见得好多少。/ She felt she was <b>no</b> nearer to her goal than she was when she had first arrived in New York. 她感到自己的目标同初到纽约时一样遥不可及。/ The doctor was <b>no</b> closer to being able to help his patient. 医生对于他的病人，仍然一样束手无策。/ A chain is <b>no</b> stronger than its weakest link. 整条链条有多结实，以最薄弱的一环有多结实为准。/ The study of more than 2,000 patients found that those who underwent the expensive procedure, known as angioplasty, in non-emergency situations were <b>no</b> less likely to suffer a heart attack or die than those who ... (<i>The Washington Post</i>, Mar. 27, 2007, A01)这种费用昂贵的手术，通称血管成形术，而对2000多名病人的调查发现，在非急诊情况下进行这种手术的人，比起……的人，心脏病发作与死亡的危险并不会有所减低。表示“差别”的形容词，也同形容词比较级一样“欢迎”no。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In Miami, it is <b>no</b> different. 迈阿密的情况也一样。/ The situation is <b>no</b> different from what it used to be. 情况同从前没有多大差别。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> no more/less than 与 not more/less than 的区别也是前者先肯定了原先的一方“并不多”或“并不少”，而后者则对原先一方的“多”或“少”不加评论，只是做简单的比较。简单地说，no more than 相当于 only; not more than 相当于 at most; no less than 相当于 as much as; not less than 相当于 at least。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has <b>no more than</b> 10,000 dollars. 他只有一万美元。/ He has <b>not more than</b> 10,000 dollars. 他最多也只有一万美元。/ He has <b>no less than</b> 10,000 dollars. 他有一万美元之多。/ He has <b>not less than</b> 10,000 dollars. 他起码也有一万美元。</div><br><br>
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one's + -ing
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(of) one's + -ing</b></div>在许多场合，这个表达特有的句法结构可以用来代替中国人通常按照中文搬过去的 that one V 结构(但是动词只限于“造成”“选择”之类这一较为狭窄的范围)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a meeting at a date and time entirely of his choosing (= that he chooses) 一次日期和时间完全由他来选定的会晤</div><div class="ex-item">He answered a question of his own asking (= that he himself asked). 他回答了一个他自己提出的问题。/ The wine was of her own making. (Henry Fielding, Joseph Andrews) 酒是她亲自酿制的。/ Her problems are of her own making. 她遇到的问题，是她自己造成的。/ The solution must be of your own making. 问题要由你自己来解决。/ They are involved in problems not of their making. 他们被卷入了一些不是他们自己造成的问题之中。/ It was none of our doing. 事情同我们拉不上关系。</div><br><br>但是 of one's (own) choosing 可以改作 of one's (own) choice。<br><br>
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of one's + -ing
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(of) one's + -ing</b></div>在许多场合，这个表达特有的句法结构可以用来代替中国人通常按照中文搬过去的 that one V 结构(但是动词只限于“造成”“选择”之类这一较为狭窄的范围)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a meeting at a date and time entirely of his choosing (= that he chooses) 一次日期和时间完全由他来选定的会晤</div><div class="ex-item">He answered a question of his own asking (= that he himself asked). 他回答了一个他自己提出的问题。/ The wine was of her own making. (Henry Fielding, Joseph Andrews) 酒是她亲自酿制的。/ Her problems are of her own making. 她遇到的问题，是她自己造成的。/ The solution must be of your own making. 问题要由你自己来解决。/ They are involved in problems not of their making. 他们被卷入了一些不是他们自己造成的问题之中。/ It was none of our doing. 事情同我们拉不上关系。</div><br><br>但是 of one's (own) choosing 可以改作 of one's (own) choice。<br><br>
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one in
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>one in 与 one out of</b></div>许多语法书上都说，如果是表示比例，不是真正具体落实到“一个”，则 one in ten 或 one out of ten (十个中有一个)要当作复数处理。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>One out of ten were admitted. 十分一的人被录取。但是在实际语言运用中，常常作为单数处理。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>About one out of every 20 people who get pneumococcal pneumonia dies from it. 患有肺炎球菌肺炎的人，大约每 20 人中就有 1 个死于这个疾病。</div><br><br>
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one out of
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>one in 与 one out of</b></div>许多语法书上都说，如果是表示比例，不是真正具体落实到“一个”，则 one in ten 或 one out of ten (十个中有一个)要当作复数处理。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>One out of ten were admitted. 十分一的人被录取。但是在实际语言运用中，常常作为单数处理。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>About one out of every 20 people who get pneumococcal pneumonia dies from it. 患有肺炎球菌肺炎的人，大约每 20 人中就有 1 个死于这个疾病。</div><br><br>
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life support
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(on) life support</b></div>本来的意思是医疗上的，指一个病人病情严重，奄奄一息，呼吸、进食等基本生存机能都要靠人工输送。也可以转义，指某事业到了山穷水尽难以为继的地步。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... the GOP has left us with an endless war in Iraq, a sputtering economy, and a healthcare system on life support. (U.S. News & World Report, May 19, 2008, p. 18) ……共和党给我们留下的是伊拉克一场打不完的战争，一场糊涂的经济，以及奄奄一息的医疗制度。</div><br><br>
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on life support
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(on) life support</b></div>本来的意思是医疗上的，指一个病人病情严重，奄奄一息，呼吸、进食等基本生存机能都要靠人工输送。也可以转义，指某事业到了山穷水尽难以为继的地步。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... the GOP has left us with an endless war in Iraq, a sputtering economy, and a healthcare system on life support. (U.S. News & World Report, May 19, 2008, p. 18) ……共和党给我们留下的是伊拉克一场打不完的战争，一场糊涂的经济，以及奄奄一息的医疗制度。</div><br><br>
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line
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(on) line 与 (on the) line</b></div>on line 与 on the line 意义完全不同。<br><br>on line 指人时，是“排着队”的意思；指机器时，是“连接在一起”的意思；指电脑时，是“上了网”的意思。<br><br>但是 on the line 则是“处于危险境地”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>put/lay one's reputation on the line 危及自己的名誉</div><div class="ex-item">Their jobs are on the line. 他们的饭碗岌岌可危。</div><br><br>
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on line
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(on) line 与 (on the) line</b></div>on line 与 on the line 意义完全不同。<br><br>on line 指人时，是“排着队”的意思；指机器时，是“连接在一起”的意思；指电脑时，是“上了网”的意思。<br><br>但是 on the line 则是“处于危险境地”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>put/lay one's reputation on the line 危及自己的名誉</div><div class="ex-item">Their jobs are on the line. 他们的饭碗岌岌可危。</div><br><br>
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(on) line
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(on) line 与 (on the) line</b></div>on line 与 on the line 意义完全不同。<br><br>on line 指人时，是“排着队”的意思；指机器时，是“连接在一起”的意思；指电脑时，是“上了网”的意思。<br><br>但是 on the line 则是“处于危险境地”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>put/lay one's reputation on the line 危及自己的名誉</div><div class="ex-item">Their jobs are on the line. 他们的饭碗岌岌可危。</div><br><br>
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line 与 line
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(on) line 与 (on the) line</b></div>on line 与 on the line 意义完全不同。<br><br>on line 指人时，是“排着队”的意思；指机器时，是“连接在一起”的意思；指电脑时，是“上了网”的意思。<br><br>但是 on the line 则是“处于危险境地”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>put/lay one's reputation on the line 危及自己的名誉</div><div class="ex-item">Their jobs are on the line. 他们的饭碗岌岌可危。</div><br><br>
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on the line
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(on) line 与 (on the) line</b></div>on line 与 on the line 意义完全不同。<br><br>on line 指人时，是“排着队”的意思；指机器时，是“连接在一起”的意思；指电脑时，是“上了网”的意思。<br><br>但是 on the line 则是“处于危险境地”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>put/lay one's reputation on the line 危及自己的名誉</div><div class="ex-item">Their jobs are on the line. 他们的饭碗岌岌可危。</div><br><br>
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(on the) line
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(on) line 与 (on the) line</b></div>on line 与 on the line 意义完全不同。<br><br>on line 指人时，是“排着队”的意思；指机器时，是“连接在一起”的意思；指电脑时，是“上了网”的意思。<br><br>但是 on the line 则是“处于危险境地”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>put/lay one's reputation on the line 危及自己的名誉</div><div class="ex-item">Their jobs are on the line. 他们的饭碗岌岌可危。</div><br><br>
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line 与 (on the) line
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(on) line 与 (on the) line</b></div>on line 与 on the line 意义完全不同。<br><br>on line 指人时，是“排着队”的意思；指机器时，是“连接在一起”的意思；指电脑时，是“上了网”的意思。<br><br>但是 on the line 则是“处于危险境地”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>put/lay one's reputation on the line 危及自己的名誉</div><div class="ex-item">Their jobs are on the line. 他们的饭碗岌岌可危。</div><br><br>
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on line 与 on the line
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(on) line 与 (on the) line</b></div>on line 与 on the line 意义完全不同。<br><br>on line 指人时，是“排着队”的意思；指机器时，是“连接在一起”的意思；指电脑时，是“上了网”的意思。<br><br>但是 on the line 则是“处于危险境地”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>put/lay one's reputation on the line 危及自己的名誉</div><div class="ex-item">Their jobs are on the line. 他们的饭碗岌岌可危。</div><br><br>
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on line 与 (on the) line
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(on) line 与 (on the) line</b></div>on line 与 on the line 意义完全不同。<br><br>on line 指人时，是“排着队”的意思；指机器时，是“连接在一起”的意思；指电脑时，是“上了网”的意思。<br><br>但是 on the line 则是“处于危险境地”的意思。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>put/lay one's reputation on the line 危及自己的名誉</div><div class="ex-item">Their jobs are on the line. 他们的饭碗岌岌可危。</div><br><br>
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oppose
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>oppose 与 be opposed to</b></div>oppose 作为及物动词，意义和用法都有些特别：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 只有单独一个直接宾语时，这个直接宾语是反对的对象。主语通常可以是人或事物。这个“反对”可以是有意识的瞬时动作，包括从言辞抨击到暴力反抗，也可以是延续状态，只是持有某种反对的态度。由于 oppose 必然是及物动词，所以宾语前面不能加 to (object 则后面要加 to)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A few lawmakers opposed the budget. 有些议员对预算案表示反对。/ The people oppose the dictator. 人民反对独裁者。/ We oppose the construction of a hotel here. 我们反对在这里盖一座旅馆。/ Many parents oppose bilingual education in schools. 许多家长反对学校里实行双语教育。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> “反对某人做某事”也可以只用单独一个宾语，后面加上动词现在分词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Egyptian nuclear experts strongly oppose Egypt signing the additional protocol. 埃及核专家们强烈反对埃及签署附加议定书。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 如果直接宾语是多件事物，就可能不是“反对”而是“将多件事物互相做明显的对比”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>oppose light and shadow in a picture 在画面中做明暗对比。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 如果有双宾语(oppose + 直接宾语 + to + 间接宾语)，则直接宾语就不是反对的对象，而是被拿来作为依据而同间接宾语对立。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>oppose reason to force 以理性来反对暴力</div><div class="ex-item">oppose truth to falsehood 以真抗伪。也可以是同(3)相似的“拿两件事物互作对比”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The businessman opposed risks to profits, and decided to take a chance. 那个商人权衡了风险与收益，决定一试。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 前面说过，oppose 可以是瞬时动作，也可以是延续状态。be opposed to 则只能是延续状态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We are strongly opposed to the plan. 我们强烈反对该计划。但是 be opposed to 与 oppose 不同，它的主语可以不是人而是事物(既然不是人，就谈不上有意识)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is opposed to all our experience. 它同我们的全部经验根本相反。/ His views are diametrically opposed to mine. 他的观点同我的截然相反。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> as opposed to 表示“就当下谈论的话题注意到的某事物同另一事物的不同或对立”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In Roman, as opposed to Greek, society, ... 与古希腊社会不同，在古罗马社会，……</div><div class="ex-item">Saving, as opposed to investments, ... 与投资不同，储蓄则……</div><div class="ex-item">What exactly is an electron volt as opposed to a volt? 电子伏特究竟同伏特有何区别？甚至可以弱化为相当于 instead of 或 rather than。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>CITGO receives crude oil from the wellhead in Venezuela to the U.S. coast in days as opposed to weeks, ... (U.S. News & World Report, May 19, 2008, p. 19, ad) 雪铁戈公司只需几天，而不是几周，就收到自委内瑞拉油井口运到美国海岸的原油，……</div><br><br>
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be opposed to
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>oppose 与 be opposed to</b></div>oppose 作为及物动词，意义和用法都有些特别：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 只有单独一个直接宾语时，这个直接宾语是反对的对象。主语通常可以是人或事物。这个“反对”可以是有意识的瞬时动作，包括从言辞抨击到暴力反抗，也可以是延续状态，只是持有某种反对的态度。由于 oppose 必然是及物动词，所以宾语前面不能加 to (object 则后面要加 to)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A few lawmakers opposed the budget. 有些议员对预算案表示反对。/ The people oppose the dictator. 人民反对独裁者。/ We oppose the construction of a hotel here. 我们反对在这里盖一座旅馆。/ Many parents oppose bilingual education in schools. 许多家长反对学校里实行双语教育。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> “反对某人做某事”也可以只用单独一个宾语，后面加上动词现在分词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Egyptian nuclear experts strongly oppose Egypt signing the additional protocol. 埃及核专家们强烈反对埃及签署附加议定书。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 如果直接宾语是多件事物，就可能不是“反对”而是“将多件事物互相做明显的对比”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>oppose light and shadow in a picture 在画面中做明暗对比。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 如果有双宾语(oppose + 直接宾语 + to + 间接宾语)，则直接宾语就不是反对的对象，而是被拿来作为依据而同间接宾语对立。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>oppose reason to force 以理性来反对暴力</div><div class="ex-item">oppose truth to falsehood 以真抗伪。也可以是同(3)相似的“拿两件事物互作对比”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The businessman opposed risks to profits, and decided to take a chance. 那个商人权衡了风险与收益，决定一试。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 前面说过，oppose 可以是瞬时动作，也可以是延续状态。be opposed to 则只能是延续状态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We are strongly opposed to the plan. 我们强烈反对该计划。但是 be opposed to 与 oppose 不同，它的主语可以不是人而是事物(既然不是人，就谈不上有意识)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is opposed to all our experience. 它同我们的全部经验根本相反。/ His views are diametrically opposed to mine. 他的观点同我的截然相反。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> as opposed to 表示“就当下谈论的话题注意到的某事物同另一事物的不同或对立”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In Roman, as opposed to Greek, society, ... 与古希腊社会不同，在古罗马社会，……</div><div class="ex-item">Saving, as opposed to investments, ... 与投资不同，储蓄则……</div><div class="ex-item">What exactly is an electron volt as opposed to a volt? 电子伏特究竟同伏特有何区别？甚至可以弱化为相当于 instead of 或 rather than。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>CITGO receives crude oil from the wellhead in Venezuela to the U.S. coast in days as opposed to weeks, ... (U.S. News & World Report, May 19, 2008, p. 19, ad) 雪铁戈公司只需几天，而不是几周，就收到自委内瑞拉油井口运到美国海岸的原油，……</div><br><br>
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what have you
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(or) what have you</b></div>列举一些事物或行动时，有时候一时想不到后面再说些什么(中文“等等之类”)，就说 or what have you。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>cars, motorcycles, <b>or what have you</b> 汽车、摩托车等等之类</div><div class="ex-item">... that with appropriate education, indoctrination, social conditioning <b>or what have you</b>, people can be made to behave in almost any way imaginable. (<i>The Economist</i>, Dec. 20, 2008, p. 127) ……认为只要有适当的教育、训导、社会制约等等，就可以使得人们做出几乎任何可能想象得到的行为。/ Things that you thought were safe to hide under or behind are no longer so because they can be blown apart, moved, <b>or what have you</b>. 你原先以为藏在底下或者后面就安全了的东西，现在不再安全了，因为这些东西可能被炸开、搬走或是怎么的。</div><br><br>
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or what have you
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(or) what have you</b></div>列举一些事物或行动时，有时候一时想不到后面再说些什么(中文“等等之类”)，就说 or what have you。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>cars, motorcycles, <b>or what have you</b> 汽车、摩托车等等之类</div><div class="ex-item">... that with appropriate education, indoctrination, social conditioning <b>or what have you</b>, people can be made to behave in almost any way imaginable. (<i>The Economist</i>, Dec. 20, 2008, p. 127) ……认为只要有适当的教育、训导、社会制约等等，就可以使得人们做出几乎任何可能想象得到的行为。/ Things that you thought were safe to hide under or behind are no longer so because they can be blown apart, moved, <b>or what have you</b>. 你原先以为藏在底下或者后面就安全了的东西，现在不再安全了，因为这些东西可能被炸开、搬走或是怎么的。</div><br><br>
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outlive
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>outlive 与 survive</b></div>两者都有“比……活得长”的意思。但是 survive 的直接宾语要么是一个亲人，要么是一件负面的事件；outlive 的直接宾语则可以是没有亲属关系的人或是任何性质的事件。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Buchwald refused kidney dialysis. He went on to outlive doctors' predictions by almost a year. (Susan Brink in Los Angeles Times, February 2007)布赫瓦尔德拒绝做肾透析。他比医生们预计的多活了差不多一年。/ Greek civilization outlived Roman Empire mainly due to their developed culture. 古希腊文明由于文化发达，保存的时间比罗马帝国还长。</div><br><br>
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payment
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>pay 与 payment</b></div>pay 指工资、酬金。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>starting pay 起薪</div><div class="ex-item">a holiday with pay 带薪休假</div><div class="ex-item">work at very low/good pay 做工资很低/很高的工作。</div><br><br>payment 是付款的行为，或是一次交付的款额。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The goods will be delivered on payment of the outstanding charges. 一俟未清款项付清，当即送货。</div><br><br>
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person
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>person, persona, personage 与 personality</b></div>person 是一般意义上的“人”。复数时除非特别强调数字的准确，通常不说 persons 而说 people。<br><br>persona 来自拉丁文，指一个人在他人心目中的形象。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>take on/adopt an entirely new persona 显示一副崭新的形象。</div><br><br>personage 和 personality 都可以指“(著名)人物”，但是 personality 更多是指世俗名人，如影视娱乐界和体育界的明星，偶尔也可以指政界名人。“个人崇拜”或“个人迷信”就是 personality cult。另外 personality 还可以指“人品，性格”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has a wonderful personality. 他人品很好。personage 表示的人物地位可以更高，例如 the highest Personage (少用 personality) in the universe (宇宙的最高主宰)。</div><br><br>
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persona
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>person, persona, personage 与 personality</b></div>person 是一般意义上的“人”。复数时除非特别强调数字的准确，通常不说 persons 而说 people。<br><br>persona 来自拉丁文，指一个人在他人心目中的形象。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>take on/adopt an entirely new persona 显示一副崭新的形象。</div><br><br>personage 和 personality 都可以指“(著名)人物”，但是 personality 更多是指世俗名人，如影视娱乐界和体育界的明星，偶尔也可以指政界名人。“个人崇拜”或“个人迷信”就是 personality cult。另外 personality 还可以指“人品，性格”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has a wonderful personality. 他人品很好。personage 表示的人物地位可以更高，例如 the highest Personage (少用 personality) in the universe (宇宙的最高主宰)。</div><br><br>
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personage
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>person, persona, personage 与 personality</b></div>person 是一般意义上的“人”。复数时除非特别强调数字的准确，通常不说 persons 而说 people。<br><br>persona 来自拉丁文，指一个人在他人心目中的形象。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>take on/adopt an entirely new persona 显示一副崭新的形象。</div><br><br>personage 和 personality 都可以指“(著名)人物”，但是 personality 更多是指世俗名人，如影视娱乐界和体育界的明星，偶尔也可以指政界名人。“个人崇拜”或“个人迷信”就是 personality cult。另外 personality 还可以指“人品，性格”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has a wonderful personality. 他人品很好。personage 表示的人物地位可以更高，例如 the highest Personage (少用 personality) in the universe (宇宙的最高主宰)。</div><br><br>
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personality
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>person, persona, personage 与 personality</b></div>person 是一般意义上的“人”。复数时除非特别强调数字的准确，通常不说 persons 而说 people。<br><br>persona 来自拉丁文，指一个人在他人心目中的形象。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>take on/adopt an entirely new persona 显示一副崭新的形象。</div><br><br>personage 和 personality 都可以指“(著名)人物”，但是 personality 更多是指世俗名人，如影视娱乐界和体育界的明星，偶尔也可以指政界名人。“个人崇拜”或“个人迷信”就是 personality cult。另外 personality 还可以指“人品，性格”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has a wonderful personality. 他人品很好。personage 表示的人物地位可以更高，例如 the highest Personage (少用 personality) in the universe (宇宙的最高主宰)。</div><br><br>
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PhD
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>Ph.D. 与 PhD</b></div>发音就是 P、H、D 三个字母，来自拉丁文 Philosophiae Doctor，等于英文的 Doctor of Philosophy，本来直译应该是“哲学博士”，但是实际上根本不限于哲学。许多不属于哲学领域的博士也称为 Ph.D.，学科在后面用 in 引入。因此，“物理学博士”是 Ph.D. in physics，“哲学博士”说全了要说 Doctor of Philosophy in philosophy。Ph.D. 不但是指人，也可以指“学位”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She has a Ph.D. in anthropology. 她有人类学博士学位。(参见 art 条)</div>
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Ph.D.
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>Ph.D. 与 PhD</b></div>发音就是 P、H、D 三个字母，来自拉丁文 Philosophiae Doctor，等于英文的 Doctor of Philosophy，本来直译应该是“哲学博士”，但是实际上根本不限于哲学。许多不属于哲学领域的博士也称为 Ph.D.，学科在后面用 in 引入。因此，“物理学博士”是 Ph.D. in physics，“哲学博士”说全了要说 Doctor of Philosophy in philosophy。Ph.D. 不但是指人，也可以指“学位”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She has a Ph.D. in anthropology. 她有人类学博士学位。(参见 art 条)</div>
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pity
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>piety 与 pity</b></div>本来是根本不同的两个单词，前者是“虔诚”，后者是“怜悯”，而且发音差别很大。但是，由于词形很相像，有时会发生混淆。中文的“孝道”本来应该是 filial piety，但连英美人也常常误作 filial pity。<br><br>
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piety
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>piety 与 pity</b></div>本来是根本不同的两个单词，前者是“虔诚”，后者是“怜悯”，而且发音差别很大。但是，由于词形很相像，有时会发生混淆。中文的“孝道”本来应该是 filial piety，但连英美人也常常误作 filial pity。<br><br>
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animals and plants
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>plants and animals 或 animals and plants</b></div>参见 fauna 条。<br><br>
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plants and animals
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>plants and animals 或 animals and plants</b></div>参见 fauna 条。<br><br>
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politico
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>politician, politico 与 statesman</b></div>politician 有时候有贬义，相当于中文的“政客”，politico 贬义更重。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Machiavelli's The Prince in which the individual politico is shown how to succeed by ignoring all moral, social, and religious restraints on his own action ... (Gilbert Arthur Highet) 在马基雅维利的《君主论》一书中，政客们学到了如何在行动中摆脱一切道德上、社会上和宗教上的约束，来取得成功…… 而 statesman 通常是正面的，相当于中文的“政治家”，但一般指拥有政府或议会领导职务的人员。至于“政治学家”，英文则是 political scientist。</div><br><br>
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statesman
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>politician, politico 与 statesman</b></div>politician 有时候有贬义，相当于中文的“政客”，politico 贬义更重。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Machiavelli's The Prince in which the individual politico is shown how to succeed by ignoring all moral, social, and religious restraints on his own action ... (Gilbert Arthur Highet) 在马基雅维利的《君主论》一书中，政客们学到了如何在行动中摆脱一切道德上、社会上和宗教上的约束，来取得成功…… 而 statesman 通常是正面的，相当于中文的“政治家”，但一般指拥有政府或议会领导职务的人员。至于“政治学家”，英文则是 political scientist。</div><br><br>
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politician
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>politician, politico 与 statesman</b></div>politician 有时候有贬义，相当于中文的“政客”，politico 贬义更重。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Machiavelli's The Prince in which the individual politico is shown how to succeed by ignoring all moral, social, and religious restraints on his own action ... (Gilbert Arthur Highet) 在马基雅维利的《君主论》一书中，政客们学到了如何在行动中摆脱一切道德上、社会上和宗教上的约束，来取得成功…… 而 statesman 通常是正面的，相当于中文的“政治家”，但一般指拥有政府或议会领导职务的人员。至于“政治学家”，英文则是 political scientist。</div><br><br>
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problem
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>problem 与 question</b></div>中文都是“问题”。这两个名词在英文中有时候意义相同，可以换用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the housing <b>problem/question</b> 住宅问题</div><div class="ex-item">the <b>problem/question</b> of unemployment 失业问题</div><div class="ex-item">tackle/deal with a <b>problem/question</b> 处理一个问题</div><div class="ex-item">solve a <b>problem/question</b> 解决一个问题。</div><br><br>但是有时候两者在词义上和习惯搭配用法上有相当大的差别。problem 侧重“困难，困扰”，接近于“难题”；question 则侧重“疑问”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has a weight <b>problem</b> (<i>question). 他身体过重。/ She's got boyfriend <b>problems</b> (</i>questions). 她情场不如意。/ I'm having <b>problems</b> (<i>questions) deciding. 我正在踌躇未决。/ Any <b>problems</b>, just call me. 有问题就找我。(找我帮忙克服困难，不是找我帮忙找出答案)</div><div class="ex-item">The <b>question</b> is who will pay the money. 问题是由谁来付钱。/ There remains the <b>question</b> (of) how to restore order. 还剩下如何恢复秩序的问题。/ To be, or not to be, that is the <b>question</b>. (Shakespeare, </i>Hamlet*) 生死存亡，这就是问题。</div><br><br>可以 answer 或 solve (有点勉强)一个 question，但只能 solve 而不能 answer 一个problem。<br><br>此外，in question (*in problem 则不可)可以作后置定语，表示“当前涉及的，这个”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Where were you during the time <b>in question</b>? 你这段时间在什么地方？</div><br><br>problem of 后面接问题或事项的内容。problem with 后面接某事“成问题，不一定对”之处。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The <b>problem with</b> the analogy, Golden points out, is that orchestras pick the very best players, through blind auditions in order to avoid favoritism, ... (Richard D. Kahlenberg, <i>The Century Foundation</i>) 戈尔登指出，这样的类比，其问题在于交响乐团所挑选的是好中又好的乐手，要通过不记名的听奏，以避免走后门，……</div><br><br>out of <b>question</b> (<i>problem) (beyond <b>question</b> 更常用)是“不成问题”；out of <b>the question</b> (</i>problem) 是“根本谈不上，不可能”。<br><br>
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prudent
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>prudent 与 prudential</b></div>两个形容词都表示“审慎的”，但是前者用于指人或行为，后者用于指精神领域的思考、计划。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A <b>prudent</b> man will try to save money for family emergencies. 审慎的人会设法积蓄以备家庭不时之需。/ It is always <b>prudent</b> to plan a trip carefully. 出门旅行事先仔细计划一番，总是审慎之举。/ <b>Prudential</b> considerations often cause persons to watch out for their health. 审慎的考虑，常常使得人们注意自己的健康。</div><br><br>
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prudential
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>prudent 与 prudential</b></div>两个形容词都表示“审慎的”，但是前者用于指人或行为，后者用于指精神领域的思考、计划。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A <b>prudent</b> man will try to save money for family emergencies. 审慎的人会设法积蓄以备家庭不时之需。/ It is always <b>prudent</b> to plan a trip carefully. 出门旅行事先仔细计划一番，总是审慎之举。/ <b>Prudential</b> considerations often cause persons to watch out for their health. 审慎的考虑，常常使得人们注意自己的健康。</div><br><br>
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purposely
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>purposefully 与 purposely</b></div>两个副词都是“故意地”的意思，但是略有差别。purposely 是一般的“有意”，与“偶然，碰巧”相对；purposefully 则有更强的“有预谋地”的意思，而且常常同表示位置移动的动词一起使用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... she has <b>purposefully</b> (<i>purposely) hidden from her father. (Joshua Hammer, </i>People<i>, Feb. 27, 1984) ……她故意躲开父亲，藏起来。/ ... the people in green were scurrying about <b>purposefully</b> (</i>purposely). (E. L. Doctorow, <i>Loon Lake</i>) ……穿绿衣服的人们有目的地地东奔西赶。</div><br><br>
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purposefully
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>purposefully 与 purposely</b></div>两个副词都是“故意地”的意思，但是略有差别。purposely 是一般的“有意”，与“偶然，碰巧”相对；purposefully 则有更强的“有预谋地”的意思，而且常常同表示位置移动的动词一起使用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... she has <b>purposefully</b> (<i>purposely) hidden from her father. (Joshua Hammer, </i>People<i>, Feb. 27, 1984) ……她故意躲开父亲，藏起来。/ ... the people in green were scurrying about <b>purposefully</b> (</i>purposely). (E. L. Doctorow, <i>Loon Lake</i>) ……穿绿衣服的人们有目的地地东奔西赶。</div><br><br>
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put on
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>put on 与 wear</b></div>中文都是“穿着，穿戴”。但是 put on 是瞬时完成的动作，wear 则是延续的状态，不能混淆。比如说 He <b>wore</b> a blue overcoat when he came into our house. 是可以的，但是如果说 He <b>put on</b> a blue overcoat when he came into our house. 就荒谬了。(进屋反而穿上大衣？) He always <b>wears</b> black shoes. (他总是穿黑鞋。)不能说 <i>He always <b>puts on</b> black shoes. 中国人的语言思维不大注意区分延续的动作或状态与瞬时完成的动作，如 </i>Food doesn't taste good to me when I <b>catch a cold</b>. 就是不通的，因为 catch a cold 是瞬时完成的事。吃东西无味是 catch a cold 之后一段时间当中延续的状态或现象，不是 catch a cold 那一刹那的事。所以应该改为 Food doesn't taste good to me when I <b>have a cold</b>.
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question of
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>question (of)</b></div>当 question 后面有补充说明“问题”内容的附带定语成分时，用不用介词 of 来引入均可。<br><br>用 of 引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>the question of how best to approach syntax is far from settled yet, ... (Christian Mair, Infinitival Complement Clauses in English) 有关如何妥善看待句法的问题，仍然远远尚未解决，……</div><div class="ex-item">The question of whether to sign the contract ... 是否签订合同的问题……</div><div class="ex-item">The question of whether global warming is natural or man-made is "all guesswork." 全球变暖的问题，究竟是自然界的问题，还是人为造成的问题，仍然属于主观猜测。/ settle the question of whether Machines Can Think 要解决“机器能否思维”的问题。</div><br><br>不用 of 引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... and the question arises whether this is indicative of different grammatical preferences of British and American speakers or whether ... (Christian Mair, Infinitival Complement Clauses in English) ……这就出现一个问题，就是这种情况究竟是说明英国和美国的说话者在语法上有不同的偏好呢，还是……</div><br><br>
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still
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>quiet 与 still</b></div>两个形容词都是“安静的” (没有声音，没有动静) 的意思，但是有细微的差别。quiet 倾向于正面意义的“没有喧杂的噪音”和“没有骚动”；still 则倾向于“停止不动”和负面意义的“沉寂，鸦雀无声”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Keep quiet! 别吵!</div><div class="ex-item">lead a quiet life 平平静静过日子</div><div class="ex-item">This is a quiet town. 这是一个宁静的小镇。/ Keep still! 别乱动!</div><div class="ex-item">paint a still life 画一幅静物画</div><div class="ex-item">The town was unnaturally still after the attack. 经过袭击后，该镇寂静得异乎寻常。</div><br><br>
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refer
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>recommend, refer 与 introduce</b></div>都是“介绍”，但是用法不完全相同。谁把谁介绍给谁，关系要弄清楚。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 在社交场合把 A 介绍给 B，是 introduce A to B，此时 A 应该是主语所认识而是 B 所不认识的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He introduced John to Mary. 他向玛丽介绍约翰。但是如果 B 不是人而是事物，则是介绍 A 去初步了解该事物。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He introduced me to the classics. 他领我入门了解经典作品。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> introduce 就人而言，只是社交上的初步见面介绍，不涉及更深的内容。正式业务上的介绍则用 recommend 与 refer，但是两者也有区别。比如说，一个病人经过医生甲看过之后，介绍转诊到医生乙处进一步诊治。医生甲把病人介绍给医生乙，是 refer 这个病人 to 医生乙；医生甲向病人介绍医生乙，是 recommend 医生乙 to 病人。介绍一个新房客来找房东租房子，是 refer 新房客 to 房东。recommend 是将被介绍人的有用之处加以说明，让听者认为对自己有用，然后去找被介绍人；refer 则是相反，将被介绍人的需要转告另一人，看看能否满足。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 另外，还有一个“介绍”，不是介绍某人，而是介绍某个情况，此时，recommend 与 refer 都不符合，introduce 则只用于某门学问或知识的入门。如果是“介绍”一时具体的情况、事件经过、数字之类，最好用及物动词 brief，这是个单宾语动词，属于第三类或第四类动词，搭配是 brief somebody on/about something。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The boss briefed me on the latest developments. 老板向我介绍了情况的最新发展。/ The soldiers were briefed about their mission. 士兵们被交代了他们的任务。</div><br><br>还有一个说法是 fill somebody in on something。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They filled him in on the status of the campaign. 他们向他介绍了竞选运动的进展情况。这个短语动词，可以有被动式。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>New jumpers were filled in on past events. (SheJumps, Aug. 24, 2015) 新参加操练的，听取了有关前几次聚会情况的介绍。</div><br><br>
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introduce
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>recommend, refer 与 introduce</b></div>都是“介绍”，但是用法不完全相同。谁把谁介绍给谁，关系要弄清楚。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 在社交场合把 A 介绍给 B，是 introduce A to B，此时 A 应该是主语所认识而是 B 所不认识的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He introduced John to Mary. 他向玛丽介绍约翰。但是如果 B 不是人而是事物，则是介绍 A 去初步了解该事物。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He introduced me to the classics. 他领我入门了解经典作品。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> introduce 就人而言，只是社交上的初步见面介绍，不涉及更深的内容。正式业务上的介绍则用 recommend 与 refer，但是两者也有区别。比如说，一个病人经过医生甲看过之后，介绍转诊到医生乙处进一步诊治。医生甲把病人介绍给医生乙，是 refer 这个病人 to 医生乙；医生甲向病人介绍医生乙，是 recommend 医生乙 to 病人。介绍一个新房客来找房东租房子，是 refer 新房客 to 房东。recommend 是将被介绍人的有用之处加以说明，让听者认为对自己有用，然后去找被介绍人；refer 则是相反，将被介绍人的需要转告另一人，看看能否满足。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 另外，还有一个“介绍”，不是介绍某人，而是介绍某个情况，此时，recommend 与 refer 都不符合，introduce 则只用于某门学问或知识的入门。如果是“介绍”一时具体的情况、事件经过、数字之类，最好用及物动词 brief，这是个单宾语动词，属于第三类或第四类动词，搭配是 brief somebody on/about something。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The boss briefed me on the latest developments. 老板向我介绍了情况的最新发展。/ The soldiers were briefed about their mission. 士兵们被交代了他们的任务。</div><br><br>还有一个说法是 fill somebody in on something。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They filled him in on the status of the campaign. 他们向他介绍了竞选运动的进展情况。这个短语动词，可以有被动式。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>New jumpers were filled in on past events. (SheJumps, Aug. 24, 2015) 新参加操练的，听取了有关前几次聚会情况的介绍。</div><br><br>
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recommend
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>recommend, refer 与 introduce</b></div>都是“介绍”，但是用法不完全相同。谁把谁介绍给谁，关系要弄清楚。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 在社交场合把 A 介绍给 B，是 introduce A to B，此时 A 应该是主语所认识而是 B 所不认识的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He introduced John to Mary. 他向玛丽介绍约翰。但是如果 B 不是人而是事物，则是介绍 A 去初步了解该事物。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He introduced me to the classics. 他领我入门了解经典作品。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> introduce 就人而言，只是社交上的初步见面介绍，不涉及更深的内容。正式业务上的介绍则用 recommend 与 refer，但是两者也有区别。比如说，一个病人经过医生甲看过之后，介绍转诊到医生乙处进一步诊治。医生甲把病人介绍给医生乙，是 refer 这个病人 to 医生乙；医生甲向病人介绍医生乙，是 recommend 医生乙 to 病人。介绍一个新房客来找房东租房子，是 refer 新房客 to 房东。recommend 是将被介绍人的有用之处加以说明，让听者认为对自己有用，然后去找被介绍人；refer 则是相反，将被介绍人的需要转告另一人，看看能否满足。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 另外，还有一个“介绍”，不是介绍某人，而是介绍某个情况，此时，recommend 与 refer 都不符合，introduce 则只用于某门学问或知识的入门。如果是“介绍”一时具体的情况、事件经过、数字之类，最好用及物动词 brief，这是个单宾语动词，属于第三类或第四类动词，搭配是 brief somebody on/about something。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The boss briefed me on the latest developments. 老板向我介绍了情况的最新发展。/ The soldiers were briefed about their mission. 士兵们被交代了他们的任务。</div><br><br>还有一个说法是 fill somebody in on something。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They filled him in on the status of the campaign. 他们向他介绍了竞选运动的进展情况。这个短语动词，可以有被动式。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>New jumpers were filled in on past events. (SheJumps, Aug. 24, 2015) 新参加操练的，听取了有关前几次聚会情况的介绍。</div><br><br>
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regretful
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>regretful 与 regrettable</b></div>前者指人自己的内心感到惋惜；后者指事物令人感到惋惜。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She felt very regretful about it. 她对此感到很遗憾。/ This is a most regrettable mistake on our part. 这是我们的一个令人十分遗憾的错误。从这两个形容词派生的副词 regretfully 和 regrettably，仍然保持了前者指人、后者指事的区别。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Regretfully, shesevered their relationship. 她遗憾地中断了他们的关系。/ Regrettably, the hurricane upset their cruise plans. 可惜飓风打乱了他们航海观光的计划。</div><br><br>
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regrettable
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>regretful 与 regrettable</b></div>前者指人自己的内心感到惋惜；后者指事物令人感到惋惜。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She felt very regretful about it. 她对此感到很遗憾。/ This is a most regrettable mistake on our part. 这是我们的一个令人十分遗憾的错误。从这两个形容词派生的副词 regretfully 和 regrettably，仍然保持了前者指人、后者指事的区别。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Regretfully, shesevered their relationship. 她遗憾地中断了他们的关系。/ Regrettably, the hurricane upset their cruise plans. 可惜飓风打乱了他们航海观光的计划。</div><br><br>
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regulation
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>regulation, provision 与 stipulation</b></div>中文中往往笼统译成“规定”。其实 regulation 是有关公权力部门发布的一整个规范性的文书，可以译成“条例”或“规章”。provision 则是某一条例或规章之内的某项规定。stipulation 则是契约而非法律中的某项规定，也可以称为“约定”。<br><br>
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recall
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>remember, recall 与 recollect</b></div>这三个动词的含义，在中文中都是“回忆，记忆”，有时可以换用，但在“有意或无意”“延续或瞬时”“从无到有或一直有”“指过去或将来”等方面，也有一些区别。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 通常认为，remember 是不经过努力、自然而然地记得，而 recollect 和 recall 则是努力去回忆。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I remember long pieces of Shakespeare. 我记得莎士比亚作品中一些很长的段落。/ He said he remembered the man well. 他说他对这个人还记得很清楚。/ He remembers every detail of that occurrence as though it happened yesterday. 那件事情的经过，他一五一十都记得很清楚，恍如昨日。/ Beasts and babies remember, that is, recognize; man alone recollects. (Samuel Taylor Coleridge) 禽兽和婴儿自然地记忆，也就是辨认；只有人类能回忆。/ She tried to recollect some instance of goodness, some distinguished trait of integrity or benevolence, that might rescue him from the attacks of Mr. Darcy. (Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice) 她竭力要想超一两件足以说明他品行优良的事实，想起他一些为人诚实仁爱的特性，使达西先生所受到的诽谤可以不攻自破。</div><br><br>由于 remember 和 recollect/recall 有这个“自然记得”和“努力回想”的区别，所以亨利·W. 福勒认为，如果要说自己记不起来，就要说 I don't remember. 或 I can't recollect/recall. 因为 remember 与努力无关，用 can't 不合适，要用 don't 说明这个“记得”的状态不存在；recollect/recall 则涉及努力，说 don't 就是“自己不去努力回想”，也不合适，要说成“虽然努力但达不到目的”，所以要说 can't。同样，He tried to recall what he could about the meeting. (他努力回忆会面的情况。) 这里的 recall 也不能改为 remember。此外，由于 remember 有延续性而且是长期的，所以不常同 often 之类表示断断续续的时间副词一起使用，但 recall 则可。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She was always dangling and ogling after him, I recollect now... (William Makepeace Thackeray, Vanity Fair) 我记起来了，她老是跟在乔治后面飞眼儿……(是当时记起来，不是一直记得，所以不说 remember 而说 recollect。)</div>另外，如果 remember 表示有意志的“纪念”甚至“纪念行动”，就可以同表示意志的词语搭配。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Those are the people who used to stand up and fight for their land. We have to remember them. (Newsweek, Apr. 28, 2008, p. 26) 他们是一些敢于奋起保卫自己国家的人。我们应该纪念他们。</div><br><br>remember 虽然是延续性的状态，但是也可以表示“从记不起到记起来”的变化，也就是这个延续状态的开始(此时由第一类动词转为第四类动词，但还是指自然而然地记起来，而不是绞尽脑汁地追忆结果)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Finally he remembered the tiny detail that had eluded him the night before. 终于他记起来了昨天夜里记不起来的那个小小的细节。 (2) 但是在实际语言运用中，recollect 和 recall 有时候也“侵入”remember 的领域，用于无努力地自然记忆，只是没有 remember 用得那么多、那么符合规范。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I don't recollect (= remember) ever hearing anything foolish about Rebekah. (Ellen Glasgow, Barren Ground) 我不记得听谁说过丽贝卡的坏话。/ Thank you for recollecting (= remembering) my weakness. (Emily Dickinson) 谢谢你还记得我的软弱。/ I can still recall the day we met. 我还记得我们见面的那一天。/ I can't recall what he said. 他说的什么，我记不起来了。另一方面，remember 也用于努力地回忆。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I couldn't remember his name. 我记不起他的名字来。</div><br><br>不过这种换用仍然有其限制。recollect 和 recall 代替 remember，只能用于对过去的回忆，不能用于对目前尤其是对将来的提醒(或是要做而未做的事)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She gave me a list of things to remember (<i>recall, </i>recollect). 她给了我一张要记住的事情的清单。/ Remember (<i>recall, </i>recollect) to go to the post office. 别忘了到邮局去一趟。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 至于 recollect 与 recall 的区别，前者着重在“努力回想”的过程(而且往事往往是一连串的长过程)，后者则着重“回想起来”的结果(往事常压缩成为混沌的一团)。因此，recollect 可以作为第二类动词，有进行时态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In the film clip I saw, this woman was recollecting how people from the town came to her father and asked for the keys to his barn, which he gave them. 在我看到的影片剪辑中，这个妇女在回想，当年城里的人如何来找她父亲，问他要他马厩的钥匙，他也也就给了他们。recall 如果指只有一个场景的回忆，通常不用进行时态，但是如果是回忆起了一个连续的过程，也可以有进行时态。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I was recalling his words as he challenged budgeting processes to be transparent. 我当时在努力回想他敦促将预算编制过程透明化时所说的话。</div><br><br>
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recollect
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>remember, recall 与 recollect</b></div>这三个动词的含义，在中文中都是“回忆，记忆”，有时可以换用，但在“有意或无意”“延续或瞬时”“从无到有或一直有”“指过去或将来”等方面，也有一些区别。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 通常认为，remember 是不经过努力、自然而然地记得，而 recollect 和 recall 则是努力去回忆。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I remember long pieces of Shakespeare. 我记得莎士比亚作品中一些很长的段落。/ He said he remembered the man well. 他说他对这个人还记得很清楚。/ He remembers every detail of that occurrence as though it happened yesterday. 那件事情的经过，他一五一十都记得很清楚，恍如昨日。/ Beasts and babies remember, that is, recognize; man alone recollects. (Samuel Taylor Coleridge) 禽兽和婴儿自然地记忆，也就是辨认；只有人类能回忆。/ She tried to recollect some instance of goodness, some distinguished trait of integrity or benevolence, that might rescue him from the attacks of Mr. Darcy. (Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice) 她竭力要想超一两件足以说明他品行优良的事实，想起他一些为人诚实仁爱的特性，使达西先生所受到的诽谤可以不攻自破。</div><br><br>由于 remember 和 recollect/recall 有这个“自然记得”和“努力回想”的区别，所以亨利·W. 福勒认为，如果要说自己记不起来，就要说 I don't remember. 或 I can't recollect/recall. 因为 remember 与努力无关，用 can't 不合适，要用 don't 说明这个“记得”的状态不存在；recollect/recall 则涉及努力，说 don't 就是“自己不去努力回想”，也不合适，要说成“虽然努力但达不到目的”，所以要说 can't。同样，He tried to recall what he could about the meeting. (他努力回忆会面的情况。) 这里的 recall 也不能改为 remember。此外，由于 remember 有延续性而且是长期的，所以不常同 often 之类表示断断续续的时间副词一起使用，但 recall 则可。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She was always dangling and ogling after him, I recollect now... (William Makepeace Thackeray, Vanity Fair) 我记起来了，她老是跟在乔治后面飞眼儿……(是当时记起来，不是一直记得，所以不说 remember 而说 recollect。)</div>另外，如果 remember 表示有意志的“纪念”甚至“纪念行动”，就可以同表示意志的词语搭配。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Those are the people who used to stand up and fight for their land. We have to remember them. (Newsweek, Apr. 28, 2008, p. 26) 他们是一些敢于奋起保卫自己国家的人。我们应该纪念他们。</div><br><br>remember 虽然是延续性的状态，但是也可以表示“从记不起到记起来”的变化，也就是这个延续状态的开始(此时由第一类动词转为第四类动词，但还是指自然而然地记起来，而不是绞尽脑汁地追忆结果)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Finally he remembered the tiny detail that had eluded him the night before. 终于他记起来了昨天夜里记不起来的那个小小的细节。 (2) 但是在实际语言运用中，recollect 和 recall 有时候也“侵入”remember 的领域，用于无努力地自然记忆，只是没有 remember 用得那么多、那么符合规范。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I don't recollect (= remember) ever hearing anything foolish about Rebekah. (Ellen Glasgow, Barren Ground) 我不记得听谁说过丽贝卡的坏话。/ Thank you for recollecting (= remembering) my weakness. (Emily Dickinson) 谢谢你还记得我的软弱。/ I can still recall the day we met. 我还记得我们见面的那一天。/ I can't recall what he said. 他说的什么，我记不起来了。另一方面，remember 也用于努力地回忆。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I couldn't remember his name. 我记不起他的名字来。</div><br><br>不过这种换用仍然有其限制。recollect 和 recall 代替 remember，只能用于对过去的回忆，不能用于对目前尤其是对将来的提醒(或是要做而未做的事)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She gave me a list of things to remember (<i>recall, </i>recollect). 她给了我一张要记住的事情的清单。/ Remember (<i>recall, </i>recollect) to go to the post office. 别忘了到邮局去一趟。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 至于 recollect 与 recall 的区别，前者着重在“努力回想”的过程(而且往事往往是一连串的长过程)，后者则着重“回想起来”的结果(往事常压缩成为混沌的一团)。因此，recollect 可以作为第二类动词，有进行时态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In the film clip I saw, this woman was recollecting how people from the town came to her father and asked for the keys to his barn, which he gave them. 在我看到的影片剪辑中，这个妇女在回想，当年城里的人如何来找她父亲，问他要他马厩的钥匙，他也也就给了他们。recall 如果指只有一个场景的回忆，通常不用进行时态，但是如果是回忆起了一个连续的过程，也可以有进行时态。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I was recalling his words as he challenged budgeting processes to be transparent. 我当时在努力回想他敦促将预算编制过程透明化时所说的话。</div><br><br>
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rent
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>rent 与 lease</b></div>中文无论是说“租”还是“借”，如果只用一个字，是有歧义的。有趣的是，有关“租”和“借”产生的截然相反的歧义，也出现在一些西方语言中。英语的 rent 作为及物动词，意义既可以是“租来”，也可以是“租出”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They rented a cottage for the summer. 他们租了一间木屋度夏。/ He rented a color TV. 他租用了一部彩电。/ We rent rooms (out) to girl students. 我们向女生出租房间。/ Some landowners do not work their land but rent it to tenants. 有些土地所有者自己不种地，租给佃户耕种。/ She rented us her spare room (= She rented her spare room to us) for $200 a week. 她把多余的房间租给我们，每周 200 美元。当然，如果句子中有 from 某人，rent 显然就是“租来”；如果有 to 某人，rent 显然就是“租出”。句子中的其他信息(例如，rent 后有 out，或是 for the summer)，一般也足以表明是“租来”还是“租出”。</div><br><br>lease 与 rent 意义相近，但通常只是限于不动产(rent 则可以用于不动产、汽车、用具甚至衣物)，而且通常多指“租出”，但偶尔也可以用于“租来”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They have leased the house where they live for three years. 他们现在住的房子已经租了 3 年了。</div><br><br>中文“借”究竟是“借来”还是“借出”，会有歧义，“贷”是“贷人”还是“贷出”也有歧义(会计用语“借方”指支出，“贷方”指收入，是人工规定的专业用语，日常用语“借”和“贷”都是双向的)。但是英文中与 rent、lease 意义相近的一对动词，即 borrow (“借来”)与 lend (“借出”)，却方向分明。rent 与 lease 涉及租金；borrow 与 lend 则除非是钱财的借贷，否则可以指无偿的借用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They borrowed money from the bank. 他们向银行借了钱。/ May I borrow your coat? 你的上衣可以借给我一用吗?</div><div class="ex-item">Can you lend me your bicycle? 你的自行车可以借给我一用吗?</div>
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replace
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>replace 与 substitute</b></div>参见 substitute 与 replace 条。<br><br>
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substitute
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>replace 与 substitute</b></div>参见 substitute 与 replace 条。<br><br>
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respectful
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>respectable 与 respectful</b></div>前者是“本身正派的，值得受人尊敬的；殷实的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>young people from respectable homes 正经人家的青年人</div><div class="ex-item">That's not done in respectable society. 上流社会是不这样干的。</div><br><br>后者则是“尊重别人的，有礼貌的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>be respectful to age 敬老</div><div class="ex-item">keep at a respectful distance 敬而远之。</div><br><br>
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respectable
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>respectable 与 respectful</b></div>前者是“本身正派的，值得受人尊敬的；殷实的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>young people from respectable homes 正经人家的青年人</div><div class="ex-item">That's not done in respectable society. 上流社会是不这样干的。</div><br><br>后者则是“尊重别人的，有礼貌的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>be respectful to age 敬老</div><div class="ex-item">keep at a respectful distance 敬而远之。</div><br><br>
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respectfully
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>respectfully 与 respectively</b></div>意义和用法根本不同。前者是写信署名时加上客气用词(respectfully yours)；后者是“分别(对应)；各自(一一对应)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Harvard University and MIT are respectively the fourth and fifth largest employers in the area. 哈佛大学和麻省理工学院分别是该地区第四和第五大的用人单位。</div><br><br>
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respectively
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>respectfully 与 respectively</b></div>意义和用法根本不同。前者是写信署名时加上客气用词(respectfully yours)；后者是“分别(对应)；各自(一一对应)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Harvard University and MIT are respectively the fourth and fifth largest employers in the area. 哈佛大学和麻省理工学院分别是该地区第四和第五大的用人单位。</div><br><br>
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salary
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>salary, wage 与 pay</b></div>中国多年来强调体力脑力劳动一律平等，劳动报酬一律叫作“工资”。但是欧美还是注意白领、蓝领之分。大体上白领的工资叫作 salary (包括年薪上千万美元的大公司总经理)，蓝领的工资叫作 wage，但是 wage 比较正式，通常就叫作 pay。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>After all the deductions my week's pay isn't enough for us to live on. 经过七扣八扣，我一周的工钱就不够我们过日子了。</div><br><br>
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sanguine
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>sanguinary 与 sanguine</b></div>这两个形容词都源出于拉丁文的 sanguis (血液)，但是派生的意义大不相同。sanguinary 总是同“血腥，残酷”连在一起。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a sanguinary war 一场血腥的战争</div><div class="ex-item">sanguinary revenge 血腥的复仇</div><div class="ex-item">a sanguinary tyrant 嗜血的暴君。</div><br><br>sanguine 则在历史演变中归属于古代欧洲医学中的一个想象中的人体体液模式。当时认为人体有四种体液(humors)，即血液(blood)、黏液(phlegm)、黄胆汁(choler 或 yellow bile)、黑胆汁(melancholy 或 black bile)。四种体液之间比例的高低，决定人的性格，属于哪种性格的就用相关的一个形容词来表示。sanguine 是“多血质的”，性格乐观。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a sanguine temperament 乐观的性格</div><div class="ex-item">He is sanguine about our chances. 他对我们的机遇持乐观态度。</div><br><br>phlegmatic 是“黏液质的”，性格冷淡或冷静。bilious 是“胆汁质的”，性格急躁或忧伤。其中 choleric 是“黄胆汁质的”，性格急躁易怒；melancholic 是“黑胆汁质的”或“抑郁质的”，性格忧郁。<br><br>
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sanguinary
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>sanguinary 与 sanguine</b></div>这两个形容词都源出于拉丁文的 sanguis (血液)，但是派生的意义大不相同。sanguinary 总是同“血腥，残酷”连在一起。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a sanguinary war 一场血腥的战争</div><div class="ex-item">sanguinary revenge 血腥的复仇</div><div class="ex-item">a sanguinary tyrant 嗜血的暴君。</div><br><br>sanguine 则在历史演变中归属于古代欧洲医学中的一个想象中的人体体液模式。当时认为人体有四种体液(humors)，即血液(blood)、黏液(phlegm)、黄胆汁(choler 或 yellow bile)、黑胆汁(melancholy 或 black bile)。四种体液之间比例的高低，决定人的性格，属于哪种性格的就用相关的一个形容词来表示。sanguine 是“多血质的”，性格乐观。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a sanguine temperament 乐观的性格</div><div class="ex-item">He is sanguine about our chances. 他对我们的机遇持乐观态度。</div><br><br>phlegmatic 是“黏液质的”，性格冷淡或冷静。bilious 是“胆汁质的”，性格急躁或忧伤。其中 choleric 是“黄胆汁质的”，性格急躁易怒；melancholic 是“黑胆汁质的”或“抑郁质的”，性格忧郁。<br><br>
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seasonal
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>seasonable 与 seasonal</b></div>前者表示“合乎时令的，合乎季节的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Snowy weather is seasonable here in January. 这里一月份下雪的天气是合乎时令的。</div><br><br>后者则表示“季节性的”(非常年的)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>seasonal workers 季节工</div><div class="ex-item">seasonal allergies 季节性过敏</div><div class="ex-item">seasonal adjustments 季节性调整。</div><br><br>
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seasonable
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>seasonable 与 seasonal</b></div>前者表示“合乎时令的，合乎季节的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Snowy weather is seasonable here in January. 这里一月份下雪的天气是合乎时令的。</div><br><br>后者则表示“季节性的”(非常年的)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>seasonal workers 季节工</div><div class="ex-item">seasonal allergies 季节性过敏</div><div class="ex-item">seasonal adjustments 季节性调整。</div><br><br>
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sensual
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>sensual 与 sensuous</b></div>两者都是指“感官的，官能的”。但是前者更多偏重肉体上的享受，尤其是色情，有贬义；后者则较多偏重精神上的审美享受，没有贬义。<br><br>
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sensuous
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>sensual 与 sensuous</b></div>两者都是指“感官的，官能的”。但是前者更多偏重肉体上的享受，尤其是色情，有贬义；后者则较多偏重精神上的审美享受，没有贬义。<br><br>
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sewer
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>sewage, sewer 与 sewerage</b></div>sewage 是阴沟的污水。sewer 是一条条的阴沟、下水道。sewerage 是多条污水管道组成的排污系统或是抽象的排污工作。<br><br>但是三者有时候在意义上有些交叉。sewage 有时候可以指“下水道”，sewerage 有时候也可以指污水。<br><br>要注意的是：动词 wash（“洗”）加上后缀 -er 成为 washer，可以是“洗衣机”，相当于 washing machine。但是 sewer 却有两种可能，一是来自自动词 sew（“缝纫”）加上后缀 -er，意思是“缝纫机；缝纫工”；另一种则不是来自任何动词，本身是一个名词，意思是“污水”。因此要说“缝纫机”，最好说 sewing machine。<br><br>
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sewage
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>sewage, sewer 与 sewerage</b></div>sewage 是阴沟的污水。sewer 是一条条的阴沟、下水道。sewerage 是多条污水管道组成的排污系统或是抽象的排污工作。<br><br>但是三者有时候在意义上有些交叉。sewage 有时候可以指“下水道”，sewerage 有时候也可以指污水。<br><br>要注意的是：动词 wash（“洗”）加上后缀 -er 成为 washer，可以是“洗衣机”，相当于 washing machine。但是 sewer 却有两种可能，一是来自自动词 sew（“缝纫”）加上后缀 -er，意思是“缝纫机；缝纫工”；另一种则不是来自任何动词，本身是一个名词，意思是“污水”。因此要说“缝纫机”，最好说 sewing machine。<br><br>
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sewerage
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>sewage, sewer 与 sewerage</b></div>sewage 是阴沟的污水。sewer 是一条条的阴沟、下水道。sewerage 是多条污水管道组成的排污系统或是抽象的排污工作。<br><br>但是三者有时候在意义上有些交叉。sewage 有时候可以指“下水道”，sewerage 有时候也可以指污水。<br><br>要注意的是：动词 wash（“洗”）加上后缀 -er 成为 washer，可以是“洗衣机”，相当于 washing machine。但是 sewer 却有两种可能，一是来自自动词 sew（“缝纫”）加上后缀 -er，意思是“缝纫机；缝纫工”；另一种则不是来自任何动词，本身是一个名词，意思是“污水”。因此要说“缝纫机”，最好说 sewing machine。<br><br>
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shade
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>shade 与 shadow</b></div>shade 和 shadow 在词义上和用法上有一些差别。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> shade 作“阴影”解时，是不可数名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The trees provide shade (*shadow) for the animals in the summer. 树木在夏天给动物提供阴凉之地。the shade 可以指笼统的任何阴凉处。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's 100 degrees Fahrenheit in the shade. 阴凉处气温为 100 华氏度。</div><br><br>shadow 则是可数名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The trees cast long shadows across the road. 树木在路面上投下长长的影子。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 大体上 shade 着重“不被晒热或照亮”，而 shadow 则着重“阴影的形状”。因此，说 shade 时，可以不交代挡光的物体，说 shadow 时则通常需要交代是什么的 shadow。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We sat in the shade. 我们坐在阴凉处。/ ... it (= the garden) ... has neither arbor, nor alcove, nor other shade, except the shadow of the house. (William Cowper) ……花园里没有树木，没有凉亭，没有别的阴凉处，只有房子的阴影。即使交代挡光的物体，shade 变为可数名词，也还是着重“不受晒热或照亮”的意义，而不着重挡光物体的形状。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We sat down in the shade of the wall. 我们在墙壁挡住的阴凉处坐了下来。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> shade 给人的印象是正面的“大树底下好乘凉”，而 shadow 则令人想到“暗影”甚至“威胁”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>No shadow of suspicion fell on the authoress, though many other people were accused. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 虽然许多人为此受到指控，可是对真正的写信人谁也没有怀疑过。/ She stood obliquely in the shadows at the tunnel of ivy's other end. ... Charles paused before going into the dark-green shade beneath the ivy; ... (ibid.) 她站在常春藤通道另一端的阴影下，隐约可见。……查尔斯在走进常春藤昏暗的绿荫下之前，停住脚步；……</div><br><br>shadow 虽然有负面的含义，但有时候也可以带有略为正面的含义（“余荫”，当然这仍然带有“靠外力”的负面成分）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... he had spent his life living in the shadow of his father's wartime exploits ... ……他一辈子都是在他父亲战时功勋的余荫的庇护下度过的，……</div><br><br>
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shadow
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>shade 与 shadow</b></div>shade 和 shadow 在词义上和用法上有一些差别。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> shade 作“阴影”解时，是不可数名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The trees provide shade (*shadow) for the animals in the summer. 树木在夏天给动物提供阴凉之地。the shade 可以指笼统的任何阴凉处。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It's 100 degrees Fahrenheit in the shade. 阴凉处气温为 100 华氏度。</div><br><br>shadow 则是可数名词。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The trees cast long shadows across the road. 树木在路面上投下长长的影子。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 大体上 shade 着重“不被晒热或照亮”，而 shadow 则着重“阴影的形状”。因此，说 shade 时，可以不交代挡光的物体，说 shadow 时则通常需要交代是什么的 shadow。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We sat in the shade. 我们坐在阴凉处。/ ... it (= the garden) ... has neither arbor, nor alcove, nor other shade, except the shadow of the house. (William Cowper) ……花园里没有树木，没有凉亭，没有别的阴凉处，只有房子的阴影。即使交代挡光的物体，shade 变为可数名词，也还是着重“不受晒热或照亮”的意义，而不着重挡光物体的形状。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We sat down in the shade of the wall. 我们在墙壁挡住的阴凉处坐了下来。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> shade 给人的印象是正面的“大树底下好乘凉”，而 shadow 则令人想到“暗影”甚至“威胁”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>No shadow of suspicion fell on the authoress, though many other people were accused. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman) 虽然许多人为此受到指控，可是对真正的写信人谁也没有怀疑过。/ She stood obliquely in the shadows at the tunnel of ivy's other end. ... Charles paused before going into the dark-green shade beneath the ivy; ... (ibid.) 她站在常春藤通道另一端的阴影下，隐约可见。……查尔斯在走进常春藤昏暗的绿荫下之前，停住脚步；……</div><br><br>shadow 虽然有负面的含义，但有时候也可以带有略为正面的含义（“余荫”，当然这仍然带有“靠外力”的负面成分）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... he had spent his life living in the shadow of his father's wartime exploits ... ……他一辈子都是在他父亲战时功勋的余荫的庇护下度过的，……</div><br><br>
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truly
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>sincerely 与 truly</b></div>在正式的信函中，如果称呼处的收信人有姓有名(例如 Dear Mr. Adam Smith 或 Dear Madam Mary Smith)，信末落款英式英语要说 Yours sincerely，美式英语说 Sincerely yours, 后面附上自己的姓名。而如果收信人是“无名氏”(例如 Dear Sir 或 Dear Madam)，英式英语要说 Yours faithfully，美式英语要说 Yours truly。<br><br>
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sincerely
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>sincerely 与 truly</b></div>在正式的信函中，如果称呼处的收信人有姓有名(例如 Dear Mr. Adam Smith 或 Dear Madam Mary Smith)，信末落款英式英语要说 Yours sincerely，美式英语说 Sincerely yours, 后面附上自己的姓名。而如果收信人是“无名氏”(例如 Dear Sir 或 Dear Madam)，英式英语要说 Yours faithfully，美式英语要说 Yours truly。<br><br>
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small
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>small 与 little</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 首先，就单独的词义来看，如果指人，small着重其个子的小，而little则着重其年纪的轻。试比较：She is a small girl. 与 She is a little girl.<br><span class="seq">(2)</span> little (可以是形容词，也可以是副词)没有正常的比较级和最高级(只在特殊的小情况下可以有，参见little条)。small则是同其他正常的形容词一样可以有比较级和最高级。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This box is smaller than that one. 这个盒子比那个小。</div><div class="ex-item">This one is the smallest of the five. 这是五个当中最小的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> a little后面修饰可数或不可数名词时，用法有所不同：修饰可数名词时表示某具体事物形状之“小”(如a little house)；修饰不可数名词则表示某物质或性质之“稀少”(如a little courage)。而a small后面则只能修饰可数名词(如a small desk)，不能修饰不可数名词(如 <i>a small courage)。例如莫扎特有名的《弦乐小夜曲》(德文名“Eine Kleine Nachtmusik”)译成英文是“A Little Night Music”而不是 “</i>A Small Night Music”，因为music不是可数名词。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 如果去掉a，只用small，则可以作不可数名词的前置定语，同little一样有准否定的意义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The government had small cause for optimism. 政府没有多少乐观的根据。</div><div class="ex-item">They have small hope of succeeding. 他们没有多大成功的希望。最常见的是small wonder。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I was always terrible at math in school, so it's small wonder that I have such trouble filing my taxes. 我念书时数学糟糕得很，怪不得我报税时这样狼狈不堪。</div><div class="ex-item">Small wonder you had such trouble starting the car: the battery is almost completely dead! 怪不得你发动车子这样困难了：电池几乎是空的！但偶尔也有人将wonder当作可数名词，在small前加上a，意义仍然不变。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Considering the massive legal team they can afford to hire, it's a small wonder that few people are able to successfully sue the corporation for its questionable practices. 既然他们有钱雇得起这个庞大的律师团，那就怪不得很少有人能够控告这家公司的不轨行为并且胜诉。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> small beer 与 small potatoes 虽然是具体物质或复数名词，但仍然作为不可数名词处理，意思都是“无足轻重”(美国多用small potatoes)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>For him $2,000 is small potatoes. 对他来说，2,000美元无足挂齿。</div><div class="ex-item">We're small beer in the eyes of the bosses. 我们在老板们眼里一文不值。</div><br><br>
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sole
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>sole 与 only</b></div>两者作为形容词，意义大体相同。但是only的“排他”性较强，否定其他同类事物在这个场合的存在，sole则“内向”意义较强，强调本身的“专门、特地”性质。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... a group, Choose Responsibility, whose sole aim is lowering the drinking age from 21 to 18 years old. (U.S. News & World Report, Sept. 15-22, 2008, p. 10) ……有个叫作“责任自选”的团体，它唯一的目标，就是把饮酒年龄从21岁降低到18岁。(这里用sole，表示该团体全力以赴的目标；如果改为only，意思就略有变动，可能令人觉得这个团体很自我克制，是“只追求区区这个目标而已，没有别的目标，并不好高骛远”。)至于说“独家代理”，也应该说 the sole representative 而不能说 <i>the only representative，因为所着重的仍然是本身的特性，而不是排外的否定。“独项奖获得者”是 the sole prize winner 而不能说 </i>the only prize winner，因为只设一项奖，这是奖本身的特性，并不排外地强调“再也没有别的奖”。参见alone 与 only条之(4)。</div><br><br>
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someplace
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>someplace 与 some place</b></div>参见sometime, sometimes 与 some time条。<br><br>
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some place
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>someplace 与 some place</b></div>参见sometime, sometimes 与 some time条。<br><br>
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sometime
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>sometime, sometimes 与 some time</b></div>前两者都是副词，最后一个则是个名词短语。sometime指将来或过去的某一个不明确的时间点，sometimes指任何时间段中不止一次，some time则是表示具有某长度的一个时间段。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We'll meet sometime next week. 咱们下周找个时间会面。</div><div class="ex-item">They met sometime last week. 他们上周某个时候会了面。</div><div class="ex-item">Sometimes I wish I was back in the South. 有时候我真恨不得回到南方。</div><div class="ex-item">He returned to Shanghai some time ago. 前些时候他回到了上海。(这个例句中的 some time 是一个时间段，加上ago，又成为时间点，说明非延续动词returned发生的时间。) some time 同 sometime 及 sometimes 的一个明显的区别，就是 some time 作为一个名词成分，如果去掉，句子就不成为句子；而 sometime 和 sometimes 作为状语成分，去掉了尽管句子意思变了，句子仍然不缺任何必要成分。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Set aside some time for me. 分点时间给我吧。(这里的 some time 是直接宾语，去掉了，剩下 Set aside for me。句子就要垮，不知所云。)</div><div class="ex-item">We'll meet (sometime) next week. 我们将在下周某个时间见面。</div><div class="ex-item">They met (sometime) last week. 他们上周某个时间见过了。同样，someplace是副词，some place是名词短语。</div><br><br>
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some time
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>sometime, sometimes 与 some time</b></div>前两者都是副词，最后一个则是个名词短语。sometime指将来或过去的某一个不明确的时间点，sometimes指任何时间段中不止一次，some time则是表示具有某长度的一个时间段。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We'll meet sometime next week. 咱们下周找个时间会面。</div><div class="ex-item">They met sometime last week. 他们上周某个时候会了面。</div><div class="ex-item">Sometimes I wish I was back in the South. 有时候我真恨不得回到南方。</div><div class="ex-item">He returned to Shanghai some time ago. 前些时候他回到了上海。(这个例句中的 some time 是一个时间段，加上ago，又成为时间点，说明非延续动词returned发生的时间。) some time 同 sometime 及 sometimes 的一个明显的区别，就是 some time 作为一个名词成分，如果去掉，句子就不成为句子；而 sometime 和 sometimes 作为状语成分，去掉了尽管句子意思变了，句子仍然不缺任何必要成分。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Set aside some time for me. 分点时间给我吧。(这里的 some time 是直接宾语，去掉了，剩下 Set aside for me。句子就要垮，不知所云。)</div><div class="ex-item">We'll meet (sometime) next week. 我们将在下周某个时间见面。</div><div class="ex-item">They met (sometime) last week. 他们上周某个时间见过了。同样，someplace是副词，some place是名词短语。</div><br><br>
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much for
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(so) much for</b></div>参见 so much for 条。<br><br>
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south
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>south 与 southern</b></div>参见 east 与 eastern 条。<br><br>
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southern
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>south 与 southern</b></div>参见 east 与 eastern 条。<br><br>
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speak English
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>speak English 与 speak in English</b></div>speak English 是某个人或多个人习惯于或是有能力说英语，是经常性和普遍性的。speak in English 则是某个具体场合用英语说话。前者通常不用进行时态(<i>He's speaking English.)，后者通常不用一般现在时(</i>He speaks in English.)。<br><br>有一个故事。2006年3月，在一次欧盟会议上，有个法国人用英语做报告，当时在场的法国总统希拉克提出抗议，当场退场。《泰晤士报》的报道是：When Mr. Seillière, who is an English-educated steel baron, started a presentation to all 25 EU leaders, President Chirac interrupted to ask why he was speaking in English. Mr. Seillière explained: "I'm going to speak in English because that is the language of business."... Without saying another word, President Chirac, who lived in the US as a student and speaks fluent English, walked out, followed by his Foreign, Finance and Europe ministers, leaving the 24 other European leaders stunned. (Times, Mar. 24, 2006) (当接受英国教育的钢铁巨头塞耶尔先生开始向欧盟25位领导人做报告时，希拉克总统打断了他，质问他为什么说的是英语。塞耶尔先生解释说：“我要用英语，是因为这是商务语言。”……希拉克总统曾经在美国留学，能说一口流利的英语，但此时他一言不发，就带领他的外交部部长、财政部部长和欧洲事务部部长退场，留下其余24位欧洲领导人目瞪口呆。)由于说 you can 如何如何是“允许你”或“请你”的意思，在任何场合说 *You can speak English. 都不合理，因为 speak English 是本人的习惯或能力，他人无从允许或请求。要改为 You can speak in English. 满足当前特定场合的需要。<br><br>与此相类似，write English 指用英文写作的能力，write in English 则是特定场合用英文书写；read English 指阅读英文的能力，read in English 则是特定场合阅读英文。无论有无 in，通常都用于英语不是母语或尚未知道英语是否其母语的人。如果指“以英语为母语”，则当然不能用 write 或 read，只能用 speak，而且不能有 in。<br><br>
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speak in English
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>speak English 与 speak in English</b></div>speak English 是某个人或多个人习惯于或是有能力说英语，是经常性和普遍性的。speak in English 则是某个具体场合用英语说话。前者通常不用进行时态(<i>He's speaking English.)，后者通常不用一般现在时(</i>He speaks in English.)。<br><br>有一个故事。2006年3月，在一次欧盟会议上，有个法国人用英语做报告，当时在场的法国总统希拉克提出抗议，当场退场。《泰晤士报》的报道是：When Mr. Seillière, who is an English-educated steel baron, started a presentation to all 25 EU leaders, President Chirac interrupted to ask why he was speaking in English. Mr. Seillière explained: "I'm going to speak in English because that is the language of business."... Without saying another word, President Chirac, who lived in the US as a student and speaks fluent English, walked out, followed by his Foreign, Finance and Europe ministers, leaving the 24 other European leaders stunned. (Times, Mar. 24, 2006) (当接受英国教育的钢铁巨头塞耶尔先生开始向欧盟25位领导人做报告时，希拉克总统打断了他，质问他为什么说的是英语。塞耶尔先生解释说：“我要用英语，是因为这是商务语言。”……希拉克总统曾经在美国留学，能说一口流利的英语，但此时他一言不发，就带领他的外交部部长、财政部部长和欧洲事务部部长退场，留下其余24位欧洲领导人目瞪口呆。)由于说 you can 如何如何是“允许你”或“请你”的意思，在任何场合说 *You can speak English. 都不合理，因为 speak English 是本人的习惯或能力，他人无从允许或请求。要改为 You can speak in English. 满足当前特定场合的需要。<br><br>与此相类似，write English 指用英文写作的能力，write in English 则是特定场合用英文书写；read English 指阅读英文的能力，read in English 则是特定场合阅读英文。无论有无 in，通常都用于英语不是母语或尚未知道英语是否其母语的人。如果指“以英语为母语”，则当然不能用 write 或 read，只能用 speak，而且不能有 in。<br><br>
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devil
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(speak of the) devil</b></div>speak of the devil 相当于中文的“说曹操，曹操就到”。正在谈到某个人，某个人刚巧就来了。这里的 devil 没有贬义。<br><br>
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speak of the devil
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(speak of the) devil</b></div>speak of the devil 相当于中文的“说曹操，曹操就到”。正在谈到某个人，某个人刚巧就来了。这里的 devil 没有贬义。<br><br>
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talk
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>speak 与 talk</b></div>两个动词意义和用法差不多，往往可以互换。但是也有一些差别：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> talk 使人想到谈的内容；speak 则较多停留在口头表达这一行动上。因此，talk 可以表示双方就某事项进行交谈，speak 就没有这方面的含义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm always here if you want to talk (<i>speak). 你如果耍谈，随时可以来这里找我。/ The two sides are ready to talk (</i>speak). 双方都准备好要交谈。/ They refused to talk (*speak) about sovereignty. 他们拒绝谈主权问题。(talk 是拿主权问题来进行谈判；speak 是自己一方就主权问题发表意见。)</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> talks 作为名词甚至可以代替 negotiations (谈判)，而 speak 派生的名词 speech 则只能是单方面的意见表达。talk 没有 speak 正式。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>When she walked into the room, everybody stopped talking. 她走进房间的时候，人人都停止了交谈。(这些零零星星的交谈是不正式的，用 speaking 就不妥)</div><div class="ex-item">This is Professor So-and-so, who is going to speak to us on recent developments in low-temperature physics. 这位是某某教授，今天请他来给我们讲一讲低温物理学的最新发展。(严肃的学术演讲，不是交谈，用 speak)</div><div class="ex-item">This is Mr. Stevenson, who's going to talk to us about gardening. 这位是史蒂文森先生，今天请他来给我们谈谈园艺。(日常的园艺不是重大的学术问题，比较随便，用 talk)</div><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 涉及说话的生理功能，以及讲什么语言，要用 speak，不用 talk。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His throat operation has left him unable to speak (*to talk). 他喉部动了手术之后，就不能说话了。/ She speaks three languages fluently. 她能流利地讲三种语言。/ We spokeFrench so that the children wouldn't understand. 为了不让孩子们听懂，我们讲法语。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 在电话里同某人交谈，通常说 speak to somebody (美式英语也说 speak with somebody)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Hello. Could I speak to Karen, please? 喂，请问凯伦在吗？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 用状语来限定所说的范围(“就……而言”)，由于是单方面的意见表达而非双方或多方的交谈，也用 speak 而不用 talk。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But it was, politically speaking (<i>talking), love at first sight. (Newsweek, Oct. 15, 2007, p. 40)但是，从政治上说，那是一次一见钟情。/ At this moment, strictly speaking (</i>talking), they had no business being there. 在这样的时刻，严格地说，他们在那里没什么事。</div><br><br>
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speak
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>speak 与 talk</b></div>两个动词意义和用法差不多，往往可以互换。但是也有一些差别：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> talk 使人想到谈的内容；speak 则较多停留在口头表达这一行动上。因此，talk 可以表示双方就某事项进行交谈，speak 就没有这方面的含义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm always here if you want to talk (<i>speak). 你如果耍谈，随时可以来这里找我。/ The two sides are ready to talk (</i>speak). 双方都准备好要交谈。/ They refused to talk (*speak) about sovereignty. 他们拒绝谈主权问题。(talk 是拿主权问题来进行谈判；speak 是自己一方就主权问题发表意见。)</div><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> talks 作为名词甚至可以代替 negotiations (谈判)，而 speak 派生的名词 speech 则只能是单方面的意见表达。talk 没有 speak 正式。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>When she walked into the room, everybody stopped talking. 她走进房间的时候，人人都停止了交谈。(这些零零星星的交谈是不正式的，用 speaking 就不妥)</div><div class="ex-item">This is Professor So-and-so, who is going to speak to us on recent developments in low-temperature physics. 这位是某某教授，今天请他来给我们讲一讲低温物理学的最新发展。(严肃的学术演讲，不是交谈，用 speak)</div><div class="ex-item">This is Mr. Stevenson, who's going to talk to us about gardening. 这位是史蒂文森先生，今天请他来给我们谈谈园艺。(日常的园艺不是重大的学术问题，比较随便，用 talk)</div><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 涉及说话的生理功能，以及讲什么语言，要用 speak，不用 talk。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>His throat operation has left him unable to speak (*to talk). 他喉部动了手术之后，就不能说话了。/ She speaks three languages fluently. 她能流利地讲三种语言。/ We spokeFrench so that the children wouldn't understand. 为了不让孩子们听懂，我们讲法语。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 在电话里同某人交谈，通常说 speak to somebody (美式英语也说 speak with somebody)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Hello. Could I speak to Karen, please? 喂，请问凯伦在吗？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 用状语来限定所说的范围(“就……而言”)，由于是单方面的意见表达而非双方或多方的交谈，也用 speak 而不用 talk。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>But it was, politically speaking (<i>talking), love at first sight. (Newsweek, Oct. 15, 2007, p. 40)但是，从政治上说，那是一次一见钟情。/ At this moment, strictly speaking (</i>talking), they had no business being there. 在这样的时刻，严格地说，他们在那里没什么事。</div><br><br>
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autumn
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>spring, summer, autumn 与 winter</b></div>一年四季，前面要不要 the 的问题：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为笼统的、与天气及自然景观有关的季节，可以有 the，也可以没有 the。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Rome is lovely in (the) spring. 罗马在春天风光明媚。/ I like (the) winter best. 我最喜欢冬天。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 如果指特定某一年的某季节，不论这一年是否明白说出，都必须有 the。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He spent his holiday here in the summer (*summer) last year. 他去年夏季在这里度假。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 尤其是如果只涉及时间的位置，不涉及天气及自然景观，就必须有 the。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Five months earlier, her husband lost his job ... Now it was the summer (*summer) and the family savings were gone. (The Daily Gazette, Dec. 22, 2008, A1) 5个月以前，她的丈夫丢了工作……现在已经到了夏季，家里的积蓄花光了。(如果说 now it was summer，意思就变成“现在天气热了”。)</div>可见，凡是没有 the 的，都是同天气或自然景观有关的，但有 the 则可以有关也可以无关。<br><br>
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spring
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>spring, summer, autumn 与 winter</b></div>一年四季，前面要不要 the 的问题：<br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 作为笼统的、与天气及自然景观有关的季节，可以有 the，也可以没有 the。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Rome is lovely in (the) spring. 罗马在春天风光明媚。/ I like (the) winter best. 我最喜欢冬天。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 如果指特定某一年的某季节，不论这一年是否明白说出，都必须有 the。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He spent his holiday here in the summer (*summer) last year. 他去年夏季在这里度假。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 尤其是如果只涉及时间的位置，不涉及天气及自然景观，就必须有 the。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Five months earlier, her husband lost his job ... Now it was the summer (*summer) and the family savings were gone. (The Daily Gazette, Dec. 22, 2008, A1) 5个月以前，她的丈夫丢了工作……现在已经到了夏季，家里的积蓄花光了。(如果说 now it was summer，意思就变成“现在天气热了”。)</div>可见，凡是没有 the 的，都是同天气或自然景观有关的，但有 the 则可以有关也可以无关。<br><br>
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staff
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>staff 与 stuff</b></div>两者要注意区别。<br><br>前者是“人员”的总称，是集体名词，但是也可以用来代替可数名词的复数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A total of 20 senior staff of The University of Hong Kong who have served the University for over 25 years will ... (The University of Hong Kong, Press Releases, Apr. 26, 2006)香港大学有20名在该大学工作25年以上的人员，将……</div><br><br>后者则是“材料，东西，物料”的总称，是不可数名词。<br><br>
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stuff
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>staff 与 stuff</b></div>两者要注意区别。<br><br>前者是“人员”的总称，是集体名词，但是也可以用来代替可数名词的复数。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A total of 20 senior staff of The University of Hong Kong who have served the University for over 25 years will ... (The University of Hong Kong, Press Releases, Apr. 26, 2006)香港大学有20名在该大学工作25年以上的人员，将……</div><br><br>后者则是“材料，东西，物料”的总称，是不可数名词。<br><br>
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stationary
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>stationary 与 stationery</b></div>两者发音相同，词源相同，但经过历史演变，词类和意义已经有了很大差别。<br><br>前者是个形容词，意义是“固定不动的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>stationary orbit (人造卫星的)固定轨道</div><div class="ex-item">The exchange rate has remained stationary. 汇率一直固定不变。/ He likes to ride the stationary bike for exercise. 他喜欢踩健身车做运动。</div><br><br>stationery 则是名词，意义是“文具”。<br><br>两者的词源都是拉丁文的 stationarius，原意是固定兵站的军人。到了中世纪，转为指有固定开店地点的商人，以区别于流动商贩。这些人许多是书商，因为书籍笨重，不便流动。他们同一些大学做生意，因而这个文雅的拉丁名字就用到了他们身上。从14世纪起，这些书商的名称就以 stationer 的形式进入了英语。但是他们不光是买卖书籍，也经营纸张笔墨等文具。当时印刷术尚未发明，书籍都靠手抄，因此纸张笔墨就同抄好的手写书一样重要。印刷术发明后，这些书商的营业方式发生了很大的变化。到了17世纪，经营印好的书籍的书商，改称 bookseller，而 stationer 则专指文具商。到18世纪，出现了 stationery 这个词，专指 stationer 经营的商品，即文具。<br><br>
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stationery
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>stationary 与 stationery</b></div>两者发音相同，词源相同，但经过历史演变，词类和意义已经有了很大差别。<br><br>前者是个形容词，意义是“固定不动的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>stationary orbit (人造卫星的)固定轨道</div><div class="ex-item">The exchange rate has remained stationary. 汇率一直固定不变。/ He likes to ride the stationary bike for exercise. 他喜欢踩健身车做运动。</div><br><br>stationery 则是名词，意义是“文具”。<br><br>两者的词源都是拉丁文的 stationarius，原意是固定兵站的军人。到了中世纪，转为指有固定开店地点的商人，以区别于流动商贩。这些人许多是书商，因为书籍笨重，不便流动。他们同一些大学做生意，因而这个文雅的拉丁名字就用到了他们身上。从14世纪起，这些书商的名称就以 stationer 的形式进入了英语。但是他们不光是买卖书籍，也经营纸张笔墨等文具。当时印刷术尚未发明，书籍都靠手抄，因此纸张笔墨就同抄好的手写书一样重要。印刷术发明后，这些书商的营业方式发生了很大的变化。到了17世纪，经营印好的书籍的书商，改称 bookseller，而 stationer 则专指文具商。到18世纪，出现了 stationery 这个词，专指 stationer 经营的商品，即文具。<br><br>
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steady
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>steady 与 sturdy</b></div>两者都有“稳固的，坚定的”的意义。但是 steady 侧重移动中的稳定，sturdy 则侧重静止中的坚固。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This year we've seen a steady rise in prices. 今年物价稳步上升。/ sturdy oak tables 结实的橡木桌子。即使 steady 表示没有很大变化，它所指的数量仍然是一个可变数。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>These bulky vehicles are reasonably economical at a steady 56 mph. 这些笨重的汽车，如果速度稳定在每小时56英里，就可以相当节省燃油。</div><br><br>
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sturdy
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>steady 与 sturdy</b></div>两者都有“稳固的，坚定的”的意义。但是 steady 侧重移动中的稳定，sturdy 则侧重静止中的坚固。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This year we've seen a steady rise in prices. 今年物价稳步上升。/ sturdy oak tables 结实的橡木桌子。即使 steady 表示没有很大变化，它所指的数量仍然是一个可变数。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>These bulky vehicles are reasonably economical at a steady 56 mph. 这些笨重的汽车，如果速度稳定在每小时56英里，就可以相当节省燃油。</div><br><br>
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still other
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>still other(s)</b></div>参见 other 条之(4)。<br><br>
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still others
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>still other(s)</b></div>参见 other 条之(4)。<br><br>
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tactics
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>strategy 与 tactics</b></div>原来是军事用语。前者是“战略”，指涉及整个战争或一个大战区作战的构思、计划、方案；后者是“战术”，指具体战场上某一小部分的用兵艺术。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The theater of war is the province of strategy, the field of battle is the province of tactics. (Sir Edward Bruce Hamley)战区是战略的领域，战场是战术的领域。转用到政治上，前者的中译文仍然是“战略”，后者则是“策略”。领域大小之分，也同军事上相仿。但是 tactics 有时候略带贬义。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>delaying tactics 缓兵之计。当然，军事上和政治上并不太在乎这个问题。</div><br><br>但是，转用到商业上或其他非政治领域，情况就有些变化。strategy 中文里可以译成“战略”，也可以译成“策略”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>marketing strategy 营销战略，营销策略。而 tactics 一词可能因为商业要讲“诚信”，就较少使用。例如 business strategy 是“经营策略”，business tactics 则较为少见。“博弈策略”（中文不叫“博弈战略”）则叫作 game strategy，不叫 *game tactics。总之，由于非军事和非政治领域中，“大”和“小”的区别比较模糊，strategy 到了中文里有时译为“战略”，有时译为“策略”，但 tactics 则用得不多。即使在政治领域，有时候也用 strategy 来表示权宜之计，而不用 tactics。</div><br><br>
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strategy
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>strategy 与 tactics</b></div>原来是军事用语。前者是“战略”，指涉及整个战争或一个大战区作战的构思、计划、方案；后者是“战术”，指具体战场上某一小部分的用兵艺术。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The theater of war is the province of strategy, the field of battle is the province of tactics. (Sir Edward Bruce Hamley)战区是战略的领域，战场是战术的领域。转用到政治上，前者的中译文仍然是“战略”，后者则是“策略”。领域大小之分，也同军事上相仿。但是 tactics 有时候略带贬义。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>delaying tactics 缓兵之计。当然，军事上和政治上并不太在乎这个问题。</div><br><br>但是，转用到商业上或其他非政治领域，情况就有些变化。strategy 中文里可以译成“战略”，也可以译成“策略”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>marketing strategy 营销战略，营销策略。而 tactics 一词可能因为商业要讲“诚信”，就较少使用。例如 business strategy 是“经营策略”，business tactics 则较为少见。“博弈策略”（中文不叫“博弈战略”）则叫作 game strategy，不叫 *game tactics。总之，由于非军事和非政治领域中，“大”和“小”的区别比较模糊，strategy 到了中文里有时译为“战略”，有时译为“策略”，但 tactics 则用得不多。即使在政治领域，有时候也用 strategy 来表示权宜之计，而不用 tactics。</div><br><br>
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successful
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>successful 与 successive</b></div>前者是“成功的”；后者是“连续的，相继的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a successful attempt to land on the moon 成功的登月之举</div><div class="ex-item">three successive years of low rainfall 连续 3 年少雨。这两个不同的形容词，也是来自自动词 succeed 的两个不同词义。</div><br><br>
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successive
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>successful 与 successive</b></div>前者是“成功的”；后者是“连续的，相继的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a successful attempt to land on the moon 成功的登月之举</div><div class="ex-item">three successive years of low rainfall 连续 3 年少雨。这两个不同的形容词，也是来自自动词 succeed 的两个不同词义。</div><br><br>
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summon
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>summon 与 summons</b></div>summon 是个动词(表示“召唤”)。summons 则是个单数名词(尽管是以 -s 结尾)，复数是 summonses。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a summons 一则召唤令，一道传唤出庭通知。但是，summons 也可以作动词，意思是“(法院)传唤出庭”。</div><br><br>
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summons
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>summon 与 summons</b></div>summon 是个动词(表示“召唤”)。summons 则是个单数名词(尽管是以 -s 结尾)，复数是 summonses。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a summons 一则召唤令，一道传唤出庭通知。但是，summons 也可以作动词，意思是“(法院)传唤出庭”。</div><br><br>
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startle
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>surprise, amaze, astonish, astound 与 startle</b></div>这几个都是瞬时的及物动词，意义大体上都是“使惊讶”，但是有细微的差别。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> surprise 原来有军事上的“出其不意，攻其不备”的含义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>R.A.F. bombers surprised a large invasion training exercise and inflicted heavy losses. (William Lawrence Shirer) (英国)皇家空军轰炸机突袭了(德军的)一场大型渡海作战演习，使之遭受重创。</div><br><br>这个动词，也扩大用于非军事方面(“撞破”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A detective surprised him (in the act of) breaking into the warehouse. 他正在闯入仓库时，被一名侦探撞破了。</div><br><br>所以，surprise 着重“突然，无备”，而不着重“惊慌”的心理效果，甚至不涉及双方对抗的场合，只要是“忽然”，都可以用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Housemaids must vanish silently if surprised at their tasks. (Victoria Mary Sackville-West) 女仆们干活时如果忽然有人前来，就应该静悄悄地退出。而且，涉及的甚至可以是好事。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She surprised her parents with a present on their wedding anniversary. 她送给父母一件结婚纪念礼物，给他们来个惊喜。</div><br><br>但是 surprise 用于被动句，则转为着重“惊讶”的心理效果。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She could no longer be surprised by anything he might say or do. 他无论说什么，做什么，她都不会感到惊讶了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> amaze 着重“惊奇”的心理效果。引起“惊奇”的原因常常是正面的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The circus amazed and delighted the children. 马戏让孩子们看了感到惊奇和高兴。/ I'm amazed by/at his rapid progress in English. 他的英语进步这么快，使我感到惊讶。/ That he should even speak to her was amazing! (Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice) 他居然还会走上前跟她说话，光是这一点，就够叫人惊讶的了!</div>也可以是中性的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She was amazed to hear the news. 她听到消息很惊讶。(news 可能好也可能坏)。</div><br><br>也可以是负面的(但不是“惊讶”到不得了)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm amazed (that) he should have accepted the offer. 他接受了这个提议，我感到大惑不解。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> astonish 有人认为来自 stone，也有人认为来自拉丁文 ex (外来) + tonāre (雷鸣)，无论如何，都有点“使人惊讶得目瞪口呆”的意思，正面负面都可以。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I was astonished to learn that he had resigned. 我听说他辞了职，十分惊讶。/ ... while still an undergraduate ... (he) had astonished the scientific world by his acceleration of the metamorphosis of the tadpole. (Sir Compton Mackenzie) ……他还是个大学本科生的时候……就已经加快了蝌蚪的变形过程，使得科学界大为震惊。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> astound 也是来自拉丁文 ex (外来) + tonāre (雷鸣)，“惊讶”的力度又比 astonish 强，接近于“震惊”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Her love affair astounded her parents, who abruptly put an end to it. 她的偷情行为使父母大为震惊，于是父母猛然加以制止。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> startle 也是“惊讶”，意思同 astonish 差不多，但是有时候带有“惊动”的“动”意，着重“把(某人)从不注意或没有知觉的状态中猛然唤醒”。正面负面都可以。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>startle a person out of/from his sleep 把某人从睡眠状态中弄醒过来</div><div class="ex-item">The barking of a dog startled me. 一只狗的吠声惊动了我。/ He was startled to see how beautiful she was. 她是多么的美丽，他看见了顿时觉得惊艳。</div><br><br>
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surprise
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>surprise, amaze, astonish, astound 与 startle</b></div>这几个都是瞬时的及物动词，意义大体上都是“使惊讶”，但是有细微的差别。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> surprise 原来有军事上的“出其不意，攻其不备”的含义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>R.A.F. bombers surprised a large invasion training exercise and inflicted heavy losses. (William Lawrence Shirer) (英国)皇家空军轰炸机突袭了(德军的)一场大型渡海作战演习，使之遭受重创。</div><br><br>这个动词，也扩大用于非军事方面(“撞破”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A detective surprised him (in the act of) breaking into the warehouse. 他正在闯入仓库时，被一名侦探撞破了。</div><br><br>所以，surprise 着重“突然，无备”，而不着重“惊慌”的心理效果，甚至不涉及双方对抗的场合，只要是“忽然”，都可以用。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Housemaids must vanish silently if surprised at their tasks. (Victoria Mary Sackville-West) 女仆们干活时如果忽然有人前来，就应该静悄悄地退出。而且，涉及的甚至可以是好事。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She surprised her parents with a present on their wedding anniversary. 她送给父母一件结婚纪念礼物，给他们来个惊喜。</div><br><br>但是 surprise 用于被动句，则转为着重“惊讶”的心理效果。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She could no longer be surprised by anything he might say or do. 他无论说什么，做什么，她都不会感到惊讶了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> amaze 着重“惊奇”的心理效果。引起“惊奇”的原因常常是正面的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The circus amazed and delighted the children. 马戏让孩子们看了感到惊奇和高兴。/ I'm amazed by/at his rapid progress in English. 他的英语进步这么快，使我感到惊讶。/ That he should even speak to her was amazing! (Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice) 他居然还会走上前跟她说话，光是这一点，就够叫人惊讶的了!</div>也可以是中性的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She was amazed to hear the news. 她听到消息很惊讶。(news 可能好也可能坏)。</div><br><br>也可以是负面的(但不是“惊讶”到不得了)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm amazed (that) he should have accepted the offer. 他接受了这个提议，我感到大惑不解。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> astonish 有人认为来自 stone，也有人认为来自拉丁文 ex (外来) + tonāre (雷鸣)，无论如何，都有点“使人惊讶得目瞪口呆”的意思，正面负面都可以。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I was astonished to learn that he had resigned. 我听说他辞了职，十分惊讶。/ ... while still an undergraduate ... (he) had astonished the scientific world by his acceleration of the metamorphosis of the tadpole. (Sir Compton Mackenzie) ……他还是个大学本科生的时候……就已经加快了蝌蚪的变形过程，使得科学界大为震惊。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> astound 也是来自拉丁文 ex (外来) + tonāre (雷鸣)，“惊讶”的力度又比 astonish 强，接近于“震惊”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Her love affair astounded her parents, who abruptly put an end to it. 她的偷情行为使父母大为震惊，于是父母猛然加以制止。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> startle 也是“惊讶”，意思同 astonish 差不多，但是有时候带有“惊动”的“动”意，着重“把(某人)从不注意或没有知觉的状态中猛然唤醒”。正面负面都可以。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>startle a person out of/from his sleep 把某人从睡眠状态中弄醒过来</div><div class="ex-item">The barking of a dog startled me. 一只狗的吠声惊动了我。/ He was startled to see how beautiful she was. 她是多么的美丽，他看见了顿时觉得惊艳。</div><br><br>
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tactic
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>tactic 与 tactics</b></div>单独一条计策是 a tactic；“策略”的整体是 tactics。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... a tactic they probably meant to keep to themselves. (The Economist, Feb. 27, 2010, p. 5) ……这条计策，他们大概本来是秘而不宣的。</div><br><br>
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granted
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(take...for) granted</b></div>take ... for granted (都是指延续性的状态) 的用法和含义都有点复杂。 (1) 最基本的含义是“视为当然”，不去深究为什么，也不设想万一不如此又会如何，多少有一点负面的意义。直接宾语是某一情况。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We take the air we breathe and the water we drink for granted, just as the sun and the moon. 我们对于自己呼吸的空气和喝的水，都视为理所当然，就像看到太阳和月亮一样。/ The government should not take the people's support for granted. 政府不应该把民众的拥护视为理所当然。/ I was amazed that virtually all the things I took for granted up north just didn't happen in London. 我原先把北方那边的事情想得十分理所当然，没想到到了伦敦全都不是那么一回事。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 可以去掉负面的意义，用以表示“肯定不成问题”。直接宾语也是某一情况。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We may take that for granted. 那一点可以算是不成问题。/ It is taken for granted that every child should learn mathematics. 每个孩子都应该该学数学，这是不成问题的。/ We take it for granted that knowledge advances rapidly. 知识更新得很快，对这一点，我们可以肯定。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 去掉负面的意义，用以表示“掌握得十分熟练，得心应手”。直接宾语是“本领”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I came into adult life clueless about a lot of things that most people take for granted. 我成年时，对于大多数人得心应手的许多事情，却茫无所知。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 直接宾语是别人或别人做的事，表示对此漠不关心，或是不识相，不领他的情。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He takes her for granted. 他不领她的情。/ You take me too much for granted. 你对我太不领情了。</div><br><br>
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take...for granted
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(take...for) granted</b></div>take ... for granted (都是指延续性的状态) 的用法和含义都有点复杂。 (1) 最基本的含义是“视为当然”，不去深究为什么，也不设想万一不如此又会如何，多少有一点负面的意义。直接宾语是某一情况。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We take the air we breathe and the water we drink for granted, just as the sun and the moon. 我们对于自己呼吸的空气和喝的水，都视为理所当然，就像看到太阳和月亮一样。/ The government should not take the people's support for granted. 政府不应该把民众的拥护视为理所当然。/ I was amazed that virtually all the things I took for granted up north just didn't happen in London. 我原先把北方那边的事情想得十分理所当然，没想到到了伦敦全都不是那么一回事。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 可以去掉负面的意义，用以表示“肯定不成问题”。直接宾语也是某一情况。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We may take that for granted. 那一点可以算是不成问题。/ It is taken for granted that every child should learn mathematics. 每个孩子都应该该学数学，这是不成问题的。/ We take it for granted that knowledge advances rapidly. 知识更新得很快，对这一点，我们可以肯定。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 去掉负面的意义，用以表示“掌握得十分熟练，得心应手”。直接宾语是“本领”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I came into adult life clueless about a lot of things that most people take for granted. 我成年时，对于大多数人得心应手的许多事情，却茫无所知。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 直接宾语是别人或别人做的事，表示对此漠不关心，或是不识相，不领他的情。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He takes her for granted. 他不领她的情。/ You take me too much for granted. 你对我太不领情了。</div><br><br>
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terrible
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>terrible 与 terrific</b></div>两者词形相似，意义却恰恰相反。terrible 是“可怕的，糟糕透顶的”；terrific 是“好得很的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Conditions in these countries are terrible—there is hunger and disease everywhere. 这些国家的状况糟得很，处处是饥饿和疾病。/ The food is terrible. 食品太差了。/ You do look terrible! 你脸色太难看了！/ Our new carpet looks terrific. 我们的新地毯好看极了。/ —I'll come and give you a hand tomorrow. —Terrific. —我明天来帮你一下。—那好极了。参见 awesome 与 awful 条、dreadful 条。</div><br><br>但是与 terrific 后缀相同的 horrific 意义却与 horrible 差不多。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Traffic was horrific. 路况糟糕透了。</div><br><br>
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terrific
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>terrible 与 terrific</b></div>两者词形相似，意义却恰恰相反。terrible 是“可怕的，糟糕透顶的”；terrific 是“好得很的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Conditions in these countries are terrible—there is hunger and disease everywhere. 这些国家的状况糟得很，处处是饥饿和疾病。/ The food is terrible. 食品太差了。/ You do look terrible! 你脸色太难看了！/ Our new carpet looks terrific. 我们的新地毯好看极了。/ —I'll come and give you a hand tomorrow. —Terrific. —我明天来帮你一下。—那好极了。参见 awesome 与 awful 条、dreadful 条。</div><br><br>但是与 terrific 后缀相同的 horrific 意义却与 horrible 差不多。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Traffic was horrific. 路况糟糕透了。</div><br><br>
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said
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(that) said</b></div>that said 有“不过，但是”的意思，放在后句句首，意思同前句相反。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We are in the middle of the rainy season. That said, there has been surprisingly little rain this year. 咱们现在正处于雨季。不过，今年雨水却少得出奇。/ English is a very difficult language. That said, there are many opportunities to learn English since it is spoken all over the world. 英语是一种十分难学的语言。不过，要学英语，机会多得很，因为全世界到处有人讲英语。/ ... the economy grew by 5 percent in 1999 and by 8 percent in 2000. ... That said, the financial success stories... are still islands in a sea of stagnation. (National Geographic, November. 2001, pp. 8-9) ……经济在 1999 年增长了 5%，在 2000 年增长了 8%。……不过，金融上成功的故事……仍然只是不景气的大背景下的一些个例。如果后句意思同前句一致，就不可以用 <i>that said；例如不可以说 </i>We are in the middle of the rainy season. That said, it has been raining every day.</div>
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that said
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(that) said</b></div>that said 有“不过，但是”的意思，放在后句句首，意思同前句相反。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We are in the middle of the rainy season. That said, there has been surprisingly little rain this year. 咱们现在正处于雨季。不过，今年雨水却少得出奇。/ English is a very difficult language. That said, there are many opportunities to learn English since it is spoken all over the world. 英语是一种十分难学的语言。不过，要学英语，机会多得很，因为全世界到处有人讲英语。/ ... the economy grew by 5 percent in 1999 and by 8 percent in 2000. ... That said, the financial success stories... are still islands in a sea of stagnation. (National Geographic, November. 2001, pp. 8-9) ……经济在 1999 年增长了 5%，在 2000 年增长了 8%。……不过，金融上成功的故事……仍然只是不景气的大背景下的一些个例。如果后句意思同前句一致，就不可以用 <i>that said；例如不可以说 </i>We are in the middle of the rainy season. That said, it has been raining every day.</div>
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moment
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(the) moment</b></div>形式上是名词成分，但是可以作为连词引入时间状语从句，相当于 at the moment when。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In the looting of the ancient Nineveh palace, the destruction is not only physical. The "accumulation of knowledge" ceases the moment the object, whether it be a chunk of relief or a buried sliver of pottery, is moved from its context. 在尼尼微王宫被掠事件中，毁灭不仅仅在于实物的丧失。物品无论是一片浮雕还是一件埋在土中的碎瓦，一旦被拿走，离开了整体，“知识的积累”就停止了。</div><br><br>every moment 也可以作连词，引入时间状语从句，表示一种延续或渐进的过程。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Every moment the colloquy continued in this tone, he felt more and more guilty. (William Makepeace Thackeray, Vanity Fair) 他听得奥斯本用这样的口气说话，越来越觉得惭愧。</div><br><br>
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the moment
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(the) moment</b></div>形式上是名词成分，但是可以作为连词引入时间状语从句，相当于 at the moment when。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>In the looting of the ancient Nineveh palace, the destruction is not only physical. The "accumulation of knowledge" ceases the moment the object, whether it be a chunk of relief or a buried sliver of pottery, is moved from its context. 在尼尼微王宫被掠事件中，毁灭不仅仅在于实物的丧失。物品无论是一片浮雕还是一件埋在土中的碎瓦，一旦被拿走，离开了整体，“知识的积累”就停止了。</div><br><br>every moment 也可以作连词，引入时间状语从句，表示一种延续或渐进的过程。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Every moment the colloquy continued in this tone, he felt more and more guilty. (William Makepeace Thackeray, Vanity Fair) 他听得奥斯本用这样的口气说话，越来越觉得惭愧。</div><br><br>
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there be 与 “有”
<div class="entry"><h1>there be 与 “有”</h1><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> there be 用得很频繁，实际“存在”的含义有点淡。为了补充其分量，用了 there be 之后，可以外加 out there。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There are thousands of pianists out there, playing their fingers to the bone, and there are only about four or five superstars. (Sidney Sheldon, The Stars Shine Down)有成千上万的钢琴家拼命动手指，但成为超级明星的只有四五个。/ There are a lot of to-do apps out there. What makes one more engaging than the others? (The Wall Street Journal, Nov. 9, 2013, D12)待办事项应用程序多得很。有些很吸引人，有些则不那么吸引人，原因何在呢？</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 有时候说“有”不一定要说 there be，也可以换一下说法。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Just as in great cities one finds (= there are) firms which make a specialty of laying foundations or immense buildings, so it is often wise to employ a teacher who specializes in instructing beginners. (Josef Hofmann, Piano Playing)正如大城市里有一些公司专门为大型建筑物打地基，同样，聘一位教师专门教导初学者，这样做常常是明智的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 说某个人有某种情况或性质，可以用“there be 某情况 about 某人”的句型，这样似乎更合乎英文的习惯；参见 about 条之(1)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> 如果占有关系的双方都是比较抽象的事物，就用“to + 较大的一方(也是载体，但更为笼统)”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There was some truth to that, she thought. 她觉得这里面也有真实之处。/ There was no truth to this. 这毫不真实。/ And there seems to be an upside to all this. (Newsweek, July 16, 2007, p. 16)看来这一切也有好的一面。/ Yet there are virtues to living here (= in an old-age home). (Newsweek, Sept. 11, 2006, p. 13)住在这里有这里的好处。/ While he knew that there was no more to the message, he could not accept itsfinality. 他尽管知道这个信息到此为止，没有别的内容了，但是这样结束，他是怎样也接受不了的。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> 如果占有关系是比较固定的，只要较小的一方是比较抽象的性质，那么较大的一方即使是比较具体的事物，也用 to 来引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>There is a soul to an army as well as to the individual man, ... (U.S. News & World Report, Oct. 28, 2002, p. 44)军队同人一样，也是有灵魂的，……</div><div class="ex-item">There is depth and structure to the skin (of the fossilized dinosaur). ... there is a pattern of handing to the larger and smaller scales on the skin. (The Associated Press, Dec. 2, 2007)(恐龙化石)的皮肤有厚度，有结构。……皮肤上的大小鳞甲有带状花纹。</div><br><br>
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tracks
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(the ... side of the) tracks</b></div>美国许多城市当中有铁路穿过，分成两半。往往一边居住条件较好，是社会地位较高的住户居住的；另一边的住户则社会地位较低。因此，住在铁路路轨的哪一边，就代表了社会地位的高低。He lives on the wrong <b>side of the tracks</b>. 字面的意思是“他住在铁路的不该住的一边”，真正意思是“他同我们不是一路人”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>And she at once assigns you to your proper <b>side of the tracks</b>, and which is not the right one. (Ogden Nash) 她一下子就把你摆到你本来不合适的那个位置上。</div><br><br>
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the ... side of the tracks
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(the ... side of the) tracks</b></div>美国许多城市当中有铁路穿过，分成两半。往往一边居住条件较好，是社会地位较高的住户居住的；另一边的住户则社会地位较低。因此，住在铁路路轨的哪一边，就代表了社会地位的高低。He lives on the wrong <b>side of the tracks</b>. 字面的意思是“他住在铁路的不该住的一边”，真正意思是“他同我们不是一路人”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>And she at once assigns you to your proper <b>side of the tracks</b>, and which is not the right one. (Ogden Nash) 她一下子就把你摆到你本来不合适的那个位置上。</div><br><br>
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they say
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>they say (that)</b></div>可以引入一句谚语(they 没有具体所指)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They say when you get yourself into a hole, stop digging. 常言道，闯了祸，早脱身。也可以引入一个自己不同意的意见，后面提出不同意见。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They say a leopard can't change its spots. But ... 常言道，江山易改，本性难移。不过……</div><br><br>
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they say that
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>they say (that)</b></div>可以引入一句谚语(they 没有具体所指)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They say when you get yourself into a hole, stop digging. 常言道，闯了祸，早脱身。也可以引入一个自己不同意的意见，后面提出不同意见。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They say a leopard can't change its spots. But ... 常言道，江山易改，本性难移。不过……</div><br><br>
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think up
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>think out, think over 与 think up</b></div>这里三处的 think 都是及物动词，out、over 和 up 都是副词(不是介词)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> think out 和 think up 的意义(都是第三类或第四类动词)同中文“想出”和“想起”并不对应。大体上 think out (第三类动词，“对某已知方案加以考虑，经过一个考虑过程后使之达到更为完善的状态”)相当于中文的“考虑好”，而不是“想出”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I need time alone to think things out. 我需要单独处的时间把事情想周全。/ The book is detailed and well thought out. 这本书很详细很周全。/ Every detail has been thought out. 每一个细节都考虑过了。/ He chewed at the end of his pencil, thinking out the next problem. 他咬着铅笔尖，考虑着下一个问题。</div><br><br>与“想出”对应的是 think up (第三类或第四类动词，“经过考虑，产生出某个主意”)。而且 think up 通常的宾语是一个主意，往往不是一个广泛全面的计划，更不能照搬为中文的“想起”(即回忆起某件已有的往事)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Julian has been thinking up new ways of raising money. 朱利安陆续想出一些筹款的新办法。/ He thought up a plan to get rich quickly. 他想出了一个迅速致富的办法。/ You'd better think up a good reason for handing the work in late. 你不按期交差，最好想出个站得住的理由。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> think over 则是第二类动词(延续过程而无终点)，虽然也是对某一已知事物进行思考，但并不意味着达到目的，也就是说，着眼点是思考的过程，而对目的则并不重视。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'll think it over. 我考虑考虑吧。(这可能是一句搪塞的话，泥牛入海，没有下文)</div>
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think out
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>think out, think over 与 think up</b></div>这里三处的 think 都是及物动词，out、over 和 up 都是副词(不是介词)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> think out 和 think up 的意义(都是第三类或第四类动词)同中文“想出”和“想起”并不对应。大体上 think out (第三类动词，“对某已知方案加以考虑，经过一个考虑过程后使之达到更为完善的状态”)相当于中文的“考虑好”，而不是“想出”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I need time alone to think things out. 我需要单独处的时间把事情想周全。/ The book is detailed and well thought out. 这本书很详细很周全。/ Every detail has been thought out. 每一个细节都考虑过了。/ He chewed at the end of his pencil, thinking out the next problem. 他咬着铅笔尖，考虑着下一个问题。</div><br><br>与“想出”对应的是 think up (第三类或第四类动词，“经过考虑，产生出某个主意”)。而且 think up 通常的宾语是一个主意，往往不是一个广泛全面的计划，更不能照搬为中文的“想起”(即回忆起某件已有的往事)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Julian has been thinking up new ways of raising money. 朱利安陆续想出一些筹款的新办法。/ He thought up a plan to get rich quickly. 他想出了一个迅速致富的办法。/ You'd better think up a good reason for handing the work in late. 你不按期交差，最好想出个站得住的理由。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> think over 则是第二类动词(延续过程而无终点)，虽然也是对某一已知事物进行思考，但并不意味着达到目的，也就是说，着眼点是思考的过程，而对目的则并不重视。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'll think it over. 我考虑考虑吧。(这可能是一句搪塞的话，泥牛入海，没有下文)</div>
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think over
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>think out, think over 与 think up</b></div>这里三处的 think 都是及物动词，out、over 和 up 都是副词(不是介词)。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> think out 和 think up 的意义(都是第三类或第四类动词)同中文“想出”和“想起”并不对应。大体上 think out (第三类动词，“对某已知方案加以考虑，经过一个考虑过程后使之达到更为完善的状态”)相当于中文的“考虑好”，而不是“想出”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I need time alone to think things out. 我需要单独处的时间把事情想周全。/ The book is detailed and well thought out. 这本书很详细很周全。/ Every detail has been thought out. 每一个细节都考虑过了。/ He chewed at the end of his pencil, thinking out the next problem. 他咬着铅笔尖，考虑着下一个问题。</div><br><br>与“想出”对应的是 think up (第三类或第四类动词，“经过考虑，产生出某个主意”)。而且 think up 通常的宾语是一个主意，往往不是一个广泛全面的计划，更不能照搬为中文的“想起”(即回忆起某件已有的往事)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Julian has been thinking up new ways of raising money. 朱利安陆续想出一些筹款的新办法。/ He thought up a plan to get rich quickly. 他想出了一个迅速致富的办法。/ You'd better think up a good reason for handing the work in late. 你不按期交差，最好想出个站得住的理由。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> think over 则是第二类动词(延续过程而无终点)，虽然也是对某一已知事物进行思考，但并不意味着达到目的，也就是说，着眼点是思考的过程，而对目的则并不重视。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'll think it over. 我考虑考虑吧。(这可能是一句搪塞的话，泥牛入海，没有下文)</div>
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tired of
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>tired from 与 tired of</b></div>一般认为，肉体疲劳的原因说 tired from；精神疲劳或厌倦的原因说 tired of。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Perhaps he was just <b>tired from</b> his trip. 也许他只是旅途劳顿。/ You'll get <b>tired from</b> riding you scooter. 你滑滑板会累的。/ And I am <b>tired of</b> hearing of how brave TomHanks is! (Time, Feb. 7, 1994) 我听说汤姆·汉克斯多么勇敢，听都听腻了。在实际语言运用中，tired from 往往不用 from 而直接接上动词现在分词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm only afraid you are very <b>tired talking</b> to me. (Louisa May Alcott, Little Women) 我只是担心你同我交谈十分疲倦。</div><br><br>
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tired from
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>tired from 与 tired of</b></div>一般认为，肉体疲劳的原因说 tired from；精神疲劳或厌倦的原因说 tired of。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Perhaps he was just <b>tired from</b> his trip. 也许他只是旅途劳顿。/ You'll get <b>tired from</b> riding you scooter. 你滑滑板会累的。/ And I am <b>tired of</b> hearing of how brave TomHanks is! (Time, Feb. 7, 1994) 我听说汤姆·汉克斯多么勇敢，听都听腻了。在实际语言运用中，tired from 往往不用 from 而直接接上动词现在分词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm only afraid you are very <b>tired talking</b> to me. (Louisa May Alcott, Little Women) 我只是担心你同我交谈十分疲倦。</div><br><br>
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to do it
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>to do it 与 to do so 简化为 to</b></div>参见 (to) do it 与 (to) do so 简化为 to 条。<br><br>
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to do so 简化为 to
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>to do it 与 to do so 简化为 to</b></div>参见 (to) do it 与 (to) do so 简化为 to 条。<br><br>
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(to) do it
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(to) do it 与 (to) do so 简化为 to</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 本来动词不定式 to do it 或 to do so 已经是一个简化了的说法，用来代替前面某处出现过的一个实义动词。但是，如果它放在另一个表示主观意向或处境的动词后面，还可以更进一步简化为单独的一个 to。这类主观意向或处境的动词，包括：hate、hope、intend、would like、love、mean、plan、tell、try、want、have、need、used (to)、be able (to)、be going (to)等等。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We only fail if we choose to (= we choose to do so = we choose to fail). 我们唯有自己选择失败的时候才会失败。</div><div class="ex-item">—Would you like to come with me? —Yes, I'd love to (= love to do so = love to go with you). —您跟我一起去好吗？ —好的，我很乐意。</div><div class="ex-item">—Did you get a ticket? —No. I tried to (= tried to do so = tried to get a ticket), but there weren't any left. —您弄到票了吗？ —没有。我设法去弄，但是没有剩的了。</div><div class="ex-item">—Do you swim? —Not now but I used to (= I used to do so = I used to swim). —您游泳吗？ —现在不游了，但是从前常游。</div><div class="ex-item">He wanted to go but he wasn't able to (= wasn't able to do so = wasn't able to go). 他本来想去，但没有能够去。</div><div class="ex-item">—Why aren't you writing something? —I'm trying to (= trying to do so = trying to write something). —你怎么不写点东西？ —我正在打算写。</div><div class="ex-item">—Are you and Jennifer getting married? —We hope to (= hope to do so = hope to get married). —你和珍妮弗要结婚了吧？ —我们正有此意。(注意：hope to 是自己打算做某事，hope so 是希望客观事态如何发展)</div><div class="ex-item">—Let's go for a walk. —I don't want to (= want to do so = want to go for a walk). —咱们去散散步吧。 —我不想去。</div><div class="ex-item">Things pass, whether you want them to (= to do so = to pass) or not. 事情总是要过去的，不管你想不想它过去。</div><div class="ex-item">—Why? —Because I told you to (= to do so). —为什么？ —因为我叫你这样做的。</div><div class="ex-item">He'll do it for you if you ask him to (= to do so = to do it for you). 你如果请他给你做，他一定会做。</div><div class="ex-item">He hoped he would not have to (= to do so). 他希望不必做到这一步。</div><div class="ex-item">I can't speak French yet, but I hope I will be able to (= to do so = to speak French) soon. 我还不能讲法语，但是我希望不久之后就能。</div><div class="ex-item">Sorry I shouted at you. I didn't mean to (= mean to do so = mean to shout at you). 对不起我对您大吼了。我不是有意的。</div><div class="ex-item">—Somebody ought to clean up the bathroom. —I'llask John to (= to do so = to clean up the bathroom). —要有人来清扫一下洗澡间。 —我去叫约翰干。</div><div class="ex-item">She won't go, not even if we beg her to (= to do so = to go). 咱们就是求她，她也不会去的。</div><div class="ex-item">And because Clinton did it then, Obama doesn't have to (= have to do it) now. (Time, May 26, 2008, p. 35)而由于克林顿当时这样做了，奥巴马现在就用不着这样做了。</div><div class="ex-item">He was working in Los Angeles, but I felt the distance between us was shrinking. I wanted it to (= to be = to be shrinking) and hoped he did too. 他在洛杉矶工作，但是我觉得我们之间的距离在缩短。我很想如此，希望他也这样想。</div><div class="ex-item">I need only add here that she had never set foot in a hospital, or nursed a sick cottager, in her life. Her parents would not have allowed her to, of course; but she had never even thought of doing such a thing. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman)不过这里我要说明，她生来还没迈进过医院的门槛，也从没护理过一个乡下病人。自然，她的父母是不允许她那样的，不过她自己也从来没有想到过此等壮举。</div><div class="ex-item">That is just what every politician says. They have to, because the prosperity of our country depends on it. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman)政治家们都这么说。他们必须这么说，因为我们国家的繁荣要靠它。</div><div class="ex-item">Most working mothers, the Census Bureau reports, are back in the workforce within a year of having a child; better educated women and those who can afford to drop out are actually less likely to. (Time, July 20, 2009, p. 68)人口普查局报告说，就业的妇女，生了孩子的一年之内，大多数都返回工作岗位；那些受教育程度较高以及那些有条件离职的，则较少这样做。</div><div class="ex-item">Despite every reason not to, Carson liked Freddy Hunt. (Pascal Mercier, Night Train to Lisbon)尽管有种种理由不喜欢弗雷德·亨特，但卡森还是喜欢他。</div><br><br>有些名词后面也可以用 to 代替 to do so。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He had reason to (= to do so). 他有理由这样做。</div><div class="ex-item">Most patrons don't smoke, but the outside area gives smokers a place to (= to do so = to smoke). 大多数就餐的顾客不抽烟，但是室外区可以让抽烟者有地方抽烟。</div><div class="ex-item">If there's need to (= to do so = to call me), you can call me. 如果有需要，你可以打电话给我。</div><br><br>但是要注意两点。第一，必须本来已经是动词不定式的形式，如果是其他动词形式，例如限定动词(finite verb)或是动词现在分词(-ing)，本来就没有 to，当然不能用 to 来代替。第二，这个动词不定式的动词，如果不是有意识的主动动作，就不可以用 to 来代替，如表示“存在”或“被动”的 be，表示“(非主动)占有”的 have，在 to 后面，都不能省略为 to。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He is nice only when he has to be (<i>has to). 他唯有不得已的时候才对人亲切。</div><div class="ex-item">There are more cars than there used to be (</i>used to). 车子比从前多。</div><div class="ex-item">She hasn't been promoted yet, but she ought to be (<i>ought to). 她还没有得到提拔，但是她应该得到提拔。</div><div class="ex-item">You've got more freckles than you used to have (</i>used to). 你的雀斑比从前多了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 有时候如果 to 前面有否定词 not，则连 to 也可以省略。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Mel was tempted to laugh, then supposed he had better not (= not to = not to do so). 梅尔真想笑起来，但是又觉得最好别笑。</div><br><br>如果 not 所否定的不是动词不定式而是前面的助动词，则也是连 to 可以省略。 <div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He wanted to go, but I didn't (= didn't want to = didn't want to go). 他想去，但是我不想。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 此外，通常 to 只能代替前面出现的那个动词词组。但是，有时候前面的动词词组本身就包含了两个动词，此时 to 应该是代替两个当中表示有意识动作的那个动词。例如 When John had to cook, he didn't want to. 这里 to 当然不能代替 had (成为 <i>he didn't want to have to cook)，而只能代替 to cook (成为 he didn't want to cook)。但是，有时候，如果有适当的副词出现，就可能使得 to (否定时连 to 也省略)所代表的动词发生微妙的变化。例如这个例句如果后面再增加一句：When he had to clean, he didn't, either. 这里的 didn't，就不是代替 didn't cook，甚至不是代替 didn't clean，而是代替 didn't want to clean，这是因为副词 either 对它所管辖的(被否定的)动词词组有两个要求：(a) 同前面的(被否定的)动词词组呼应；(b) 其内容又不同于前面的那个动词词组内容，而是另有内容。而前面的(被否定的)动词词组是 didn't want to (cook)，所以后面被 either 所管辖的动词词组，就既不能是 </i>cook (因为未被否定的 cook 与 either 不能搭配，不符合条件 a)，也不能是 <i>clean (因为未被否定的 clean 与 either 也不能搭配，不符合条件 a)，也不能是 </i>didn't want to cook (不符合条件 b)。唯一符合 a 与 b 两项条件的，只能是 didn't (want to clean)。<br><br>
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do so 简化为 to
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(to) do it 与 (to) do so 简化为 to</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 本来动词不定式 to do it 或 to do so 已经是一个简化了的说法，用来代替前面某处出现过的一个实义动词。但是，如果它放在另一个表示主观意向或处境的动词后面，还可以更进一步简化为单独的一个 to。这类主观意向或处境的动词，包括：hate、hope、intend、would like、love、mean、plan、tell、try、want、have、need、used (to)、be able (to)、be going (to)等等。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We only fail if we choose to (= we choose to do so = we choose to fail). 我们唯有自己选择失败的时候才会失败。</div><div class="ex-item">—Would you like to come with me? —Yes, I'd love to (= love to do so = love to go with you). —您跟我一起去好吗？ —好的，我很乐意。</div><div class="ex-item">—Did you get a ticket? —No. I tried to (= tried to do so = tried to get a ticket), but there weren't any left. —您弄到票了吗？ —没有。我设法去弄，但是没有剩的了。</div><div class="ex-item">—Do you swim? —Not now but I used to (= I used to do so = I used to swim). —您游泳吗？ —现在不游了，但是从前常游。</div><div class="ex-item">He wanted to go but he wasn't able to (= wasn't able to do so = wasn't able to go). 他本来想去，但没有能够去。</div><div class="ex-item">—Why aren't you writing something? —I'm trying to (= trying to do so = trying to write something). —你怎么不写点东西？ —我正在打算写。</div><div class="ex-item">—Are you and Jennifer getting married? —We hope to (= hope to do so = hope to get married). —你和珍妮弗要结婚了吧？ —我们正有此意。(注意：hope to 是自己打算做某事，hope so 是希望客观事态如何发展)</div><div class="ex-item">—Let's go for a walk. —I don't want to (= want to do so = want to go for a walk). —咱们去散散步吧。 —我不想去。</div><div class="ex-item">Things pass, whether you want them to (= to do so = to pass) or not. 事情总是要过去的，不管你想不想它过去。</div><div class="ex-item">—Why? —Because I told you to (= to do so). —为什么？ —因为我叫你这样做的。</div><div class="ex-item">He'll do it for you if you ask him to (= to do so = to do it for you). 你如果请他给你做，他一定会做。</div><div class="ex-item">He hoped he would not have to (= to do so). 他希望不必做到这一步。</div><div class="ex-item">I can't speak French yet, but I hope I will be able to (= to do so = to speak French) soon. 我还不能讲法语，但是我希望不久之后就能。</div><div class="ex-item">Sorry I shouted at you. I didn't mean to (= mean to do so = mean to shout at you). 对不起我对您大吼了。我不是有意的。</div><div class="ex-item">—Somebody ought to clean up the bathroom. —I'llask John to (= to do so = to clean up the bathroom). —要有人来清扫一下洗澡间。 —我去叫约翰干。</div><div class="ex-item">She won't go, not even if we beg her to (= to do so = to go). 咱们就是求她，她也不会去的。</div><div class="ex-item">And because Clinton did it then, Obama doesn't have to (= have to do it) now. (Time, May 26, 2008, p. 35)而由于克林顿当时这样做了，奥巴马现在就用不着这样做了。</div><div class="ex-item">He was working in Los Angeles, but I felt the distance between us was shrinking. I wanted it to (= to be = to be shrinking) and hoped he did too. 他在洛杉矶工作，但是我觉得我们之间的距离在缩短。我很想如此，希望他也这样想。</div><div class="ex-item">I need only add here that she had never set foot in a hospital, or nursed a sick cottager, in her life. Her parents would not have allowed her to, of course; but she had never even thought of doing such a thing. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman)不过这里我要说明，她生来还没迈进过医院的门槛，也从没护理过一个乡下病人。自然，她的父母是不允许她那样的，不过她自己也从来没有想到过此等壮举。</div><div class="ex-item">That is just what every politician says. They have to, because the prosperity of our country depends on it. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman)政治家们都这么说。他们必须这么说，因为我们国家的繁荣要靠它。</div><div class="ex-item">Most working mothers, the Census Bureau reports, are back in the workforce within a year of having a child; better educated women and those who can afford to drop out are actually less likely to. (Time, July 20, 2009, p. 68)人口普查局报告说，就业的妇女，生了孩子的一年之内，大多数都返回工作岗位；那些受教育程度较高以及那些有条件离职的，则较少这样做。</div><div class="ex-item">Despite every reason not to, Carson liked Freddy Hunt. (Pascal Mercier, Night Train to Lisbon)尽管有种种理由不喜欢弗雷德·亨特，但卡森还是喜欢他。</div><br><br>有些名词后面也可以用 to 代替 to do so。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He had reason to (= to do so). 他有理由这样做。</div><div class="ex-item">Most patrons don't smoke, but the outside area gives smokers a place to (= to do so = to smoke). 大多数就餐的顾客不抽烟，但是室外区可以让抽烟者有地方抽烟。</div><div class="ex-item">If there's need to (= to do so = to call me), you can call me. 如果有需要，你可以打电话给我。</div><br><br>但是要注意两点。第一，必须本来已经是动词不定式的形式，如果是其他动词形式，例如限定动词(finite verb)或是动词现在分词(-ing)，本来就没有 to，当然不能用 to 来代替。第二，这个动词不定式的动词，如果不是有意识的主动动作，就不可以用 to 来代替，如表示“存在”或“被动”的 be，表示“(非主动)占有”的 have，在 to 后面，都不能省略为 to。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He is nice only when he has to be (<i>has to). 他唯有不得已的时候才对人亲切。</div><div class="ex-item">There are more cars than there used to be (</i>used to). 车子比从前多。</div><div class="ex-item">She hasn't been promoted yet, but she ought to be (<i>ought to). 她还没有得到提拔，但是她应该得到提拔。</div><div class="ex-item">You've got more freckles than you used to have (</i>used to). 你的雀斑比从前多了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 有时候如果 to 前面有否定词 not，则连 to 也可以省略。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Mel was tempted to laugh, then supposed he had better not (= not to = not to do so). 梅尔真想笑起来，但是又觉得最好别笑。</div><br><br>如果 not 所否定的不是动词不定式而是前面的助动词，则也是连 to 可以省略。 <div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He wanted to go, but I didn't (= didn't want to = didn't want to go). 他想去，但是我不想。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 此外，通常 to 只能代替前面出现的那个动词词组。但是，有时候前面的动词词组本身就包含了两个动词，此时 to 应该是代替两个当中表示有意识动作的那个动词。例如 When John had to cook, he didn't want to. 这里 to 当然不能代替 had (成为 <i>he didn't want to have to cook)，而只能代替 to cook (成为 he didn't want to cook)。但是，有时候，如果有适当的副词出现，就可能使得 to (否定时连 to 也省略)所代表的动词发生微妙的变化。例如这个例句如果后面再增加一句：When he had to clean, he didn't, either. 这里的 didn't，就不是代替 didn't cook，甚至不是代替 didn't clean，而是代替 didn't want to clean，这是因为副词 either 对它所管辖的(被否定的)动词词组有两个要求：(a) 同前面的(被否定的)动词词组呼应；(b) 其内容又不同于前面的那个动词词组内容，而是另有内容。而前面的(被否定的)动词词组是 didn't want to (cook)，所以后面被 either 所管辖的动词词组，就既不能是 </i>cook (因为未被否定的 cook 与 either 不能搭配，不符合条件 a)，也不能是 <i>clean (因为未被否定的 clean 与 either 也不能搭配，不符合条件 a)，也不能是 </i>didn't want to cook (不符合条件 b)。唯一符合 a 与 b 两项条件的，只能是 didn't (want to clean)。<br><br>
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(to) do so 简化为 to
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(to) do it 与 (to) do so 简化为 to</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 本来动词不定式 to do it 或 to do so 已经是一个简化了的说法，用来代替前面某处出现过的一个实义动词。但是，如果它放在另一个表示主观意向或处境的动词后面，还可以更进一步简化为单独的一个 to。这类主观意向或处境的动词，包括：hate、hope、intend、would like、love、mean、plan、tell、try、want、have、need、used (to)、be able (to)、be going (to)等等。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We only fail if we choose to (= we choose to do so = we choose to fail). 我们唯有自己选择失败的时候才会失败。</div><div class="ex-item">—Would you like to come with me? —Yes, I'd love to (= love to do so = love to go with you). —您跟我一起去好吗？ —好的，我很乐意。</div><div class="ex-item">—Did you get a ticket? —No. I tried to (= tried to do so = tried to get a ticket), but there weren't any left. —您弄到票了吗？ —没有。我设法去弄，但是没有剩的了。</div><div class="ex-item">—Do you swim? —Not now but I used to (= I used to do so = I used to swim). —您游泳吗？ —现在不游了，但是从前常游。</div><div class="ex-item">He wanted to go but he wasn't able to (= wasn't able to do so = wasn't able to go). 他本来想去，但没有能够去。</div><div class="ex-item">—Why aren't you writing something? —I'm trying to (= trying to do so = trying to write something). —你怎么不写点东西？ —我正在打算写。</div><div class="ex-item">—Are you and Jennifer getting married? —We hope to (= hope to do so = hope to get married). —你和珍妮弗要结婚了吧？ —我们正有此意。(注意：hope to 是自己打算做某事，hope so 是希望客观事态如何发展)</div><div class="ex-item">—Let's go for a walk. —I don't want to (= want to do so = want to go for a walk). —咱们去散散步吧。 —我不想去。</div><div class="ex-item">Things pass, whether you want them to (= to do so = to pass) or not. 事情总是要过去的，不管你想不想它过去。</div><div class="ex-item">—Why? —Because I told you to (= to do so). —为什么？ —因为我叫你这样做的。</div><div class="ex-item">He'll do it for you if you ask him to (= to do so = to do it for you). 你如果请他给你做，他一定会做。</div><div class="ex-item">He hoped he would not have to (= to do so). 他希望不必做到这一步。</div><div class="ex-item">I can't speak French yet, but I hope I will be able to (= to do so = to speak French) soon. 我还不能讲法语，但是我希望不久之后就能。</div><div class="ex-item">Sorry I shouted at you. I didn't mean to (= mean to do so = mean to shout at you). 对不起我对您大吼了。我不是有意的。</div><div class="ex-item">—Somebody ought to clean up the bathroom. —I'llask John to (= to do so = to clean up the bathroom). —要有人来清扫一下洗澡间。 —我去叫约翰干。</div><div class="ex-item">She won't go, not even if we beg her to (= to do so = to go). 咱们就是求她，她也不会去的。</div><div class="ex-item">And because Clinton did it then, Obama doesn't have to (= have to do it) now. (Time, May 26, 2008, p. 35)而由于克林顿当时这样做了，奥巴马现在就用不着这样做了。</div><div class="ex-item">He was working in Los Angeles, but I felt the distance between us was shrinking. I wanted it to (= to be = to be shrinking) and hoped he did too. 他在洛杉矶工作，但是我觉得我们之间的距离在缩短。我很想如此，希望他也这样想。</div><div class="ex-item">I need only add here that she had never set foot in a hospital, or nursed a sick cottager, in her life. Her parents would not have allowed her to, of course; but she had never even thought of doing such a thing. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman)不过这里我要说明，她生来还没迈进过医院的门槛，也从没护理过一个乡下病人。自然，她的父母是不允许她那样的，不过她自己也从来没有想到过此等壮举。</div><div class="ex-item">That is just what every politician says. They have to, because the prosperity of our country depends on it. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman)政治家们都这么说。他们必须这么说，因为我们国家的繁荣要靠它。</div><div class="ex-item">Most working mothers, the Census Bureau reports, are back in the workforce within a year of having a child; better educated women and those who can afford to drop out are actually less likely to. (Time, July 20, 2009, p. 68)人口普查局报告说，就业的妇女，生了孩子的一年之内，大多数都返回工作岗位；那些受教育程度较高以及那些有条件离职的，则较少这样做。</div><div class="ex-item">Despite every reason not to, Carson liked Freddy Hunt. (Pascal Mercier, Night Train to Lisbon)尽管有种种理由不喜欢弗雷德·亨特，但卡森还是喜欢他。</div><br><br>有些名词后面也可以用 to 代替 to do so。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He had reason to (= to do so). 他有理由这样做。</div><div class="ex-item">Most patrons don't smoke, but the outside area gives smokers a place to (= to do so = to smoke). 大多数就餐的顾客不抽烟，但是室外区可以让抽烟者有地方抽烟。</div><div class="ex-item">If there's need to (= to do so = to call me), you can call me. 如果有需要，你可以打电话给我。</div><br><br>但是要注意两点。第一，必须本来已经是动词不定式的形式，如果是其他动词形式，例如限定动词(finite verb)或是动词现在分词(-ing)，本来就没有 to，当然不能用 to 来代替。第二，这个动词不定式的动词，如果不是有意识的主动动作，就不可以用 to 来代替，如表示“存在”或“被动”的 be，表示“(非主动)占有”的 have，在 to 后面，都不能省略为 to。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He is nice only when he has to be (<i>has to). 他唯有不得已的时候才对人亲切。</div><div class="ex-item">There are more cars than there used to be (</i>used to). 车子比从前多。</div><div class="ex-item">She hasn't been promoted yet, but she ought to be (<i>ought to). 她还没有得到提拔，但是她应该得到提拔。</div><div class="ex-item">You've got more freckles than you used to have (</i>used to). 你的雀斑比从前多了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 有时候如果 to 前面有否定词 not，则连 to 也可以省略。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Mel was tempted to laugh, then supposed he had better not (= not to = not to do so). 梅尔真想笑起来，但是又觉得最好别笑。</div><br><br>如果 not 所否定的不是动词不定式而是前面的助动词，则也是连 to 可以省略。 <div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He wanted to go, but I didn't (= didn't want to = didn't want to go). 他想去，但是我不想。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 此外，通常 to 只能代替前面出现的那个动词词组。但是，有时候前面的动词词组本身就包含了两个动词，此时 to 应该是代替两个当中表示有意识动作的那个动词。例如 When John had to cook, he didn't want to. 这里 to 当然不能代替 had (成为 <i>he didn't want to have to cook)，而只能代替 to cook (成为 he didn't want to cook)。但是，有时候，如果有适当的副词出现，就可能使得 to (否定时连 to 也省略)所代表的动词发生微妙的变化。例如这个例句如果后面再增加一句：When he had to clean, he didn't, either. 这里的 didn't，就不是代替 didn't cook，甚至不是代替 didn't clean，而是代替 didn't want to clean，这是因为副词 either 对它所管辖的(被否定的)动词词组有两个要求：(a) 同前面的(被否定的)动词词组呼应；(b) 其内容又不同于前面的那个动词词组内容，而是另有内容。而前面的(被否定的)动词词组是 didn't want to (cook)，所以后面被 either 所管辖的动词词组，就既不能是 </i>cook (因为未被否定的 cook 与 either 不能搭配，不符合条件 a)，也不能是 <i>clean (因为未被否定的 clean 与 either 也不能搭配，不符合条件 a)，也不能是 </i>didn't want to cook (不符合条件 b)。唯一符合 a 与 b 两项条件的，只能是 didn't (want to clean)。<br><br>
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do it 与 do so 简化为 to
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(to) do it 与 (to) do so 简化为 to</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 本来动词不定式 to do it 或 to do so 已经是一个简化了的说法，用来代替前面某处出现过的一个实义动词。但是，如果它放在另一个表示主观意向或处境的动词后面，还可以更进一步简化为单独的一个 to。这类主观意向或处境的动词，包括：hate、hope、intend、would like、love、mean、plan、tell、try、want、have、need、used (to)、be able (to)、be going (to)等等。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We only fail if we choose to (= we choose to do so = we choose to fail). 我们唯有自己选择失败的时候才会失败。</div><div class="ex-item">—Would you like to come with me? —Yes, I'd love to (= love to do so = love to go with you). —您跟我一起去好吗？ —好的，我很乐意。</div><div class="ex-item">—Did you get a ticket? —No. I tried to (= tried to do so = tried to get a ticket), but there weren't any left. —您弄到票了吗？ —没有。我设法去弄，但是没有剩的了。</div><div class="ex-item">—Do you swim? —Not now but I used to (= I used to do so = I used to swim). —您游泳吗？ —现在不游了，但是从前常游。</div><div class="ex-item">He wanted to go but he wasn't able to (= wasn't able to do so = wasn't able to go). 他本来想去，但没有能够去。</div><div class="ex-item">—Why aren't you writing something? —I'm trying to (= trying to do so = trying to write something). —你怎么不写点东西？ —我正在打算写。</div><div class="ex-item">—Are you and Jennifer getting married? —We hope to (= hope to do so = hope to get married). —你和珍妮弗要结婚了吧？ —我们正有此意。(注意：hope to 是自己打算做某事，hope so 是希望客观事态如何发展)</div><div class="ex-item">—Let's go for a walk. —I don't want to (= want to do so = want to go for a walk). —咱们去散散步吧。 —我不想去。</div><div class="ex-item">Things pass, whether you want them to (= to do so = to pass) or not. 事情总是要过去的，不管你想不想它过去。</div><div class="ex-item">—Why? —Because I told you to (= to do so). —为什么？ —因为我叫你这样做的。</div><div class="ex-item">He'll do it for you if you ask him to (= to do so = to do it for you). 你如果请他给你做，他一定会做。</div><div class="ex-item">He hoped he would not have to (= to do so). 他希望不必做到这一步。</div><div class="ex-item">I can't speak French yet, but I hope I will be able to (= to do so = to speak French) soon. 我还不能讲法语，但是我希望不久之后就能。</div><div class="ex-item">Sorry I shouted at you. I didn't mean to (= mean to do so = mean to shout at you). 对不起我对您大吼了。我不是有意的。</div><div class="ex-item">—Somebody ought to clean up the bathroom. —I'llask John to (= to do so = to clean up the bathroom). —要有人来清扫一下洗澡间。 —我去叫约翰干。</div><div class="ex-item">She won't go, not even if we beg her to (= to do so = to go). 咱们就是求她，她也不会去的。</div><div class="ex-item">And because Clinton did it then, Obama doesn't have to (= have to do it) now. (Time, May 26, 2008, p. 35)而由于克林顿当时这样做了，奥巴马现在就用不着这样做了。</div><div class="ex-item">He was working in Los Angeles, but I felt the distance between us was shrinking. I wanted it to (= to be = to be shrinking) and hoped he did too. 他在洛杉矶工作，但是我觉得我们之间的距离在缩短。我很想如此，希望他也这样想。</div><div class="ex-item">I need only add here that she had never set foot in a hospital, or nursed a sick cottager, in her life. Her parents would not have allowed her to, of course; but she had never even thought of doing such a thing. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman)不过这里我要说明，她生来还没迈进过医院的门槛，也从没护理过一个乡下病人。自然，她的父母是不允许她那样的，不过她自己也从来没有想到过此等壮举。</div><div class="ex-item">That is just what every politician says. They have to, because the prosperity of our country depends on it. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman)政治家们都这么说。他们必须这么说，因为我们国家的繁荣要靠它。</div><div class="ex-item">Most working mothers, the Census Bureau reports, are back in the workforce within a year of having a child; better educated women and those who can afford to drop out are actually less likely to. (Time, July 20, 2009, p. 68)人口普查局报告说，就业的妇女，生了孩子的一年之内，大多数都返回工作岗位；那些受教育程度较高以及那些有条件离职的，则较少这样做。</div><div class="ex-item">Despite every reason not to, Carson liked Freddy Hunt. (Pascal Mercier, Night Train to Lisbon)尽管有种种理由不喜欢弗雷德·亨特，但卡森还是喜欢他。</div><br><br>有些名词后面也可以用 to 代替 to do so。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He had reason to (= to do so). 他有理由这样做。</div><div class="ex-item">Most patrons don't smoke, but the outside area gives smokers a place to (= to do so = to smoke). 大多数就餐的顾客不抽烟，但是室外区可以让抽烟者有地方抽烟。</div><div class="ex-item">If there's need to (= to do so = to call me), you can call me. 如果有需要，你可以打电话给我。</div><br><br>但是要注意两点。第一，必须本来已经是动词不定式的形式，如果是其他动词形式，例如限定动词(finite verb)或是动词现在分词(-ing)，本来就没有 to，当然不能用 to 来代替。第二，这个动词不定式的动词，如果不是有意识的主动动作，就不可以用 to 来代替，如表示“存在”或“被动”的 be，表示“(非主动)占有”的 have，在 to 后面，都不能省略为 to。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He is nice only when he has to be (<i>has to). 他唯有不得已的时候才对人亲切。</div><div class="ex-item">There are more cars than there used to be (</i>used to). 车子比从前多。</div><div class="ex-item">She hasn't been promoted yet, but she ought to be (<i>ought to). 她还没有得到提拔，但是她应该得到提拔。</div><div class="ex-item">You've got more freckles than you used to have (</i>used to). 你的雀斑比从前多了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 有时候如果 to 前面有否定词 not，则连 to 也可以省略。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Mel was tempted to laugh, then supposed he had better not (= not to = not to do so). 梅尔真想笑起来，但是又觉得最好别笑。</div><br><br>如果 not 所否定的不是动词不定式而是前面的助动词，则也是连 to 可以省略。 <div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He wanted to go, but I didn't (= didn't want to = didn't want to go). 他想去，但是我不想。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 此外，通常 to 只能代替前面出现的那个动词词组。但是，有时候前面的动词词组本身就包含了两个动词，此时 to 应该是代替两个当中表示有意识动作的那个动词。例如 When John had to cook, he didn't want to. 这里 to 当然不能代替 had (成为 <i>he didn't want to have to cook)，而只能代替 to cook (成为 he didn't want to cook)。但是，有时候，如果有适当的副词出现，就可能使得 to (否定时连 to 也省略)所代表的动词发生微妙的变化。例如这个例句如果后面再增加一句：When he had to clean, he didn't, either. 这里的 didn't，就不是代替 didn't cook，甚至不是代替 didn't clean，而是代替 didn't want to clean，这是因为副词 either 对它所管辖的(被否定的)动词词组有两个要求：(a) 同前面的(被否定的)动词词组呼应；(b) 其内容又不同于前面的那个动词词组内容，而是另有内容。而前面的(被否定的)动词词组是 didn't want to (cook)，所以后面被 either 所管辖的动词词组，就既不能是 </i>cook (因为未被否定的 cook 与 either 不能搭配，不符合条件 a)，也不能是 <i>clean (因为未被否定的 clean 与 either 也不能搭配，不符合条件 a)，也不能是 </i>didn't want to cook (不符合条件 b)。唯一符合 a 与 b 两项条件的，只能是 didn't (want to clean)。<br><br>
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do it 与 to do so 简化为 to
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(to) do it 与 (to) do so 简化为 to</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 本来动词不定式 to do it 或 to do so 已经是一个简化了的说法，用来代替前面某处出现过的一个实义动词。但是，如果它放在另一个表示主观意向或处境的动词后面，还可以更进一步简化为单独的一个 to。这类主观意向或处境的动词，包括：hate、hope、intend、would like、love、mean、plan、tell、try、want、have、need、used (to)、be able (to)、be going (to)等等。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We only fail if we choose to (= we choose to do so = we choose to fail). 我们唯有自己选择失败的时候才会失败。</div><div class="ex-item">—Would you like to come with me? —Yes, I'd love to (= love to do so = love to go with you). —您跟我一起去好吗？ —好的，我很乐意。</div><div class="ex-item">—Did you get a ticket? —No. I tried to (= tried to do so = tried to get a ticket), but there weren't any left. —您弄到票了吗？ —没有。我设法去弄，但是没有剩的了。</div><div class="ex-item">—Do you swim? —Not now but I used to (= I used to do so = I used to swim). —您游泳吗？ —现在不游了，但是从前常游。</div><div class="ex-item">He wanted to go but he wasn't able to (= wasn't able to do so = wasn't able to go). 他本来想去，但没有能够去。</div><div class="ex-item">—Why aren't you writing something? —I'm trying to (= trying to do so = trying to write something). —你怎么不写点东西？ —我正在打算写。</div><div class="ex-item">—Are you and Jennifer getting married? —We hope to (= hope to do so = hope to get married). —你和珍妮弗要结婚了吧？ —我们正有此意。(注意：hope to 是自己打算做某事，hope so 是希望客观事态如何发展)</div><div class="ex-item">—Let's go for a walk. —I don't want to (= want to do so = want to go for a walk). —咱们去散散步吧。 —我不想去。</div><div class="ex-item">Things pass, whether you want them to (= to do so = to pass) or not. 事情总是要过去的，不管你想不想它过去。</div><div class="ex-item">—Why? —Because I told you to (= to do so). —为什么？ —因为我叫你这样做的。</div><div class="ex-item">He'll do it for you if you ask him to (= to do so = to do it for you). 你如果请他给你做，他一定会做。</div><div class="ex-item">He hoped he would not have to (= to do so). 他希望不必做到这一步。</div><div class="ex-item">I can't speak French yet, but I hope I will be able to (= to do so = to speak French) soon. 我还不能讲法语，但是我希望不久之后就能。</div><div class="ex-item">Sorry I shouted at you. I didn't mean to (= mean to do so = mean to shout at you). 对不起我对您大吼了。我不是有意的。</div><div class="ex-item">—Somebody ought to clean up the bathroom. —I'llask John to (= to do so = to clean up the bathroom). —要有人来清扫一下洗澡间。 —我去叫约翰干。</div><div class="ex-item">She won't go, not even if we beg her to (= to do so = to go). 咱们就是求她，她也不会去的。</div><div class="ex-item">And because Clinton did it then, Obama doesn't have to (= have to do it) now. (Time, May 26, 2008, p. 35)而由于克林顿当时这样做了，奥巴马现在就用不着这样做了。</div><div class="ex-item">He was working in Los Angeles, but I felt the distance between us was shrinking. I wanted it to (= to be = to be shrinking) and hoped he did too. 他在洛杉矶工作，但是我觉得我们之间的距离在缩短。我很想如此，希望他也这样想。</div><div class="ex-item">I need only add here that she had never set foot in a hospital, or nursed a sick cottager, in her life. Her parents would not have allowed her to, of course; but she had never even thought of doing such a thing. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman)不过这里我要说明，她生来还没迈进过医院的门槛，也从没护理过一个乡下病人。自然，她的父母是不允许她那样的，不过她自己也从来没有想到过此等壮举。</div><div class="ex-item">That is just what every politician says. They have to, because the prosperity of our country depends on it. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman)政治家们都这么说。他们必须这么说，因为我们国家的繁荣要靠它。</div><div class="ex-item">Most working mothers, the Census Bureau reports, are back in the workforce within a year of having a child; better educated women and those who can afford to drop out are actually less likely to. (Time, July 20, 2009, p. 68)人口普查局报告说，就业的妇女，生了孩子的一年之内，大多数都返回工作岗位；那些受教育程度较高以及那些有条件离职的，则较少这样做。</div><div class="ex-item">Despite every reason not to, Carson liked Freddy Hunt. (Pascal Mercier, Night Train to Lisbon)尽管有种种理由不喜欢弗雷德·亨特，但卡森还是喜欢他。</div><br><br>有些名词后面也可以用 to 代替 to do so。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He had reason to (= to do so). 他有理由这样做。</div><div class="ex-item">Most patrons don't smoke, but the outside area gives smokers a place to (= to do so = to smoke). 大多数就餐的顾客不抽烟，但是室外区可以让抽烟者有地方抽烟。</div><div class="ex-item">If there's need to (= to do so = to call me), you can call me. 如果有需要，你可以打电话给我。</div><br><br>但是要注意两点。第一，必须本来已经是动词不定式的形式，如果是其他动词形式，例如限定动词(finite verb)或是动词现在分词(-ing)，本来就没有 to，当然不能用 to 来代替。第二，这个动词不定式的动词，如果不是有意识的主动动作，就不可以用 to 来代替，如表示“存在”或“被动”的 be，表示“(非主动)占有”的 have，在 to 后面，都不能省略为 to。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He is nice only when he has to be (<i>has to). 他唯有不得已的时候才对人亲切。</div><div class="ex-item">There are more cars than there used to be (</i>used to). 车子比从前多。</div><div class="ex-item">She hasn't been promoted yet, but she ought to be (<i>ought to). 她还没有得到提拔，但是她应该得到提拔。</div><div class="ex-item">You've got more freckles than you used to have (</i>used to). 你的雀斑比从前多了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 有时候如果 to 前面有否定词 not，则连 to 也可以省略。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Mel was tempted to laugh, then supposed he had better not (= not to = not to do so). 梅尔真想笑起来，但是又觉得最好别笑。</div><br><br>如果 not 所否定的不是动词不定式而是前面的助动词，则也是连 to 可以省略。 <div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He wanted to go, but I didn't (= didn't want to = didn't want to go). 他想去，但是我不想。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 此外，通常 to 只能代替前面出现的那个动词词组。但是，有时候前面的动词词组本身就包含了两个动词，此时 to 应该是代替两个当中表示有意识动作的那个动词。例如 When John had to cook, he didn't want to. 这里 to 当然不能代替 had (成为 <i>he didn't want to have to cook)，而只能代替 to cook (成为 he didn't want to cook)。但是，有时候，如果有适当的副词出现，就可能使得 to (否定时连 to 也省略)所代表的动词发生微妙的变化。例如这个例句如果后面再增加一句：When he had to clean, he didn't, either. 这里的 didn't，就不是代替 didn't cook，甚至不是代替 didn't clean，而是代替 didn't want to clean，这是因为副词 either 对它所管辖的(被否定的)动词词组有两个要求：(a) 同前面的(被否定的)动词词组呼应；(b) 其内容又不同于前面的那个动词词组内容，而是另有内容。而前面的(被否定的)动词词组是 didn't want to (cook)，所以后面被 either 所管辖的动词词组，就既不能是 </i>cook (因为未被否定的 cook 与 either 不能搭配，不符合条件 a)，也不能是 <i>clean (因为未被否定的 clean 与 either 也不能搭配，不符合条件 a)，也不能是 </i>didn't want to cook (不符合条件 b)。唯一符合 a 与 b 两项条件的，只能是 didn't (want to clean)。<br><br>
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to do it 与 do so 简化为 to
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(to) do it 与 (to) do so 简化为 to</b></div><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 本来动词不定式 to do it 或 to do so 已经是一个简化了的说法，用来代替前面某处出现过的一个实义动词。但是，如果它放在另一个表示主观意向或处境的动词后面，还可以更进一步简化为单独的一个 to。这类主观意向或处境的动词，包括：hate、hope、intend、would like、love、mean、plan、tell、try、want、have、need、used (to)、be able (to)、be going (to)等等。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>We only fail if we choose to (= we choose to do so = we choose to fail). 我们唯有自己选择失败的时候才会失败。</div><div class="ex-item">—Would you like to come with me? —Yes, I'd love to (= love to do so = love to go with you). —您跟我一起去好吗？ —好的，我很乐意。</div><div class="ex-item">—Did you get a ticket? —No. I tried to (= tried to do so = tried to get a ticket), but there weren't any left. —您弄到票了吗？ —没有。我设法去弄，但是没有剩的了。</div><div class="ex-item">—Do you swim? —Not now but I used to (= I used to do so = I used to swim). —您游泳吗？ —现在不游了，但是从前常游。</div><div class="ex-item">He wanted to go but he wasn't able to (= wasn't able to do so = wasn't able to go). 他本来想去，但没有能够去。</div><div class="ex-item">—Why aren't you writing something? —I'm trying to (= trying to do so = trying to write something). —你怎么不写点东西？ —我正在打算写。</div><div class="ex-item">—Are you and Jennifer getting married? —We hope to (= hope to do so = hope to get married). —你和珍妮弗要结婚了吧？ —我们正有此意。(注意：hope to 是自己打算做某事，hope so 是希望客观事态如何发展)</div><div class="ex-item">—Let's go for a walk. —I don't want to (= want to do so = want to go for a walk). —咱们去散散步吧。 —我不想去。</div><div class="ex-item">Things pass, whether you want them to (= to do so = to pass) or not. 事情总是要过去的，不管你想不想它过去。</div><div class="ex-item">—Why? —Because I told you to (= to do so). —为什么？ —因为我叫你这样做的。</div><div class="ex-item">He'll do it for you if you ask him to (= to do so = to do it for you). 你如果请他给你做，他一定会做。</div><div class="ex-item">He hoped he would not have to (= to do so). 他希望不必做到这一步。</div><div class="ex-item">I can't speak French yet, but I hope I will be able to (= to do so = to speak French) soon. 我还不能讲法语，但是我希望不久之后就能。</div><div class="ex-item">Sorry I shouted at you. I didn't mean to (= mean to do so = mean to shout at you). 对不起我对您大吼了。我不是有意的。</div><div class="ex-item">—Somebody ought to clean up the bathroom. —I'llask John to (= to do so = to clean up the bathroom). —要有人来清扫一下洗澡间。 —我去叫约翰干。</div><div class="ex-item">She won't go, not even if we beg her to (= to do so = to go). 咱们就是求她，她也不会去的。</div><div class="ex-item">And because Clinton did it then, Obama doesn't have to (= have to do it) now. (Time, May 26, 2008, p. 35)而由于克林顿当时这样做了，奥巴马现在就用不着这样做了。</div><div class="ex-item">He was working in Los Angeles, but I felt the distance between us was shrinking. I wanted it to (= to be = to be shrinking) and hoped he did too. 他在洛杉矶工作，但是我觉得我们之间的距离在缩短。我很想如此，希望他也这样想。</div><div class="ex-item">I need only add here that she had never set foot in a hospital, or nursed a sick cottager, in her life. Her parents would not have allowed her to, of course; but she had never even thought of doing such a thing. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman)不过这里我要说明，她生来还没迈进过医院的门槛，也从没护理过一个乡下病人。自然，她的父母是不允许她那样的，不过她自己也从来没有想到过此等壮举。</div><div class="ex-item">That is just what every politician says. They have to, because the prosperity of our country depends on it. (John Fowles, The French Lieutenant's Woman)政治家们都这么说。他们必须这么说，因为我们国家的繁荣要靠它。</div><div class="ex-item">Most working mothers, the Census Bureau reports, are back in the workforce within a year of having a child; better educated women and those who can afford to drop out are actually less likely to. (Time, July 20, 2009, p. 68)人口普查局报告说，就业的妇女，生了孩子的一年之内，大多数都返回工作岗位；那些受教育程度较高以及那些有条件离职的，则较少这样做。</div><div class="ex-item">Despite every reason not to, Carson liked Freddy Hunt. (Pascal Mercier, Night Train to Lisbon)尽管有种种理由不喜欢弗雷德·亨特，但卡森还是喜欢他。</div><br><br>有些名词后面也可以用 to 代替 to do so。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He had reason to (= to do so). 他有理由这样做。</div><div class="ex-item">Most patrons don't smoke, but the outside area gives smokers a place to (= to do so = to smoke). 大多数就餐的顾客不抽烟，但是室外区可以让抽烟者有地方抽烟。</div><div class="ex-item">If there's need to (= to do so = to call me), you can call me. 如果有需要，你可以打电话给我。</div><br><br>但是要注意两点。第一，必须本来已经是动词不定式的形式，如果是其他动词形式，例如限定动词(finite verb)或是动词现在分词(-ing)，本来就没有 to，当然不能用 to 来代替。第二，这个动词不定式的动词，如果不是有意识的主动动作，就不可以用 to 来代替，如表示“存在”或“被动”的 be，表示“(非主动)占有”的 have，在 to 后面，都不能省略为 to。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He is nice only when he has to be (<i>has to). 他唯有不得已的时候才对人亲切。</div><div class="ex-item">There are more cars than there used to be (</i>used to). 车子比从前多。</div><div class="ex-item">She hasn't been promoted yet, but she ought to be (<i>ought to). 她还没有得到提拔，但是她应该得到提拔。</div><div class="ex-item">You've got more freckles than you used to have (</i>used to). 你的雀斑比从前多了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 有时候如果 to 前面有否定词 not，则连 to 也可以省略。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Mel was tempted to laugh, then supposed he had better not (= not to = not to do so). 梅尔真想笑起来，但是又觉得最好别笑。</div><br><br>如果 not 所否定的不是动词不定式而是前面的助动词，则也是连 to 可以省略。 <div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He wanted to go, but I didn't (= didn't want to = didn't want to go). 他想去，但是我不想。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 此外，通常 to 只能代替前面出现的那个动词词组。但是，有时候前面的动词词组本身就包含了两个动词，此时 to 应该是代替两个当中表示有意识动作的那个动词。例如 When John had to cook, he didn't want to. 这里 to 当然不能代替 had (成为 <i>he didn't want to have to cook)，而只能代替 to cook (成为 he didn't want to cook)。但是，有时候，如果有适当的副词出现，就可能使得 to (否定时连 to 也省略)所代表的动词发生微妙的变化。例如这个例句如果后面再增加一句：When he had to clean, he didn't, either. 这里的 didn't，就不是代替 didn't cook，甚至不是代替 didn't clean，而是代替 didn't want to clean，这是因为副词 either 对它所管辖的(被否定的)动词词组有两个要求：(a) 同前面的(被否定的)动词词组呼应；(b) 其内容又不同于前面的那个动词词组内容，而是另有内容。而前面的(被否定的)动词词组是 didn't want to (cook)，所以后面被 either 所管辖的动词词组，就既不能是 </i>cook (因为未被否定的 cook 与 either 不能搭配，不符合条件 a)，也不能是 <i>clean (因为未被否定的 clean 与 either 也不能搭配，不符合条件 a)，也不能是 </i>didn't want to cook (不符合条件 b)。唯一符合 a 与 b 两项条件的，只能是 didn't (want to clean)。<br><br>
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say nothing of
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(to) say nothing of</b></div>用于进一步的表示(“更不用说”)，可以在肯定之后表示更进一步的肯定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Their house is worth at least a million, to say nothing of their other assets. 他们的房子起码值 100 万美元，更不用说他们的其他资产了。</div><br><br>也可以在否定之后表示更进一步的否定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A person of no integrity, when asked, does not reveal another person's good points, to say nothing of when unasked. 一个没有道德操守的人，人家问到他时，他也不会说出别人的优点，更不用说人家没问他了。</div><br><br>前面虽然没有否定词，但是如果有倾向于否定或疑问意义的词语，表示更进一步也可以用 to say nothing of。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is difficult to escape the cold, to say nothing of the wind and rain. 要想摆脱寒冷是困难的，更不用说刮风下雨了。/ Why does not the industry itself realize that yes, no matter how much oil they discover, EVENTUALLY it is going to run out, and then where will they be, to say nothing of us? 为什么石油工业界自己还不明白，是的，无论他们发现多少石油，石油最后还是会用光的，到那时候他们怎么办，更别说我们怎么办了？</div><br><br>
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to say nothing of
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(to) say nothing of</b></div>用于进一步的表示(“更不用说”)，可以在肯定之后表示更进一步的肯定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Their house is worth at least a million, to say nothing of their other assets. 他们的房子起码值 100 万美元，更不用说他们的其他资产了。</div><br><br>也可以在否定之后表示更进一步的否定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A person of no integrity, when asked, does not reveal another person's good points, to say nothing of when unasked. 一个没有道德操守的人，人家问到他时，他也不会说出别人的优点，更不用说人家没问他了。</div><br><br>前面虽然没有否定词，但是如果有倾向于否定或疑问意义的词语，表示更进一步也可以用 to say nothing of。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is difficult to escape the cold, to say nothing of the wind and rain. 要想摆脱寒冷是困难的，更不用说刮风下雨了。/ Why does not the industry itself realize that yes, no matter how much oil they discover, EVENTUALLY it is going to run out, and then where will they be, to say nothing of us? 为什么石油工业界自己还不明白，是的，无论他们发现多少石油，石油最后还是会用光的，到那时候他们怎么办，更别说我们怎么办了？</div><br><br>
</>
extent
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(to the) extent (of/that)</b></div>to the extent ... 原始的含义(也是字面的含义)是“达到……的程度”，这个程度的内容，如果是用名词(或动名词)表示的，就用 of 引入；如果是用句子表示的，就用 that (可省略)引入从句。但是所引入的意义内容，却因为引入部分在句首或句末的不同，而在整句中起到不同的作用。如果放在句末，所表示的是前半句所说的情况“达到了……的程度”(接近“结果”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Some people hold their beliefs very strongly, even to the extent of being prepared to go to prison for them. 有些人强烈地坚持自己的信念，甚至准备为了信仰而坐牢。/ Sales have fallen badly this year, to the extent that we will have to close some of our shops. 今年的销售量锐减，我们只好准备关闭一些店铺。</div><br><br>如果放在句首，所表示的是要对后半句所说的情况事先加以“范围限制”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>To the extent we maintain international operations and generate revenue in foreign currencies, and currency exchange rates become unfavorable, our results of operations may be adversely affected. 如果我们继续用外币进行国际交易并获得收入，而汇率又变得对我们不利，我们交易的结果就会受到负面的影响。(to the extent 有“如果”的意思，但又带有“条件与结果彼此在程度上相适应”的意思。)/ To the extent this is true, these scholars add, traditional gender roles for women and men make sense from an evolutionary standpoint, and attempts to change them go against the sexes' biological natures. (Steve Barkan, Sociology: Understanding and Changing the Social World) 这些学者们接着说，如果确是如此，男女各自的传统性别角色，从进化演变的观点来看，是说得通的，如果企图加以改变，就违反了两性的生物本性。(to the extent 有“如果”的意思，但又带有“后面的说法在多大程度上是对的，取决于前面的说法在多大程度上是对的”之意。)</div>本来，句首有了 to the extent ...，就表示这部分只是一个可大可小的假定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>To the extent there is civil war, it is limited only to random shootings. 就算是有了内战，也只不过是零星的枪击。(to the extent 有“虽然”之意)</div><div class="ex-item">To the extent that sex education is taught at all in high schools, a lot of the information is outdated. 就算是高中真的开展性教育，教材有很多也是老旧过时的。(同上)</div><div class="ex-item">The King will answer and say to them, "Truly I say to you, to the extent that you did it to one of these brothers of Mine, even the least of them, you did it to Me." (Matthew 25:40) 王要回答说：“我实话告诉你们，你们既然在我这弟兄中一个最小的身上做这些事，就是在我也身上做这些事。”(to the extent that 有“既然”之意) 但是，这个词组用多了，“程度限制”的含义就逐渐减弱，接近于单纯的“是或否”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>To the extent this belief exists, women may not want to work outside the home or, if they chose to do so, they face difficulties from employers, family and friends. (Steve Barkan, Sociology: Understanding and Changing the Social World) 如果这种信念存在，那么妇女就不会打算到家庭之外去工作，或者即使选择去工作也会在雇主、家庭和朋友那里遇到困难。/ One thing is clear: to the extent we accept biological explanations for gender, we imply that existing gender differences and gender inequality must continue to exist. (ibid.) 有一点是明确的：如果我们接受有关性别的生物学说明，我们就等于同意现有的性别分歧与性别不平等仍将继续存在下去。</div><br><br>经过长时间的使用，to the extent (that) 的“前后程度相仿”的意义已经逐渐被冲淡，只剩下“如果”的意义，因而常常被滥用，尤其是在打官腔的语言中。下面就是美国国会会议记录中的一段发言，这个词组的滥用可见一斑(其中的 to theextent 均可改为 if 或 when)：First of all, it is critically important to recognize that to the extent we get a patient to a specialist soon, and we do that in our bill, to the extent we allow women to go directly to an OB/GYN as their primary care provider, to the extent we allow patients who are in a critical emergency to go (to) the nearest hospital and be seen by an emergency room department or physician and thereby save that patient's life or reduce the amount of long-term care that patient receives—in every one of these instances we are reducing long-term health care cost in this country. (Congressional Record V. 145. Pt. 11, July 1, 1999 to July 15, 1999, p. 15473) 首先，至关重要的是要认识到，如果我们尽快将患者送往专科医生那里，而且在我们的法案中做到这一点，如果我们允许女性直接前往为其提供基础医疗服务的妇产科，如果我们允许处于紧急状况中的患者去最近的医院，并由急诊部门或医师看病，从而挽救了该患者的生命或使患者可以少接受长期护理——在上述每种情况下，我们都在减少国家的长期医疗保健费用。<br><br>
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to the extent of
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(to the) extent (of/that)</b></div>to the extent ... 原始的含义(也是字面的含义)是“达到……的程度”，这个程度的内容，如果是用名词(或动名词)表示的，就用 of 引入；如果是用句子表示的，就用 that (可省略)引入从句。但是所引入的意义内容，却因为引入部分在句首或句末的不同，而在整句中起到不同的作用。如果放在句末，所表示的是前半句所说的情况“达到了……的程度”(接近“结果”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Some people hold their beliefs very strongly, even to the extent of being prepared to go to prison for them. 有些人强烈地坚持自己的信念，甚至准备为了信仰而坐牢。/ Sales have fallen badly this year, to the extent that we will have to close some of our shops. 今年的销售量锐减，我们只好准备关闭一些店铺。</div><br><br>如果放在句首，所表示的是要对后半句所说的情况事先加以“范围限制”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>To the extent we maintain international operations and generate revenue in foreign currencies, and currency exchange rates become unfavorable, our results of operations may be adversely affected. 如果我们继续用外币进行国际交易并获得收入，而汇率又变得对我们不利，我们交易的结果就会受到负面的影响。(to the extent 有“如果”的意思，但又带有“条件与结果彼此在程度上相适应”的意思。)/ To the extent this is true, these scholars add, traditional gender roles for women and men make sense from an evolutionary standpoint, and attempts to change them go against the sexes' biological natures. (Steve Barkan, Sociology: Understanding and Changing the Social World) 这些学者们接着说，如果确是如此，男女各自的传统性别角色，从进化演变的观点来看，是说得通的，如果企图加以改变，就违反了两性的生物本性。(to the extent 有“如果”的意思，但又带有“后面的说法在多大程度上是对的，取决于前面的说法在多大程度上是对的”之意。)</div>本来，句首有了 to the extent ...，就表示这部分只是一个可大可小的假定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>To the extent there is civil war, it is limited only to random shootings. 就算是有了内战，也只不过是零星的枪击。(to the extent 有“虽然”之意)</div><div class="ex-item">To the extent that sex education is taught at all in high schools, a lot of the information is outdated. 就算是高中真的开展性教育，教材有很多也是老旧过时的。(同上)</div><div class="ex-item">The King will answer and say to them, "Truly I say to you, to the extent that you did it to one of these brothers of Mine, even the least of them, you did it to Me." (Matthew 25:40) 王要回答说：“我实话告诉你们，你们既然在我这弟兄中一个最小的身上做这些事，就是在我也身上做这些事。”(to the extent that 有“既然”之意) 但是，这个词组用多了，“程度限制”的含义就逐渐减弱，接近于单纯的“是或否”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>To the extent this belief exists, women may not want to work outside the home or, if they chose to do so, they face difficulties from employers, family and friends. (Steve Barkan, Sociology: Understanding and Changing the Social World) 如果这种信念存在，那么妇女就不会打算到家庭之外去工作，或者即使选择去工作也会在雇主、家庭和朋友那里遇到困难。/ One thing is clear: to the extent we accept biological explanations for gender, we imply that existing gender differences and gender inequality must continue to exist. (ibid.) 有一点是明确的：如果我们接受有关性别的生物学说明，我们就等于同意现有的性别分歧与性别不平等仍将继续存在下去。</div><br><br>经过长时间的使用，to the extent (that) 的“前后程度相仿”的意义已经逐渐被冲淡，只剩下“如果”的意义，因而常常被滥用，尤其是在打官腔的语言中。下面就是美国国会会议记录中的一段发言，这个词组的滥用可见一斑(其中的 to theextent 均可改为 if 或 when)：First of all, it is critically important to recognize that to the extent we get a patient to a specialist soon, and we do that in our bill, to the extent we allow women to go directly to an OB/GYN as their primary care provider, to the extent we allow patients who are in a critical emergency to go (to) the nearest hospital and be seen by an emergency room department or physician and thereby save that patient's life or reduce the amount of long-term care that patient receives—in every one of these instances we are reducing long-term health care cost in this country. (Congressional Record V. 145. Pt. 11, July 1, 1999 to July 15, 1999, p. 15473) 首先，至关重要的是要认识到，如果我们尽快将患者送往专科医生那里，而且在我们的法案中做到这一点，如果我们允许女性直接前往为其提供基础医疗服务的妇产科，如果我们允许处于紧急状况中的患者去最近的医院，并由急诊部门或医师看病，从而挽救了该患者的生命或使患者可以少接受长期护理——在上述每种情况下，我们都在减少国家的长期医疗保健费用。<br><br>
</>
to the extent that
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(to the) extent (of/that)</b></div>to the extent ... 原始的含义(也是字面的含义)是“达到……的程度”，这个程度的内容，如果是用名词(或动名词)表示的，就用 of 引入；如果是用句子表示的，就用 that (可省略)引入从句。但是所引入的意义内容，却因为引入部分在句首或句末的不同，而在整句中起到不同的作用。如果放在句末，所表示的是前半句所说的情况“达到了……的程度”(接近“结果”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Some people hold their beliefs very strongly, even to the extent of being prepared to go to prison for them. 有些人强烈地坚持自己的信念，甚至准备为了信仰而坐牢。/ Sales have fallen badly this year, to the extent that we will have to close some of our shops. 今年的销售量锐减，我们只好准备关闭一些店铺。</div><br><br>如果放在句首，所表示的是要对后半句所说的情况事先加以“范围限制”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>To the extent we maintain international operations and generate revenue in foreign currencies, and currency exchange rates become unfavorable, our results of operations may be adversely affected. 如果我们继续用外币进行国际交易并获得收入，而汇率又变得对我们不利，我们交易的结果就会受到负面的影响。(to the extent 有“如果”的意思，但又带有“条件与结果彼此在程度上相适应”的意思。)/ To the extent this is true, these scholars add, traditional gender roles for women and men make sense from an evolutionary standpoint, and attempts to change them go against the sexes' biological natures. (Steve Barkan, Sociology: Understanding and Changing the Social World) 这些学者们接着说，如果确是如此，男女各自的传统性别角色，从进化演变的观点来看，是说得通的，如果企图加以改变，就违反了两性的生物本性。(to the extent 有“如果”的意思，但又带有“后面的说法在多大程度上是对的，取决于前面的说法在多大程度上是对的”之意。)</div>本来，句首有了 to the extent ...，就表示这部分只是一个可大可小的假定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>To the extent there is civil war, it is limited only to random shootings. 就算是有了内战，也只不过是零星的枪击。(to the extent 有“虽然”之意)</div><div class="ex-item">To the extent that sex education is taught at all in high schools, a lot of the information is outdated. 就算是高中真的开展性教育，教材有很多也是老旧过时的。(同上)</div><div class="ex-item">The King will answer and say to them, "Truly I say to you, to the extent that you did it to one of these brothers of Mine, even the least of them, you did it to Me." (Matthew 25:40) 王要回答说：“我实话告诉你们，你们既然在我这弟兄中一个最小的身上做这些事，就是在我也身上做这些事。”(to the extent that 有“既然”之意) 但是，这个词组用多了，“程度限制”的含义就逐渐减弱，接近于单纯的“是或否”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>To the extent this belief exists, women may not want to work outside the home or, if they chose to do so, they face difficulties from employers, family and friends. (Steve Barkan, Sociology: Understanding and Changing the Social World) 如果这种信念存在，那么妇女就不会打算到家庭之外去工作，或者即使选择去工作也会在雇主、家庭和朋友那里遇到困难。/ One thing is clear: to the extent we accept biological explanations for gender, we imply that existing gender differences and gender inequality must continue to exist. (ibid.) 有一点是明确的：如果我们接受有关性别的生物学说明，我们就等于同意现有的性别分歧与性别不平等仍将继续存在下去。</div><br><br>经过长时间的使用，to the extent (that) 的“前后程度相仿”的意义已经逐渐被冲淡，只剩下“如果”的意义，因而常常被滥用，尤其是在打官腔的语言中。下面就是美国国会会议记录中的一段发言，这个词组的滥用可见一斑(其中的 to theextent 均可改为 if 或 when)：First of all, it is critically important to recognize that to the extent we get a patient to a specialist soon, and we do that in our bill, to the extent we allow women to go directly to an OB/GYN as their primary care provider, to the extent we allow patients who are in a critical emergency to go (to) the nearest hospital and be seen by an emergency room department or physician and thereby save that patient's life or reduce the amount of long-term care that patient receives—in every one of these instances we are reducing long-term health care cost in this country. (Congressional Record V. 145. Pt. 11, July 1, 1999 to July 15, 1999, p. 15473) 首先，至关重要的是要认识到，如果我们尽快将患者送往专科医生那里，而且在我们的法案中做到这一点，如果我们允许女性直接前往为其提供基础医疗服务的妇产科，如果我们允许处于紧急状况中的患者去最近的医院，并由急诊部门或医师看病，从而挽救了该患者的生命或使患者可以少接受长期护理——在上述每种情况下，我们都在减少国家的长期医疗保健费用。<br><br>
</>
(to the) extent (of)
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(to the) extent (of/that)</b></div>to the extent ... 原始的含义(也是字面的含义)是“达到……的程度”，这个程度的内容，如果是用名词(或动名词)表示的，就用 of 引入；如果是用句子表示的，就用 that (可省略)引入从句。但是所引入的意义内容，却因为引入部分在句首或句末的不同，而在整句中起到不同的作用。如果放在句末，所表示的是前半句所说的情况“达到了……的程度”(接近“结果”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Some people hold their beliefs very strongly, even to the extent of being prepared to go to prison for them. 有些人强烈地坚持自己的信念，甚至准备为了信仰而坐牢。/ Sales have fallen badly this year, to the extent that we will have to close some of our shops. 今年的销售量锐减，我们只好准备关闭一些店铺。</div><br><br>如果放在句首，所表示的是要对后半句所说的情况事先加以“范围限制”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>To the extent we maintain international operations and generate revenue in foreign currencies, and currency exchange rates become unfavorable, our results of operations may be adversely affected. 如果我们继续用外币进行国际交易并获得收入，而汇率又变得对我们不利，我们交易的结果就会受到负面的影响。(to the extent 有“如果”的意思，但又带有“条件与结果彼此在程度上相适应”的意思。)/ To the extent this is true, these scholars add, traditional gender roles for women and men make sense from an evolutionary standpoint, and attempts to change them go against the sexes' biological natures. (Steve Barkan, Sociology: Understanding and Changing the Social World) 这些学者们接着说，如果确是如此，男女各自的传统性别角色，从进化演变的观点来看，是说得通的，如果企图加以改变，就违反了两性的生物本性。(to the extent 有“如果”的意思，但又带有“后面的说法在多大程度上是对的，取决于前面的说法在多大程度上是对的”之意。)</div>本来，句首有了 to the extent ...，就表示这部分只是一个可大可小的假定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>To the extent there is civil war, it is limited only to random shootings. 就算是有了内战，也只不过是零星的枪击。(to the extent 有“虽然”之意)</div><div class="ex-item">To the extent that sex education is taught at all in high schools, a lot of the information is outdated. 就算是高中真的开展性教育，教材有很多也是老旧过时的。(同上)</div><div class="ex-item">The King will answer and say to them, "Truly I say to you, to the extent that you did it to one of these brothers of Mine, even the least of them, you did it to Me." (Matthew 25:40) 王要回答说：“我实话告诉你们，你们既然在我这弟兄中一个最小的身上做这些事，就是在我也身上做这些事。”(to the extent that 有“既然”之意) 但是，这个词组用多了，“程度限制”的含义就逐渐减弱，接近于单纯的“是或否”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>To the extent this belief exists, women may not want to work outside the home or, if they chose to do so, they face difficulties from employers, family and friends. (Steve Barkan, Sociology: Understanding and Changing the Social World) 如果这种信念存在，那么妇女就不会打算到家庭之外去工作，或者即使选择去工作也会在雇主、家庭和朋友那里遇到困难。/ One thing is clear: to the extent we accept biological explanations for gender, we imply that existing gender differences and gender inequality must continue to exist. (ibid.) 有一点是明确的：如果我们接受有关性别的生物学说明，我们就等于同意现有的性别分歧与性别不平等仍将继续存在下去。</div><br><br>经过长时间的使用，to the extent (that) 的“前后程度相仿”的意义已经逐渐被冲淡，只剩下“如果”的意义，因而常常被滥用，尤其是在打官腔的语言中。下面就是美国国会会议记录中的一段发言，这个词组的滥用可见一斑(其中的 to theextent 均可改为 if 或 when)：First of all, it is critically important to recognize that to the extent we get a patient to a specialist soon, and we do that in our bill, to the extent we allow women to go directly to an OB/GYN as their primary care provider, to the extent we allow patients who are in a critical emergency to go (to) the nearest hospital and be seen by an emergency room department or physician and thereby save that patient's life or reduce the amount of long-term care that patient receives—in every one of these instances we are reducing long-term health care cost in this country. (Congressional Record V. 145. Pt. 11, July 1, 1999 to July 15, 1999, p. 15473) 首先，至关重要的是要认识到，如果我们尽快将患者送往专科医生那里，而且在我们的法案中做到这一点，如果我们允许女性直接前往为其提供基础医疗服务的妇产科，如果我们允许处于紧急状况中的患者去最近的医院，并由急诊部门或医师看病，从而挽救了该患者的生命或使患者可以少接受长期护理——在上述每种情况下，我们都在减少国家的长期医疗保健费用。<br><br>
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(to the) extent (that)
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(to the) extent (of/that)</b></div>to the extent ... 原始的含义(也是字面的含义)是“达到……的程度”，这个程度的内容，如果是用名词(或动名词)表示的，就用 of 引入；如果是用句子表示的，就用 that (可省略)引入从句。但是所引入的意义内容，却因为引入部分在句首或句末的不同，而在整句中起到不同的作用。如果放在句末，所表示的是前半句所说的情况“达到了……的程度”(接近“结果”)。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Some people hold their beliefs very strongly, even to the extent of being prepared to go to prison for them. 有些人强烈地坚持自己的信念，甚至准备为了信仰而坐牢。/ Sales have fallen badly this year, to the extent that we will have to close some of our shops. 今年的销售量锐减，我们只好准备关闭一些店铺。</div><br><br>如果放在句首，所表示的是要对后半句所说的情况事先加以“范围限制”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>To the extent we maintain international operations and generate revenue in foreign currencies, and currency exchange rates become unfavorable, our results of operations may be adversely affected. 如果我们继续用外币进行国际交易并获得收入，而汇率又变得对我们不利，我们交易的结果就会受到负面的影响。(to the extent 有“如果”的意思，但又带有“条件与结果彼此在程度上相适应”的意思。)/ To the extent this is true, these scholars add, traditional gender roles for women and men make sense from an evolutionary standpoint, and attempts to change them go against the sexes' biological natures. (Steve Barkan, Sociology: Understanding and Changing the Social World) 这些学者们接着说，如果确是如此，男女各自的传统性别角色，从进化演变的观点来看，是说得通的，如果企图加以改变，就违反了两性的生物本性。(to the extent 有“如果”的意思，但又带有“后面的说法在多大程度上是对的，取决于前面的说法在多大程度上是对的”之意。)</div>本来，句首有了 to the extent ...，就表示这部分只是一个可大可小的假定。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>To the extent there is civil war, it is limited only to random shootings. 就算是有了内战，也只不过是零星的枪击。(to the extent 有“虽然”之意)</div><div class="ex-item">To the extent that sex education is taught at all in high schools, a lot of the information is outdated. 就算是高中真的开展性教育，教材有很多也是老旧过时的。(同上)</div><div class="ex-item">The King will answer and say to them, "Truly I say to you, to the extent that you did it to one of these brothers of Mine, even the least of them, you did it to Me." (Matthew 25:40) 王要回答说：“我实话告诉你们，你们既然在我这弟兄中一个最小的身上做这些事，就是在我也身上做这些事。”(to the extent that 有“既然”之意) 但是，这个词组用多了，“程度限制”的含义就逐渐减弱，接近于单纯的“是或否”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>To the extent this belief exists, women may not want to work outside the home or, if they chose to do so, they face difficulties from employers, family and friends. (Steve Barkan, Sociology: Understanding and Changing the Social World) 如果这种信念存在，那么妇女就不会打算到家庭之外去工作，或者即使选择去工作也会在雇主、家庭和朋友那里遇到困难。/ One thing is clear: to the extent we accept biological explanations for gender, we imply that existing gender differences and gender inequality must continue to exist. (ibid.) 有一点是明确的：如果我们接受有关性别的生物学说明，我们就等于同意现有的性别分歧与性别不平等仍将继续存在下去。</div><br><br>经过长时间的使用，to the extent (that) 的“前后程度相仿”的意义已经逐渐被冲淡，只剩下“如果”的意义，因而常常被滥用，尤其是在打官腔的语言中。下面就是美国国会会议记录中的一段发言，这个词组的滥用可见一斑(其中的 to theextent 均可改为 if 或 when)：First of all, it is critically important to recognize that to the extent we get a patient to a specialist soon, and we do that in our bill, to the extent we allow women to go directly to an OB/GYN as their primary care provider, to the extent we allow patients who are in a critical emergency to go (to) the nearest hospital and be seen by an emergency room department or physician and thereby save that patient's life or reduce the amount of long-term care that patient receives—in every one of these instances we are reducing long-term health care cost in this country. (Congressional Record V. 145. Pt. 11, July 1, 1999 to July 15, 1999, p. 15473) 首先，至关重要的是要认识到，如果我们尽快将患者送往专科医生那里，而且在我们的法案中做到这一点，如果我们允许女性直接前往为其提供基础医疗服务的妇产科，如果我们允许处于紧急状况中的患者去最近的医院，并由急诊部门或医师看病，从而挽救了该患者的生命或使患者可以少接受长期护理——在上述每种情况下，我们都在减少国家的长期医疗保健费用。<br><br>
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to
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>to 与 for</b></div>to 只是简单的“对，向”；for 则带有某个与对象有关的目的。例如 sing a lullaby <b>to</b> a baby 只是给婴儿唱支摇篮曲，不一定是哄他入睡；sing a lullaby <b>for</b> a baby 则带有哄婴儿入睡的目的。不过，这个区别比较微妙，实际语言运用中也往往分不清楚。<br><br>
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transport
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>transport 与 transportation</b></div>这两个名词的用法，英式英语与美式英语中有些细微的区别。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 在英国，transport 用于指载人的交通。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Public <b>transport</b> is more friendly to the environment. 公共交通对环境更为有利。transportation 主要用于载物的交通；如果载人，则是指 1787 年开始的将罪犯流放到澳大利亚的运载。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 在美国，尤其是东北部，transport 与 transportation 都可以指载人与载物的交通运输，但载人以 transportation 用得稍多。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 此外，transport 是名词又是及物动词，transportation 则当然只能是名词。<br><br>
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transportation
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>transport 与 transportation</b></div>这两个名词的用法，英式英语与美式英语中有些细微的区别。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> 在英国，transport 用于指载人的交通。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Public <b>transport</b> is more friendly to the environment. 公共交通对环境更为有利。transportation 主要用于载物的交通；如果载人，则是指 1787 年开始的将罪犯流放到澳大利亚的运载。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 在美国，尤其是东北部，transport 与 transportation 都可以指载人与载物的交通运输，但载人以 transportation 用得稍多。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 此外，transport 是名词又是及物动词，transportation 则当然只能是名词。<br><br>
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therapy
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>treatment 与 therapy</b></div>treatment 是一般意义上的“治疗”，不涉及治疗的具体办法。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>be under medical <b>treatment</b> 正在治疗中</div><div class="ex-item">receive/get/undergo medical <b>treatment</b> 得到治疗</div><div class="ex-item">give a person (an) immediate <b>treatment</b> for a condition 立刻给某人治疗某病症。</div><br><br>therapy 有时候也可以代替 treatment 表示一般的治疗。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>get into <b>therapy</b> 受到治疗</div><div class="ex-item">be in <b>therapy</b> 在治疗中。但是更多的是涉及治疗的医学方法。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>physical <b>therapy</b> 理疗</div><div class="ex-item">chemo<b>therapy</b> 化疗</div><div class="ex-item">radio<b>therapy</b> 放疗</div><div class="ex-item">radium <b>therapy</b> 镭疗。中文常常译为“疗法”，很能传达这个意思。</div><br><br>
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treatment
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>treatment 与 therapy</b></div>treatment 是一般意义上的“治疗”，不涉及治疗的具体办法。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>be under medical <b>treatment</b> 正在治疗中</div><div class="ex-item">receive/get/undergo medical <b>treatment</b> 得到治疗</div><div class="ex-item">give a person (an) immediate <b>treatment</b> for a condition 立刻给某人治疗某病症。</div><br><br>therapy 有时候也可以代替 treatment 表示一般的治疗。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>get into <b>therapy</b> 受到治疗</div><div class="ex-item">be in <b>therapy</b> 在治疗中。但是更多的是涉及治疗的医学方法。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>physical <b>therapy</b> 理疗</div><div class="ex-item">chemo<b>therapy</b> 化疗</div><div class="ex-item">radio<b>therapy</b> 放疗</div><div class="ex-item">radium <b>therapy</b> 镭疗。中文常常译为“疗法”，很能传达这个意思。</div><br><br>
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unable
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>unable 与 incapable</b></div>通常 unable 指一时的没有能力，而 incapable 则指本质上的没有能力。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This truck is incapable of carrying more than two tons. 这辆卡车不能载重 2 吨以上。/ For several minutes he was unable to breathe normally. 他有好几分钟不能正常呼吸。</div><br><br>此外，unable 除了表示“没有能力的”之外，还可以表示“不可能的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>That way, an admissions officer will be unable to judge you unjustly because of your family background. 这样，招生人员就不会由于看到你的家庭背景而对你做出不公正的判断。（不是没有能力，而是不会做这样的事）</div>
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incapable
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>unable 与 incapable</b></div>通常 unable 指一时的没有能力，而 incapable 则指本质上的没有能力。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>This truck is incapable of carrying more than two tons. 这辆卡车不能载重 2 吨以上。/ For several minutes he was unable to breathe normally. 他有好几分钟不能正常呼吸。</div><br><br>此外，unable 除了表示“没有能力的”之外，还可以表示“不可能的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>That way, an admissions officer will be unable to judge you unjustly because of your family background. 这样，招生人员就不会由于看到你的家庭背景而对你做出不公正的判断。（不是没有能力，而是不会做这样的事）</div>
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unaware
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>unaware 与 unawares</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> aware 是形容词，unaware 是它的反义词。由于 aware 除了少数特殊情况外一般要求后面有 of 短语、that 从句或间接疑问句，unaware 后面通常也要有 of 短语、that 从句或间接疑问句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They were unaware of my presence. 他们不知道我就在那里。/ Parents are often unaware how much their children know. 父母往往不知道自己孩子懂得多少。参见 aware 条。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> unawares 比 unaware 多了末尾的一个 -s，就转为副词，意思也是“不晓得”，但是通常不必要用 of、that 之类的附加成分来补充其意义，光是它本身就可以凭语境说明对什么“不晓得”。它通常同动词 take 或 catch 一起用，表示“给(某人)一个措手不及”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The earthquake took/caught them unawares. 地震突如其来，他们措手不及。但是，也有用 unaware 作宾语补足语，代替 unawares 的。</div><br><br>
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unawares
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>unaware 与 unawares</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> aware 是形容词，unaware 是它的反义词。由于 aware 除了少数特殊情况外一般要求后面有 of 短语、that 从句或间接疑问句，unaware 后面通常也要有 of 短语、that 从句或间接疑问句。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They were unaware of my presence. 他们不知道我就在那里。/ Parents are often unaware how much their children know. 父母往往不知道自己孩子懂得多少。参见 aware 条。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> unawares 比 unaware 多了末尾的一个 -s，就转为副词，意思也是“不晓得”，但是通常不必要用 of、that 之类的附加成分来补充其意义，光是它本身就可以凭语境说明对什么“不晓得”。它通常同动词 take 或 catch 一起用，表示“给(某人)一个措手不及”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The earthquake took/caught them unawares. 地震突如其来，他们措手不及。但是，也有用 unaware 作宾语补足语，代替 unawares 的。</div><br><br>
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one-sided
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>unilateral 与 one-sided</b></div>两个形容词都有“片面的”之意，但是 unilateral 指的是对立的双方中一方单方面的行为（另一方没有对应行为）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>unilateral disarmament 单方面裁军</div><div class="ex-item">unilateral action 单方面行动。</div><br><br>one-sided 也可以指双方中一方单方面的行为。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>one-sided conversation 只有一方说话的交谈。但也可以指看法或主张“片面的”（不涉及双方）。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>one-sided view 片面的观点。</div><br><br>
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unilateral
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>unilateral 与 one-sided</b></div>两个形容词都有“片面的”之意，但是 unilateral 指的是对立的双方中一方单方面的行为（另一方没有对应行为）。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>unilateral disarmament 单方面裁军</div><div class="ex-item">unilateral action 单方面行动。</div><br><br>one-sided 也可以指双方中一方单方面的行为。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>one-sided conversation 只有一方说话的交谈。但也可以指看法或主张“片面的”（不涉及双方）。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>one-sided view 片面的观点。</div><br><br>
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up to now
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>up to now 与 until</b></div>参见 until 条之(3)。<br><br>
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variation
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>variation 与 change</b></div>variation 偏重于不同事物之间共时的差异，而不是像 change 那样偏重同一事物不同时间的变化。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The variations among individuals depend in part upon genetic determinants over which we have no control. 个人之间的差异，部分取决于遗传因子，对此我们是控制不了的。音乐上有主题(theme)和变奏(variation)，即大体上保持原有旋律的多种变换，此时按照某一主题发挥出来的变奏，称为 variation on the theme。这个意义引申到其他方面，凡是基本不变但是细节有变化的，都可以称为 variation on the theme。</div><br><br>动词 vary（可以及物，表示“使差异”；也可以不及物，表示“自己发生差异”）和它的过去分词派生的形容词 varied，也是偏重共时的差异。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>vary the menu 使菜谱多样化</div><div class="ex-item">vary from person to person 因人而异</div><div class="ex-item">Reports vary on the extent of the damage. 关于损失有多大，各个报告说法不一。/ The products vary in price. 产品价格高低不一。/ The kinds of flowers he grows are extremely varied. 他种的花卉，种类极为繁多。/ The people in our firm are from varied backgrounds. 本公司的员工，背景各不相同。/ They stopped to admire the varied scenery. 他们停下来欣赏那丰富多彩的景色。“因……不同而不同”是 vary by + 单数名词。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Styles and prices may vary by store. 款式与售价各门店可能有所不同。（注意 store 用单数，无 the）</div>与共时(synchronically)或历时(diachronically)的差异相联系，change 和 vary 的区别还可以从另一个角度来理解，就是 change 是随着时间的推移而一路变下去，是单方向的，不回头的；而 vary 则没有时间先后的问题，可以随着人的注意焦点变来变去，可以反复回头，没有单独固定的方向。例如一位极为准时的家庭女教师，每个星期天几乎分秒不差地敲门提醒交谈中的父子，上教堂做礼拜的时间到了。此时：Sir Graham doubted if the timing of her knock each Sunday had varied by more than a few seconds since the day she had arrived. (Jeffrey Archer, The Fourth Estate)（格雷姆爵士甚至觉得，自从她来了之后，星期天敲门的时间，每次的差别恐怕不会超过几秒钟。）这里尽管有时间“先后”的问题，但是对“差别”的看待，不是从时间先后变化来看，而是把先后多次的敲门摆在同一个平面上来，不分先后“一视同仁”地审视对比的。如果把 varied 改为 changed，就成了把后来敲门的时间看作变化的结果，固定先后了。<br><br>但是共时差异与先后变化两者区别的界限有时候很模糊。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Y varies directly/inversely with x. y 同 x 成正比/反比。（这里 y 和 x 的变化，就很难说是同一时间点的不同情况还是先后发生的变化）/ One's physical condition varies with the climate. 人的身体状况随气候而不同。（这句也很难说究竟是共时的还是先后的）因此，vary 与 varied 也可以指一些先后的变化。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He has led a varied life. 他一辈子经历了许多沧桑。/ The teacher varies his teaching materials every year. 老师用的教材每年不同。但是用了 vary，就谈不上有什么变化后固定下来的结果。</div><br><br>
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vision
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>view 与 vision</b></div>两者的词义有时重合，但是 view 偏重客观外界的“景象”，vision 则偏重人自己的视力和视野。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>an apartment with an ocean view 有海景的公寓房</div><div class="ex-item">a view over the lake 湖景</div><div class="ex-item">stand up to get a better view 站起来可以看得更清楚些</div><div class="ex-item">The windows of her flat looked out on to a superb view of London. 从她公寓的窗户往外看，伦敦的美景尽收眼底。/ He had poor/normal vision. 他的视力不好/正常。/ My vision is 20-20. (= I have twenty-twenty vision.) 我的视力是 20-20。/ The curtain of reality normally blocks our vision. 现实的帷幕通常会挡住我们的视线。sight 也可以代替 vision 表示“视力”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Her sight/vision was miraculously restored. 她的视力奇迹般地恢复了。这种词义重合情况，类似的还有 glimpse 与 glance。</div><br><br>
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awake
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>wake, wake up, waken, awake 与 awaken</b></div>这几个单词和词组，意义和用法大同小异。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> wake 除了上条作为名词之外，作“睡醒”解时只能是动词(不可以作为形容词)。无论后面加不加上副词 up，都是同义，都是瞬时体的第四类动词，都可以是及物或不及物动词。作为不及物动词是“自己一觉醒来”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She had just woken from a deep sleep. 她刚刚熟睡醒过来。作为及物动词是“叫醒”或“吵醒”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Wake me up at six o'clock. 请 6 点钟喊醒我。/ The children woke me up. 孩子们把我吵醒了。</div><br><br>醒过来时看到的周围景象用 to 引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They woke to a clear blue sky. 他们一觉醒来，天空晴朗，一片蔚蓝色。也可以转义为“从不注意到注意”，注意的对象也用 to 引入。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They need to be woken up to this threat. 需要提醒他们看到这个威胁。 (2) 瞬时动作的动词，本来不可以加上 -ing 词尾来表示延续状态，但是 waking 却是个例外，它作为动词现在分词并且转变为形容词，可以表示“处于清醒状态的”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Waking or sleeping, it's always on my mind. 无论是睡着还是醒着，这件事情一直压在我心头。(注意本来是瞬时动词的 wake，同本来是延续动词的 sleep 一起加 -ing 并列。)但是 waking 不可以用作表语代替 awake，例如不能说 *He was waking. 而且多用来修饰人以外的附属事物而不修饰人。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>his waking hours 他醒着没睡的时间</div><div class="ex-item">a waking nightmare 白天的噩梦。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> awake 作为动词意义与 wake 相同，也是瞬时体的第四类动词，也可以是及物或不及物动词，但后面不能加 up，而且主要用于书面，而且用过去时态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She awoke to a day of brilliant sunshine. 她一觉醒来，一片艳阳天。也可以用被动语态。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I was awoken by the sound of footsteps. 我被脚步声吵醒了。awake 也可以是形容词(但不能放在名词前作定语)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Is the baby awake yet? 婴儿醒过来了没有?</div><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> waken 和 awaken 只用于十分正式的场合。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I was wakened by a knock at the door. 我被一下敲门声吵醒了。尤其是 awaken 主要用于文学作品。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The Prince awakened the Sleeping Beauty with a kiss. 王子吻了一下睡美人，把她唤醒了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> awaken 的动名词 awakening 已经是十足的名词，意思是“觉醒，觉悟”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>political awakening 政治觉悟</div><div class="ex-item">class awakening 阶级觉悟。</div><br><br>
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waken
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>wake, wake up, waken, awake 与 awaken</b></div>这几个单词和词组，意义和用法大同小异。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> wake 除了上条作为名词之外，作“睡醒”解时只能是动词(不可以作为形容词)。无论后面加不加上副词 up，都是同义，都是瞬时体的第四类动词，都可以是及物或不及物动词。作为不及物动词是“自己一觉醒来”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She had just woken from a deep sleep. 她刚刚熟睡醒过来。作为及物动词是“叫醒”或“吵醒”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Wake me up at six o'clock. 请 6 点钟喊醒我。/ The children woke me up. 孩子们把我吵醒了。</div><br><br>醒过来时看到的周围景象用 to 引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They woke to a clear blue sky. 他们一觉醒来，天空晴朗，一片蔚蓝色。也可以转义为“从不注意到注意”，注意的对象也用 to 引入。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They need to be woken up to this threat. 需要提醒他们看到这个威胁。 (2) 瞬时动作的动词，本来不可以加上 -ing 词尾来表示延续状态，但是 waking 却是个例外，它作为动词现在分词并且转变为形容词，可以表示“处于清醒状态的”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Waking or sleeping, it's always on my mind. 无论是睡着还是醒着，这件事情一直压在我心头。(注意本来是瞬时动词的 wake，同本来是延续动词的 sleep 一起加 -ing 并列。)但是 waking 不可以用作表语代替 awake，例如不能说 *He was waking. 而且多用来修饰人以外的附属事物而不修饰人。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>his waking hours 他醒着没睡的时间</div><div class="ex-item">a waking nightmare 白天的噩梦。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> awake 作为动词意义与 wake 相同，也是瞬时体的第四类动词，也可以是及物或不及物动词，但后面不能加 up，而且主要用于书面，而且用过去时态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She awoke to a day of brilliant sunshine. 她一觉醒来，一片艳阳天。也可以用被动语态。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I was awoken by the sound of footsteps. 我被脚步声吵醒了。awake 也可以是形容词(但不能放在名词前作定语)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Is the baby awake yet? 婴儿醒过来了没有?</div><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> waken 和 awaken 只用于十分正式的场合。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I was wakened by a knock at the door. 我被一下敲门声吵醒了。尤其是 awaken 主要用于文学作品。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The Prince awakened the Sleeping Beauty with a kiss. 王子吻了一下睡美人，把她唤醒了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> awaken 的动名词 awakening 已经是十足的名词，意思是“觉醒，觉悟”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>political awakening 政治觉悟</div><div class="ex-item">class awakening 阶级觉悟。</div><br><br>
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awaken
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>wake, wake up, waken, awake 与 awaken</b></div>这几个单词和词组，意义和用法大同小异。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> wake 除了上条作为名词之外，作“睡醒”解时只能是动词(不可以作为形容词)。无论后面加不加上副词 up，都是同义，都是瞬时体的第四类动词，都可以是及物或不及物动词。作为不及物动词是“自己一觉醒来”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She had just woken from a deep sleep. 她刚刚熟睡醒过来。作为及物动词是“叫醒”或“吵醒”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Wake me up at six o'clock. 请 6 点钟喊醒我。/ The children woke me up. 孩子们把我吵醒了。</div><br><br>醒过来时看到的周围景象用 to 引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They woke to a clear blue sky. 他们一觉醒来，天空晴朗，一片蔚蓝色。也可以转义为“从不注意到注意”，注意的对象也用 to 引入。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They need to be woken up to this threat. 需要提醒他们看到这个威胁。 (2) 瞬时动作的动词，本来不可以加上 -ing 词尾来表示延续状态，但是 waking 却是个例外，它作为动词现在分词并且转变为形容词，可以表示“处于清醒状态的”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Waking or sleeping, it's always on my mind. 无论是睡着还是醒着，这件事情一直压在我心头。(注意本来是瞬时动词的 wake，同本来是延续动词的 sleep 一起加 -ing 并列。)但是 waking 不可以用作表语代替 awake，例如不能说 *He was waking. 而且多用来修饰人以外的附属事物而不修饰人。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>his waking hours 他醒着没睡的时间</div><div class="ex-item">a waking nightmare 白天的噩梦。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> awake 作为动词意义与 wake 相同，也是瞬时体的第四类动词，也可以是及物或不及物动词，但后面不能加 up，而且主要用于书面，而且用过去时态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She awoke to a day of brilliant sunshine. 她一觉醒来，一片艳阳天。也可以用被动语态。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I was awoken by the sound of footsteps. 我被脚步声吵醒了。awake 也可以是形容词(但不能放在名词前作定语)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Is the baby awake yet? 婴儿醒过来了没有?</div><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> waken 和 awaken 只用于十分正式的场合。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I was wakened by a knock at the door. 我被一下敲门声吵醒了。尤其是 awaken 主要用于文学作品。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The Prince awakened the Sleeping Beauty with a kiss. 王子吻了一下睡美人，把她唤醒了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> awaken 的动名词 awakening 已经是十足的名词，意思是“觉醒，觉悟”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>political awakening 政治觉悟</div><div class="ex-item">class awakening 阶级觉悟。</div><br><br>
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wake up
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>wake, wake up, waken, awake 与 awaken</b></div>这几个单词和词组，意义和用法大同小异。<br><br><br><span class="seq">(1)</span> wake 除了上条作为名词之外，作“睡醒”解时只能是动词(不可以作为形容词)。无论后面加不加上副词 up，都是同义，都是瞬时体的第四类动词，都可以是及物或不及物动词。作为不及物动词是“自己一觉醒来”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She had just woken from a deep sleep. 她刚刚熟睡醒过来。作为及物动词是“叫醒”或“吵醒”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Wake me up at six o'clock. 请 6 点钟喊醒我。/ The children woke me up. 孩子们把我吵醒了。</div><br><br>醒过来时看到的周围景象用 to 引入。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They woke to a clear blue sky. 他们一觉醒来，天空晴朗，一片蔚蓝色。也可以转义为“从不注意到注意”，注意的对象也用 to 引入。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>They need to be woken up to this threat. 需要提醒他们看到这个威胁。 (2) 瞬时动作的动词，本来不可以加上 -ing 词尾来表示延续状态，但是 waking 却是个例外，它作为动词现在分词并且转变为形容词，可以表示“处于清醒状态的”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Waking or sleeping, it's always on my mind. 无论是睡着还是醒着，这件事情一直压在我心头。(注意本来是瞬时动词的 wake，同本来是延续动词的 sleep 一起加 -ing 并列。)但是 waking 不可以用作表语代替 awake，例如不能说 *He was waking. 而且多用来修饰人以外的附属事物而不修饰人。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>his waking hours 他醒着没睡的时间</div><div class="ex-item">a waking nightmare 白天的噩梦。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> awake 作为动词意义与 wake 相同，也是瞬时体的第四类动词，也可以是及物或不及物动词，但后面不能加 up，而且主要用于书面，而且用过去时态。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She awoke to a day of brilliant sunshine. 她一觉醒来，一片艳阳天。也可以用被动语态。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I was awoken by the sound of footsteps. 我被脚步声吵醒了。awake 也可以是形容词(但不能放在名词前作定语)。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Is the baby awake yet? 婴儿醒过来了没有?</div><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> waken 和 awaken 只用于十分正式的场合。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I was wakened by a knock at the door. 我被一下敲门声吵醒了。尤其是 awaken 主要用于文学作品。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The Prince awakened the Sleeping Beauty with a kiss. 王子吻了一下睡美人，把她唤醒了。</div><br><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> awaken 的动名词 awakening 已经是十足的名词，意思是“觉醒，觉悟”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>political awakening 政治觉悟</div><div class="ex-item">class awakening 阶级觉悟。</div><br><br>
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wanted
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>wanted 与 wanting</b></div>作为动词 want 的过去分词，wanted 可以有好的意思(“需要，诚聘”)，例如美国许多商店的招聘店员告示，标题就是 Help wanted。报上登广告征聘卡车司机是 Truck driver wanted. 但是警察通缉逃犯的告示，也用 wanted 作为标题。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a "most wanted" list “要犯通缉”名单。(注意 wanted 不是 list 的修饰语)</div><div class="ex-item">wanted notice 通缉告示(wanted 也不是 notice 的修饰语)</div><div class="ex-item">He is wanted for murder. 他因为谋杀罪被通缉。/ He is one of the most wanted criminals in the United States. 他是美国最被大力通缉的罪犯之一。</div><br><br>wanting 则是一个形容词(但通常只能作表语)，意思是“有缺陷的，不完善的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>American leadership is wanting, but it is still wanted. (Hillary Clinton)美国的领导作用是有缺陷的，但仍然是需要的。</div><br><br>
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wanting
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>wanted 与 wanting</b></div>作为动词 want 的过去分词，wanted 可以有好的意思(“需要，诚聘”)，例如美国许多商店的招聘店员告示，标题就是 Help wanted。报上登广告征聘卡车司机是 Truck driver wanted. 但是警察通缉逃犯的告示，也用 wanted 作为标题。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a "most wanted" list “要犯通缉”名单。(注意 wanted 不是 list 的修饰语)</div><div class="ex-item">wanted notice 通缉告示(wanted 也不是 notice 的修饰语)</div><div class="ex-item">He is wanted for murder. 他因为谋杀罪被通缉。/ He is one of the most wanted criminals in the United States. 他是美国最被大力通缉的罪犯之一。</div><br><br>wanting 则是一个形容词(但通常只能作表语)，意思是“有缺陷的，不完善的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>American leadership is wanting, but it is still wanted. (Hillary Clinton)美国的领导作用是有缺陷的，但仍然是需要的。</div><br><br>
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wary
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>wary 与 weary</b></div>两者都是形容词，但是发音和词义都不相同。前者意思是“留神的，小心的，提防的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>keep a wary eye on somebody 密切提防某人</div><div class="ex-item">be wary of somebody 小心提防某人。后者意思是“疲倦的，厌倦的”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She was weary of his childishness. 她对他的幼稚举止感到厌烦。/ I had grown weary of her complaints. 她老是埋怨，我都听烦了。/ "People are war weary and wary," says Domke, a Boston-area Republican. (U.S. News & World Report, Dec. 24, 2007, p. 40)波士顿地区的共和党人多姆克说：“人们对战争又厌倦又担心。”</div><br><br>
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weary
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>wary 与 weary</b></div>两者都是形容词，但是发音和词义都不相同。前者意思是“留神的，小心的，提防的”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>keep a wary eye on somebody 密切提防某人</div><div class="ex-item">be wary of somebody 小心提防某人。后者意思是“疲倦的，厌倦的”。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She was weary of his childishness. 她对他的幼稚举止感到厌烦。/ I had grown weary of her complaints. 她老是埋怨，我都听烦了。/ "People are war weary and wary," says Domke, a Boston-area Republican. (U.S. News & World Report, Dec. 24, 2007, p. 40)波士顿地区的共和党人多姆克说：“人们对战争又厌倦又担心。”</div><br><br>
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watch
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>watch 与 see</b></div>参见 see 条之(2)。<br><br>
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arms
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>weapon 与 arms</b></div>参见 arm 条。<br><br>
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weapon
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>weapon 与 arms</b></div>参见 arm 条。<br><br>
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connected
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(well-)connected</b></div>字面意义是“联系紧密的”，但是实际意义是“利害关系盘根错节的”，有贬义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... who will get the economy growing again in a way that benefits everyone, and not just a wealthy, well-connected few. (<i>U.S. News & World Report</i>, Sept. 15-22, 2008, p. 38) ……看谁能够使经济振兴，又使得人人都受益，而不光是让少数富有而又利害关系盘根错节的人受益。</div><br><br>
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well-connected
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(well-)connected</b></div>字面意义是“联系紧密的”，但是实际意义是“利害关系盘根错节的”，有贬义。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... who will get the economy growing again in a way that benefits everyone, and not just a wealthy, well-connected few. (<i>U.S. News & World Report</i>, Sept. 15-22, 2008, p. 38) ……看谁能够使经济振兴，又使得人人都受益，而不光是让少数富有而又利害关系盘根错节的人受益。</div><br><br>
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west
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>west 与 western</b></div>参见 east 与 eastern 条。<br><br>
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western
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>west 与 western</b></div>参见 east 与 eastern 条。<br><br>
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what ...
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>what ..., what ...</b></div>并列的状语，表示“又是……，又是……”。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>What</b> with money, <b>what</b> with promises, he bribed the judges. 他又是拿钱，又是许诺，把法官们收买过来了。</div><br><br>
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Yes
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>Yes, I do.</b></div>在教堂举行婚礼时，神父或牧师照例要分别问新郎和新娘：Do you take ×× as your lawful wife/husband, to have and to hold, from this day forward, for better or for worse, for richer or for poorer, in sickness and in health, to love and to cherish until death do you part? (你是否愿意娶/嫁给××为你的合法妻子/丈夫，从今天起，与她/他厮守终生，无论是祸是福，或穷或富，或病或健，都相亲相爱，直到死亡将你们分开？)此时新郎新娘的标准回答是 Yes, I do. 因此，Yes, I do. 成了举行婚礼的一句必用语，也成了婚礼的标志，说 Yes, I do. 就等于举行婚礼。<br><br>
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I do.
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>Yes, I do.</b></div>在教堂举行婚礼时，神父或牧师照例要分别问新郎和新娘：Do you take ×× as your lawful wife/husband, to have and to hold, from this day forward, for better or for worse, for richer or for poorer, in sickness and in health, to love and to cherish until death do you part? (你是否愿意娶/嫁给××为你的合法妻子/丈夫，从今天起，与她/他厮守终生，无论是祸是福，或穷或富，或病或健，都相亲相爱，直到死亡将你们分开？)此时新郎新娘的标准回答是 Yes, I do. 因此，Yes, I do. 成了举行婚礼的一句必用语，也成了婚礼的标志，说 Yes, I do. 就等于举行婚礼。<br><br>
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overoptimistic
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>overoptimistic 与 over-optimistic</b></div>从 overemphasize 条以及类似的条目看来，凡是遇到“过分”被否定时，往往有可能反而是“不可能过分”亦即“无论多么……都不为过”的肯定意义。但并非都是如此。如果没有表示“可能”的词语，那么往往还是简单叙述式的“不过于……”，而非判断式的“无论多么……都不为过”。overoptimistic/over-optimistic 意义很简单，就是字面上的“过分乐观”。如果前面有否定，而没有表示“可能”的词语，也是字面上的“不过分乐观”，要避免误解为判断式的“再怎么乐观都不过分”。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Although the actual returns to the Federal Reserve Banks show a slight advantage over results from the same period in the Second Liberty Loan, Treasury Department officials are <i>not over-optimistic</i>. There is a disappointment in the returns from large cities, ... 尽管联邦储备银行的实际收益比同一时期第二自由债券的收益略多，但是财政部的官员们并不太乐观。人们对于从大城市来的收益感到失望，…… / During the first two courses they chatted about the Labor Party's chances of winning the next election, and both of them admitted they weren't <i>over-optimistic</i>. (Jeffrey Archer, <i>The Fourth Estate</i>) 吃头两道菜时，他们聊了一下工党下次选举有多大可能获胜的问题，两人都承认自己并不太乐观。(不是“再怎么乐观都不过分”)</div><br><br>
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over-optimistic
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>overoptimistic 与 over-optimistic</b></div>从 overemphasize 条以及类似的条目看来，凡是遇到“过分”被否定时，往往有可能反而是“不可能过分”亦即“无论多么……都不为过”的肯定意义。但并非都是如此。如果没有表示“可能”的词语，那么往往还是简单叙述式的“不过于……”，而非判断式的“无论多么……都不为过”。overoptimistic/over-optimistic 意义很简单，就是字面上的“过分乐观”。如果前面有否定，而没有表示“可能”的词语，也是字面上的“不过分乐观”，要避免误解为判断式的“再怎么乐观都不过分”。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Although the actual returns to the Federal Reserve Banks show a slight advantage over results from the same period in the Second Liberty Loan, Treasury Department officials are <i>not over-optimistic</i>. There is a disappointment in the returns from large cities, ... 尽管联邦储备银行的实际收益比同一时期第二自由债券的收益略多，但是财政部的官员们并不太乐观。人们对于从大城市来的收益感到失望，…… / During the first two courses they chatted about the Labor Party's chances of winning the next election, and both of them admitted they weren't <i>over-optimistic</i>. (Jeffrey Archer, <i>The Fourth Estate</i>) 吃头两道菜时，他们聊了一下工党下次选举有多大可能获胜的问题，两人都承认自己并不太乐观。(不是“再怎么乐观都不过分”)</div><br><br>
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pagan
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>pagan 与 infidel</b></div>pagan 这个形容词，英汉词典上通常译为“（从基督教角度看）属异教的”，但是实际上这个“异教”在日常使用中，往往指基督教出现之前的古希腊罗马神话。但是即使是信仰基督教的西方人，对于古希腊罗马文化传统和神话也并不排斥，pagan 这个词并没有多大的贬义。<br><br>而 infidel 则有强烈的贬义。基督教与伊斯兰教在历史上的宗教战争中，就互称为 infidel，但从来不用 pagan 这个词称呼对方，因为词义内涵不是一回事。<br><br>
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infidel
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>pagan 与 infidel</b></div>pagan 这个形容词，英汉词典上通常译为“（从基督教角度看）属异教的”，但是实际上这个“异教”在日常使用中，往往指基督教出现之前的古希腊罗马神话。但是即使是信仰基督教的西方人，对于古希腊罗马文化传统和神话也并不排斥，pagan 这个词并没有多大的贬义。<br><br>而 infidel 则有强烈的贬义。基督教与伊斯兰教在历史上的宗教战争中，就互称为 infidel，但从来不用 pagan 这个词称呼对方，因为词义内涵不是一回事。<br><br>
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pain
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>pain, painful, ache 与 hurt</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> pain 作为不可数名词（无任何冠词）表示肉体的疼痛时，是笼统的或是泛指疼痛。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Pain is the body's way of telling us that something is wrong. 疼痛是身体用来告诉你出了问题的一种办法。/ You can pre-empt pain by taking a painkiller at the first warning sign. 一发现警告信号，马上服用止痛片，就可以防止疼痛。/ She was writhing in pain, bathed in perspiration. 她痛得挣扎打滚，大汗淋漓。/ Mom's face was full of pain. 妈妈的脸上是一副痛苦的表情。/ She awoke in pain. 她痛醒过来。/ He twisted his face with/in pain. 他痛得脸都扭曲了。</div><br><br>pain 作为可数名词（有 the 或 a）时是特定场合下身体特定部位的疼痛。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I've got a pain in my leg. 我腿痛。/ He has a pain in his ear. 他耳朵痛。/ Where is the pain? 你哪里痛？/ The pain is always in the same place. 老是同一处地方痛。/ I felt a sharp pain in my lower back. 我后背下部感到剧痛。如果指特定部位但痛处分散或重复发作的疼痛，可以用复数的 pains 代替 a pain。</div><br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was suffering from pains in his abdomen. 他肚子痛。</div><br><br>如果 pain 同别的的不舒适并列，即使上下文表明了身体部位，也当作不可数名词<br><br>处理。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The bones begin to grind against each other, leading to pain and deformity. 骨头开始彼此研磨，引起疼痛与变形。/ I have recently been suffering from pain and numbness in my hands. 我最近手部感到疼痛和麻木。/ Heart disease often shows itself first as pain or tightness in the chest. 心脏病最初的表现，往往是胸痛和胸闷。</div><br><br>身体特定部位作为形容词或名词前置，pain 仍是不可数。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>abdominal pain 肚子痛 / alleviate back pain 缓解背痛。</div><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 修饰 pain 的形容词有很多，如：acute、excruciating、intense、unbearable、sharp、dull、slight、burning、stabbing、stinging、throbbing、constant、severe、gnawing、nagging。<br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 复数形式的 pains 可以转义为“劳苦，努力”。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A cup of tea was all I got for my pains. 我辛苦了一番，就得到了一杯茶。pains 常常结合另一些词语，形成惯用词组，如 be at great pains to inf.、take great/considerable/much pains to inf.、go to great pains to inf. 之类。</div><br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She was at great pains to dissociate herself from ... 她拼命要洗刷自己同……的关系。/ I took considerable pains to explain it to them. 我费了很大的劲去向他们解释。/ He went to great pains to help us. 他费心帮助了我们。/ They spared no pains to make/in making me feel at home. 他们竭力要使我过得舒服。/ Mobil is at pains to point out that the chances of an explosion at the site are remote. 美孚石油公司在竭力表示，在这个地点发生爆炸的可能性是十分渺茫的。/ I had taken great pains with my appearance. 我费了很大的劲整理自己的仪表。</div><br><br>pains 作“劳苦”或“努力”解时必须用复数，成了复数形式的不可数名词，因此不能说 *many pains 而要说 much pains。作主语时往往不用 much pains，而改用 great pains，但在古英语中也以 much pains 作主语。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Much pains were taken, during the second trial, to induce them to sign articles of subscription; ... (George Godfrey Cunningham, A History of England in the Lives of Englishmen) 第二轮审判期间，费了很大的力气去说服他们签署悔过书，……/ I have it by me still, and sometimes look at it with surprise, to think how much pains were thrown away to little purpose, ... (William Hazlitt's essay, "On the Pleasure of Painting") 这幅画我现在还保留着，有时候我看着它心里就感到惊讶，为了这个微不足道的目的，花掉了多少心血，……</div><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> pain 是各种各样的疼痛。ache 则多指身体内部器官的疼痛而非外部肌肤的伤痛，而且 ache 既可以是名词，也可以是不及物动词。动词 ache（表示延续状态的第一类动词）的主语可以是整个人，也可以是身体的某个部位。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I ache/am aching all over. 我全身都痛。（I ache. 表示长时间的延续，I am aching. 表示说话当时的延续。）/ My feet ache. 我脚痛。如果疼痛部位尚未确定，可以暂时以 it 为主语。</div><br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Where does it ache? 哪里疼？</div><br><br>hurt 同 ache 用法相似，但可以指外部肌肤的伤痛。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My leg hurts. 我腿痛。/ Where does it hurt? 哪里痛？/ Do you hurt? 你感到痛吗？/ I hurt all over. 我全身都痛。</div><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> painful 作为形容词，表示肉体疼痛，通常限于身体的个别部位，很少用于指<br><br>整個人。因此，問別人「痛不痛」時不習慣說 Are you painful? 更多說 Are you in <b>pain</b>?<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm in constant <b>pain</b>. 我一直都痛。/ She was in great <b>pain</b>. 她痛得很厲害。/ He suffered from a <b>painful</b> back. 他當時背痛。/ Her glands were swollen and <b>painful</b>. 她的腺體又腫又痛。/ Is your back still <b>painful</b>? 你的背現在還痛嗎？/ My back is so <b>painful</b> that I cannot stand upright any more. 我背痛得無法站直。偶爾也有用 painful 描述整個人的，但不多見。</div><br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Henry seemed to be pretty much the same man when he was <b>painful</b>/in pain as when he was not. 亨利痛的時候和不痛的時候，樣子看起來差不多。</div><br><br>說某人 painful 可能產生意想不到的歧義，可能指某個演員表演一塌糊塗，或是某個演說家或電視節目主持人講的話語無倫次。這個特殊詞義的來歷，很可能是因为說某人 painful，其實后面略去了 watch、behold、look at、listen to 之類，所以不是本人 painful，是 watch him、behold him、look at him、listen to him 這件事情 painful。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>(At the beginning,) she was <b>painful</b> to behold. Everything she did was studied, whether she sat down, rose, walked, it appeared to be stilted, overdone, affected, and looked cruder than a slow-motion movie. (Florence Treadwell, in Peter Kurth, <i>Isadora, A Sensational Life</i>) (開頭時) 她的舉止十分难看。她的一舉一動經過觀察研究，無論是坐下，站起，走路，都顯得呆板做作、迂緩不及、裝腔作勢，比慢鏡頭的影片還更加生硬。這一来，painful 单独用，也保持了這個含義。painful 用於這個意義，還可以作為名詞的前置定語。</div><br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a <b>painful</b> actress 一個糟糕的女演員 / a <b>painful</b> performance 一場糟糕的演出。</div><br><br>普醫談到寵物的病時，比之談到人生病時更多說 She/He is <b>painful</b> (in her abdomen). 這個疼痛不是貓狗自己說出來的，是人觀察出來的，也有「給人印象」的意思。<br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> painful 以及 hurt 都可以轉义用于造成肉體疼痛的具体或抽象事物 (ache 及名詞 pain 則不可)。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My boots are still <b>painful</b>. 我的靴子仍然痛腳。/ This condition is <b>painful</b>. 這種病是很痛苦的。/ The procedure is not <b>painful</b>. 手術不痛。/ He got a <b>painful</b> blow on the nose. 他的鼻子被痛痛地打了一下。/ My shoes <b>hurt</b>. 我的鞋子痛腳。/ The procedure <b>hurts</b> much less than open abdominal surgery. 這種手術比開腹部手術疼痛輕得多。/ Dental disease <b>hurts</b> like hell. 牙病痛得要命。</div><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 只有 ache 不能轉义用于表示精神上的痛苦，其余 pain、painful 和 hurt 都可以轉义。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I remember, with <b>pain</b>, his tears. 我痛苦地回想起他當時的眼淚。/ It's sometimes <b>painful</b> to know the truth. 有時候，知道真相就令人難過。/ Remarks like that brought back <b>painful</b> memories. 像那樣的說法，引起了痛苦的回憶。/ She finds it too <b>painful</b> to return there without him. 她覺得，不跟他一起回那邊去太痛苦了。/ It <b>hurts</b> to have to admit it, but I was in the wrong. 不得不承認這一點，是令人難受的，但是我的確是錯了。但是，ache for something 或 ache to inf. 却失去了「痛苦」的含義，轉义為「渴望」（表示延續狀態或延續動作的第一類或第二類動詞）。</div><br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... because the nation <b>ached for</b> something new. (The Associated Press, Jan. 12, 2009)…… 因為國人渴望一個新局面。/ She was <b>aching for</b> home. 她渴望回家。/ He <b>ached to</b></div><br><br>see her. 他渴望看見她。<br><br>
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painful
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>pain, painful, ache 与 hurt</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> pain 作为不可数名词（无任何冠词）表示肉体的疼痛时，是笼统的或是泛指疼痛。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Pain is the body's way of telling us that something is wrong. 疼痛是身体用来告诉你出了问题的一种办法。/ You can pre-empt pain by taking a painkiller at the first warning sign. 一发现警告信号，马上服用止痛片，就可以防止疼痛。/ She was writhing in pain, bathed in perspiration. 她痛得挣扎打滚，大汗淋漓。/ Mom's face was full of pain. 妈妈的脸上是一副痛苦的表情。/ She awoke in pain. 她痛醒过来。/ He twisted his face with/in pain. 他痛得脸都扭曲了。</div><br><br>pain 作为可数名词（有 the 或 a）时是特定场合下身体特定部位的疼痛。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I've got a pain in my leg. 我腿痛。/ He has a pain in his ear. 他耳朵痛。/ Where is the pain? 你哪里痛？/ The pain is always in the same place. 老是同一处地方痛。/ I felt a sharp pain in my lower back. 我后背下部感到剧痛。如果指特定部位但痛处分散或重复发作的疼痛，可以用复数的 pains 代替 a pain。</div><br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was suffering from pains in his abdomen. 他肚子痛。</div><br><br>如果 pain 同别的的不舒适并列，即使上下文表明了身体部位，也当作不可数名词<br><br>处理。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The bones begin to grind against each other, leading to pain and deformity. 骨头开始彼此研磨，引起疼痛与变形。/ I have recently been suffering from pain and numbness in my hands. 我最近手部感到疼痛和麻木。/ Heart disease often shows itself first as pain or tightness in the chest. 心脏病最初的表现，往往是胸痛和胸闷。</div><br><br>身体特定部位作为形容词或名词前置，pain 仍是不可数。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>abdominal pain 肚子痛 / alleviate back pain 缓解背痛。</div><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 修饰 pain 的形容词有很多，如：acute、excruciating、intense、unbearable、sharp、dull、slight、burning、stabbing、stinging、throbbing、constant、severe、gnawing、nagging。<br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 复数形式的 pains 可以转义为“劳苦，努力”。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A cup of tea was all I got for my pains. 我辛苦了一番，就得到了一杯茶。pains 常常结合另一些词语，形成惯用词组，如 be at great pains to inf.、take great/considerable/much pains to inf.、go to great pains to inf. 之类。</div><br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She was at great pains to dissociate herself from ... 她拼命要洗刷自己同……的关系。/ I took considerable pains to explain it to them. 我费了很大的劲去向他们解释。/ He went to great pains to help us. 他费心帮助了我们。/ They spared no pains to make/in making me feel at home. 他们竭力要使我过得舒服。/ Mobil is at pains to point out that the chances of an explosion at the site are remote. 美孚石油公司在竭力表示，在这个地点发生爆炸的可能性是十分渺茫的。/ I had taken great pains with my appearance. 我费了很大的劲整理自己的仪表。</div><br><br>pains 作“劳苦”或“努力”解时必须用复数，成了复数形式的不可数名词，因此不能说 *many pains 而要说 much pains。作主语时往往不用 much pains，而改用 great pains，但在古英语中也以 much pains 作主语。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Much pains were taken, during the second trial, to induce them to sign articles of subscription; ... (George Godfrey Cunningham, A History of England in the Lives of Englishmen) 第二轮审判期间，费了很大的力气去说服他们签署悔过书，……/ I have it by me still, and sometimes look at it with surprise, to think how much pains were thrown away to little purpose, ... (William Hazlitt's essay, "On the Pleasure of Painting") 这幅画我现在还保留着，有时候我看着它心里就感到惊讶，为了这个微不足道的目的，花掉了多少心血，……</div><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> pain 是各种各样的疼痛。ache 则多指身体内部器官的疼痛而非外部肌肤的伤痛，而且 ache 既可以是名词，也可以是不及物动词。动词 ache（表示延续状态的第一类动词）的主语可以是整个人，也可以是身体的某个部位。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I ache/am aching all over. 我全身都痛。（I ache. 表示长时间的延续，I am aching. 表示说话当时的延续。）/ My feet ache. 我脚痛。如果疼痛部位尚未确定，可以暂时以 it 为主语。</div><br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Where does it ache? 哪里疼？</div><br><br>hurt 同 ache 用法相似，但可以指外部肌肤的伤痛。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My leg hurts. 我腿痛。/ Where does it hurt? 哪里痛？/ Do you hurt? 你感到痛吗？/ I hurt all over. 我全身都痛。</div><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> painful 作为形容词，表示肉体疼痛，通常限于身体的个别部位，很少用于指<br><br>整個人。因此，問別人「痛不痛」時不習慣說 Are you painful? 更多說 Are you in <b>pain</b>?<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm in constant <b>pain</b>. 我一直都痛。/ She was in great <b>pain</b>. 她痛得很厲害。/ He suffered from a <b>painful</b> back. 他當時背痛。/ Her glands were swollen and <b>painful</b>. 她的腺體又腫又痛。/ Is your back still <b>painful</b>? 你的背現在還痛嗎？/ My back is so <b>painful</b> that I cannot stand upright any more. 我背痛得無法站直。偶爾也有用 painful 描述整個人的，但不多見。</div><br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Henry seemed to be pretty much the same man when he was <b>painful</b>/in pain as when he was not. 亨利痛的時候和不痛的時候，樣子看起來差不多。</div><br><br>說某人 painful 可能產生意想不到的歧義，可能指某個演員表演一塌糊塗，或是某個演說家或電視節目主持人講的話語無倫次。這個特殊詞義的來歷，很可能是因为說某人 painful，其實后面略去了 watch、behold、look at、listen to 之類，所以不是本人 painful，是 watch him、behold him、look at him、listen to him 這件事情 painful。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>(At the beginning,) she was <b>painful</b> to behold. Everything she did was studied, whether she sat down, rose, walked, it appeared to be stilted, overdone, affected, and looked cruder than a slow-motion movie. (Florence Treadwell, in Peter Kurth, <i>Isadora, A Sensational Life</i>) (開頭時) 她的舉止十分难看。她的一舉一動經過觀察研究，無論是坐下，站起，走路，都顯得呆板做作、迂緩不及、裝腔作勢，比慢鏡頭的影片還更加生硬。這一来，painful 单独用，也保持了這個含義。painful 用於這個意義，還可以作為名詞的前置定語。</div><br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a <b>painful</b> actress 一個糟糕的女演員 / a <b>painful</b> performance 一場糟糕的演出。</div><br><br>普醫談到寵物的病時，比之談到人生病時更多說 She/He is <b>painful</b> (in her abdomen). 這個疼痛不是貓狗自己說出來的，是人觀察出來的，也有「給人印象」的意思。<br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> painful 以及 hurt 都可以轉义用于造成肉體疼痛的具体或抽象事物 (ache 及名詞 pain 則不可)。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My boots are still <b>painful</b>. 我的靴子仍然痛腳。/ This condition is <b>painful</b>. 這種病是很痛苦的。/ The procedure is not <b>painful</b>. 手術不痛。/ He got a <b>painful</b> blow on the nose. 他的鼻子被痛痛地打了一下。/ My shoes <b>hurt</b>. 我的鞋子痛腳。/ The procedure <b>hurts</b> much less than open abdominal surgery. 這種手術比開腹部手術疼痛輕得多。/ Dental disease <b>hurts</b> like hell. 牙病痛得要命。</div><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 只有 ache 不能轉义用于表示精神上的痛苦，其余 pain、painful 和 hurt 都可以轉义。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I remember, with <b>pain</b>, his tears. 我痛苦地回想起他當時的眼淚。/ It's sometimes <b>painful</b> to know the truth. 有時候，知道真相就令人難過。/ Remarks like that brought back <b>painful</b> memories. 像那樣的說法，引起了痛苦的回憶。/ She finds it too <b>painful</b> to return there without him. 她覺得，不跟他一起回那邊去太痛苦了。/ It <b>hurts</b> to have to admit it, but I was in the wrong. 不得不承認這一點，是令人難受的，但是我的確是錯了。但是，ache for something 或 ache to inf. 却失去了「痛苦」的含義，轉义為「渴望」（表示延續狀態或延續動作的第一類或第二類動詞）。</div><br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... because the nation <b>ached for</b> something new. (The Associated Press, Jan. 12, 2009)…… 因為國人渴望一個新局面。/ She was <b>aching for</b> home. 她渴望回家。/ He <b>ached to</b></div><br><br>see her. 他渴望看見她。<br><br>
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ache
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>pain, painful, ache 与 hurt</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> pain 作为不可数名词（无任何冠词）表示肉体的疼痛时，是笼统的或是泛指疼痛。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Pain is the body's way of telling us that something is wrong. 疼痛是身体用来告诉你出了问题的一种办法。/ You can pre-empt pain by taking a painkiller at the first warning sign. 一发现警告信号，马上服用止痛片，就可以防止疼痛。/ She was writhing in pain, bathed in perspiration. 她痛得挣扎打滚，大汗淋漓。/ Mom's face was full of pain. 妈妈的脸上是一副痛苦的表情。/ She awoke in pain. 她痛醒过来。/ He twisted his face with/in pain. 他痛得脸都扭曲了。</div><br><br>pain 作为可数名词（有 the 或 a）时是特定场合下身体特定部位的疼痛。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I've got a pain in my leg. 我腿痛。/ He has a pain in his ear. 他耳朵痛。/ Where is the pain? 你哪里痛？/ The pain is always in the same place. 老是同一处地方痛。/ I felt a sharp pain in my lower back. 我后背下部感到剧痛。如果指特定部位但痛处分散或重复发作的疼痛，可以用复数的 pains 代替 a pain。</div><br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was suffering from pains in his abdomen. 他肚子痛。</div><br><br>如果 pain 同别的的不舒适并列，即使上下文表明了身体部位，也当作不可数名词<br><br>处理。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The bones begin to grind against each other, leading to pain and deformity. 骨头开始彼此研磨，引起疼痛与变形。/ I have recently been suffering from pain and numbness in my hands. 我最近手部感到疼痛和麻木。/ Heart disease often shows itself first as pain or tightness in the chest. 心脏病最初的表现，往往是胸痛和胸闷。</div><br><br>身体特定部位作为形容词或名词前置，pain 仍是不可数。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>abdominal pain 肚子痛 / alleviate back pain 缓解背痛。</div><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 修饰 pain 的形容词有很多，如：acute、excruciating、intense、unbearable、sharp、dull、slight、burning、stabbing、stinging、throbbing、constant、severe、gnawing、nagging。<br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 复数形式的 pains 可以转义为“劳苦，努力”。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A cup of tea was all I got for my pains. 我辛苦了一番，就得到了一杯茶。pains 常常结合另一些词语，形成惯用词组，如 be at great pains to inf.、take great/considerable/much pains to inf.、go to great pains to inf. 之类。</div><br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She was at great pains to dissociate herself from ... 她拼命要洗刷自己同……的关系。/ I took considerable pains to explain it to them. 我费了很大的劲去向他们解释。/ He went to great pains to help us. 他费心帮助了我们。/ They spared no pains to make/in making me feel at home. 他们竭力要使我过得舒服。/ Mobil is at pains to point out that the chances of an explosion at the site are remote. 美孚石油公司在竭力表示，在这个地点发生爆炸的可能性是十分渺茫的。/ I had taken great pains with my appearance. 我费了很大的劲整理自己的仪表。</div><br><br>pains 作“劳苦”或“努力”解时必须用复数，成了复数形式的不可数名词，因此不能说 *many pains 而要说 much pains。作主语时往往不用 much pains，而改用 great pains，但在古英语中也以 much pains 作主语。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Much pains were taken, during the second trial, to induce them to sign articles of subscription; ... (George Godfrey Cunningham, A History of England in the Lives of Englishmen) 第二轮审判期间，费了很大的力气去说服他们签署悔过书，……/ I have it by me still, and sometimes look at it with surprise, to think how much pains were thrown away to little purpose, ... (William Hazlitt's essay, "On the Pleasure of Painting") 这幅画我现在还保留着，有时候我看着它心里就感到惊讶，为了这个微不足道的目的，花掉了多少心血，……</div><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> pain 是各种各样的疼痛。ache 则多指身体内部器官的疼痛而非外部肌肤的伤痛，而且 ache 既可以是名词，也可以是不及物动词。动词 ache（表示延续状态的第一类动词）的主语可以是整个人，也可以是身体的某个部位。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I ache/am aching all over. 我全身都痛。（I ache. 表示长时间的延续，I am aching. 表示说话当时的延续。）/ My feet ache. 我脚痛。如果疼痛部位尚未确定，可以暂时以 it 为主语。</div><br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Where does it ache? 哪里疼？</div><br><br>hurt 同 ache 用法相似，但可以指外部肌肤的伤痛。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My leg hurts. 我腿痛。/ Where does it hurt? 哪里痛？/ Do you hurt? 你感到痛吗？/ I hurt all over. 我全身都痛。</div><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> painful 作为形容词，表示肉体疼痛，通常限于身体的个别部位，很少用于指<br><br>整個人。因此，問別人「痛不痛」時不習慣說 Are you painful? 更多說 Are you in <b>pain</b>?<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm in constant <b>pain</b>. 我一直都痛。/ She was in great <b>pain</b>. 她痛得很厲害。/ He suffered from a <b>painful</b> back. 他當時背痛。/ Her glands were swollen and <b>painful</b>. 她的腺體又腫又痛。/ Is your back still <b>painful</b>? 你的背現在還痛嗎？/ My back is so <b>painful</b> that I cannot stand upright any more. 我背痛得無法站直。偶爾也有用 painful 描述整個人的，但不多見。</div><br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Henry seemed to be pretty much the same man when he was <b>painful</b>/in pain as when he was not. 亨利痛的時候和不痛的時候，樣子看起來差不多。</div><br><br>說某人 painful 可能產生意想不到的歧義，可能指某個演員表演一塌糊塗，或是某個演說家或電視節目主持人講的話語無倫次。這個特殊詞義的來歷，很可能是因为說某人 painful，其實后面略去了 watch、behold、look at、listen to 之類，所以不是本人 painful，是 watch him、behold him、look at him、listen to him 這件事情 painful。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>(At the beginning,) she was <b>painful</b> to behold. Everything she did was studied, whether she sat down, rose, walked, it appeared to be stilted, overdone, affected, and looked cruder than a slow-motion movie. (Florence Treadwell, in Peter Kurth, <i>Isadora, A Sensational Life</i>) (開頭時) 她的舉止十分难看。她的一舉一動經過觀察研究，無論是坐下，站起，走路，都顯得呆板做作、迂緩不及、裝腔作勢，比慢鏡頭的影片還更加生硬。這一来，painful 单独用，也保持了這個含義。painful 用於這個意義，還可以作為名詞的前置定語。</div><br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a <b>painful</b> actress 一個糟糕的女演員 / a <b>painful</b> performance 一場糟糕的演出。</div><br><br>普醫談到寵物的病時，比之談到人生病時更多說 She/He is <b>painful</b> (in her abdomen). 這個疼痛不是貓狗自己說出來的，是人觀察出來的，也有「給人印象」的意思。<br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> painful 以及 hurt 都可以轉义用于造成肉體疼痛的具体或抽象事物 (ache 及名詞 pain 則不可)。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My boots are still <b>painful</b>. 我的靴子仍然痛腳。/ This condition is <b>painful</b>. 這種病是很痛苦的。/ The procedure is not <b>painful</b>. 手術不痛。/ He got a <b>painful</b> blow on the nose. 他的鼻子被痛痛地打了一下。/ My shoes <b>hurt</b>. 我的鞋子痛腳。/ The procedure <b>hurts</b> much less than open abdominal surgery. 這種手術比開腹部手術疼痛輕得多。/ Dental disease <b>hurts</b> like hell. 牙病痛得要命。</div><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 只有 ache 不能轉义用于表示精神上的痛苦，其余 pain、painful 和 hurt 都可以轉义。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I remember, with <b>pain</b>, his tears. 我痛苦地回想起他當時的眼淚。/ It's sometimes <b>painful</b> to know the truth. 有時候，知道真相就令人難過。/ Remarks like that brought back <b>painful</b> memories. 像那樣的說法，引起了痛苦的回憶。/ She finds it too <b>painful</b> to return there without him. 她覺得，不跟他一起回那邊去太痛苦了。/ It <b>hurts</b> to have to admit it, but I was in the wrong. 不得不承認這一點，是令人難受的，但是我的確是錯了。但是，ache for something 或 ache to inf. 却失去了「痛苦」的含義，轉义為「渴望」（表示延續狀態或延續動作的第一類或第二類動詞）。</div><br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... because the nation <b>ached for</b> something new. (The Associated Press, Jan. 12, 2009)…… 因為國人渴望一個新局面。/ She was <b>aching for</b> home. 她渴望回家。/ He <b>ached to</b></div><br><br>see her. 他渴望看見她。<br><br>
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pain, painful, ache
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>pain, painful, ache 与 hurt</b></div><span class="seq">(1)</span> pain 作为不可数名词（无任何冠词）表示肉体的疼痛时，是笼统的或是泛指疼痛。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Pain is the body's way of telling us that something is wrong. 疼痛是身体用来告诉你出了问题的一种办法。/ You can pre-empt pain by taking a painkiller at the first warning sign. 一发现警告信号，马上服用止痛片，就可以防止疼痛。/ She was writhing in pain, bathed in perspiration. 她痛得挣扎打滚，大汗淋漓。/ Mom's face was full of pain. 妈妈的脸上是一副痛苦的表情。/ She awoke in pain. 她痛醒过来。/ He twisted his face with/in pain. 他痛得脸都扭曲了。</div><br><br>pain 作为可数名词（有 the 或 a）时是特定场合下身体特定部位的疼痛。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I've got a pain in my leg. 我腿痛。/ He has a pain in his ear. 他耳朵痛。/ Where is the pain? 你哪里痛？/ The pain is always in the same place. 老是同一处地方痛。/ I felt a sharp pain in my lower back. 我后背下部感到剧痛。如果指特定部位但痛处分散或重复发作的疼痛，可以用复数的 pains 代替 a pain。</div><br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>He was suffering from pains in his abdomen. 他肚子痛。</div><br><br>如果 pain 同别的的不舒适并列，即使上下文表明了身体部位，也当作不可数名词<br><br>处理。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The bones begin to grind against each other, leading to pain and deformity. 骨头开始彼此研磨，引起疼痛与变形。/ I have recently been suffering from pain and numbness in my hands. 我最近手部感到疼痛和麻木。/ Heart disease often shows itself first as pain or tightness in the chest. 心脏病最初的表现，往往是胸痛和胸闷。</div><br><br>身体特定部位作为形容词或名词前置，pain 仍是不可数。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>abdominal pain 肚子痛 / alleviate back pain 缓解背痛。</div><br><br><span class="seq">(2)</span> 修饰 pain 的形容词有很多，如：acute、excruciating、intense、unbearable、sharp、dull、slight、burning、stabbing、stinging、throbbing、constant、severe、gnawing、nagging。<br><br><span class="seq">(3)</span> 复数形式的 pains 可以转义为“劳苦，努力”。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>A cup of tea was all I got for my pains. 我辛苦了一番，就得到了一杯茶。pains 常常结合另一些词语，形成惯用词组，如 be at great pains to inf.、take great/considerable/much pains to inf.、go to great pains to inf. 之类。</div><br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>She was at great pains to dissociate herself from ... 她拼命要洗刷自己同……的关系。/ I took considerable pains to explain it to them. 我费了很大的劲去向他们解释。/ He went to great pains to help us. 他费心帮助了我们。/ They spared no pains to make/in making me feel at home. 他们竭力要使我过得舒服。/ Mobil is at pains to point out that the chances of an explosion at the site are remote. 美孚石油公司在竭力表示，在这个地点发生爆炸的可能性是十分渺茫的。/ I had taken great pains with my appearance. 我费了很大的劲整理自己的仪表。</div><br><br>pains 作“劳苦”或“努力”解时必须用复数，成了复数形式的不可数名词，因此不能说 *many pains 而要说 much pains。作主语时往往不用 much pains，而改用 great pains，但在古英语中也以 much pains 作主语。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Much pains were taken, during the second trial, to induce them to sign articles of subscription; ... (George Godfrey Cunningham, A History of England in the Lives of Englishmen) 第二轮审判期间，费了很大的力气去说服他们签署悔过书，……/ I have it by me still, and sometimes look at it with surprise, to think how much pains were thrown away to little purpose, ... (William Hazlitt's essay, "On the Pleasure of Painting") 这幅画我现在还保留着，有时候我看着它心里就感到惊讶，为了这个微不足道的目的，花掉了多少心血，……</div><br><br><span class="seq">(4)</span> pain 是各种各样的疼痛。ache 则多指身体内部器官的疼痛而非外部肌肤的伤痛，而且 ache 既可以是名词，也可以是不及物动词。动词 ache（表示延续状态的第一类动词）的主语可以是整个人，也可以是身体的某个部位。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I ache/am aching all over. 我全身都痛。（I ache. 表示长时间的延续，I am aching. 表示说话当时的延续。）/ My feet ache. 我脚痛。如果疼痛部位尚未确定，可以暂时以 it 为主语。</div><br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Where does it ache? 哪里疼？</div><br><br>hurt 同 ache 用法相似，但可以指外部肌肤的伤痛。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My leg hurts. 我腿痛。/ Where does it hurt? 哪里痛？/ Do you hurt? 你感到痛吗？/ I hurt all over. 我全身都痛。</div><br><br><span class="seq">(5)</span> painful 作为形容词，表示肉体疼痛，通常限于身体的个别部位，很少用于指<br><br>整個人。因此，問別人「痛不痛」時不習慣說 Are you painful? 更多說 Are you in <b>pain</b>?<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I'm in constant <b>pain</b>. 我一直都痛。/ She was in great <b>pain</b>. 她痛得很厲害。/ He suffered from a <b>painful</b> back. 他當時背痛。/ Her glands were swollen and <b>painful</b>. 她的腺體又腫又痛。/ Is your back still <b>painful</b>? 你的背現在還痛嗎？/ My back is so <b>painful</b> that I cannot stand upright any more. 我背痛得無法站直。偶爾也有用 painful 描述整個人的，但不多見。</div><br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Henry seemed to be pretty much the same man when he was <b>painful</b>/in pain as when he was not. 亨利痛的時候和不痛的時候，樣子看起來差不多。</div><br><br>說某人 painful 可能產生意想不到的歧義，可能指某個演員表演一塌糊塗，或是某個演說家或電視節目主持人講的話語無倫次。這個特殊詞義的來歷，很可能是因为說某人 painful，其實后面略去了 watch、behold、look at、listen to 之類，所以不是本人 painful，是 watch him、behold him、look at him、listen to him 這件事情 painful。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>(At the beginning,) she was <b>painful</b> to behold. Everything she did was studied, whether she sat down, rose, walked, it appeared to be stilted, overdone, affected, and looked cruder than a slow-motion movie. (Florence Treadwell, in Peter Kurth, <i>Isadora, A Sensational Life</i>) (開頭時) 她的舉止十分难看。她的一舉一動經過觀察研究，無論是坐下，站起，走路，都顯得呆板做作、迂緩不及、裝腔作勢，比慢鏡頭的影片還更加生硬。這一来，painful 单独用，也保持了這個含義。painful 用於這個意義，還可以作為名詞的前置定語。</div><br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>a <b>painful</b> actress 一個糟糕的女演員 / a <b>painful</b> performance 一場糟糕的演出。</div><br><br>普醫談到寵物的病時，比之談到人生病時更多說 She/He is <b>painful</b> (in her abdomen). 這個疼痛不是貓狗自己說出來的，是人觀察出來的，也有「給人印象」的意思。<br><br><span class="seq">(6)</span> painful 以及 hurt 都可以轉义用于造成肉體疼痛的具体或抽象事物 (ache 及名詞 pain 則不可)。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>My boots are still <b>painful</b>. 我的靴子仍然痛腳。/ This condition is <b>painful</b>. 這種病是很痛苦的。/ The procedure is not <b>painful</b>. 手術不痛。/ He got a <b>painful</b> blow on the nose. 他的鼻子被痛痛地打了一下。/ My shoes <b>hurt</b>. 我的鞋子痛腳。/ The procedure <b>hurts</b> much less than open abdominal surgery. 這種手術比開腹部手術疼痛輕得多。/ Dental disease <b>hurts</b> like hell. 牙病痛得要命。</div><br><br><span class="seq">(7)</span> 只有 ache 不能轉义用于表示精神上的痛苦，其余 pain、painful 和 hurt 都可以轉义。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>I remember, with <b>pain</b>, his tears. 我痛苦地回想起他當時的眼淚。/ It's sometimes <b>painful</b> to know the truth. 有時候，知道真相就令人難過。/ Remarks like that brought back <b>painful</b> memories. 像那樣的說法，引起了痛苦的回憶。/ She finds it too <b>painful</b> to return there without him. 她覺得，不跟他一起回那邊去太痛苦了。/ It <b>hurts</b> to have to admit it, but I was in the wrong. 不得不承認這一點，是令人難受的，但是我的確是錯了。但是，ache for something 或 ache to inf. 却失去了「痛苦」的含義，轉义為「渴望」（表示延續狀態或延續動作的第一類或第二類動詞）。</div><br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... because the nation <b>ached for</b> something new. (The Associated Press, Jan. 12, 2009)…… 因為國人渴望一個新局面。/ She was <b>aching for</b> home. 她渴望回家。/ He <b>ached to</b></div><br><br>see her. 他渴望看見她。<br><br>
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partially
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>partially 与 partly</b></div>由于形容词 partial 有“局部的”和“偏袒的”两个差别很大的词义，它的派生副词 partially 有时候也会引起歧义。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The testimony was <i>partially</i> recorded. 这句话可以是“证词部分地记录下来了”，也可以是“证词被带偏见地记录下来了”。此时如果是前一个意思，最好避免 partially 而用 partly 或 in part。</div><br><br>partly 只有“部分地，局部地”的词义。它和 partially 都大约从 15 世纪就开始在英语中出现，两者“部分地”这一意义相近。对于 partially 能否表示“局部地”，许多语言学家争论激烈。亨利·W.福勒 (Henry W. Fowler) 提出了 partially 与 partly 的区别标准，这个标准大体上站得住，就是：partially 偏重于“质”方面的“不完全”，而 partly 则偏重于“量”方面的“不完全”。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is <i>partly</i> wood. 这有一部分是木质的。/ ... his <i>partially</i> re-established health ……他多少恢复了健康 / ... their ramble did not appear to have been more than <i>partially</i> agreeable. (Jane Austen, <i>Mansfield Park</i>) ……他们的游玩，看来只不过是略微有点愉快而已。/ ... steps were taken to furnish these <i>partially</i> trained forces with whatever equipment could be made available. (George C. Marshall, <i>The United States at War</i>) ……对于这些只受到过部分训练的部队，就设法因陋就简，有什么装备就拿什么装备来给他们用。/ ... but he has only <i>partially</i> succeeded in it. (<i>Times Literary Supplement</i>, Apr. 16, 1970) ……但是他在这件事情上只是部分地成功了。但是这个区别也不是绝对的。有时候即使偏重“质”，也可以用 partly。</div><br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... while not convincing, is at least <i>partly</i> true. (Edwin O. Reischauer, <i>The New York Times Book Review</i>, May 23, 1954) ……尽管不能服人，但起码部分是真实的。</div><br><br>partially 与 partly 除了在词义上略有差别之外，在用法上也有差别。在表示原因的词组或从句之前，更多用 partly 而少用 partially（尽管这是“质”而非“量”方面的“不完全”）。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... it is also <i>partly</i> (<i>partially</i>) <i>because</i> Chaucer's English lies almost directly behind our own. (W. F. Bolton, <i>A Short History of Literary English</i>) ……这</div><br><br>也是因为乔叟的英语几乎是直接发展成我们今天的英语的。/ <i>Partly</i> (<i>partially</i>) <i>for</i> this reason, the search ... was not undertaken. (Noam Chomsky, <i>Columbia Forum</i>, Spring 1968)由于这一原因，征稿……没有举行。<br><br>
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partly
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>partially 与 partly</b></div>由于形容词 partial 有“局部的”和“偏袒的”两个差别很大的词义，它的派生副词 partially 有时候也会引起歧义。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>The testimony was <i>partially</i> recorded. 这句话可以是“证词部分地记录下来了”，也可以是“证词被带偏见地记录下来了”。此时如果是前一个意思，最好避免 partially 而用 partly 或 in part。</div><br><br>partly 只有“部分地，局部地”的词义。它和 partially 都大约从 15 世纪就开始在英语中出现，两者“部分地”这一意义相近。对于 partially 能否表示“局部地”，许多语言学家争论激烈。亨利·W.福勒 (Henry W. Fowler) 提出了 partially 与 partly 的区别标准，这个标准大体上站得住，就是：partially 偏重于“质”方面的“不完全”，而 partly 则偏重于“量”方面的“不完全”。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>It is <i>partly</i> wood. 这有一部分是木质的。/ ... his <i>partially</i> re-established health ……他多少恢复了健康 / ... their ramble did not appear to have been more than <i>partially</i> agreeable. (Jane Austen, <i>Mansfield Park</i>) ……他们的游玩，看来只不过是略微有点愉快而已。/ ... steps were taken to furnish these <i>partially</i> trained forces with whatever equipment could be made available. (George C. Marshall, <i>The United States at War</i>) ……对于这些只受到过部分训练的部队，就设法因陋就简，有什么装备就拿什么装备来给他们用。/ ... but he has only <i>partially</i> succeeded in it. (<i>Times Literary Supplement</i>, Apr. 16, 1970) ……但是他在这件事情上只是部分地成功了。但是这个区别也不是绝对的。有时候即使偏重“质”，也可以用 partly。</div><br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... while not convincing, is at least <i>partly</i> true. (Edwin O. Reischauer, <i>The New York Times Book Review</i>, May 23, 1954) ……尽管不能服人，但起码部分是真实的。</div><br><br>partially 与 partly 除了在词义上略有差别之外，在用法上也有差别。在表示原因的词组或从句之前，更多用 partly 而少用 partially（尽管这是“质”而非“量”方面的“不完全”）。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>... it is also <i>partly</i> (<i>partially</i>) <i>because</i> Chaucer's English lies almost directly behind our own. (W. F. Bolton, <i>A Short History of Literary English</i>) ……这</div><br><br>也是因为乔叟的英语几乎是直接发展成我们今天的英语的。/ <i>Partly</i> (<i>partially</i>) <i>for</i> this reason, the search ... was not undertaken. (Noam Chomsky, <i>Columbia Forum</i>, Spring 1968)由于这一原因，征稿……没有举行。<br><br>
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in the past year 与 last year
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(in the) past year 与 last year</b></div>last year 是日历上的“去年”，与之相搭配的谓语动词要用一般过去时。in the past year 则是迄今为止的 12 个月时间(常常要跨两个日历年度)，与之相搭配的谓语动词通常用现在完成时。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>In the past year</b>, Congress <b>has approved</b> $80 billion in budget authority. 过去一年内，国会在其预算职权范围内通过的预算有 800 亿美元。/ My life has changed a lot in the past year. 我的生活在过去的一年间变化很大。/ In the past year alone, we have hired roughly half a dozen college grads with a starting salary in the mid-to high $40,000 range. 过去一年间，我们雇用了五六名大学毕业生，底薪在 45,000—50,000 美元。/ Fully 15% of Americans say there have been times in the past year they have been unable to afford food. 有整整 15% 的美国人说，过去一年间，他们曾经有过买不起食品的时候。</div><br><br>但是也有用一般过去时的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Also in the past year, an estimated 575,000 (17%) adults in the state played Lottery games to the exclusion of the other two. 也是在过去一年间，估计该州有 575,000 个成年人(17%)买过彩票，但是没有参与其他两种赌博。/ Attention should be paid to those who in the past year forgot or disregarded Mr. Jefferson's admonition that freedom of speech "cannot be limited without being lost." 有些人在过去的一年当中忘记了或者是忽视了杰弗逊先生关于言论自由“如果受到限制就等于丧失”的忠告，对于这些人，应该予以重视。尤其是如果有一个主句和一个定语从句，后者有 in the past year 这个时间状语，则通常从句谓语动词用一般过去时，主句谓语动词用现在完成时。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If any member of the campus community who died in the past year has been inadvertently omitted, contact John Edwards. 如果校友当中有过去一年间去世而漏掉未列入的，知情者请与约翰·爱德华兹联系。</div><br><br>要表示“遍及整个时间段”，可以将 in 改为 over，仍然用现在完成时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>American policy in Iraq over the past two and a half years has been a mixture of nation-building and counterinsurgency, neither with much success. (Fareed Zakaria, in Newsweek, Oct. 30, 2006, p. 49) 美国过去两年半在伊拉克的政策，是建设国家和对付暴乱两者的混合物，但是两者都不怎么成功。</div><br><br>
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past year 与 last year
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(in the) past year 与 last year</b></div>last year 是日历上的“去年”，与之相搭配的谓语动词要用一般过去时。in the past year 则是迄今为止的 12 个月时间(常常要跨两个日历年度)，与之相搭配的谓语动词通常用现在完成时。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>In the past year</b>, Congress <b>has approved</b> $80 billion in budget authority. 过去一年内，国会在其预算职权范围内通过的预算有 800 亿美元。/ My life has changed a lot in the past year. 我的生活在过去的一年间变化很大。/ In the past year alone, we have hired roughly half a dozen college grads with a starting salary in the mid-to high $40,000 range. 过去一年间，我们雇用了五六名大学毕业生，底薪在 45,000—50,000 美元。/ Fully 15% of Americans say there have been times in the past year they have been unable to afford food. 有整整 15% 的美国人说，过去一年间，他们曾经有过买不起食品的时候。</div><br><br>但是也有用一般过去时的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Also in the past year, an estimated 575,000 (17%) adults in the state played Lottery games to the exclusion of the other two. 也是在过去一年间，估计该州有 575,000 个成年人(17%)买过彩票，但是没有参与其他两种赌博。/ Attention should be paid to those who in the past year forgot or disregarded Mr. Jefferson's admonition that freedom of speech "cannot be limited without being lost." 有些人在过去的一年当中忘记了或者是忽视了杰弗逊先生关于言论自由“如果受到限制就等于丧失”的忠告，对于这些人，应该予以重视。尤其是如果有一个主句和一个定语从句，后者有 in the past year 这个时间状语，则通常从句谓语动词用一般过去时，主句谓语动词用现在完成时。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If any member of the campus community who died in the past year has been inadvertently omitted, contact John Edwards. 如果校友当中有过去一年间去世而漏掉未列入的，知情者请与约翰·爱德华兹联系。</div><br><br>要表示“遍及整个时间段”，可以将 in 改为 over，仍然用现在完成时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>American policy in Iraq over the past two and a half years has been a mixture of nation-building and counterinsurgency, neither with much success. (Fareed Zakaria, in Newsweek, Oct. 30, 2006, p. 49) 美国过去两年半在伊拉克的政策，是建设国家和对付暴乱两者的混合物，但是两者都不怎么成功。</div><br><br>
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past year
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(in the) past year 与 last year</b></div>last year 是日历上的“去年”，与之相搭配的谓语动词要用一般过去时。in the past year 则是迄今为止的 12 个月时间(常常要跨两个日历年度)，与之相搭配的谓语动词通常用现在完成时。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>In the past year</b>, Congress <b>has approved</b> $80 billion in budget authority. 过去一年内，国会在其预算职权范围内通过的预算有 800 亿美元。/ My life has changed a lot in the past year. 我的生活在过去的一年间变化很大。/ In the past year alone, we have hired roughly half a dozen college grads with a starting salary in the mid-to high $40,000 range. 过去一年间，我们雇用了五六名大学毕业生，底薪在 45,000—50,000 美元。/ Fully 15% of Americans say there have been times in the past year they have been unable to afford food. 有整整 15% 的美国人说，过去一年间，他们曾经有过买不起食品的时候。</div><br><br>但是也有用一般过去时的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Also in the past year, an estimated 575,000 (17%) adults in the state played Lottery games to the exclusion of the other two. 也是在过去一年间，估计该州有 575,000 个成年人(17%)买过彩票，但是没有参与其他两种赌博。/ Attention should be paid to those who in the past year forgot or disregarded Mr. Jefferson's admonition that freedom of speech "cannot be limited without being lost." 有些人在过去的一年当中忘记了或者是忽视了杰弗逊先生关于言论自由“如果受到限制就等于丧失”的忠告，对于这些人，应该予以重视。尤其是如果有一个主句和一个定语从句，后者有 in the past year 这个时间状语，则通常从句谓语动词用一般过去时，主句谓语动词用现在完成时。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If any member of the campus community who died in the past year has been inadvertently omitted, contact John Edwards. 如果校友当中有过去一年间去世而漏掉未列入的，知情者请与约翰·爱德华兹联系。</div><br><br>要表示“遍及整个时间段”，可以将 in 改为 over，仍然用现在完成时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>American policy in Iraq over the past two and a half years has been a mixture of nation-building and counterinsurgency, neither with much success. (Fareed Zakaria, in Newsweek, Oct. 30, 2006, p. 49) 美国过去两年半在伊拉克的政策，是建设国家和对付暴乱两者的混合物，但是两者都不怎么成功。</div><br><br>
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(in the) past year
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css"><div class="entry"><div class="entry-head"><b>(in the) past year 与 last year</b></div>last year 是日历上的“去年”，与之相搭配的谓语动词要用一般过去时。in the past year 则是迄今为止的 12 个月时间(常常要跨两个日历年度)，与之相搭配的谓语动词通常用现在完成时。<br><br><div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span><b>In the past year</b>, Congress <b>has approved</b> $80 billion in budget authority. 过去一年内，国会在其预算职权范围内通过的预算有 800 亿美元。/ My life has changed a lot in the past year. 我的生活在过去的一年间变化很大。/ In the past year alone, we have hired roughly half a dozen college grads with a starting salary in the mid-to high $40,000 range. 过去一年间，我们雇用了五六名大学毕业生，底薪在 45,000—50,000 美元。/ Fully 15% of Americans say there have been times in the past year they have been unable to afford food. 有整整 15% 的美国人说，过去一年间，他们曾经有过买不起食品的时候。</div><br><br>但是也有用一般过去时的。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>Also in the past year, an estimated 575,000 (17%) adults in the state played Lottery games to the exclusion of the other two. 也是在过去一年间，估计该州有 575,000 个成年人(17%)买过彩票，但是没有参与其他两种赌博。/ Attention should be paid to those who in the past year forgot or disregarded Mr. Jefferson's admonition that freedom of speech "cannot be limited without being lost." 有些人在过去的一年当中忘记了或者是忽视了杰弗逊先生关于言论自由“如果受到限制就等于丧失”的忠告，对于这些人，应该予以重视。尤其是如果有一个主句和一个定语从句，后者有 in the past year 这个时间状语，则通常从句谓语动词用一般过去时，主句谓语动词用现在完成时。<span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>If any member of the campus community who died in the past year has been inadvertently omitted, contact John Edwards. 如果校友当中有过去一年间去世而漏掉未列入的，知情者请与约翰·爱德华兹联系。</div><br><br>要表示“遍及整个时间段”，可以将 in 改为 over，仍然用现在完成时。<div class="ex-block"><span class="ex-tag">【例句】</span>American policy in Iraq over the past two and a half years has been a mixture of nation-building and counterinsurgency, neither with much success. (Fareed Zakaria, in Newsweek, Oct. 30, 2006, p. 49) 美国过去两年半在伊拉克的政策，是建设国家和对付暴乱两者的混合物，但是两者都不怎么成功。</div><br><br>
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