Explanatory Notes

A careful reading of these explanatory notes will make it easier for the user of this dictionary to comprehend the information contained at each entry. Here are brief explanations of the different typefaces, different labels, significant punctuation, symbols, and other conventions by which a dictionary can achieve compactness. The chief divisions are:

  1. THE MAIN ENTRY
  2. THE PRONUNCIATION
  3. FUNCTIONAL LABELS
  4. INFLECTIONAL FORMS
  5. CAPITALIZATION
  6. ATTRIBUTIVE NOUNS
  7. THE ETYMOLOGY
  8. STATUS LABELS
  9. SUBJECT LABELS
  10. SUBJECT GUIDE PHRASES
  11. THE SYMBOLIC COLON
  12. SENSE DIVISION
  13. VERBAL ILLUSTRATIONS
  14. THE TAXONOMIC ENTRY
  15. USAGE NOTES
  16. CROSS-REFERENCES
  17. RUN-ON ENTRIES
  18. SYNONYMIES
  19. ABBREVIATIONS
  20. SYMBOLS
  21. COMBINING FORMS
  22. THE VOCABULARY ENTRY

1. THE MAIN ENTRY

1.1 A heavy black letter or a combination of heavy black letters (boldface type ) set flush with the left-hand margin of each column of type is a main entry or entry word. The combination consists usually of letters set solid (about ) or of letters separated by one or more spaces (art song ) or of letters joined by a hyphen (air-dry ). What follows each such boldface entry in lightface type on the same line and on indented lines below explains and justifies its inclusion in the dictionary. The boldface entry together with this added matter is also called an entry.

1.2 The main entries follow one another in this dictionary from a to zyzzogeton in alphabetical order letter by letter. For example, above the line follows abovestairs (not above all ) as if it were printed abovetheline with no spaces in the middle. Entry words containing an arabic numeral (3-D, 1080 “ten-eighty”) are alphabetized as if the numeral were spelled out. Entry words derived from proper names beginning with abbreviated forms of Mac- (McCoy ) are alphabetized as if spelled mac- . Entries often beginning with St. or Ste. in common usage have the abbreviation spelled out saint (Saint Martin's summer ).

1.3 When one entry has exactly the same written form as another that follows it, the two are distinguished by superior numbers preceding each word:

¹arc
²arc

Sometimes such homographs are related, like the two arcs, which are different parts of speech derived from the same root. At other times, there is no relationship beyond the accident of spelling:

¹are 〈the boys are here〉
²are 〈one are equals 100 square meters〉

Whether homographs are related or not, their order is usually historical: the one first used in English, insofar as the dates can be established, is entered first.

1.4 Such superscripts are used only when all the letters, spaces, and hyphens of two or more entries are identical (except for foreign accent marks). A variation in form calls for a new series of superscripts. In general, words precede word elements made up of the same letters, and lowercase type precedes uppercase type.

1.5 The centered periods within entry words indicate division points at which a hyphen may be put at the end of a written line, thus for ar·chae·ol·o·gy:

ar-
chaeology archae-
ology archaeol-
ogy archaeolo-
gy

Such periods are not shown after a single initial letter (aplomb, not a·plomb ) or before a single terminal letter (ar·ea, not ar·e·a ) because printers seldom cut off one letter only. Many printers try to avoid cutting off two letters only, especially at the end. They might divide ar·cha·ic into ar-/chaic but not into archa-/ic. Other words (April, apron ) that are not often divided in printing do not show a centered period.

1.5.1 A double hyphen = at the end of a line (as between pro and British at ¹hyphen 1b) stands for a hyphen that belongs normally at that point in a hyphened word (as pro-British ) and should be retained when the word is written out as a unit on one line.

1.6.1 When a main entry is followed by the word or and another spelling or form, the two spellings or forms are equal variants. Their order is usually alphabetical, and the first is no more to be preferred than the second, or third, or fourth, if three or four are joined by or. Both or all are standard and any one may be used according to personal inclination or personal style preferences:

an·gel·icor an·gel·i·cal
ar·dor or ar·dour
arc of recess or arc of recession
angel cake or angel food or angel food cake

If the alphabetical order of variants joined by or is reversed, they remain equal variants. The one printed first may be slightly more common but not enough to justify calling them unequal:

cad·dis or cad·dice

1.6.2 When another spelling or form is joined to the first entry by the word also instead of or, the spelling or form after also is a secondary variant and occurs less frequently than the first form:

car·bo·ther·micalso car·bo·ther·mal

The secondary variant belongs to standard usage and may for personal or regional reasons be preferred by some. If there are two secondary variants, the second is joined to the first by or. Once the italic also is used to signal a secondary variant, all following variants are joined by or:

aso·kaalso as·ak or as·ok

No evaluation below secondary is implied. Absence of a variant does not mean that there is no variant; for example, some variants have been arbitrarily omitted.

1.6.3 Standard variants are reentered at their own places alphabetically whenever their spelling places them alphabetically more than five inches away from the main entry in the print book. The form of entry is

loth var of LOATH
rime var of RHYME

in which var of stands for “variant of”. These two entries result from the main entries loath or loth and rhyme or rime.

2. THE PRONUNCIATION

2.1 The matter between reversed virgules \ \ is the pronunciation in symbols shown in the chart headed “Pronunciation Symbols ” and discussed in greater detail in the “Guide to Pronunciation ”. A centered period · shows syllable divisions only when a given sequence of sounds can be syllabified in more than one way without employing deliberate pause. All other sequences have only one reasonably possible syllabication (as in the sounds of admit ) or have no determinable syllabication (as in the sounds of easter ). In either case they are pronounceable in a normal manner when the sound sequence is pronounced. These centered periods in the respelling for pronunciation often do not correspond with centered periods in the boldface entry. Thus in our analysis the first syllable of the pronunciation of metric ends with \e\ and the second syllable begins with \t\, but printers usually divide the word between the t and the r.

2.2 A high-set mark ˈ indicates primary accent or stress; a low-set mark ˌ indicates a secondary accent. The two are often set one over the other ¦ to indicate stress variation. Two occurrences of ¦ within a pronunciation indicate that in some contexts the first syllable so marked has secondary stress and the second so marked has primary stress, in other contexts vice versa:

ben·e·fi·cial \¦be-nə-¦fi-shəl\

The occurrence of (ˈ) on the first syllable and of ¦ on the second syllable indicates that in some contexts the first syllable has a degree of stress we would leave unmarked and that the second syllable has primary stress but that in other contexts the first syllable has primary stress and the second has secondary stress:

fic·ti·tious \(ˈ)fik¦tishəs\

The order primary-secondary is especially common when another word, especially one with stress on the first syllable, follows without pause, as when the first word is attributive. Stress marks show the stress of the first vowel that follows; they are not necessarily indicators of syllable division and often do not correspond with the centered periods in the boldface entry.

2.3 The presence of variant pronunciations simply indicates that not all educated speakers pronounce the word the same way. Some variant pronunciations (as \ˈbərd\ and \ˈbə̄d\ for bird ) are the kind that one speaker uses but another does not for the reason that their dialects are different and that the speech habits of one are different from those of the other. One of these pronunciations is predictable from a knowledge of a speaker's pronunciation of other words. Other variants (as for disparate ) are not predictable from a speaker's pronunciation of other words. Some speakers stress disparate on the second syllable; others stress it on the first. Words with predictable variant pronunciations usually show them when the word is of frequent occurrence in highly literate language but only one pronunciation when it is not. Words with unpredictable variant pronunciations show any that has currency, whatever the frequency of the word.

2.4 When a word shows more than one unpredictable variant, variants not preceded by also or sometimes or by a label (as substandard ) do not differ greatly in frequency in educated speech. The order in which they appear has no significance. Variants preceded by also are appreciably less frequent. Variants preceded by sometimes are infrequent. Before predictable variants no also or sometimes occurs, whatever the frequency of a variant, except that also precedes a variant that is less common in one class of words than in another. Thus \er\, which is variant to \ar\ with fewer speakers in harry than in hairy, is preceded by also at the first but not at the second.

2.5.1 Parentheses mean that whatever is indicated by the symbol or symbols between them is present in the pronunciation of some speakers and absent from the pronunciation of other speakers, or that it is present in some utterances and absent from other utterances of the same speaker, or that its presence or absence is uncertain:

nu·mer·ous \ˈn(y)üm(ə)rəs\
floc·cu·lence \ˈfläkyələn(t)s\

Such pronunciations could alternatively have been shown, at greater cost of space, as \ˈnümərəs, ˈnyü-, -mrəs\.

2.5.2 The symbols (r, with no closing parenthesis, at the end of the transcription of a word, as seminar, means that speakers who do not usually pronounce the \r\ when a consonant or a pause follows may pronounce it when a vowel follows without pause.

2.6.1 When a defined word that is at its own alphabetical place has less than a full pronunciation, the missing part is to be supplied from a pronunciation in a preceding entry, from a preceding pronunciation for a variant spelling in the same entry, or from a preceding pronunciation within the same pair of reversed virgules:

floc·cu·lence \ˈfläkyələn(t)s\ also floc·cu·len·cy \-nsē\
¹floc·cu·lent \-nt\

The hyphen at flocculency and at flocculent indicates that the first part of the pronunciation is missing. The missing part is to be supplied from the pronunciation at flocculence.

2.6.2 The lightface vertical bar is used to facilitate the placement of a variant pronunciation. It occurs chiefly at a point immediately preceding or immediately following a variation.

flight·i·ly \ˈflīt|ə lē, -īt|, |ə li, |ə̇l-\
flight·i·ness \|ēnə̇s, |in-\

At flightily in the four-character unit -īt| (hyphen + bar i + t + vertical bar) the īt is a variation of īd· and the hyphen stands for the ˈfl that precedes īd· and the vertical bar stands for the ə lē that follows īd·; in the unit |ə li the ə li is a variation of ə lē and the vertical bar stands for both ˈflīd· and ˈflīt; in the unit |ə̇l- the vertical bar stands for both ˈflīd· and ˈflīt and the hyphen stands for the variants ē and i of the final syllable. This system makes it possible to show economically several variant pronunciations for flightily:

\ˈflīd·ə lē, ˈflītə lē, ˈflīd·ə li, ˈflītə li, ˈflīd·ə̇lē, ˈflītə̇lē, ˈflīd·əli, ˈflītəli\

At flightiness the vertical bar in the unit |ēnə̇s stands for both ˈflīd· and ˈflīt from the pronunciation at flightily; the vertical bar in the unit |in- stands for ˈflīd· and ˈflīt and the hyphen stands for ə̇s from the preceding ēnə̇s.

2.7.1 A double hyphen in transcriptions represents all the sounds of a syllable:

per·pet·u·ate \pə(r)ˈpechəˌwāt … \
per·pet·u·a·tion \=ˌ==ˈwāshən\
per·pet·u·a·tor \=ˈ==ˌwātə(r) … \

The first three syllables of each of these consecutive entries have the same sounds. The double hyphens at perpetuation and perpetuator show this sameness. The stress, however, differs. The stress on the second syllable is primary in perpetuate and perpetuator but secondary in the middle word.

2.7.2 Open compounds of two or more English words usually have no pronunciation (as at barn dance ). Such members of solid or hyphened compounds as are whole English words often show only the stress indicated by double hyphens and stress marks:

heartache \ˈ=ˌ=\
fort·let \ˈ=lə̇t\
cata·bap·tist \¦katə¦==\

The sounds of the syllables represented by such double hyphens can be found at the main entry of the elements (as at heart and ache, at fort, and at baptist ). Thus in the consecutive entries

den·e·ga·tion \ˌdenə̇ˈgāshən\
denehole \ˈ=ˌ=\

the value of the syllables of the second should be sought at dene and at hole, not in the representation of the first two syllables in the pronunciation at denegation.

2.8.1 A ditto mark " in a pronunciation stands for the sounds of the nearest preceding pronounced entry. The orthographic division for this preceding entry also applies unless another is shown. For an entry having the same sequence of letters as a preceding entry but not followed by reversed virgules, no commitment about pronunciation is made:

¹carp \ˈkärp\
²carp \"\
carp abbreviation
¹in·dict \ə̇nˈdīt, usually -īt+V\ transitive verb
²indict transitive verbobsolete
keelboat \ˈ=ˌ=\
keel·boat·man \"mən\
¹keel·er \ˈkēlə(r)\
²keeler \"\
³keeler \"\
kee·ler polygraph \"-\
²carp has the same pronunciation as ¹carp, but no pronunciation is to be understood for carp the abbreviation. No pronunciation is to be understood for the obsolete ²indict. (In general, words obsolete in their entire range of meaning have an indicated pronunciation only if they occur in Shakespeare.) The stress on the first two syllables of keelboatman is the same as for keelboat; the sounds for keel and boat should be sought at the entry for each. ²keeler and ³keeler have the same pronunciation and division as ¹keeler; keeler in keeler polygraph has the same pronunciation as ¹keeler but its division differs.

2.8.2 If the entry at which the value of a ditto mark is to be sought contains variants not identical in pronunciation, the value of the ditto mark is the pronunciation of the variant of the same spelling in a preceding entry:

¹ap·o·dal \ˈapədə l\ also ap·o·dan \-dən, -də n\ or ap·o·dous \-dəs\
²apodal \"\ also apodan \"\

2.9 When a word is composed of a combining form or prefix and a whole English word, often the transcription consists of a pronunciation for the first element followed by a plus sign. The plus sign means that the sounds and the orthographic division for the second element should be sought at the entry for that word. If other compounds with the same first element follow, their pronunciation may be shown by the formula \"+\:

geo·positive \¦jē(ˌ)ō +\
geo·potential \" +\

In many contexts a primary stress shown for the second element at its entry may alter to secondary in the compound.

2.10 The symbol R preceding variants indicates the pronunciation of speakers who consistently pronounce most postvocalic r 's; −R indicates the pronunciation of speakers who consistently have no \r\ sound for any r for which educated usage sanctions pronunciation without the sound. At

gov·er·nor \R ˈgəv(ə)nər also -vərnər, −R -v(ə)nə(r\

the purpose of the labeling is to indicate that speakers who ordinarily have \r\ for postvocalic r (as for the last r in governor ) often do not have \r\ for the first r in the word (see DISSIMILATION in “Guide to Pronunciation ”). Some speakers sometimes drop, sometimes retain \r\ in the same environment (as in card, art ), many consistently drop \r\ in some environments (as in card, art ) but consistently pronounce it in others (as in bird, hurt ). Our −R transcriptions, however, do not record this usage.

2.11 The low-set minus sign - cancels a stress at the same point in a pronunciation shown elsewhere, as in a preceding variant or in a pronunciation for a preceding word in another entry.

2.12 The symbol ÷ precedes variants which occur in educated speech but to the acceptability of which many take strong exception. Sometimes the variant to which exception is taken is the commonest of all and is given first, as at sacrilegious. If not repeated, ÷ applies only to the variant that it immediately precedes.

3. FUNCTIONAL LABELS

3.1 An italic label that indicates part of speech or some other functional classification follows the pronunciation or, if no pronunciation is given, the main entry. The eight traditional parts of speech are thus indicated:

ac·tive adjective
across adverb
al·though conjunction
alas interjection
act noun
across preposition
he pronoun
act verb

3.2 If a verb is both transitive and intransitive, the labels transitive verb and intransitive verb introduce the subdivisions:

²act verb
transitive verb
intransitive verb

If there is no subdivision, transitive verb or intransitive verb takes the place of verb:

ac·ti·fy transitive verb

Definition of a verb as transitive does not preclude intransitive usage, although it may be uncommon. On occasion most transitive verbs get used intransitively.

3.3 Other italicized labels sometimes occurring in the same position as the part-of-speech label are:

atty abbreviation
¹anth- combining form
ante- prefix
²Ac symbol
¹may verbal auxiliary
whoa imperative verb
me·thinks vb impersonal (impersonal verb)

Occasionally, two or more functional labels are combined, as noun or adjective; see also 19.3 .

4. INFLECTIONAL FORMS

4.1 A plural for nearly all standard nouns is explicitly or implicitly shown in this dictionary. If a plural is irregular in any way, the form is given in full in boldface following the label n, pl:

man noun, plural men
mouse noun, plural mice
da·tum noun, plural da·ta
mother-in-law noun, plural mothers-in-law

4.2 If there are two or more plurals, all are written out in full and joined by or or also to indicate whether the forms are equal or secondary variants (see also 1.6.1 and 1.6.2 ):

fish noun, plural fish or fishes
court-martial noun, plural courts-martial also court-martials
fun·gus noun, plural fun·gialso funguses
beef noun, plural beefsor beevesalso beef
crux noun, plural cruxesalso cru·ces

4.3 Nouns that are plural in form and regularly used in plural construction are labeled plural noun (without a comma):

en·vi·rons plural noun
feazings plural noun
Da·na·i·dae plural noun

If the plural form is not always construed as a plural, the label continues with an applicable qualification:

ge·net·ics noun plural but singular in construction
pol·i·tics noun plural but singular or plural in construction
math·e·mat·ics noun plural but usually singular in construction

in which singular in construction means that the entry word takes a singular verb.

4.4 A noun that has only a regular English plural formed by adding the suffix -s or the suffix -es or by changing a final -y to -i- and adding the suffix -es is indicated by an -S or -ES following the label n:

bird noun -S
love noun -S
wish noun -ES
sky noun -ES
ba·by noun -ES

All standard English nouns can have regular English plurals. Such endings are given analogically in this dictionary to nouns that may be little used in the plural. All that their presence means in cases of doubtful frequency is that these plurals are available for use if needed; it does not bar the use of a non-English plural if known.

4.5 Plurals are usually omitted at compounds containing a terminal element that corresponds to a whole English word whose plural is regular and is shown at its own place. At

blackbird noun
arrow grass noun
cake-eater noun
bio·ecology noun

the plurals are omitted because they can be found at bird, grass, eater, and ecology. At words (as bioecology ) that may be unfamiliar, an etymology consisting of the elements of a compound word shows the element at which an omitted plural can be looked up. Plurals are often not indicated at nonstandard terms. At compounds with doubtful irregular plurals, the plural forms are written out in full.

4.6 A plural form that falls alphabetically more than five inches from the main entry in the print book is entered at its own alphabetical place:

bows plural of BOW
boxes plural of BOX
mice plural of MOUSE
geni·i plural of GENIUS

Such an entry does not specify whether it is the only plural; it simply tells where to look for relevant information. At genius the variant plurals geniuses and genii are shown. The plural geniuses is not a main entry because it falls within five inches alphabetically of the main entry of genius in the print book.

4.7 The principal parts of all standard verbs are explicitly or implicitly given in this dictionary. These principal parts, besides the main entry, are four: the past, the past participle, the present participle, and the present 3d singular. They are printed in that order in boldface whenever any one of them has an irregular or unexpected combination of letters:

see verb sawseenseeingsees
make verb mademademakingmakes
hit verb hithithittinghits
trap verb trappedtrappedtrappingtraps
cha·grin transitive verb chagrinedchagrinedchagriningchagrins
dye verb dyeddyeddyeingdyes
tie verb tiedtiedtyingties
volley verb volleyedvolleyedvolleyingvolleys
emcee verb emceedemceedemceeingemcees

4.8 Whenever any of the four parts has a variant all parts are written out in full:

sky verb skied or skyedskied or skyedskyingskies
burn verb burnedor burntburned or burntburningburns
ring verb rangalso rungrungringingrings
show verb showedshownor showedshowingshows
dwell verb dweltalso dwelleddwelt also dwelleddwellingdwells
drink verb drankor dialectal drunkdrunkor archaic drunk·endrinkingdrinks

4.9 If the four spaces usually occupied by inflectional forms cannot (for lack of evidence) all be filled, the surviving forms that can be given are identified by an italic label:

aby or abye verb , past tense or past participle abought

4.10 Verbs are considered regular when they have in their past a terminal -ed which is added with no other change except dropping a final -e or changing a final -y to -i- . The principal parts for these verbs are indicated by adding -ED/-ING/-S or -ED/-ING/-ES to represent the past and past participle endings (-ed ), the present participle ending (-ing ), and the present 3d singular ending (-s or -es ):

bark verb -ED/-ING/-S
wish verb -ED/-ING/-ES
stone verb -ED/-ING/-S
ba·by transitive verb -ED/-ING/-ES

4.11 Principal parts are usually omitted at compounds containing a terminal element or related homograph whose principal parts are regular and are shown at its own place. At

freewheel intransitive verb
overdrive transitive verb
un·wrap transitive verb

the principal parts are not given because they can be found at wheel, drive, and wrap. An etymology consisting of the elements of a compound verb shows the element at which omitted principal parts can be looked up. Principal parts are often not given at nonstandard terms or at verbs of relatively low frequency.

4.12 A principal verb part that falls alphabetically more than five inches away from the main entry in the print book is entered at its own alphabetical place if there is no entry that is a homograph:

burned past of BURN
shoving present participle of SHOVE
denies present tense third person singular of DENY

4.13 All adjectives and adverbs that have comparatives and superlatives with the suffixes -er and -est have these forms explicitly or implicitly shown in this dictionary. They are written out in full in boldface when they are irregular or when they double a final consonant:

red adjective redderreddest
cheer·ful adjective, sometimes cheerfullersometimes cheerfullest
well adverb bet·terbest

4.14 When they are formed by simple addition of -er and -est with no change except dropping of final -e or changing of final -y to -i- , these forms are indicated by -ER/-EST following the part-of-speech label:

green adjective -ER/-EST
lucky adjective -ER/-EST
re·mote adjective, often -ER/-EST
soon adverb -ER/-EST
ear·ly adverb -ER/-EST

4.15 Comparatives and superlatives are usually omitted at compounds containing a constituent element whose inflection is shown at its own place. At

kindhearted adjective
un·lucky adjective

kinderhearted and unluckiest are omitted because -ER and -EST are shown at kind and at lucky. Similarly the comparatives and superlatives of adverbs are often omitted when an adjective homograph shows them, as at flat and hot.

4.16 Comparatives and superlatives that fall alphabetically more than five inches away from the main entry in the print book are entered at their own alphabetical places:

hotter comparative of HOT
hottest superlative of HOT

4.17 Showing -er and -est forms does not imply anything more about the use of more and most with a simple adjective or adverb than that the comparative and superlative degrees can often be expressed in either way (luckier or more lucky, smoothest or most smooth ).

4.18 A few pronouns have identified case forms:

her pronoun, objective case of SHE

5. CAPITALIZATION

5.1 Except for trademarks and some abbreviations and symbols the main entries in this dictionary are set lowercase. The extent to which usage calls for an initial uppercase letter is indicated in one of five ways. Four of these consist of an italic label:

capitalized = almost always capitalized initially
usually capitalized = more often capitalized than not; capitalized approximately two to one
often capitalized = as likely to be capitalized as not; acceptable one way or the other
sometimes capitalized = more often not capitalized than capitalized; not usually capitalized

The fifth is absence of one of these labels, which indicates that the word is almost never capitalized except under irrelevant circumstances (as beginning a sentence):

french·ify verboften capitalized
die·sel adjective, sometimes cap

5.2 When an entry has more than one letter in question, the label specifies the capitalization required by usage:

abominable snowman noun , often capitalized A&S

6. ATTRIBUTIVE NOUNS

6.1 The label often attributive in italics added to the label noun at a main entry indicates that the noun is often used as an adjective equivalent in attributive position before a substantive (as in air passage, cabbage soup ):

air noun -S often attributive
cab·bage noun -S often attributive
din·ner noun -S often attributive
fox noun, plural foxes or fox often attributive
pep·per noun -S often attributive
shoul·der noun -S often attributive
va·ca·tion noun -S often attributive

6.2 While any noun is likely to get used attributively sometimes, the label often attributive is confined to those having such widespread general frequent attributive use that they could be entered and defined as adjectives or adjectival elements. The label is not used when there is an entered adjective homograph (as milk, adjective and dog, adjective ). Also, it is not used at open compounds that may be often used attributively when hyphened (as X ray in X-ray microscope ).

7. THE ETYMOLOGY

7.1 The matter in boldface square brackets preceding the definition is the etymology. Meanings given in roman type within these brackets are not definitions of the main entry, but meanings of the Middle English, Old English, or non-English words within the brackets. Such etymological meanings may or may not be the same as one or more of the meanings of the main entry. For the meanings of abbreviations in an etymology, see “Abbreviations Used in This Dictionary” .

7.2 It is the purpose of the etymology to trace a main vocabulary entry as far back as possible in English, as to Old English; to tell from what language and what form it came into English; and to trace the pre-English source as far back as possible. These etyma (or a part of them) are printed in italic type.

7.3 The etymology usually gives the Middle English and Old English forms of native words in the manner illustrated by the following examples:

earth noun … [[Middle English erthe , from Old English eorthe …]
day noun … [Middle English, from Old English dæg …]

7.3.1 When a word is traced back to Middle English but not to Old English, it is found in Middle English but not in the texts that have survived from the Old English period, even though it cannot be shown to have been borrowed from any other language, and even though it may have cognates in the other Germanic languages:

girl noun … [Middle English girle, gerle, gurle young person of either sex]
poke verb … [Middle English poken ; akin to Middle Dutch poken to poke, stick …]

7.3.2 When a word is traced back directly to Old English with no intervening mention of Middle English, it has not survived continuously from Old English times to the present, but died out after the Old English period and has been revived in modern times for its historical or antiquarian interest:

ge·mot or ge·mote noun … [Old English gemōt …]

7.4 For words borrowed into English from other languages, the etymology gives the language from which the word is borrowed and the form or a transliteration of the word in that language if the form differs from that in English:

etch verb … [Dutch etsen …]
flam·boy·ant adjective [French …]
judge verb … [Middle English juggen , from Old French jugier …]
ab·bot noun … [Middle English abbot , abbod , going back to Old English abbod , abbot , borrowed from Late Latin abbāt- , abbās …]

7.5.1 Sometimes no etymology is given for words (including open compounds) created in Modern English by the combination of existing constituents. This generally indicates that the identity of the constituents is expected to be evident to the user without guidance. Examples:

blackfish noun 1 : any of several dark-colored fishes
black·ly adverb: in a black manner

7.5.2 At other times the etymology states one or both of the constituents of such words, especially when it is felt that their identity is not necessarily self-evident:

ac·ti·va·ble adjective … [activate + -able ]
man·ga·nite noun … [mangan- + -ite ]
black·guard nounblack + guard ]
Indian bison noun … [²indian 1]

No hard-and-fast line, however, can be drawn between these two methods of treatment.

7.6 A considerable part of the technical vocabulary of the sciences and other specialized studies consists of words or word elements that are current in two or more languages with only such slight modifications as are necessary to adapt them to the structure of the individual language in each case. Many words and word elements of this kind have become sufficiently a part of the general vocabulary of English to require entry in a general dictionary of our language. On account of the vast extent of the relevant published material in many languages and in many scientific and other specialized fields, it is impracticable to ascertain the language of origin of every such term, yet it would not be accurate to formulate a statement about the origin of any such term in a way that could be interpreted as implying that it was coined in English. Accordingly, whenever a term that is entered in this dictionary belongs recognizably to this class of internationally current terms, and no positive evidence is at hand to show that it was coined in English, the etymology recognizes its international status and the possibility that it originated elsewhere than in English by use of the label International Scientific Vocabulary. In some instances a statement as to probable language of origin is added after a semicolon. Examples:

end·oral adjective [International Scientific Vocabulary end- + oral ]
en·do·scope noun [International Scientific Vocabulary end- + -scope ; probably originally formed in French]
hap·loid adjective [International Scientific Vocabulary, from Greek haploeidēs single …] 1 : having the gametic number of chromosomes or half the number characteristic of the somatic cells
-ene noun suffix … [International Scientific Vocabulary, from Greek -ēnē (feminine patronymic suffix)] : unsaturated carbon compound

7.6.1 Occasionally the label International Scientific Vocabulary is used, not to indicate that the entire entry form belongs to the International Scientific Vocabulary, but to identify as internationally current (though non-Latin) one of the constituents of a compound word formed in New Latin:

cho·les·ter·ol·emia also cho·les·ter·ol·ae·mia noun … [New Latin, from International Scientific Vocabulary cholesterol + New Latin -emia, -aemia ]

7.7.1 An etymology beginning with the name of a language (including Middle English or Old English) and not giving the foreign (or Middle English or Old English) form indicates that the foreign (or Middle English or Old English) form is the same as that in present-day English:

for preposition [Middle English, from Old English …]
fos·sa noun … [Latin, cavity, ditch, trench …]

7.7.2 An etymology beginning with the name of a language (including Middle English or Old English) and not giving the foreign (or Middle English or Old English) meaning indicates that the foreign (or Middle English or Old English) meaning is the same as that expressed in the first or only definition in the entry:

bea·con noun … [Middle English beken , from Old English bēacen sign …] 1 : a signal fire
de·note transitive verb … [Middle French denoter , from Latin denotare …] 1 : to serve as indication of

7.8.1 Small superscript figures preceding forms mentioned in an etymology identify them in each case as a particular member of a set of numbered homographic entries in this dictionary. Such figures are normally used with unlabeled (Modern English) forms; but sometimes, for convenience, they are used with forms labeled Old English, Middle English, New Latin, or International Scientific Vocabulary, provided these are completely identical in spelling with the corresponding Modern English form. Examples:

³chucker noun [⁶chuck + -er ]
in·definable adjectivein- + definable ]
in·dec·or·ous adjective [Latin indecorus , from in- ¹in- + decorus decorous]
bi·fluoride … [International Scientific Vocabulary ¹bi- + fluoride ]
sad·ness noun … [Middle English sadnesse seriousness, firmness, from ¹sad + -nesse -ness]

7.8.2 Small superscript figures following words or syllables in an etymology refer in each case to the tone of the word or syllable which they follow, and accordingly are used only with forms cited from tone languages:

sam·pan also san·pan noun … [Chinese (Pekingese) san1 pan3 , from san1 three + pan3 board, plank]
voo·doo also vou·dou noun … [… Ewe vo 1 du 3 tutelary deity, demon]

7.9 When the source of a word appearing as a main entry is unknown, the formula “origin unknown” is usually used. Only rarely and in exceptional circumstances does absence of an etymology mean that it has not been possible to furnish any informative etymology; this is the case, however, with some ethnic names. More usually it means that no etymology is felt to be necessary; this is the case, for instance, with a very large proportion of the entries identified as variants or taxonomic synonyms and with Modern English coinages of the kind mentioned in paragraph 7.5.1. In one situation, absence of an etymology has a distinct and positive significance, namely in the second and later items in a set of homographic entries; here it indicates derivation by functional shift, in Modern English, from the last preceding homograph that has an etymology.

7.10.1 For native words the etymology gives cognates where possible from other Germanic or Indo-European languages, especially Old High German, Old Norse, Gothic, Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit. Similarly, for a very large proportion of the words borrowed into English from other Indo-European languages, not only Latin and Greek but also Sanskrit, the Germanic languages, the Romance languages, the Slavic languages, and the rest, the etymology gives a like indication of the Indo-European cognates. Examples:

bench noun … [Middle English, from Old English benc; akin to Old High German bank bench, Old Norse bekkr ]
bear verb … [Middle English beren, from Old English beran; akin to Old High German beran to carry, Old Norse bera, Goth bairan, Latin ferre, Greek pherein, Sanskrit bharati he carries]
dic·tion noun … [Late Latin & Latin; Late Latin diction- , dictio word, from Latin, delivery in public speaking, from dictus (past part. of dicere to say) + -ion- , -io -ion; akin to Old English tēon to accuse, Old High German zīhan to accuse, Old Norse tjā to show, Goth gateihan to tell, Latin dicare to dedicate, Greek deiknynai to show, dikē right, judgment, Sanskrit diśati he shows]
meld verb … [German melden to announce, report, from Old High German meldōn ; akin to Old English meldian to announce, reveal, inform on, meld proclamation, Old Saxon meldon to inform on, betray, Old Saxon & Old High German melda betrayal, Old Slavic moliti to ask for, request, pray, Armenian malt em I request, Hittite maltai, maldi he prays; basic meaning: to pray]

7.10.2 Considerations of space of course make it inadvisable to give a full display of cognates at every possible entry; what is more usually done is to direct the user by a “more at” cross-reference to another entry where such a full display of cognates is given:

edict noun … [Latin edictum, from neuter of edictus, past participle of edicere to declare, decree, from e- + dicere to say — more at DICTION ]

7.11 Besides the use of “akin to” to denote ordinary cognate relationship, as in several examples in the preceding paragraph, there is in some etymologies a somewhat special use of “akin to” as part of a longer formula “of — origin; akin to —”. This longer formula indicates that a word was borrowed from some language belonging to a group of languages, the name of the group being inserted in the blank just before origin; that for some reason it is not possible to say with confidence that the word in question is a borrowing of a particular attested word in a particular language of the source group; and that the word or words cited in the blank after “akin to” are a cognate or cognates of the word in question as attested within the source group. Examples:

guard verb … [Middle French garder , from Old French garder, guarder to ward, guard, of Germanic origin; akin to Old High German wartēn to watch, take care — more at WARD ]
cant noun … [Middle English, probably from Middle Dutch or Old North French; Middle Dutch, edge, from Old North French, from Latin cantus, canthus iron ring round a carriage wheel, perhaps of Celtic origin; akin to Welsh cant rim, Breton cant circle; akin to Greek kanthos corner of the eye, Russian kut corner]

This last example shows the two uses of “akin to” in explicit contrast with each other. The words cited immediately after “of Celt origin; akin to” are Celtic cognates of the presumed Celtic source word from which the Latin word was borrowed; the words cited after the second “akin to” are further cognates from other Indo-European languages.

8. STATUS LABELS

8.0 A status label in italics sometimes appears before a definition. It provides a degree of usage orientation by identifying the character of the context in which a word ordinarily occurs. Status labels are of three kinds: temporal, stylistic, and regional.

8.1.1 The temporal label obsolete means that no evidence of standard use since 1755 has been found or is likely to be found:

abastardize transitive verbobsolete
abhorrency nounobsolete
absume transitive verbobsolete

obsolete is a comment on the word being defined, not on the thing defined by the word. When obsoleteness of the thing is in question, it is implied in the definition (as by onetime, formerly, or historical reference):

longbow noun: the great bow of medieval England …
man·tel·et noun: a movable shelter formerly used by besiegers as a protection when attacking

8.1.2 The temporal label archaic means standard after 1755 but surviving in the present only sporadically or in special contexts:

be·like adverbarchaic
oak·en adjectivearchaic
spir·i·tu·ous adjectivearchaic

archaic is a comment on the word being defined, not on the thing the word represents.

8.2.1 The stylistic label slang is affixed to terms especially appropriate in contexts of extreme informality, having usually a currency not limited to a particular region or area of interest, and composed typically of clipped or shortened forms or extravagant, forced, or facetious figures of speech:

clary nounslang
cornball nounslang
happy dust nounslang
lu·lu nounslang

There is no completely satisfactory objective test for slang, especially in application to a word out of context. No word is invariably slang, and many standard words can be given slang connotations or used so inappropriately as to become slang.

8.2.2 The stylistic label substandard indicates status conforming to a pattern of linguistic usage that exists throughout the American language community but differs in choice of word or form from that of the prestige group in that community:

drown verbsubstandard drownd·ed
his·self also his·selpronounsubstandard

This label is not regional.

8.2.3 The stylistic label nonstandard is used for a very small number of words that can hardly stand without some status label but are too widely current in reputable context to be labeled substandard:

ir·regardless adjectivenonstandard

8.3.1 The regional label dialectal when unqualified indicates a regional pattern too complex for summary labeling usually because it includes several regional varieties of American English or of American and British English:

husky noundialectal

8.3.2 The combined label dialectal, British and the combined label dialectal, England indicate substandard currency in a provincial dialect of the British Commonwealth or England:

clart dialectal, British
slape adjectivedialectal, England

8.3.3 A standard word requiring a specified regional restriction in the U.S. will have one of the seven labels North, New England, Midland, South, West, Southwest, and Northwest. These correspond loosely to the areas in Hans Kurath's Word Geography of the Eastern United States (1949). Examples:

dreadful adverb … chiefly North
jolt-wagon noun … Midland
can·ni·kin nounNew England
mountain pheasant noun, South
cay·use nounWest
jor·na·da nounSouthwest
muck·a·muck verbNorthwest

No collective label (as U.S. ) is used to indicate currency in all regions of the U.S.

8.3.4 A regional label that names a country indicates standard currency in the named part of the whole English language area. Examples:

derry nounAustralia
cau·been nounIrish
abeigh adverbScottish
cabbage tree nounNew Zealand
Ca·nuck nounchiefly Canada
pet·rol nounBritish

9. SUBJECT LABELS

9.1 A prefixed subject label in italics names an activity or branch of knowledge in relation to which a word usually has a special meaning not identical with any other meaning it may have apart from the labeled subject. An abbreviated subject label can be found in the list of “Abbreviations Used in This Dictionary” . Examples:

break transitive verb4c cricket
con·choi·dal adjective2 mineralogy
con·sec·u·tive adjective3b Semitic grammar

10. SUBJECT GUIDE PHRASES

10.1 More common than the subject label in this dictionary is the subject guide phrase. This is a brief italicized phrase that points to something with which the word is associated:

con·chyl·i·at·ed adjectiveof a dye
con·cor·dant adjective3 of twins
fire intransitive verb1d (1) of flax
break intransitive verb6d (1) of a fish or whale

11. THE SYMBOLIC COLON

11.1 This dictionary uses a colon as a linking symbol between the main entry and a definition. It stands for an unexpressed simple predicate that may be read “is being here defined as (or by)”. It indicates that the supporting orientation immediately after the main entry is over and thus facilitates a visual jumping from word to definition:

black·ly adverb : in a black manner
blackfish \ˈ=ˌ=\ noun 1 : any of several dark-colored fishes
Bis·cay·ner \ˈbi(ˌ)skānər\ also Bis·cay·neer \ˌ==ˈni(ə)r\ noun -S [REVISED ]
[obsolete Biskaine, Biscayne Biscayan (from Biscay , province of Spain) + -er or -eer ] : a sailor or ship from Biscay

11.2 Words that have two or more definitions have two or more symbolic colons. The signal for another definition is another symbolic colon:

daunt·less … : marked by courageous resolution : incapable of being daunted, intimidated, or subdued
avail·a·ble 3 : such as may be availed of : capable of use for the accomplishment of a purpose : immediately utilizable

11.3 If there is no symbolic colon, there is no definition. For what sometimes takes the place of a definition see 15.2 , 16.3 , 19.1 , 20.1 .

12. SENSE DIVISION

12.1 Boldface arabic numerals separate the senses of a word that has more than a single sense:

x 1 :2 :3 :
sev·en·teenth adjective1 : being number 17 in a countable series … 2 : being one of 17 equal parts into which something is divisible

12.2 Boldface lowercase letters separate coordinate subsenses of a numbered sense or sometimes of an unnumbered sense:

x 1 :2 a :b :c :3 :
howl noun1 : a loud protracted mournful rising and falling cry … 2 a : a prolonged cry of distress … b : a yell or outcry of disappointment, rage, or protest
x 1 : …: as a :b :c :2 :
bridge·man noun1 : one who works on a bridge: such as  a : one who tends the landing bridge where a ferryboat docks and supervises the loading and unloading of the ferry  b : one who operates the machinery for opening and closing drawbridges or who operates the bridge over which railroad cars are run from wharf to scow  c : a member of a construction crew that builds bridges with structural steel or iron 2 : one who works on the loading platform of an icehouse selling ice to wholesale and retail customers
x : …: as a :b :c :
hugeadjective: very large or extensive: such as a : of great size or area … b : of sizable scale or degree … c : of limitless scope or character
x1 :2 : …: a :b :c :
gagverbtransitive verb 1 : to apply a gag to: a : to stop the mouth of … b : to pry or hold open … c : to silence by the force of authority … 2 : to cause to heave

12.2.1 The lightface colon (as in the preceding formulas) indicates that the definition immediately preceding it binds together or subsumes the coordinate subsenses that follow it:

main stem noun : a main trunk or channel: such as a : the main course of a river or stream … b : the main line of a railroad c : the main street of a city or town

12.2.2 The word as may or may not follow this lightface colon. Its presence indicates that the subsenses following are typical or significant examples which are not exhaustive. Its absence indicates that the subsenses following are exhaustive with respect to evidence for dictionary inclusion.

12.3 Numbers in parentheses indicate a further division of subsenses:

x1 a :b (1) :(2) :c :2 :
leadintransitive verb2 a : to be first or foremost in some respects … b (1) : to begin or open a passage or course of action … (2) : to play the first card of a trick, round, or game (3) : to direct the first of a series of blows at an opponent in boxing

12.4 The system of separating by numbers and letters reflects something of the semantic relationship between various senses of a word. It is only a lexical convenience. It does not evaluate senses or establish an enduring hierarchy of importance among them. The best sense is the one that most aptly fits the context of an actual genuine utterance.

12.5 The order of senses is historical: the one known to have been first used in English is entered first. This ordering does not imply that each sense has developed from the immediately preceding sense. Sense 1 may give rise to sense 2 and sense 2 to sense 3. As often as not, however, each of several senses derived in independent lines from sense 1 has served as the source of a number of other meanings. Sometimes an arbitrary arrangement or rearrangement is the only reasonable and expedient solution to the problems of ordering senses.

12.6.1 An italic functional label or other information given between a main entry and the etymology of a multisense word applies to all senses and subsenses unless a limiting label (as plural ) or symbol (as -S ) is inserted immediately after a divisional number or letter and before the symbolic colon or unless in any way clearly inapplicable. Examples of limiting labels:

can·tha·risnoun1 plural can·thar·i·des2 canthar·ides plural but singular or plural in construction3 capitalized
frit·il·lar·ianoun1 capitalized : a genus of bulbous herbs … 2 -S : any plant, bulb, or flower of the genus Fritillaria
frontadjective2 comparative sometimes fronter : articulated at or toward the front of the oral passage

12.6.2 The etymology also applies to all senses and subsenses unless another etymology in boldface brackets is given after a sense number or letter:

can·onnoun … [Middle English canoun …] … 6 [Late Greek kanōn, from Greek] : a contrapuntal musical composition

12.6.3 An italic status label, subject label, or guide phrase does not apply to all the senses of a multisense word. When divisional numbers are present, such a label is inserted after the number:

daisy cutter noun 1 slang :2 slang :3 slang :
de·jecttransitive verb2 a (1) obsolete : to lower especially in rank or condition: ABASE, HUMBLE (2) archaic : to reduce especially in force, degree, or quality : WEAKEN, LESSEN b : to make gloomy
de·fineverb6 a mathematics :b :
fishverbintransitive verb4 of a Salvationist : to speak with individuals

It then applies to lettered and parenthetically numbered subsenses that follow. It does not apply to succeeding boldface-numbered senses:

glancetransitive verb2 obsolete a : to allude to b : to barely touch: GRAZE 3 :

Senses 2a and 2b are both obsolete but not sense 3. If it falls between a boldface letter and the symbolic colon or between a number in parentheses and the symbolic colon, it applies only to the immediately following sense.

13. VERBAL ILLUSTRATIONS

13.1 The matter enclosed in a pair of angle brackets illustrates an appropriate use of the word in context. The word being illustrated is replaced by a swung dash which stands for the same form of the word as the main entry or by a swung dash plus an italicized suffix which can be added without any change of letters to the form of the main entry. Otherwise the word is written in full and italicized:

av·idadjective2 … 〈an ~ reader〉 〈an ~ gardener〉
firmadjective1b (1) … 〈walked with a ~ tread〉 〈a ~ handshake)
fixverbtransitive verb4c … (2) … 〈the jury had been ~ ed
fritterverb1 … 〈foolishly ~ ing away time and energy〉
shakeverb3 a : … 〈were shaking in their shoes〉

13.2.1 A person's name or an italicized title included in the angle brackets acknowledges the authorship or source of a quoted verbal illustration:

justadverb4 a … 〈I'm ~ your interpreter — Ernest Hemingway〉
lim·itnounla … 〈at the exact northern ~ of this valley — American Guide Series: Minn.
shakeverb3 a … 〈his voice shook and became shrill — Kenneth Roberts〉

13.2.2 Suspension periods indicate an omission in quoted matter. Sometimes spelling, punctuation, or capitalization has been normalized without notation usually because the brief quotation is so far removed from its original context that such matters are no longer significant and may be actually misleading.

14. THE TAXONOMIC ENTRY

14.1 A main entry that defines the name of a kind of plant or animal (as rose) or a technical category of plants or animals (as Rosaceae) is a taxonomic entry. Such entries employ in part a formal codified New Latin terminology developed and used by biologists in accord with international codes of botanical and of zoological nomenclature to identify and to indicate the relations of plants and animals. In this terminology each kind of organism has one and only one correct name that for a species (binomial or species name) consists of a singular capitalized genus name combined with an uncapitalized specific epithet or trivial name which is an appositive or genitive noun or an adjective agreeing in case, number, and gender with the genus name (as in Rosa setigera ). For a variety or subspecies (trinomial or variety name or subspecies name) the name adds a similar varietal or subspecific epithet (as in Rosa setigera tomentosa ). Such binomials and trinomials are in this dictionary routinely italicized and enclosed in parentheses and ordinarily immediately follow the primary orienting noun:

ca·ran·dánoun1 : a tropical palm (Copernicia australis )
bar·row's goldeneyenoun: a No. American goldeneye (Bucephala islandica )
red-shafted flicker noun : a flicker (Colaptes caper collaris )

By their use an absolute technical identification is made.

14.2 A binomial or trinomial so used is a technical device and does not have separate entry. The name of a genus used in such a combination normally does have an entry unless directly or indirectly oriented (as by specific mention of a higher category or through another vernacular or a technical adjective) to a higher taxonomic category (as a family, order, or class):

northern anthracnose noun … caused by a fungus (Kabatulla caulivora ) of the family Tuberculariaceae
man·gonoun4 : any of a genus (Anthracothrax ) of hummingbirds
rainbow runner noun : a … carangid food and sport fish (Elegatis bipinnulatus ) but
indian laurelnoun1 : an Asiatic tree (Persea indica )

14.3 Occasionally two binomials appear in one parenthesis in a taxonomic entry:

redstartnoun2 … birds of the genus Phoenicurus (as the black redstart, P. ochruros syn. P. titys of Europe)
blacknose dacenoun : a common No. American dace (Rhinichthys atronasus or Atratulus atronasus )

The first form indicates that the binomial following syn (for “synonym”) is technically invalid but so widely known or generally used as to justify mention. The second is used when there is professional lack of agreement about the correct name.

14.4 A genus name used more than once in an unnumbered entry or in a numbered sense of an entry is routinely abbreviated in uses after the first:

go·rannoun: either of two Indian mangroves (Ceriops roxburghiana and C. candolleana )
nas·tur·tiumnoun2 -S : any plant of the genus Tropaeolum (as T. majus and T. minus )
ich·thy·oph·thir·i·usnouncap : a genus of oval holotrichous ciliates comprising a single species (I. multifiliis )

14.5 Names of taxonomic categories higher than the genus are capitalized plural nouns often used with singular verbs, are not italicized or abbreviated in normal use, and in this dictionary are routinely oriented in rank when used in defining:

turtlenoun1 : a reptile of the order Testudinata
scar·a·bae·oid1 : a beetle of Scarabaeidae or a closely related family
achari·ace·ae … a family of herbs and subshrubs (order Parietales)

Such names when used in other entries will be found entered at their own alphabetical place.

14.6 A taxonomic entry of the form x synonym of Y means that x is in all respects (as grammatical number, capitalization, meaning, and taxonomic rank) equivalent to y but that it is for some reason (as a flaw of spelling or form, a faulty application, or a lack of priority) technically inferior to and less valid than y.

14.7 An italic guide phrase (as in some classifications ) used to introduce the text of a taxonomic entry is a warning device and implies that the taxon defined though not strictly a synonym in the taxonomic sense is not as generally acceptable as one lacking such a qualifier.

15. USAGE NOTES

15.1 A usage note is introduced by a lightface dash. Two or more successive usage notes are separated by a semicolon. A usage note provides information about the use of the word being defined and so always modifies the word that is the main entry. It may be in the form of a comment on idiom, syntax, semantic relationship, status, or various other matters:

fresh·entransitive verb4 : … — usually used with up
collarverbintransitive verb : … — used of a steel bar in a rolling mill
al·le·groadverb (or adjective): … — used as a direction in music
free·ma·sonnoun2 : … — called also Mason
co·he·sionnoun 3 : … — distinguished from adhesion

15.2 A usage note may stand in place of a definition and without the symbolic colon. Some function words have little or no semantic content, and most interjections express feelings but otherwise are untranslatable into substitutable meaning. Many other words (as some oaths and imprecations, calls to animals, specialized signals, song refrains, and honorific titles), though genuinely a part of the English language, have a usage note instead of a definition:

geeinterjection … — often used as an introductory expletive for emphasis and sometimes to express surprise or enthusiasm
atpreposition1 — used as a function word to indicate presence in, on, or near
ahoyinterjection … — used in hailing 〈ship ~
heyinterjection … — used to call attention or to incite, to express interrogation, surprise, or exultation, or with indefinite meaning in the burden of a song

16. CROSS-REFERENCES

16.0 Various word relationships requiring that matter at one place in a dictionary show special awareness of matter at another place are taken care of by a system of cross-references. A sequence of lightface small capitals used anywhere in a definition is identical letter-by-letter with a boldface main entry (or with one of its inflectional forms) at its own alphabetical place. This sequence is a cross-reference; its boldface equivalent elsewhere is what is cross-referenced to and is not itself a cross-reference.

16.1 A cross-reference following a lightface dash and beginning with either see or compare is a directional cross-reference. It explicitly directs one to look somewhere else for further information. It never stands for a definition but (with a few exceptions) is always appended to one. Such a cross-reference is separated from another cross-reference or from a usage note by a semicolon.

16.1.1 A cross-reference using the verb see means that the boldface entry word to which it is appended is mentioned in the same meaning and function at the entry cross-referenced to. The information at this entry which is cross-referenced to adds to the meaning of the boldface word to which the cross-reference is attached or supplements it in some significant way (as by adding to one definition of house the cross-reference “see BUNGALOW, COTTAGE, MANSION; APARTMENT BUILDING, BOARDINGHOUSE, DWELLING HOUSE, LODGING HOUSE, ROOMING HOUSE, TENEMENT HOUSE ”):

hornnoun1 a (1) : one of the paired bony processes that arise from the upper part of the head of many ungulate mammals … — see ANTLER
ant·lernoun: a horn of an animal of the deer family

16.1.2 A cross-reference using the verb compare means that the boldface entry word to which it is appended is not mentioned (except perhaps incidentally) at the entry cross-referenced to. The additional information at this entry which is cross-referenced to is related in some pertinent way (as by similarity, contrast, or complement):

apoc·o·penoun: the loss of one or more sounds or letters at the end of a word … — compare APHAERESIS, SYNCOPE
syn·co·penoun2 a : the loss of one or more sounds or letters in the interior of a word

16.2 A cross-reference following a symbolic colon is a synonymous cross-reference. It may stand alone as the only definitional matter for a boldface entry or for a sense or subsense of an entry. It may be one of a group of definitions joined in series by symbolic colons. In either case the cross-reference means that the definitions at the entry cross-referenced to are substitutable as definitions for the boldface entry or the sense or subsense at which the cross-reference appears:

con·cep·ti·bleadjective: CONCEIVABLE
con·cen·tra·tionnoun4 : DENSITY 1
concentric cable noun : COAXIAL CABLE
con·cen·tricadjective1b : having a common axis (as of two or more cones or moraines): formed about the same axis: COAXIAL
in·venttransitive verb2 : to think up or imagine: concoct mentally: FABRICATE

16.2.1 Two or more synonymous cross-references are sometimes introduced by a symbolic colon and joined to each other by a comma. This indicates that there are two or more sets of definitions at other entries which are substitutable in various contexts:

con·ceptnoun: THOUGHT, IDEA, NOTION
con·cedeverb2 : ADMIT, ACKNOWLEDGE

16.2.2 A synonymous cross-reference sometimes accounts for a usage note introduced by called also at the entry cross-referenced to:

ra·adnoun: ELECTRIC CATFISH
electric catfish noun … — called also raad
fairy bell noun 1: FOXGLOVE 1
foxgloven1 … — called also fairy bell, fingerflower, fingerroot

16.3.1 A cross-reference following an italic variant of is a cognate cross-reference. It is explained and illustrated in 1.6.3 as applied to standard variants.

16.3.2 A limiting label before the variant of in a cognate cross-reference indicates in what way an entry word is nonstandard:

air Scottish variant of EYRE
alarum clock chiefly British variant of ALARM CLOCK
astdialectal variant of ASK
colourchiefly British variant of COLOR
defuse obsolete variant of DIFFUSE

16.3.3 A cross-reference following an italic synonym of is also a cognate cross-reference. See 14.6 .

16.4 A cross-reference following an italic label identifying an entry as an inflectional form of a singular noun, of an adjective or adverb, or of an infinitive verb is an inflectional cross-reference. These are illustrated in 4.6 , 4.12 , and 4.16 .

16.5 A cross-reference following a functional label is a suffixal cross-reference. These are illustrated at 4.4 , 4.10 , and 4.14 . Each of these suffixes is an entry at its own alphabetical place where the way in which it is suffixed is explained.

16.6 A cross-reference may or may not be identified by a superscript number before it or by a lightface sense number or letter after it. A synonymous cross-reference to a homograph is not identified by part of speech: nouns refer to nouns, adjectives to adjectives. Cross-references to verbs sometimes distinguish between transitive verb and intransitive verb.

17. RUN-ON ENTRIES

17.1.1 A main entry may be continued after a lightface dash by a boldface derivative of itself. This is a run-on entry. Its boldface is always in alphabetical order with respect to the word it is run on to. It has a functional label but no definition:

en·vi·ableadjective … — en·vi·able·nessnoun -ES
epi·phenomenaladjective … — epi·phenomenallyadverb
equi·distantadjective … — equidistantly adverb

17.1.2 An additional run-on entry sometimes follows:

er·ro·neousadjective … — er·ro·neous·ly adverber·ro·neous·ness noun -ES

17.2 A main entry may be continued after a lightface dash by a boldface phrase containing the main entry word or an inflected form of it. This also is a run-on entry. It often is not in alphabetical order. It may or may not have a functional label but it has a definition:

ac·countnoun … — in account with preposition … — on account of preposition
badadjective … — in a bad way … — too bad
deepadjective … — in deep water
runverb … — run across … — run a temperature … — run foul of … — run riot … — run to seed … — run wild
setverb … — set about … — set aside … — set forth … — set one's cap for … — set one's hand to

17.3 A run-on entry is an independent entry with respect to function and status. Labels at the main entry do not apply unless they are repeated.

18. SYNONYMIES

18.1 This dictionary contains over a thousand paragraphs in which synonymous words are briefly discriminated and given verbal illustrations. Each paragraph follows the entry of one of the words of a group under consideration and is signaled by the boldface abbreviation synonyms indented. The paragraph is a synonymy. The first one appears at the word abjure and considers abjure, renounce, forswear, recant, and retract.

18.2 Words considered in a synonymy refer at their own alphabetical places to its location by running on the bold-italic letters synonyms and the word:

re·nounce synonyms see ABJURE
for·swear synonyms see ABJURE

19. ABBREVIATIONS

19.1 An entry having the label abbreviation is an abbreviation and what follows it is an expansion rather than a definition. No symbolic colon is used:

bbl abbreviation barrel; barrels
abp abbreviation, often capitalized archbishop

19.2 An abbreviation formed from the initial letters of two or more words appears in unspaced capital letters.

BCD abbreviation bad conduct discharge
GA abbreviation 1 general agent 2 general assembly …

19.3 Some abbreviations function also as substantives and have a combined label:

TD abbreviation or noun -S … touchdown

20. SYMBOLS

20.1 An entry having the label symbol has an expansion or interpretation rather than a definition. No symbolic colon is used:

Ga symbol gallium
y symbol 1 unknown quantity 2 an ordinate 3 capitalized admittance 4 capitalized yttrium

21. COMBINING FORMS

21.1 A main entry that begins or ends with a hyphen is a word element that forms part of an English compound. The identifying label, besides the hyphen, is combining form , or if the element is used only as an affix, the label is prefix or suffix. A suffix or terminal combining form that always determines syntactic function is further identified by addition of a part-of-speech label (as adjective suffix or noun combining form ):

nas- or naso- also nasi- combining form
pre- prefix
-able also -ibleadjective suffix
-agenoun suffix -S
cephal- or cephalo- combining form1 : head 〈cephalitis 〉 〈cephalo meter〉 2 : cephalic and 〈cephalo facial〉

21.2 This dictionary enters combining forms for two reasons: chiefly to make easier the writing of etymologies of words in which they occur over and over again; and to recognize meaningful elements that are constantly being used to form new words not yet authenticated for dictionary inclusion. A compound consisting of a known word and a known combining form is not censurable merely by being absent from the dictionary.

22. THE VOCABULARY ENTRY

22.1 The following definition appears at its own alphabetical place in the dictionary:

vocabulary entry noun … : a word (as the noun book ), hyphened or open compound (as the verb book-match or the noun book review ), word element (as the affix pro- ), abbreviation (as agt ), verbalized symbol (as Na ), or term (as man in the street ) entered alphabetically in a dictionary for the purpose of definition or identification or expressly included as an inflectional form (as the noun books or the verbs booked and saw ) or as a derived form (as the noun godlessness or the adverb globally ) or related phrase (as one for the book ) run on at its base word and usually set in a type (as boldface or small capitals) readily distinguishable from that of the running text which defines, explains, or identifies the entry

As defined, this term applies to all the entries as they are printed alphabetically from a to Zyzzogeton, with or without hyphens, all their boldface variants, all the run-on entries, and all inflectional forms whether written out in boldface or indicated by small-capital suffixes.

Merriam-Webster Pronunciation Symbols

For greater detail and for some symbols not shown below see “Guide to Pronunciation ”.

ə ba nana , co llect
ˈə, ˌə hu mdru m
ə̄ as in one pronunciation used by r -droppers for bir d (alternative \əi\)
ə̇ two-value symbol equivalent to the unstressed variants \ə\, \i\, as in habi t, duche ss (\ˈhabə̇t\ = \ˈhabət, -bit\)
ə immediately preceding \l\, \n\, \m\, \ŋ\, as in battle , mitten , and in one pronunciation of cap and bells \-ə m-\, lock and key \-ə ŋ-\; immediately following \l\, \m\, \r\, as in one pronunciation of French table , prisme , titre
əi as in one pronunciation used by r -droppers for bir d (alternative \ə̄\)
ər oper ation; stressed, as in bir d as pronounced by speakers who do not drop r ; stressed and with centered period after the \r\, as in one pronunciation of burr y (alternative \ə̄r\) and in one pronunciation of hurr y (alternative \ə·r\); stressed and with centered period between \ə\ and \r\, as in one pronunciation of hurr y (alternative \ər·\)
a ma t, ma p
ā day , fa de, da te, a orta
ä bo ther, co t; most American speakers have the same vowel in fa ther, ca rt
ȧ fa ther as pronounced by speakers who do not rhyme it with bo ther; far ther and car t as pronounced by r -droppers
aa ba d, ba g, fa n as often pronounced in an area having New York City and Washington, D. C., on its perimeter; in an emphatic syllable, as before a pause, often \aaə\
ai as in some pronunciations of ba g, ba ng, pa ss
au̇ now , lou d, some pronunciations of tal cum
b b ab y, rib
ch ch in, nature \ˈnāchə(r)\ (actually, this sound is \t\ + \sh\)
d eld er, und one
as in the usual American pronunciation of latt er, ladd er
e be t, be d
ˈē, ˌē bea t, noseblee d, e venly, slee py
ē as in one pronunciation of evenly , sleepy , envi ous, igne ous (alternative \i\)
ee (in transcriptions of foreign words only) indicates a vowel with the quality of e in bet but long, not the sound of ee in sleep: en arrière \äⁿnȧaryeer\
eu̇ as in one pronunciation of el k, hel m
f f if ty, cuff
g g o, big
h h at, ah ead
hw  wh ale as pronounced by those who do not have the same pronunciation for both whale and wail
i ti p, one pronunciation of bani sh (alternative unstressed \ē\), one pronunciation of habi t (alternative \ə\; see ə̇)
ī si te, si de, buy (actually, this sound is \ä\ + \i\, or \ȧ\ + \i\)
iu̇ as in one pronunciation of mil k, fil m
j j ob, g em, edge , proced ure \prəˈsējə(r)\ (actually, this sound is \d\ + \zh\)
k k in, c ook , ache
as in one pronunciation of loch (alternative \k\), as in German ich -laut
l l il y, pool
m m urm ur, dim , nym ph
n n o, own
indicates that a preceding vowel is pronounced with the nasal passages open, as in French un bon vin blanc \œⁿbōⁿvaⁿbläⁿ\
ŋ sing \ˈsiŋ\, sing er \ˈsiŋə(r)\, fin ger \ˈfiŋgə(r)\, in k \ˈiŋk\
ō bo ne, snow , beau ; one pronunciation of glo ry
ȯ saw , a ll, sau rian; one pronunciation of ho rrid
œ French bœu f, German Hö lle
œ̄ French feu , German Höh le
ȯi coi n, destroy , strawy , sawi ng
ōō (in transcriptions of foreign words only) indicates a vowel with the quality of o in bone but longer, not the sound of oo in food: comte \kōōⁿt\
p p epp er, lip
r r ar ity, one pronunciation of tar
s s ource , less
sh with nothing between, as in sh y, missi on, mach ine, speci al (actually, this is a single sound, not two); with a stress mark between, two sounds as in death's -h ead \ˈdethsˌhed\
t t ie, att ack; one pronunciation of latt er (alternative \d-\)
th with nothing between, as in th in, eth er (actually, this is a single sound, not two); with a stress mark between, two sounds as in knighth ood \ˈnītˌhu̇d\
th th en, eith er (actually, this is a single sound, not two)
ü ru le, foo l, you th, union \ˈyünyən\, few \ˈfyü\
pu ll, woo d, curable \ˈkyu̇rəbəl\
German fü llen, hü bsch
French rue , German füh len
v v iv id, give
w w e, aw ay
y y ard, cue \ˈkyü\, union \ˈyünyən\
y (in transcriptions of foreign words only) indicates that during the articulation of the sound represented by the preceding character the tip of the tongue has substantially the position it has for the articulation of the first sound of yard, as in French digne \dēny \
you th, u nion, cue , few
yu̇ cu rable
z z one, raise
zh with nothing between, as in visi on, azure \ˈazhə(r)\ (actually, this is a single sound, not two); with a stress mark between, two sounds as in rosehi ll \ˈrōzˌhil\

For greater detail on most of the following see the beginning of “Guide to Pronunciation ” and that part of “Explanatory Notes ” dealing with pronunciation (section numbers for the latter are included below).

\ slant line used in pairs to mark the beginning and end of a transcription: \ˈpen\
ˈ mark preceding a syllable with primary (strongest) stress: \ˈpenmənˌship\
ˌ mark preceding a syllable with secondary (next-strongest) stress: \ˈpenmənˌship\
¦ combined marks preceding a syllable whose stress varies between primary and secondary: backbone \ˈ=¦=\ (§ 2.2 )
- inferior minus sign canceling a stress in the same position in a preceding pronunciation or emphasizing that a following syllable is without stress: optimism \ˈäptəˌmizəm\, optimist \-- mə̇st\ (§ 2.11 )
· mark of syllable division inserted in a sequence of sounds that can have more than one syllable division: nitrate \ˈnī·ˌtrāt\ (§ 2.1 )
= symbol for the sounds of a syllable: backbone \ˈ=¦=\ (§§ 2.7.1, 2.7.2 )
( ), ( indicate that what is symbolized between or after is present in some utterances but not in others: factory \ˈfakt(ə)rē\, bar \ˈbär, ˈbȧ(r\ (§§ 2.5.1, 2.5.2 )
ditto mark, indicating that a preceding pronunciation is to be repeated: ¹poise \ˈpȯiz\ v, ²poise \“\ n (§§ 2.8.1, 2.8.2 )
+ in an incomplete pronunciation signifies that the missing part is to be sought elsewhere in the vocabulary: geopositive \¦jē(ˌ)ō+\ (pronunciation of -positive is to be sought at POSITIVE ) (§ 2.9 )
+V  means “when a vowel sound follows without pause, as in a suffix or another word”
| facilitates the placement of a variant pronunciation: flightily \ˈflīd·|ə lē, -īt|, |ə li, |ə̇l-\ (§ 2.6.2 )
R labels certain pronunciations used by speakers who do not drop r (§ 2.10 )
−R labels certain pronunciations used by speakers who drop r (§ 2.10 )
÷ indicates that many regard as unacceptable the one pronunciation immediately following: cupola \ˈkyüpələ, ÷ -pəˌlō\, sacrilegious \ ÷¦sakrə̇¦lijəs (§ 2.12 )
indicates an omission to be supplied from a preceding entry or an entry elsewhere: dilettantish \¦==¦t…ntish\ (four variants for the a are to be supplied from ¹DILETTANTE )