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INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
DICTIONNAIRE INTERNATIONAL DE LA PSYCHANALYSE
EDITORIAL BOARD AND TRANSLATORS
EDITINO CRHIE F
Alain de Mijolla
President and founder of the International Association for the History of Psychoanalysis
Neuropsychiatrist and psychoanalyst
Member of the Société psychanalytique de Paris (Paris Psychoanalytic Society)
Member of the International Psychoanalytic Association (IPA)
Member of the Conceptual and Empirical Research Committee of the IPA
EDITORIAL BOARD (French Edition)
Sophie de Mijolla-Mellor
Psychoanalyst and professor of psychopathology and psychoanalysis
University of Paris VII, Denis-Diderot
Member of the Quatriéme groupe (O.P.L.F.)
Roger Perron
Director of Honors Research at National Center for Scientific Research, Paris
Member of the International Psychoanalytic Association (IPA)
Bernard Golse, MD
Pediatric psychiatrist and psychoanalyst
Chief of staff of Pediatric psychiatry, Saint-Vincent de Paul Hospital, Paris
Professor of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
University of Paris V, René Descartes
U.S. ADVISORY BOARD
Edward Nersessian, MD
Training and Supervising Analyst
New York Psychoanalytic Institute
Clinical Associate Professor of Psychiatry
New York Hospital-Cornell Medical Center
Paul Roazen, Ph.D.
Professor Emeritus, Social and Political Science
York University
BOARD OF TRANSLATORS
Philip Beitchman
Jocelyne Barque
Robert Bononno
Andrew Brown
Dan Collins
Liam Gavin
John Galbraith Simmons
Sophie Leighton
Donald Nicholson-Smith
Scott Savaiano
Paul Sutton
Gwendolyn Wells
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
DICTIONNAIRE INTERNATIONAL DE LA PSYCHANALYSE
VOLUME THREE
PS-Z
ALAIN DE MIJOLLA
EDITOR IN CHIEF
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Dictionnaire international de la psychanalyse. English.
International dictionary of psychoanalysis = Dictionnaire international
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PS
PSI (/) SYSTEM
In his unfinished 1895 “A Project for a Scientific Psychology”
Freud defines the psi (y/) system as a subdivision
of the nervous system concerned with psychic
processes (1950a[1895]). Later, in The Interpretation of
Dreams (1900a) he used the term to refer to components
of the “psychical apparatus.”
In the “Project,” Freud hypothesized two neuronal
systems, @ (phi) and (psi), and employed the principle
of inertia and the concept of permeability. Elements
of what he called the system were permeable but
retained nothing; while the impermeable neurons,
equipped with resistance and retentive of quantity, are
the vehicles of memory and psychic processes in general,
and receive endogenous excitations. Subject to
the principle of constancy, neurons that make up the
system mitigate its impermeability by “facilitation”
(Bahnung), creating a permanent alteration in “contact
barriers.” Freud here adumbrated the concept of
the synapse and the idea of synaptic change.
In later work, Freud abandoned the nomenclature
of the “Project.” He only employed the term “y system”
in The Interpretation of Dreams, where it was
used in the plural to describe the components of the
psychic apparatus. (1900a, Chap. 7). The systems possess
spatial and temporal qualities in terms of arousal,
which begins with internal or external stimulation and
ends in “innervation” or discharge.
After 1900, Freud employed the term “yw systems”
without as much spatial precision, and made use of
new subdivisions: the systems Pcpt. (perceptual), Cs
(conscious), Ucs (unconscious), among others.
BERTRAND VICHYN
See also: Ego; Principle of (neuronal) inertia; “Project for
a Scientific Psychology, A”.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1900a). The interpretation of dreams.
Part I, SE, 4: 1-338; Part II, SE, 5: 339-625.
. (1950c [1895]). Project for a scientific psychology.
SE, 1: 281-387.
PSYCHANALYSE ET LES NEVROSES, LA
La psychanalyse et les névroses followed in the wake of
Emmanuel Regis and Angélo Hesnard’s important
work on the psychoanalysis of the neuroses and psychoses
(1914). René Laforgue and Reneé Allendy’s book
offered the French public a series of writings on psychoanalysis
that were replete with clinical examples.
The chapters on symbolism and those written from a
non-medical point of view were by Allendy.
On the title page, an epigraph from Joseph-Jules
Déjerine situated the book firmly in the French medical
tradition. The medical qualifications of the authors
and a preface by Henri Claude, consultant to hospitals
and asylums, emphasized this even further. This latter
preface, however, does not mince words: “While I am
happy to present Laforgue and Allendy’s book on psychoanalysis
and the neuroses to the medical public, I
have not hidden from the authors that I intend no
endorsement of their opinions thereby.... Some of
their investigative methods will shock those with delicate
feelings, and some of their outrageously symbolic
generalizations, though they may possibly apply to
those of other races, do not seem to me acceptable to
1345
PSYCHANALYSE ET PEDIATRIE [PSYCHOANALYSIS AND PEDIATRICS]
Latin clinical practice.” He nevertheless recommended
the book because he knew, having seen the authors at
work, that it was work written in good faith and based
on direct experience.
After reading Claude’s preface, Freud wrote to
Laforgue that, although he had not yet read the book,
he thought that it must be good, since Claude’s reservations
showed that the authors had made no compromises
and had no fear of controversy.
Laforgue and Allendy indeed presented “the medical
public” with the fundamental notions of psychoanalysis,
the mechanism of the neuroses, and the
technique of this new discipline. Clinical examples,
often from their experience at Sainte-Anne Hospital,
were adduced to support their arguments. Accordingly,
female frigidity, homosexuality, and impotence
were discussed. In the chapters on symbolism,
Allendy demonstrated his eclecticism and erudition:
philology, astrology, and studies of diverse civilizations
and religious customs were all brought in to
reinforce his argument. This book, by young French
doctors who were also practicing psychoanalysts, was
the first of its kind. Two years later they founded the
Psychoanalytic Society of Paris.
JEAN-PIERRE BOURGERON
See also: Allendy, Rene Felix Eugene; Claude, Henri
Charles Jules; France; Laforgue, Rene.
Source Citation
Laforgue, René, and Allendy, René. (1924). La Psychanalyse
et les névroses (Psychoanalysis and the neuroses). Preface
by Henri Claude. Paris: Payot, 254 p.; 2nd ed., 1950 Geneva:
Ed. du Mont Blanc; corrected and revised “according
to the instructions” of her husband, by Délia Laforgue,
with an additional chapter and a second preface by Dr.
Logre, 1964.
Bibliography
Regis, Emmanuel, and Hesnard, Angélo. (1914). La psychoanalyse(
sic) des névroses et des psychoses. Ses applications
médicales et extramédicales. Paris: Félix Alcan.
PSYCHANALYSE ET PEDIATRIE [PSYCHOANALYSIS
AND PEDIATRICS]
When Fran¢oise Marette, the young analyst in control
with Sophie Morgenstern, was working in the Breton-
1346
neau hospital under Dr. Edouard Pichon, she determined
that she wanted to “heal with psychoanalysis.”
And it worked. Symptoms disappeared, and family
equilibrium was restored. It seemed as simple as that.
If all pediatricians and general practitioners could benefit
from this experience it would be a great day for
medicine. She wished to direct the attention of her fellow
physicians to the possible benefits of analysis to
the patients who came to consult for a variety of ailments.
Her thesis was addressed to her colleagues and
presented in 1939.
Before recounting her beautiful stories, Marette felt
the need in the first part of her work to define for her
lay audience some analytic concepts: instinct, castration
complex, agencies of the personality, conscious,
preconscious, unconscious, repression, resistance,
transference—but this teaches us nothing: the essence
is in the struggle between the agencies, the flow of
libidinal energy. Human beings were not defined as
speaking beings but as storehouses of libido. The
author informs us that her first three chapters are theoretical
in nature, such that some readers might prefer
to go directly to the second “distinctly more concrete
and clinical” part.
The first chapter, “Evolution des instincts,” clearly
shows that we can describe the behavior and thinking
of young children with reference to the breast, excreta,
the penis, and without any reference to the father; only
the mother is named. The father only appears when
the mother goes away “to do the housework, to keep
dad happy.” Finally, “the child abandoned by the
mother” comes to realize that it is not the only center
of its mother’s attention: there is a rival in the form of
the father, when there are not extra rivals in the form
of brothers and sisters. As is clear in the work of the
first child psychoanalysts (Melanie Klein, Donald
Winnicott, among others), the remarkably absent
father plays only a late role, toward the age of four or
five, and “is part of the ambience of the mother.” Analytical
theory introduces the father only in a context of
oedipal rivalry, when the boy plays the despot, “donning
his father’s hat.” In the beginning the child and
the mother are one in the child’s experience; for many
analysts, they are one and the same flesh.
Marrete’s work contains original suggestions. She
brings forth the notion of progressive weaning, at the
age of four or five months, to be completed by the
seventh or eighth at the latest. If too late, she warns,
weaning is experienced as “punishment for oral
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
aggression, an assertion that received legitimate
criticism. Frangoise Marette was more cautious when
it came to educating the sphincter. Whereas many analysts
claimed that children should receive potty training
at the end of the first year, she waged war against
abusive sphincter training: not before twenty-four
months. In this she was innovative. Equally with
regard to the discovery of sexual differences and the
pleasure of masturbation.
The role of the father was also a problem when it
came to the Oedipus complex and the castration complex.
When her work was presented in 1962, mention
was made of the fact that she had married Dr. Boris
Dolto in 1942. When she became a mother she
acquired “experience that made her one of the representative
personalities of the contemporary French
psychoanalytic movement.”
The second part of her thesis gives us a sense of this:
in clinical vignettes and moving stories extolling the
merits of psychoanalysis, sixteen children came to see
her accompanied by their parents. She initially received
the family all together, and then the parents withdrew
to the waiting room. The children were then free to
express themselves, to draw and use clay, to play and
speak. But she did not see the parents again at the end
of the session with the child. Some analysts and institutions
immediately separate parents and children,
which deprives the analyst of significant information
that is indispensable for an understanding of what the
child is experiencing and thus prevents the analyst
from having an effective contact with the parents.
Through her account of these consultations, generations
of physicians gained an increased understanding
of the emotional lives of children and discovered
that they had an educational role to play, whether they
liked it or not. Marette, inventively, invited the children
to use speech and play in order to free themselves
from regressive or aggressive and poorly-adapted
behavior. It is a pleasure to witness the children, determined
workers, undertaking an analytic cure and
inviting their parents to question the influences that
condition them, all without their realizing it.
Attentive readers also discover the path that analysts
must follow if they don’t want to become obstacles
in the way of the analysis. The thesis concludes
with: “The castration complex is ineluctable in the
course of human development [...]. This work has
not enabled us to deal with the very many questions
relating to the castration complex. Its aim is to inter-
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
PSYCHANALYSE, LA
est our non-psychoanalyst colleagues in the fundamental
importance of the Oedipal stage in the history
of individual development and its role in the etiology
of functional symptoms and behavioral disorders in
order to demonstrate the therapeutic interest of
psychoanalysis.”
BERNARD THIS
See also: Armand Trousseau Children’s Hospital; Dolto-
Marette, | Francoise; Morgenstern-Kabatschnik, Sophie;
Pichon, Edouard Jean Baptiste.
Source Citation
Marette (Dolto), Francoise. (1940). Psychanalyse et Pédiatrie.
Le complexe de castration. Etude générale. Cas cliniques.
Préf. Edouard Pichon, Paris: Ed. A. Legrand; Dolto,
Francoise. Psychanalyse et Pédiatrie. Paris: Le Seuil, coll.
“Points” 1971.
PSYCHANALYSE, LA
The Société francaise de psychanalyse (SFP, French Psychoanalytic
Society), was founded on June 18, 1953,
following the resignation of Francgoise Dolto, Juliette
Favez-Boutonier, Jacques Lacan, Daniel Lagache, and
Blanche Reverchon-Jouve from the Sociéte Psychanalytique
de Paris (SPP, Paris Psychoanalytic Society). The
new group did not found a journal, but rather published
a series of eight “notebooks” that came out
according to no fixed schedule under the title of La
Psychanalyse. The subtitle was Freudian Research and
Teaching of the Societé Francaise de Psychanalyse. The
titles of the series, all published by Presses Universitaire
de France, are as follows:
I. On Speech and Language (1956)
II. Clinical Miscellany (1956)
III. Psychoanalysis and the Human Sciences (1958)
IV. The Psychoses (1958)
V. Critical Essays (1959)
VI. Structural Perspectives (1961)
VII. Feminine Sexuality (1964)
VIII. Fantasy, Dream, Reality (1964)
b ics The first volume contained Lacan’s “Rome Report”
from the new society’s first congress in September
1953, as well as all the presentations made at that
1347
PsycHe/ PSYCHISM
conference. Volume VI, “Structural Perspectives,”
published the acts of the international congress held
at Royaumont in 1959. It included Daniel Lagache’s
paper “Psychoanalysis and Personality Structure,” followed
by Jacques Lacan’s “Remarks on Daniel Lagache’s
Presentation: ‘Psychoanalysis and Personality
Structure.” It also included Lacan’s “The Direction of
the Treatment and the Principles of Its Power” and
Dolto’s “Personology and Body Image.” Volume VII
included the proceedings of an international conference
on feminine sexuality held in Amsterdam in
1960. It included “Guiding Remarks for a Conference
on Feminine Sexuality,’ by Lacan, and papers by
Dolto on “The Destiny of Feminine Genital Libido”
and by Wladimir Granoff and Francois Perrier on
“Feminine Ideas and the Problem of Perversion in
Women.” This volume also included numerous
papers and translations of texts, such as Ernest Jones’s
“Early Female Sexuality” and Joan Riviére’s “Womanliness
as Masquerade.”
The members of the S.EP. disbanded in 1963 and
announced the group’s dissolution in 1964, shortly
after the publication of the last volume of La Psychanalyse.
The volumes were published without an editorial
committee. Among the numerous French authors
whose works were included were Piera Aulagnier, Serge
Leclaire, Maud Mannoni, Octave Mannoni, Gisela
Pankow, Guy Rosolato, Mustapha Safouan, Daniel
Widlocher. Foreign authors published in La Psychana- .
lyse included Michael Balint, Martin Grotjahn, Susan
Isaacs, Jacques Schotte, and Alphonse de Waelhens.
JACQUES SEDAT
See also: France; Société francaise de psychanalyse.
PSYCHE/PSYCHISM
In their most general sense, the words “psyche” and
“mind” refer to phenomena and processes associated
with the “soul,” understood empirically, without consideration
of its content (conscious, unconscious, life
principle) but excluding any metaphysical or religious
meaning (unity of the soul, distinction between soul
and body, immortality).
Although “psyche” and “mind” can, to some
extent, be considered synonymous, the first is not
1348
really a modern term (except, obviously, in modern
Greek) and its use is based on the desire to allude to a
context that is as much literary as philosophical. Freud
rarely used it outside of such a context (however, see
An Outline of Psychoanalysis, 1940a [1938]). Nonetheless,
in The Interpretation of Dreams (1900a), he refers
to the fact that “the Ancients ... provided Psyche with
butterfly wings.” The mythical character of Psyche—
who, in a story by Apuleius, loses her husband, Eros,
after having looked upon him as he slept—has been
the theme of numerous works of literature and art.
The fact that, as a common noun, the word “psyche”
refers to a type of mirror, has led us to reconsider the
concept of the soul as a narcissistic double.
The word “mind” on the contrary is—or claims to
be—“scientific.” As such it can only be defined with
reference to the science whose object it supposedly
represents, namely psychology. While the concept of
“consciousness” has escaped definition (we can only
speak of lived experience), it is likely that any definition
of mind will turn out to be circular, or simply limited:
“Mind” is the object of psychology as a discipline
distinct from metaphysics and biology. But since the
limits and principles of psychology are themselves problematic,
the difficulty remains.
Introducing the concept of the unconscious does
nothing to alleviate the difficulty, since mind cannot
be defined as the simple addition of conscious to
unconscious. For Freud unconscious is not identical
with non-conscious, and the question of just how
mind should be defined remains. Hence a reliance on a
history of the concept, a history in which, it should be
noted, the problem of conscious versus unconscious
has only marginal importance.
To vastly oversimplify the matter, we can say that for
the early Greeks, “psyche” referred to the breath of life,
and for Descartes the soul was identified with consciousness.
In Homer the psyche, sometimes represented with
butterfly wings, resembles a dream and an unreal image
of a man, while the breath of life is called thumos. In the
Pythagoreans and Plato the psyche appears as a reality
belonging to the moral order. It is capable of good or
evil, it will be judged, and it is immortal. But it is also in
Plato that we find—following chapter 4 of the Republic—
the celebrated distinction between intelligence,
anger (thumos), and the base instincts, which Freud
associated, in 1923, with the concepts of ego, superego,
and id. This Platonic distinction enriched the notion of
the soul with anthropological features and supplied the
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
PsycHe, REVUE INTERNATIONALE DE PSYCHANALYSE ET DES SCIENCES...
foundation for a rational and empirical psychology,
which was developed in Aristotle, who emphasized,
although not exclusively, mental functions that were
vital, if not biological (biology did not yet exist as an
autonomous science). In fact the Aristotelian notion
of the psyche covers a very broad range of functions
(metaphysical, “psychological” in the modern sense,
biological), while “mind” was not distinguished until
the modern era.
The important milestones in this development are
not those of the history of the unconscious but of the
genesis of empirical psychology. The appearance in
1590, in the Latin title of a work by Rudolf Goeckel, of
the word psychologia, in Greek (although the term did
not exist in ancient Greek), indicates the tendency of
Renaissance culture to use the term to delimit a specific
field of thought and research. However, the decisive
event was the distinction made by Christian Wolff, in
1732 and 1734, in two works respectively entitled Psychologia
Empirica and Psychologia Rationalis. Even
though Wolff’s first text remains highly speculative,
the initial break with rational psychology has been
made, through metaphysics, along with a top-down
demarcation of the object that the term “mind” would
designate. A bottom-up demarcation would take place
in the nineteenth century with the development of
scientific biology.
What of the unconscious? It is true that Descartes,
by defining mens in terms of thought and by rejecting
the scholastic concept of soul and its vital aspects,
made it necessary to introduce, as early as the seventeenth
century, the concept of the unconscious (the
term itself did not appear until the eighteenth century
and did not become popular until the nineteenth). But
when, in German romantic philosophy, the concept
was used to designate a form of foundation or first
principle, the connection with representation would
be broken. For example, Eduard von Hartmann, in his
famous Philosophy of the Unconscious of 1869,
describes a form of panpsychism that makes it possible
to introduce the notion of psychism. Freud himself
was familiar with this point of view. When, in a wellknown
passage from The Interpretation of Dreams, he
wrote that “the unconscious is the true reality of the
psyche,” he destroyed any possibility of defining mind
in terms of representation (conscious or non-conscious)
and left untouched the problem of the characteristics
that could be used to distinguish the psychic
from the biological, and from metaphysics.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
It is only through an epistemology of psychology
that the concept of mind can be defined. And since
psychology, in its current form, comprises various disciplines
whose epistemological foundations are difficult
to reconcile, we must resign ourselves to the fact
that the terms “psyche” and “mind” designate only
those highly amorphous objects considered by psychology
as understood in the broadest sense of the
terms. ;
YVON BrRES
See also: Agency; Animus-Anima (analytic psychology);
Archetype; Collective unconscious; Determinism; Drive/
instinct; Maternal reverie, capacity for; Ontogenesis;
“Outline of Psychoanalysis, An”; Phylogenesis; Primal;
Principle; Psychosomatic limit/boundary; Psychic apparatus;
Psychic reality; Self; Strata/stratification; Thoughtthinking
apparatus; Unconscious, the.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1900a). The interpretation of dreams.
Part I, SE, 4:1—338. Part II, SE, 5:339-625.
Hartmann, Eduard von. (1931). Philosophy of the unconscious.
speculative results according to the inductive method
of physical science (W. C. Coupland, Trans.). London: Routledge.
(Original work published 1869)
Wolff, Christian (1968). Psychologia empirica. Hildesheim:
Olms. (Original work published 1732)
. (1968). Psychologia rationalis. Hildesheim: Olms.
(Original work published 1734)
PSYCHE, REVUE INTERNATIONALE DE
PSYCHANALYSE ET DES SCIENCES DE
L’HOMME (PSYCHE, AN INTERNATIONAL
REVIEW OF PSYCHOANALYSIS AND
HUMAN SCIENCES)
Founded in 1946 on the initiative of Maryse Choisy,
Psyché is defined as an “international review of psychoanalysis
and human sciences.” The first issue of
this monthly review appeared in November 1946 and
was followed by another 120 issues until 1963.
The idea for the review took root among a circle of
intellectuals that Maryse Choisy brought together
between 1944 and 1945. This group of poets, writers,
philosophers, and theologians met to exchange ideas
1349
Psycne, REvuE INTERNATIONALE DE PSYCHANALYSE ET DES SCIENCES...
on a variety of topics that sometimes included occultism,
astrology, and clairvoyance. Philosopher Pierre
Bachelard introduced the psychoanalytic element, as
did psychoanalyst Juliette Boutonier, whose presence
between 1945 and 1946 drew in other analysts like
André Berge, Francoise Dolto, René Laforgue, and
George Mauco.
In the course of time, a certain number of analysts
from the Paris Psychoanalytic Society thus accepted
Maryse Choisy’s proposition to create the review Psyché.
The Revue francaise de psychanalyse (French
Review of Psychoanalysis) had not yet reappeared after
the war and Psyché, with its vocation extending to
include the “human sciences” was closer to the framework
of applied psychoanalysis, being comparable in
this respect to Imago.
Maxime Clouzet (Maryse Choisy’s husband) was
director of the review and the committee of patronage
brought together some eminent personalities of
the time, people like Louis de Broglie, perpetual
secretary of the of the Academy of Science, Pierre
Janet from the Institute, Pierre Teilhard de Chardin,
the discoverer of the Sinanthropus, Charles Baudouin,
Drs. John Leuba, René Laforgue, Angélo Hesnard,
Louis Le Guillant, Charles Odier, and Edouard
Toulouse.
Maryse Choisy directed a small team that included
André Berge and George Mauco, both psychoanalysts, .
as well as other collaborators with artistic and literary
vocations in charge of completing the “monthly
chronicle” under headings like Painting, Books, Theater,
Cinemia, and a Review of Reviews. The copy desk
was the responsibility of Jacqueline Massiére (the
future Jacqueline Cosnier), a young philosopher in
analytic training.
The first issues enjoyed the benefits of a group of
varied and competent collaborators. At the end of
1945, Maryse Choisy had managed to acquire the
collaboration of the (rare) psychologists and psychiatrists
who practiced psychoanalysis or who were
beginning to take an interest in it, as well as eminent
personalities from the worlds of science, literature,
and philosophy.
In the course of the different issues we thus find the
names of André Maurois, Edmond Jaloux, Louis de
Broglie, Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, Marcel Griaule,
Georges Dumézil, Karl Jaspers, Martin Heidegger,
Claude Lévi-Strauss, Georges Heuyer, Serge Lebovici,
1350
Francoise Dolto, Béla Grunberger, Juliette Boutonier,
Octave Mannoni, René Laforgue, Charles Odier, René
Allendy, Marie Bonaparte, and Angélo Hesnard. It is
worth pointing out that the last five of these were
among the seven authors in the first issue of the Revue
francaise de psychanalyse in 1927.
Quickly enough, Psyché began to publish contributions
by psychoanalysts from other societies in other
countries: Emilio Servadio and Nicola Perrotti of the
Italian Society, Igor Caruso from Austria, John R. Rees
from London, Karen Horney and René Spitz from the
United States, Heinrich Meng from German-speaking
Switzerland, while the committee of patronage was
completed with professors Jean Delay, Henri Gouhier,
Daniel Lagache, and Jean Lhermitte.
Congresses came to be organized as an extension of
the review: the Royaumont study week on “The fate of
collective man” (1947), the International Congress of
Catholic Psychiatrists, Analytical Psychotherapists and
Educational Psychologists (1949). Psyché published
the proceedings of these congresses as well as reports
on the different meetings relating to the field of psychology.
A supplement to the review also appeared
with installments of the “Dictionary of Psychoanalysis
and Psychological Technique,’ directed by Daniel
Lagache, the outline of the future The Language of
Psychoanalysis.
Psyché played a role in organizing and bringing
together the psychoanalytic milieu immediately after
World War II. However, the eclecticism and the “ecumenical”
preoccupations of its instigator, combined
also with the reorganization of the psychoanalytic
societies and the reappearance of the Revue francaise
de psychanalyse (in 1948), which was soon complemented
by the creation of other specific reviews, led
to two phenomena that were to reduce its importance
in the analytic world: psychoanalysts had other
places where they could exchange ideas, and because
of this the review’s para-analytic and extra-analytic
cultural aspects assumed increasing importance.
Moreover, from issue number 15 onward the initial
sub-heading of the review, “International Review of
Psychoanalysis and Human Sciences,” changed to
“International Review of Human Sciences and
Psychoanalysis.”
JACQUELINE COSNIER
See also: Choisy, Maryse; France; Laforgue, René.
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
PSYCHE. ZEITSCHRIFT FUR
PSYCHOANALYSE UND IHR ANWENDUNGEN
Psyche. Zeitschrift fiir Psychoanalyse und ihr Anwendungen
(Psyche: A Journal for Psychoanalysis and Its
Applications) is the most important and most widely
distributed German-language psychoanalytic journal.
Seven thousand copies of it are printed every month.
Founded in 1947 by Hans Kunz, Alexander
Mitscherlich, and Felix Schottlaender, it first appeared
with the subtitle Jahrbuch fiir Tiefenpsychologie und
Menschenkunde in Forschung und Praxis (Yearbook for
Research and Practice in Depth Psychology and the
Human Sciences). It adopted its current name in 1966,
thus leaving no doubt about its Freudian orientation.
In the beginning Psyche represented a mixture of
the teachings of Carl G. Jung, Sigmund Freud, Alfred
Adler, and the neo-analysis of Harald Schultz-
Hencke. This eclecticism, which escaped the attention
of the first editors, was a hangover from the period
when National Socialism grouped together the most
diverse therapeutic schools in the Deutsches Institut
fiir psychologische Forschung und Psychotherapie
(German Institute for Psychological Research and
Psychotherapy). In the 1950s Mitscherlich managed
to acquire contributions from emigrant Freudian
authors like Michael Balint, Erik H. Erikson, Heinz
Hartmann, and Edith Jacobson, thus establishing a
Freudian tradition that still characterizes the journal
in 2005.
From its first decades up until the early 1970s, the
journal aimed primarily to repromote knowledge of
Freudian psychoanalysis, which had been destroyed or
brushed aside in Germany by National Socialism, and
to raise the scientific level of German psychoanalysis
to that of international standards. Moreover, its editor
Alexander Mitscherlich (who worked alone after 1968)
sought from the beginning to relate psychoanalytic
questions to social and cultural questions and to give
the periodical the interdisciplinary orientation that
has become its hallmark. Problems raised by Freud’s
theory of culture were always given priority treatment,
although not to the detriment of the theoretical and
clinical aspects of psychoanalysis.
In the 1970s and 1980s the journal opened its pages
to discussion of the tense relations between psychoanalysis
and feminism, and to the prickly question of to
what degree and with what consequences the German
psychoanalysts who did not emigrate between 1933
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
PsycHic APPARATUS
and 1945 had compromised themselves in National
Socialist health policy. This question, which relates to
the historical and moral complicity of German psychoanalysts,
was the subject of an intense several-year
controversy between the editors of the review and
representatives of the German psychoanalytic societies.
This controversy showed Psyche for what it really was: a
journal that never considered itself merely a mouthpiece
for the German psychoanalytic contmunity.
After the death of Alexander Mitscherlich in 1982,
the new editors—Margarete Mitscherlich, Helmut
Dahmer, and Lutz Rosenkétter—continued the welltried
editorial policy of the journal. Since 1990 Margarete
Mitscherlich has been the sole editor.
Hans-Martin LOHMANN
See also: Germany; Marxism and_ psychoanalysis;
Mitscherlich, Alexander.
PSYCHIC APPARATUS
The notion of psychic apparatus (or of the intellect) is
common in Freud’s work from the very start (cf. for
example, the article of 1898b, “The Psychical Mechanism
of Forgetfulness”). It appears continuously from
then on, and is the title of Chapter I of one of his last
texts, An Outline of Psychoanalysis (1940a [1938]). It
was borrowed from the vocabulary of nineteenth-century
psychologists who were seeking to accord to animal
and human mental functioning a representation
conforming to the exigencies of the natural sciences
(physiology and especially physics).
Considered from a static point of view, the Freudian
versions of the psychic apparatus correspond to what
was subsequently called the “topographies.” The first
one (yet to be designated by this word) appears in
Chapter VII of The Interpretation of Dreams (1900a)
and essentially comprises the distinction between the
unconscious, the preconscious, and the conscious. The
second topography (cf. The Ego and the Id, 1923b) distinguishes
between id, ego, and superego, which are
depicted in a diagram reminiscent of an egg, that was
to be reworked into a slightly different form in Seminar
XXXI of the New Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis
(1933a [1932]).
1351
PsycHic APPARATUS
Still from the start the notion of psychic apparatus
also pointed to a dynamic perspective: it presupposed
something that functions. The schema outlined in
Chapter VII of The Interpretation of Dreams occupies a
place within the time’s general psychological framework
concerned with the passage from perception
to movement (to be found, for example, in Henri
Bergson’s Matter and Memory of 1896, and which corresponds
with experimental psychology’s stimulusresponse
pairing). Freud’s aim was to demonstrate
how “unconscious systems,’ which he was not yet
referring to as “complexes,” acted upon the information
gathered by the perceptual apparatus to create
representations and conscious movement, and in particular,
in this respect, oneiric representations. Likewise
the group comprising the three instances—id,
ego, and superego—was also to have permitted an
accounting of psychic functioning, in particular the
resolution of certain difficulties regarding the unconscious
and the non-conscious. Freud never specifically
says whether the id, ego, and superego were to replace
the schema in The Interpretation of Dreams, thus rendered
obsolete, or only to add another perspective
to it.
In more precise terms, the Freudian notion of psychic
apparatus entails the idea—borrowed from physics—
of a sort of “energic economy.’ Although he
never attempted to specify the precise nature of sexual
energy (as would Wilhelm Reich), nor, even less, that
of psychic energy in general, Freud, (inspired by Gustav
Fechner), conceived the workings of the human
psyche from the perspective of the flow, equilibrium,
and transformation of a certain “energy.” The “pleasure
principle” articulated the idea that when tension
in the psychic organism reaches a certain level, a
release will ensue which is lived subjectively in the
form of pleasure, but whose objective effect is to lower
tension and avoid the dangers of overflowing.
Although the pleasure principle itself derives from
thermodynamics, the notion of sublimation, which
envisions the transformation of a socially-incompatible
sexual “energy” into socially-acceptable activities,
originates in chemistry.
Finally it is worthwhile to note that some of the
Most suggestive representations of the psychic apparatus
refer to models taken from optics (cf. for example
the passage cited above from The Interpretation of
Dreams, as well as the Question of Lay Analysis, 1926e).
The fact that Freud sometimes uses the adjective psy-
1352
chisch (psychic), sometimes seelisch (relating to the
intellect), does not seem significant, as the two words
may be considered synonymous.
The notion of psychic apparatus and the uses Freud
puts it to raise the issue of the value models taken
from the physical sciences have for psychoanalysis.
Some, such as George Politzer and Jean-Paul Sartre,
have concluded them to be an inexcusable misunderstanding
of the psyche’s specificity. Indeed as Sartre
says in Critique de la raison dialectique (1960) concerning
the notion of defensive mechanism, that such a
representation “burdens the workings of the ego with
an a priori inertia.” If, as Georges Politzer reasons, the
psyche as such is a kind of drama, no apparatus could
represent it. These arguments could be countered by
noting that these are metaphors—that topography—
despite its etymology—does not imply the brain as
locale, but only a “locus of the psyche” as such, and
that from a dynamic point of view the flows and transformations
of energy are not physiological or chemical
processes. Freud was perfectly aware of these difficulties
and explained himself clearly, for example concerning
the problems posed by the visualization of
the psyche (cf. New Introductory lectures on Psychoanalysis,
1933a, xxxi). Nevertheless for him, the representations
he called “psychic apparatus” seemed to be
much more than merely images, useful but misleading,
which as Plotinus and Bergson have taught, should be
employed with other images, incompatible with them,
to avoid one’s being duped by them. Freud seems to
have tried to forge a path between the neurological
perspective, where psychic functions are supposedly
lodged in their cerebral headquarters (a view he no
longer shared at the time he invented psychoanalysis),
and the phenomenological perspective which excluded
anything to do with topographical location, functioning,
or mechanical operation. He adopted this perspective
at times, furthermore, but not in those texts
where the notion of psychic apparatus intervened.
Still, this path seems so narrow we may wonder if it
is navigable. Without going so far as to challenge its
legitimacy, we may at least consider it—in Freud’s own
words—“provisional.”
YVON Brés
See also: Agency; Consciousness; Discharge; Disorganization;
Dynamic point of view, the; Ego; Ego and the Id,
The; Excitation; Id; Interpretation of Dreams, The; Metapsychology;
Mnemic trace, memory trace; Model; “Note
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
upon the “Mystic Writing Pad, A”; “Outline of Psychoanalysis,
An”; Perception-consciousness (Pcpt.-Cs);
Pleasure principle; Primary process, secondary process;
Principle of consistency; Protective shield; Psi system;
Quantitative, qualitative; Regression; Structural theories;
Superego; Topographical point of view; Unconscious, the.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1900a). The interpretation of dreams. SE,
4—5,.
. (1923b). The ego and the id. SE, 19: 1-66.
. (1926e). The question of lay analysis. SE, 20: 177-
250.
. (1933a [1932]). New introductory lectures on psychoanalysis.
SE, 22: 1-182.
Sartre, Jean Paul. (1960). Critique de la raison dialectique.
Paris: Gallimard.
Further Reading
Boesky, Dale (1988). The concept of psychic structure. Journal
of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 36(S), 113—
136.
Schafer, Roy. (1988). Discussion of panel presentations on
psychic structure. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic
Association, 36(S), 295-312.
PSYCHIC CAUSALITY
In Sigmund Freud’s work, the term “psychic causality”
designates a group of unconscious psychic processes
(conflicting drives, structural conflicts, narcissistic and
object investments) and defensive mechanisms
(repression, denial, splitting, rejection) that are
assumed to be the origin of the phenomena of day-today
life (dreams, slips, failed acts, creative acts) as well
as of neurotic and psychotic symptoms. Operating
according to the logic of psychic conflict and primary
processes, psychic causality is said to be dissociated
from the concept of “psychic reality,” and from Freud’s
ongoing attempt to discover the etiology of neuroses,
psychoses, and perversions.
The concept appears indirectly throughout Freud’s
work but he never examined it at any length. It is
known that Freud came upon the idea at the Salpétriére,
working with Jean Martin Charcot in 1885—
1886. As he subsequently wrote, “[Charcot] succeeded
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PsycHic CAUSALITY
in proving, by an unbroken chain of argument, that
these paralyses were the result of ideas which had
dominated the patient’s brain at moments of a special
disposition” (1893f, p. 22). By 1890 Freud had
extended this to all neuroses. In an article entitled
“Psychical (or Mental) Treatment,” he claimed that “in
some at least of these [neurotic] patients the signs of
their illness originate from nothing other than a
change in the action of their minds upon their bodies
and that the immediate cause of their disorder is to be
looked for in their minds” (1890a, p. 286). Based on
the article, psychic causality is not yet explicitly linked
to the unconscious mechanisms he would subsequently
describe. However, very early in his work he
postulated a “sexual etiology in all cases of neurosis
but in neurasthenia the neurosis is actual; in psychoneuroses
factors of an infantile nature are at work”
(1896c). In 1898, in “Sexuality in the Etiology of the
Neuroses” (1898a), he referred to “unconscious psychic
traces.”
Psychic causality implies the ability to substitute for
a set of apparently unrelated facts an explanatory system
based on assumptions that provide them with
consistency and can be used to describe the laws governing
their interrelations. All of Freud’s work revolves
around “two opposed conceptions of causal necessity”
(Dayan, Maurice, 1985), one of which was responsible
for integrating individual differences in a coherent
structure, the other tending to emphasize the subject’s
singularity and originality. There is a gradual complication
of the notion of psychic causality in Freud. In
1895 he proposed two models simultaneously: a causality
of psychic facts conceived as part of a system that
we would now call cognitivist and neurobiological
(see, “Project for a Scientific Psychology,’ 1950c
[1895]) and an “event-driven” traumatic conception
of neurosis. His “neurotica” is supposed to comprise
hysteria and obsessional neurosis based on the psychic
traces of sexual aggression experienced during childhood
and reactivated later on.
The (relative) abandonment of this etiology (letter
to Wilhelm Fliess on September 21, 1897) would confirm
the effectiveness of the unconscious fantasy as a
psychic act. The Interpretation of Dreams (1900a) and
the first topographical subsystem enabled him to
describe the laws underlying the operation of unconscious
processes for which time and contradiction
have no meaning, which shift and condense to produce
not only dreams but the lapses and parapraxes of
1353
PsycHic CAUSALITY
the “psychopathology of everyday life” (1901b),
together with neurotic symptoms and delusions.
Freud thus established the absence of a barrier or discontinuity
between the normal and the pathological, a
key idea in psychoanalysis. The same unconscious psychic
mechanisms are responsible for both modes of
existence.
From the first to the second topographical subsystem
(1923), the Freudian notion of psychic causality
was radically modified. The description of the mental
apparatus became increasingly complex. Mental and
psychopathological facts are now the result of relations
of force between id, ego, and superego agencies, and
the dualism between the libido and the death drive.
Metapsychology, which combines topological,
dynamic, and economic points of view is the final version
of this new way of thinking about psychic causality.
At the same time, the role of object relations and
the weight of civilization on possible subject pathologies
were substantiated. The Versagung (refusal) that
social reality forces desire to confront, the privation
(Entbehrungen) that someone like Judge Schreber,
unable to have a child, experienced, or the disappearance
of the love object are considered as helping to
trigger neuroses and psychoses.
In 1933, in the New Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis
(1933a), Freud proposes a general theory of
neurosis based on the combination of three factors: a
refusal of a reality that is unsatisfactory for the id, fixation
at a stage prior to libidinal development, and
idiosyncratic disposition to the conflict that characterizes
the potentially neurotic subject. The neurosis is
triggered by regression to the points of attachment; in
the case of psychosis and perversion specific defense
mechanisms—splitting, denial, rejection (“Fetishism,”
1927e, “Splitting of the Ego in the Process of Defence,”
1940e [1938])—are also involved. In his last writings,
Moses and Monotheism (1939a) and An Outline of Psycho-
Analysis (1940a), published after his death, Freud
insists on the particular causal value of the superego
that is associated with phylogenesis and the threat of
castration, which “[the boy] experiences [as] the greatest
trauma of his life and introduces the period of
latency with all its consequences” (1940a, p. 155).
Whatever the case, Freud reaffirms the continuity of
the normal and the pathological: “[T]he neuroses do
not differ in any essential respect from the normal”
(1940a, p. 184). The normal, neurotic, or psychotic
individual will die “of his internal conflicts” (p. 150).
1354
Freud also again insists on the central importance of
conflict between the body and the mind, and their
interrelations, in his conception of psychic causality,
which as we have seen had a number of “avatars.”
It could be said that, since Freud, all writers on
psychoanalysis have tried to enrich the notion of
psychic causality with their own theories, which are
inspired by archaic fantasies and the individual’s
traumas and personal history. Jacques Lacan’s work
represents an original attempt to define psychic
causality on a structuralist basis by identifying the
unconscious with the chain of signifiers. “The only
causality the analyst knows is always that of the
cause,” he wrote in Seminar XI. At the end of his life,
he attempted to systematize intrapsychic activity
using mathemes. The contributions of psychosomatic
analysts (Georg Groddeck, Franz Alexander)
and those of the French school who followed the
work of Michel Fain and Pierre Marty reopened the
question of psychic causality by focusing on Freud’s
initial question: the relationship between physical
and mental disturbances.
For André Green “the term psychic causality is used
by Freud rather loosely, without any genuine theoretical
support” (1995). In spite of the lapidary nature of
this claim, it must be acknowledged that disagreement
over the nature of the concept was the origin of the
split in the psychoanalytic movement. For example,
Otto Rank believed he had discovered the cause of
neurosis in the traumatism of birth. Wilhelm Reich
focused on the idea of the sexual frustration imposed
by civilization (The Function of the Orgasm, 1927).
Sandor Ferenczi, after attempting to illustrate Freud’s
phylogenetic theory and the concept of regression
(Thalassa, 1924), reaffirmed the reality of sexual
trauma experienced by the infant, and did so against
Freud’s advice (“Confusion de langues entre les adultes
et enfant. Le langage de la tendresse et de la passion,”
1933)%
Epistemologists, making use of the criticisms that
quantum mechanics and the theory of relativity had
formulated concerning causality in physics, have contested
the causal ambitions of psychoanalysis. Attacking
Freud’s system of causal interpretation, Ludwig
Wittgenstein referred to purely “aesthetic” relationships
(Cambridge Lectures, 1932-1934). Karl Popper
contested the scientific status of psychoanalysis, which
was, according to him, a self-validating theory (The
Logic of Scientific Discovery, 1934).
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
André Green, in his La Causalité psychique (1995),
supplied a masterful criticism of the attempts of biology,
neuroscience, and anthropology to invalidate the
concept of Freudian causality. Nonetheless, in the
realm of physics, measurement can be used to provide
uniform descriptions of the natural universe. As far as
we know, the relative force of mental drives does not
lend itself to any precise form of measurement. Psychoanalysts
are content to state that “it works. ...” As
Piera Aulagnier wrote, we are forced to recognize that
psychoanalysis can lay claim to “necessary” but never
“sufficient conditions” as these are understood by philosophy
and mathematics.
JEAN-PIERRE CHARTIER
See also: “Claims of Psychoanalysis to Scientific Interest”;
Deferred action; Need for causality; Psychogenesis/organogenesis;
Psychosomatic; Signifying chain; Synchronicity
(analytical psychology).
Bibliography
Dayan, Maurice. (1985). Inconscient et Réalité. Paris: Presses
Universitaires de France.
Freud, Sigmund. (1890a). Psychical (or mental) treatment.
SE, 7: 281-302.
. (1893f). Charcot. SE, 3: 7-23.
. (1896c). The aetiology ofh ysteria. SE, 3: 186-221.
. (1898a). Sexuality in the aetiology of the neuroses.
SE, 3: 259-285.
. (1900a). The interpretation of dreams. Part I, SE, 4:
1—338; Part II, SE, 5: 339-625.
. (1901b). The psychopathology of everyday life.
SEG.
. (1923b). The ego and the id. SE, 19: 1-66.
. (1927e). Fetishism. SE, 21: 147-157.
(1933a). New introductory lectures on psychoanalysis.
SE, 22: 5-182.
. (1939a). Moses and monotheism. SE, 23: 1-137.
. (1940a). An outline of psycho-analysis. SE, 23:
144-207.
. (1940e [1938]). Splitting of the ego in the process
of defence. SE, 23: 271-278.
. (1950a [1887—-1902]). Extracts from the Fliess
papers. SE, 1: 173-280.
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PsycHic ENERGY
. (1950c [1895]). Project for a scientific psychology.
SE, 1: 281-387.
Green, Andre. (1995). La Causalité psychique. Entre nature et
culture. Paris: Odile Jacob.
PSYCHIC ENERGY
The hypothesis of a psychic energy constitutes a fundamental
postulate of psychoanalytical theory. It is
omnipresent, from the theory of sexuality to that of
the dream, of anxiety, of drives, and of affects. Of the
three great metapsychological points of view, the economic
one is directly founded on it, but the dynamic
and topographical points of view imply it also. Any
psychic movement can, in the last analysis, be linked
to a phenomenon of energy. Nevertheless, this economical
point of view, this “energy metaphor,” has
often been criticized, put into question, and even
abandoned by some.
The notion of psychic energy has its source in the
works of neurophysiologists at the end of the 19th century,
Sigmund Exner in particular, or in the psychophysics
of Gustav Fechner, and it is present in the
psychiatry of that epoch. In psychoanalytical writings,
it surfaced first under the pen of Josef Breuer in Studies
on Hysteria (1895d). He described this energy as a
“nervous tension,’ or “Intracerebral Tonic Excitations”
(p. 192), contained in the reservoir of the nervous
fibers. This “quiescent” energy can be put into
movement and become active.
Sigmund Freud, starting with Studies on Hysteria,
introduced the idea of a tendency “to maintain cerebral
excitation at a constant level,’ a principle of constancy
that will become a principle behind the balance
of pleasure and unpleasure. He first developed the
notion of psychic energy in the “Project for a Scientific
Psychology” (1950c [1895]) in a neuronal version; in
The Interpretation of Dreams (1900a), the neurophysiological
model disappeared and psychic energy was
inserted into a theory of thought. The energy could be
“free,” in the case of “primary processes,” or “bound,”
as in “secondary processes.” In the latter, the binding
or connecting of psychic energy is related to the linking
of representations and to the “taming” of the tendency
for “discharge.” “Thought must concern itself
with the connecting paths between ideas, without
being led astray by the intensities of these ideas”
(p. 602). The quantities of energy conveyed by these
1355
PsycHic REALITY
two kinds of thought are different; secondary processes
of thought only convey much weaker quantities of
energy, while a surfeit of non-bound energy can occur,
to weaken these thought processes.
For Freud, with the theory of drives, the equating of
psychic energy and the libido was reinforced; the libido
constituted, therefore, the essence of psychic energy.
However, he always remained reticent about Carl Gustav
Jung’s proposition of conflating psychic energy
totally with the libido, and he held onto the idea of a
psychic energy distinct from the libido, attached to ego
drives and self-preservation, all the while continuing
to wonder about its provenance, and admitting that
this could be a desexualized energy. In The Ego and the
Id, he constructed the hypothesis of a “displaceable
energy, which, neutral in itself, can be added to a qualitatively
differentiated erotic or destructive impulse,
and augment its total cathexis. ... It seems a plausible
view that this displaceable and neutral energy... proceeds
from the narcissistic store of libido—that it is
desexualized Eros” (1923b, p. 41).
Most post-Freudian authors recognize no other
psychic energy than the libido, except for the school
whose source is Ego Psychology, which developed the
Freudian idea of a displaceable, neutral energy; for
them, this was a “neutralized” energy, participating
in the functioning of an ego that had been “liberated
from conflicts.” With Melanie Klein, the evolution of
the stages of the libido was prominent at the beginning
of her work; later, the importance accorded to
unconscious fantasy and the object relation would
force her, in fact, to abandon the economic point of
view altogether. On the contrary, the notion of psychic
energy and the economic point of view would be
very important to the perspective opened up by
Pierre Marty and the work of the psychosomaticists
of the School of Paris. The notion of the libido and
that of psychic energy will be rejected by Jacques
Lacan, who replaced the drives with “desire” and
spoke ironically of the theory of the libido as an
“astral myth”; he allowed absolutely no room for the
economic point of view.
Pau DENIS
See also: Binding/unbinding of the instincts; Cathectic
energy; Cathexis; Decathexis; Defense mechanisms;
Drive/instinct; Economic point of view; Ego; Ego-libido/
object-libido; Facilitation; Free energy/bound energy;
Fusion/defusion of instincts; Hypercathexis; Libido; Nar-
1356
cissism; Pleasure/unpleasure principle; Primary process/
secondary process; Principle of consistency; Process;
Return of the repressed; Sum of excitation; Work (as a
psychoanalytical notion)
Bibliography
Applegarth, Adrienne. (1971). Comments on aspects of the
theory of psychic energy. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic
Association, 19, 379-416.
Freud, Sigmund. (1900a). The interpretation of dreams.
Part I, SE, 4: 1-338; Part II, SE, 5: 339-625.
. (1923b). The ego and the id. SE, 19: 1-66.
. (1950c [1895]). Project for a scientific psychology.
SE, 1: 281-387.
Freud, Sigmund, and Josef Breuer (1895d). Studies in hysteria.
SE, 2.
PSYCHIC REALITY
A concept developed by Freud to denote the level of
reality specific to unconscious processes, psychic reality,
from an epistemological standpoint, refers to the
“object” that psychoanalysis attempts to characterize,
understand, and explore.
In The Interpretation of Dreams (1900a), the concept
referred to the force of reality associated with the
subject’s internal fantasy life, which could oppose and
even dominate perception of external reality; it could,
in other words, seem more “real” than reality itself.
From the outset the emphasis was on the objective nature
of subjectivity, the reality of subjectivity for the
psychical apparatus—even at the expense of its relationship
to external reality.
The cultural context in which Freud worked tended
to devalue or deprecate the character of subjective
mental activity and, in particular, unconscious mental
activity. He needed to assert the objective character of
unconscious psychic entities in the face of opposition
that would prefer to relegate them to the realm of the
“imaginary” and unreal.
In an article devoted to hysterical paralysis (1893c),
Freud had presented the problem of the “objective”
nature of hysterical conversion symptoms and their
significance. The difference between biological reality,
especially in terms of anatomy, and the “psychic” reality
expressed by hysterical symptoms prefigured the
objective character of the unconscious, as Freud was to
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
understand it. The nature of symptomatic manifestations—
anesthesia, paresthesia, and so on—demonstrated
that hysterical patients could not be
“malingerers.” Existence of an autonomous realm of
psychical life and the unconscious psyche, including
the reality of fantasies, could henceforth be asserted
with growing confidence.
Another aspect to the emergence of psychical reality
was sexual trauma and its value in terms of etiology in
the debate around the role of real-life events as
opposed to fantasy. The early neurotica that Freud
developed tended to assign to some “real” traumatic
event—childhood sexual seduction, for example—a
determinative role in the etiology of hysteria and of
neuroses, more generally. However, treatment gradually
revealed that it was impossible to say whether the
remembered scenes of traumatic seduction had actually
taken place or were “invented.” The infantile and
sexual fantasies that such scenes represented replaced
the traumatic etiology of neurosis. These fantasies, an
important type of psychical reality, impacted the psychic
apparatus with all the force of “reality” and more.
Thus, the concept of psychical reality was advanced
initially to point out the imperious nature of fantasy
with its hallucinatory quality, which could somehow
dominate external reality. Any trace of opposition
between external and internal as the concept is currently
imployed is complicated further by the question
of how to determine the source or basis of the subjectively
“real” character of psychical reality.
Two kinds of hypotheses can be advanced in this
regard. Not necessarily antagonistic, they represent
two major strands in psychoanalytic thought that need
to be considered together. The first type relates psychical
reality to the impact of external reality, summarized
at a preliminary level by the Freudian aphorism,
“Nothing in thought that was not first in the senses.”
Psychical reality in this sense would indicate a previous
encounter with reality; it would represent a reality that
has become psychical through trace of impact. The
character of reality itself would bear witness to the psychical
heritage of encounters with the external world.
Fantasies, according to this view, are “hybrid” structures
that contain a core of reality, a kind of transformed
reminiscence, the source of which lies at a
remote point in time. Beyond hallucination, what is
actualized and acts upon the psychic apparatus refers
to a past reality—for example, cruel acts of childhood
retained in feelings of guilt.
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PsycHic REALITY
The second type of hypothesis relates psychic reality
to the constraints intrinsic to psychical activity, to its
laws and operational principles. Thus, older representations
of desire can be reactivated via the pleasure
principle through hallucination, creating the perception
of a wish fulfilled, even to the possible detriment
of perception of the real world.
However the psychic apparatus develops, do
awareness and symbolization of lived experience obey
the rhythm and laws specific to psychic reality? Its
own requirements cannot be ignored. Constraints are
imposed by the external world, while others arise
from the psychical apparatus itself. Psychical reality
makes demands with the same limitations and categorical
imperatives as instincts and external reality.
This has led some contemporary psychoanalysts to
formulate the existence, alongside the pleasure principle
and the reality principle, of a “principle of psychical
reality.”
An epistemological point of view would distinguish
three types of reality: material reality generally, that
aspect of material reality characterized by biological
reality, and another aspect, independent of biological
reality, to be known as psychical reality. This last is the
special province of psychology. Psychoanalysis would
be characterized as providing an account of “unconscious
psychical reality” and its impact on psychical
reality.
The concept of psychical reality thus unfolds in a
paradoxical way. It types reality and constrains subjectivity;
it indicates the psychical objectivity of the
action of subjectivity and its preeminent concern
for the intelligibility of psychical facts. These arise
not only from the earliest subjective experiences,
from what Freud called the “psychic raw material,”
but also from the requisite transformation of this
material in the course of development, aiming at
integration necessary for acceptance at higher levels
of consciousness and in consonance with laws that
govern there.
RENE ROUSILLON
See also: Internal/external reality.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1893c). Some points for a comparative
study of organic and hysterical motor paralyses. SE, 1:
155-172.
1357
PsycHic REPRESENTATIVE
. (1900a). The interpretation of dreams. Parts I and
Il. SE, 4-5.
Roussillon, René. (1995). La métapsychologie des processus
et la transitionnalité. Revue frangaise de psychanalyse, 59.
Further Reading
Arlow, Jacob. (1996). The concept of psychic reality—how
useful. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 77, 659-666.
Friedman, Lawrence. (1995). Psychic reality in psychoanalytic
theory. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 76, 25—
28.
Meissner, William W. (2001). Psychic reality in the psychoanalytic
process. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic
Association, 49, 855-890.
PSYCHIC REPRESENTATIVE
Sigmund Freud used the term psychic representative—
psychische Reprasentanz, the expression of an instinct
in mental life—almost synonymously with Triebreprasentanz,
or “instinctual representative.” The distinction
seems to be that the latter term emphasizes the
thing that is expressed (the instinct), whereas the former
emphasizes the process of expression. In fact, this
possible discrepancy raises the problem of the instinct
as a “frontier-concept” between the psychic and the
somatic. Controversies over this point have pit authors
who have attempted to dispense with this notion and >
its uncertainties, such as Jean Laplanche (1987/1989)
and Daniel Widlécher (1986), against others who, like
André Green (1995, 1997), have vigorously defended
its position within the metapsychological edifice and
who attempt to specify its status.
It was in the “metapsychological” articles of 1915
(“Instincts and Their Vicissitudes,” “Repression,” and
“The Unconscious”) that Freud posed this question
the most clearly, by defining two components of this
expression of the somatic in the psyche: the “ideational
representative” and the “quota of affect.” However, he
had already outlined the issue as early as 1895, in the
“Project for a Scientific Psychology,” and above all in
Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality (1905), to
which he substantially added in 1915 based on his then
current thinking. He later reformulated these issues in
his second theories of the instincts in Beyond the Pleasure
Principle (1920) and The Ego and the Id (1923).
ROGER PERRON
1358
See also: Drive/instinct; Ethology and psychoanalysis;
Ideational representative; Instinctual representative;
Neurotic defenses; Physical pain/psychical pain; Pictogram;
Primal repression; Quantitative/qualitative; Quota
of affect; Repressed; Repression; “Repression”; Unconscious
fantasy.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1905d). Three essays on the theory of
sexuality. SE, 7: 123-243.
. (1915c). Instincts and their vicissitudes. SE, 14:
109-140.
. (1915d). Repression. SE, 14: 141-158.
. (1915e). The unconscious. SE, 14: 159-204.
Freud. Sigmund. (1920g). Beyond the pleasure principle. SE,
18: 1-64.
. (1923b). The ego and the id. SE, 19: 1-66.
. (1950c [1895]). Project for a scientific psychology.
SE, 1: 281-387.
Green, André. (1995). Propédeutique. La métapsychologie
revisitée. Paris: LOr d’Atalante.
. (1997). Les chaines d’Eros. Paris: Odile Jacob.
Laplanche, Jean. (1989). New foundations for psychoanalysis
(David Macey, Trans.): Oxford: Blackwell. (Original work
published in 1987)
Widlécher, Daniel. (1986). Métapsychologie du sens. Paris:
Presses Universitaires de France.
PSYCHIC STRUCTURE
Psychic structure defines the dominant organization
of an individual’s mind, manner of establishing relationships,
and way of dealing with conflicts. Structure
must consequently be seen as a whole. It must also be
seen as fundamental, registering its influence at a level
deeper than what is apparent in the individual’s personality,
character, and manner. It is not innate, however.
Individual psychic structure history is combined
with hereditary or biological factors, since structure
and genetics are not mutually exclusive.
Structure retains a unity and an immutable form,
according to Freud in New Introductory Lectures on
Psycho-Analysis (1933a [1932]), where he compares
the ego to a crystal that is formed and also breaks
along certain lines. Yet it is not invariable, because it is
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a living organization that is constantly adapting, and
because it can fail to maintain its equilibrium in certain
modes of decompensation.
In effect, components of the dominant conflict—
castration anxiety, loss of the object, or problems of
identity—simultaneously explain the origins of psychic
structure, its points of fragility, and the form of
breakdown, through neurosis, depression, or psychosis.
Depending on the structure in question, the
defenses put into play will take on different meanings
while sometimes retaining the same form: projection
in the phobic subject is not the same as in the delusional
subject. Also, symptoms insufficiently define
the psychic structure, according to Jean Bergeret in
La violence et la vie (Violence and life; 1994). While
obsession occurs more frequently in depressed
patients, it is also present in many cases of psychosis,
where it plays a different role, and it is also capable of
becoming dominant in an obsessive structure, just as
protest or the demand for vindication can be permanently
inscribed in a paranoid structure.
The typical stability of neurotic, psychotic, or perverse
structures contrasts with the uncertainty of
borderline organizations, where a narcissistic fragility
produces a specific type of instability—“unstable
states, stable structure,” as Daniel Widlocher put it in
his foreword to Otto Kernberg’s book on borderline
conditions. Lastly, psychosomatic breakdown is caused
by lack of structure, unless structure is considered at
the level of organic function, which is no longer
exactly a mental phenomenon.
In all cases, the unity of psychic structure can be
defined according to different perspectives, which may
converge at various points but do not completely overlap.
For example, there are pregenital structures, with
their archaic, oral, or anal relational modalities, and
genital structures, with their more refined oedipal
apprehension of the object. Taken together, these different
notions of structure offer a less nosographic,
more dynamic approach to the notion of structure, as
Maurice Bouvet (1967) explained.
AUGUSTIN JEANNEAU
See also: Structural theory.
Bibliography
Bergeret, Jean. (1994). La violence et la vie. Paris: Payot.
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PsycHic TEMPORALITY
Bouvet, Maurice. (1967). La clinique psychanalytique: la
relation d’objet. In his Guvres psychanalytiques, Vol. 1.
Paris: Payot.
Freud, Sigmund. (1933a [1932]). New introductory lectures
on psycho-analysis. SE, 22: 1-182.
Widlocher, Daniel. (1979). Preface. In Otto Kernberg, Les
troubles limites de la personnalité. Toulouse, France: Privat.
t
Further Reading
Boesky, Dale. (1988). The concept of psychic structure. Journal
of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 36(S), 113—
136.
Loewald, Hans W. (1978). Instinct theory, object relations,
and psychic-structure. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic
Association, 26, 493-506.
Schafer, Roy. (1988). Discussion of panel presentations on
psychic structure. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic
Association, 36(S), 295-312.
PSYCHIC TEMPORALITY
The expression “psychic temporality” does not appear
as such in the writings of Sigmund Freud. In fact, it is
difficult to conceive of any other kind of temporality
than psychic temporality, insofar as human time is
concerned, whether or not it can be readily represented
to the individual subject. Psychoanalytically,
psychic temporality may be defined as the way psychic
processes create their own time management and
sense, according to three possibilities: regression, fixation,
and anticipation.
Freud often argued the point that in dreams time is
represented through space. He gives the example of a
personage, who, in dreams, appears very diminished, as
if seen the wrong way through binoculars, a figuration
that he interprets not as an estrangement in space, but
one in time (1933a [1932]). Reciprocally, the temporal
contiguity of the associations of the patient is to be
understood as spatial contiguity, recalling in its turn a
relation of cause to effect (1905e [1900]). The succession
in time of two consecutive dreams can even be upset
without altering the causal relation, since it is the respective
length of the dreams that then matters (1900a).
From all these considerations, it emerges clearly that
spatial representation is more important than temporal
representation, and allows the latter to be expressed.
This is explained by the fact that the visual is the mode
of inscription of the infant’s memory.
1359
PSYCHOANALYSE DES NEVROSES ET DES PSYCHOSES, LA
Fantasy, said Freud, treats chronology with even
more indifference, insofar as fantasy “hovers, as it
were, between three times—the three moments of
time which our ideation involves”(1908e, p. 147). A
current impression is necessary, to reawaken an
instinctive movement linked to an event from childhood
and to create, in imagination, a situation relating
to a future when the desire would be realized.
However, in a more general sense, it is the entire
psychic life that proudly ignores time. “Neurotics,”
wrote Freud, “suffer from obsession or regression”
(1912—13a). Whether because it is unaware of the passage
of time, or even returns to the past when the present
becomes too frustrating, every psychopathological
form (hysteria, paranoia, and so forth) takes, in its
own way, this flight out of time that is also a flight
from reality. Even more profoundly, psychic life combines
simultaneously the three forms of topical, temporal,
and formal regression found in dreams and in
neuroses. Freud writes: “All these three kinds of regression
are, however, one at bottom and occur together as
a rule; for what is older in time is more primitive in
form and in psychical topography lies nearer to the
perceptual end” (1900a, p. 548).
Freud noted the total absence of the sense of time in
psychosis (1900a), but did not try to explain this.
Piera Aulagnier has been concerned with demonstrating
the incapacity of the psychotic to conceive of a
future time that is not just a pure repetition. She
emphasized, on the one hand, the work of auto-historicizing
incumbent on the ego, a veritable laying hold
of the past and even of the prehistory of the subject;
and on the other hand, the identificatory project that
allowed the ego, at every moment of its trajectory, to
imagine itself in a different place, implying the possibility
of change. In psychosis, where repetition dominates,
the ego does not succeed in transforming the
fragmentary evidence concerning it into a temporal
continuity, implying a before and an after. In this
regard, the question of identity and the ability to conceive
of temporality seem profoundly linked.
SOPHIE DE MioLLA-MELLOR
See also: Apprenti-historien et le maitre-sorcier (L’- ) (The
apprentice historian and the master sorcerer]; Archaic;
Autohistorization; Boredom; Castration complex; Civilization
and Its Discontents; Darwin, Darwinism, and psychoanalysis;
Deferred action; Doubt; Ego feeling;
Estrangement; Ethnopsychoanalysis; Femininity; Forget-
1360
ting; Framework of the psychoanalytic treatment; Free
association; Group phenomenon; Historical truth; History
and psychoanalysis; Id; Identificatory project; Infantile,
the; Kantianism and psychoanalysis; Latency period;
Memory; “Metapsychological Supplement to the Theory
of Dreams”; Mnemic trace/memory trace; Music and
psychoanalysis; Myths; Nirvana; Nostalgia; “Note upon
the ‘Mystic Writing Pad’, A’; Phenomenology and psychoanalysis;
Prehistory; Primal repression; Primal, the;
Processes of development; Proton-pseudos; Psychic causality;
Psychotic potential; Regression; Repetition; Screen
memory; Self-consciousness; Stage (or phase); Symbolization,
process of; Thalassa. A Theory of Genitality;
“Theme of the Three Caskets, The”; Time; Unconscious,
the; Working-through.
Bibliography
Aulagnier, Piera. (1984). L’Apprenti-historien et le maitresorcier.
Du discours identifiant au discours délirant. (The
apprentice historian and the master sorcerer). Paris:
Presses Universitaires de France.
Castoriadis-Aulagnier, Piera. (1975). La violence de l’interpretation.
Du pictogramme a lénoncé (The violence of
interpretation: from the pictogram to the enunciation).
Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
Freud, Sigmund. (1900a). The interpretation of dreams.
Part I, SE, 4: 1-338: Part II, SE, 5: 339-625.
. (1908e). Creative writers and day-dreaming. SE, 9:
141-153.
. (1912—13a). Totem and taboo. SE, 13: 1-161.
. (1933a [1932]). New introductory lectures on psycho-
analysis. SE, 22: 1-182.
PSYCHOANALYSE DES NEVROSES ET DES
PSYCHOSES, LA
La psychoanalyse des névroses et des psychoses (The psychoanalysis
of neuroses and psychoses), by Emmanuel
Régis and Angélo Hesnard, was the first book on
psychoanalysis ever published in French. Prior to its
publication, Freud mentioned it in a letter to Karl
Abraham dated January 2, 1912: “Today I received a
letter from a pupil of Régis at Bordeaux written on his
behalf apologizing in the name of French psychiatry
for its neglect of psycho-analysis and announcing his
willingness to publish a long paper about it in Encéphale”
(Freud and Abraham, 1965, p. 111). To Ernest
Jones he wrote more specifically twelve days later:
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“There is some stir in France even now, another man
Hesnard a pupil of Regis at Bordeaux presenting in the
name of his master to me ‘the excuses of the French
nation’ for so continued a slighting and declaring himself
prone to work for ‘WA [psychoanalysis] in the
French papers” (Freud and Jones, 1993, p. 126)
Regis and Hesnard published two articles in L’encéphale
in April and June 1913 on “the doctrine of Freud
and his school” (1913a; 1913b). They were introduced
as follows: “Freud’s system, whatever may be said of it,
seems to constitute one of the most important scientific
movements of our psychological times. Irrespective
of whether its renown, now worldwide, is justified or
not, we must surely be shocked and rightly so, that this
system is almost completely unknown in our country.”
Régis and Hesnard’s book recapitulated and
expanded on the two articles. Based on a reading of
Freud and written with the collaboration of Oswald
Hesnard, Germanist and brother of Angélo, the book
presented the basics of Freudian theories as faithfully
as possible at the time. The authors were very clear in
their preface, dated May 1, 1914: “Possibly some will
be shocked to see this popularization of a German theory
that is at once so widely endorsed, so contested,
and in certain ways so foreign, undertaken by French
psychiatrists who are far from partial to the current
fashion for German science. There is no cause for surprise,
however. It is one thing not to accept blindly
whatever comes from outside, another to ignore or
misunderstand it. Impartiality and independence
regarding what comes from elsewhere should not turn
into xenophobia.”
The first part of the work (“The Theory of Psychoanalysis”)
has six chapters: “Description and History
of Psychoanalysis,” “The Dynamic Psychology of
Freud,” “The Sexual Theory of Freud,’ “The Morbid
Sexual Constitution,” “The Technique of Psychoanalysis,
Dream Analysis,” and “The Psychoanalysis of Associations
of Ideas and Daily Life” (titles are translated
from the French).
The second part (“Applications of Psychoanalysis”)
has five chapters: “Extramedical Applications of Psychoanalysis,”
“The Psychoanalysis of Neuroses,” “The
Psychoanalysis of Psychoses,” “The Therapeutic Role
of Psychoanalysis,” and “The Critique of Psychoanalysis.”
There followed a bibliography listing the works of
Freud, various books and articles in French, and some
non-French works on psychoanalysis.
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PSYCHOANALYSE DES NEVROSES ET DES PSYCHOSES, LA
Sandor Ferenczi (1915) quickly recognized the significance
of the book, but nevertheless found serious
fault in it because it lacked the notion of the unconscious
and repeated throughout the error of deriving
almost all emotional tendencies from the sexual
instinct. Ferenczi also challenged the judgments of the
last chapter, which he correctly attributed to Régis. He
vigorously stated his objections: the book lacks scientific
value; it depends on “mystical concepts” and “teleological
conceptions” that are more philosophical
than medical; and it bases psychoanalysis on “ingenious
hypotheses” and “fragile, uncertain techniques”
whose “symbolic interpretation is sometimes an insult
to common sense.”
One statement from Regis and Hesnard’s book
served as a leitmotif for a good number of authors in
the decades that followed: “Freud’s method and conceptions
are based on those of Janet, by whom, it
seems, he was constantly inspired. Changing Janet’s
‘psychological analysis’ to ‘psychoanalysis’ changed
nothing as far as the method common to both students
of Charcot was concerned.” For his part, Freud,
in his “On the History of the Psychoanalytic Movement”
(1914d), merely noted, “Regis and Hesnard
(Bordeaux) have recently [in 1913] attempted to disperse
the prejudices of their countrymen against the
new ideas by an exhaustive presentation, which, however,
is not always understanding and takes special
exception to symbolism” (p. 32). Freud never forgave
Hesnard for his ambivalence, which he let pass only
around 1926, and then only partially.
The First World War put an end to any serious discussion
in France about psychoanalysis, and hence
Régis and Hesnard’s work, until 1920 (an exception
being André Breton’s discovery of Freud in 1916).
Régis died in 1918, and Hesnard alone was responsible
for the new edition of 1922, where he wrote, “Science
without scientific nationalism can be neither alive or
fruitful. Freud’s teaching, which derives not, as has
been claimed, from the French genius of Charcot, but
rather from Germanic philosophy could have no more
deniable adversary than moderation, a trait of Latin
genius, from one point of view of the search for truth.”
Freud did not much appreciate this remark, and four
years later he spoke sarcastically to René Laforgue
about such “bowing and scraping before Latin genius.”
In the third edition, appearing in 1929, Hesnard
revealed that the chapter critical of psychoanalysis had
been written by Régis, even if Hesnard had agreed at
1361
PSYCHOANALYSIS
the time. “At present,” Hesnard added, “with the benefit
of five years of daily experience of it, we are in a better
position to confirm the great value and significance
of psychoanalysis. It is a therapeutic—and especially
an exploratory—method that is indisputably superior
to all others, in this, despite the drawbacks, it inevita-
29> bly shares with all ‘heroic treatments.
ALAIN DE MYOLLA
See also: France; Hesnard, Angélo Louis Marie; Régis,
Emmanuel Jean-Baptiste Joseph.
Source Citation
Régis, Emmanuel, and Hesnard, Angélo. (1914). La psychoanalyse
des névroses et des psychoses: Ses applications médicales
et extramedicales. Paris: Alcan.
Bibliography
Ferenczi, Sandor. (1915). Die psychiatrische schule von Bordeaux
iiber die psychoanalyse. Internazionale Zeitschrift fiir
Artzliche Psychoanalyse, 3, 352-369.
Freud, Sigmund. (1914d). On the history of the psychoanalytic
movement. SE, 14: 1-66.
Freud, Sigmund, and Abraham, Karl. (1965). A psycho-analytic
dialogue: The letters of Sigmund Freud and Karl Abraham,
1907-1926 (Bernard Marsh and Hilda C. Abraham,
Trans.). New York: Basic Books.
Freud, Sigmund, and Jones, Ernest. (1993 [1908-1939]).
The complete correspondence of Sigmund Freud and Ernest
Jones, 1908-1939. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Hesnard-Félix, Edith. (1984). Le Dr. Hesnard et la naissance
de la psychanalyse en France. Doctoral thesis, University of
Paris I.
Régis, Emmanuel, and Hesnard, Angélo. (1913a). La doctrine
de Freud et de son école (1re partie). Encéphale, 8
356-378.
>
Régis, Emmanuel, and Hesnard, Angélo. (1913b). La doctrine
de Freud et de son école (suite et fin). Encéphale, 8.
537-564.
J
PSYCHOANALYSIS
Sigmund Freud himself provided the most complete,
and now most classical definition for his invention,
psychoanalysis: “Psycho-analysis is the name (1) of a
procedure for investigating mental processes which are
1362
almost inaccessible in any other way, (2) of a method
(based upon that investigation) for the treatment of
neurotic disorders and (3) of a collection of psychological
information obtained along those lines, which is
gradually being accumulated into a new scientific discipline”
(1923a [1922], p. 235). This definition,
intended for the Encyclopaedia Britannica, is still
widely used today by many psychoanalytic training
institutes.
Freud also wrote that the best way to understand
psychoanalysis was to study its history. Its origins
could be traced to the young Viennese doctor’s medical
practice. He frequently treated “nervous” patients,
for the most part described as suffering from “hysteria,”
a field he came to specialize in after his return
from Paris and his work assisting Jean Martin Charcot.
He needed to heal these patients and develop a clientele
large enough to support his growing family, even
though therapeutic procedures at the time were practically
nonexistent. The available techniques—electric
shock, isolation in medical clinics, and sedatives—
were soon abandoned. Hypnosis appeared to him at
first to produce miraculous results, but it turned out
to be a dead end, and he decided to apply the “cathartic
method” that his mentor, Joseph Breuer, had discovered
during the treatment of the patient known as
Anna O. Taking the symptom as its starting point, this
method strove to have the patient recall the circumstances
of its first occurrence, and a successful outcome
depended on this recollection by means of talk,
which was supposed to make the symptom disappear.
Freud then discovered the “resistance” that patients
would put up during the search for pathogenic “primal
scenes,” as if they wanted to keep the origin of
their illness secret. The material that was “repressed”
in this way always involved old memories associated
with specific events related to the earliest sexual activity
of children. His suggestion that such a sexuality
even existed greatly shocked many of his contemporaries.
His patients soon began drawing his attention to
their dreams, which he encouraged them to recount.
In keeping with his belief in determinism, Freud concluded
that dreams fulfilled a function—the safeguarding
of sleep through the fulfillment of wishes
that had been ignored by consciousness—and consequently
had an “unconscious” content, a meaning that
could be deciphered. The analysis of resistance and the
interpretation of dreams, together with the method of
“free association,” became the pillars of the psy-
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chotherapy to which Freud, in 1896, gave the name
“psychoanalysis.” The term appeared for the first time
in an article written in French, “Heredity and the
Aetiology of the Neuroses” (1896a).
By the first years of the twentieth century, the principal
features of psychoanalytic treatment that still define
it at the beginning of the twenty-first had been established:
The patient was placed on a couch and the therapist
remained out of sight. The patient was asked to say
whatever came to mind. Sessions were fairly long, frequent,
and expensive, so that the treatment would
become an important part of the patient’s life and so
that the bond with the psychoanalyst—the “transference”—
would become the principal engine of the
attempt to reconstruct the past and weaken the defenses
the patient had set up against the pressure from contradictory
drives. But the initial therapeutic successes were
not as consistent or as long-lasting as Freud had hoped.
The transference could become hostile and give rise to a
“negative therapeutic reaction,” leading to the discontinuation
of treatment or its indefinite extension.
Freud was less a therapist than a researcher, something
he often recognized; it was primarily his students
and successors who introduced improvements to his
methods, or different but connected methods, to make
the “therapeutic” aspect of psychoanalysis more effective.
Thus Carl G. Jung and Hermine von Hug-Hellmuth
worked with psychotic patients, and Anna Freud and
Melanie Klein with children. Otto Rank and Sandor
Ferenczi sought to improve psychoanalytic therapy
and make it more effective. They introduced so-called
“active” techniques and tried to shorten the length of
therapy, even exploring a form of “mutual analysis.”
Traces of these early initiatives can be found in
psychotherapeutic methods developed years later.
Similarly, the extension of psychotherapy to patients
presenting problems of psychosis or addiction, and the
development of group analysis and psychodrama all
tended to point up the therapeutic value of psychoanalysis.
Some psychoanalysts sought to render their
approach more effective by forging links with the
neurosciences.
Following Freud, however, who quipped about the
profession’s “furor sanandi, other psychoanalysts
emphasized the research implications of treatment.
Thus Jacques Lacan, who in 1957 spoke of curing
patients as merely an “extra” benefit of psychoanalysis,
and who in 1964, when he founded the Ecole freudi-
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PSYCHOANALYSIS
enne de Paris, described training analysis as “pure”—
as opposed to simply “therapeutic”—psychoanalysis,
clearly represents the tendency that embraces the third
of Freud’s three basic definitions of psychoanalysis.
In his daily practice, however, Freud never differentiated
between what he experienced and what he theorized
later. His letters to Wilhelm Fliess allow us to
follow, almost day by day, the theory-building that
turned psychoanalysis into the “depth psychology”
Freud hoped would supplant academic psychology. A
work of construction then—but also of deconstruction—
Freud considered his ideas to be superstructures
whose existence was necessarily ephemeral, and anticipated
new discoveries better adapted to the knowledge
obtained from clinical practice. A first model, developed
in 1900, which described a psychic apparatus
formed of three agencies—the unconscious, preconscious,
and conscious—was replaced in 1923 by
another conceptual scheme comprising the id, the ego,
and the superego. And while Freud remained firmly
committed to the Oedipus complex, he had, over a
period of forty years of work, fleshed out the speculative
aspects of his metapsychology with new concepts
that improved and sometimes reversed his earlier
hypotheses: narcissism, the death instinct, the phallic
stage, the splitting of the ego.
Alfred Adler, in 1911, and Jung, in 1913, made their
final breaks with Freud over theoretical disagreements
and formed their own schools. The first psychoanalytic
theory to be developed that broke with Freud’s theories
while also claiming to further the Freudian tradition
was Melanie Klein’s, developed between 1930 and
1962. Klein radically revised the Freudian view of the
first moments of the formation of the mental apparatus,
on the basis of her clinical experience with very
young children and her interest in psychoses. Her theoretical
model invoked very early stages she referred to
as “depressive” or “paranoid-schizoid” positions, and
she held that the Oedipus complex originated at a
much earlier age than Freud thought. Her opposition
to Anna Freud, who insisted on strict fidelity to the
spirit and letter of her father’s theories, gave rise to several
important “controversies” (1941-1945) that
determined the orientation of the British Psycho-Analytical
Society after the Second World War. Following
Klein, Donald Winnicott, Wilfred Bion, and Ronald
Fairbairn helped develop British psychoanalytical theory
and practice. In the United States a number of
derivative psychoanalytic theories came into being,
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PSYCHOANALYSIS
some of which parted ways with classical Freudian theory.
The theory of ego-psychology was introduced by
Heinz Hartmann, Ernst Kris, and Rudolph Loewenstein,
and was for years the major reference point of
American psychoanalysis. Heinz Kohut developed a
theory of narcissism, and Karen Horney and Harry
Stack Sullivan were cofounders of a “culturalist”
approach. Erik Erikson’s work was also notable.
In France, Jacques Lacan, under the banner of the
“return to Freud” in November 1955, proposed new
models that in his view could better account for the constitution
of the “subject” and the relationship between
the subject and the unconscious. The three categories of
the real, the imaginary, and the symbolic; the primacy of
the phallus; the object a; Borromean knots; and mathemes
were so many milestones in an evolving theory
that Lacan developed week by week, from 1954 to 1981,
in his famous seminars. His idiosyncratic use of the findings
of modern linguistics, inspired by Ferdinand de
Saussure, of structuralism, and of logical and mathematical
models, enabled him to make an audience of even
communities like the Catholic Church and the Marxist
orthodoxy, which had previously rejected “Freudian
doctrine” as “unscientific.”
Whether or not psychoanalysis is a science has been
debated for years, and the issue reappears regularly in
the news. For epistemologists like Karl Popper and a
host of other critics, the statements made by psychoanalysis
cannot be considered scientific since they cannot
be “falsified” and because the theory cannot be
“refuted.” For Freud, the scientific status of his theory
was never in doubt, and he considered his metapsychological
hypotheses no more implausible than those
of contemporary physics. Psychoanalysis, as far as he
was concerned, was a “natural science” (“Naturwissenschaft’).
Despite holding a position deemed by
some close to “scientism,” Freud clearly distinguished
his belief in a scientific ideal and the consistency of his
hypotheses concerning the unconscious from a Weltanschauung,
a “vision of the world” whose totalizing
tendencies and illusory nature he feared. In The Question
of Lay Analysis, he wrote: “Science, as you know, is
not a revelation; long after its beginnings it still lacks
the attributes of definiteness, immutability and infallibility
for which human thought so deeply longs. But
such as it is, it is all that we can have” (1926e, p. 191).
Freud also insisted on the importance of psychoanalysis
as a cultural phenomenon and a special
instrument for studying and understanding other cul-
1364
tural phenomena. On July 5, 1910, he wrote to Jung: “I
am becoming more and more convinced of the cultural
value of psychoanalysis, and I long for the lucid
mind that will draw from it the justified inferences for
philosophy and sociology” (p. 340).
His letters to Wilhelm Fliess already illustrate the
extent to which his psychological discoveries provided
new insights for the understanding of literature and
visual art, and how their study provided him with new
ideas or proofs of the correctness of his views. It was
Sophocles who provided Freud with the name for his
“Oedipus complex,” discovered during his self-analysis
in October 1897. In 1913 he indicated the fields of
knowledge he felt would benefit (1913j) from psychoanalytic
concepts. Aside from psychology, he listed the
science of language, philosophy, biology, the history of
the development of civilization, aesthetics, sociology,
and pedagogy.
He confirmed this interaction in the Introductory
Lectures on Psychoanalysis: “In the work of psychoanalysis
links are formed with numbers of other mental
sciences, the investigation of which promises results of
the greatest value: links with mythology and philology,
with folklore, with social psychology and the theory of
religion. You will not be surprised to hear that a periodical
has grown up.on psychoanalytic soil whose sole
aim is to foster these links. This periodical is known as
Imago, founded in 1912 and edited by Hanns Sachs
and Otto Rank. In all these links the share of psychoanalysis
is in the first instance that of giver and only to
a less extent that of receiver” (1916—-1917a, p. 167-68).
Despite the charge that Freudian concepts cannot
be applied outside the framework of the treatment and
notwithstanding the superficial way they have indeed
too often sometimes been used, the fact is that
“applied psychoanalysis” has profoundly modified our
view of literature and the fine arts, of biography, and
of sociological and political realities. Freud set the
example by the way he approached Wilhelm Jensen’s
story “Gradiva,” Leonardo da Vinci’s life, and Michelangelo’s
sculpture, to mention only a few of his contributions.
But on several occasions he expressed his
reservations about the value of the psychobiographies
produced by some of his followers and successors.
Toward the end of his life his clinical work took a
secondary position to his writings on the great problems
of religion and culture: The Future of an IIlusion
(1927c), Civilization and Its Discontents (1930a
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[1929]), and especially his last work, Moses and Monotheism
(1939a [1934-1938]), which expands upon the
anthropological ideas he had extensively covered in
Totem and Taboo (1912-13a).
Later, the spread of Freudian ideas attracted the
interest of writers, artists, and critics, who made use of
them to enrich their own work. The Surrealists were
among the first, but novelists, painters, and dramatists
borrowed from psychoanalysis as well. Created at the
same time as cinematography, psychoanalysis has
inspired filmmakers from the early days. One has only
to think of Secrets of a Soul (Geheimnisse einer Seele),
the film G. W. Pabst made in 1926 in spite of Freud’s
reservations; or of the films of Alfred Hitchcock, Spellbound
and Vertigo; or of Freud, the Secret Passion,
by John Huston, prepared with the help of Jean-Paul
Sartre and released in 1962, in which Montgomery
Clift plays the role of Freud; or, for that matter, of the
comic treatment of psychoanalysis by Woody Allen.
Throughout the twentieth century, the discoveries of
psychoanalysis and its theory of the unconscious have
profoundly modified the rules mankind has established
concerning its behavior and sexual taboos, its relation to
guilt, to femininity, and more generally to other people,
about whom a whole new unconscious aspect was now
apprehended. Obviously, however, the wide dissemination
and renown of psychoanalysis were themselves the
product of the twentieth century. Psychoanalysis was
inspired and carried along by that century, with its
excesses, its political ideologies, its economic and religious
ups and downs, and above all, its terrible conflicts,
which despite all claims to civilized behavior mobilized
the darkest and most barbaric of human impulses just as
Freud had understood and feared (1915b, 1933b [1932]).
In so many ways—the liberalization of behavior,
the advancement of the status of women (both inside
and outside feminist movements and in spite of their
virulent criticisms of Freudianism), the dawning
recognition of sexual minorities (even though in Freudian
theory their preferences have been explained as
arrested libidinal development and more or less
archaic fixations), a different approach to the subject
and its relation to itself and the other—psychoanalysis
has become a part of everyday life throughout the socalled
“Western” world and is not about to simply disappear,
despite all the wild swings of fashion.
Its expansion toward other cultural sensibilities, like
the multiplication of the often contradictory theories
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PSYCHOANALYSIS
and techniques that claim allegiance to it, as demonstrated
by this Dictionary, show that psychoanalysis has
never been a dogma or the kind of closed theory caricatured
by dishonest critics. In his own time Freud defined
those “cornerstones,” which seemed to him to provide
the foundation that his successors would trace back to
him: “The assumption that there are unconscious mental
processes, the recognition of the theory of resistance
and repression, the appreciation of the importance of
sexuality and of the Oedipus complex—these constitute
the principal subject-matter of psycho-analysis and the
foundations of its theory. No one who cannot accept
them all should count himself a psycho-analyst” (1923a
[1922], p. 247). Nothing has really changed regarding
the basic principles, in spite of the considerable diversity
found in theoretical research and methods of practice,
which has enriched the great network of the global psychoanalytic
movement.
The recent rapid development of the neurosciences
does not signal any decline in the value of the listening
procedure that psychoanalysis has offered for more
than a century in its attempt to understand and treat
mental suffering. Apparently contradictory theoretical
systems will eventually intersect and enrich each other,
and the pessmism of the Cassandras can be answered
with Freud’s remarks, written in 1914: “At least a
dozen times in recent years, in reports of the proceedings
of certain congresses and scientific bodies or in
reviews of certain publications, I have read that now
psychoanalysis is dead, defeated and disposed of once
and for all. The best answer to all this would be in the
terms of Mark Twain’s telegram to the newspaper
which had falsely published news of his death: ‘Report
of my death is grossly exaggerated” (1914d, p. 35).
ALAIN DE MIJOLLA
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1912-13a). Totem and taboo. SE, 13:
1-161.
. (1913j). The claims of psycho-analysis to scientific
interest. SE, 13: 163-190.
. (1915b). Thoughts for the times on war and death.
SE, 14: 273-300.
—— —. (1916-17a [1915-17]). Introductory lectures on
psycho-analysis. Parts I and II. SE, 15-16.
. (1923a [1922]). Two encyclopaedia articles. Psycho-
analysis. SE, 18: 234-255.
1365
PSYCHOANALYSIS OF CHILDREN, THE
. (1926e). The question of lay analysis. SE, 20: 177—
250.
. (1930a [1929]). Civilization and its discontents. SE,
21: 57-145.
———. (1933b [1932]). Why war? (Einstein and Freud).
SE, 22: 195=215.
. (1939a [1934—38]). Moses and monotheism: Three
essays. SE, 23: 1-137.
Freud, Sigmund, and Jung, Carl. (1974a [1906-13]). The
Freud/Jung letters: The correspondence between Sigmund
Freud and C. G. Jung (William McGuire, Ed., and Ralph
Manheim and R.EC. Hull, Trans.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press.
Mijolla, Alain de. (1996). Psychoanalysts and their history. International
Psychoanalysis: The Newsletter of the IPA, 5 (1), 25-28.
PSYCHOANALYSIS OF CHILDREN, THE
Melanie Klein’s first work, this book is the thoroughly
worked-out result of her substantial clinical experience
in applying psychoanalytic treatment to children.
Though there had been other attempts to use psychoanalysis
in treating children, notably Sigmund Freud’s
work with the father of Little Hans, reported in “Analysis
of a Phobia in a Five-Year-Old Boy” (1909), The
Psychoanalysis of Children is free of adult-centered
biases and is a pioneering work.
Klein’s freedom of thought, in terms first of technique
and then of theory, came from her discovery of a
new methodology: the use of the play technique had
opened.a new field of investigation of the unconscious.
She had observed that children’s play expressed their
fantasies and anxieties. Gradually, she realized that
children’s play could be situated within the framework
of the ego’s attempts to defend itself from instinctual
conflicts in order to work them out. This led to her
conception of symbolism, a psychic mechanism that is
essential for development of the ego.
This book can be divided into two parts. The first
and technical part is based on six lectures given by
Klein in London at the invitation of Ernest Jones in
1925 and 1927. In these chapters, Klein emphasized
the clinical signs indicative of children’s transference
fantasies, which, in her view, made it possible to interpret
them in a way that was similar to analytic work
with adults. In fact, she demonstrated the technical
value of an early interpretation of the transference
resistances of certain children, in order to facilitate the
1366
establishment of the therapeutic bond and a psychoanalytic
process.
The second, more theoretical part of the book was
written later. Here Klein developed her ideas on the
early stages of the Oedipus complex, manifested in the
phase of maximum sadism, where the child’s aggressive
instincts are directed toward parental part-objects:
the mother’s breast, the father’s penis, and in particular
the mother’s body and its contents. Fixations of
this kind can produce hypochondriacal fantasies about
the child’s own body, or else various inhibitions,
especially in relation to toilet training. In Klein’s conception,
the early forms of the superego result from
introjection of the persecutory breast and penis, which
function as internal persecutors.
In this work Klein gradually became more oriented
toward a theory of psychic conflict in which aggression
plays the greatest role. The destructive omnipotence of
aggressive fantasies stems from the child’s immaturity
in his or her struggle against the death instinct, as
Klein argued in greater detail in her later theoretical
work.
FRANCISCO PALACIO EsPASA
See also: British Psycho-Analytical Society; Childhood;
Oedipus complex, early; Richard, case of; Technique with
children, psychoanalytic.
Source Citation
Klein, Melanie. (1932). Die psychoanalyse des kindes. Vienna:
Internationaler Psychoanalytischer Verlag; (1975). The psycho-
analysis of children (Alix Strachey, Trans., and H. A.
Thorner, Rev.). London: Hogarth.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1909b). Analysis of a phobia in a fiveyear-
old boy. SE, 10: 1-149.
PSYCHOANALYSIS OF DREAMS, THE
In 1940, in order to obtain the equivalent, in Argentina,
of his medical degree from the University of
Madrid, Angel Garma presented his book, Psicoandlysis
de los suefios, for his doctoral thesis. Considered
a classic of psychoanalytic literature, this work has
gone through a number of editions in which Garma
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has gradually elaborated upon his differences from
the Freudian interpretation of dreams as wish
fulfillments.
According to Garma, the dreamer’s thoughts, originating
in repressed content, present hallucinatory
characteristics. In becoming conscious, these thoughts
inform the manifest dream. They are related to highly
traumatic psychic content. The ego seeks to protect
itself by masking such contents. It transforms them
into what appear to be wish fulfillments, but which are
in fact satisfactions more characteristic of mania.
This theory maintains that the traumatic situation
that causes dreams ends up as a hallucination when
the charge of the repressed content is stronger than the
weakened counter-charge of the sleeping ego. These
contents give the ego the impression that they correspond
to current situations in the real world. In Garma’s
view this is a phenomenon that occurs in a way
diametrically opposed to that described by Freud
describes it in his theory of reality-testing.
GILDA SABSAY FOKS
See also: Argentina; Garma, Angel.
Source Citation
Garma, Angel (1940). Psicoanalysis de los suefios. Buenos
Aires: El Ateneo; (1985). The psychoanalysis of dreams.
New York: Jason Aronson.
Bibliography
Garma, Angel (1970). Neuvas aportaciones al psycoanalisis de
los suefios. Buenos Aires: Paidos.
PSYCHOANALYSIS OF FIRE, THE
The Psychoanalysis of Fire was published by Gaston
Bachelard in 1938, before Water and Dreams: An Essay
on the Imagination of Matter (1940), Air and Dreams:
An Essay on the Imagination of Movement (1942), and
Earth and Reveries of Will (1945). This essay was part
of an effort that reconnected research on pre-Socratic
philosophy with the question of the fundamental constituents
of the world, the “elements.”
Bachelard was both a theoretician of modern
science (The New Scientific Spirit, [1934]; Le Rationalisme
appliquée, [1949]) and a philosopher of poetics,
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PSYCHOANALYSIS OF FIRE, THE
in the sense that while demonstrating the need for systematization
associated with all rational thought, he
insisted on the collapse of any system in the face of the
infinite richness of experience. He also attempted to
circumscribe existence with a profound imagination
imbued with poetic experience that transcends the
individual imagination of the subject.
For Bachelard the phenomenon of firé is situated at
this crossroads of science and poetry. In his preface, he
writes, “I am going to examine a problem in which
objectivity has never held sway, where the initial
seduction is so compelling that it deforms the most
rational minds and leads them to the cradle of poetry,
where daydreams replace thought, where poems hide
theorems. This is the psychological problem presented
by our convictions about fire. The problem is so
directly psychological that I have no hesitation in
speaking of a ‘psychoanalysis of fire.”
The work is broken down into seven chapters: 1.
Fire and Respect: The Prometheus Complex; 2. Fire
and Reverie: The Empedocles Complex; 3. Psychoanalysis
and Prehistory: The Novalis Complex; 4. Sexualized
Fire; 5. The Chemistry of Fire: History of a False
Problem; 6. Alcohol and Water that Flames. Punch:
The Hoffmann Complex. Spontaneous Combustions;
7. Idealized Fire: Fire and Purity. The two chapters
that most directly concern psychoanalysis are
obviously chapters three and four.
It is interesting that Bachelard, who here attempts
an anthropological study of the birth of fire in human
history and an approach to the libidinal components
represented by fire, quotes Carl Jung on several occasions
but never Sigmund Freud. He also quotes James
George Frazer’s Myths on the Origin of Fire, even
though Freud himself referred to Frazer’s work (in
1911 Freud read The Golden Bough), which was partly
responsible for his interest in prehistory.
We also know that in 1930, in Civilization and Its Discontents
(1930a [1929]), Freud discussed his famous
hypothesis on the origins of the mastery of fire associated
with a rejection of the impulse to urinate on the
flame to extinguish it: “It is as though primal man had
the habit, when he came in contact with fire, of satisfying
an infantile desire connected with it, by putting it
out with a stream of his urine. ... The first person to
renounce this desire and spare the fire was able to carry
it off with him and subdue it to his own use” He also
wrote an entire article on this, “The Acquisition and
1367
PSYCHOANALYST
Control of Fire” (1932a [1931]), in which he provides a
brilliant analysis of the myth of Prometheus.
Therefore, the lack of any reference to Freud in
Bachelard’s text is surprising, for the direction of their
thought converges at many points even though it arises
from different epistemological viewpoints. As far as we
know Freud never met Bachelard, an existential nonevent
that may characterize, in its own way, Freud’s profound
ambivalence toward philosophy, even when it was
highly compatible or consistent with metapsychology.
BERNARD GOLSE
See also: Applied psychoanalysis and the interactions of
psychoanalysis; Bachelard, Gaston.
Source Citation
Bachelard, Gaston. (1938). The psychoanalysis of fire. (Alan
C. M. Ross, Trans.). Boston: Beacon Press [1964].
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1930a [1929]). Civilization and its discontents.
SE, 21: 57-145.
(1932a [1931]). The acquisition and control of fire.
SE, 22: 183-193.
PSYCHOANALYST
“Whoever has admitted that transference and resistance
constitute the linchpins of treatment forever belongs in
our untamed horde,” Freud wrote to Georg Groddeck
on June 15th, 1917. He would later add: “The acceptance
of unconscious psychical processes, the acknowledgement
of the doctrine on resistance and repression, the
taking into consideration of sexuality and the Oedipus
complex are the principle tenets of psychoanalysis and
the bases of its history, and whosoever is not prepared to
subscribe to all of them should not count himself
among Psychoanalysts” (1923a).
Since then, disputes have run to the heart of the various
psychoanalytic institutes over didactic analyses
and training. The absence of a consistent code, compounded
by inconsistent statutory regulations which
governmental authorities have and have not have
enacted in different region, has further multiplied the
number of pronouncements as to what each institute
reckons should best define what a psychoanalyst is.
1368
Freud had already stated a few of his own prescriptions:
“It is therefore reasonable to expect of an analyst,
as a part of his qualifications, a considerable
degree of mental normality and correctness. In addition,
he must possess some kind of superiority, so that
in certain analytic situations he can act as a model for
his patient and in others as a teacher. And finally we
must not forget that the analytic relationship is based
on a love of truth—that is, on a recognition -of reality—
and that it precludes any kind of sham or deceit”
(1937c, p. 248).
The work of the psychoanalyst has been described as
being quite similar to that of the patient. First of all he or
she should be committed to the relationship and to analyzing
his or her own motivations for being in it. He or she
must also engage in interpretive listening, including to
the manifestations of their own defenses. In short, a
“free-floating” or “evenly-suspended” attention must
be paid when dealing with the processes inevitably
evoked or generated by the highly-charged affective
moments to which psychoanalytic activity leads.
The term counter-transference has been considerably
expanded upon since it first appeared in 1910,
and the various meanings attributed to it attest to the
intricacies that develop within the analytic situation
(Sandler, Joseph, et-al., 1973; Blum, Howard, 1986).
These conceptual responses, like the so-called “neutrality”
intended to make the analyst into a “mirror,”
attest to the receptiveness with which personal analysis,
often called a “didactic” or “training analysis,’ was
meant to equip the psychoanalyst. In the event, only a
presumptive judgment may be made in this respect. It
should be recalled that language is the analyst’s fundamental
operation medium. The psychoanalytic candidate
must have mastered the unique system of language
that a psychoanalytic dialogue will engage him
in, as this language is far from being something that
unfolds through one voice alone.
The “Rules and Procedures of the Training Committee,
Representing the French SPP [Société psychanalytique
de Paris], composed in France in 1949, in
which the style of Jacques Lacan is very much in evidence,
detailed the criteria for the selection of candidates
for apprenticeship in psychoanalysis in France in
the wake of the Second World War: “Only through
clinical examination may light be shed upon the deficiencies
which disqualify the candidate as an aide to
memory or judgment: traits pointing to future intel-
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lectual frailty, latent psychoses, cognitive difficulties
compensated for otherwise; or as a guiding agent: psychical
difficulties in the form of crises and mood
swings including epilepsy, meaning Cyclothymia.”
The “Rules and Procedures” also advise: “Among
other disqualifying elements should be included such
problems as might impair the basis of imaginary support
the person of the analyst may furnish to transferential
identifications in the generic homeomorphism
of his body image: shocking deformities, visible mutilations
and overt functional impairments ... Secondly,
the examiner should consider the candidate’s cultural
education, which is evidenced in the special kind of
intellectual open-mindedness that grasps the meanings
of words and inspires their usage.”
Freud, relying less on specifics and caricatures in his
catalogue of counter-indications, emphasized above
all the characteristic element of commitment to the
activity, which “cannot well be handled like a pair of
glasses that one puts on for reading and takes off when
one goes for a walk. As a rule, psycho-analysis possesses
a doctor either entirely or not at all” (1933a, p.
153). The arguments that have taken place surrounding
whether it is possible to practice psychoanalysis
part-time, on the margins of other medical or university
activities, are extensive.
While Freud regretted the fact that “It cannot be
disputed that analysts in their own personalities have
not invariably come up to the standard of psychical
normality to which they wish to educate their
patients” (1937c, p. 247), he also added: “It almost
looks as if analysis were the third of those ‘impossible’
professions in which one can be sure beforehand of
achieving unsatisfying results. The other two, which
have been known much longer, are education and government”
(p. 248).
ALAIN DE MyOLLA
See also: Abstinence/rule of abstinence; Active technique;
Analysand; Boundary violations; Collected Papers on
Schizophrenia and Related Subjects, Counter-transference;
Cure; Elasticity; Ethics; Evenly-suspended attention;
Face-to-face situation; Framework of the psychoanalytic
treatment; Fundamental rule; Initial interview(s); Interpretation;
Lay analysis; Money and the psychoanalytic
treatment; Mutual analysis; Negative therapeutic reaction;
Neutrality/benevolent neutrality; Pass, the; Psychoanalysis;
Psychoanalytic technique with adults;
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PSYCHOANALYTIC EPISTEMOLOGY
Psychoanalytic technique with children; Psychoanalytic
treatment; Psychotherapy; “Recommendations to Physicians
Practicing Psychoanalysis”; Supervised analysis
(control case); Tact; Termination of treatment; Therapeutic
alliance; Training of the psychoanalyst.
Bibliography
Blum, Howard P. (1986). Countertransference and the theory
of technique: discussion. Journal of the American Psychoanalytical
Association, 34.
Freud, Sigmund. (1923a [1922]). Encyclopaedia article:
“The libido theory.” SE, 18: 255-259.
. (1933a [1932]). New introductory lectures on psycho-
analysis. SE, 22: 1-182.
. (1937c). Analysis terminable and interminable. SE,
23: 209-253.
. (1960a). Letters of Sigmund Freud. (Ernst L. Freud,
Ed.; Tania and James Stern, Trans.) New York: Basic Books.
Revue frangaise de psychanalyse. (1949). Reglement et doctrine
de la Commission de l’enseignement déléguée par la
S.P.P., Paris, France. 13, (3), 426—435.
Sandler, Joseph; Dare, Christopher; and Holder, Alex.
(1973). The patient and the analyst: the basis of psychoanalytic
practice. New York: International Universities Press.
Further Reading
Litowitz, Bonnie, et al. (2003). The contemporary psychoanalyst
at work. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic
Association, 51, 9-24.
PSYCHOANALYTIC EPISTEMOLOGY
The notion of psychoanalytic epistemology incorporates
the epistemology specific to psychoanalytic
knowledge as well as the psychoanalysis of mental processes
required in the construction of knowledge.
Epistemology refers to the critical examination and
logical analysis of scientific knowledge. Traditionally
viewed in France as the philosophy and history of
science, epistemology is distinguished from the theory
of knowledge, which also includes non-scientific
knowledge. This distinction is not found in Anglo-
American philosophy and, as a result, epistemology is
frequently confused with the theory of knowledge,
Freud’s Erkenntnistheorie. More recently, the concept
of genetic epistemology (Jean Piaget) introduced the
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PsyCHOANALYTIC EPISTEMOLOGY
analysis of the mental processes of knowledge within a
developmental perspective.
The term “epistemology” is fairly recent. It was introduced
in France at the beginning of the twentieth century,
at the time when the relationship between philosophy
and the sciences was reversed: it was no longer philosophy
that lent its stature to science but science that became an
object of philosophical study. This change in perspective
reflected a crisis that had two sources: first, the foundations
of mathematics and physics were being called into
question by the scientific community itself; and second,
the claims of philosophical systems, in particular Hegelian
systems, of being able to account for rationality without
the need for practical applications or experiential data
were being discredited.
The concept of epistemology does not appear in the
index to the Gesammelte Werke, and the Concordance
to the Standard Edition of the Complete Works of Sigmund
Freud indicates only three occurrences of the
term “epistemological” in the Standard Edition, where
it appears as a translation of the adjective erkenntnistheoretisch.
The word appears for the first time in
the English translation of the obituary of Viktor Tausk.
Freud wrote in 1919: “These writings exhibit plainly
the philosophical training which the author was able
so happily to combine with the exact methods of
science. His strong need to establish things on a philosophical
foundation and to achieve epistemological
clarity compelled him to formulate, and seek as well to
master, the whole profundity and comprehensive
meaning of the very difficult problems involved”
(1919f;p . 274). But the use of the term “epistemological”
in the English and French translations obliterates
the distinction between “epistemology” and “theory of
knowledge.” Yet Freud’s judgment of Tausk can only
be fully appreciated when viewed as re-establishing
this distinction. It is not, as the translations state,
“epistemological clarity” that Freud reproaches Tausk
for, but his overestimation of the logico-deductive
operations of philosophy. Tausk went too far in trying
to prematurely establish psychoanalysis on the basis of
a theoretical system that was philosophical in its need
for coherence.
Although the term “epistemology” is rarely found
in Freud, a Freudian epistemology is nonetheless present.
For Freud the epistemic identity of psychoanalysis
remained that of the empirical sciences of his
time, which are unrelated to the sciences of mind. He
relies on observation and inductive logic to rebuff the
1370
demons of metaphysics and goes so far as to claim for
psychoanalysis a “specific right to become the
spokesman” for the vision of the scientific world. He
defends the ideal of science against anarchist and
nihilist doctrines that contested the criteria of truth
found in scientific knowledge. Psychoanalysis was
said to possess the heuristic means. to show that
science required a determined attitude that rejected
“wish fulfillment” through acceptance of observation
and methodically programmed experiment, the only
path capable of leading us to a true knowledge of reality.
He wrote, “it would be illegitimate and highly
inexpedient to allow these demands [wish fulfillments]
to be transferred to the sphere of knowledge.
For this would be to lay open the paths which lead to
psychosis, whether to individual or group psychosis.
tr (1933ae, pel6O):
In Freudian discourse the scientific ideal assumes
the function of a regulatory idea and barrier for
knowledge in general and psychoanalytic knowledge
in particular. Freud’s rationalism and positivism were
consequently subverted by his discovery: by taking as
its subject the gaps, contradictions, and distortions of
our mechanisms of observation, language, and reason,
psychoanalysis reveals what the constructions of positivist
science owe to repression. In keeping with his
discovery Freud recognized the anticipatory role of art
and philosophy, acknowledged the historical truth of
religion, and affirmed the mythopoetic element in
every scientific theory. His literary style, his references
to historical, philological, and ethnographic works, his
interest in Moses and Shakespeare, his sense of doubt
concerning thought transference, all temper the image
of a realist and positivist Freud. Freud’s psychoanalytic
epistemology presents the paradox, analyzed by Paul-
Laurent Assoun, of sabotaging the language of science
while claiming it as one’s own.
The path of Freudian discovery traces the passage
from a therapeutic technique to an episteme through
the implementation of a method employed within the
context of a specific practice. Psychoanalytic epistemology
appeared to be essential as much to define and
circumscribe the conditions and legitimacy of his
approach as it did to respond to the epistemological
criticisms to which it was subject. In both cases it is a
matter of relating and analyzing whatever is resistant
to his method. The criticisms of Karl Popper, Ludwig
Wittgenstein, and Adolf Griinbaum cast doubt on the
psychoanalyst to the extent that they reveal the risk
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psychoanalysis runs whenever it tends to transform
itself into an ideology. Yet such objections have the
merit of constraining the psychoanalyst to treat his
concepts dialectically and be more attentive to
precisely defining their use value within a specific
framework. Such criticisms also indirectly reveal the
limitations of the phenomenological, doctrinal, and
hermeneutic revisionism of men like Ludwig Binswanger,
Roland Dalbiez, or even Paul Ricoeur, for trying to
save psychoanalysis by means of auxiliary hypotheses.
For such thinkers, psychoanalysis could only confirm
its results by borrowing from other fields of knowledge
(phenomenology or neuroscience, for example) or
through the addition of extraneous methods (such as
surveys or experimental protocols).
Quite the contrary. It is by repatriating the value
and scope of discoveries where they originate—the
psychoanalytic situation—that psychoanalysis can verify
the consistency of its theorizations. Psychoanalysis
does not consist of the analyst’s knowledge of the analysand’s
unconscious or a grid for reading the world,
but is based on a transsubjective knowledge created as
much as revealed by a particular situation of interactive
dialogue whose transference and analysis are
operators. Outside that field it loses all epistemological
validity.
Such methodological operationalism enables psychoanalysis
to participate in the ongoing epistemological
debate, which tends to reject the ideal of accuracy
for a concern for truth that is conceived as revelation
as well as creation.
ROLAND GoRI
See also: Determinism; Gressot, Michel; Learning from
Experience, Psychoanalytic research; Science and
psychoanalysis.
Bibliography
Assoun, Paul-Laurent. (1981). Introduction a lepistémologie
freudienne. Paris: Payot.
Freud, Sigmund. (1913j). The claims of psycho-analysis to
scientific interest. SE, 13: 163-190.
. (1927c). The future of an illusion. SE, 21: 1-56.
. (1933a [1932]). New introductory lectures on psycho-
analysis. SE, 22: 1-182.
Gori, Roland. (1996). La Preuve par la parole. Sur la causalité
en psychanalyse Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
PSYCHOANALYTIC FAMILY THERAPY
Further Reading
Kulish, Nancy. (2002). The psychoanalytic method from an
epistemological viewpoint. International Journal of Psychoanalysis,
83, 491-495,
Orange, Donna. (1995). Emotional understanding. Studies in
psychoanalytic epistemology. New York: Guilford Press
Strenger, Carlo. (1991). Between hermenutics and science: An
essay on the epistemology of psychoanalysis.‘ Madison, CT:
International Universities Press.
PSYCHOANALYTIC FAMILY THERAPY
Psychoanalytic family therapy is based on the observation
that for any group that calls itself a family in a
given culture, there is an objective interdependence
between the subjects comprising it, owing to the hierarchy
of generations and the distribution of roles
within it. There are also areas of subjective
interdependence.
Difficulties concerning the treatment of some
patients led therapists to become interested in these
individuals’ families, which were viewed as pathogenic;
the family and the mental patient were examined as a
whole, and their specific modes of functioning highlighted.
In the 1950s, researchers at Stanford, influenced
by systems theory (Ludwig von Bertalanffy),
described the kinds of communication that occur in
the families of schizophrenics. From this arose a vast
area of research that came to be applied to “systematic
family therapies.”
Concurrently, research on groups was conducted in
the field of psychosociology (Jacob-Levi Moreno) and
from a psychoanalytic perspective (Siegmund H.
Foulkes, Wilfred Bion, Henry Ezriel). In France, Jean-
Bertrand Pontalis, Didier Anzieu, and René Kaés
proposed new concepts such as the group mind, interfantasizing,
and group transference.
Family groups whose members had a life in common,
both past and present, have been the object of
a number of specific experiments conducted by psychoanalysts.
Freud suggested the concept of “psychic
apparatus” to account for the existence of mental
factors associated with this apparatus’s ability to distribute
and transform psychic energy. Borrowing this
model, René Kaés forged the concept of “group psychic
apparatus,” which he defined as “an efficacious
and transitional fiction—that of a psychic group,
1371
PSYCHOANALYTIC FILIATIONS
backed up by a mythical group, which is seeking to
become real by the construction of a concrete
group.”
In this connection, family therapists conceptualized
a family group mental apparatus, one which originated
archaically in the individual psychic “deposits” and the
psychic contents of the transgenerational heritage.
Their fusion created an unconscious psychic basis,
common to members of the family group, inducing a
specific experience of belonging, with “a feeling of
familiarity,” unlike anything else. Individual fantasies
were articulated on this psychic basis, from which they
derive some of their content. The family psychic apparatus
(FPA) is a conflicting co-construction formed
from the elements of internal group feeling of each
family member, and elements of a common psyche and
of the social group. The FPA, as a category, includes the
sexual nature of the roles active in family relations.
In therapy, this psychic organization of the family
group is realized within the framework proposed by the
therapist. The therapist ensures psychic security, allowing
the deployment of the therapeutic process through
the free verbalization required, the stability of temporal-
spatial conditions, the fact that the duration of
the cure is not determined a priori, and the rule of abstinence.
In their observations and interventions therapists
focus especially on group aspects as based on the
transference/counter-transference. The essential goal of
therapeutic work lies on the level of the paradoxical narcissism-
antinarcissism duality that is active from the
very beginning in each subject and primal component
of the familial psychic apparatus. This objective transcends
the treatment of the symptomatology of the
“designated patient.” The goal is autonomy for the individual
psyche and access to the oedipal conflict, through
a sufficient development of the couple/group tension
that is always conspicuous within the family group.
However, René Kaés has expressed doubts about the
“accepted name, Analytical Family Therapy,” thinking it
should rather be known as “Psychoanalytical Psychotherapy
of the Family.”
Family therapy requires preliminary work to allow
the family group to accept this unusual situation.
Maurice Berger developed a “new theoretico-clinical
field,” in which reference to the group and to psychoanalysis
was preserved. He drew on Winnicotian concepts,
and developed the idea that the framework
could not be determined ahead of time by the thera-
_pist, but had to be constructed with the family. At the
1372
limit, the very notion of therapy was eschewed (but
not the goal of treatment).
The training of family therapists requires a personal
psychoanalysis, but how necessary it is to have psychoanalytical
experience with members of one’s own
family is, as of 2005, still open to debate.
FRANCOISE DIOT AND JOSEPH VILLIER
See also: Double bind; Group psychotherapies; Individual;
Individuation (analytical psychology); Intergenerational;
Secret.
Bibliography
Anzieu, Didier. (1971). Lillusion groupale. Nouvelle Revue
de Psychanalyse, 4, 37-93.
Berger, Maurice. (1986). Entretiens familiaux et Champ transitionnel.
Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
. (1995). Le travail thérapeutique avec les familles.
Paris: Dunod.
Kaés, René. (1976). L Appareil psychique groupal: Constructions
du groupe. Paris: Dunod.
Racamier, Paul-Claude. (1992). Le génie des origines. Psychanalyse
et psychoses. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
Further Reading
Becker, Mitchel, and Shalgi, Boaz. (2002). A psychoanalytical
approach to integrating family and individual therapy
in the treatment of adolescents: A case study. Psychoanalytic
Study of the Child, 57, 203-217.
Sander, Fred. (1979). Individual and family therapy: Toward
an integration. New York: Aronson.
Stierlin, Helm. (1977). Psychoanalysis and family therapy.
New York: Jason Aronson.
PSYCHOANALYTIC FILIATIONS
In addition to intellectual, theoretical, and professional
reasons, more personal ones usually play a part in the
decision to take up an interest in psychoanalysis. Inextricably
bound up with the former, but usually not as
readily acknowledged or clearly understood as an influence
on an individual’s choice of intellectual orientation,
such psychoanalytic filiations run like a perpetual current
through the life and work of the individual con-
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cerned, for which reason questions about who analyzed
him or her, when, how, why, and with what effect will
continue to attract much attention both inside and outside
the psychoanalytic community.
If collected and used properly, information about
psychoanalytic filiations can help illustrate aspects of
individual development, as may also be true when that
individual does not subsequently engage with psychoanalysis
professionally. However, where professional
work follows, the psychoanalytic filiations between
analyst and trainee acquire an additional significance,
for in addition to involving conscious and unconscious
processes at highly charged transferential and
counter-transferential levels, they will themselves be
an object of study during and after training, and their
outcome, whether in the form of a resolution or not,
will have an influence on the current and future work
of both analyst and analysand.
Akin to and as powerful as—indeed repeating—
characteristics of family life, such filiations have held
the psychoanalytic community together as often as,
when excessively active, they have threatened to tear it
apart. Consequently, knowledge of the extent, nature
and resolution of such psychoanalytic filiations is
important for an understanding of individual psychoanalysts
as well as of the movement as a whole.
Historically, psychoanalytic filiations preceded
other forms of preparation for and involvement in
psychoanalytic work (study of theory and work under
supervision), and their explosive nature, particularly
when not attended to psychoanalytically, showed in
early dissensions and break-aways, as well as in expressions
of excessive loyalty. But though seen by Freud
and some early analysts as potentially too powerful,
they did not lead to the adoption of a personal analysis
as an obligatory part of training, but instead to the
foundation in 1910 of international media (the International
Psychoanalytical Association [IPA], the Zeitschrift,
and congresses) to coordinate and assist local
groups and coordinate the defense of psychoanalysis
against outside critics. In fact, by the time the Secret
Committee was formed (1912), only two of its members
(Sandor Ferenczi and Ernest Jones) had had
themselves been analyzed (and Ferenczi’s plan that all
should be analyzed by Freud was not realized). An analysis
was not made an obligatory part of training until
1922. However, once accepted, it was clearly perceived
both as a valuable support for trainees and as a potential
threat to their independence, for which reason the
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PSYCHOANALYTIC FILIATIONS
Berlin training model, which the IPA was then (Homburg
Congress 1925) accepting as its benchmark,
stressed “the same analyst should not conduct the
instructional analysis of the candidate and later supervise
him in the practical part of his training.”
As subsequent dissensions have shown, neither the
Homburg nor any other principles have been able to
prevent periodic recurrences of destruction or adulation
within the psychoanalytic family. On the contrary,
whether or not in the grip of unresolved problems,
some training analysts have continued to create proselytes,
and some trainees continue to use their psychoanalytic
genealogy as legitimization of their own
position and work, or as a weapon against others. On
the other hand, since the institution of a personal analysis
as an obligatory part of training, members of various
groups have increasingly been able to explore disagreements,
tolerate differences, and establish working alliances
across divisions, both at local level, through the
IPA, and by measures such as exchange lectures, transfer
of analysts, international conferences, and discussions at
many levels about matters at times highly controversial.
However, openness at the level of psychoanalytic
filiations remains a problem, not least because of a tendency
in some analysts as well as some archivists, editors,
and historians to withhold or misrepresent such
highly personal information either in part or as a
whole, typically with references to propriety or confidentiality.
As a result, a crucial area of knowledge has
not only been left open to speculation, but has been
used by supporters and opponents of psychoanalysis
alike to idealize or demonize institutions or individuals,
to drive psychoanalytic thinking in the direction
of dogma and petrifaction, and turn the writing of its
history into an ideological act.
The problem of how, if at all, to use such information
as can be obtained, remains. Clearly, simply refusing
to consider it, either because it is incomplete or
too difficult, is not an option for psychoanalysts who,
by the same token, would indeed brand their profession
as an impossible one. On the other hand, any
decision on the part of psychoanalytic institutions to
bring about change would be controversial, as it would
involve the suspension of strict adherence to the principle
of confidentiality where analysts and their trainees
are concerned.
Obviously, disclosure of details about past and
present psychoanalytic filiations, perhaps even by
1373
PsyCHOANALYTIC NOSOGRAPHY
putting the information into a database for psychoanalytic
practitioners and historians to use, would greatly
assist understanding and research, and it is encouraging
that several present-day scholars seem interested in
such a project. Naturally, only when—in each case—the
effects of a person’s psychoanalytic filiations have been
validated, can they be truly useful to serious historians
of psychoanalysis. The inevitable consequence—that
there will also be richer pickings for the prurient—need
deter no one, as experience shows that nothing inhibits
speculation more than disclosure of facts, and that in
cases where that does not work, nothing short of a thorough
personal analysis will.
Paut Ries
See also: History and psychoanalysis; Training of psychoanalysts;
Transference.
Bibliography
Falzeder, Ernst (1994). The threads of psycho-analytic filiations,
or, psycho-analysis taking effect. In 100 years of
psycho-analysis. Contributions to the history of psychoanalysis
(André Haynal and Ernst Falzeder, Eds.; pp. 169—
194). Karnac: London.
Ferenczi, Sandor (1911). On the organisation of the psychoanalytic
movement. In Final contributions to the problems
and methods of psycho-analysis (Michael Balint, Ed.; pp.
299-307). New York: Brunner/Mazel.
Freud, Sigmund (1914d). On the history of the psychoanalytical
movement. SE, 14: 7-66.
Granoff, Wladimir (1975). Filiations. Lavenir du complexe
d Oedipe. Paris: Les Editions de Minuit.
Mijolla Alain de (1992). France 1893-1965. In Psychoanalysis
international. A guide to psycho-analysis throughout
the world. Volume 1: Europe (Peter Kutter, Ed.; pp. 66-113).
Stuttgart: Frommann-Holzbog.
PSYCHOANALYTIC NOSOGRAPHY
Is there a psychoanalytic nosography in the etymological
sense of a rewriting and reorganization of psychopathology
on the basis of psychoanalysis? And if
so, is that nosography restricted, in its form and
boundaries, to the sphere of psychoanalytic thinking
and practice; that is, is there a psychoanalytical
symptomatology for internal use only that does not
coincide exactly with that of psychiatry? In answer
to these questions, it is arguable that dynamic psy-
1374
chology sought at first to dismantle several established
clinical pictures and to erode the boundaries
between the normal and the pathological, but that
then, having exhausted the possibilities of this
approach, it abandoned the efforts.
Alternatively, can psychoanalytic theory, or more
precisely, metapsychology, perhaps be said in a more
ambitious way.to have revised the whole of psychopathology
and placed it in a perspective where,
reordered, it attained a new coherence? Indeed, psychoanalysis
grew out of a questioning of psychiatry,
and in particular, the neurological or mental nature of
hysteria. Also, before writing Studies on Hysteria
(1895d), Freud thoroughly scrutinized the normal
clinical treatment of patients at that time.
Freud’s study of dreams, his study of the development
of sexuality, his model of the mental apparatus,
and his positing of the unconscious all implied a broad
transcendence of the clinical data from which he set
out. Yet his quest for a new understanding of the neuroses
nevertheless led him back to familiar categories:
conversion, phobia, obsession, and anxiety. Freud
found that, in the context of the interaction between
affects and ideas, the mechanisms of defense could be
most effectively differentiated on the level of symptoms,
for this level yielded the greatest degree of
explanation.
Yet even on this level, the level of Freud’s first topography,
the classical syndromes tended to reassume
their old forms rather than to break down as their outlines
came into clear view. A specific set of conflicts
could be confidently aligned with parapraxes, with
phobias, or with confused or delusional states. These
diverse conditions were explicable by reference to a
dynamic that the earlier categories of traumatic neurosis,
transference neurosis, and actual neurosis had
initially tended to define too narrowly—in terms that
for this very reason have fallen out of use. All the
same, Freud failed sufficiently to explore the vicissitudes
of the interaction between primary and secondary
processes (the affective and thought processes) in
trying to better understand, on the basis of conflict,
the various disturbances of consciousness that challenged
the existence of the object. Accordingly, what
Freud called “reality-testing’ and described as an
“institution of the ego” (1916-1917 [1915], p33)
became an object of study alongside the still relevant
material addressed in the clinical treatment of acute
mental disorders.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
““PsycHo-ANALyTic NOTES ON AN AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL ACCOUNT OF A CASE OF PARANOIA”’
Other questions had already arisen for Freud when
he found it necessary to introduce narcissism into his
theory (1914c). These questions obliged him to consider
the withdrawal of libido from the object and
redirection toward the ego, as well as its restitution.
This consideration brought in, in different ways, the
notions of depression, psychosis, and delusion. Clinical
and therapeutic experience with such pathology
demonstrated that its organization was too complicated
to be adequately explained by its unconscious
meanings alone. Here too the idea of narcissistic neurosis
was not up to the task of circumscribing nuances
and distinctions, and this remained true even after the
category of narcissistic neurosis was subsequently limited
to depression alone. At this point Freud focused
on hypochondria as the main decompensatory tendency:
“The relation of hypochondria to paraphrenia
is similar to that of the other ‘actual’ neuroses to hysteria
and obsessional neurosis” (p. 84).
To go more deeply into what, in 1895 in Draft G of
the Fliess Papers (1950c), he had had to say about the
essential nature of depression, Freud took classical
melancholia as the basis for what he characterized as
the withdrawal of the conflict into the ego (1916-
1917g). Such narcissistic identification with the lost
object already implied a second topography that
would overturn earlier mental agencies and offer even
the most “endogenous” psychiatry a vast range of possible
dynamic explanations.
Furthermore, the heterogeneous _ borderline
states, which have since achieved so much importance
in clinical practice, can perhaps be unified
only within the psychoanalytical perspective of seeing
them as a narcissistic failure in dealing with
conflict and avoiding depression by mobilizing a set
of defenses against reality: negation, splitting, idealization,
and so on.
As for psychosis, beginning with his discussion of
the Schreber case (1911c [1910]), Freud suggested that
it had roots deeper than merely the various projective
modalities of the homosexual drive, deeper than
merely the repression of reality (1924b, 1924e).
Though loath to challenge the established Germanlanguage
nosography of the day with regard to what he
would have preferred to call “paraphrenia,” Freud felt
that the subject’s the return to autoeroticism short of
narcissism, the failure of thing presentations, and the
opacity of the symbol in instances of “organ-speech”
(1915e, p. 198) raised questions about what was at
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stake in psychosis, namely the integrity of the ego and
the objects that were incompatible with it.
Consideration of the psychic context of breakdowns
of mental life, of Freud’s earliest questions concerning
the actual neuroses, and of the development of psychosomatic
medicine support the idea that, even
though psychoanalysis has not invented a new nosography,
it has nevertheless cast an incomparably clear
light across the whole field of psychopathology and
has provided a firm foothold to understand the field.
AUGUSTIN JEANNEAU
See also: Actual neurosis/defense neurosis; Alcoholism;
Alienation; Character; Conflict; Narcissistic neurosis;
“Psycho-Analytic Notes on an Autobiographical Account
of a Case of Paranoia (Dementia Paranoides).”
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1911c [1910]). Psycho-analytic notes on
an autobiographical account of a case of paranoia (dementia
paranoides). SE, 12: 1-82.
. (1914c). On narcissism: An introduction. SE, 14:
81-105.
. (1915e). The unconscious. SE, 14: 159-204.
. (1916-1917f [1915]). A metapsychological supplement
to the theory of dreams. SE, 14: 237-258.
. (1916-1917g [1915]). Mourning and melancholia.
SE, 14: 237-258.
. (1924b). Neurosis and psychosis. SE, 19: 147-153.
. (1924e). The loss of reality in neurosis and psychosis.
SE, 19: 180-187.
. (1950c [1895]). Draft G. In his The origins of
psycho-analysis: Letters to Wilhelm Fliess, drafts, and notes,
1887-1902 (Eric Mosbacher and James Strachey, Trans.).
London: Imago, 1954. (Revised translation in SE, 1: 200-
206)
Freud, Sigmund, and Breuer, Joseph. (1895d). Studies on
hysteria. SE, 2: 48-106.
“PSYCHO-ANALYTIC NOTES ON AN
AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL ACCOUNT OF A CASE
OF PARANOIA (DEMENTIA PARANOIDES)”
This paper is one of Freud’s great theoretical-clinical
studies. It deals with the autobiography, published in
1375
ym”
“’PoycHo-ANALYTIC NOTES ON AN AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL ACCOUNT OF A Case OF PARANOIA
1903, of Daniel Paul Schreber, a mental patient whom
Freud never met personally.
Schreber was the son of a physician who was a great
believer in rigid educational methods. The young man
studied and later practiced law. After a political setback,
however, he fell victim to a depression accompanied
by hypochondriacal ideas and spent six months
(1884-1885) in a Leipzig psychiatric clinic run by Paul
Emil Flechsig. In 1893 he was offered a significant promotion,
but six months later he was admitted once
again to Flechsig’s clinic, then transferred to an asylum,
directed by Doctor Guido Weber, where he
would remain for the next eight years after being diagnosed
as suffering from “paranoid dementia.”
During this eight-year period, he first went through
a phase of intense hallucinatory delusion characterized
by an extremely disorganizing anxiety; he then organized
his delusions somewhat, eventually achieving a
degree of stability that allowed him (at his own
request) to argue for his freedom (with great legal
talent) and to regain it by a judgment of the Royal
Appeal Court of Dresden dated July 14, 1902.
Over the years Schreber had taken occasional notes,
and toward the end of his internment he made these
the basis of a book, which he succeeded in having published
in 1903 under the title Denkwiirdigkeiten eines
Nervenkranken (Memoirs of a neuropath). Many passages
were excised at the behest of the publisher—and,
one may suspect, at the behest of Schreber’s family to
conceal the family’s great sexual crudity. It is essential
to read Schreber’s book, translated as Memoirs of My
Nervous IIlness (1955), in order fully to appreciate the
commentary Freud offered on it a few years later. It
provides a very eloquent description of the sensory
hallucinations to which Schreber fell prey, along with
his own explanation of them. According to this explanation,
these sensations were imposed on him by God,
by means of “divine rays” connected directly to his
body, and specifically to his nerves. Schreber strove
mightily to satisfy God by procuring the “voluptuous
sensations” that God demanded, yet at the same time
he waged a ferocious, superhuman struggle to free
himself from the rays.
Schreber’s God was a strange, capable of this terrifying
kind of possession, yet at the same time pitiful,
inasmuch as God understood nothing about humans
and ardently sought to become acquainted with their
sensations. In Schreber, God found a unique being
1376
who gave God an ardently wished-for connection.
This God, who had a dual nature (Schreber evoked the
dualism of Ahriman and Ormuzd found in Zoroastrianism),
had created a replica of himself in Flechsig
(who was also divided into two, but who was liable to
shatter into many pieces at certain moments), and
Flechsig had been God’s agent with regard to Schreber.
The incoherence of this account is immediately apparent,
yet it is a poignant testimony to a sick man’s desperate
struggle to establish a level of meaning that he
could accept and that would free him from his incoherent
anxiety about disintegration.
Little by little, Schreber’s explanation organized itself
into a vast theological cosmogony: The world was coming
to an end, and for a whole stretch of time Schreber
was the sole survivor, surrounded by shadows, semblances
of men, mere apparitions. A new humanity
would supposedly be born from Schreber himself, provided
that he is transformed into a woman and offered
God the voluptuous feelings of women’s pleasures.
Schreber published his book to enlighten psychiatrists.
Granted, he was mentally ill (as indicated in the
title of his autobiography), but the causes of his illness
were quite different from what the psychiatrists attributed
it to. Schreber, above all, wanted to convey his
message to people. at large in order to enlighten
humanity about essential truths.
It is instructive to read the clinical reports of Dr.
Weber appended to Schreber’s narrative (1955, pp.
267ff.), for they offer a remarkable description of how
a calming delusional system can cure anxiety. Also of
great interest is the wise judgment passed by the
appeals court in Dresden (Schreber, 1955, pp. 329-
356), which discharged Schreber in 1902. The court
forcefully declared, in effect, that Dr. Schreber was
completely mad, but that his worldview was interesting,
and that he no longer represented any danger to
himself or others. Indeed, after his release Schreber
passed several uneventful years before being recommitted
and dying in an asylum in 1911, the very year
in which Freud published his study of the case.
When he worked on this text, Freud had been
engaged for two or three years in a sustained discussion
of the psychoses with Carl Jung. From these discussions
Freud he expected much of value to emerge,
though the first signs of Jung’s coming break with
Freud were already beginning to appear. Freud made
no attempt here to account for all the psychopatholo-
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gical phenomena and processes characterizing Schreber’s
illness. Rather, as in all of Freud’s great clinical
writings, his purpose was to prove something. In this
case he set out to demonstrate that the motor of the
paranoiac’s persecution anxiety and delusional worldview
is related to issues attending homosexuality, as
was strikingly revealed by Schreber’s delusions.
The first part of Freud’s discussion, “Case History,”
though it hews close to Schreber’s Memoirs, nevertheless
presents the material that will serve to illustrate the thesis
set out in the second part, “Attempts at Interpretation.” In
Freud’s view, Flechsig, as a doctor admired by Schreber, is
the privileged object of Schreber’s homosexual desire, a
desire justified and indeed sanctified by his delusional system.
Yet the roots of Schreber’s homosexual desire must
be sought in his relationship with his father, Daniel Gottlieb
(“God’s love”) Moritz Schreber, a relentless educator
who promoted absolute submission to God’s will. In this
case the father, it would seem, was the bane of his children’s
lives (an elder brother of Daniel Paul killed himself,
while a younger sister was a confirmed mental patient).
In the third and last section of his study, “The
Mechanism of Paranoia,” Freud analyses the process of
projection that constitutes the paranoiac’s chief defense
and organizes the paranoiac’s delusions of persecution:
the basic homosexual desire, “I (a man) love him (a
man),” is negated into “I do not love him—I hate him,”
which then, as a result of projection, becomes “He hates
(persecutes) me,” and from this the paranoiac derives
the justification “I do not love him—I hate him—
because he persecutes me” (1911c [1910], p. 63). What
we have is a system of transformations to defend against
homosexuality. Freud presents two more variants of
such systems, one being the mechanism at work in erotomania
and the other the mechanism mobilized in
delusions of jealousy. (A fourth possible mode of defense
against homosexual desires embraces the formula “I do
not love at all—I do not love anyone.”)
This work of Freud’s spawned a large number of
discussions and commentaries, the most notable of
which are cited in the bibliography below.
ROGER PERRON
See also: Castration complex; Delusion; Dementia; Ego
instincts/ego drive; Fixation; Friendship; Hypochondria;
Megalomania; Narcissism; Paranoia; Paraphrenia; Persecution;
Projection; Rationalization; Schizophrenia;
Schreber, Daniel Paul; Sublimation.
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PSYCHOANALYTIC QUARTERLY, THE
Source Citation
Freud, Sigmund. (1911c [1910]). Psychoanalytische Bemerkungen
iiber einen autobiographisch beschriebenen Fall von
Paranoia (Dementia paranoides) [Schreber]. Jb. psychoanal.
psychopathol. Forsch., III, p. 9-69; GW, Vol. 8, p. 239-316;
Psycho-analytic notes on an autobiographical account of a
case of paranoia (dementia paranoides). SE, 12: 1-82.
Bibliography
Israéls, Han. (1989). Schreber: father and son. Madison, CT:
International Universities Press. (Original work published
1981)
Kanzer, Mark, and Glenn, Jules (Eds.). (1980). Freud and his
patients. New York: Jason Aronson.
Lothane, Zvi. (1992). In defense of Schreber: Soul murder and
psychiatry. Hillsdale, NJ: Analytic Press.
Prado de Oliveira, and Luis Eduardo (Ed.). (1979). Le cas
Schreber: Contributions psychanalytiques de langue anglaise.
Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
. (1997). Freud et Schreber: Les sources écrites du
délire, entre psychose et culture. Paris: Eres.
Schreber, Daniel Paul. (1955). Memoirs of my nervous illness
(Ida Macalpine and Richard A. Hunter, Trans.). London:
Dawson. (Original work published 1903)
PSYCHOANALYTIC QUARTERLY, THE
The Psychoanalytic Quarterly was founded in 1934 by
four analysts: Bertram Lewin, Gregory Zilboorg, Dorian
Feigenbaum, and Frankwood Williams. Their editorial
policy, enunciated explicitly in the first issue,
was directed at a specific task. Psychoanalysis was
becoming quite popular in North America, and while
the enthusiasm was welcome, it also gave rise to a
certain amount of confusion. The founders of The Psychoanalytic
Quarterlywanted to establish a forum for
the discussion of psychoanalytic ideas that have clinical
relevance.
The Psychoanalytic Quarterly has always addressed
the interests and concerns of the analytic practitioner.
Theoretical and applied analytic studies are welcome,
but only if they generate hypotheses a clinical analyst
can bring back to the treatment situation and test
against observations made there. An empirical, pragmatic
orientation informs the journal’s editorial
policy.
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PSYCHOANALYTIC RESEARCH
The Psychoanalytic Quarterly also directs itself
against the inevitable parochialism of local analytic
subcultures by exposing its readers to work done from
an array of theoretical perspectives. For example, The
Psychoanalytic Quarterly was the first journal in the
United States to publish an article by Jacques Lacan.
Special issues have taken up such topics as “Knowledge
and Authority in the Psychoanalytic Relationship” and
“The Psychoanalytic Process,” featuring papers by a
variety of analysts from widely differing schools of
thought.
In addition to original scientific contributions, The
Psychoanalytic Quarterly includes a comprehensive
Book Review Section. It also has an Abstracts Section,
in which summaries of selected articles from other
journals—virtually the entire non-English language
psychoanalytic literature, as well as the neural sciences,
philosophy, sociology, infant observation, political
science, and so on,—are presented.
The Psychoanalytic Quarterly is a free-standing, selfpublished
journal. It contains no advertising, and is
supported by subscription fees. It is not accountable to
any psychoanalytic organization. Therefore, The Psychoanalytic
Quarterly has been able to maintain a tradition
of complete editorial independence alongside
intellectual rigor and fine scholarship.
OwEN RENIK
See also: Fenichel, Otto; Revue francaise de psychanalyse;
United States.
PSYCHOANALYTIC RESEARCH
Research, whether to create scientific advances or
investigate historical and epistemological issues, is
generally supported by the state and is often carried
out by specialized institutions or in laboratories. In
psychoanalysis, research with a view to theoretical
and clinical advances has sometimes been conducted
in such settings, but it has also been conducted by
individuals and psychoanalytic associations. Freud’s
hope, that analysis would find a place in the university
in ways that would ensure its status as a separate
discipline, has been partially fulfilled: from the
1960s, dissertations in the field of psychoanalysis
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have begun to appear in countries around the
world.
Psychoanalytic research implies scientific standing,
and a persistent issue has been whether analysis is a
science. If science is limited to experiment and the
use of mathematical tools, the answer is no. This has
been the view of such prominent philosophers as Karl
Popper and Alfred Griinbaum, for whom psychoanalysis
presents a body of claims that cannot be falsified
or refuted. But the scientific nature of psychoanalysis
has also been questioned by those who prefer to see it
as an art, not so much to be taught as transmitted. It
thus escapes the objective criteria on which the
sciences, whether physical or social, are based.
For Freud, psychoanalysis has a place among the
sciences and shares its worldview: it is above all a
method of investigating unconscious processes and
could be adapted for use in fields unrelated to therapy.
In this sense, psychoanalytic theory comprises a set of
hypotheses and concepts subject to constant revision.
Therapy is one possible application of psychoanalytic
method and is also to a great extent its source, because
therapy provides the link between theory and clinical
practice, the space in which the principal hypotheses
are developed and tested.
Freud distanced: psychoanalysis from religion and
philosophy, from unverifiable constructions in general,
and from medical pragmatism. In 1911 he signed a
manifesto, together with Albert Einstein, David Hilbert,
Ernst Mach, and about thirty others, that
appealed for the creation of a society to disseminate
positivist philosophy in order “to outline a vast vision
of the world on the basis of positive facts that each
science has accumulated” (quoted in Hoffmann, 1995).
Psychoanalysts have developed a relatively independent
network by which they exchange ideas and information
at professional seminars and colloquia. While
university research provides new and original perspectives
and is designed to address questions by reexamining
them within the context of history and the critical
perspective of previously published work, independent
researchers often come up with their own clinical findings
of the type they believe the clinical setting can
provide. Some of these researchers may formulate
more general hypotheses, which they then test in various
clinical situations.
The actual content of psychoanalysis also affects
how research is conducted. In terms of theory, psycho-
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analysts have produced a body of notions and concepts—
two terms that should not be confused. In
psychoanalysis, fundamental concepts (Grundbegriffe),
or even keystones (Grundpfeiler), are not a priori categories
but result from investigations into mental processes.
These create the scaffolding that Freud called
“metapsychology,” the theoretical superstructure that
includes such useful fictions as the psychical apparatus.
For Freud, metapsychology was necessary for
advancing new ideas but could always be modified or
revised.
The “fiction” of a “psychic apparatus,” noted in The
Interpretation of Dreams (1900a), was followed by the
first theory of the instincts with its dualities of the selfpreservation
and sexual instincts and of the pleasure/
unpleasure principle. Freud introduced narcissism in
1914, which led to a revision of the theory of the ego
and ego ideal, and in 1920, in Beyond the Pleasure Principle,
he introduced the dualism of the life and death
instincts. Although these theoretical developments,
advanced through clinical practice, did not require a
reconstruction of the metapsychology, revision did
arise from certain particularly innovative notions in
psychopathology.
Ongoing clinical work, with its infinite diversity of
patients and variety of psychological facts, vastly
added to the number of notions in psychoanalytic theory.
Not all notions fared equally well. Some met a
clinical need, while others fell into such disuse as to
interest only historians of psychoanalysis, who sometimes
resuscitate lost notions or bring forth new ones
that originated in forgotten antecedents.
Psychoanalytic theory and investigation have produced
an abundant literature, often a surfeit that
makes it impossible to read everything written in any
particular area. For this reason, the division of research
between academicians and individual practitioners
would appear to be complementary and desirable.
SOPHIE DE MiyjOLLA-MELLOR
See also: Applied psychoanalysis and the interaction of
psychoanalysis; Hard science and psychoanalysis; Knowledge
or research, instinct for; Truth.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1900a). The interpretation of dreams. SE,
4: 1-338; 5: 339-625.
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PSYCHOANALYTIC REVIEW, THE
. (1920g). Beyond the pleasure principle. SE, 18:
1-64,
Gori, Roland. (1996). La preuve par la parole: Sur la causalité
en psychanalyse. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
Hoffmann, Christian. (1995). Le manifeste positiviste signé
par S. Freud en 1911. Cliniques Méditerranéennes, 45-46,
7-11.
Laplanche, Jean. (1995). La psychanalyse dans la communaute
scientifique. Cliniques Méditerranéennes, 45—46, 33-
42.
Mijolla-Mellor, Sophie de. (1995). Potentialité des scissions
dans la theorie psychanalytique elle-méme. Topique, 57,
291-306.
Further Reading
Schachter, Judith, and Luborsky, Lester. (1998). Who’s afraid
of psychoanalytic research? International Journal of Psychoanalysis,
79, 965-970.
Shapiro, Theodore, and Emde, Robert N. Ed (1995).
Research in psychoanalysis: Process, development, outcome.
Madison, CT: International University Press.
Vaughan, Sarah, et al. (2000). Can we do psychoanalytic
outcome research? A feasibility study. International Journal
of Psychoanalysis, 81, 513-528.
Wallerstein, Robert. (2001). The generations of psychotherapy
research: An overview. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 18,
243-267.
PSYCHOANALYTIC REVIEW, THE
The contemporary Psychoanalytic Review can trace its
lineage to two disparate yet converging journals in the
history of American psychoanalysis.
The original Psychoanalytic Review was founded in
1913, making it the first English-language journal dedicated
to psychoanalysis, and as the oldest continuously
published psychoanalytic journal in the world. Smith
Ely Jelliffe (1866-1945), one of the journal’s founders,
was a neurologist who became interested in psychoanalysis
through the influence of Abraham Arden Brill. He
was also influenced by the writings of Adler and Jung,
and advocated for the journal a general psychodynamic
perspective on behavior, free of sectarian bias. The
other founder, William Alanson White (1870-1937) was
superintendent of the Government Hospital for the
Insane in Washington, D.C., and one of the pioneers in
psychoanalytic psychiatry.
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PSYCHOANALYTIC SEMIOLOGY
Psychoanalysis, the other parent of the present journal,
was founded in 1952 by the National Psychological
Association for Psychoanalysis (NPAP), the first
publication of its time situated and representing a
non-medical training institute. Theodor Reik was
Editor-in-Chief, and the editors were John Gustin and,
later, Clement Staff. In 1958, Psychoanalysis absorbed
The Psychoanalytic Review and for the next five years
appeared as Psychoanalysis and The Psychoanalytic
Review, under the direction of Marie Coleman Nelson
as managing editor and Murray Sherman as assistant
editor and later as co-editor and editor.
The name Psychoanalysis was dropped for the first
issue of 1963 and henceforth the journal has been
known as The Psychoanalytic Review, having been edited
by Marie Nelson, Murray Sherman, Leila Lerner,
and Martin Schulman.
The Review has occupied a unique niche in the history
of the psychoanalytic movement, both in the United
States and in the international arena. It has always
represented a non-sectarian, open venue for all psychoanalytic
perspectives. This openness, and refusal to
see psychoanalysis as a finite body of truism analogous
to a religion led Ernest Jones, in 1924, to call it a
“refuge of all malcontents.” Schulman sees it, rather, as
a forum for those, not malcontent, but discontent
with orthodoxy, sectarianism, dogma, and exclusionism.
While scholarship and literary style are the prerequisites
for the acceptance of articles, the journal is a
setting for all legitimate perspectives within the psychoanalytic
movement.
It has published representational articles by classical
Freudians, Ego psychologists, object-relations theorists,
Kleinians, self-psychologists, Lacanians, and even
contemporary Jungian theorists.
It has continued to be committed not only to clinical
psychoanalysis, but to a psychoanalytic exploration
of general culture, seeing psychoanalysis as informed
by other disciplines, rather than reducing all discourses
to a superordinate psychoanalytic frame. It is
representative of the general philosophy of critical
inquiry, and psychoanalytic scientific humanism, the
historical foundational core of psychoanalysis.
Martin A. SCHULMAN
See also: National Psychological Association for
Psychoanalysis.
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PSYCHOANALYTIC SEMIOLOGY
Semiology, the science of signs, gains its meaning from
being communicable within a given field of science. The
same holds true for somatic medicine, following what
Michel Foucault described in 1963 as the “fundamental
isomorphism of the structure of disease.and the verbal
form that describes it.” The sign indicates the symptom,
just as a wheeze indicates pneumonia. Woven into the
mesh of concrete banality and everyday life, psychiatric
symptomology lends itself less easily to a system of
directly meaningful and unchanging references. From
this viewpoint psychoanalysis appears to escape any
form of semiology that might be useful in treatment.
But metapsychology, which theorizes experience and justifies
procedure, does supply a form of semiology that is
both specific to it and appropriate in certain situations.
The only semiology useful to the clinical situation is
specifically context dependent, belonging solely to a
particular analyst/analysand relation. The observer,
the analyst, is involved in a unique relation involving
the dynamic of transference and counter-transference.
Therefore the reality involved in analysis, even when it
concerns external facts, can only serve as a reference
frame for a fantasy that supports the narrative at a particular
moment, for reasons that are specific to it
alone. At most the reality of analysis, its framework
and the patient’s attitude can, from one case to
another, present some invariant elements. At all other
times the sign will depend only on the context; to this
extent, the symbol can express the contrary to what it
might indicate elsewhere. We know that defenses can
take the form of a movement of the drive and that
interpretation provides no truth, but reveals a pathway
of associations and reroutes energy between two signposts
without any absolute value. And finally, nothing
can at the same time be experienced and understood
other than in small doses (Strachey, 1934).
Nonetheless, metapsychology can shape a semiology
that can be applied in three areas. During the evaluation,
it can help to understand psychic structure and
function, and thus indicate modes of therapy. The ability
to associate, observed during the interview, or their
various avatars, the defensive methods of repression,
denial, projection, and so on, the expression of affects,
and regressive forms, are all elements that can constitute
a system of signs for evaluating the manifestations
of the unconscious and their dynamic in the organization
and operation of psychic agencies. Similarly, one
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can read the inconsistencies and weak points in a conflict,
where the risks of depressive or delusional decompensation
are present. A semiotic method is perhaps
even more useful in cases where a breakdown is manifested
through psychosomatic symptoms. These same
semiological data could be used by psychotherapy, in
which the patient apprehends external reality. Such
data can clarify fears of the phobic patient with regard
to oedipal positions. The splittings and idealizations of
the borderline patient can split, or idealize, for reasons
of archaic violence and narcissistic fragility.
Finally, psychiatry as a whole can be entirely revised
in light of psychoanalytic semiology, which intersects
psychiatric semiology, introducing the dynamic of
metapsychology into clinical situations, where the
unconscious reveals its presence in the most biological
manifestations and the most external events.
AUGUSTIN JEANNEAU
See also: Neurasthenia; Psychoanalytic nosography; Psychotic/
neurotic; Symptom-formation.
Bibliography
Foucault, Michel. (1994). The birth of the clinic: An archaeology
of medical perception (A. M. Sheridan Smith, Trans.).
New York: Vintage. (Original work published 1963)
Strachey, James. (1934). The nature of the therapeutic action
of psycho-analysis. International Journal of Psycho-
Analysis, 15, 127-159. Reprinted 1969, International
Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 50, 275-291.
Further Reading
Gay, Volney P. (1982). Semiotics as metapsychology: The
status of repression. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 46,
489-506.
Harris, Adrienne, and Aron, Lewis. (1997). Ferenczi’s semiotic
theory: Previews of postmodernism. Psychoanalytic
Inquiry, 17, 522-534.
Olds, David. (2000). A semiotic model of mind. Journal of
the American Psychoanalytic Association, 48, 497-530.
PSYCHOANALYTIC STUDY OF THE
CHILD, THE
In 1945 there appeared a new journal, four hundred
pages long, titled The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child.
Due to its editors (Anna Freud, Heinz Hartmann,
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PSYCHOANALYTIC STUDY OF THE CHILD, THE
Ernst Kris) and its contributors (such as Edward Glover,
Ernst Kris, René Spitz, Phyllis Greenacre, and
Rudolph Loewenstein), the journal immediately
enjoyed huge success and prestige. Ever since, the journal
has appeared regularly every year, always in the
same format and always just as thick. More than fifty
volumes stretch along the bookshelves of psychoanalytic
institutions throughout the world.
Right from the start, its intellectual and political
mission was clear. Heinz Hartmann had just immigrated
to New York. In London, the disciples of Anna
Freud and Melanie Klein were emerging from several
years of intense and sometimes violent quarrels. While
one could hardly say that Anna Freud’s star was fading,
that of Melanie Klein was shining ever brighter. But
this was in Britain. On the other side of the Atlantic,
the situation was different. The United States still
appeared as a vast and as yet wide-open field, professionally
shapeless and ill-defined. In particular, it still
needed an infusion of Klein’s new teaching. Hence the
value not just of creating an English-language journal,
but also of publishing it in New York.
The 1945 volume contained declarations on the
part of Hartmann, Anna Freud, and Edward Glover,
among others. They stated their thinking in the most
trenchant terms: the psychoanalysis of children was a
success, and its principles should be based on the later
metapsychology of Sigmund Freud or, more precisely,
on Freudian metapsychology as interpreted by Hartmann
and Anna Freud.
The threat from Klein was staved off by a cunning
ploy. In volume 1, Klein was the subject of detailed
discussion, and her “deviations” were denounced.
After this discussion, there was near silence. In the
following years, her name was rarely mentioned.
Even in 1952, when she made a brief reappearance in
the journal, it was as the author of a mere three-page
heavily criticized commentary (7, pp. 51-53) of a
paper given by Hartmann at the 1951 congress of the
International Psychoanalytical Association. As for
Jacques Lacan, his existence was never even recognized
during his lifetime (the first article on Lacan,
critical but nonetheless well intentioned, appeared in
1993 [48, pp. 115-142]). Despite the international
tone of the first volume (which included articles by
Marie Bonaparte and Raymond de Saussure), during
the following years The Psychoanalytic Study of the
Child militantly limited its horizons to the Anglo-
Saxon world.
1381
PSYCHOANALYTIC STUDY OF THE CHILD, THE
Such doctrinal parameters might have paralyzed
original thought, but this was far from the case. On
the contrary, the 1950s saw an upsurge of creativity.
Anna Freud and Hartmann, in articles exceptional in
their quality, consolidated and refined their shared
perspective. During the same period, a new line of
thinking started to emerge. In 1952 Margaret Mahler
published “On Child Psychosis and Schizophrenia:
Autistic and Symbiotic Infantile Psychoses” (7,
pp. 286-305), which drew a huge response. Then in
1954 came Edith Jacobson’s “The Self and the Object
World” (9, pp. 75-127). Structural psychology, as
the theoretical framework of Anna Freud and
Hartmann came to be known, then had to reach a
compromise with the new object-relations theory.
Ironically, one of the strengths of object-relations
theory lay in the sophisticated way in which Klein’s
key concepts had been reworked—for instance, the
role of so-called primitive defenses during the preoedipal
period.
At the end of the 1960s and during the 1970s, the
wave of object-relations theory continued to develop:
case studies were more and more frequently labeled
“separation-individuation,” “fusion anxiety,’ “object
permanence,’ and the like. During the 1980s, objectrelations
theory became more important than
structural psychology. Nonetheless, both viewpoints
managed to coexist in the review and have continued
to do so. Even after her death in 1984, Anna Freud
remained a powerful presence. A good example of her
unfailing authority is an excellent article by Clifford
Yorke, “Anna Freud’s Contributions to Knowledge of
Child Development,” published in 1996 (51, pp. 7—
24). In this paper Yorke endeavored to produce the
most detailed investigation of all the journal articles
written from the perspective of Anna Freud.
One significant result of the increasing space given
to “representations of the self and the object” was the
rise in importance of the Anglo-Saxon version of
parent-infant psychotherapy. Selma Freiberg was the
main innovator here, and the journal has continued to
support this current (Liebermann and Pawl, 339,
pp. 527-548; Seligman, 49, pp. 481-500).
Another subsidiary development emerged with the
publication, in 1978, of “Trauma and Affects,” by
Henry Krystal (33, pp. 81-116). Krystal argued for a
more rigorous definition of the concept of trauma and
recommended that greater attention be paid to the
consequences of this notion for the psychoanalysis of
1382
the child. In 1979 and 1984 there appeared two
widely-read articles by Lenore Terr: “Children of
Chowchilla: A Study of Psychic Trauma (34, pp. 547—
623) and “Time and Trauma” (39, pp. 633-665). The
Psychoanalytic Study of the Child was one of the main
journals to grant an important place to the subject of
trauma, which later become a major focus of interest
in the world of child therapy.
As might have been expected, what remained problematic
for the journal was its relation to research on
child development. In the first years, a simple solution
seemed to suffice. In the first volume (1945), the hope
was forcefully expressed that research might become
more central. In practice, this intention amounted to
almost nothing. For a long while, the sole empirical studies
recognized by the journal were those practiced by
its own editors and a few key contributors: Anna
Freud’s diagnostic observations at the Hampstead
Clinic, Margaret Mahler’s investigations on day nurseries,
René Spitz’s studies on hospitalization, Ernst
Kris’s observations at Yale University. In 1959, John
Bowlby read a paper before a large audience during a
meeting of psychoanalysts in New York. His presentation,
“Grief and Mourning in Infancy and Early Childhood,”
published in the 1960 volume (15, pp. 9-52) was
vehemently attacked by Anna Freud (15, pp. 54-61).
At the end of the 1970s, this state of affairs changed
radically. “Outstanding Developmental Progress,” a
longitudinal study by Bertrand Cramer (who was
working in New York at the time) appeared in 1975
(30, pp. 15-48). “Four Early Stages in Development of
Mother-Infant Interaction,” an important article by T.
Berry Brazelton and Heidelise Als on video studies of
mothers and infants, was published in 1979 (34, pp.
349-369). Even more revealing, the main specialists in
early infancy in the 1990s, such as T. Berry Brazelton,
Daniel Stern, and Edward Tronick, began to be cited
frequently by various authors in the journal in the
1970s. This tendency, which continued during the
1980s and 1990s, represents a praiseworthy movement
toward more openness. Yet the most surprising thing
is that investigators seemed to imagine they could
assimilate the new discoveries to the existing metapsychology
without raising some rather complex questions.
One would expect more objections, such as
those of Fred Pine, who, in a fine 1992 article, “The
Separation-Individuation Concept in Light of Infant
Research” (47, pp. 103-116), brought out the existing
disagreements between Mahler and Stern.
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Despite the reservations one may have on its omissions,
The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child has maintained
a high level of professionalism. Few journals in
the history of psychotherapy have managed as well as
this one to retain their influence while remaining
lively, dynamic, and provocative in theoretical matters.
GEORGE DOWNING
See also: Eissler-Selke, Ruth; Freud, Anna; Hartmann,
Heinz; Kris, Ernst; Kris-Rie, Marianne.
PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY OF
NEUROSIS, THE
Otto Fenichel’s The Psychoanalytic Theory of Neurosis
is widely considered the standard reference work on
this subject. It also offers a systematic summary of the
literature of psychoanalysis up to the Second World
War. With its seven hundred pages and its 1,600-entry
bibliography, the work has contributed significantly to
its author’s reputation as a first-rank theorist and
“encyclopedist” of psychoanalysis.
In a brief Preface, Fenichel describes how the book
was conceived. After many years of activity in a training
capacity and as a lecturer in various psychoanalytical
institutes in Europe and America, and of vigorous
participation in internal debates on theoretical deviations
and on the internal practices of psychoanalysis,
he had decided not to work on a second edition of his
earlier Outline of Clinical Psychoanalysis, first published
in two volumes by the Internationaler Psychoanalytischer
Verlag in Vienna in 1931, and in English
translation in 1934, but rather to produce a completely
new work.
Fenichel began writing The Psychoanalytic Theory of
Neurosis in Prague, and Freud proposed the work to
the Verlag. In May 1943, the author made a formal
statement about his project at the Meeting of the
American Psychoanalytic Association in Detroit. In
view of all the misunderstandings, obscurities, and
deviations then besetting psychoanalysis, and in view
of the continual temptation to revive resistances
within the movement, it was much to be desired, he
felt, that the essential part of Freud’s dynamic psychology
be set forth in the clearest way. He hoped to
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PSYCHOANALYTIC TREATMENT
contribute to this task by writing a “Psychoanalytic
Theory of the Neuroses.”
In his introductory chapters, Fenichel sets forth his
scientific position, stresses his views on changes noted
in psychoanalytical theory, and defines his goal,
namely to understand and institute Freudian psychoanalysis
as a psychology, as a natural science. In this
way he hoped to keep at arm’s length psychoanalysts
who confined themselves to a partial view of psychoanalytic
theory, reducing it in a psychologizing or
biologizing way, and hence overvaluing or neglecting
one or another of its aspects. Part One of Fenichel’s
book is devoted to an account of general mental development
from the psychoanalytical point of view; Part
Two describes the various defining characteristics and
forms of the neuroses.
Fenichel was very conscious of the cultural import
of psychoanalysis, and conceived it as his “vital duty”
to work for “the conservation, extension, and correct
application” of Freud’s discoveries. Against this background,
Fenichel’s book was designed to preserve the
clinical basis of psychoanalysis, its libido theory, the
foundations of its theory of the instincts, and its
account of the perpetual conflict and interaction
between the frustrations of the outside world and the
demands of the instincts.
ELKE MUHLLEITNER
See also: Addiction; Bulimia; Dependence; Dipsomania;
Fenichel, Otto; Indications and contraindications for
psychoanalysis for an adult.
Source Citation
Fenichel, Otto. (1945). The psychoanalytic theory of neurosis.
New York: Norton.
Bibliography
Fenichel, Otto. (1934 [1931]). Outline ofc linical psychoanalysis.
New York: Norton.
PSYCHOANALYTIC TREATMENT
The psychoanalytic treatment is a method for treating
psychic suffering that advances self-knowledge. It is
characterized by the interpretation of the free associa-
1383
PSYCHOANALYTIC TREATMENT
tions of a patient, who in becoming aware of feelings
and forgotten memories, can thus resolve or express
differently the unconscious conflicts behind his/her
neurotic symptoms. The way sessions are structured—
couch and armchair—and their frequency and regularity
facilitate this process through the transference
onto the psychoanalyst of affects and childhood
fantasies.
From 1886, when he set himself up in private practice
to 1909, the year of the “Rat Man” analysis, Freud
gradually developed the system of psychoanalytic
treatment. In fact the method emerged from the hypnotic
treatments that he used after his recognition of
the failure of medicinal and physical therapies in
vogue at the time. Sessions in which the patient relaxed
on a couch in an atmosphere of calm and comparative
sensory deprivation resulted from the conditions
imposed by somnolescent suggestion and later by the
“cathartic method” developed by Joseph Breuer to
treat his patient, Anna O. Patients themselves contributed
towards the maturation of the structure of the
treatment, beginning with Emmy von N’s command at
their first encounter on May 1, 1889, to “Keep still!
Don’t say anything! Don’t touch me!” and her angry
demand that he stop interrupting and let her speak
freely.
The abandonment of hypnosis in favor of an interrogatory
technique, and the application of pressure to
the forehead to release ideas, repressed through resistance,
introduced a decisive turn in method, even
though Freud appears to have taken a particularly
active role, insisting patients surrender the pathogenic
secrets buried in their unconscious, as the chapter
entitled “The Psychotherapy of Hysteria” in Studies on
Hysteria demonstrates (1895d).
The Interpretation of Dreams (1900a) introduced
the innovation “free association,’ which would
become the “fundamental rule” of all psychoanalytic
treatment. At the same time the therapist was required
submit to the principle of “evenly suspended attention”
which entails the scrutiny of even the most
apparently insignificant detail (Freud, 1904a).
Freud could thus describe his “psychotherapeutic
method” in 1904 as follows: “Without exerting any
other kind of influence, he invites them to lie down in
a comfortable attitude on a sofa, while he himself sits
on a chair behind them outside their field of vision.
He does not even ask them to close their eyes, and
1384
avoids touching them in any way, as well as any other
procedure which might be reminiscent of hypnosis.
The session thus proceeds like a conversation between
two people equally awake, but one of whom is spared
every muscular exertion and every distracting sensory
impression which might divert his attention from his
own mental activity” (1904a, p. 250). Through the
transference, whose importance Freud had discovered
with his patient Dora, resistance became common,
both as an obstacle to treatment and as its major driving
force.
There remained one last significant innovation in
technique, which Freud reported to his disciples at a
meeting of the Vienna Society on November 6, 1907,
via an account of the early stages of his treatment of
the “Rat Man.” Otto Rank noted in The Minutes of the
Vienna Psychoanalytic Society that “analytic technique
has been modified to the extent that the psychoanalyst
no longer actively seeks to obtain material that interests
him, but rather allows the patient to follow the
unprompted and natural course of their thoughts.”
Hereafter the framework was determined and has
remained to the present day. The features that Freud
was to recall in “On Beginning the Treatment” (1913c)
include the analyst’s position outside the reclining
patient’s line of vision, regular sessions of a prescribed
duration, and terms for the payment of fees. These
conditions create the setting for a “psychoanalytic
situation” in which, for Jacques Lacan (1953) and his
followers, the principal, indeed the exclusive role,
would be one given to speech; but a speech and an
aural attention going beyond words to include
silences, expressions of affect, and even minuscule
movements. Freud had observed this when treating
Dora: “Tf his lips are silent, he chatters with his fingertips;
betrayal oozes out of him at every pore. And thus
the task of making conscious the most hidden recesses
of the mind is one which it is quite possible to accomplish”
(1905e, p. 78).
Even when supplemented by professional motives
(as in training analysis), it is psychical suffering that
compels individuals to consult a psychoanalyst. After
one or more preliminary interviews, which Freud
advised should not be repeated and in relation to
which he preferred “a trial treatment of one to two
weeks” (1913c), the direction of the treatment is set
out; the two protagonists then decide whether to
embark on this venture whose initial temporal duration
is indeterminate but whose eventual length is
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assured. “To speak more plainly,’ added Freud, “a
psycho-analysis is always a matter of long periods of
time [...] of longer periods than the patient expects. It
is therefore our duty to tell the patient this before he
finally decides upon the treatment” (p. 129).
Since Freud some features of this initial framework
have changed; thus the six hour-long sessions per week
were reduced to five, then to four, and eventually to
three and the length of sessions has been cut from one
hour to forty-five minutes. Following his lead, disciples
of Lacan have instituted short sessions, and even
sessions whose variable length is based on the analyst’s
attention to the scansion effect in his patient’s discourse,
a practice that has been keenly disputed. Some
analysts believe that two sessions per week is possible,
others, that the couch advocated by Freud is in no way
an absolute requirement.
The notion of a “standard treatment” (Bouvet,
1954), which was similar to descriptions of the medical
standard that characterized the manuals of the 1950s,
was counterbalanced by what were described as its
“variants” (Lacan, 1955); it has now been replaced by
the “classic” or indeed the “orthodox” treatment for
those who see themselves as liberated from its formal
constraints.
It is essential that a “psychoanalytic process” be
established and that it is encouraged to advance
through the development of the transference neurosis,
whose infantile origins are revealed in analysis, but that
it is also always jeopardized by the initiation of a “negative
therapeutic reaction” which would counter the original
love-based “therapeutic alliance.” The analyst's
“abstinence” in the face of the patient’s demands for
affective gratification is a requirement for thisz development,
as is his capacity to manage conflicts that may
engender “secondary gains” from the illness and, once
the initial honeymoon period is over, a transferential
and countertransferential relationship that is as intense
as it is unusual. According to Freud: “the therapeutic
effect depends on making conscious what is repressed,
in the widest sense of the word, in the id” (1937c).
Analytic interventions address this aim, but more
importantly so too do interpretation, construction, and
reconstruction (1937d) as well as the analysis of resistances
and the dispelling of amnesia that masks infantile
sexuality. Active periods alternating with inactive
phases, which for Freud were occasionally indicative of
a patient’s “working through” (Durcharbeitung) of the
material analyzed, mark the stages of what has been
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PSYCHOANALYTIC TREATMENT
described as “autohistorization” (P. Aulagnier) and
highlights the journey towards autonomy which will
determine the treatment’s cessation.
The termination of analysis has occasioned a
number of studies since Freud’s own (1937c) and is
dependent on the aims that the psychoanalyst and the
analysand have given themselves. Curing the symptom
has never been the most important function of the
treatment and so Jacques Lacan could speak of the
“cure as surplus.” However, patients do have every
right to expect relief from the psychic suffering that
led them to analysis in the first place, alongside the
capacity to better manage the pathological responses
that the vagaries of life engender through the repetition
compulsion.
The extension of psychoanalytic treatment to more
severe pathologies, to borderline conditions and psychotic
disorders, has altered both the notion of its outcome
and the means by which it is reached. Freud’s formulation
“Where id was, there shall ego [or ‘T’] be (Wo Es
war soll Ich werden)” and its possible translations has
produced a range of possible interpretations according
to whether the Freudian Ich is translated as “ego,” as in
ego psychology for example, or as “I,” as in the “subject.”
However, the termination of treatment does not
mark the end of the analytic process; its ongoing
working-through continues in self-analysis and in the
return to the couch, of either the same psychoanalyst
or of another, or to an analyst of the other sex or to
one from a different school.
ALAIN DE MYOLLA
See also: Abstinence/rule of abstinence; Active technique;
Analyzability; “Analysis, Terminable and Interminable”;
Biological bedrock; Cure; Face-to-face situation; Framework
of the psychoanalytic treatment; Free association;
Fundamental rule; Indications and counterindications for
psychoanalysis; Initial interviews; Lay analysis; “Lines of
Advance in Psycho-Analytic Therapy”; Money and psychoanalytic
treatment; Neutrality, benevolent neutrality;
Techniques with adults, psychoanalytic; Techniques with
children, psychoanalytic; Termination of treatment; Training
of psychoanalysts; Training analysis; ‘Transference.
Bibliography
Cahn, Raymond. (1996). La cure psychanalytique. Paris:
Presses Universitaires de France.
1385
PsycHO-ANALYTICAL TREATMENT OF CHILDREN, THE
Freud, Sigmund. (1900a) . The interpretation of dreams. SE,
4-5,
. (1904a). Freud’s psychoanalytic procedure. SE, 7:
247-254.
—. (1905e [1901]). Fragment of an analysis of a case of
hysteria. SE, 7: 1-122.
. (1913c). On beginning the treatment. (Further
recommendations on the technique of psycho-analysis 1).
SE, 12: 121-144.
. (1937c). Analysis terminable and interminable. SE,
23: 209-253.
. (1937d). Constructions in analysis. SE, 23: 255—
269.
Freud, Sigmund, and Breuer, Josef. (1895d). Studies on hysteria.
SE, 2: 48-106.
Glover, Edward. (1955). The technique of psycho-analysis.
London: Bailliere, Tindall and Cox.
Greenson, Ralph R. (1967). The technique and practice of
psychoanalysis. New York: International Universities Press.
Grunberger, Béla, and Chasseguet-Smirgel, Janine. (1980).
La cure psychanalytique. Sur le divan. Paris: Tchou.
Mijolla, Alain de. (1987). De la pratique psychanalytique de
Freud a la notre. Etudes Freudiennes, 30, 17-37.
Further Reading
Rangell, Leo. (1996). The “analytic” in psychoanalytic treatment:
How analysis works. Psychoanalytic Inquiry, 16,
140-166.
Rothstein, Arnold, ed. (1988). How does treatment help? On
the modes of therapeutic action of psychoanalytic therapy.
Madison, CT: International Universities Press.
PSYCHO-ANALYTICAL TREATMENT OF
CHILDREN, THE
This book brings together three works written during
the years 1926-1945. It thus offers a longitudinal and
dynamic view of Anna Freud’s basic theoretical positions
regarding the technique of child analysis and, in
Anna Freud’s own words, “attempts to summarize
some of the advances in the understanding and evaluation
of the infantile neurosis which the author has
made in the [last] nineteen years of work on the subject”
(p. ix). Inevitably, this volume reflects the controversies
and conflicts that opposed the author’s
1386
approach to that of Melanie Klein, who is in fact cited
repeatedly throughout.
The first part of The Psycho-Analytical Treatment of
Children is comprised of four lectures given at the
Vienna Institute of Psycho-Analysis in 1926 under the
general title “Introduction to the Technique of the
Psycho-Analysis of Children.” Here’ Anna Freud
exposes her views of that time on the preparatory
phase of child analysis (Lecture 1), on technique (Lecture
2), on the role of transference (Lecture 3), and on
the relationship between the analysis of children and
their upbringing (Lecture 4). The second part of the
book, “The Theory of Children’s Analysis,” a paper
read to the Tenth Psycho-Analytical Congress at
Innsbruck in 1927, takes up the same theme, while the
third part, the latest, is mainly concerned with indications
for the psychoanalytic treatment of children.
Three main themes can be identified in this work.
The first concerns the techniques used in child analysis,
where, in contrast with adult analysis, free association
does not play a central role; nor does dream interpretation,
which in the case of children is therefore not the
“royal road” to the unconscious. Play and drawing are
considered to be indispensable tools, though she conceives
of them far more as techniques for “observing”
the child than as sources of directly interpretable material.
Indeed the analyst is described by Anna Freud as
an “observer,” very close to the child, who relies on the
words of the parents and their wish for the child to be
treated. The child is not considered capable of being
conscious of its illness, nor, therefore, of asking for
help, whence the need for the analyst actively and
deliberately to induce the young patient to accept “a tie
between us which must be strong enough to sustain the
later analysis” (p. 11).
The issue of the child’s participation in the analysis
raises the problem—a central one in the dispute
between Anna Freud and Melanie Klein—of the child’s
ability to establish a transference during analytic treatment,
and this question is the second essential theme
of this book. Despite some evolution in her thinking,
and even if she acknowledged the possibility of some
manifestations of transference with children, Anna
Freud always maintained that it was impossible for a
childhood neurosis to be supplanted by a transference
neurosis, that is, by a new neurotic formation in which
the analyst replaces the “original objects” in the child’s
emotional life, namely the parents (p. 34). Inasmuch
as the child continues to experience its parents as love-
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objects in reality, the analyst can play a role only as an
addition to, and not as a replacement for, those
relations.
The third and last main theme here, dealt with
mainly in the last part of Anna Freud’s book, in her
discussion of the indications for child analysis, concerns
the distinction between normal and pathological
development, between transient symptoms and real
obstacles to development, between the equilibrium of
defense mechanisms and the overwhelming of those
mechanisms, and, finally, the relations between infantile
neurosis and the formation of the ego. These are
matters also discussed elsewhere by Anna Freud, as for
example in The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defence
(1936) or Normality and Pathology in Childhood
(1965), along with, notably, the idea of “lines of development.”
Anna Freud thus contributed to the attenuation
of an over-mechanical view of the Freudian
“stages” of emotional development, laying the stress
instead on a more dynamic and less linear vision of the
child’s mental functioning. She also emphasized the
part played by reality in the psychoanalytic treatment
of children, notably the importance of an alliance with
the parents and of their evolving attitudes and support
during the course of their child’s treatment—ideas
that have lost none of their present-day relevance.
FREDERIQUE JACQUEMAIN
See also: British Psycho-Analytical Society; Freud, Anna;
Great Britain; Technique with children, psychoanalytic.
Source Citation
Freud, Anna. (1946 [1926-45]). The psycho-analytical treatment
of children. (Parts 1 and 2; Nancy Procter-Grigg,
Trans.). London: Imago; New York: International Universities
Press.
Bibliography
Freud, Anna. (1937 [1936]). The ego and the mechanisms of
defence (Cecil Baines, Trans.). London: Hogarth.
(1965). Normality and pathology in childhood.
Assessments of development. London: Hogarth/Institute of
Psycho-Analysis.
King, Pearl H. M., and Riccardo Steiner. (1991). The Freud-
Klein controversies 1941-1945. London/New York: Tavistock/
Routledge.
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PSYCHOANALYTISCHE BEWeGuNG, DIE
Further Reading
Cohen, J. (1997). Child and adolescent psychoanalysis:
research, practice, and theory. International Journal of Psychoanalysis,
78, 499-520.
PSYCHOANALYTISCHE BEWEGUNG, DIE
In 1929 Adolf J. Storfer founded the review Die Psychoanalytische
Bewegung (The psychoanalytic movement)
as one of the publications of the Internationaler Psychoanalytischer
Verlag. As its title suggests, this
bimonthly periodical was intended to open the frontiers
of the institutionally contained psychoanalytic
world to a broader non-specialist public. As a link
between the science of psychoanalysis and a public
with an interest in the literature, this periodical saw
itself as a forum for somewhat unorthodox propositions
and ideas.
This orientation was already clear in Thomas
Mann’s contribution to the first issue, “Die Stellung
Freuds in der modernen Geistesgeschichte” (The
place of Freud in the history of modern thought).
Mann described Freud as a writer and scientist with
a worldwide reputation whose scope and range far
exceeded the universe of specialist psychologists and
who was well on the way to revolutionizing all
sciences of the mind. In addition to contributions
from applied psychoanalysis, the review also brought
together reviews of contemporary literature in the
domain, as well as short literary or scientific works
dating from an earlier period and considered to be
precursors of psychoanalysis. In this category of genealogical
precursors it published extracts from poets,
such as Boccaccio, or thinkers and philosophers like
Plato, Kierkegaard, Montesquieu, and Montaigne. It
also presented critical points of view from contemporary
writers like Andre Maurois, Italo Svevo,
Arnold Zweig, and Stefan Zweig. The section entitled
“Das Echo der Psychoanalyse” provided information
on events in the world of psychoanalysis and
reviewed recent political and scientific critiques of
psychoanalysis in various sectors
After Storfer resigned from the Internationaler
Psychoanalytischer Verlag, Eduard Hitschmann took
over the publication in August 1932. The number of
subscribers to the periodical dropped after the
National Socialist party came to power in Germany,
1387
PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY
when many German analysts and intellectuals close
to analytic circles fled the country. The economic
and political situation caused the publication of Die
Psychoanalytische Bewegung to be suspended in
December 1933.
Lyp1A MaRINELLI
See also: Goethe Prize; Internationaler Psychoanalytischer
Verlag.
PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY
The term psychobiography in its broadest sense designates
any approach to biography that emphasizes
inner life and psychological development, but in the
more specific sense, it means the use of a formalized
psychological theory and concepts in writing biography,
and it received its decisive impetus from psychoanalysis.
Psychobiography in the broad sense goes
back at least to Plutarch, but Freud’s book on Leonardo’s
childhood (1910) is often seen as one of the first
to apply a formalized metapsychology.
Although many biographies in the past had dealt with
psychological development, the arrival of psychoanalysis
in the twentieth century has offered a comprehensive
psychological theory of early human development that
explains the shaping of the life course. Psychobiography
generally focuses on the formative early years of life in an
effort to uncover the relational dynamics, traumas, or
complexes that might explain later behavior.
Psychobiography is a major instrument of psychohistory
for the study of leading historical figures. But
the two are not identical since psychohistory is especially
concerned with group behavior.
The focus of psychoanalysis on the first few years of
life has led to the sharpest criticisms of psychoanalytic
psychobiography. The most often heard objections
center around the charge of reductionism. First, psychobiography
is criticized for its focus on psychological
factors to the exclusion of cultural, social, economic,
and other external factors. Psychoanalytic psychobiography
in particular is often accused of reducing the
subject’s life to determination by complexes established
in the first few years of childhood, e.g., fixation
on the oral or anal stage or to a failure to successfully
pass the oedipal period. Critics also point out that reliable
evidence on early childhood is often almost
impossible to obtain. As a result of the absence of data,
1388
many psychoanalytic biographers have used theory to
project an image of what the subject’s infancy must
have been like. This practice has brought especial discredit
on the psychoanalytic approach since it is
accused of inventing facts. A fourth objection holds
that psychoanalytic biography lacks the central tool of
psychoanalysis in the clinical setting—free association.
Finally, there is the moral objection that psychoanalytic
approaches have often denigrated the memory of
great men and women by portraying them in terms of
pathology or unresolved infantile conflicts.
Obviously, the more sensible and cautious psychobiographers
have avoided reductionistic claims. The
best psychobiographies also avoid over-confident
assertions about the existence of childhood events
based only on the evidence of adult behavior. The
absence of a living subject’s “free association,” however,
is viewed as less of a handicap than critics assert
because the psychoanalytic biographer can often draw
upon an abundance of diaries, letters, and other writings
as well as sound recordings, photographs, and
films for more recent subjects. Finally, to the objection
that psychobiography maligns the reputation of
exemplary figures, one may reply that the same objection
can be made to any critical biography which
explores the determination of character.
Many of the standard objections to psychoanalytic
biography are also mitigated by the application of those
psychoanalytic theories which place greater emphasis
on ego development. In some versions of ego psychology
the personality is said to continue to develop across
the life span with the possibility that later experiences
can modify processes rooted in early childhood.
According to such perspectives there are important psychological
stages and tasks to be accomplished beyond
the oedipal period, as illustrated in Erik Erikson’s Gandhi’s
Truth, which deals with a crisis in Gandhi’s mature
years. In the early twenty-first century, psychoanalytic
theories provide a variety of perspectives that can illuminate
all stages of the life span, accounting for psychological
health and triumph as well as the persistence of
destructive traits fixed in infancy.
LARRY SHINER
See also: “Claims of Psycho-Analysis to Scientific Interest”;
History and psychoanalysis; Leonardo da Vinci and
a Memory of His Childhood; Life and Works of Edgar Allan
Poe: A Psychoanalytic Interpretation; Psychohistory; Psy-
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chopathologie de l’échec (Psychopathology of Failure);
Thomas Woodrow Wilson, Twenty-eighth President of the
United States. A Psychological Study; Visual arts and
psychoanalysis.
Bibliography
Erikson, Erik H. (1969). Gandhi’s truth. New York: W. W.
Norton.
Freud, Sigmund (1910). Leonardo da Vinci and a memory
of his childhood. SE, 11: 57-137.
Runyan, William McKinley (1982). Life histories and psychobiography.
Explorations in theory and method. New York:
Oxford University Press.
Strozier, Charles B. (1982). Lincoln’s quest for union. Public
and private meanings. New York: Basic.
Tucker, Robert C. (1973). Stalin as revolutionary, 1879-1929.
A study in history and personality. New York: W. W. Norton.
Further Reading
Mijolla, Alain de. (1996). Psychoanalysts and their History.
International Psychoanalysis: The Newsletter of the IPA, 5
(1), 25-28.
. (1998). Freud, biography, his autobiography, and
his biographers. Psychoanalysis and History, 1 (1), 41.
“PSYCHOGENESIS OF A CASE OF
HOMOSEXUALITY IN A WOMAN, THE”
The treatment that Sigmund Freud relates in the article
“The Psychogenesis of a Case of Homosexuality in
a Woman” was a short one, lasting four months. He
had broken it off one year or so earlier, upon recognizing
the force of his patient’s negative transference
towards him.
Then aged nineteen years old, the young girl did
not consider herself to be in any way ill and had only
agreed to begin an analysis at her father’s insistence.
Her father was worried not only about his daughter’s
overt homosexuality but in particular about a recent
suicide attempt; after he had encountered her in the
street in the company of the woman with whom she
was in love, she had thrown herself over a parapet wall
on to a suburban railway line.
The second child and sole daughter of a family of four
children from the Jewish bourgeoisie in Vienna, “assimilated”
by baptism, the young girl had fallen passionately
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‘“PSYCHOGENESIS OF A CASE OF HOMOSEXUALITY IN A WOMAN, THE”?
in love with a “cocotte” who was ten years older than she.
In desperation, the family had decided to appeal to
Freud, despite what he describes as the low esteem in
which psychoanalysis was then generally held in Vienna.
This is the only case of female homosexuality that
Freud reports and the analysis was conducted during a
period when his daughter Anna, then aged twentyfour
years old, was also in analysis with him. This text
could be considered as the starting-point for a development
in Freud’s study of femininity, as he later elaborated
it in “Some Psychical Consequences of the
Anatomical Distinction between the Sexes” (1925)),
“Female Sexuality” (1931b), and “New Introductory
Lectures on Psycho-Analysis” (1933a).
“The Psychogenesis of a Case of Homosexuality in
a Woman” is noteworthy in that it simultaneously
concerns:
¢ Clinical questions: homosexuality in women but
also in men; the concept of object-choice in relation
to the Oedipus complex; the status of
dreams with regard to the unconscious; adolescence
and passage to the act; and suicide.
¢ Technical observations on the treatment: the
negative therapeutic reaction; the transfer of
oedipal hostility onto the analyst; the therapeutic
alliance; and the difficulty with analysis conducted
at the request of a third party.
e Epistemological developments: causality in the
analysis and its unpredictability; innate and
acquired characteristics; and the connections
between psychoanalysis and biology.
It therefore becomes apparent once again how it is
difficulty or even failure in clinical practice that lead
Freud to reflect in a productive way, as is characteristic
of scientific investigation.
Freud addresses the question of homosexuality
from the outset of his work in many texts. He emphasizes
here that “it is not for psycho-analysis to solve
the problem of homosexuality” (1920a, p. 171); that
is, he considers it to be a variant of the sexual organization
that in common with heterosexuality represses
the other part of the original bisexuality. For him, the
analytic attitude consists in re-establishing the full
bisexual function in a way that leaves open the subsequent
choice.
The complex relations between object choice and
identification with the object are demonstrated here:
1389
7
‘(Po ycCHOGEONF EAS CAISES OF HOMOSEXUALITYI N A WoMAN, THE
disappointed in her oedipal love by the birth of a new
brother when she is in the throes of the pubertal resurgence
of the Oedipus complex, the young homosexual
girl turns away from her father and from men in general.
She identifies with her new brother and takes first
her mother and then another woman as love object in
place of her father.
Rather than the oedipal competition, Freud emphasizes
here the negative consequences of the “libidinal
withdrawal” as a convenient position that avoids the
conflict. He also resumes and continues his analysis of
the origin of the compulsion to fall in love with
women of “ill repute” who need to be “saved”
(1910h).
Previously analyzed (1910g), suicide is emphasized
here in its primary murderous and other-directed nature,
which is secondarily turned back on the subject
herself by identification. It is surprising, however, that
the young girl’s passage to the act, which she explains
by her despair in love following her rejection by the
woman who evidently did not want any trouble with
the family, is not discussed any further by Freud—particularly
in its dual character of destructiveness both
toward the mother, represented by the loved and
rejecting woman (who “drops” her), and toward the
father against whom the act is directed as a supreme
act of defiance.
The idea that the patient is attempting to mislead
him with lying dreams leads Freud to an important
observation that the dream is not the “unconscious”
but the form into which a thought left over from conscious
or preconscious waking life is recast.
This is to be understood in the context of the
patient’s negative transference and resistances, which
he likens to Russian military tactics of encouraging the
enemy to advance in order to ambush him later. Realizing
that the patient has transferred to him “the
sweeping repudiation of men which had dominated
her ever since the disappointment she had suffered
from her father” (1920a, p. 164), Freud breaks off the
treatment and advises that she should resume it with a
woman analyst.
In his view, the young girl has therefore proved
incapable of successfully completing the second phase
of the analysis, which follows the period in which
information is obtained and is supposed to lead the
patient herself to grasp hold of the material placed at
her disposal. These technical observations had already
1390
appeared in another form in the concept of workingthrough
(1914g).
Finally, the question of homosexuality leads Freud
to distance himself from the received idea of a congenital
homosexuality and to emphasize, alongside
the somatic sexual characteristics and the type of
object-choice, the importance of the psychic sexual
characteristics—that is, the “masculine and feminine
positions” —leaving the rest to biological research.
This article is therefore an important clinical, technical
and epistemological work.
The therapeutic failure is productive not only
because it leads Freud to reconsider the procedure of
both analyst and analysand in the treatment, particularly
in its beginnings, but also because it leads him to
identify in part with the question posed by the parents:
what should be done with regard to this young girl’s
homosexuality and, above all, could it have been foreseen
and therefore avoided?
This concerns a fundamental question for psychoanalysis,
to which Freud gives a firm answer: “Hence
the chain of causation can always be recognized with
certainty if we follow the line of analysis, whereas to
predict along the line of synthesis is impossible”
(1920a, p. 168).
There are so many causal factors at work that it is
impossible to know in advance which will prove to be
the strongest. The concept of “deferred action” that
characterizes the specific nature of temporality in psychoanalysis
emerges here in its epistemological dimension:
prediction is impossible because it is only in
deferred action that it can be said which elements were
the strongest, for the sole reason that it is these that
have prevailed. Although it may seem a truism, this
observation is nevertheless of fundamental importance
for child and adolescent psychology and it conflicts
with primary pseudo-determinism.
On the ethical plane, it is also a perspective that
leads to an active attitude of confidence in the possibility
that psychic destiny is not fixed for all time. In
fact, Freud does not take the view that homosexuality
is a sexual pathology, although he does emphasize that
female homosexuality is “much less glaring” than male
homosexuality and that it is beyond the purview of the
law.
Despite his annoyance at not managing to get
through his young patient’s defenses and polite con-
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tempt, Freud in fact appears respectful of her choices
and firm with regard to the ethics of the analytic
position, in which there is no question of defining
a “good” sexuality to be imposed on the ailing
“deviant.”
A fascinating biography of the patient, Sidonie
Csillag, was published in 2000 by Ines Rieder and
Diana Voigt. It provides us with a useful reminder
of the context of female homosexuality in this period
and bisexuality as a phenomenon that accompanied
women’s emancipation. The book sheds light
on the unusual fate of this woman, who was to die a
centenarian, after leading a life that was as free,
non-conformist, and adventurous as the one that
had led her to Freud against her will at the age of
nineteen.
SOPHIE DE MyoLLa-MELLOR
See also: Adolescence; Adolescent crisis; Female sexuality;
Femininity; Feminism and psychoanalysis; Homosexuality;
Masculinity/femininity; Negative therapeutic reaction;
Negative transference; Psychic causality; Resistance;
Sexuality; Sexualization; Sexuation, formulas of; Suicide.
Source Citation
Freud, Sigmund. (1920a). Uber die Psychogenese eines
Falles von weiblicher Homosexualitat. Internationale Zeitschrift
fiir Psychoanalyse, V1, 1920, pp. 1-24; GW, XII, pp.
271-302; The psychogenesis of a case of homosexuality in
a woman. SE, 18: 145-172.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1925j). Some psychical consequences of
the anatomical distinction between the sexes. SE, 19: 241—
258.
. (1931b). Female sexuality. SE, 21: 221-243.
. (1933a [1932]). New introductory lectures on psycho-
analysis. SE, 22: 1-182.
Rieder, Ines, and Voigt, Diana. (2000). Heimliches Begehren:
Die Geschichte der Sidonie C. Franz. Vienna/Munich: Deuticke
Verlag.
PSYCHOGENESIS/ORGANOGENESIS
The notions of psychogenesis and organogenesis come
out of a classic debate in the field of psychology—a
debate that, throughout history, has taken the form of
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PSYCHOGENESIS/ORGANOGENESIS
a dichotomy between innate and acquired or subjective
and objective. Today, its most radical form is illustrated
in the opposition between neuronal and mental.
These two notions are usually associated with
causal deterministic or etiopathogenic types of mental
disorders.
Classically, psychogenesis of a mental problem is
understood to mean an etiological or etiopathogenic
process that is exclusively supported by events or
mechanisms of a mental nature and outside of any
organic factor, especially those affecting the nervous
system or the brain. Psychoanalysis, as a theory of the
human mind based on exploration of the unconscious,
for a long time represented and illustrated the
psychogenetic point of view within psychology by
emphasizing the dynamics of unconscious conflict.
Some doctrinal trends within contemporary psychoanalysis,
such as the current informed by the work of
Jacques Lacan, radicalized this viewpoint through the
use of a formalization of the structures of language in
relation to the unconscious.
By contrast, organogenesis of a mental problem is
understood to mean an etiological or etiopathogenic
process grounded in an organic dysfunction. While in
the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries
organic dysfunction was conceived in terms of lesions
of certain areas of the brain according to an anatomical
model, present-day contributions from molecular
biology, genetics, and, above all, the neurosciences
have instead situated such dysfunction within the neuronal
connections that make up the structures of the
brain. Certain currents within psychology, such as
those derived from neuropsychobiological, experimental,
or cognitive approaches, by privileging the
objective dimension within observation protocols and
data collection, illustrate this organogenic point of
view.
From a psychoanalytic point of view, the debate
between psychogenesis and organogenesis can no
longer be treated schematically and exclusively. This
debate raises the question of psychic causality, the
affirmation of which is indissociable from psychic reality.
According to Freud’s conception, mental life is
necessarily grounded in organic life, but there is a limit
beyond which psychoanalytic inquiry can no longer be
relevant. Following up from that viewpoint, today one
can say that mental functioning is grounded in brain
functioning, but that it does not derive directly from,
nor is it reducible to, brain functioning. The logic of
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PsycHOGENIC BLINDNESS
the mental thus remains heterogeneous to the logic of
the neuronal, as is shown, in particular, by its theoretical
referents. Notions such as the drive—with its two
polarities, somatic and psychic—or representation, as
well as modern psychoanalytic studies on borderline
states or psychosomatic states, which emphasize symbolic
transformations (meaning) and economic transformations
(force) attest to a specifically mental reality
that has its own causality.
At the margins of the psychogenetic and organogenetic
points of view, one current of doctrine, the organodynamic
current, attempted to make a synthesis
between the two. An outgrowth of the work of the neurologist
John Hughlings Jackson, and based on a hierarchical,
evolutionary conception of the structures of
the nervous system, this trend was applied in the field
of psychopathology, specially by Henry Ey and others.
In this conception, it is posited that mental disorders
are linked to dissolution or disorganization at a certain
level of mental organization, by means of damage of
organic origin that generates negative symptoms, and
to reorganization at an inferior level, linked to mental
life’s characteristic dynamism and ability to generate
positive symptoms. In the field of psychosomatic phenomena,
Pierre Marty applied this model in an original
and personal way to the psychosomatic economy
and its disorders.
CLAUDE SMADJA
See also: Constitution; “Heredity and the Aetiology of the
Neuroses”; Heredity of acquired characters; Organic
repression; Phylogenetic Fantasy, A: Overview of the
Transference Neuroses; Psychic causality; Psychotic/
neurotic.
Bibliography
Changeux, Jean-Pierre. (1983). L Homme neuronal. Paris:
Fayard.
Ey, Henry. (1973). Traité des hallucinations. Paris: Masson.
Freud, Sigmund. (1893c). Some points for a comparative
study of organic and hysterical motor paralyses. SE, 1:
155-172.
. (1910i). The psycho-analytic view of psychogenic
disturbance of vision. SE, 11: 209-218.
Marty, Pierre. (1980). Les Mouvements individuels de vie et
de mort. I, L’Ordre psychosomatique. Paris: Payot.
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PSYCHOGENIC BLINDNESS
Psychogenic blindness, whether it arises from too great
a desire to see or from a refusal to see, had psychological
causes for Freud. Here, as elsewhere, hysteria was
Freud’s guide: it was apropos of hysteria that he
broached the subject of conflict between the various
visual functions, and he placed the eye (the source of
visual pleasure) and the act of looking itself at the center
of his thinking.
His study “The Psycho-Analytic View of Psychogenic
Disturbance of Vision” (1910i) dealt specifically with
blindness that had its origin in hysteria. He noted that
hypnosis could be used to induce blindness experimentally
by suggesting to the subject not to see anything,
but that in hysterical patients the idea of being blind did
not proceed from third-party suggestion but arose
spontaneously from autosuggestion. Hence his question:
when and under what conditions does an idea
become so powerful that it behaves like a suggestion
and becomes a reality? For Freud “hysterically blind
people are only blind as far as consciousness is concerned;
in their unconscious they see” (p. 212): the stimuli
reaching the blind eye arouse unconscious affects.
Certain ideas associated with vision remain separate
from consciousness: they have succumbed to repression
because they conflict with other, stronger ideas
that dominate the ego. Such conflicts between ideas
are simply an expression of the conflict between
instincts, especially between the sexual instincts and
the ego instincts, both of which use the same organs of
the body. Thus the eyes perceive not only the modifications
to the outside world that are important for
preserving life, but also the characteristics and attractions
of the love object. But it is not easy to serve two
masters: the more that an organ with this dual function
enters into an intimate relation with one of the
two great instincts, the more likely it is to refuse itself
to the other. This can have pathological consequences
if the two basic instincts are disunited, if, for example,
the partial sexual instinct that uses the eyes makes
excessive demands. These excessive demands disturb
the relation of the eyes and the act of seeing to the ego,
because the ideas linked to these demands succumb to
repression and are excluded from consciousness. This
circumstance may attract a counterattack from the ego
instincts.
When the sexual interest of sight, Schaulust, becomes
too insistent, the ego no longer wants to see anything,
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and the visual organ, using its power to separate, puts
itself entirely at the disposal of the sexual instinct in the
unconscious. Because the ego then no longer has conscious
control over the organ, the repression miscarries,
and a substitute mechanism converts the repression into
blindness. This blindness seems to be the result of an
implacable psychic logic: by seeking to misuse the visual
organ for purposes of sexual pleasure, subjects condemn
themselves to see only the sexual on the unconscious
stage and otherwise to see nothing.
When Freud tackled the question of the uncanny
(1919h), he mentioned E. T. A. Hoffmann’s tale The
Sandman, in which a character plucks out children’s
eyes to graft them onto automatons. This story, he felt,
lent support to his view that the feeling of uncanniness
is directly related to the sight of the female genitals,
particularly those of the mother. He stressed the frequent
unconscious equivalence between the eyes and
the genital organs, and between blindness and castration.
Blinding oneself, like Oedipus, is an attenuated
form of self-castration, but it also makes one the
bearer of a blind eye, which represents the other sex
while disfiguring the face. In his theory, Freud, with a
single word, iibersehen, which means both to look and
to overlook, successfully condensed the story of
Oedipus.
Blindness is thus the result of a punishment, but
what is the nature of the offense? The hysteric’s blindness
seems to play out the Oedipus complex quite literally.
For one, it choses a substitute organ, the eye,
which stands at once for the castrated sexual organ
and the desired sexual organs of the mother. Moreover,
it makes the eye into the special object of the desire to
see, as though it were obliged to reduce the sexual
organ to the eye and were subject to the autoerotic
need for the eye to derive pleasure from the eye.
JEAN-MICHEL Hirt
See also: Castration complex; Hysteria; Look/gaze; Psychic
causality; Psychogenesis/organogenesis; Scoptophilia/
scopophilia; Visual.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1910i). The psycho-analytic view of psychogenic
disturbance of vision. SE, 11: 209-218.
. (1919h). The “uncanny.” SE, 17: 217-256.
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PSYCHOHISTORY
Rey, Jean-Michel. (1979). Des mots a l’ceuvre. Paris: Aubier-
Montaigne.
PSYCHOHISTORY
Psychohistory may be defined as the application of
formal psychological models in historical research.
The modern field known as psychohistory is usually
dated from the appearance of Freud’s book on Leonardo
(1910), although the term psychohistory did not
come into use until the 1960s. Although scattered
attempts at the application of psychoanalytic theories
to history were made between 1910 and 1940, the rise
of Hitler and National Socialism led to a renewed
interest in understanding irrational motivation. This
was particularly true in the United States, where
William L. Langer became president of the American
Historical Association in 1958 and called for psychoanalytic
methods to replace amateur psychologizing in
historical research. That same year Erik Erikson published
his widely read Young Man Luther: A Study in
Psychoanalysis and History. As a result of Langer’s and
Erikson’s influence many younger scholars turned to
psychohistory, as the new field was soon nicknamed.
Although the fields of psychohistory and psychobiography
are closely related, psychohistory limits
itself to important historical figures like Richelieu,
Hitler, or Wilson, and attempts to go beyond individual
psychology to group behavior. Many historians
regard the real test of the utility of psychoanalysis for
history to be its success in explaining group behavior.
A number of recent psychoanalytic studies, such as
Robert Jay Lifton’s The Nazi Doctors, have attempted
to explain group behavior in extreme historical situations.
The witchcraft trials of the seventeenth century
have also provided a fruitful subject for the study of
group behavior, as in John Demos’s Entertaining Satan
(1982) on New England or Lindal Roper’s Oedipus and
the Devil (1993) on southern Germany.
Psychohistory has been controversial within the history
profession from its beginnings, but particularly
after it became a prominent sub-field within academic
history in the United States. Attacks on psychohistory
have been of two kinds. One kind assails the careless
research methods and hasty conclusions reached by
some authors, particularly by clinicians not trained in
historical method or by historians who misunderstand
and misapply psychoanalytic concepts. The second
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PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS
kind of objection to psychohistory involves specific
problems such as the role of individuals in history
compared to larger social and economic forces, the
charge of reductionism and the importance of
acknowledging possible alternative explanations, the
difficulty of “analyzing” the dead from scant evidence
of childhood experiences, and, finally, questions concerning
the validity of psychoanalytic theory itself.
Although there are reasonable answers to each of these
problems, some academic historians remain hostile to
psychohistory.
Perhaps the most important reply to the general
antagonism toward psychohistory is that since history
has accepted models and theories drawn from the
other social sciences (sociology, anthropology, economics),
historians should not continue to use amateur
psychology but draw on explicit psychological
models. Of course, there can be a non-psychoanalytic
psychohistory and even among those historians sympathetic
to psychoanalysis there are many differences
in approach, some following traditional instinctual
models, others some form of object relations, and an
increasing number pursing ego psychology models
like that of Heinz Kohut.
Some have suggested that methodological problems
could more easily be avoided if psychohistorians
received professional training in both history
and psychoanalysis and there are a number of
present-day historians who not only have doctoral
degrees in history but are certified by one of the
psychoanalytic institutes. In the United States a
number’ of psychohistorians hold teaching and
research positions in universities and offer doctoral
training to younger scholars. Two journals exist,
The Journal of Psychohistory, which primarily publishes
the work of practicing clinicians, and The
Psychohistory Review which publishes the work of
historians and clinicians concerned to meet the
standards of academic history. Despite some continuing
resistance, psychohistory in the broadest
sense is an established part of academic history in
the United States and to a lesser degree in Germany
and Israel. It has made its way more slowly
in Britain and France.
LARRY SHINER
See also: Collége de psychanalystes; Erikson, Erik Homburger;
Politics and psychoanalysis; Psychobiography.
1394
Bibliography
Friedlander, Saul (1975), Histoire et Psychanalyse. Essai sur
les possibilités et les limites de la pyscho-histoire. Paris: Le
Seuil; translated by Susan Suleiman as History and psychoanalysis:
An inquiry into the possibilities and limits of psychohistory.
New York: Holmes and Meier, 1978.
Gay, Peter (1985). Freud for historians. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Loewenberg, Peter (1985). Decoding the past: The psychohistorical
approach. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.
Marvick, Elizabeth (1985). The “Annales” and the unconscious:
Continuity and contrast within an_ historical
school. Psychohistory Review, 13, 42-52.
Runyan, William McKinley (1988). Psychology and historical
interpretation. New York: Oxford University Press.
Further Reading
Mijolla, Alain de. (1996). Psychoanalysts and their history.
International Psychoanalysis: The Newsletters of the IPA, 5
(1), 25-28.
PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS
Psychological tests are those that are designed to reveal
individual modes of psychological functioning. Some
of these are subject to strict codification and numerical
evaluation that afford an assessment of individual
performance in relation to a standard. Others use
more flexible techniques and do not have recourse to
quantification: the expression “projective personality
assessment” is often then used rather than “test.” This
expression is applied to so-called expressive and “projective”
evaluations, the only ones to bear—often,
though not always—the mark of some aspect or
another of psychoanalytic theory.
Hermann Rorschach, a Swiss psychiatrist trained
in the Burgholzli clinic directed by Eugen Bleuler, was
the first to imagine this type of test when he had the
idea of asking his patients what they saw in inkblots.
This test, which has given rise to innumerable publications,
is the most commonly used. In his theoretical
views, Rorschach himself was no doubt more influenced
by Bleuler and Gustav Jung than by Sigmund
Freud, although some of his successors have tried to
fit him into coherent psychoanalytic thinking (Anzieu
and Chabert, 1997),
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Another type of assessmentderives from the line of
approach begun by Henry Murray in 1935 with the
Thematic Apperception Test, or TAT. In these thematic
tests the subject is presented with plates (or photographs)
presenting one or more characters engaged in
a situation and an action that the subject is asked to
imagine. Leopold and Sonya Soral Bellak constructed
a version for children in which the plates represent
humanized animals (Children’s Apperception Test, or
CAT). Many other evaluations using the same principle
have been put forward (like Louis Corman’s Black
Paw, Roger Perron’s Personal Dynamic and Images).
A great many assessmentshave been imagined using
different principles, almost always in a psychoanalytic
context: sentences to complete and stories to complete
(Madeleine Thomas); fables in which the person being
tested has to comment on the moral (Louisa Diiss);
stories to create and tell with the material support of
dolls (Gertrude von Staabs), characters, elements of a
village (Henri Arthus, Pierre Mabille); interpretation of
the expressions on human faces in photographs (Leopold
Szondi). Saul Rosenzweig’s Frustration-Aggression
test no doubt deserves special mention because it is
built explicitly on the basis of a hypothesis derived from
psychoanalysis (“frustration produces aggression”). It
met with great success in the world of American experimental
psychology between the two wars.
Lastly, we must accord a special place to “expressive”
techniques that interpret the content and style of
speech, walking, gestural behavior, but most of all graphic
behavior: writing, but above all drawing, a procedure
that Francoise Dolto in particular demonstrated
(Le Dessin de l’E nfant, 1996).
These techniques are said to be “projective,” based on
the hypothesis that what the subject “perceives” of the
material presented (which is preferably ambiguous and
open to multiple interpretations in terms of graphics,
situation, and so on) is in fact indicative of the subject’s
representations of the world, people, interpersonal relations
and, definitively, of the subject’s own psychic functioning.
This often supposes a fairly psychologized and
simplified definition of the psychoanalytic notion of
projection, although certain authors prefer to use the
notion of identification, which is also every bit as complex
in psychoanalytic theory. Theoretical simplification
always runs the risk of resulting in relatively simplistic
interpretation procedures. Correct use of these techniques
presupposes a solid grounding in clinical psychology
and psychopathology, as well as specialized training.
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PSYCHOLOGICAL TYPES (ANALYTICAL PsyCHOLoGy)
Under these conditions, projective tests constitute an
important instrument for contributing to psychological
and psychopathological diagnostics.
ROGER PERRON
See also: Psychological types (analytical psychology); Psychology
and psychoanalysis; Rorschach, Hermann;
Szondi, Leopold; Word association. ‘
Bibliography
Anzieu Didier, and Chabert, Catherine. (1997). Les méthodes
projectives. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
Brelet, Francgoise. (1986). Fantasme et Situation projective.
Paris: Dunod.
Raffier-Malosto, Jocelyne (Ed.). (1996). Le Dessin de l’enfant.
De l'approche génétique a l’interprétation clinique. Paris: La
Pensée Sauvage.
Further Reading
Schafer, Roy. (1967). Projective testing and psychoanalysis:
Selected papers. New York: International Universities Press.
Sugarman, Alan, and Kanner, K. (2000). The contribution of
psychoanalytic theory to psychological testing. Psychoanalytical
Psychology, 17, 3-23.
PSYCHOLOGICAL TYPES (ANALYTICAL
PSYCHOLOGY)
Carl Jung’s discrimination of human consciousness
according to its functions (thinking, feeling, sensation,
and intuition) and habitual attitudes (extraversion
and introversion) was his attempt to provide a psychology
of experience with a critical orientation in
sorting out the empirical material of psychic dispositions,
tendencies, and convictions. Jung’s first presentation
of the idea of psychological types was in a
lecture delivered at the Psychoanalytical Congress in
Munich during September 1913. He noted the striking
difference in attitude toward the external world
between patients diagnosed with hysteria and those
diagnosed with schizophrenia in terms of intensity of
feeling, the former displaying an exaggerated emotivity
with regard to the environment and the latter an
extreme apathy. He also noted characteristic differences
in thought content: the fantasy life of the patient
with hysteria may be accounted for in a natural and
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PSYCHOLOGICAL TYPES (ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY)
human way by the antecedents and individual history
of the patient, whereas the patient with schizophrenia
consciously experiences fantasy closer to dreams than
to the psychology of the waking state in having a distinctly
archaic character, with mythological creations
more in evidence than the personal memories of the
patient.
From these facts, Jung concluded that hysteria is
characterized by a centrifugal movement of libido,
which he called extraversion, and schizophrenia by a
contrary movement, which he called introversion,
toward the core of the personality (which he later
called the self). Although Jung recognized that in these
two clinical syndromes he was witnessing regressive
extraversion and regressive introversion, he nevertheless
concluded that there was in the development of
consciousness a normal distinction between the two
movements of libido. Extraversion, he postulated,
tends naturally to bond and even merge with objects
in the outer world, while introversion naturally turns
away from such objects in order to link up with the
internal objects that Jung eventually called archetypes.
Kenneth Shapiro and Irving Alexander have subsequently
noted that these two movements of libido are
constitutive of experience itself for the different types,
experience only being experience for the extravert
when it is shared with another person or object in the
outer world and, for the introvert, when it matches up
to some a priori archetypal category or capacity to
experience just that type of thing. The theory of psychological
types itself is an introverted way of thinking
about experience and making it real, which may
account for its difficulty for psychologists using an
extraverted attitude.
In the years between 1913 and 1921, when the
book Psychological Types finally appeared, Jung developed
the theory to include what he called the functions
of consciousness, which he named sensation,
thinking, feeling, and intuition. Whether deployed
toward objects in the outer world or toward the
inner world of archetypes, sensation gives consciousness
the practical sense that an object is really being
presented to it; in other words, that it is, thinking
gives it a name, feeling assigns it a value (for which
reason Jung’s feeling is sometimes replaced by analytical
psychologists with the word valuing or with feeling
valuation) and intuition grants consciousness a
direct, uncanny perception (from the perspective of
the “absolute knowledge” of the unconscious) of the
1396
origin and fate of the object, as Jung puts it “whence
it arises and where it is going.”
For Jung sensation and intuition are irrational functions
in being functions of perception which are irrationally
“given.” Thinking and feeling, by contrast, are
rational functions, being choices, in the sense of judgments
by consciousness, as to how ‘to discriminate
among objects that are perceived.
That individuals develop consciousness in different
ways, according to their preference for using certain
functions over others has led the theory of psychological
types to be used to type people and to predict their
likelihood to succeed in certain professions. A test
based on Jung’s model, known as the Myers-Briggs
Type Indicator (MBTI), has had widespread use in the
United States. The MBTI uses categories of judging
and perceiving to distinguish Jung’s rational and irrational
extraverted functions. In typing the preferred
mode of consciousness of an individual, an attempt is
made to define the person’s typical “superior function”
according to whether it is extraverted or introverted,
whether it is most characterized by sensation,
thinking, feeling, and intuition, and whether it is
rational or irrational.
There will normally be an auxiliary function that is
“different in every. respect” providing the individual
with an alternative mode of consciousness with which
to meet inner and outer situations. In depth psychological
work, it is also important to define the “inferior
function” which, though much less easily differentiated
into a conscious competence, is the place one
most often experiences unconscious complexes and
conflicts.
JOHN BEEBE
See also: Analytical psychology; Animus-Anima; Extroversion/
introversion (analytical psychology); Midlife
crisis.
Bibliography
Franz, Marie-Louise von, and Hillman, James (1971). Lectures
on Jung’s Typology. New York: Spring.
Jung, Carl Gustav (1913). A contribution to the study of psychological
types. Coll. Works, Vol. 6. London: Routledge
and Kegan Paul.
(1921). Psychological Types. Coll. Works, Vol. 6.
London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
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Myers, Isabel, and Myers, Peter (1980). Gifts Differing. Palo
Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Shapiro, Kenneth, and Alexander, Irving (1975). The Experience
of Introversion. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
PSYCHOLOGY AND PSYCHOANALYSIS
It is important to stress the point that for Freud himself
psychoanalysis was a psychology. In 1923 he wrote:
“Psychoanalysis is the name (1) of a procedure for the
investigation of mental processes which are almost
inaccessible in any other way, (2) of a method (based
upon that investigation) for the treatment of neurotic
disorders and (3) of a collection of psychological information
obtained along those lines, which is gradually
being accumulated into a new scientific discipline”
(1923a, p. 235).
Rarely in his writings did he make any mention of
contemporary work in “academic” psychology, however.
He sometimes cited authors who wrote in German
(Wundt, Hering, and Ehrenfels), French (Binet
and Claparede), or English, like Darwin and his cousin
Francis Galton, or Stanley Hall, whom he met in 1909
on his voyage to the United States, but such references
remain episodic. The two most frequently cited
authors are Fechner, from whom he borrowed the
principle of constancy in the framework of his energy
approach to psychic function, and Pierre Janet, with
whom he had a long controversy based both on a conflict
of prestige and priority and on a fundamental theoretical
divergence: Janet explained hysteria in terms
of reduced “psychic tone,’ whereas Freud saw the
effects of conflictual tension in it.
One could therefore consider Freud to be ill
informed about work by psychologists in his own
time. This would probably be completely false: his
interest in memory and perception fits readily into
the framework of a “psychology of the faculties,”
which was still very much present in Project for a
Scientific Psychology (1950c [1895]), the main points
being reviewed in The Interpretation of Dreams
(1900a). Over the years, however, his concepts, which
were initially strongly influenced by the dominant
empiricist associationism of the late nineteenth century,
progressively evolved toward a radically different
approach to memory and perception that allows for
the effects of deferred action and also focuses on the
psychoses and delusions (Perron). This provides a
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
PSYCHOLOGY AND PSYCHOANALYSIS
new solution to the whole problem of the relations
between the “reality of the external world” and “psychic
reality,” a solution that has nothing in common
with the views developed elsewhere in psychology.
We must also bear in mind that while he was still at
school it was from a psychologist, albeit an amateur,
Herbart, that Freud acquired the fundamental ideas of
psychoanalysis, ideas such as repression, the threshold
of consciousness, and the unconscious (Andersson)—
these were the origins of the topical model of metapsychology.
The origins of the economic model can be
found in the “energetic” trend that included, among
others, Brticke, his mentor, and Fechner. The
“dynamic” model is specifically psychoanalytic. There
is also what is sometimes referred to as a “fourth
point of view,” the developmental perspective: case
studies analyzing the stages in the development of a
given child were very much in vogue in psychology
between 1880 and 1930, from Baldwin and Binet to
Piaget himself. With the cases of “Little Hans” and
the “Wolf Man” Freud fit into this stream of ideas in
his own way.
After Freud, what were and what are the influences
of psychology on psychoanalysis? And conversely,
what are the influences on psychology of psychoanalysis?
The asymmetry is patently clear. Although certain
psychoanalytic developments are deliberately based on
ideas and facts coming from disciplines such as psychiatry,
biology, linguistics, sociology, and ethnology,
it is not easy to cite analogous importations from psychology
or any of its so-called scientific branches
(experimental psychology and differential psychology,
for example). Perhaps the epistemological (in terms of
basic postulates) and methodological gap is such that
this type of importation seems unacceptable to psychoanalysts,
who dread a “psychologization” that
would empty metapsychology of its essential substance.
In Europe, at any rate, the opposition to Hartmannian
“Ego Psychology” has often been justified in
this way. However, psychoanalytic theories on memory,
perception, and thought processes would gain by
being better informed about the current work of psychologists
and neuropsychologists on these questions,
and it is regrettable that they are still too often discussed
in psychoanalysis in the same terms in which
Freud posed them.
This discrepancy could be attributed to the “narcissism
of minor differences,” the separation between
things that are too similar. However, it is obvious that,
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PsycHo.ocy oF DEMENTIA PRACOX, THE
seen from the reverse point of view, the influences of
psychoanalysis on psychology are of major importance,
in at least three respects:
e In terms of theories. Certain research trends have
developed in experimental and differential psychology
based on hypotheses that have been
imported from psychoanalysis (albeit with distortions
and simplifications): work on selective
forgetting of unpleasant experiences and on
aggressive behavior caused by frustration.
e In terms of techniques. Here we are referring
mainly to so-called “projective” and “expressive”
trials. It is important to remember that Rorschach,
a psychiatrist at the Burgholzli asylum
(directed by Bleuler, and where Jung also
worked), created his famous ink blot test in the
context of psychoanalytic ideas, as they were
accepted in that institution around 1920. It is
patently obvious that in recent years psychoanalytic
theory has had a strong effect on this
Rorschach test, as well as so-called thematic tests
(Murray’s TAT), both in terms of research work
and its interpretation in individual clinical practice.
As for children’s drawings (classified among
the “expressive” techniques), it has become
commonplace though nevertheless still pertinent
to interpret them in psychoanalytic terms, as
Francoise Dolto illustrated particularly well.
¢ In more general terms, a whole new sector of psychology
has developed in a context where many
consider psychoanalytic references to be dominant,
which creates no small difficulties for the
professionals in question (Perron).
In fact, no valid questions concerning the relations
between psychology and psychoanalysis can be posed
without first asking: which psychology, which psychoanalysis?
In both fields questions are being asked
concerning the permanently threatened unity of the
respective disciplines. There is no doubt very little in
common between the “pure” experimental psychologist
working on the memorization of meaningless
syllables and the clinical psychologist who is trying
to understand the dynamics of phobic behavior leading
to a total inability to work. In a similar vein,
apart from very general principles, there is very little
common ground to be found between Jacques
Lacan, Heinz Hartmann, Melanie Klein,
Kohut, Wilfred Bion, and numerous others.
Heinz
1398
Can these gaps between and within each of these
disciplines one day be reduced? Such an effort presupposes
an analysis of the epistemological bases of each
approach, and it seems doubtful that such an analysis
would produce any unified theory.
ROGER PERRON
See also: Analytical psychology; Année psychologique, L’
Applied psychoanalysis and the interaction of psychoanalysis;
Archives de psychologie, Les; “Claims of Psychoanalysis
to Scientific Interest”; Claparéde, Edouard;
Cognitivism and psychoanalysis; Ego psychology; Janet,
Pierre; Lagache, Daniel; Metapsychology; Meyerson,
Ignace; National Psychological Associaton for Psychoanalysis;
Piaget, Jean; “Project for a Scientific Psychology,
A’; Psychological types (analytical psychology); Self
psychology.
Bibliography
Andersson, Ola. (1962). Studies in the prehistory of psychoanalysis.
Stockholm: Svenska Bokforlaget.
Assoun Paul-Laurent. (1981). Introduction a l’épistémologie
freudienne. Paris: Payot.
Couvreur, Catherine; Oppenheimer, Agnés, Perron, Roger,
and Schaeffer, Jacqueline (Eds.). (1996). Psychanalyse, neurosciences,
cognitivismes. Paris: Presses Universitaires de
France.
Perron, Roger. (1995). Prendre pour vrai. Revue francaise de
psychanalyse, 59 (2), 499-512.
Perron, Roger, and Perron-Borrelli, Michele. (1997). Fantasme,
action, pensée. Algiers: Editions de la Société algérienne
de psychologie.
Further Reading
Barron, James W., Eagle, Morris N., and Wolitzky, David L.
(eds.). (1992). Interface of psychoanalysis and psychology.
Washington, DC: American Psychological.
PSYCHOLOGY OF DEMENTIA PRAECOX, THE
The Psychology of Dementia Preecox dates from the period
when Carl Gustav Jung was conducting clinical
research at the Burghdélzli university clinic in Ziirich
(1900-1909). Encouraged by Eugen Bleuler, he took
an interest in Dementia precox (schizophrenia)
although he had distinguished himself for years
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
through his work using the association test and aimed
at acquiring a better comprehension of psychodynamic
processes in normal and hysterical subjects. It
was first published in book form by Carl Marhold
Publishers at Halle.
The work breaks down into five chapters. After a
critical review of the existing literature on the subject,
Jung starts out from Freudian psychology and his own
research and establishes the concept of the complex,
demonstrating its general influence on the psyche and
the validity of associations. In chapter 4 the author
describes the parallels between hysteria and Dementia
precox, their symptoms and their psychodynamic
foundations. As an illustration he then provides a
complete analysis of a case of paranoid dementia.
In both pathologies Jung discovers one or several
complexes in the depths of the patient’s being. In the
case of hysteria these are linked to the symptoms in an
obvious way and have never been completely overcome,
while in the case of Dementia pracox they are
fixed in a lasting fashion and the causal link with the
symptoms cannot be determined. For Jung there was a
powerful affect at the beginning of the disease. The
author postulates the existence of a factor X, a metabolic
toxin for example, that would create a directly
harmful effect of the complex, or a predisposing factor,
like a sort of organic cerebral disposition.
His most acerbic critics reproached Jung with trying
to provide a psychological explanation for an affection
with an undeniably organic cerebral origin in order to
present an apology for Freud’s ideas. But Jung never
had any such intention. In any case, his work is perfectly
consistent with the research at the Burgholzli
asylum, which also helped Bleuler to situate patients’
often-incomprehensible symptoms in a meaningful
context of individual psychology. Bleuler paid his
respects to Jung and to Freud in his important work
on schizophrenia.
BERNARD MINDER
See also: Ego-libido/object-libido; Jung, Carl Gustav;
Schizophrenia.
Source Citation
Jung, Carl Gustav. (1907). Uber die psychologie der Dementia
proecox: ein versuch. Halle, Marhold; Gesammelte werke,
vol. 3, Olten-Freiburg in Breisgau: Walter-Verlag, pp. 1—
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““PSYCHOLOGY OF THE UNCONSCIOUS, THE’ ,
316; The psychology of Dementia pracox. Coll. works, vol.
3, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd.
Bibliography
Bleuler, Eugen. (1908). Dr Wilhelm Stekel, Spezialarzt fiir
Psychotherapie in Wien: Nervése Angstzustande und ihre
Behandlung. Miinchner Medizinische Wochenschrift, 32,
1702-1703. F
. (1911). The group of schizophrenias (Joseph Zinkin,
Trans.) New York: International Universities Press.
Haenel, H. (1908). Literaturkritik. Neurologisches Zentralblatt,
1, 39-40.
“PSYCHOLOGY OF THE UNCONSCIOUS,
THE”
An article by Thédore Flournoy on the poems, reveries,
and visions of an American student named Miss
Miller inspired Jung to compare these products of the
imagination with mythology and the history of religions.
It was an opportunity for him to differentiate
himself from Freud by laying the foundations for his
theoretical constructions. Several powerful ideas were
developed: the libido is not uniquely sexual; some
unconscious content is a condensation of the collective
history of psychic evolution; certain fantasies are
recurrences of ancient beliefs—they cannot enable us
to understand mythology but by finding the source of
myths we can gain access to the psyche; and incest is
first of all a psychic reality before it begins to concern
the real mother. The article “The Psychology of the
Unconscious” contains the seeds of all the Jungian
concepts before he actually formulated them explicitly.
It cost him his friendship with Freud and was followed
by a long period of internal crisis.
In 1950 he reworked and updated the article in the
light of his research over the intervening decades,
though he did not deny any of its original contents. It
was published under the title Symbole der Wandlung
(Symbols of transformation).
In the first part Jung analyzes the religious sentiment
and the difficulty of differentiating between human love
and love of God or the divinity. By studying the interplay
of the archetypes in the collective unconscious he
reveals the psyche’s capacity to rediscover in the present,
and in relatively new forms, experiences and ideas that
marked the history of humanity. The second part intro-
1399
PsycuHoLocy of WomeEN, THE. A PSYCHOANALYTIC INTERPRETATION
duces his concept of the libido, which he bases on his
work on schizophrenia and which appears radically different
from Freud’s concept. Jung then goes on to
describe his concept of incest, which is one of the pivotal
points of his theory. Symbolically, incest signifies an
ebbing of the libido (Jung speaks of regression) toward
ancient layers of the unconscious located well beyond
the genetic mother. For Jung the unconscious is a place
of becoming, the locus of encounter with the “Great
Mother.” This return to origins is symbolized by the
hero’s combat with the monster. In his quest the hero
aspires to being reborn but he must nonetheless
renounce this incestuous attraction in order to be liberated
from the maternal, otherwise he risks being
engulfed by it. Jung thus develops the question of sacrifice.
In the process of individuation, the organizing
influence of the Self underlies this movement and
actualizes itself through the Self’s confrontation with
ancient unconscious content.
VIVIANE THIBAUDIER
See also: Jung, Carl Gustav; Libido; Mythology and psychoanalysis;
Projection and “participation mystique”
(analytical psychology).
Source Citation
Jung, Car] Gustav. (1911-1912). Wandlungen und Symbole
der Libido. Beitrage zur Entwicklungsgeschichte des Denkens.
Jahrbuch fir psychoanalytische und psychopathologische
Forschungen, III (1), 120-227; Psychology of the
unconscious: A study of the transformations and symbolisms
-of the libido: A contribution to the history of the
evolution of thought. Coll. Works (Vol. 5). London: Routledge
& Kegan Paul.
Bibliography
Flournoy, Théodore. (1906). Miss Frank Miller, Quelques
faits d’imagination créatrice subconsciente. Archives de
psychologie, 5, 36-51.
Freud, Sigmund, and Jung, Carl G. (1974a [1906-13]). The
Freud/Jung letters: The correspondence between Sigmund
Freud and C. G. Jung (William McGuire, Ed. Ralph Manheim
and R.F.C. Hull, Trans.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press.
Guy-Gillet, Genevieve. (1984). Inceste et sacrifice. In Cahier
de L’Herne, 46, Jung (pp. 64-80). Paris: Herne.
Kacirek, Suzanne. (1980). Le concept de libido selon C. G.
Jung: Des “Metamorphoses et symboles de la libido” a
1400
“Lénergétique psychique.” Cahiers jungiens de psychanalyse,
26, 1-20.
Shamdasani, Sonu. (1990). A woman called Frank. Spring,
50.
PSYCHOLOGY OF WOMEN, THE.
A PSYCHOANALYTIC INTERPRETATION
The Psychology of Women. A Psychoanalytic Interpretation
consists of two volumes. The first, entitled “Childhood
and Adolescence,” appeared in 1944, followed in
1945 by the second, with the sub-heading “Motherhood.”
This breakdown corresponds to what Helene
Deutsch called “the fundamental dualism of femininity,”
which opposes individual development and personality
with the role of “servant of the species.” She
was trying to shed a psychoanalytic light on the conflicts
that are born of this dualism, which is only surpassed
and transcended through the reconciliation of
the antagonistic goals of the individual and the species,
a point Freud stressed in “On Narcissism: An Introduction”
(1914c).
Published at the end of World War II, The Psychology
of Women reviews and develops, in the
light of new observations, the author’s first conclusions
concerning the different problems of female
psychology described in her first book, Psychoanalyse
der weiblichen Sexualfunktionen (Psychoanalysis
of the sexual functions of women), published by
the Vienna Verlag in 1925. This, together with her
work on female homosexuality, was based on clinical
material gathered over a twelve-year period. As
her biographers have pointed out (Roazen), The
Psychology of Women is also influenced by the
author’s personal experiences. The book was born
of her double desire to put her ideas to the test
of time, and to compare them with those of
Freud.
Although certain concepts have aged, some of
her theses are still pertinet: the “secondary” character
of penis envy in girls; the slowness of the construction
of femininity (the opposite position to
that of Freud, who believed the fate of femininity
was prematurely sealed at the phallic stage), which
explains her decision to study the psychology of
women only from the latency period onward; and
the psychic importance of the phenomena of
“expectancy” (linked to late anatomo-physiological
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
female maturation) and _ identifications. Deutsch
described the development of the female personality
as a process that takes place through a series of
intermediary identifications that correlate with
modifications affecting her objects and the links to
them. Equally striking is her assertion that the rape
fantasy is universal and non-pathological, being a
veritable organizer of female sexuality.
There was no shortage of criticism for The Psychology
of Women, either from the feminists, who
reproached her for her Freudian orthodoxy, or from
psychoanalysts, for the converse reason. Very few of
those who welcomed Winnicott’s ideas with enthusiasm
were able to recognize similar ideas expressed in
The Psychology of Women, particularly in volume 2,
“Motherhood.” Deutsch’s great mistake is no doubt
the fact that she named this vast psychoanalytic study
of more than seven hundred pages The Psychology of
Women.
JACQUELINE LANOUZIERE
See also: Deutsch-Rosenbach, Helene; Female sexuality;
Femininity; Oedipus complex.
Source Citation
Deutsch, Helene. (1944-1945). The psychology of women. A
psychoanalytic interpretation (Vols. 1-2). New York: Greene
and Stratton.
Bibliography
Deutsch, Helene. (1991). Psychoanalysis of the sexual functions
of women (P. Roazen, Ed., and Eric Mosbacher,
Trans.). London: Karnac. (Original work published 1925)
Freud, Sigmund. (1914c). On narcissism: An introduction.
SE, 14: 67-102.
Roazen, Paul. (1985). Helene Deutsch. A psychoanalyst’s life.
New York: Anchor.
Further Reading
Schuker, Eleanor, and Levinson, Nadine. (1991). Female psychology:
An annotated psychoanalytic bibliography. Hillsdale,
NJ, and London: Analytic Press.
Tyson, Phyllis. (1996). Female psychology: An introduction.
Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 44(S),
11-22.
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PSYCHOPATHOLOGIE DE L'ECHEC (THE PSYCHOPATHOLOGY OF FAILURE)
PSYCHOPATHOLOGIE DE L’ECHEC (THE —
PSYCHOPATHOLOGY OF FAILURE)
Written between 1935 and 1939, the first draft of René
Laforgue’s manuscript Psychopathologie de l’échec (The
psychopathology of failure) contained a chapter on
Hitler, which the author is said to have destroyed
because he felt threatened by the Gestapo. The first
French edition of the book was published in Marseilles
in 1941. In the same year, hoping to see his work translated
into German, Laforgue appealed on several occasions
to Matthias Goring, director of the Institute of
Psychotherapy in Berlin. Having read the manuscript,
a Professor von Hattenberg passed a negative judgment
on the grounds that it “trots out Freud’s doctrine
in an utterly uncritical manner.” In the last version,
published after the author’s death, the publisher
acknowledged Mrs. Délia Laforgue, who had made
changes and corrections in accordance with her husband’s
wishes and instructions.
Laforgue’s book was a study of failure neurosis and
the influence of what he called the “Super-I.” “One
day,” he wrote, “we will find a better term for it, for
example, ‘Ductorium’ as proposed by Edouard
Pichon.” By way of example, Laforgue took the Jewish
“minority” (the word was replaced by “collectivity”
beginning with the edition of 1944). The Jews, he
argued, “harbor an obsessive fear of persecution which
they frequently associate with an atmosphere, even
should that atmosphere no longer justify the fear”
(1941; the edition of February 1944 has: “an atmosphere
which no longer justifies that fear”). The
“Super-I” of the Jews (“Super-Ego” in the 1950 and
1963 editions) “collaborates in the persecution, and if
need be provokes it.... Its opposition determines
(“may determine” in the editions of 1944 and 1953] in
them a more or less pronounced infantilism and a
more or less powerful latent homosexuality.” According
to Laforgue, that homosexuality was always
reflected by a tendency to be a victim rather than a
victor.
Laforgue also described collective and class-specific
superegos, powerfully influenced by education and
religion. Changing social class, specifically moving
from the working-class to the bourgeoisie, produced
individuals prone to failure on account of the unconscious
influence exerted by a proletarian superego
(comparable to the superego of ghetto Jews) reacting
to the betrayal implied by upward social mobility.
1401
PsycHopaTHoLocy oF EveryDAy LiFe, THE
In the second edition of Laforgue’s book, famous
patients and personalities like Rousseau and Robespierre,
along with Napoleon, were scrutinized from a
psychobiographical point of view. Chapter 12 of the
first edition, “On Professional and Affective Orientation.”
in which he leaned heavily on the work of Professor
Reiter, President of the German Health Institute,
on the subject of the social value of an individual for
the community, was removed from later editions and
replaced by Laforgue’s long study of Napoleon’s failure
neurosis.
Historians, like those who lived through the war
years in France, have great respect for Laforgue’s abilities
as a clinician. But inasmuch as this some time member
of International League against Anti-Semitism supported
Marshal Petain, his psychoanalytical theories of
collective psychology—and indeed his political judgment—
should, to say the very least, be treated with
great circumspection.
JEAN-PIERRE BOURGERON
See also: Failure neurosis; Laforgue, René.
Source Citation
Laforgue, René. (1941). Psychopathologie de léchec. Marseilles:
Les Cahiers du Sud; (1944). 2nd edition. Paris:
Payot; (1950). 3rd edition. Paris: Payot; (1963). 4th edition
(Delia Laforgue, Rev.). Geneva: Editions du Mont-Blanc.
Bibliography
Mijolla, Alain de. (1988). Psychoanalysis and psychoanalysts
in France between 1939 and 1945. International Forum of
Psychoanalysis, 12, 136-156.
Roudinesco, Elisabeth. (1986). René Laforgue ou la collaboration
manquée: Paris—Berlin 1939-1942. Confrontation.
PSYCHOPATHOLOGY OF EVERYDAY
LIFE, THE
Sigmund Freud’s lively book, The Psychopathology of
Everyday Life, has some unique characteristics. Freud
discusses psychoanalytic matter in the context of
everyday life, sidestepping the experience of neurosis.
He abandons his customary process, that of discussing
the normal in terms of the pathological. Everyday psychopathology
is discussed with few allusions to infan-
1402
tile sexuality and its impact on adult pathology. The
theoretical aspect is practically nonexistent, although
Freud does compare the interpretation of everyday life
to dream theory, another banal psychopathological
phenomenon familiar to everyone. He emphasizes the
importance in life of displacement, condensation,
over-determination, and the creation of compromise
formations. He makes use of his knowledge and interest
in literature to provide many examples by writers,
poets, and dramatists, reinforcing his position by
emphasizing their intuitive understanding of the
meaning of parapraxis.
The book contains twelve chapters on forgetting
(proper names, words belonging to foreign languages,
series of words, impressions, and projects); childhood
memories and screen memories; slips of the tongue
(spoken and written); mistakes, clumsiness, symptomatic
acts, errors, associations of several “parapraxes”;
and the determinism of the unconscious, the belief in
chance and superstition.
All these forms of behavior are grouped under the
heading of “slips of the tongue”: “I almost invariably
discover a disturbing influence [in slips of the tongue]
... which comes from something outside the intended
utterance; and the disturbing elelment is either a single
thought that has remained unconscious.... or it is a
more general psychical motive force which is directed
against the entire utterance” (p. 61). To belong to this
category they must not exceed “the limits of the normal
state” and they must “have been previously
accomplished correctly.”
Freud’s description emphasizes various aspects of
these phenomena: These are mental functions that
“cannot be justified by an explanation of the representation
of the goal toward which they are directed.”
This demonstrates the importance of the psychic
determinism associated with unconscious desire and
rejection. He notes, for example, the forgetting of a
proper name, which is linked with a disturbance of a
thought, due to an internal contradiction, arising from
a repressed source (the name of the painter Signorelli
replaced by the names Botticelli and Boltraffio). The
use of free will assumes a distinction between conscious
and unconscious motivation; accordingly, some
motor acts are disturbed on account of the unconscious—
for example, the loss or destruction of an
object that has meaning either in terms of the person
who has given it to us or because a symbolic association
with something else has been shifted toward this
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
object. Our errors of judgment acquire a sense of certainty
and remain convincing for us, precisely to the
extent that they express a repressed content. This is, at
the very least, the same reasoning used by the paranoiac
who rejects any accidental element in the psychic
manifestations of other people, such as incorrect
statements.
The meaning of symptomatic actions is sometimes
difficult to determine; repressed ideas and tendencies
remain hidden from the individual, as internal resistance
presents an opposing force. Technically, slips of
the tongue and bungled actions are made possible
by the shifting of nervous excitation. In the example
of the lapsus linguae, there can exist, between the
intended word and the spoken word, a phonetic
resemblance (a “contamination”) or psychological
associations connected with the person’s history. As
in dreams there is a disturbing element (which is
repressed) that makes itself felt through “deformations,
mixed formations, or compromise formations,”
or, again as in dreams, a word may be replaced by its
opposite. These phenomena reveal two factors simultaneously:
a positive one (free association) and a
negative one (relaxation of the inhibitory action of
attention).
What mental factors are thus expressed? The disruptive
idea arises from innate tendencies and should
not be confused with the intentional idea, or an association
exists between the two, or the disruptive idea is
unconscious and comes into play when activity is
undertaken, thus revealing itself by indirectly disturbing
the intentional idea. This is the case with slips of
the pen, where there can exist, in a waking state, a phenomenon
of condensation, in which conscious and
unconscious ideas overlap as in dreams. This is also
the case when we forget past events that are associated
with a memory likely to awaken a painful sensation
from a different time (in keeping with the idea that the
“unconscious is outside time”); or when we forget certain
things because of a conflict associated with an
opposing wish; or likewise when we make a mistake,
ot a strange impulse is manifested that contradicts an
intended action. This is equally true of other kinds of
acts, which are often symbolic representations of
dreams or desires.
The Psychopathology of Everyday Life, one of
Freud’s best known works, is an excellent introduction
to psychoanalysis. His observation of the psychopathology
of normal life has not, however, had the
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PsYCHOSES, CHRONIC AND DELUSIONAL
subsequent theoretical development it deserves. Work
on orality, anality, feminism, or sibling relations in
everyday life would benefit from new investigations of
metapsychology.
GISELE HARRUS-REVIDI
See also: Cryptomnesia; Déja-vu; Delusion; Forgetting;
Masochism; Negative hallucination; Parapraxis; Psychic
causality; Slips of the tongue; Suicidal behavior; Time.
Source Citation
Freud, Sigmund. (1901b). Zur Psychopathologie des Alltagslebens
(tiber Vergessen, Versprechen, Vergreifen, Aberglaube
und Irrtum. Monatsschrift fiir Psychiatrie und Neurologie,
10, 1-2, 1-32, 95-143; Zur Psycopathologie des
Alltagslebens, Berlin: Karger, 1904; GW, 4; The psychopathology
of everyday life. SE, 6.
PSYCHOSES, CHRONIC AND DELUSIONAL
In psychiatry the term psychosis, first used to refer to mental
illnesses in general, was later restricted to the major
clinical forms: schizophrenia, chronic and delusional
psychoses, and manic-depressive psychoses. Unlike the
neurotic, the psychotic subject does not “criticize” the disorders
of his or her thought. In 1845 Baron Ernst von
Feuchtersleben used the term psychosis to refer to mental
illness in his manual of medical psychology. At the end of
the nineteenth century, alienists defined psychosis as the
loss of reason and mental alienation.
Psychoanalysis seeks less to categorize mental illnesses
than to identify their structures and mechanisms.
A structural and dynamic definition of psychosis
must be conceived on the basis of a primary disturbance
of the libido’s relationship to reality, through
splitting and the reconstruction of an alternative, delusional
reality. Eugen Bleuler, influenced by psychoanalysis,
characterized schizophrenia as a dissociation of
thought through withdrawal into the self, or autism.
He posited as its basis splitting, linked to a loosening
of associative texture. Skirted around by Sigmund
Freud, who preferred the term paraphrenia, the notion
of schizophrenia nevertheless became standard within
psychiatry and psychoanalysis. A second variety of
chronic psychosis, paranoia, is characterized by systematic
delusions (delusions of persecution, jealous
delusions, erotomania, delusions of grandeur), the
1403
PsycHOSES, CHRONIC AND DELUSIONAL
predominance of interpretation, and the absence of
intellectual deterioration.
In Manuscript H (1894), Freud designated three
conditions as psychoses: hallucinatory confusion,
patanoia, and hysterical psychosis (which he distinguished
from hysterical neurosis). In his texts on the
neuro-psychoses of defense (“The Neuro-Psychoses of
Defence” [1894a] and “Further Remarks on the
Neuro-Psychoses of Defence” [1896b]), he took the
distinction between neurosis and psychosis as given.
From his earliest writings, he undertook to characterize
the psychopathology of the psychoses through his
successive theories of the psychic apparatus. His only
study of a case of psychosis is his commentary on
Daniel Schreber’s Memoirs of My Nervous Illness.
Freud’s correspondence with Carl Gustav Jung illustrates
the development of Freudian doctrine between
1909 and 1911, and the essays “On Narcissism: An
Introduction” (1914), “Fetishism” (1927), and “The
Loss of Reality in Neurosis and Psychosis” (1924)
show the further elaboration of his theories.
Freud examined the individual’s relationship to reality
from the vantage point of a consideration of the
libidinal cathexes. in the psychoses, the loss of reality—
and the changed relationship to others following
a radical decathexis of the objects of everyday reality
(“the end of the world,” for Schreber)—must necessarily
be considered in a way other than descriptive,
taking into account the attempted reorganization of
reality by the psychotic processes.
All psychoses are characterized by the coexistence
of two attitudes: one that takes reality into account,
and another that “this same ego, under the influence
of the id, withdraws from a piece of reality” (1924e, p.
183). Delusions affirm the subject’s belief in the
existence of an alternative reality that restores the primitive
cathexes that archaically linked childhood
awareness with an early love object. The reconstruction
of reality in accordance with the “desires” of the
id expresses both a defensive cancellation and a reparative
force. This entails a process whose psychotic manifestation
in no way excludes rearticulation in terms of
the mechanisms defined by psychoanalysis. Thus, in
Freud’s view, hallucinatory psychosis could be considered
as the expression of an imaginary maintaining of
an early reality whose loss the ego finds unbearable.
This theorization requires the refinement of concepts
such as regression, which is above all conceived as a
function of development of the ego and of the libido:
1404
In the one case, regression leads to primary narcissism,
and in the other, to hallucinatory wish fulfillment.
Initially, Melanie Klein, like Karl Abraham, tended
to base her clinical work on a psychopathological theory
of the points of fixation and temporal regression
of the libido. In addition to this temporal regression,
Freud distinguished a topographical regression that
made it possible to compare the mechanisms of
dreams with those put into play in psychosis. “In schizophrenia,
it is words that become the object of elaboration
by the primary process; in the other, the
dream, it is the thing-presentations: representations of
things to which the words have led.” In schizophrenia,
circulation is cut off between the preconscious cathexis
of words and unconscious thing-presentations. The
fundamental mechanism of paranoia is projection.
The feeling of hatred toward the object is projected
outward and then turned back onto the subject in the
form of persecutory hatred.
In the final stage of his work, in describing the splitting
of the ego, Freud was on the way to defining an
original mechanism of the repudiation of reality in psychosis:
denial of the reality of castration. This notion of
the Verleugnung (denial) of castration, which he
opposed to repression, goes back to the primal experience
of loss. Thus, Jacques Lacan, taking up the term
Verwerfung (rejection) in his discussion of the “Wolf
Man,” translated the German Verwerfung as foreclosure
and, on the basis of this notion of a primordial excision
of a fundamental signifier, elaborated his conceptualization
of psychosis. The phallus as the signifier of castration
is not inscribed within the symbolic order. Not integrated
into the psychotic’s unconscious, it returns to the
real, especially in the phenomenon of hallucinations.
Through Lacan’s paternal metaphor, it can be considered
that foreclosure of the Name-of-the-Father is the
hole in the symbolic that is inherent in all psychoses.
The psychoanalytic elaboration of a theory concerning
chronic and delusional psychoses runs up against
the difficulty and complexity of a concrete approach. It
becomes diversified into a theoretical eclecticism bringing
together the considerations through which each
school of thought, and indeed each analyst, refines and
consolidates the foundations of the transference relationship.
For all the intrinsic interest of the original
viewpoints of John N. Rosen, Frieda Fromm-Reichmann,
Marguerite Sechehaye, Gisela Pankow, Gaetano
Benedetti, or Piera Aulagnier, among others, it is
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
a tlt claehcctet iglerance wit
out having access to the specific techniques used in
sete seapectioe therapeutic approaches,
Through a “psychotic transference” that moves from
_ extreme avoidance to a relationship that is almost one of
merging, demands are placed on the analyst that touch
his or her own archaic unconscious dispositions; “falling
in love-hate” and the preponderance of narcissistic
investment over object investment make it difficult to
the complof emedxicaitiotn-byase d, institutional, or
be remembered in a variegated context (families, caregivers,
recipients of care) if one wants to maintain a
certain structural coherence. Jos% Bleger’s notion of framework,
Lacanis of historization, and the understanding of
and institutaliwayos bne iampllem—enmtedu wshent t he
challenge of treating the psychoses is undertaken.
Mice: DemMANGEAT
:
“Oee e
See also: Ego Psychology and Psychosis, Foreclosure; Historical
truth; Hypochondria; Indications and contraindications
for psychoanalysis for an adult; Infantile psychosis;
Mathilde, case of; Paranoia; Paranoid psychosis;
Paraphrenia; Persecution; Psychotic/neurotic; Schreber,
Daniel Paul; Symbolization, process of.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (18942). The neuro-psychoses of defence.
SE, 3: 41-61.
—. (1896b). Further remarks on the neuro-psychoses
of defence. SE, 3: 157-185.
. (191 1c [1919]). Psycho-analytic notes on an autobiographical
account of a case of paranoia (dementia paranoides).
SE, 12: 1-82.
. (1914). On narcissism: An introduction. SE, 14:
67-102.
. (1924e). The loss of reality in neurosis and psychosis.
SE, 19: 180-187.
. (1927e). Fetishism. SE, 21: 147-157.
. (1974a [1906—-13]). The Freud/Jung letters: The correspondence
between Sigmund Freud and C. G. Jung
(William, McGuire, Ed; Ralph Manheim and R. F.C. Hull,
Trans.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Lacan, Jacques. (1966). On a question prelimintaor ayn y
possible treatment of psychosis. In Ecrits: A Selection
Imtegwatiowac Dictiowary or Psycuoawmatysis
Povcnosesua. DeveLorwent
(Alan Sheridan, Trans.). New York and London: W. W.
Norton.
PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT =
Psychosexual development is the progressive evolution
of infantile sexuality as it passes through the different
stages or phases of psychic organization (oral, anal,
phallic) with due regard for a prevalent erogenous
zone, which organizes fantasies, and a certain type of
object relation. Complete psychosexual organization is
not reached until the arrival of puberty and a final
phase of libidinal develotphem geenitnalt ph,as e.
Freud saw infantile as being active from
the beginning of life. This broadened the notion of
sexuality, giving it a range of extension that is specific
to psychoanalysis.
In the Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality
(1905d), Freud initially saw infantile sexuality as a sort
of precursor of adult sexual perversions and a blueprint
for pubertal genitality, but he later described it as
the mainspring of psychic development. He used the
term infantile sexuality in an effort to acknowledge the
existence of the stimuli and the needs for satisfaction
that involve specific body zones (erogenous zones)
that seek pleasure independently of exercising a biological
function. He therefore described the sexual
instinct as becoming separate from the vital functions
that ensure the preservation of the organism in
accordance with the anaclitic model (whereby the
sexual instincts initially depend on those vital functions).
The pleasure bonus provided alongside the
accomplishment of the function would, in a second
stage, be sought for its own sake. Freud thus considered
anaclisis, the erogenous zone, and autoeroticism
to be three intimately linked criteria for the definition
of infantile sexuality.
The Freudian scheme of the phases of libidinal
development links two essential components at each
stage: on the one hand, an organizing erogenous zone,
along with the excitations and instinctual movements
for which it is both the link and the source, and on the
other, the modalities of the object relation linked to
development of the ego.
In the Three Essays, Freud stressed the existence and
importance of oral and anal erogenous zones (in addition
to the genital which is the primary erogenous
zone in adults), describing them as pregenital and
1405
PsYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT
highlighting the autoeroticism that is linked to them:
sucking in relation to oral activity, retention/expulsion
for anal erotism.
The specification of infantile genital organization as
phallic organization nevertheless shows clearly that the
prevalence of one erogenous zone is inseparable from
a certain mode of symbolic organization. The Oedipus
complex is organized around the idea of castration,
which is represented in the unconscious as castration
of the penis (Perron and Perron-Borelli, 1996). The
loss of the breast and feces that are specific to the oral
and anal stages can also be considered as early symbolic
forms of genital castration.
The relationship between weaning—as implementing
the absence of the mother—and the Oedipus complex
introduces the structural point of view, which
relativizes the developmental model of the stages and
gives it its best perspective (Brusset, 1992).
In the normal evolution of sexuality the component
instincts of childhood are progressively integrated into
the genital sexuality of the adult. What remains of
them is found in the foreplay that precedes the sexual
act proper.
The potential for stimulation of these pregenital
erogenous zones remains present in the body and in
the mind and they tend to be reactivated on the occasion
of later sexual experiences. Their degree of erotism
is integrated into the genital sexuality of the adult.
Excessive repression of these residues from the infantile
period can lead to neurotic symptoms. Similarly, what
persists in a prevalent and manifest manner in the perversions
is repressed in neurosis. Hence Freud’s famous
aphorism: “Neurosis is the negative of perversion.”
The phases Freud described between 1905 and 1923
correspond to successive organizations of the sexual
instinct under the primacy of a given erogenous zone:
the oral phase, sadistic anal phase, infantile genital or
phallic phase, followed by the genital phase after puberty.
He also distinguished at the same time the different
stages leading from autoerotism to full object love,
that is, the progression from autoerotism, narcissism,
toward the homosexual or heterosexual object choice.
Three points deserve to be raised here in order to
provide a better definition of the notion of psychosexuality
as envisaged by Freud.
1) The body is first and foremost considered as the
seat of the instincts (drives) and the source of the exci-
1406
tations aiming for satisfaction. In the Three Essays he
makes a point of defining infantile sexuality as a criterion
for organ pleasure and autoerotic satisfaction.
However, in the course of the following years he integrated
his earlier discoveries about the role of fantasies
into this. He showed, specifically, how the fantasy
works “by integrating the attachments of infantile
sexuality can, depending on the case, result in conscious
formations (daydreaming, for example) or, on
the contrary, formations that are repressed into the
unconscious” (Perron and Perron-Borelli, 1996).
2) It should be noted that these infantile manifestations
of sexuality only come to play their full role
“aprés coup.” The adult pervert’s exclusive fixation on
certain components of infantile sexuality must be
understood as a regression and a return to pregenital
fixations.
3) Finally, infantile sexuality culminates toward the
fourth or fifth year of life, the age when sexual tumult
gradually enters a latency period, and is not reactivated
until puberty when it leads to adult sexuality in the
context of general maturity. There is therefore at this
stage a halt, a decline in psychosexuality, and this period
is then subjected to the infantile amnesia of the
latency period. Freud related this diphasic establishment
of sexual life, which can be observed only in
human beings, to events in humanity’s prehistory.
In any case, it is during the period of latency “that
are built up the mental forces which are later to
impede the course of the sexual instinct and, like
dams, restrict its flow” (1905d, p. 177).
After the Three Essays, Freud gave the oedipal conflict
its full organizational value, normal libidinal
development being defined in psychoanalytic theory
as the integration of the polymorphously perverse
aspects of infantile sexuality under the primacy of the
genital organization.
Following the Three Essays, Freud’s successive contributions
(1913-24) continued to expand on the general
outline of the stages of libidinal development.
Karl Abraham tried to find the etiopathogenic basis
for all of psychopathology in this model. He distinguished
two stages within each of the first two phases
(oral and sadistic oral, anal and sadistic anal) and he
further stressed the link existing between the specific
erogenous zone and the modalities of object relation
particular to it.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Many authors after him, such as the proponents of
Ego-Psychology (Heinz Hartmann, Ernst Kris, and
Rudolph Loewenstein), used the outline of libidinal
development and made it a major element in a genetic
psychology that could be integrated into a general psychology.
Others, on the contrary, particularly in
France (Jean Laplanche and Jean-Bertrand Pontalis;
Brusset, 1992; Perron, Perron-Borelli, 1996) insisted
on the importance of the notion of organization. Each
stage or phase of development creates a structure, in
the modern sense of a self-regulated functional system
tending toward equilibrium. Each of these phases in
psychosexual development organizes not only the present
state of mental functioning but also its future
state. Infantile genital organization therefore defines
the oedipal phase as the great organizer of mental
functioning, laying down in the infantile phase of
sexuality what will become the genital organization of
the adult.
JEAN-FRANCOIS RABAIN
See also: Libidinal development.
Bibliography
Brusset, Bernard (1992). Le Développement libidinal. Paris:
Presses Universitaires de France.
Freud, Sigmund (1905d). Three essays on the theory of
sexuality. SE, 7: 123-243.
Mijolla, Alain de, and Mijolla-Mellor, Sophie de (Eds.).
(1995). Psychanalyse. Paris: Presses Universitaires de
France.
Perron, Roger, and Perron-Borelli, Michele. (1996). Le
Complexe d’Edipe (2nd edition). Paris: Presses Universitaires
de France.
Further Reading
Davison, Susan, rep. (1998). Panel: A contemporary review
of the psychosexual phases of development. International
Journal of Psychoanalysis, 79, 164-167.
Lester, Eva P. (1976). On the psychosexual development of
the female child. Journal of the American Academy of Psychoanalysis,
4, 515-528.
Siskind, Diana. (1994). Arrests of psychosexual development
and separation-individuation. Psychoanalytical Inquiry, 14,
58-82.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
PSYCHOSOMATIC
PSYCHOSOMATIC
It is difficult to provide an exact definition of psychosomatics.
To some extent the term itself already indicates
a theoretical bias. It joins together the normal or
pathological dynamics of both mental and somatic
structures and assumes their close interaction. According
to Pierre Marty, psychosomatics is the clinical
observation of individual mental or somatic organization,
disorganization, and reorganization, the attempt
to draw from those observations theoretical findings,
and the practical application of those findings to
the therapeutic situation. If considerably broadened,
psychosomatics would involve a global understanding
of what it is to be human.
The term psychosomatics appeared in 1818 in the
work of J. C. H. Heinroth, a German psychiatrist, and
reflects a naturalist and vitalist approach to medicine.
The context was formalized in 1945 by British psychologist
James L. Halliday. The word has been in use since
then among a wide range of practitioners, often with
different interests. In the United States it is often
referred to as psychosomatic medicine.
Prior to these developments, the interaction of psyché
and soma, both within and beyond the context of
philosophy and religion, reflected a vague association
of the term with organic disease. It has been said
(Kamieniecki) that “the history of medicine has written
the prehistory of psychosomatics.” This prehistory
has gradually distinguished psychosomatic medicine,
in various socio-cultural contexts, from its philosophical,
mystical, and religious corollaries, the Corpus Hippocraticum
being a good example. Since then there has
been a continued effort to identify the links between
“the ontological unity of being and the phenomenological
duality of its operation.”
This project, which has become for some researchers
an original and fundamental discipline, can be considered
part of a psychoanalytic framework, for it
“consists in subjecting the somatic to the same
dynamic and the energic considerations that govern
the life of individuals undergoing analysis,” according
to the authors of Linvestigation psychosomatique
(Psychosomatic investigations; Marty, M’Uzan, and
David). It must be noted that this project has generated
no consensus, since it is a matter of applying
these principles to the field of organic disease from the
standpoint of psychoanalysis, a concept that has its
detractors. Psychosomatics relates to the human indi-
1407
PsYCHOSOMATIC
vidual in its concrete being, living and sexual, acting
through its own body and mental organization—
including the conflict within the individual movements
between life and death (Marty)—and where illness
is an incarnation of the logic governing the living
being.
In the area of organic disease, where research in
psychosomatics has been directed, what has been
referred to as the “psychosomatic phenomenon,” the
interaction of psyché and soma, remains problematic
and has led to numerous claims that have further confused
the concept: psychogenesis, generalized conversion,
somatization, and so on, not all of which have
the same heuristic value. Somatization, seen as the
result of a process in which mental causality (in the
broad sense) plays a role, has become a doctrine for
some. However, the real problem and focus of interest
for the psychosomatic psychoanalyst, aside from any
reactive mental disturbances, remains the discovery of
a process for understanding and interpreting the reality
of the disease, any possible exacerbation, and its
resurgence in times of crisis. This entails the question
of causal factors, while at the same time giving medical
factors their due. It therefore includes the notion of a
possible psychic causality that would interweave two
histories of pathological alteration that belong to different
orders but whose interactions are not purely
random. When the two fields do not interact, there is
no psychosomatic phenomenon, only the evolution of
somatic morbidity along biological lines. The possible
psychic causes remain an open question; these may be
neither necessary nor sufficient but cannot be overlooked,
even if we do not believe in psychogenesis or a
limited determinism, and even if we feel that the “constructed
meaning” of a symptom is not the cause or
the origin of the disturbance.
Freud was not overly concerned with a strictly psychosomatic
approach to disease, but in 1923 he wrote,
“According to the indications of some analysts, the
psychoanalytic treatment of obvious organic disturbances
is not without a future, since it is not unusual
for a psychic factor to play a role in the genesis and
persistence of these affections” (1923a [1922]). The
libidinal organization points to the somatic as a
source; the description of actual neurosis and its
underlying hypotheses (for some this is related to the
so-called process of somatization); the idea of libidinal
stasis identified in the organic disease; and the emergence
of the id (the term originates with Groddeck, a
1408
precursor of psychosomatics according to some
authors)—all these theoretical hypotheses, after being
reworked, have led to the conclusion that Freud was
also a pioneer in this field.
More recent interest in psychosomatics can be
traced to the investigations of the American researchers
Helen Flanders Dunbar and especially Franz Alexander
during the 1940s. Their work helped develop
later research and elements of it can be found, in modified
form, among psychosomaticians and clinical psychologists.
The so-called New York School (Dunbar)
was associated with the culturalist movement of the
time. They related organic pathology to pre-morbid
“personality profiles,” specific to certain clinical symptoms:
the structure of the personality would expose a
specific part of the organism to external aggression
and would prepare the way for somatization. Dunbar
also hypothesized an emotional dynamic, derived
from Darwin, who assigned a defensive goal to the
emotions, coupled with the affective repercussions
within the body itself. Dunbar was one of the first to
take a neovitalist approach—the degradation of vital
energy—to developing an understanding of psychosomatics.
For him, the exclusion of conflict outside consciousness
would result from a short-circuiting of the
mental (though he does not use this word), through
subcortical mechanisms. This school of thinking concluded
that psychoanalysis alone would provide a deeper
understanding of the processes in question.
Franz Alexander believed that the personality profile
alone was not sufficient to determine causality. He
centered his hypotheses on the notion of a “specific
psychodynamic constellation.” This constellation was
based on basic reactions that ensued following an
increase in tension within the psychic apparatus, reactions
that encompassed the autonomic nervous system
and the subcortical stem, along with basic dispositional
characteristics. The idea of psychosomatic medicine
(the title of his first book) was both established
and subject to criticism because of its over-reliance on
biology. But internal conflicts and emotional reactions
culminating in physical changes also played a role.
This sequence led to the concept of “organ neurosis,”
corresponding to the abnormal stagnation of a quantity
of energy in an organ or system. These connections
between affective states and somatic behaviors resulted
in “psychosomatic patterns” that, from functional disturbances,
could produce organic symptoms. One
finds in his work profound intuitions that have con-
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
tributed to contemporary theory in spite of his overly
biological approach and pertinent suspicion about the
concept of organodynamics, a concept picked up by
Henri Ey.
During the 1960s, two approaches to psychosomatics
appeared in France. These were the sources of a number
of subsequent developments that altered, weakened,
and expanded certain hypotheses, and modified the
clinical and therapeutic approach to the field. Jean-Paul
Valabrega promoted an approach to somatic symptoms
through a model of generalized conversion isolation,
whose rediscovered source in fantasy would give meaning
to the symptom. For Valabrega the isolation of the
conversion phenomenon from its source and its specifically
hysterical environment resulted in the development
of manifestly visceral symbolizations, which
originated in conversion phenomena and were unexplained
by reference to a hysterical kernel common to
all neuroses. In this context of “psychosomatic conversion,’
Valabrega insisted on the resurgence of the fantasy
at the very site from which it had been expelled, a
hypothesis associated with the general problem of the
accessibility of the symptom to symbolization and
meaning. The psychosomatic symptom was said to constitute
a physical barrier that had to be crossed by separating
it from its hidden fantasy elements, which had
been kept in check. “In other words, according to the
hierarchical etiology, the specificity is defined less by
physiopathological or psychopathological mechanisms
than by the singular mode of organization which underlies
both mechanisms” (1966/1974).
In 1963, the so-called psychosomatic school of Paris
(Pierre Marty, Michel de M’Uzan, Christian David,
Michel Fain) formalized its approach, based on the
notion of deficit, where a mental loss (fantasy, oneiric,
associative, the loss of mental defenses) was seen as
paradigmatic. This concept meshed satisfactorily with
the findings of psychoanalysis, especially in the area of
psychic economy, where the somatic symptom is asymbolic
and does not produce meaning. Their approach
gave rise to a number of developments. After Pierre
Marty introduced the concept of operative thought,
other clinical concepts emerged, such as essential depression
and chronic disorganization, and Marty insisted on
the reorganizing value of the regression/fixation system.
The process of disorganization, triggered by trauma and
incapable of stopping the regression/fixation system,
became the crux of the “somatization process.” However,
regression can also be pathogenic and reversible
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PsycHosomatic Limit/BOUNDARY
illnesses are conceivable, in terms of points where disorganization
is halted at various stages of somatic fixation.
This model, based on monist, evolutionist, and neovitalist
principles, and extensively described in Marty’s
writings, presents an internal coherence that has made
it a classic, although not always accepted, reference in
the field.
ALAIN FINE
See also: Actual neurosis/defense neurosis; Alexander,
Franz Gabriel; Groddeck, Georg Walther; Marty, Pierre;
Psychogenesis/organogenesis; | Psychosomatic _ limit/
boundary; Somatic compliance.
Bibliography
Alexander, Franz. (1950). Psychosomatic medicine, its principles
and applications. New York: Norton.
Kamieniecki, Hannah. (1994). Histoire de la psychosomatique.
Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
Marty, Pierre. (1990). La psychosomatique de l'adulte. Paris:
Presses Universitaires de France.
Marty, Pierre, M’Uzan, Michel de, and David, Christian.
(1963). L’Investigation psychosomatique. Paris: Presses Universitaires
de France.
Valabrega, Jean-Paul. (1974). Problemes de théorie psychosomatique.
In Encyclopédie médico-chirurgicale: Psychiatrie.
Paris: E.M.-C. (Original work published 1966)
Further Reading
Winnicott, Donald W. (1966). Psycho-somatic illness in its
positive and negative aspects. International Journal of Psychoanalysis,
47, 510-516.
PSYCHOSOMATIC LIMIT/BOUNDARY
The term psychosomatic limit (or psychosomatic boundary)
designates the virtual demarcations and separations
between the space of the body and that of the
psyche. At the same time this boundary serves as a
contact barrier where, if the person has good mentalization,
psychic phenomenon take on symbolic or
metaphorical significance at the somatic level or, conversely,
somatic excitation is registered in the psyche.
This concept cannot be grounded in a monistic
account of the psyche-soma (Pierre Marty, the Paris
1409
PsycHOSOMATIC Limit/ BOUNDARY
School), but should rather be understood as André
Green explained in Somatisation, psychanalyse et
science du vivant (Somatization, psychoanalysis, and
the science of the living; 1994), in terms of a “structural
dualism that comes out of a de facto monism ...
in which the psychic apparatus is posited as being
rooted in the nervous system but as developing its
own distinct properties from there, which data based
on biological structures alone cannot account for.”
The concept of the psychosomatic limit is present but
seldom explicit in the work of Sigmund Freud. The
notions of the drives, conversion, and the ego bring
this concept into play. One of its synonyms, the word
frontier, appeared for the first time in Three Essays on
the Theory of Sexuality (1905d) in connection with the
instincts; there Freud described an instinct as “the psychical
representative of an endosomatic, continuously
flowing source of stimulation.... The concept of the
instinct is thus one of those lying on the frontier
between the mental and the physical” (p. 168).
Instinct, representing a source of internal excitations,
thus becomes one of the forms of the body’s language.
In “Instincts and Their Vicissitudes” (1915c), Freud
again used the word frontier to convey the idea of a
limit or boundary: “An ‘instinct’ appears to us as a
concept on the frontier between the mental and the
somatic ... as a measure of the demand made upon
the mind for work in consequence of its connection
with the body” (pp. 121-122). The psyche works only
because of its link with the corporeal, because without
this virtual contact barrier, the psyche would be nothing
and the body would be only an object.
In Studies on Hysteria (1895d), Freud dealt particularly
with conversion, but that concept was defined
for the first time in “The Neuro-Psychoses of
Defence” (1894a): “In hysteria, the incompatible idea
is rendered innocuous by its sum of excitation being
transformed into something somatic. For this I should
like to propose the name conversion” (p. 49). The
psychosomatic limit is crossed and there is the mysterious
“leap from the psychical into the somatic”
that conversion involves owing to “motor innervation”
(p. 49).
The ego, as described in the second theory of the
psychic apparatus (1923d [1922]), is above all a bodily
ego; it is not only a surface being, but it is itself the
projection of a surface. It represents the surface of the
mental apparatus. If the ego is a surface with both psy-
1410
chic and somatic limits, it can be ruptured, as when
physical pain results in a heightened narcissistic cathexis
of the body that empties the ego and leads it to
defend and reconstitute itself.
Notions related to the psychosomatic boundary can
be found. For example, there are the “transitional phenomena”
described by Donald Winnicott (1971), an
internal space and external reality where body and language,
which together support this space, establish an
intersection between psyche and soma. Babies experience
burps and anal noises. “It can be supposed,” Winnicott
writes, “that thinking or fantasies acquire a link
with these functional experiences.” In his definition of
holding (1965), Winnicott linked tonus (the physical
holding of the body) to processes that may appear to
be physiological but that in fact originate in the
infant’s psychology.
The concept of the psychosomatic limit, though not
fully developed in Freud’s writings, nevertheless turns
up there in an essential way. In his 1994 book, Green
described the concept as implicitly present whenever
the body expresses itself directly within the framework
of the psyche: in functional signs, conversion, actual
neuroses, and psychosomatic pathology.
GISELE HARRUS-REVIDI
See also: Body image; Ego; Drive/instinct; Holding.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1894a). The neuro-psychoses of defence.
SE, 3: 41-61.
. (1905d). Three essays on the theory of sexuality. SE,
7: 123-243.
. (1915c). Instincts and their vicissitudes. SE, 14:
109-140.
. (1923d [1922]). A seventeenth-century demonological
neurosis. SE, 19: 67-105.
Freud Sigmund, and Breuer, Josef. (1895d). Studies on hysteria.
SE, 2: 48-106.
Green, André. (1994). Somatisation, psychanalyse et science
du vivant. Paris: Eschel.
Winnicott, Donald W. (1965). The theory of infant-parent
relationship. In his The maturational processes and the facilitating
environment. London: Hogarth.
. (1971). Playing and reality. London: Tavistock.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
PSYCHOTERAPIA (PSIXOTERAPIJAOBROZRENIE
VOPROSOV LECENUJA |
PRIKLADONOJ PSIXOLOGII)
In Moscow in 1909 the military physician Nikolai A.
Vyroubov founded the review Psychoterapia, A Review
of Questions of Therapy and Applied Psychology with a
view to introducing Russian practitioners to western
schools of psychotherapy.
The thirty issues of the review (which appeared
from January 1910 to the end of 1917) focused increasingly
on psychoanalytic theories but they also presented
the work of Freud’s great rivals, like Paul
Dubois and Johannes Marcinowski. Readers were also
informed of the split brought about by Alfred Adler
(1911). The review enjoyed the support of the very
influential Moscow Psychiatric Circle and the eminent
psychiatrist Vladimir P. Serbski (1858-1917), who had
decided to dissociate himself from the nosological and
purely organicist orientation of Kraeplin’s school.
Completing the work of the “Library of Psychology
and Psychoanalysis,” also organized by Vyroubov and
which published Freud’s major works, Psychoterapia
translated no fewer than twelve of Freud’s short technical
texts. It also introduced its readers to the works
of Adler, Ferenczi, Jung, Rank, Reik, Sachs, and Stekel.
The orthodox tendency of the review, directed by doctors
Nikolai Ossipov and Mosche Wulff, gave an
account of the first Russian attempts to apply the
method of free association to clinical neurosis. But it
also published works of psychoanalysis applied to subjects
as diverse as political jousting, stage fright in
actors, and folklore. Supporters of the breakaway
Adlerian school, being more politicized, criticized the
“monoetiology” (sexual) of the neuroses.
Just before it disappeared, the review had begun to
manifest great openness to the medical and scientific
culture or the West, and also to its literary and artistic
culture. There was no other Russian review of psychoanalysis
until 1991—not even during the short and
amazing period of Bolshevik psychoanalysis (1920—
1930). As a mouthpiece for democratic and liberal
ideals, Psychoterapia was of capital importance for the
peaceful acceptance of psychoanalysis in Czarist
Russia.
ALEXANDRE MIKHALEVITCH
See also: Russia/USSR.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
PSYCHOTHERAPY
Bibliography
Maximov, Valeri. (1988). Histoire de la psychanalyse: La
psychanalyse russe. L’Ane, 10, 3-5.
Mikhalevitch, Alexandre. (1991). Lage d’argent de la psychanalyse
russe. Les premiéres traductions des oeuvres de
Freud en Russie preérevolutionnaire, 1904-1914. Revue
internationale @ histoire de la psychanalyse, 4, 399-406.
*
PSYCHOTHERAPY
Psychotherapy is a method for the treatment of
psychological problems, which are often expressed
somatically.
Therapies can be classified following various models.
In the cathartic model, the patient is urged to
speak, in order to expel or get rid of his suffering. The
therapist favors the act of communication over the
content of what is expressed. In the reparative model,
the therapist tries to help the patient by bringing love
and understanding to cancel out the prejudice he has
been victim of or to make up for some internal deficit.
With the educational model, the therapist guides the
patient in the “right” direction, advising him as to his
life choices. He “corrects” the mistakes of nature, parental
education, or social environment.
Freud demarcated himself dramatically from hypnosis
and cathartic post-traumatic abreaction in developing an
original psychotherapeutic dimension, centered on the
exploration of the unconscious, the study of psychic
functioning and intrapsychic conflicts, and transferencecounter-
transference relation (Ellenberger, 1970). He
emphasized psychic reality understood through the reality
of narrative. Accordingly, the psychotherapy to be
discussed here is psychoanalytic psychotherapy, situated
within the context of the theory, technique, and framework
of psychoanalysis.
The term psychotherapy surfaced for the first time
in 1872, while the term psychoanalysis came to be
known only in 1896. But it wasn’t until 1905, in his
article “On Psychotherapy” (1905a [1904]) that Freud
clearly distanced himself from hypnosis by opposing
the cathartic method to the analytic method. For a
number of decades, he had used the terms psychoanalysis
and psychotherapy interchangeably, but shortly
before 1920 he abandoned the term psychotherapy
definitively, qualifying his method from then on as
psychoanalysis. This abandonment occurred after the
defections of Alfred Adler, Wilhelm Steckel, and Carl G.
1411
PSYCHOTHERAPY
Jung and, in a second stage, his differences with Otto
Rank and Sandor Ferenczi. In effect, some of those in
Freud’s circle were advocating a more active attitude
on the part of the psychoanalyst to accelerate the psychoanalytic
process as well as to shorten its duration.
A reaction was not long in coming: Ernest Jones and
Edward Glover emphatically denounced any deviation
from a traditional treatment, and any psychotherapeutic
approach, such as a return to pure suggestion of the
preanalytic period (Robert Wallerstein). This traditional
position was the “official” one of the psychoanalytic
movement for a very long time. Nevertheless, in
the 1950s the term psychoanalytic psychotherapy gained
currency among psychoanalysts themselves, who came
to believe that certain changes had to be made in the
framework of the classical psychoanalytic model,
which was not appropriate for the psychopathology of
some patients.
As of 2005, questions about the differences between
psychoanalytic psychotherapy and psychoanalysis are
still posed in terms of process: how, for example, could
the psychoanalytical process be influenced by reworking
the framework? The face-to-face position implies
seeing the analyst, being able to observe his gestures
and unconscious corporal reactions, to hang onto his
every word and look into his eyes. Likewise, not being
seen by the analyst can result in the patient’s feeling
lost, cast into the abyss, or on the contrary allow him
to feel emotions that would be blocked by a face-toface
expression. However, these differences in formal
framework (frequency of sessions, face-to-face or
couch-armchair, more or less active position of the
psychoanalyst, etc.) are insufficient, in themselves, to
characterize the type of process underway. In any
event, according to René Roussillon (1986), a psychoanalytic
approach can only explore certain portions of
the psyche. Even where the choice of the framework
(psychotherapy or psychoanalysis) favors a psychoanalytical
approach, this is not always necessarily the same
one. Finally, the psychotherapeutic process is characterized
by a transference of partial objects to the psychoanalyst
while, in the psychoanalytical process,
these partial transferences would be worked through
until there was a full development of the transference
neurosis.
Other authors have brought out differences in therapeutic
aims. Ideally, in psychoanalysis the framework
should allow exploration of the patient’s unconscious
with the psychoanalyst following the patient as far as
1412
he is able to go. According to this very strict definition,
psychoanalysis does not, a priori, aim at a therapeutic
goal. Instead, the therapeutic result emerges from the
psychoanalytic process. By contrast, psychotherapy
does imply a goal: to diminish the suffering of the
patient, allowing him to return to work, and so on.
However, these differences are not always so clear-cut
in the reality of practice among psychoanalysts and
psychotherapists. Whatever technique is chosen, standard
treatment or face-to-face, the psychoanalyst has a
“psychoanalytic function,” so that any psychotherapeutic
approach undertaken by the psychoanalyst
involves psychoanalytical work.
Psychotherapy cannot be isolated from its social
context. After the Second World War, the development
of social health care programs allowed compensation
for psychiatric care and the establishment of a variety
of facilities for the treatment of specific pathologies.
Many of the professionals practicing in these institutional
settings were trained in psychoanalytic psychotherapy
by psychoanalysts working in the field, or
else were educated in teaching institutes that structured
their curricula in accordance with psychoanalytic
psychotherapy. These professionals engaged in
personal psychoanalytic work without, necessarily,
matriculating in the training courses of psychoanalytic
societies; but very often a veritable analytical process
developed with patients that they were treating in their
institutions.
Accordingly, the wish of Freud (1919a [1918]) has
been fulfilled, “to alloy the pure gold of analysis freely
with the copper of direct suggestion” (p. 168) to create
“a psychotherapy for the people” (p. 168), and to alleviate
a greater portion of “the vast amount of neurotic
misery which there is in the world” (p. 166), which the
small number of psychoanalysts cannot greatly affect.
Clearly Freud wanted to see the traditional treatment
adapted to treat a greater number of patients as soon
as “the conscience of society will awake” (p. 167). The
concern to preserve psychoanalytic thought in some
institutional form has led national societies of psychoanalytic
therapy to create organizations like the European
Federation for Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy
(EFPP).
Psychoanalysis and psychoanalytic psychotherapy,
and their particular adaptations (child psychoanalysis,
group psychoanalysis, analytical psychodrama, psychoanalytical
couple or family therapy, etc.) constitute a
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
“psychoanalytic field,” very different in nature from
therapeutic techniques. The latter, basically anti-analytic,
may be considered as “an ensemble of ready-made
counter-transference approaches meant to function as
institutional defenses, as a system of alleviating anxieties
prompted by the relation to the other,” representing
“group-oriented ideologies” (Roussillon, 1986).
The psychoanalytical approach often requires much
time since it favors the process rather than the suppression
of symptoms, which is the case with nonanalytical
therapeutic techniques. In the interest of
budgetary considerations, social agencies that reimburse
psychic treatment try to limit its duration or the
amount of compensated sessions, or else to favor
approaches that aim to eliminate symptoms very
quickly, without taking account of their function in
the overall psychic economy of the patient. The psychoanalytical
approach runs the risk of losing its liberty
and revolutionary quality in submitting overly to
social constraints. Countries that seek to integrate the
psychoanalytic approach in the master plan of their
treatment policies risk making it shed its special and
irreverent identity, becoming increasingly therapeutic,
in the sense of “suppressing symptoms” (Frisch,
1998). The notion of conflict, central in psychoanalysis,
has consequently been introduced in the psychoanalytic
movement on issues relating to its future and its
identity: it must either evolve toward isolation to
maintain its purity (psychoanalysis), or adapt to social
constraints to survive (psychoanalytical psychotherapy),
but at the risk of losing its soul.
SERGE FRISCH
See also: Analyzability; Cathartic method; Deutsches
Institut fiir Psychologische Forschung und Psychotherapie
(Institut Géring); Directed daydream (R. Desoille);
Face-to-face situation; Group psychotherapies; Hypnosis;
Initial interview(s); “Lines of Advance in Psycho-
Analytic Therapy”; Narco-analysis; Psychodrama; Psychoanalytic
family therapy; Relaxation psychotherapy;
Suggestion; Symbolic realization.
Bibliography
Ellenberger, Henri F. (1970). The discovery of the unconscious.
The history and evolution of dynamic psychiatry.
New York: Basic Books.
Freud, Sigmund. (1919a [1918]). Lines of advance in
psycho-analytic therapy. SE, 17: 157-168.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
PsycHotic DEFENSES
Roussillon, René. (1986). Préface, in M. Berger (Ed.), Entretiens
familiaux et champ transitionnel. Paris: Presses Universitaires
de France.
Wallerstein, Robert S. (1995). The talking cures. New Haven,
CT, and London: Yale University Press.
Further Reading
Bergman, Anni. (2002). Changing psychoanalytic psychotherapy
into psychoanalysis. International Journal of
Psychoanalysis, 83, 245-248.
Kernberg, Otto. (1999). Psychoanalysis, psychoanalytic psychotherapy
and supportive psychotherapy. International
Journal of Psychoanalysis, 80, 1075-1092.
Stone, Leo. (1954). The widening scope of indications for
psychoanalysis. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic
Association, 2, 567-594.
Wallerstein, Robert S. (1989). Psychoanalysis and psychotherapy:
An historical perspective. International Journal
of Psychoanalysis, 70, 563-592.
PSYCHOTIC DEFENSES
Psychotic defenses are psychic processes involving
unconscious, or more-or-less conscious, attempts to
deal with reality. They take the form of disavowal or
withdrawal as the subject tries to avoid or circumscribe
conflicts encountered in his relationship with the
external world.
In “The Neuro-Psychoses of Defense” (1894a),
Freud wrote: “There is, however, a much more energetic
and successful kind of defense. Here, the ego
rejects the incompatible idea together with its affect
and behaves as if the idea never occurred to the ego at
all. But from the moment at which this has been successfully
done the subject is in psychosis” (p. 58)—to
which he added in 1896 that “projection,” as a “defensive
symptom,” signified “distrust of other people” (p.
184).
The chief psychotic defenses in Freud’s view were
foreclosure (Verwerfung, reformulated by Lacan in
1956), projection, and delirium. All of these were in
evidence in Freud’s analysis of the case of President
Schreber (1912a). The disavowal (of reality) as a
defense (1927e) was described in the context of the
castration complex, particularly in the case of
fetishism.
1413
PsycuHotic/NEuROTIC
The work of Melanie Klein underscored the major
role of the defense mechanism of projective identification
in psychotic functioning. Such post-Kleinian
authors as Wilfred R. Bion and Donald Meltzer viewed
it also as an essential mechanism of psychic growth.
Later, other mechanisms became the subject of important
conceptual developments: projection, splitting (of
ego or object), and the disavowal/idealization pair.
Psychic defenses are not confined to psychotics.
Since Bion, they have been deemed a part of the mental
functioning of every individual, as long as they
have not yet acquired an invasive and systematic
quality.
ELSA SCHMID-KITSIKIS
See also: Defense; Manic defenses.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1894a). The neuro-psychoses of defence.
SE, 3: 41-61.
. (1927e). Fetishism. SE, 21: 147-157.
Green, André. (1971). La projection: De lidentification projective
au projet. In La folie privé. Paris: Gallimard.
Lacan, Jacques. (1966). Commentaire sur la Verwerfung. In
Ecrits. Paris: Seuil. (Original work published 1956)
Further Reading
Marcus, Eric. (1992). Psychosis and near psychosis: Ego function,
symbolic structure, treatment. New York: Springer-
Verlag.
PSYCHOTIC/NEUROTIC
The relationship between the neuroses and the psychoses,
or between the neurotic sphere and the psychotic
one, cannot be studied from a psychoanalytical
point of view without clarifying the meaning of the
two terms, considering their reciprocal ties as
described in the work of Sigmund Freud and Karl
Abraham, and, lastly, reviewing their status today.
With regard to the term neurosis, the idea that medicine
ought to set aside a nosological and etiopathogenic
category to cover conditions presenting
functional impairments, in the absence of manifest
lesions, which affected the nervous system but not the
1414
brain or any other organ, arose in the classical period
in the work of Thomas Willis (1622-1675) and Thomas
Sydenham (1624-1689). These authors included
as neuroses hysteria, to which they denied a uterine
origin, and hypochondria, to which they denied the
hepatic genesis attributed to it since antiquity. The
word neurosis itself was coined in 1777 by William
Cullen (1710-1790) to identify a class of generalized as
distinct from localized disease which along with the
neuroses included fevers and cachexies. Defined as
sensory and motor attacks without fever or local disorder,
Cullen’s “neuroses” encompassed comas, adynamias
(to which he assigned hypochondria), spasms
(including hysteria), and vesanias.
Nineteenth-century usage veered back and forth
between a narrow definition of neurosis limited to hysteria
and hypochondria and a broader meaning that
embraced syncopes, tetanus, epilepsy, chorea, paralysis
agitans, and neuralgias. During the last quarter of the
century, however, in part due to the advent of dynamic
psychology (Pierre Janet, Sigmund Freud) and of
semiological neurology (Jules Déjerine, Joseph
Babinski, Gordon Holmes), a new system of classification
began to take form. Matters were helped, too, by
the new discipline of clinical neurology, which laid
claim to epilepsy, chorea, Parkinson’s disease, and cerebellar
syndromes while recognizing psychiatry as the
sole proprietor of the neuroses (with the exception of
hysterical paralyses, which called for cooperation
between the two specialties). Thenceforward the neuroses
were understood either in a simple way, as by
Pierre Janet, who distinguished only between hysteria
and psychasthenia, or in the more elaborate manner of
Freud, who contrasted the actual neuroses (anxiety
neurosis, neurasthenia, hypochondria) with the socalled
defense or transference neuroses (conversion
hysteria, phobic neurosis, obsessional neurosis), using
criteria that were certainly descriptive but also psychopathological
in character.
The term psychosis appeared later. Introduced in
1845 by Ernst von Feuchtersleben (1806-1849), it was
at first a very general designation for illnesses of the
mind (“Geisteskrankheiten’) as opposed to the neuroses,
attributed at the time to malfunctions of the
peripheral nervous system. Psychosis thus became
synonymous with mental alienation in the most general
sense. During the last quarter of the nineteenth
century and the first half of the twentieth, when psychiatry
started emphasizing the irreducible variety of
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
mental illnesses, psychosis covered all cases within that
domain which were clearly not of the nature of neurosis,
of dementia, or of mental retardation—in other
words, the label was applied to almost all institutionalized
mental patients. Psychoses were considered either
acute (confusional states, delusional episodes, mania,
melancholia) or chronic (schizophrenia, paraphrenias,
paranoia), but no answer was offered to the question
whether these categories were discrete or whether they
were variations expressing a single underlying (psychotic)
disease process. (Not to mention issues of
etiology or the inflated role assigned to general
paralysis.)
In the development of psychoanalysis, the relationship
between the psychotic and the neurotic was at
first considered a relationship of exclusion, a veritable
gulf separating the one from the other, just as, in zoology,
vertebrates were radically separated from invertebrates.
Little by little, however, a more nuanced view
prevailed: for one thing, the two realms were brought
much closer together; for another, the question was
raised whether a particular place should not be set
aside for perversions. Even greater difficulty was met
with later, when a pigeonhole had to be found for the
borderline states identified in apparently neurotic
subjects who, after being accepted as such for psychoanalysis,
decompensated during the treatment in a
psychotic manner (Kernberg, 1975).
In Freud’s early works, those collected in the first
two volumes of the Gesammelte Werke, a radical distinction
between neurosis and psychosis was of a piece
with his inaugural discoveries: the neuroses were said
to reflect conflicts within the subject whose original
sense escaped him, conflicts echoing others in earliest
childhood, repressed but accessible in general through
a transference relationship and hence accessible to psychoanalysis;
the psychoses, by contrast, were related to
conflicts between the subject and the outside world,
hardly or not at all accessible via a transference relationship,
and for that very reason contraindicating
psychoanalytic treatment, even though the discourse
of psychotic patients might bring directly to light
aspects of the unconscious that emerged in neurotics
only after many psychoanalytic sessions.
Freud continued to maintain this point of view a little
later, in the third part of his commentary on Daniel
Paul Schreber’s Memoirs (Freud, 1911c [1910]), when
he put forward the idea that the pathological process
common to the various chronic delusional conditions
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
PsycHotic/NEuROTIC
was denial of homosexual wishes—a mechanism very
different from those met with in neurosis.
The work of Karl Abraham presents what is probably
the most careful psychoanalytical account not only of
the relationship between the neuroses and the psychoses,
but also of the relationships between each of
them and libidinal fixations and regressions, as well as
those of individual neuroses and psychoses to one
another (1927 [1924]). Abraham showed in the clearest
way, albeit in a nuanced and quite unschematic way,
how the received clinical distinctions between schizophrenia,
paranoia, mania, and depression might be
seen as corresponding to the subdivisions of the oral
and anal stages, and how likewise the neuroses related,
each after its own fashion, to the genital stage; thus the
empirical level of clinical experience could find theoretical
support in the psychoanalytic knowledge of libidinal
development. This standpoint tended therefore to
buttress the view that the neurotic and psychotic
spheres should continue be treated as separate, because
their respective connections with the libidinal stages
were quite distinct. At the same time, as Abraham
noted, especially with respect to melancholia and obsessional
neurosis, links had to be recognized between particular
psychoses and particular neuroses, as for
instance the link between schizophrenia and hysteria.
Later on, both the relative simplicity of the
neurosis/psychosis distinction and its tendency to
become absolute were contested, and the dividing-line
was once more brought into question. This clear-cut
division had long served a didactic purpose in the professional
training of analysts, but even for the most
vociferous partisans of the primacy of the totality—of
the Germanic Ganzheit—training could hardly be
founded on a complete absence of distinctions; indeed
it was arguable that the usefulness of this clear opposition
resided solely in its educational value, and that it
should therefore be discarded once training was successfully
completed.
The development of his conception of the perversions
led Freud to abandon the idea of the primacy of
fixation to infantile sexuality (1905d), along with the
corresponding view of perversion as the reverse of
neurosis, and to assign a major role to the disavowal of
reality and the splitting of the ego (1940a [1938]).
Since these processes were closely akin to those in play
in the psychotic realm, this meant the end of the tidy
arrangement that had prevailed hitherto. A difficult
choice remained between two possible revisions: to
1415
PsycuHotic PANIC
reincorporate the perversions into the psychoses, or
else to abandon the neurosis/psychosis dichotomy by
giving the perversions their own category between the
other two. The latter course was liable to jeopardize
any strict distinction, for it is well known that the only
good opposition is a binary one.
GEORGES LANTERI-LAURA
See also: Abraham, Karl; Acute psychoses; Blank/nondelusional
psychoses; “Claims of Psycho-Analysis to Scientific
Interest”; Indications and counterindications for
psychoanalysis for an adult; Infantile psychosis; Neurosis;
Neurotic defenses; Paranoid psychosis; Psychic causality;
Psychoanalytical nosography; Psychoses, chronic and
delusional.
Bibliography
Abraham, Karl. (1927 [1924). A short study of the development
of the libido, viewed in the light of mental disorders.
In his Selected papers on psycho-analysis. London: Hogarth.
Freud, Sigmund. (1905d). Three essays on the theory of
sexuality. SE, 7: 123-243.
. (1911¢ [1910]). Psycho-analytic notes on an autobiographical
account of a case of paranoia (dementia paranoides).
SE, 12: 1-82.
. (1924c). The economic problem of masochism. SE,
19: 155-170.
. (1940a [1938]). An outline of psycho-analysis. SE,
23: 139-207.
Kernberg, Otto F. (1975). Borderine conditions and pathological
narcissism. New York: Jason Aronson.
Further Reading
Jacobson, Edith. (1972). Depression, comparative studies of
normal, neurotic, and psychotic conditions. New York: International
University Press.
Kubie, Lawrence S. (1967). Relation of psychotic disorganization
to the neurotic process. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic
Association, 15, 626-640.
Steiner, John. (1993). Psychic retreats. Pathological organizations
in psychotic, neurotic and borderline patients. London/
New York: Routledge.
PSYCHOTIC PANIC
In the psychotic part of the personality, according to
Wilfred Bion, anxiety changes into psychotic panic.
1416
Earlier, Melanie Klein (1935) had put forward the view
that the first anxieties are psychotic in content and
that in the normal development of infants there is a
combination of processes by which primitive anxieties
of a psychotic nature are bound, worked through, and
modified.
Bion investigated the nature of the processes by
which anxiety is modified during the 1950s and 1960s.
He saw projective identification as the means by which
the infant communicates primitive anxieties and emotions
to the mother, and her reverie, that is, her containment
with alpha function, as the process that
modifies her infant’s anxieties. If there is a pathological
matrix between infant and mother of an adverse
endowment and adverse nurture so that the infant’s
primitive and violent emotions find no container, a
primitive disaster is felt to have occurred in which the
container has been destroyed and anxiety has turned
into psychotic panic. A nameless dread, as Bion also
calls psychotic panic, is returned to the infant which
threatens to suffuse and annihilate the personality, and
from then on development takes a divergent course.
Psychotic panic is the origin, the O, of the ensuing
transformation in hallucinosis, rather than, as in the
neurotic personality, transformation in thought.
Defenses are adopted to avoid the experience of panic
by the evacuation of ego functions capable of the
experience, and there is an explosive projection of ego
pieces, images, beta-elements, and objects, into a space
that has no limits.
EpDNA O’ SHAUGHNESSY
See also: Hallucinosis.
Bibliography
Bion, Wilfred R. (1959). Attacks on linking, International
Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 40 (5—6), 308.
. (1962). Learning from experience. London: Heinemann;
New York: Basic.
Klein, Melanie (1935). A contribution to the psychogenesis
of manic-depressive states. International Journal of Psycho-
Analysis, 16 (2), 145-174.
PSYCHOTIC PART OF THE PERSONALITY
Clinical discoveries made in work with psychotic
patients enabled Wilfred R. Bion to formulate a set of
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
highly original hypotheses about psychosis. He states
these in a classic paper “Differentiation of the psychotic
from the non-psychotic personalities” (1957). His
hypotheses are that the psychotic part of the personality
arises from “a minute splitting of all that part of the
personality that is concerned with awareness of internal
and external reality, and the expulsion of these fragments
so that they enter into or engulf their objects.”
In this way the psychotic personality constructs a
universe of bizarre objects in which he is unable to
think and suffers existence in a state of hallucinosis.
The psychic preconditions in the psychotic personality
are: a preponderance of destructive impulses, a hatred
of internal and external reality, and the dread of immanent
annihilation, all of which lead to the precipitate
formation of thin object relations tenaciously held.
The psychotic personality develops “in a manner
markedly different” from the neurotic personality. In
the same paper Bion continues: “The difference hinges
on the fact that this combination of qualities leads to
minute fragmentation of the personality, particularly
of the apparatus of awareness of reality which Freud
described as coming into operation at the behest of the
reality principle, and excessive projection of these fragments
of personality into external objects.” Because of
the destructive attacks on his ego and on any thought
that could serve as a link between two objects, and, in
addition, the bizarre nature of his world, he feels
unable to restore either himself or his objects.
In the psychotic personality projective identification,
the primitive defense mechanism discovered by
Melanie Klein (1946), is not merely excessive, but has
also a different role in that it becomes the predominant
psychic operation: It replaces the processes of
introjection and regression, and the structuring of the
mind performed by repression in the neurotic
personality.
In Bion’s view, contact with reality, at least in those
patients who are able to attend for analysis, is never
entirely lost. He considers it is important clinically to
find the neurotic personality which is concealed by the
psychotic personality, and also to find the psychotic
personality, which exists in everyone.
EDNA O’ SHAUGHNESSY
See also: Bleger, José; Fragmentation; Disintegration, feelings
of (anxieties); Hallucinosis; Learning from experience;
Linking, attacks on; Psychotic panic.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
PsycHoTic POTENTIAL
Bibliography
Bion, Wilfred R. (1957). Differentiation of the psychotic
from the non-psychotic personalities. International Journal
of Psycho-Analysis, 38 (3-4), 266-275.
Klein, Melanie (1946). Notes on some schizoid mechanisms.
International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 27, 99-110; reprinted
1952 in Klein, Melanie, Heimann, Paula, Isaacs,
Susan, and Riviere, Joan (Eds.), Developments in Psycho-
Analysis. London: Hogarth; reprinted 1975 in The Writings
of Melanie Klein, Volume 3, 1946-1963. London: Hogarth.
PSYCHOTIC POTENTIAL
The notion of psychotic potential was created by Piera
Aulagnier, who contributed significantly to the study
of the sources of psychosis. Opposing the idea of a
seed of psychosis that supposedly exists in every person,
she explored the necessary conditions for the psychotic
“solution” to be “chosen” by the subject. These
conditions were necessary, but not sufficient in themselves,
to produce an out-and-out psychosis, the latter
being dependent on chance happenings in the life of
the subject. Meanwhile, the psychosis would be
“potential.”
The notion of predictability is present on two
levels in psychotic potentiality. Firstly, it can be
understood as a link between, on the one hand, the
history and prehistory of a particular subject (on the
level of both reality and fantasy), and, on the other
hand, the subject they have become by the time they
have been characterized in terms of psychopathology.
Potentiality is then understood in the temporal sense:
as the relation between a past and a present. It then
leads, following the same line of argument, to the
question of whether the future is predictable on the
basis of the present.
Further, psychotic potentiality can also be understood
not just in terms of psychogenesis but also in
terms of the Aristotelian opposition between potentiality
and act: we can be something potentially without
this ever being actualized. The idea of psychotic potential
is not the result of a diagnosis made on the basis of
observable criteria: it is, first and foremost, a countertransferential
feeling, an extremity or an appeal for
help that is felt as strange, even dangerous, by the analyst
who is able to empathize. It is particularly important
that attention be focused on this dimension, right
from the first sessions, for the purpose of forestalling
1417
PsycHotic POTENTIAL
the risk of failure of certain functions linked to the
progress of the treatment itself. Aulagnier emphasized
the partial character of this process: It is as if the psyche
of the patient could function normally, that is to
say without being in flagrant contradiction with the
common mindset of other subjects in the same culture,
while at the same time containing zones of shadow
in which a totally different and original kind of
functioning operates.
In La Violence de linterprétation (The Violence of
Interpretation), of 1975, she defined this concept as
“the result of the fixation of a primal delirious
thought, whose function it is to attempt to reconstruct
a fragment missing in the discourse of the other.” It
seemed then that psychotic potential would constitute
a “solution” to a conflict experienced by the subject in
childhood—a conflict that was too early and intense,
causing so much suffering that the psychic work
involved in surviving turned into “madness.” This is
not the only solution. Aulagnier offers three others:
the choice of death, in the form of Thanatos triumphant;
the development of infantile autism; and the
attempt to flee from any thought, any desire which
would lead back to the conflict that was the cause of so
much suffering. This latter solution is a partial mutilation,
but it is not really constructed like a psychotic
delirium. Because of this third possibility, the notion
of psychotic potential transcends the childhood/age
opposition. Rather than harboring, from childhood
onwards, such delirious thoughts, the subject can try
to whitewash everything that could prompt suffering
or conflict. Yet this avoidance itself, which is to say the
delirious “solution” itself, which may be understood
as preferable to suicide, nonetheless establishes that
such deeply troubled thoughts do exist.
Psychotic potential involves not only the setting up
of a premature and primal, delirious kind of mentality,
which can develop into psychosis in adulthood. It also
suggests the idea of a flaw itself created by pushing
away the delirious solution—a fault line that constitutes
an invitation to delirium anytime the conflict situation
is reactivated by events.
The theorization of psychosis by Piera Aulagnier is
very different from that of Sigmund Freud, for whom
the call to delirium is an attempt at reparation and
reconstruction following a rupture between the self and
reality (1924b [1923]). This rupture, according to Freud,
is based on the “frustration, a non-fulfillment, of one of
those childhood wishes which are for ever undefeated”
1418
(p. 151). Contrary to neurosis, where the reparation is
carried out at the expense of the id, reparation in psychosis
occurs at the expense of the relation to reality.
For Aulagnier, the conflict generating psychosis is not
located on the level of desire, but on the level of the
thinkable, that is to say of self-identification.
Behind the conditions of possibility for psychotic
potential to be established, whether it turns into open
psychosis or not, lies a particular situation that
imposes on the subject a prohibition and/or an obligation
to think something that contradicts the logic of
the discourse of society. It is not society that transmits
the contents of such thoughts; they result from a compromise
that allows one to continue to cathect with
reality, and to love objects. They amount to so many
para-decathexes, a term coined by Aulagnier on the
model of para-excitations. In extreme cases, the
choices are limited: either real death, or psychic death;
a decathexis such as the victory of Thanatos, or a delirious
reconstruction.
To sum up the essence of psychotic potential, as
Aulagnier defined it: at the source of delirious thinking
there lies, on the one hand, an intolerable frustration,
whose significance is linked to the question of the origin
of the subject, the world, pleasure, and so forth;
and, on the other hand, an unconquerable desire,
which refuses to be reduced to silence and is connected
with the identificatory needs proper to the self.
From her earliest texts until her most recent,
Aulagnier has emphasized the fundamental quality of
this need in these terms: Every self needs to think that
its existence makes sense, that it is not, as Shakespeare
says, “a tale, told by an idiot, full of sound and fury,
signifying nothing.” If such meaning is lacking in the
discourse of the one supposed to impart meaning, the
father, delirious thinking will, in its primordial way,
attempt to accomplish the reconstruction of the missing
fragment. This reconstruction will be illusory, but
it will be in conformity with the identificatory
demands of the self.
SOPHIE DE MyoLLA-MELLOR
See also: Apprenti-historien et le maitre-sorcier (L’-) [The
apprentice historian and the master sorcerer]; Blank/
nondelusional psychoses; Encounter; Violence of Interpretation:
From Pictogram to Statement, The.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Bibliography
Aulagnier, Piera. (1979). Les destins du plaisir. Aliénation,
amour, passion. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
. (1984). LApprenti-historien et le maitre-sorcier. Du
discours identifiant au discours délirant. Paris: Presses Universitaires
de France.
Castoriadis-Aulagnier, Piera. (1975). La violence de l’interpretation.
Du pictogramme a l’énoncé. Paris: Presses Universitaires
de France.
Freud, Sigmund. (1924b [1923]). Neurosis and psychosis.
SE, 19: 147-153.
Mijolla-Mellor, Sophie de. (1998). Penser la psychose. Une
lecture de oeuvre de Piera Aulagnier. Paris: Dunod.
PSYCHOTIC TRANSFERENCE
The term psychotic transference describes the intense
and primitive feelings experienced by some patients
during analytic sessions; such experiences occur during
periods marked by a deep regression, and they are
totally real to the patient, which is why a number of
authors speak in this connection of delusional or
regressive transference.
The concept of psychotic transference is often used
to evoke very intense, primitive or undifferentiated
experiences and emotions based on part-objects. Some
authors use this model in working with patients presenting
psychotic crises. Others use it with neurotics,
when the relation with the therapist displays primitive
and regressive features which are taken to be “psychotic
aspects of the personality.”
Freud at first argued, apropos of transference in
psychosis, that in psychotics the libido had been withdrawn
from the outside world, and that consequently
no transference was possible (1914c). Later, however,
he moderated this view: “Since then analysts have
never relaxed their efforts to come to an understanding
of the psychoses. Especially since it has been possible
to work with the concept of narcissism, they have
managed, now in this place and now in that, to get a
glimpse beyond the wall.... [T]he mere theoretical
gain is not to be despised, and we may be content to
wait for its practical application. In the long run even
the psychiatrists cannot resist the convincing force of
their own clinical material.” Freud noted in this context,
in connection with those aspects of psychosis
which allow for transference, that “Transference is
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PUBERTY
often not so completely absent but that it can be used
to a certain extent; and analysis has achieved
undoubted successes with cyclical depressions, light
paranoiac modifications, and partial schizophrenias”
(1925d [1924], pp. 61, 60).
In his treatment of psychotic patients, Herbert
Rosenfeld (1965) discovered that they did in fact
establish a transferential link with the therapist, and
he called this phenomenon “transference in psychosis”
or “psychotic transference.” He was the first to
take an interest in this question after the fashion of
Hanna Segal and Frieda Fromm-Reichmann. As for
Wilfred R. Bion, when he discussed the psychotic
personality, he was referring, in effect, to psychotic
transference or delusional transference: “Since contact
with reality is never entirely lost, the phenomena
which we are accustomed to associate with the
neuroses are never absent and serve to complicate
the analysis, when sufficient progress has been
made, by their presence amidst psychotic material”
(1957, p. 267). Bion described the relationship to
the analyst as premature, precipitate, intense, tenacious—
and founded on projective identification
(p. 266).
Davip ROSENFELD
See also: Countertransference; Ego Psychology and Psychosis;
Negative therapeutic reaction; Psychoses, chronic and
delusional; Transference.
Bibliography
Bion, Wilfred. R. (1957). Differentiation of the psychotic
from the non-psychotic personality. International Journal
of Psycho-Analysis, 38, 266-275.
Freud, Sigmund. (1914c). On narcissism: An introduction.
SE, 14: 67-102.
. (1925d [1924]). An autobiographical study. SE, 20:
1-74.
Rosenfeld, David. (1992). The psychotic aspects of the personality.
London: Karnac.
Rosenfeld, Herbert. (1965). Psychotic states: A psychoanalytic
approach. London: Hogarth.
PUBERTY
Puberty was originally defined anatomically and physiologically
as the appearance of secondary signs of
LONDON PUBLIC | 1A19
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PUBERTY
sexual maturation that mark the beginning of the adolescent
process which will put an end to the period of
childhood that had been prolonged by the period of
latency. The concepts of puberty and adolescence have
been increasingly considered as belonging to the field
of psychoanalysis only progressively.
Of course the chapter on the “Transformations of
Puberty” in Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality
(1905d) is the essential text by Freud on this subject,
but to ascertain the reason for the key place this stage
assumes in metapsychological development, it is
necessary to go back to the early hypotheses on
trauma. The seduction theory formulated in the Studies
on Hysteria (1895d) assumed in effect two distinct
scenes separated by puberty. It is this breakthrough
from the presexual (albeit already oriented by the
phallus to the genital) which gives both chronological
and logical meaning to the twin ideas of latency and
deferred action.
For Freud therefore, above and beyond the impact
it has on the body and the psychological implications
of this, puberty is something that operates: initially as a
real trauma, then later as a logical operand in the
seduction-fantasy, where it served to delineate boundaries.
That being said, the 1905 essay on puberty and
all the preceding work was to be enriched by later discoveries,
such as the 1914 theory of narcissism and,
in 1924, the second topology and the death drive
hypothesis.
What is at stake in puberty is clear from the outset:
“With the arrival of puberty, changes set in which are
destiried to give infantile sexual life its final, normal
shape. The sexual instinct has hitherto been predominantly
auto-erotic; it now finds a sexual object”
(1905d, p. 206). Freud then raises five questions, all of
which are still being asked, on the nature of puberty:
First of all, how is the erotic destiny of each person,
perversion aside, determined by the way in which the
pregential drives are simultaneously placed in submission
to and in the service of genitality, which is the
sign of normality? Secondly, what is the role, necessary
but not sufficient, of the “chemical” factor in causing
sexual tension and pleasure, given that even neurosis
“greatly resembles” a state of intoxication and want?
Thirdly, according to the theory of narcissism how will
ego libido and object libido be fused in this moment
of anticipated tension and complementarity between
the currents of love and sex? Fourthly, how is, in a final
renunciation of bisexuality, the man’s») i<¢ “more logical”
1420
development going to then be differentiated from the
“involution” of the young woman who willingly
rejoins her initial, oral sexual orientations at the same
time as she accedes to genitality? Fifth and finally, in
what way is the new sexual object, a semblance of the
Other sex, at once both new and rediscovered on the
basis of the primal objects, the ancestors of the Other
sex? In his conclusion devoted to the risks associated
with homosexual inversion occasioned by both familial
and social milieus, Freud alerts us to the fact that
this accession to a sexual relationship which assumes
responsibility for the difference between the sexes,
does not occur automatically.
For a long time after Freud puberty remained a
secondary preoccupation for psychoanalysts. Instead,
under the influence of child analysts and fueled in
particular by the debates between Anna Freud and
Melanie Klein, interest tended to focus on the relationship
between earliest infancy and the oedipal period,
with adolescence being considered as little more
than the outcome of precocious determinants. On
the other hand in the field of psychopathology, the
side of adolescence, dissociated from puberty, concerned
with the trials of socialization and its psychopathological
failures, became the privileged focus of
study in the texts on this period (Siegfried Bernfeld,
August Aichhorn).
Only recently, and especially in Great Britain and
France, has interest been renewed in puberty as distinct
from the ensemble of adolescent processes, and
designated as such as being their origin. Donald Winnicott
was the first to recall that it is sexual maturation,
not only social exigencies, which reactivate oedipal difficulties,
giving rise to murderous and incestuous feelings
which were all too easily repressed in childhood
when they were unrealizable, and calling for a second
oedipal working-through, subject to new ups and
downs. Moses Laufer has elaborated on this approach
by explicating the more-or-less pathological crises of
adolescence using the concept of breakdown, reworked
from Winnicott, but which is for Laufer a developmental
fracture in the integration of the body image
which, following puberty, needs to then incorporate
the genital organs and allow for a new compromise
between masturbatory fantasy and the demands of the
superego. With this Philippe Gutton was able to produce
the concept of the “pubertal, which is to the psyche
what puberty is to the body.” Although he left
room for debate, Gutton distinguished distinctly and
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
chronologically between the category of feelings that
refashion the aim of the drive from the phallic to the
genital and are oriented towards a new, complementary,
part object—and the adolescens process, which is
a reconstruction of referents and ideals that this genital
identity imposes.
On the Lacanian side, which has proved more reticent
with respect to the psychogenetic approach, the
texts are few and far between: For Francoise Dolto,
puberty is a third “moment of synthesis” (after the
mirror stage and the Oedipus complex), in the construction
of an unconscious body image. Jean-Jacques
Rassial views puberty in its somatic, but also psychic
aspects, as the Real blow that necessitates an Imaginary
reconstruction and a new Symbolic foundation, insofar
as this is an adolescent function.
The production of the concept of puberty points
toward a certain number of theoretical modifications:
First off (and this is borne out by clinical experience),
the topological status of puberty, be it individual or
social, and which affects not only the ego but also the
id and the superego, affirms the autonomy of the psychical
from the somatic and the social, because psychic
puberty does not always occur at the same time as
these two other puberties. Secondly, from a dynamic
point of view, Freudian precepts hold that the conflicts
taking place during this time are not only the repetition
of earlier conflicts, and therefore all psychogenesis,
and particularly the pre-pubertal function of the
latency period, needs to be rethought. Thirdly, the economic
function of the phallus, between drive and
representation, is put into question by its separation
during this period from the genital that cannot, after
all, be reduced to just its imaginary employment.
As is already apparent in Freud’s texts, the transformations
of puberty are not a simple issue of psychogenetics,
but raise the question of the function of
sexuality as a whole. In other words, behind the
story that goes from infantile sexuality to so-called
adult normality there lies another, about the infantilism
of a sexuality that destines the sexual relationship
to its failures, which diverge according to the
sexual genital in question.
JEAN-JACQUES RASSIAL
See also: Adolescence; Genital stage; Psychosexual development;
Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
PUERPERAL PSYCHOSES
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1905d). Three essays on the theory of
sexuality. SE, 7: 123-243.
Gutton, Philippe. (1991). Le pubertaire. Paris: Presses Universitaires
de France.
Laufer, Moses, and Laufer, Egle. (1984). Adolescence and
developmental breakdown: a psychoanalytic view. New
Haven, CT: Yale University. :
Perret-Catipovic, Maja, and Ladame, Francois (Eds.).
(1997). Adolescence and psychoanalysis: The story and the
history (Philip Slotkin, Trans.). London: Karnac.
Rassial, Jean-Jacques. (1990). L’Adolescent et le psychanalyse.
Paris: Payot.
Further Reading
Bloch, H. Spencer. (1995). Adolescent development, psychopathology,
and treatment. Madison, CT: International University
Press.
Laufer, Moses. (1996). The psychoanalyst of the adolescent.
Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 51, 512-521.
PUERPERAL PSYCHOSES
Derived from the Latin puerpera (“woman in childbirth”),
puer (“child”), and parere (“to give birth”),
the term puerperal psychoses conventionally comprises
all the psychiatric conditions with onset during pregnancy
and in the year following it. In a more restricted
sense, the same term is used as the equivalent of postpartum
psychoses, in which case it concerns only major,
acute problems that occur during the days or first
month immediately after delivery.
Puerperal disorders have been known since antiquity
(Hippocrates, Galen). Puerperal psychoses were
singled out in the mid-nineteenth century, with the
work of Jean-Etienne Esquirol (1838) and Louis-
Victor Marcé (1858). Still relevant from that time are
questions that treat the specificity of these morbid
states: Are they an autonomous clinical entity of which
childbirth is the causal agent? Or, instead, is childbirth
merely an event that precipitates the emergence
of a psychiatric syndrome in an already vulnerable
woman?
Psychoanalysis very early on became interested in
this pivotal stage in a woman’s life. Paul-Claude Raca-
1421
PUNISHMENT, DREAM OF
mier, in “La mére et l’enfant dans les psychoses du postpartum”
(Mother and child in the postpartum
psychoses; 1961), defined puerperal disorders as accidents
in the psychoaffective “process” of motherhood—
a process that can be understood in light of
concepts developed by Sigmund Freud: the castration
complex, its impact within narcissism, and its clinical
consequence, penis envy, which becomes the desire to
have a child by the father during the oedipal phase.
Above all, Freud discovered the strength of the bond
uniting the little girl with the preoedipal mother and its
articulation with the central problem of identification.
Beginning in the 1970s analytic understanding of
the processes of motherhood and its avatars was
opened up to contributions from other disciplines,
such as developmental psychology, ethology, or the
practice of observation. A number of theoretical and/
or clinical concepts have since become available: primary
maternal preoccupation (Donald Winnicott),
the capacity for maternal reverie (Wilfred Bion), projective
identifications (Melanie Klein, Bion), behavioral
and fantasmatic mother-child interactions,
transgenerational transmission (Mary Ainsworth,
Serge Lebovici), or the motherhood constellation
(Daniel N. Stern).
ODILE CAZAS
See also: Infant observation (therapeutic); Parenthood;
Postnatal/postpartum depression.
Bibliography
Ainsworth, Mary D. Salter, Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., and
Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological
study of the strange situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Cazas, Odile, Dhéte, Alain, Bouttier, Daniel, and Ginestet,
Daniel. (1990). Lhospitalisation conjointe de la mére et de
son nourrisson dans un service de psychiatrie adulte. Psychiatrie
de l'enfant, 33 (1), 635-674.
Esquirol, Jean Etienne. (1838). Des maladies mentales considérées
sous les rapports médical, hygiénique et médico-légal.
Paris: J. B. Bailliére.
Lebovici, Serge. (1983). Le nourrisson, la mere et le psychanalyste.
Paris: Le Centurion.
Marcé, Louis-Victor. (1858). Traite de la folie des femmes
enceintes, des nouvelles accouchées et des nourrices et considérations
médico-légales qui se rattachent a ce sujet. Paris:
J. B. Bailliere.
1422
Racamier, Paul-Claude. (1961). La mere et enfant dans les
psychoses du post-partum. LEvolution Psychiatrique, 4,
525-570.
Stern, Daniel N. (1995). The motherhood constellation: A unified
view of parent-infant psychotherapy. New York: Basic
Books.
Winnicott, Donald W. (1958). Primary maternal preoccupation.
In Collected papers, through paediatrics to psycho-analysis.
London: Tavistock. (Original work published 1956)
PUNISHMENT, DREAM OF
In punishment dreams, the dreamer is explicitly or
implicitly punished for a fault, often indicated as excusable
or unknown to the dreamer.
In the 1911 revision of The Interpretation of Dreams
(1900a), Freud included an analysis of a dream of the
famous Austrian poet Peter Rosegger. Freud associated
the dream with his own memories of a time when,
working in the physiological laboratory under the German
physician Ernst Briicke, he admonished himself
in a dream for boasting about his scientific and social
success.
In another emendation, in 1919, Freud introduced
the theme of punishment dreams into chapter 7, on
the fundamental psychology of the dream processes.
The painful quality of dreams of punishment seems to
contradict the theory that a dream represents a gratification
of a wish. Freud asserted that dreams of punishment
indeed represent precisely the wish to be
punished, to expiate a fault. In this process, there is no
return of a repressed wish but rather a need for punishment
that originates with the ego or rather (as he
soon would call it, in a note added in 1930) the
superego.
In Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis (1916—
1917a [1915-1917]), Freud explored the relationship
between punishment and dreams in the chapter
devoted to wish fulfillment. In “Some Additional
Notes on Dream-Interpretation as a Whole” (1925i),
Freud, in discussing the content of dreams in terms of
moral responsibility, laid stress on the ego’s censorship
of the wishes of the id. In New Introductory Lectures
on Psycho-Analysis (1933a), in the chapter on the revision
of the theory of dreams, Freud emphasized the
superego’s role of repression. The questions Freud
posed apropos of punishment dreams are also related
to repetition compulsion, discussed in Beyond the
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Pleasure Principle (1920g) and The Economic Problem
of Masochism (1924c).
ROGER PERRON
See also: Dream; Guilt, feeling of; Need for punishment;
Self-punishment; Superego.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1900a). The interpretation of dreams. SE,
4: 1-338; 5: 339-625.
(1916-1917a [1915-1917]). Introductory lectures
on psycho-analysis. SE, 15-16.
(1920g). Beyond the pleasure principle. SE, 18: 1-
64.
(1924c). The economic problem of masochism. SE,
19: 155-170.
(19251). Some additional notes on dream-interpretation
as a whole. SE, 19: 123-138.
- (1933a). New introductory lectures on psycho-analysis.
SE, 22: 1-182.
PURIFIED-PLEASURE-EGO
In 1911 Freud, in “Formulations on the two principles
of mental functioning” (1911b [1910]), distinguished
between a pleasure-ego “that can do nothing but wish,
work for a yield of pleasure, and avoid unpleasure,”
and a reality-ego that “need do nothing but strive for
what is useful and guard itself against damage” (p.
223), then, in 1915 he described a “purified-pleasureego”
(p. 136) in the course of his metapsychological
reflections on “Instincts and Their Vicissitudes”
(1915c).
The purified pleasure-ego is the result of a distinction
between an ego and a non-ego, and the splitting
of both the external and internal world into what is
pleasurable and what is not. Certain instincts are considered
to be unpleasant and are then rejected or
rather “projected” outside, whereas objects that are a
source of satisfaction are “introjected.” “The original
reality-ego, which distinguished internal and external
by means of a sound objective criterion, changes into a
purified ‘pleasure-ego’, which places the characteristic
of pleasure above all others. For the pleasure-ego the
external world is divided into a part that is pleasurable,
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
PuURIFIED-PLEASURE-EGO
which it has incorporated into itself, and a remainder
that is extraneous to it. It has separated off a part of its
own self, which it projects into the external world and
feels as hostile” (p. 136).
We find these same distinctions unchanged in the
article entitled “Negation”: “The original pleasure-ego
wants to introject into itself everything that is good
and to eject from itself everything that is bad. What is
bad, what is alien to the ego and what is external are,
to begin with, identical” (1925h, p. 237).
Following the example of Melanie Klein, who was
inspired by this notion to describe projective identification
(Manual Furer, 1977; James Grotstein, 1994),
the majority of Anglo-Saxon writers who have
described the first phases in the development of the
mind have referred to this “purified pleasure-ego” as
linked to the splitting into “pleasant” and “unpleasant”
which becomes “good” and “bad.” The symbiotic
phase described by Margaret Mahler is very close to
this (Julio Granel, 1987). And Heinz Kohut goes so far
as to indicate in a footnote in Forms and Transformations
of Narcissism (1966) that “The purified pleasure
ego may be considered as a prestage of the structure
which is referred to as the narcissistic Self in the present
essay” (p. 246n).
ALAIN DE MYOLLA
See also: Ego; Illusion; “Instincts and their Vicissitudes”;
Internal object; Grandiose self; Pleasure ego/reality ego;
Primary object; Projection; Reality principle; Shame;
Symbiosis/symbiotic relationship; Turning around.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1915c). Instincts and their vicissitudes.
SE, 14: 109-140.
Furer, Manuel (1977). Psychoanalytic dialogue: Kleinian
theory today. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association,
25, 371-385.
Granel, Julio A. (1987). Considerations on the capacity to
change, the clash of identifications and having accidents.
International Review of Psycho-Analysis, 14,
483-490.
Grotstein, James S. (1994). Projective identification and
countertransference: a brief commentary on their relationship.
Contemporary Psycho-Analysis, 30, 578-592.
Kohut, Heinz. (1966). Forms and transformations of narcissism.
Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association,
14, 243-272.
1423
PuRPOSIVE IDEA
PURPOSIVE IDEA
Sigmund Freud used the term purposive idea, above all
in his early psychoanalytic writings, to refer to the
orienting role of an idea when it is conducive to the
sudden appearance of a train of thought (ideas, affects,
representations, fantasies, and so on). The stages in
this train of thought converge in the direction of this
idea, which thus itself seems to be the goal of all of this
psychic work.
Freud’s main discussion of this notion is found in
The Interpretation of Dreams (1900a; chapter 7, section
1); thereafter he returned to it only sporadically.
His aim in this passage was to refute an objection
that had been raised against his method of dream
analysis by means of free association; his critics contended
the material produced in this way could consist
only of isolated fragments and could have no
overall meaning. This objection came out of an
understanding of associationism in which, at the
time, ideas that thus appeared “by chance” could
only be brought together based on formal criteria
(synonymy, assonance, and so on) or chance (temporal
coincidence, for example). It is remarkable that
Freud, who elsewhere made extensive use of these
formal or contingent factors in association, in this
passage challenged the idea of a train of thought
occurring by chance. He pointed out that conscious
thought is always directed toward a goal to be
reached (solution of a problem, preparing for an
action, and so on). The same is true, he said, when a
train of thought is unconscious and/or bears upon
representations that are themselves unconscious: It is
always directed toward a goal, even if the subject is
unaware of it. Thereafter, when someone was asked,
after relating a dream, to proceed by free association,
the sequence of the dreamer’s evocations followed an
orientation homologous to the one that presided
over the dream-work, a process in which the goal to
be reached was the fulfillment of a wish. The same
applied in the analysis of a symptom, homologous to
the work of producing this symptom, which could
thus be decrypted.
Thus, although Freud subsequently returned to this
term only intermittently in his later works, he based
the notion on two essential principles: First, the elements
of thought, notably representations, are linked
together in an ordered sequence (the analysis of several
such trains of thought leading in general to a “nodal
1424
point” at the heart of the subject’s problematics); and,
second, this sequence is ordered by a finality.
ROGER PERRON
See also: Fundamental rule; Interpretation of Dreams, The.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund (1900a). The interpretation of dreams. Part
I., SE, 4: 1-338; Part II, SE, 5: 339-625.
PUTNAM, JAMES JACKSON (1846-1918)
American physician and neurologist James Jackson
Putnam was born on October, 3, 1846 in Boston,
where he died on November 4, 1918.
His family belonged to New England’s professional
aristocracy. Both his father and grandfather were prominent
physicians. His mother admonished him to
be good, honest, and not to entirely neglect his social
obligations. He studied medicine at Harvard University.
In 1870, he went to Europe to learn about electrotherapeutics
and neurology, concentrating on
anatomy and pathology—whose proponents believed
that mental diseases were due to defective heredity,
and that brain and mind were parallel systems. He
became one of America’s most distinguished specialists
in nervous diseases.
By the mid-1890s, with, among others, William
James, Josiah Royce, and Morton Prince, Putnam
experimented with hypnosis and psychotherapy. His
practices were rooted in the ideas of Janet, Bernheim,
and Charcot, as well as in the virtue and belief in progress
that, habitually, was taught to the members of
New England’s professional aristocracy. He was aware
of Freud’s work, and after meeting Ernest Jones (who
then was in Toronto), he began to think that early
experiences and childhood sexuality might be important
elements in later neuroses and psychoses. Thus,
he came to psychoanalysis at the age of sixty-three.
Together with William James, Putnam went to hear
Freud’s lectures at Clark University in 1909. He was
impressed and invited Freud (along with Carl Jung
and Sandor Ferenczi) to his camp in the Adirondacks.
Nathan Hale (1971b, p. 25) demonstrates that there
they forged a friendship, and Putnam became “convinced
of Freud’s integrity and sincerity, and from
then on marshalled all his energies, prestige, and elo-
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
quence, on behalf of psychoanalysis.” Until his death,
he lectured on psychoanalysis at Harvard and published
twenty-two papers on the subject.
In that period, Putnam and Freud exchanged
eighty-eight letters, and Freud analyzed Putnam
during psychoanalytic congresses. At Freud’s urging,
Putnam initiated the founding of the American Psychoanalytical
Association in 1911, and the Boston
Psychoanalytic Society in 1914. He fiercely defended
psychoanalysis against scurrilous attacks. However,
Putnam rejected Freud’s bent toward materialism and
determinism, and Freud objected to Putnam’s idealistic
and philosophical formulations—which led him to
urge his patients to ennoble their minds—and to the
belief that individuals are ruled by an inherent principle
of growth.
In Totem and Taboo Freud particularly rebutted the
religious elements of Putnam’s book Human Motives,
although already before then Putnam’s ideas allegedly
had influenced him. Putnam’s convictions originated
in his Unitarian upbringing; in Bergson’s belief that
memory images are not “stored” in the brain but
called up by the sensory-motor system; in his patient’s,
Susan Blow’s, argument that “self-activity” expresses
the self-determining energy of life; and in Royce’s faith
in an unseen ideal.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Putnam, James Jackson (1846-1918)
Throughout his life, Putnam was concerned with
the moral crises which, in America, were arising out of
an ingrained “civil morality’—that engendered hidden
conflicts due to expectations of religious purity in
upwardly mobile men who were having illicit affairs.
Because Putnam’s case notes were destroyed, we do
not know how he conducted his therapies. But his stature
and esteem, and his dedication to psychoanalysis,
were decisive in establishing the discipline on the
North American continent.
EpITH KuRZWEIL
See also: United States.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1912—13a). Totem and taboo. SE, 13: 1—-
161.
Hale, Nathan G. Jr. (197la). Freud and the Americans: The
beginnings of psychoanalysis in the United States, 1876—
1917. New York: Oxford University Press.
Hale, Nathan G. Jr. (1971b). James Jackson Putnam and psychoanalysis.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Putnam, James Jackson. (1915). Human motives. Boston:
Little, Brown, and Company.
1425
an
uae Taringa ; meee
1 eve rn el aeons of
QUANTITATIVE / QUALITATIVE
Qualitative and quantitative are two indissociable
adjectives applied to the concept of affect in psychoanalytic
theory. From Sigmund Freud to André Green,
affect has been approached in terms both of its
dynamic (quantitative) and subjective (qualitative)
dimensions.
The relationship between these two terms evolved
in Freud’s work at the same time as the relationship
between representation and affect. Initially, representation
took priority over affect, the latter being
assigned a function of mere coloring, and the emphasis
was on the quantitative dimension. As subsequent theoretical
revisions were effected, affect took on importance
and was no longer studied only in terms of its
relationship to representation, and the qualitative
dimension thus was given growing prominence.
Quantity was the term that appeared first, in an
article written by Freud for Villaret’s Encyclopedia
(1891). In Studies on Hysteria (1895) Freud took up
the term again and used it in an economic sense in his
description of the excitation present in the nervous
system and its vicissitudes. He took his inspiration
from the scientific model of thermodynamics: The
psychic apparatus seeks to maintain the sum of excitation
at the lowest possible level, either by spreading it
out by means of association, or by discharging the
surplus.
Freud approached the quantitative and qualitative
dimensions together for the first time in “Project for a
Scientific Psychology,” which was written in 1895 but
never published during his lifetime. Although what
was at issue was not yet affect but rather psychic
energy, the fundamentals of Freud’s future hypotheses
can be discerned in this text. He had not yet abandoned
the idea of a scientific career in biology, and, as
he explained in the introduction, was seeking to bring
psychology into the framework of the natural sciences.
He divided the psychic apparatus into systems (¢ system
of permeable neurones, ¢)-system of impermeable
neurones, and w-system of perceptual neurones) in
which the psychic processes are quantitatively determined
states of material particles, the neurons. The ¢
system refers to exogenous and physical quantities,
while the system w refers to internal, mental quantities.
The quantity Q derives from hypotheses he had
already proposed in an article written the previous
year, “The Neuro-Psychoses of Defence,” (1894) in
which he distinguished measurable quantity, its variations,
the movement associated with this quantity, and
its discharge.
The affects are thus, according to Freud, internal,
secreted discharges. The taking into account of quality
is subordinated to this dynamic conception. He had
difficulty in approaching this dimension, and for this
purpose introduced the third system, w, which he
linked to perception. This system is aroused by perceptions,
and it is the discharge of this excitation that produces
a quality. Further on, he specified that quality
appears where the quantity Q has been reduced beforehand.
All this thus amounts to the transformation of
an external quantity into a quality. Qualitative phenomena
are brought back to the vicissitudes of quantity,
an idea that Freud expresses in his statement that
the tendency to avoid unpleasure is blended with the
primary tendency toward inertia. This implies communication
between the w and w systems.
Freud put considerable emphasis on the sensation
of a psychic modification giving the impression of an
1427
QuaNTITATIVE/ QUALITATIVE
internal movement, in this way relating indices of
quality to information about discharge. Attention is
thus brought to bear both on indices of quality belonging
to the external properties of the object and on the
internal processes of the passage of a psychic quantity,
Q. Because he did not allude on this occasion to the w
system, it is impossible to say whether it is this system
that provides this perception of movement. The confusion
grows even further in a correction Freud sent to
Fliess, in which he specified that the w system serves
only to excite, that is, it is limited to indicating the
path to be followed; this would imply that unconscious
processes remain unconscious and can acquire
only a secondary and artificial consciousness by being
linked to processes of discharge and perception.
With The Interpretation of Dreams (1900), Freud
effected an epistemological break and renounced the
biological model, but he nevertheless remained unclear
about the qualitative, which remained subordinated to
the quantitative. He stressed the quantitative, dynamic
aspect of the repression of representations. Affect,
independent of the latter, is not transformed in
dreams; its quality remains unchanged, although it
content is suppressed.
Up until his metapsychological writings of 1915
(“Instincts and Their Vicissitudes,’ “Repression’),
Freud distinguished two very different things: representation
(or ideation) on the one hand, and on the
other, the quota of affect representing the instinct. The
two have very different vicissitudes. The quota of affect
corresponds to instinct that is detached from representation
and that finds expression, proportionate to its
quantity, in processes that are experienced as affects.
This amounts to saying that there are only quantitative
differences between different instincts that are qualitatively
alike. Freud then pursued this line of thinking
and posited a duality between the quantitative factor
with representation, on the one hand, and the qualitative
factor with affect, on the other. He distinguished
the ideational representative from the representative of
affect, with the two having different fates. The first disappears
from consciousness under the effects of
repression. The second has three possible outcomes:
suppression of the instinct, expression of a qualitatively
defined affect, or transposition of the psychic
energy of the instincts into affects.
Not until 1924, with the article “The Economic
Problem of Masochism,” did Freud come to recognize
the relative independence of quantity and quality. At
1428
this point he dissociated states of pleasure and unpleasure
from the economic factors of relaxation and tension,
and distinguished the Nirvana principle, on the
one hand, from the pleasure principle, on the other.
The former has the purely quantitative task of reducing
the level of psychic energy to zero. The latter is
responsible for the qualitative avoidance of unpleasure
and the search for pleasure. Affect is thus found in an
intermediate position between annihilation by means
of discharge, and the desire to transcend it.
After Freud, others continued to investigate the
connection between the quantitative and qualitative
aspects of affect. There remained, however, a tendency
to approach affect only in its quantitative dimension,
neglecting its qualitative dimension. Only with Green’s
book, The Fabric of Affect in Psychoanalytic Discourse
(1973/1999), in which he attempted to develop a
metapsychology of affect and representation, was the
relationship between quantitative and qualitative significantly
reexamined. Green described two poles of
affect, one economic and the other psychic, that are
most often complementary. In its economic aspect,
affect can be considered as a quantity of dischargeable
energy. This is the primary dimension of affect, closer
to the id than to representation, but difficult to distinguish
from the latter. In its psychic aspect, the movement
of discharge is only incipient, and is overridden
by the qualitative dimension. It is found in the form of
the pleasure/unpleasure dichotomy, which for Green is
“the principle of primary symbolization.”
PHILIPPE METELLO
See also: Desexualization; Discharge; Erotogenic masochism;
Instinctual representative; Otherness; Pleasure/
unpleasure principle; Principle of (neuronal) inertia;
“Project for a Scientific Psychology, A”; Quota of affect;
Reciprocal paths of influence (libidinal coexcitation);
Representation of affect; Hard science and psychoanalysis;
Sum of excitation.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1915c). Instincts and their vicissitudes.
SE, 14: 109-40.
. (1915d). Repression. SE, 14: 141-58.
. (1924c). The economic problem of masochism. SE,
19: 155-70.
- (1950c [1895]). A project for a scientific psychology.
SE, 1: 281-387.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Green, André. (1999). The fabric of affect in psychoanalytic
discourse (Alan Sheridan, Trans.). London and New York:
Routledge. (Original work published 1973)
QUASI-INDEPENDENCE/TRANSITIONAL
STAGE
In Fairbairn’s revision of classical developmental theory,
based in object-relationships rather than libido
theory and underlying his theories of psychopathology,
quasi-independence, or transitional stage, occurs
between the stages of infantile dependence and mature
dependency, and is characterized by dichotomy and
exteriorization of the incorporated object.
Fairbairn’s view of the ego as inherently objectseeking
rather than pleasure-seeking, and invested
with its own energy, facilitated his move away from
instinct/libido theory and psycho-sexual development
as delineated by Freud and later Abraham, and allowed
him a revised theory of development based on objectrelations.
He proposed an early stage of infantile
dependence, or primary identification, the object,
while still part of the relationship, not yet being differentiated,
and the aim (libido) being incorporative,
“taking.”
Fairbairn described the gradual transformation of
quasi-independence into an object-relationship in
which the subject and object are fully differentiated,
and the aim is “giving,” the stage of mature dependency.
In the transition between these stages the object
has split into the accepting (loved) and the rejecting
(hated) object, attached to the libidinal and antilibidinal
egos respectively, and increasing differentiation
results in attempts to “exteriorize” these objects, modelled
on the known physiological experiences of defecation
and urination.
The characteristic conflict of the transitional/
quasi-independent stage is between the developmental
urge towards mature dependence and the regressive
reluctance to relinquish infantile dependence, and
Fairbairn described four transitional stages, or rejective
techniques, the paranoid, obsessional, hysterical,
and phobic, each consisting of different internal relationships
and mechanisms, and each underlying specific
psychopathologies.
Based neither on the sequence of erotogenic zones,
nor on “positions,” Fairbairn’s developmental theory
is a more psychological and object-related theory than
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Quatriéme Groupe (O. P. L. F.), FourtH Group
that of either Freud or Klein, and allows considerable
flexibility of theoretical and clinical approach. These
ideas have been particularly useful to British Independent
analysts, and those interested in self-psychology
and intersubjective analysis.
JENNIFER JOHNS
See also: Fairbairn, William Ronald Dodds; Object relations
theory.
Bibliography
Fairbairn, Ronald. (1952). A revised psychopathology of the
psychoses and psychoneuroses. In Psychoanalytic studies of
the personality (pp. 28-58). London: Tavistock with Routledge,
Kegan Paul. (Reprinted from International Journal of
Psycho-Analysis, 22 (1941), 250-279.)
Greenberg, Stephen, and Mitchell, Jay (1983). Object relations
in psychoanalytic theory. Cambridge, MA, and London:
Harvard University Press.
Grotstein, James, and Rinsley, Donald (Eds.). (1994). Fairbairn
and the origins of object relations. London: Free Association
Books.
QUATRIEME GROUPE (0. P. L. F.),
FOURTH GROUP
The Quatrieme groupe (Fourth group) of the Organisation
psychanalytique de la langue francaise (O. P. L. F,
French-Language Psychoanalytic Group) is one of the
larger psychoanalytic groups in France. It claims to follow
principles and methods that have opened up a
third way between Lacanism and the standards of the
International Psychoanalytical Association.
The Quatrieme groupe was born out of the third
split in the French psychoanalytic movement, which
occurred in March 1969. This was after the 1953 split,
which gave rise to the Societe francaise de psychanalyse
(French Psychoanalytic Society), and the 1963 split,
which divided the Société frangaise de psychanalyse
into the Association psychanalytique de France
(French Psychoanalytic Association) and the Ecole
Freudienne de Paris (Freudian School of Paris), created
by Jacques Lacan.
The founders of the Quatrieme groupe—Piera
Aulagnier, Francois Perrier, and Jean-Paul Valabrega—
had been members of the first board of directors of
the Ecole Freudienne de Paris, but very soon, with the
1429
Quatrigme Groupe (O. P. L. F.), FourtH Group
resignation of Perrier in 1967, followed by that of
Valabrega, they reproached him for setting up institutional
formations that he had previously criticized. In
addition to this criticism of Lacan’s leadership, the
direct cause of the split was their rejection of new
modes of psychoanalytic training (the “pass”) that
Lacan had just put in place in December 1968.
The first of the meetings that would result in the formation
of the Quatriéme groupe took place in Ermenonville,
north of Paris. The group was officially founded on
March 17, 1969, and at first included only ten people. Its
officers were Francois Perrier, president; Jean-Paul Valabrega,
vice-president; Piera Castoriadis-Aulagnier, psychoanalytic
secretary; Evelyne-Anne Gasqueres, scientific
secretary; Jean-Paul Moreigne, administrative secretary;
and Gabrielle Dorey, treasurer.
The Quatriéme groupe was founded on considerations
of both the essence of psychoanalysis and the form
of institution most likely to sustain the principles of its
practice and transmission. These considerations resulted
from the experience of the Société frangaise de
psychanalyse, in which Lacan was the major driving
force, but also from a critique of both the institution
and practice of Lacanism (most notably, the short sessions).
This critique lent its tone to the Quatrieme
groupe’s declaration. of principles and methods:
“Between the idealism of principles and the authoritarianism
of ideologies, it is appropriate to pinpoint difficulties
and to define the impossible. ... It will be found
that the three terms of ‘ability, ‘membership, and ‘training’
are a source of insoluble conflicts and the sticking
points of post-Freudianism” ( Topique, 1 [1969]).
The issue of ability was linked to that of the effects
of the training analysis, which is particularly dangerous
if the training analysis is defined as Lacan did, that
is, as aiming at “pure,” as opposed to “applied,” analysis.
The issue of membership opened up the possibility
of feudal loyalty based solely on analytic affiliations.
And the issue of training raised the risk of basing the
status of analyst on the attainment of a diploma or on
the rituals of collegial recognition. This triple preoccupation
can be summed up as a concern over whether
an analytic society can manage to banish “alienation”
(Mijolla-Mellor, 1996), and it is the basis of a functional
mechanism for coping with this difficulty.
The Quatrieme group’s declaration of principles
and methods ultimately made up what would be called
the “Blue Notebook,” that is, the founding charter of
1969 (Topique, 1 [1969]), along with later modifica-
1430
tions to that charter in 1970 (Topique, 6 [1971]), in
1983 (Topique, 32 [1983]), and in 1985 and 1986
(Topique, 38 [1986]). These successive modifications
were aimed at “refounding” the institution (during
“refounding” sessions) in order to avoid ossification.
The two main points of its principles and methods
were the following: First, the composition of the
group was limited to two categories of membership.
Those in the first category were successively called
tenured members, then subscribing members, and
finally member analysts. Those in the second category
were called candidates, then contributors, and then
participants. They were not considered trainees, and
their status did not guarantee their potential careers
as analysts. They were defined as guests—either as
colleagues already authorized by other societies or as
auditors in the midst of their analyses who wanted
to attend the Quatrieme groupe’s scientific events
(such as seminars and lectures) or participate in its
institutional activities (as observers). Passage from
the status of participant to that of member analyst
posed difficult issues of recognition and the process
of authorization.
Second, at the end of a personal analysis, which
was not distinguished from a training analysis,
whether with a,member of the Quatriéme groupe or
not, the candidate analyst, who was usually a participant
member, could decide to undertake a “fourth
analysis” (analyse quatrieme) with a member analyst.
The fourth analysis is a private act based on an
agreement between the person who requests it and
the analyst who agrees to it. After one or more
fourth analyses, during which the applicant not only
develops an analytic ear (under supervision) but also
learns to pinpoint the effects that identification with
one’s own analyst can have on one’s practice, the
candidate begins a process of authorization that takes
place in between analyses. This process consists of a
series of meetings with member analysts who have
been chosen by the candidate and have agreed to the
request. The “fourth analyst”? may or may not be
among them. During these interanalytic meetings
there is discussion of a case or any analytic question
posed by the participants. After at least two or three
of these meetings, there are more meetings with
other analysts, always chosen by the candidate. At
the end of this usually long process, one of the meetings
is declared to be “authorizing” by the member
analysts in attendance. They have the responsibility,
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
with the agreement of the whole group, of deciding
on the authorization of the new member analyst and
reporting it to the ratifying assembly. At any time,
the candidate can request the participation of an
“analytic secretary,” a member elected by the officers
of the Quatri¢me groupe, if the candidate thinks
it would be useful. The secretary has no decisionmaking
power over the candidate. Obviously, this
procedure does away with training analysts and the
status of trainee. Yet it is strictly codified so that candidates
can be authorized only through this process.
This procedure has several advantages. Even if there
were no committees, commissions, or boards of
admissions, the analytic and scientific secretaries
would still provide applicants the possibility of discussing
the soundness of their interests and abilities.
Moreover, member analysts, merely by being chosen
to participate in interanalytic meetings, also contribute
to advancing the process of recognition. Consulting
analysts thus fulfill their roles as institutional
representatives, as opposed to the collective lack of
responsibility favored by centralized bureaucracies. In
addition, whether it is a matter of the interanalytic
meetings or of the authorization itself, any conclusions
reached or decisions made must be discussed in the
presence of the candidate. Finally, the several fourth
analyses and several interanalytic meetings guarantee
the principle of multiple references in the process of
training so that authorization is not reduced to a kind
of feudal initiation based on personal loyalty. Naturally,
at every step in the process the candidate’s own
analyst is prohibited from intervening.
In its earlier formulations, the process of authorization
also included a final step in which the candidate
would write a memoir to be presented to the whole
group at a scientific assembly. This presentation
marked the moment of the candidate’s acceptance.
Even though this practice is no longer followed in
quite the same form, candidates, over the course of the
long process of authorization, still present their work
in meetings of working groups and also possibly at
conferences or in scientific journals.
The mechanisms that the Quatrieme groupe has
put in place aim at responding to a major problem in
analytic societies and the principle cause of their dissolution,
namely the question of training and authorization.
The status of analyst is problematic in that it can
only be put to the test during treatment, in the face of
an ungraspable entity, the unconscious.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Qu’'ESTE QUE LA SUGGESTION? [WHAT |S SUGGESTION? ]
A statement added to the “Blue Notebook” in 1983
concludes, “Our model of analytic training and
authorization does not pretend to be permanent or
perfect. It would be good if Winston Churchill’s statement
about democracy could be applied to it: that it is
‘the worst form of government, with the exception of
all the others.’ ”
SOPHIE DE MiOLLA-MELLOR
See also: Fourth analysis, Analyse quatriéme; France;
Pass, the; Splits in psychoanalysis.
Bibliography
Aulagnier, Piera. (1986). Un interpréte en quéte de sens. Paris:
Ramsay.
Mijolla, Alain de. (2001). Splits in the French psychoanalytic
movement between 1953 and 1964. In R. Steiner and
J. Jonas. (Eds.), Within Time and Beyond Time (pp. 1-24).
London: Karnac.
Mijolla-Mellor, Sophie de. (1996). Aliénator, ou les enjeux
theoriques de la troisieme scission dans le mouvement psychanalytique
en France. Cliniques méditerraneennes, 49—
50; 79-93:
Valabrega, Jean-Paul. (1994). La formation du psychanalyste.
Paris: Payot.
QU’EST-CE QUE LA SUGGESTION?
[WHAT IS SUGGESTION? ]
The questions raised in the nineteenth century
concerning hypnosis and suggestion continue to
preoccupy. It is part of the legend that Freudian psychoanalysis
grew out of these practices and distanced
itself from them, and Freud himself was careful to
establish this part of the legend. In daily life the fascination
of these states of mind remains, similar to the
state of being in love, and the various other seductions
that operate in the social realm. However, psychoanalysts
continue to question the nature of Freud’s concept,
which associated hypnosis with the wielding of
influence. Some feel that psychoanalysis is no longer
dependent on the all-seeing eye of one person; is
manipulation necessary in the therapeutic relation, or
suggestion the guide along the path to freedom?
Is suggestion necessary or best avoided? Is it a
method of control, or a forced passage toward true
reappropriation of the self? The concerns confronting
1431
Question oF LAY ANALYSIS, THE
Charles Baudouin are still present in the early twentyfirst
century. Initially he published a study, Suggestion
and Autosuggestion (1920/1962). This he followed in
1924 with the basic question: What Is Suggestion?
Baudouin questioned the power of suggestion and
the different conceptions of it at the time. He did not
believe it was purely an outside influence; he was absolutely
convinced that all effective suggestion is basically
autosuggestion, that it is part of the psychology of the
subject and not constructed of some social psychology
in which several different individuals are in relation
with each other.
For a while he seemed to draw closer to Emile
Coué. He always believed in the power of autosuggestion
for the development of the subject, particularly in
the context of education. His book develops landmarks
in working with the problems posed to him. Is
suggestibility in a person normal or pathological? Can
there be suggestion without hypnosis? Why should
autosuggestion be truly preferrable?
MuIREILLE CIFALI
See also: Autosuggestion; Baudouin, Charles.
Source Citation
Baudouin, Charles. (1924). Quest-ce que la suggestion?
Introduction a la psychologie de la suggestion et de l'autosuggestion.
Neuchatel-Paris: Delachaux & Niestlé.
Bibliography
Baudouin, Charles. (1962). Suggestion and autosuggestion,
a psychological and pedagogical study based upon the
investigations made by the new Nancy school (Eden and
Cedar Paul, Trans.). London: G. Allen & Unwin. (Original
work published 1920)
Erickson, Milton H. (1967). Advanced techniques of hypnosis
and therapy (Selected papers of Milton Erickson edited by Jay
Haley). New York, London: Grune & Stratton.
Roustang, Francgois. (1990) Influence. Paris: Minuit.
. (1994). Qw’est-ce que ’hypnose?. Paris: Minuit.
QUESTION OF LAY ANALYSIS, THE
Freud wrote The Question of Lay Analysis as an occasional
piece in support of one of his friends, Theodor
Reik, who had been accused of practicing medicine
1432
illegally (he was not a physician). He cast it in the form
of an informal conversation with an “impartial interlocutor?
probably Julius Tandler, the Viennese city
councilor for welfare, with whom he had in fact discussed
the Reik case.
The question of “lay” analysis had been of concern
to Freud and his students for a long time because not
all of them were physicians. The gap had progressively
widened between those who, like Freud, felt that
sound training as an analyst was all that mattered,
regardless of any previously acquired diplomas, and
those (particularly Abraham A. Brill and the Americans)
who, considering analysis to be a medical
discipline, wanted to prohibit non-physicians from
practicing. Ernest Jones launched a major survey of
the analytic community before the Innsbruck International
Congress in September 1927, at which twentyeight
contributions on the subject were discussed
without any agreement being reached. Freud wrote a
“Postscript” for the occasion, maintaining his claim
that analysis could be practiced by non-physicians.
Freud opens the imaginary conversation of The
Question of Lay Analysis by describing disorders for
which the ordinary physician can offer no real help,
then proceeds to outline the methods of free association,
dream analysis and so on, which seek to shed
light on unconscious processes. He provides his putative
interlocutor, whose supposed criticisms and questions
frequently punctuate the exchange, with some
notion, from the dynamic point of view, of his structural
theory of the mind, of the instincts and, from the
economic point of view, of repression and anxiety, of
childhood sexuality, of the Oedipus complex, and so
on. This metapsychological overview is followed by an
account of the procedures of analytic therapy (transference,
resistance, and the art of interpretation).
Neither general medicine nor psychiatry prepares the
physician for any of this, Freud declares; they may
even constitute an obstacle. Special training is
required, beginning with a personal analysis, without
which even a physician may be no more than a quack.
Any legislation on the subject would therefore be more
of a hindrance than a help. Freud therefore concludes
that analysis may perfectly well be practiced by nonphysicians.
Such an analyst would nevertheless need
the help of a physician, prior to the analysis, in order
to settle diagnostic questions or, in the course of the
analysis, to take over in the case of disorders beyond
the scope of the analyst: but the same holds for the
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physician analyst. Freud concludes by tracing the program
of what the ideal analytical training might
involve (p. 246).
This work has had considerable influence on the
debates that continue to this day on the “question of
lay analysis” and the training of analysts. On the
whole—though with noticeable variations from country
to country—the International Psychoanalytical
Association has adopted Freud’s position.
ROGER PERRON
See also: Lay analysis; Reik, Theodor; “‘Wild’ Psycho-
Analysis.”
Source Citation
Freud, Sigmund. (1926e). Die Frage der Laienanalyse. Unterredungen
mit einem Unparteiischen. Leipzig-Vienna-Zurich,
Internationaler Psychoanalytischer Verlag; GW, 14: 207-286;
The question of lay analysis. SE, 20: 177-250.
. (1927a). Nachwort zur Frage der Laienanalyse
(1926e). Internationale Zeitschrift ftir Psychoanalyse, 13:
326-332; GW, 14: 287-296; Postscript: The question of lay
analysis. SE, 20: 251-258.
Bibliography
Jones, Ernest. (1959). Free associations. Memories of a psychoanalyst.
London: Hogarth.
Revue internationale d’histoire de la psychanalyse. (1990).
Histoire de l’exercice de l’analyse par les non-médecins, 3.
QUOTA OF AFFECT
Affects are modes of expressing impulses, manifesting
internal states of psychic life based on the two primitive
polarities of pleasure and unpleasure, which play an
essential role in the totality of mental functioning, especially
in the defensive organization of the ego. The concept
of affect can be found in the earliest examples of
Freud’s psychoanalytic writings (1895d [1893-95}),
where it is used to explain hysterical symptoms as a
quantity of energy that cannot be discharged and, as a
result, remains attached to memory. Therapy involves
a recovery of this memory. Language, which is equivalent
to the act, enables abreaction and the discharge of affect.
Originally, affect was considered by Freud to be a
variable amount of excitation, a quantum of affect closely
associated with memory traces. André Green
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Quota of AFFECT
(1973) elucidated the concept when he spoke of the
ideational representative of the impulse and its affectiverepresentative.
The idea of affect is also very close to
the concept of libidinal energy; whenever the libido is
repressed, it can be transformed into anxiety (the first
Freudian theory of anxiety). This is perhaps the bestknown
example of affect.
In 1915 Freud wrote, “For this other element of the
psychical representative the term quota of affect has
been generally adopted. It corresponds to the instinct
in so far as the latter has become detached from the
idea and finds expression, proportionate to its quantity,
in processes which are sensed as affects” (1915d,
p. 152). Here, Freud seems to postulate that repression
most deeply weighs upon the ideational representatives,
which become unconscious, while affects are not
found in the unconscious. They are excluded from
consciousness through repression.
This vision of affects as charges capable of undergoing
conversion (conversion hysteria), displacement
(obsessional neurosis), transformation (anxiety neurosis),
and being manifested through internal
discharges that produce changes in the body of the
individual, was substantially modified in Freud’s second
theory of anxiety (1926d [1925]). Here, the ego
becomes the seat of affects, especially anxiety. Anxiety
automatically arises whenever the ego of the nursing
child is overwhelmed by an instinctual excitation that
it is unable to discharge on its own; gradually, the
newborn realizes that the mother will help to dissipate
this experience of danger. Subsequently, the ego
experiences the loss of the mother as an alarm signaling
the arrival of these dangers (signal anxiety). In
this same work, Freud also describes other affects,
such as psychic pain and sadness. Later, following the
Metapsychological Papers, he emphasizes the importance
of unconscious feelings of guilt that are part of
the affects residing in the ego. These are complex
affects that are made manifest through fantasies, such
as those mentioned concerning the loss of the mother,
in which “ideational representations” and affects are
closely intertwined.
Melanie Klein (1948/1952) adhered to, and
further developed, the Freudian concept of affects.
Starting from annihilation anxiety, a primitive affect
she conceived as the ego’s reaction to the internal
threat caused by the death impulse, more complex
affects associated with paranoid-schizoid and depressive
positions came into being: persecution anxieties
1433
Quota oF AFFECT
and anxieties of depression, sadness, and guilt.
Anxieties, therefore, become organized as a modality
of fantasies that serve as prototypes of possible
interactions of the ego with objects according to
basic polarities: pleasure-unpleasure or annihilation
experience-security experience. These help organize
and determine the ego’s relations with objects
through mobilization of the various defense mechanisms
that structure the mental life of the individual.
FRANCISCO PALACIO EsPASA
See also: Anxiety; Cathexis; Complex; Defense; Ego;
Emotion; Excitation; I; Ideational representative; Inhibition,
Symptoms, and Anxiety; Instinctual impulse;
Instinctual representative; Memory; Music and psychoanalysis;
Psychic representative; Quantitative/qualitative;
1434
Representation of affect; Repression; Splitting; Suppression;
Symptom; Turning around.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1915d). Repression. SE, 14: 141-158.
. (1926d [1925]). Inhibitions, symptoms and anxiety.
SE, 20: 77-175. 5
Freud, Sigmund, and Breuer, Josef. (1895d). Studies on
hysteria. SE, 2: 48-106.
Green, André. (1973). Le discourse vivant: La conception psychanalytique
de l’affect. Paris: Presses Universitaires de
France.
Klein, Melanie. (1952). Concerning the theory of anxiety
and guilt. In M. Klein, P. Heimann, S. Isaacs, and J. Riviere
(Eds.), Developments in psychoanalysis. London: Hogarth.
(Original work published 1948)
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
RACAMIER, PAUL-CLAUDE (1924-1996)
The French psychiatrist and psychoanalyst Paul-
Claude Racamier was born on May 20, 1924, in Pontde-
Roide, and died on August 18, 1996, in Besancon.
The youngest of three brothers, Racamier had solid
roots in his native Franche-Comté by way of his father,
who came from a Catholic family in the Dréme and
worked as an engineer at the Peugeot factory, and his
mother, who came from a Protestant family in the
Montbeliard region. Racamier’s mother considered
her son’s health to be delicate and home-schooled
him until the age of nine; this experience imparted a
life-long stance marked by a passion for very individualistic
ideas and a refusal of all conformism. After
receiving a good secondary education in Montbéeliard,
he studied medicine in Besancon and then in Paris; he
passed the medical exam qualifying him to practice in
the psychiatric hospitals in 1952.
Racamier spent the first part of his career at the
psychiatric hospital in Prémontré, where he worked
from 1952 to 1962. Shocked by the dehumanizing
conditions there, he established an improved setting
for patients in his ward and gradually developed the
therapeutic services of the institution itself. He then
followed the same course of action in Switzerland,
at the clinic of Rives de Prangins (1962-66), and
subsequently at La Velotte, a treatment facility he
created near Besancon in 1967, which would become
his life’s work. A limited number of patients (twelve
at most), as many caregivers as patients, places for
daytime activities and treatment, clearly separated
from tastefully decorated and furnished, family-style
living quarters, maintaining close contact with
families, and so forth—such were the facility’s principles.
They were based on Racamier’s original
theories.
These theories were nevertheless closely linked to
Racamier’s psychoanalytic training and activity. After
undergoing analysis with Marc Schlumberger (and
later with Evelyne Kestemberg), he worked with Sacha
Nacht and Francis Pasche. He became a member of the
Société psychanalytique de Paris (SPP; Paris Psychoanalytical
Society) in 1958 and was elected to permanent
membership in 1962. He taught at the University
of Lausanne from 1962 to 1967, and then at the faculties
of medicine and human sciences in Besan¢on. At
the same time, he conducted many psychoanalytic and
psychiatric training seminars; he served as director of
the SPP’s Institut de psychanalyse (Institute of Psychoanalysis)
from 1975 to 1982.
Racamier’s collaboration with colleagues who created
and ran the mental health services of the 13th
arrondissement in Paris (Philippe Paumelle, Serge
Lebovici, René Diatkine, Rene Angelergues) led to a
collectively authored book entitled Le Psychanalyste
sans divan (The psychoanalyst without a couch; 1970).
In this book Racamier stressed an idea he would often
return to: the need to simultaneously “care for”
patients, caregivers, the group they form, the institution
where they live, and families. The key word is to
fight against the repetition compulsion that tends
toward a routine where everything becomes fixed.
His theoretical writings originated in his practice
working with adult psychoses: in Les Schizophrenes
(Schizophrenics; 1980), he sought to show the “paradoxality”
at work in these disorders. But his ideas went
further. So did the ideas that came out of his work
with patients suffering from postpartum psychoses.
1435
Racism, ANTI-SEMITISM, AND PSYCHOANALYSIS
Developing the notions of “mothering” and “motherhood,”
he found close links between maternal psychosis
and the child’s development; beyond this, he
showed that in such situations, the entire process of
“personnation, the sense of being an autonomous,
coherent, and continuous person, is disturbed.
The same spirit of “going further” is evident in the
notion of the Antoedipus (1989), a key element in
Racamier’s thinking. In coining this term, Racamier
intended to refer to both the “anti-oedipal” (that
which is an obstacle to the oedipal organization) and
the “ante-oedipal” (that to which the psyche is thus
sent back); thus, in a “world of non-object objects,”
the “anti-fantasy fantasies,” the “fantasies of selfprocreation”
that radically cancel out sexual and generational
differences and the like, lead, according to
the vicissitudes of this “shattered Antoedipus,” to psychosis
or narcissistic perversions. However, the outcome
of the Antoedipus is not necessarily so tragic: it
remains present but discreet in the oedipal structures,
contributing to their fluctuations and necessary
reequilibrations.
This central notion is taken up anew in Le Génie des
origines: Psychanalyse et psychoses (The genius of origins:
Psychoanalysis and psychoses; 1992), where
Racamier articulated it, on one side, with the notion
of primal mourning (renunciation of total possession
of the object), and on the other, with a eulogy to ambiguity
(to be distinguished from ambivalence), the condition
for a psychic life that is sufficiently flexible, rich,
and creative.
Racamier’s final work, L’Inceste et l’incestuel (Incest
and the incestuous; 1995) returns to and broadens
these ideas by going back to the very bases of his theorization,
with the “incestuous,” that is, the totality of
parent-child relations (particularly mother-child relations)
that, by way of multiple substitutions, aim to
maintain the eroticized narcissistic union of mutual
seduction and block the oedipal organization.
Throughout, this succession of works shows the
development and blossoming of a lively and original
way of thinking that inevitably resonates with that of
Donald W. Winnicott, Wilfred Bion, or even Jacques
Lacan, even though Racamier, firmly anchored in his
own practice, was not greatly concerned with backing
it up with the theories of other authors. Racamier
left behind a substantial life’s work, through his
creation of institutions for the care of adult psycho-
1436
tics and his practice there, through the theoretical
contributions that were both the fruit of and the
support for that practice, and, finally, through his
teaching.
ROGER PERRON
See also: Ambivalence; Criminology and psychoanalysis;
Delusion; Double bind; France; Incest; Infantile psychosis;
Paradox; Parenthood; Postnatal/postpartum depression;
Puerperal psychoses; Self-representation; Tenderness;
Weaning.
Bibliography
Bayle, Gérard. (1997). Paul-Claude Racamier. Paris: Presses
Universitaires de France.
Racamier, Paul-Claude. (1980). Les schizophrenes. Paris:
Payot.
. (1989). Antoedipe et ses destins. Paris: Apsygee.
. (1992). Le Génie des origines: Psychanalyse et psychoses.
Paris: Payot.
. (1995). L’Inceste et l’Incestuel. Paris: Editions du
College de psychanalyse groupale et familiale.
Racamier, Paul-Claude, et al. (1970). Le Psychanalyste sans
divan. Paris: Payot.
RACISM, ANTI-SEMITISM,
AND PSYCHOANALYSIS
The word race is derived from the Italian razza (fifteenth
century, “sort or species”); the concept of
racism arose from the nineteenth-century development
of anthropology and the life sciences, notably
genetics. A naturalist, zoologizing scientific tendency
led to the classification and hierarchical arrangement
of human groups according to their specific history
and their morphological, cultural, or psychological
characteristics, which were deemed to be hereditary.
Against this backdrop, an ideological application of
the term race came to justify discrimination, segregation,
exploitation, expulsions, and ultimately the
twentieth century’s industrialization of mass murder
and extermination camps.
Pierre-André Taguieff (1998) has pointed out that
“protoracist” social phenomena grounded in xenophobia
and ethnocentrism antedated the coining of
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
the word racism. He adduces three instances of such
protoracism:
1. The myth of “pure blood,” in fourteenth-toseventeenth-
century Spain and Portugal, which
underlay the statutes of 1449 (estatutos de limpieza
de sangre) barring all honors, privileges,
public positions, or employment to converted
“new Christians” and their descendants; such
Moors or Jews (in practice, mainly Jews) were
decreed to be “unclean,” smirched (maculados),
and carriers of foul infections.
2. The colonial slave system and the exploitation of
“colored peoples’—black and Indian—in the
West Indies and the Americas in the sixteenth
and seventeenth centuries, which nourished
fears of contamination associated with the color
of the “skin” and “blood.”
3. The French aristocratic doctrine of an antagonism
between “two races”: nobles with “clear and
pure” blood and “commoners” whose blood was
“vile and abject.”
The “purity of the blood” and its corollary, the
shame associated with contamination, which was
feared to bring about a transmissible degradation or
degeneration, gave rise to a phobia of interbreeding, of
any mixing of races or misalliance with respect to lineage.
The groundwork of racism was thus laid before
any of the modern taxonomies of race appeared.
The distinction between humans and “subhumans”
gives rise to feelings of fear, hatred, and rejection, to
fantasies of dangerousness and absolute possession
projected onto the “uncanny” stranger. The ideology
of race purification is founded on such feelings. The
associations of the defense mechanisms involved (purifying,
purging, purifying, cleaning, disinfecting, and
so on) reflect an underlying fantasy of absolute autonomy
that embodies violent ideas and hostility toward
structures of kinship.
The ideology of racism had its master thinkers. In
France, Arthur de Gobineau, in The Inequality of
Human Races (1853-55), distinguished three main
races: the black, the yellow, and the white. He extolled
“race consciousness” and, thanks to Richard Wagner
among others, found a growing audience in Germany.
Georges Vacher de Lapouge’s L’Aryen, son role social
(The Aryan and his role in society; 1889-90) subdivided
the white race into the superior “dolichocephalic?
Aryans and the inferior “brachycephalic” variety,
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Racism, ANTI-SEMITISM, AND PSYCHOANALYSIS
which included Jews. Spurred on by the Dreyfus Case,
Edouard Drumont, in his La France juive (Jewish
France; 1886), held the Jews to account for the “devastating
calamities” of socialism, internationalism, and
nihilism. Richard Wagner’s son-in-law, Houston Stewart
Chamberlain, whose Foundations of the Nineteenth
Century (1899) was to bring grist to the mill of the
Nazis, further exacerbated the rift between Germans
and Jews by taxing the latter with the notorious blood
libel: die Blutschande, literally “blood shame’—a
charge ideally designed to project onto the Jews a perverse
fantasy of transgression of the prohibition
against incest. And in 1895 Alfred Ploétz brought in
the expression “racial hygiene,” echoed later in the
German Rassenhygien. So many words bear witness to
the eugenic obsession that underpins all xenophobic
and racist thinking.
Anti-Semitism itself is a word that was coined in
Germany by Wilhelm Marr, founder of the Antisemitic
League, in a pamphlet on “the victory of Judaism over
Germanism” (1879).
The bloody tradition of anti-Jewish sentiment
comes all the way from the ancient world down to
what Roberto Finzi (1997/1998) has called the “tragic
epilogue of the Shoah.” (Shoah is Hebrew for “catastrophe,”
and denotes the Nazi genocide of the Jews;
the term genocide was for its part introduced by
Raphaél Lemkin in 1944 in his Axis Rule in Occupied
Europe.)
On the ever-fecund dunghill of anti-Jewish stereotypes
bequeathed by the collective imaginings of medieval
Christianity, which deemed “the Jew” a “deicide”
and a perfidious contemner of the word of Christ the
Savior, the Jews of Central Europe were subjected to
senseless demonization and accused of the “ritual
murder” of children during Passover. Forced to live in
restricted areas under discriminatory laws, they were
the frequent victims of boycotts and pogroms (a Russian
word meaning destruction)—explosive and
bloody outbursts reflecting the envious and fearful
animosity that they aroused. The culture of antisemitism,
whose denunciations of the supposed “Jewish
race” sometimes had a left-wing tinge to them (as witness,
in France, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, Charles
Fourier, and Alphonse Toussenel—who inspired
Drumont—or, in Germany, Werner Sombart), was
buttressed by an “economic” dimension which threw
suspicion on the Jews as putative promoters and
developers of the capitalist system. This calumny
1437
Racism, ANTI-SEMITISM, AND PSYCHOANALYSIS
reached its acme in 1920 with the legend of a worldwide
Jewish-Masonic conspiracy founded on the spurious
Protocols of the Elders of Zion (1894-1905), forged
by the Czar’s secret police.
National Socialism carried anti-Semitism to its
apotheosis. As dictator of the Third Reich, Hitler reintroduced
the medieval ghetto and, taking his cue from
the massacre of the Armenians in 1915, planned the
genocide of the Jews (the idea was broached by him
as early as 1925, in Mein Kampf), to whom he later
added Gypsies and homosexuals. Germany, for Hitler,
had to become judenfrei (“Jew-free”) and judenrein
(“cleansed of Jews”). This will to genocide was
enshrined as a doctrine of state in the Nuremberg laws
(1935), later imitated in Italy (1938) and in Vichy
France’s Jewish statutes of 1940-41. After World War II,
new legal concepts became indispensable in order to
conduct the Nuremberg Trials (1945-46), among
them “crimes against humanity,’ “crimes against
peace,” and “war crimes.”
Racism and genocide cannot help but oblige us to
consider the epistemological underpinnings of an
obsession with eugenics: genesis, gene, generation,
genealogy, genus engendering eugenics, genocide.
From the Freudian perspective, the differences
between human beings, between the sexes, and
between generations, lying as they do at the heart of
the hominizing process, lie in the development and
sublimation of murderous, parricidal, and incestuous
wishes, and hence too the structuring recognition of
heredity, otherness and civilization.
Beginning in 1912, with Totem and Taboo and his
formulation of the myth of the murder of the primal
father, as well as with the watershed or pivotal work
that underlay “On Narcissism” (1914c), Freud broadened
his thinking from the field of the individual to
that of humanity in a collective sense. He was especially
interested, against the background of World
War I, in the narcissistic stakes in play for the
libido and for power in mass-psychological phenomena,
as he was, too, in the relationship to death. These
concerns were evident in “Thoughts for the Times on
War and Death” (1915b), Group Psychology and the
Analysis of the Ego (1921c), and Civilization and Its
Discontents (1930a [1929]). Meanwhile, he pursued his
reflections on the function of the individual psyche,
and almost simultaneously, he produced works raising
questions about the enigma of the “Uncanny” (1919h)
1438
and about the repetition compulsion and the death
instinct (Beyond the Pleasure Principle [1920g]). The
attention Freud paid to the “uncanny” stranger who is
at the same time “secretly familiar,’ and who may in
fact be understood as an “internal enemy,” was in fact
the core of his thinking about racism and _ anti-
Semitism.
In Moses and Monotheism (1939a [1934-38]),
Freud stressed the part played by the Oedipus complex
in Judaism, “a religion of the father,’ as in Christianity,
“4 religion of the son” (p. 88). He brought up the issue
of circumcision, suggested that the claim of the Jews to
be the chosen people was a cause of jealousy, and
evoked the “narcissism of minor differences,’ which,
by exaggerating the sense of belonging, constituted an
obstacle to the effective sublimation of the instincts, to
the formalizing role of the superego, to the greater
sense of sanctity vouchsafed by monotheism and
ethics.
Rudolph Loewenstein dedicated his Christians and
Jews: A Psychoanalytical Study (1952) to Christians
who sacrificed themselves for persecuted Jews. In his
view Judeophobia was a form of demonophobia, and
as such an incurable “hereditary psychosis” that had
existed since antiquity. The “Nazi religion,’ which
preached the supremacy of the Aryan race, exalting
earth and blood, the primacy of force over right, and
the revolt of the instincts against the universal value of
the superego, was certainly anti-Jew, but it was also
anti-Christian.
According to Imre Hermann (1945), anti-Semitism
is a collective sickness that is endemic as well as epidemic
in nature. In Hermann’s theory of attachment,
the “clinging instinct,’ coupled with the instinct for
knowledge, was the foundation of the mother/infant
dual unity. Basing himself on the “clinging instinct/
dermic system” combination, which he saw as the
beginning of social contact, he saw the unconscious
roots of the Nazi thesis that equated non-Aryans, and
especially Jews, to vermin, germs or vampires in a specific
kind of cathexis of the “skin” of the social body.
The pleasure obtained by masses of people clinging in
regressive fashion to a gigantic nourishing mother
would account, in Imre’s view, for the fascination with
a leader who promised the “miraculous” destruction
of the people that invented monotheism.
Drawing on his biopsychic and prenatal theory
of narcissism, Bela Grunberger (1997) has described
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
specifically Christian anti-Semitism as a grandiose
narcissistic aspiration to purity, as the rejection of an
anality unintegrated into the self and its projection
onto Judaism, which, being an authentic moral system
underpinned by the oedipal paternal principle, has
done away with the narcissistic maternal principle.
“Desolation,” a major concept in Hannah Arendt’s
reflection on the origins of totalitarianism, may be
said to correspond, on the level of political philosophy,
to what Freud, in Inhibitions, Symptoms and Anxiety
(1926d) and The Future of an Illusion (1927c), and
other psychoanalysts after him, referred to as “Hilflosigheit,’
meaning a state of helplessness (that of the
human infant). The view that heredity informs totalitarian
racism in general and the genocide of the Jews
in particular implies a systematic attack on the links of
kinship and marriage and tends towards the structural
actualization of what Pierre Legendre (1989) has called
a “slaughter-house theory of heritage.”
The psychoanalytical reflections of Janine Altounian
and Helene Piralian on the Armenian “catastrophe” or
those of Jacques Ascher on the “extermination of
extermination” likewise testify to the gravity of the
injuries sustained. The genocide carried out by the
Nazis was the outcome of a “culture of extermination”
(Gillibert and Wilgowicz). This pure culture of the
death instinct, characterized by collective phenomena
of adherence to a leader who has replaced the ideal
ego, is constitutive of what Wilgowicz has described as a
“historic mass vampirism” founded on infanticide and
matricide/parenticide and on a disavowal of both birth
and death, which destroys the narcissistic bases of identity
in the survivors. As of 2005, three generations after
the Shoah, the repercussions were still being felt.
JACQUES ASCHER AND PEREL WILGOWICZ
See also: Austria; Chertok, Léon; Christians and Jews: A
Psychoanalytical Study; Fanon, Frantz; France; Germany;
Hermann, Imre; Judaism and psychoanalysis; Langer,
Marie Glass Hauser de; Moses and Monotheism; Narcissism
of minor differences; Politics and psychoanalysis.
Bibliography
Arendt, Hannah. (1951). The origins of totalitarianism. New
York: Harcourt, Brace & World.
Finzi, Roberto. (1998). Anti-semitism (Maud Jackson,
Trans.). New York: Interlink. (Original work published
1997)
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Racker, HeinricH (1910-1961)
Freud, Sigmund. (1912—13a). Totem and taboo. SE, 13: 1-
Ode
. (1914c). On narcissism: An introduction. SE, 14:
67-102.
. (1915b). Thoughts for the times on war and death.
SE, 14: 273-300.
—. (1919h). The “uncanny.” SE, 17: 217-256.
. (1920g). Beyond the pleasure principle. SE, 18:
1-64.
. (1921c). Group psychology and the analysis of the
ego. SE, 18: 65-143.
. (1926d [1925]). Inhibitions, symptoms and anxiety.
SE, 20: 75-172.
. (1927c). The future of an illusion. SE, 21: 1-56.
. (1930a [1929]). Civilization and its discontents. SE,
21: 57-145.
. (1939a [1934-38]). Moses and monotheism. SE,
23: 1-137.
Gillibert, Jean, and Wilgowicz, Perel (Eds.). (1993). L’Ange
exterminateur (Proceedings of the Colloque de Cerisy).
Brussels: Editions Universitaires de Bruxelles.
Grunberger, Bela, and Desuant, Pierre. (1997). Narcissisme,
christianisme, antisémitisme. Paris: Actes Sud.
Hermann, Imre. (1945). Az Antiscemizsmus. Budapest:
Bibliotheca.
Legendre, Pierre. (1989). Le Crime du caporal Lortie, traité
sur le pere. Paris: Fayard.
Loewenstein, Rudolph M. (1952). Christians and Jews: A psychoanalytical
study. New York: International Universities
Press.
Taguieff, Pierre-Andre. (1998). La couleur et le sang. Paris:
Mille et Une Nuits.
RACKER, HEINRICH (1910-1961)
Heinrich Racker, a doctor of philosophy, was born in
Poland in 1910 and died in Buenos Aires on January
2,901;
When World War I broke out his family sought
refuge in Vienna. In the course of his youth he
acquired a solid grounding in general culture: He took
an interest in literature, discovered psychoanalysis,
and became an excellent pianist. In 1935 he obtained a
doctorate in philosophy and one year later he was
1439
Ravo, SANDoR (1890-1972)
admitted to the Vienna Institute of Psychoanalysis,
where he was analyzed by Jeanne Lampl-de Groot. In
1937 he enrolled as a medical student. One year later
the Anschluss took place.
Racker fled from Vienna, finally emigrating to Buenos
Aires in 1939 after many vicissitudes. In spite of his
financial difficulties he commenced analysis with Angel
Garma, who generously received him. He later did his
training analysis with Marie Langer and in 1946 he
completed his training in the Argentine Psychoanalytic
Association (APA). In 1947 he became a subscribing
member of the Association and a full member in 1950,
becoming a training analyst one year later.
Racker was very young when he presented his first
work on countertransference, a subject that was to
confirm his reputation as one of the most original analysts
in the history of the discipline. Presented at an
APA conference in September 1948, “La neurosis de
contratransferencia” (The countertransference neurosis)
made a very strong impression. In this paper,
which was not published for another five years, Racker
emphasized the dialectical relation that exists between
the transference and the countertransference. He
revolted against the myth of the impersonal analyst
and pointed out that countertransference reactions
can give the analyst an indication of what is happening
for the analysand. This was the essential point in the
new theory of the countertransference that came into
being in the middle of the twentieth century. |
Simultaneously, at the sixteenth International Congress
(Zurich, 1949) Paula Heimann presented her
study On Countertransference, which was published in
1950. Without any consultation between them, Racker
and Heimann had reached the same conclusions. But,
as Cesio (1961) pointed out, whereas Racker developed
the subject without delay and succeeded in interesting
the scientific community, it took Heimann ten
years to reconsider the question and her work had
only a small impact.
In the 1950s Racker produced fundamental work.
“Observaciones sobre la contratransferencia como
instrumento técnico” (Observations on the countertransference
as a technical instrument), presented to a
conference in 1951 and published one year later, and
“Los significados y usos de la contratransferencia”
(Meanings and uses of the countertransference),
in 1953, published in the Psychoanalytic Quarterly
in 1957.
1440
Apart from his studies of the countertransference,
Racker wrote essays on music, art, and literature,
which were published in book form in 1957. Psychopathological
stratification was another of his interests,
on which he published an article in the same year.
Although his publications and his work as an analyst
and teacher were the most remarkable aspects of
his activity, Racker also shone through his participation
in the life of the Argentinean Association. With
the publication of his work on psychoanalytic technique,
Racker was appointed Sloan Visiting Professor at
the Menninger School of Psychiatry, as well as being
made a member of the symposium “The factors of
healing in psychoanalysis” at the Edinburgh International
Congress in 1961. Death did not leave him the
time to complete these tasks. But in November 1960
he gave a conference entitled “Psychoanalysis and
Ethics,” which was published 1966, after his death. It
was the crowning glory of a noble life and a message of
love for science, psychoanalysis, and humanity. He
died in 1961, aged fifty, at the height of his creativity.
R. Horacio ETCHEGOYEN
See also: Argentina; Change; Empathy.
Bibliography
Racker, Heinrich. (1951). Observaciones sobre la contratransferencia
como instrumento técnico. Revista de psicoanalists
de la Asociacion psicoanalitica argentina.
(1953). A contribution to the problem
of countertransference. International Journal of Psycho-
Analysis, 34 (4), 313-324.
. (1957). The meanings and uses of countertransference.
Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 26 (3), 303-357.
. (1957). Psicoandlisis del espiritu. Buenos Aires:
Nova. A.P.A.
. (1968). Transference and countertransference. New
York: International Universities Press. (Original work published
1960)
RADO, SANDOR (1890-1972)
Sandor Rado, a Hungarian psychoanalyst and physician,
was born in 1890 in Kisvarda, Hungary, and died
on May 14, 1972, in New York City. Rad6 grew up ina
middle-class business family 100 miles from Budapest.
He studied at the Universities of Berlin, Bonn, and
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Vienna, completing a political science degree in Budapest
in 1911. He then enrolled in medical school in
Budapest.
In 1913, Rado became, with four others, one of the
founding members of the Hungarian Psychoanalytic
Society. He first met Freud before World War I, due to
an introduction from Rad6o’s mentor, Sandor Ferenczi.
In 1924, when Rado was already prominent in
Berlin, Freud chose him to replace Otto Rank as
editor-in-chief of the most important analytic journal,
the Zeitschrift. Rado was known as an outstanding theoretician,
and in Europe analyzed people of the stature
of Wilhelm Reich, Heinz Hartmann, and Otto
Fenichel.
When the New York Psychoanalytic Society was
establishing its first Training Institute in 1931, Rado
was invited to be the founding director. In 1935 difficulties
arose between himself and Freud. The Viennese
analysts around Freud were a palace guard of advisors
who long envied Rado’s special position. Freud
resented the way Rado had been helping analysts to
leave the continent for the United States. Rad6é had
opposed Freud’s plan to build a new international
institute in Vienna after Hitler came to power.
The crisis between Freud and Rado in 1935 was
occasioned by a critical review of one of the Rado’s
monographs written by Jeanne Lampl-de Groot, then
a current patient of Freud’s. The review appeared to be
published with Freud’s tacit endorsement. Then,
shortly after Karen Horney had been demoted by the
education committee of the New York Psychoanalytic
Society, Rado was deposed as educational director.
In 1944, just as Rado was to found the Psychoanalytic
Clinic at Columbia University’s medical school, he
was thrown out of the New York Psychoanalytic Institute
as a training analyst. Even before then he was
viewed as a traitor. Unlike other so-called dissidents
within Freud’s movement, who chose to make their
appeal to the general reading public, Rado wanted to
go deeper into university medicine.
Rado had been from the outset of his career in Berlin
especially concerned with establishing standards of
education and training. Some of his papers from those
years, on melancholia and drug addiction for example,
continue to seem outstanding. As time went on Rado,
like other rebels in analysis, worked out new terms for
old concepts. For some years he was a member of the
New York State Mental Hygiene Council, and both
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Ravo, SAnvor (1890-1972)
Governors Averell Harriman and Nelson Rockefeller
supported his work with state grants. Rado retired
from Columbia in 1955, after which he helped to create
the New York School of Psychiatry at the State University
of New York, where he was director for ten
years.
Rado came to oppose the idea that the removal of
repressions and the emergence of buried memories can
necessarily be expected to have good therapeutic effects.
Also, he thought that the provoking of transferences
was a Clinical mistake, since regression undermined a
patient’s capacity for autonomy and self-reliance. In
addition, Rado was prescient enough to have emphasized
the significance of genetics for the future of psychoanalytic
psychiatry.
Rado was a sophisticated European man of letters,
who belongs to the radical left within the history of
analysis; but it has remained a fragmented tradition of
so-called dissenters. Although Rado was for a time
allied with New York’s Abram Kardiner, and Rado’s
work on therapy was similar to the ideas of his fellow
Hungarian Franz Alexander, these critics of the “mainstream”
in analysis have rarely hung together. None of
them would have dreamed of citing approvingly such
earlier “heretics” as Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, or Rank.
The nonconformists have been the ones with the original
ideas, even though their position has so far won
them inadequate recognition. It is hard to become
educated in the real story of analysis because of the
sectarianism that has afflicted the movement. As of
2005, some of the most persuasive present-day critics
of Freud are only now reinventing concepts that were
first advanced many years ago.
Rado’s later writings can be hard to follow. He disdained
popularizations and put his faith in medical
science. Like Freud himself, Rado was a spell-binder
who spoke like a book. Yet Rado underestimated
Freud’s contribution to the humanities, and was intolerant
of the significance of analysis for philosophy and
the social sciences. Within psychiatry itself, though,
Rado may well turn out to have been prophetic.
PauL ROAZEN
See also: Addiction; Alcoholism; Germany; American
Academy of Psychoanalysis; Bulimia; Dipsomania; Hungarian
School; Hungary; Internationale Zeitschrift fiir
(arztliche) Psychoanalyse; Melancholic depression; New
York Psychoanalytic Institute; United States.
1441
RaimBautt, Emice (1923-1998)
Bibliography
Rado, Sandor. (1956-62). Psychoanalysis of Behavior, Vols. 1
and 3. New York: Grune & Stratton.
. (1969). Adaptational Psychodynamics. (Jean Jameson
and Henriette Klein, Eds.). New York: Science House.
Roazen, Paul, and Swerdloff, Bluma. (1995). Heresy: Sandor
Rado and the Psychoanalytic Movement. New Jersey:
Aronson.
RAIMBAULT, EMILE (1923-1998)
Emile Raimbault, a French physician, psychologist,
psychoanalyst, and member of the Ecole Freudienne
de Paris, was born in Anjou on October 21, 1923, and
died at Saumur on August 21, 1998.
He first studied psychology, then, on the advice of
Jacques Lacan, with whom he commenced his psychoanalysis,
he also began to study medicine. He followed
Lacan into the Société frangaise de psychanalyse on the
occasion of the split in 1953. Michael Balint, the first
guest of this society, encouraged him and his wife,
Ginette Raimbault, to regularly attend the “training
cum research” seminars (“training seminars for physicians
on the therapeutic relationship”) that he gave at
the Tavistock Clinic in London under the auspices of
the National Health Service. The Balint and Raimbault
families became close friends.
Along with his wife and Jacques Gendrot, Emile
Raimbault soon started one of the first “Balint groups”
in France. This mixed group (physicians, interns, physiotherapists,
an odontologist, and trainee psychoanalysts)
met in the Raimbaults’ home in Paris. Known by
the name of their street, the “Marignan group” became
a reference for those that followed.
Raimbault also practiced as an analyst under Raoul
Kourilsky in the Saint-Antoine hospital, where the
pneumologist began to experiment in 1949 with a new
type of consultation conducted by a “therapeutic pair”:
an organicist physician and an analyst. Raimbault then
introduced, in addition to listening to the patient’s
unconscious, listening to the suffering of the medical
team treating dying patients: he created the first Balint
group in the hospital department. His experience
resulted in his being appointed director of the psychooncology
team in the Institut Gustave-Roussy, a position
he occupied for fifteen years.
1442
Along with Raoul Kourilsky and Jacques Gendrot,
Raimbault co-edited the proceedings of the first congress
in France, after the Brighton congress, of Balint
leaders, held in the Paris medical faculty in 1964 and at
the Trianon in Versailles. He was also responsible for a
report on the leaders’ meeting, published in the same
volume. He also wrote an essay on death with the title
La Delivrance.
Mrcuette Moreau Ricaup
See also: Balint group.
Bibliography
Raimbault, Emile, et al. (1964). La Formation psychologique
des médecins. Paris: Maloine.
. (1976). La Délivrance. Paris: Mercure de France.
RAMBERT, MADELEINE (1900-1979)
Madeleine Rambert, a Swiss psychoanalyst, was born
in 1900 in Lausanne, where she died on May 17, 1979.
The daughter of a pastor in the Free Evangelical
Church of Vaud, she trained to be a teacher and soon
specialized in handling backward children. She opened a
facility for such children in Croix-sur-Romainm6tier.
To improve her training she moved the facility to
Lausanne and enrolled in classes at the Institut Jean-
Jacques-Rousseau, where she studied psychoanalysis.
She was psychoanalyzed by Raymond Saussure and,
after being supervised by Philipp Sarasin in Basel, she
began practicing child psychoanalysis and became a
member of the Société Suisse de Psychanalyse (Swiss
Psychoanalytic Society) in 1942. That same year,
Lucien Bovet founded the Office Medico-Pédagogique
(Medical Training Center) in Vaud. Rambert worked
at the Center, training the doctors and psychologists
who came to practice there.
She is best known for her use of puppet therapy.
She published a description of the technique in 1938,
and again in 1945 in Children in Conflict, Twelve Years
of Psychoanalytic Practice, which included a preface by
Jean Piaget. The book became an international success.
Observation of the child at play led to the identification
and interpretation of standard behaviors, which
the game triggered. Rambert was closely associated
with the Vienna school and described three phases in
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the treatment of the child: exteriorization of conflict;
conscious realization and elimination of the neurotic
conflict; and re-education.
During the 1960s and 1970s, she continued her
training activities with teachers at the Pestalozzi
School (Switzerland) and worked with delinquent
women. In this way she was able to perpetuate her
educational and social work, which characterize her
role as one of the first clinicians in the field of child
psychoanalysis in Switzerland.
ALAIN DE MIJOLLA
See also: Switzerland (French-speaking).
Bibliography
Rambert, Madeleine. (1938). Une nouvelle technique en
psychanalyse infantile: le jeu de guignols. Revue francaise
de psychanalyse, 10, 1.
. (1945). Children in conflict, twelve years of psychoanalytic
practice (Yvette Moxley, Trans.). New York: International
Universities Press.
Roch, Marcel (1979). Mademoiselle Madeleine Rambert
(1900-1979). Bulletin de la Société suisse de psychanalyse,
9, 21-22.
RANK-MINZER (MUNZER), BEATA
(1886-1961)
Psychoanalyst Beata Rank was born on February 16,
1886, in Neusandetz near Krakow, Poland, then part of
the Austrian-Hungarian Empire. She died on April 11,
1961, in Boston. Her life can be divided into four distinctive
periods in different countries, which in turn
delineated her professional career.
Originally named Beata Minzer (or Munzer), she
was born into a middle-class, assimilated Jewish family.
Early on she chose for herself the name Tola, used by
family and friends, but never professionally. Her mother
was one of 12 children, several of whom became professionals
or business people. Beata’s interest in psychology
and the arts was encouraged by an aunt who had studied
in Vienna and is credited with introducing her to
her future husband, Otto Rank. Otto had been drafted
into the army and stationed in Krakow where he was
the editor of the Krakauer Zeitung from 1916 to 1918.
Beata and Otto were married in a Jewish ceremony on
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RaNK-MINZER (MuNzer), BEATA (1886-1961)
November 7, 1918, a week before the armistice. The
young couple moved back to Vienna soon thereafter.
Vienna, 1918-1926: This period covers the last
years of the Rank-Freud relationship, culminating
with the well-documented, yet still not completely
understood, final break. Beata and Otto’s only child,
Helene, was born on August 23, 1919. With Freud’s
and her husband’s encouragement, Beata attended
meetings, seminars, and lectures on psychoanalysis.
She worked with Otto in the Verlag. Her interest in
dream work led to her translation into Polish in 1923
of Freud’s book Uber Traume (On Dreams), and a later
inquiry into the dreams of six-year-old schoolchildren.
Also in 1923 she presented a paper to the Vienna Psychoanalytical
Society which served as her ticket of
admission to the group. It appeared in Imago in 1924
in the original German. An English translation of the
title would be “The role of woman in the development
of human society.” The Imago paper was meant as an
introduction to a large three-part study on the subject,
which was never completed.
Paris, 1926-1936: In 1924 Otto began visiting the
United States, teaching, lecturing, and seeing patients.
By 1926 the relationship with Freud had seriously deteriorated,
and the Rank family moved to Paris. This was
seen as a compromise since Beata did not want to
move to the United States, while artistic and cultural
Paris had great appeal. As for Otto, Paris was a rest
stop. He would build an American practice and earn a
good income while increasing his American visits.
Beata did not engage in clinical work during her Paris
years, but continued research at the Bibliotheque
Nationale on the role of women. In 1933, Otto, with
the encouragement of some American colleagues,
developed the Psychological Center and Summer Institute,
a training, teaching, and general education center,
and Beata worked with him primarily as an administrator.
In 1934 there was a “de facto” dissolution of their
marriage when Otto emigrated to the United States.
This was also the time when he and Anais Nin became
involved. Beata remained in Paris while their daughter
Helene completed her French baccalaureate. Then,
with Fascism extending its power, she decided to leave.
Boston, 1936-1969: Beata, still legally married to
Otto, was able to enter the United States with Helene
in the fall of 1936 as permanent residents under Otto’s
visa. Beata came to Boston where she was quickly
accepted in the Boston psychoanalytic community,
1443
Rank (ROSENFELD), OTT0 (1884-1939)
due especially to the help of her longtime close
friends from Vienna, Helene and Felix Deutsch. She
came into her own as a prominent child analyst, as
well as a highly respected supervisor and training analyst
at the Boston Psychoanalytic Institute, where she
was chair of the education committee for several
years. Her influence reached far in the Boston community
as diverse mental health professionals, as well as
pediatricians and social scientists, sought out her
teaching, while psychiatrists from many other countries
also came to study with her. She was an honorary
Professor of Psychiatry at Boston University School of
Medicine, a consultant and supervisor at Judge Baker
Guidance Center, and with Marian C. Putnam, cofounded
and co-directed the James Jackson Putnam
Children’s Center in 1943. This center was a pioneering
day-treatment facility for pre-school children and
their parents. It simultaneously offered day-care and/
or psychological evaluation and treatment for children
with emotional and cognitive developmental problems,
and their parents. Research was an integral part
of the program and the staff published numerous
papers, including Beata Rank’s papers on atypical
development. Beata Rank’s contributions to child analysis
live on through the many people she influenced
through her teachings.
HELENE RANK- VELTFORT
See also: Rank (Rosenfeld), Otto.
Bibliography
Lieberman, E. James. (1985). Acts of will: The life and work of
Otto Rank. New York: The Free Press.
Rank, Beata. (1924). Zur Rolle der Frau in der Entwicklung
der menschlichen Gesellschaft (On the role of the woman
in the development of human society). Imago, 10, 1924,
278-295; Abstract in International Journal of Psycho-Analysis,
7, 1926, 89.
. (1942). Where child analysis stands today. American
Imago, 3 (3), 41-60.
. (1949). Adaptation of the psychoanalytic technique
for the treatment of young children with atypical development.
American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 19, 130-139.
. (1955). Intensive study and treatment of pre-school
children who show marked personality deviations, or atypical
development and their parents. In G. Caplan (Ed.),
Emotional problems of early childhood: Proceedings of the
International Institute of Child Psychiatry (pp. 491-501).
New York: Basic.
1444
RANK (ROSENFELD), OTTO (1884-1939) —
Otto Rosenfield Rank, an Austrian psychologist and
psychoanalyst, was born on April, 22, 1884, in Vienna
and died on October 31, 1939, in New York.
He was the son of Simon Rosenfeld, an artisan jeweler,
and Karoline Fleischner. His older brother studied
law while Otto became a locksmith: the family could
not afford higher education for both. Close to his
mother but alienated from his alcoholic father, Otto
adopted the name “Rank” in adolescence and formalized
it a few years later, symbolizing self-creation, a
central theme of his life and work.
Of Jewish background, growing up in Catholic
Vienna, Rank was a religious skeptic who wrote his
own Ten Commandments, among them “Thou shalt
not give birth reluctantly.” He read deeply in philosophy
and literature, loved music, and considered himself
an artist, writing poetry and a literary diary. Before
he was 21, he read Freud’s Interpretation of Dreams
(1900). He applied psychoanalytic ideas in an essay on
the artist; the manuscript came to Freud (probably
through Alfred Adler, Rank’s physician) which led to
Rank’s appointment as secretary of the Vienna Psychoanalytic
Society in 1906. With Freud’s financial and
moral support, Rank obtained his PhD from the University
of Vienna in 1912, the first candidate to do so
with a psychoanalytic thesis subject.
Rank became the acknowledged expert on philosophy,
literature, and myth in the Vienna Psychoanalytic
Society and kept the minutes (1906-1918; later published
in four volumes). He became the most prolific
psychoanalytic writer after Freud, with Der Kiinstler
(1907; expanded editions 1918 and 1925), Der Mythus
der Geburt des Heldens (1909), Die Lohengrin Sage [his
doctoral thesis] (1911), and Das Inzest-Motiv in Dichtung
und Sage (1912, 2nd edition 1926), a 700-page survey of
world literature. Except for the posthumous Beyond Psychology
(1941), Rank’s books were written in his native
German. Translations, mostly of his early psychoanalytic
works, exist in English, French, Italian, and Spanish.
Other works important in Rank’s Freudian period
include “Ein Beitrag zum Narcissismus” (Jarbuch,
1911), Die Bedeutung der Psychoanalyse fiir die Geisteswissenschaften
(1912, with H. Sachs), Psychoanalytische
Beitrage zur Mythenforschung (1919), Die Don Juan
Gestalt (1922), Der Doppelgéinger (1925), Eine Neurosenanalyse
in Traumen (1924), Sexualitat und Schuldgefiihl
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
(1926), Technik der Psychoanalyse (I. Die Analytische
Situation, 1926; II. Die Analytische Reaktion, 1929; III.
Die Analyse Des Analytikers, 1931; II and III translated as
Will Therapy, 1936), Grundziige einer genetischen Psychologie
(I. Genetische Psychologie, 1927, II. Gestaltung und
Ausdruck der Personlichkeit, 1928; III. Wahrheit und
Wirklichkeit, 1929, translated as Truth and Reality, 1936).
Rank was a member of Freud’s Committee, or
“Ring” of Seven and his closest associates (1906—
1925). Of the founders of the International Psychoanalytical
Association, Rank was closest to Freud geographically,
professionally, and personally. He helped edit
and contributed two chapters to Freud’s Die Traumdeutung
(editions 4-7, 1914-1922; “Traum und Dichtung”
and “Traum und Mythus”). He and Hanns
Sachs edited the journal Imago, beginning in 1912,
with Freud and Sandor Ferenczi he edited Die Zeitschrift
fiir Psychoanalyse beginning in 1913. Rank witnessed
the vicissitudes and bitter endings of Freud’s
relationships with Wilhelm Stekel, Alfred Adler, and
Carl Jung; Rank’s tenure with Freud lasted much
longer—two decades, exceeded only by that of his
friend Sandor Ferenczi and his foe Ernest Jones.
Freud, who had discouraged young Rank from pursuing
a medical career, after 1912 always addressed
him as “Dr. Rank” and referred patients to him. This
was consistent with his support of non-medical or
“Jay” analysis. Freud and Rank agreed on another controversial
issue: the eligibility of homosexual candidates
for analytic training.
Rank served in the Austrian army in Poland during
World War I, where he met and married Beata “Tola”
Mincer in 1918; she became a noted lay analyst and
practiced in Boston after their separation in 1934. The
birth of their only child, Helene (1919), enhanced
Rank’s interest in the pre-oedipal phase of development
(birth to age 3) and the mother-child relationship.
He was co-founder of the International Psychoanalytical
Association in 1910, honorary member of the
American Psychoanalitic Association (1924-1930).
Freud and Rank established the Internationaler Psychoanalytischer
Verlag in 1919, which became Rank’s
major responsibility along with training psychoanalytic
candidates from around the world. In 1924 Rank
published Das Trauma der Geburt, emphasizing the
importance of separation and individuation, with their
attendant and inevitable anxiety in the pre-oedipal
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RANK (ROSENFELD), OTTo (1884-1939)
period. Until then psychoanalysis had been fathercentered,
with oedipal conflict at the center. Rank
meant only to balance and extend Freud’s work but this
book, and his work with Ferenczi on active therapy—
Entzwicklungsziele der Psychoanalyse (1924)—led to a
final break with his mentor and virtual foster father.
That same year Rank turned 40 and visited the United
States for the first time. He was honored as Freud’s
emissary, although his ideas were beginning to challenge
established Freudian doctrine.
Over the next decade Rank lectured, taught, wrote,
and practiced a briefer form of psychoanalytic therapy
with a more egalitarian relationship between therapist
and patient. Rank modified the open-ended analytic
process by using termination as the focus for separation
and independent development. In this respect his
work anticipated the innovations of Franz Alexander
(brief analytic therapy, and the corrective emotional
experience).
Orthodox Freudians condemned Rank as a deviant.
The American Psychoanalytic Association expelled him
and required his former analysands to undergo reanalysis.
Although Rank suffered from poor physical
health and occasional depression, assertions that his
departure from the psychoanalytic fold were a result of
mental instability (by Ernest Jones and A. A. Brill) are
not supportable. The work of Rank and his colleague,
Ferenczi, is being studied and discussed more objectively
by psychoanalytic scholars in the twenty-first century.
Rank’s creativity continued to flourish in his post-
Freudian period. Between 1926 and 1931 he wrote
major works on developmental psychology and therapeutic
technique which are considered forerunners of
object relations theory and ego psychology (Rudnytsky,
1991). He emphasized conscious experience,
the present, choice, responsibility, and action, in contrast
with the (classical Freudian) unconscious, past
history, drives, determinism, and intellectual insight.
Seelenglaube und Psychologie (1930) and Art and Artist
(1932) are psychoanalytically informed major works
of social psychology and cultural history addressing
religion and creativity, respectively.
Rank’s emphasis on will, relationship, and
creativity appealed to psychologists Rollo May, Carl
Rogers, Esther Menaker, Paul Goodman, and Henry
Murray. Noted psychiatrists influenced by Rank
include Frederick Allen, Marion Kenworthy, Robert
Jay Lifton, Carl Whitaker, and Irvin Yalom; writers
1445
Rapaport, Davin (1911-1960)
and critics include Ernest Becker, Maxwell Geismar,
Max Lerner, Ludwig Lewisohn, Anais Nin, Carl
Rakosi, and Miriam Waddington.
Some of Rank’s ideas which seemed radical in his
time have become the mainstream of psychoanalytic
thought: the importance of the early mother-child
relationship; the ego, consciousness, the here-andnow,
and the actual relationship—as opposed to
transference—in therapy. He anticipated and influenced
interpersonal, existential, client-centered,
Gestalt, and relationship therapies. As a social psychologist
he contributed to our understanding of
myth, religion, art, education, ethics, and organizational
behavior.
Rank’s companion in the last four years of his life
was Estelle Buel, an American of Swiss descent whom
he married just three months before his death. He had
applied for United States citizenship when a kidney
infection led to fatal septicemia; he died in New York
City at 55.
The Butler Library at Columbia University in New
York holds the Otto Rank papers in its rare book and
manuscript collections. The Journal of the Otto Rank
Association appeared twice annually from 1966 to
1983, publishing works by Rank and many others who
knew him or his writings. A collection of his American
lectures (1924-1938) has been published as A Psychology
of Difference (Robert Kramer, Ed., 1996).
E. JAMES LIEBERMAN
Works discussed: Development of Psycho-Analysis; Don
Juan and The Double; Myth of the Birth of the Hero, The;
Trauma of Birth, The.
See also: Applied psychoanalysis and interactions of psychoanalysis;
Birth; Castration complex; Double, the; First
World War: The effect on the development of psychoanalysis;
Gesammelte Schriften; Imago. Zeitschrift fiir die
Anwendung der Psychoanalyse auf die Geisteswissenschaften;
Inhibitions, Symptoms, and Anxiety; Internationale
Zeitschrift fiir (drztliche) Psychoanalyse, Internationaler
Psychoanalitscher Verlag; “Lines of Advance in Psycho-
Analytic Therapy”; Minutes of the Vienna Psychoanalytic
Society; Myth of the hero; Narcissism; Narcissism, primary;
Neutrality/benevolent neutrality; New Introductory
Lectures on Psycho-Analysis; Nin, Anais; Secret Committee,
the; Signal anxiety; Splits in psychoanalysis; Termination
of treatment; Technique with adults, psychoanalytic;
Training analysis; Visual arts and psychoanalysis; Wiener
psychoanalytische Vereinigung.
1446
Bibliography
Menaker, Esther. (1982). Otto Rank: A rediscovered legacy.
New York: Columbia University Press.
Rudnytsky, Peter. (1991). The psychoanalytic vocation: The
legacy of Otto Rank and Donald Winnicott. New Haven, CT:
Yale University Press.
Taft, Jessie. (1958). Otto Rank. New York: Julian.
Zottl, Anton. (1982). Otto Rank: Das Lebenswerk eines Disstdenten
der Psychoanalyse. Minchen, Germany: Kindler.
RAPAPORT, DAVID (1911-1960)
David Rapaport, a Hungarian psychoanalyst with a
PhD in philosophy, was born in Budapest on September
30, 1911, and died December 14, 1960, in Stockbridge,
Massachusetts. Born into a middle-class Jewish
family, he quickly became active in the Zionist movement
and, after studying mathematics and physics at
the university, spent two years in a kibbutz in Palestine.
There he married Elvira Strasser; their first child,
Hanna, was born shortly after. Upon returning to
Hungary in 1935, he ran the Young Zionist movement
and began studying psychoanalysis with a relative,
Samuel Rapaport, about whom he wrote two books.
He was analyzed by Theodor Rajka from 1935 to 1938,
and obtained his doctorate in psychology at the Royal
University of Hungary, Petrus-Pazmany, in 1938, with
a dissertation on the history of the concept of association
from Bacon to Kant.
In December 1938, with the help of the Emergency
Committee on Relief and Immigration of the American
Psychoanalytic Association, he and his family traveled
to the United States. He worked in New York as a
psychologist at Mount Sinai Hospital, then at Osawatomie
State Hospital, Kansas, for a year. In 1940 he
joined the Menninger Clinic, in Topeka, Kansas, where
he became director of the School of Clinical Psychology,
then head of the Research Department. His Emotions
and Psychology, which appeared in 1942, is a
record of his early research, as is Diagnostic Psychological
Testing (1945-1946), published in collaboration
with Roy Schafer and Merton Gill.
In both books Rapaport refers to the theories of
ego-psychology. In August 1948 he left Topeka for
the Austen Riggs Center in Stockbridge, Massachusetts,
leaving behind his wife, a mathematician, and
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
his two daughters Hanna and Juliette (born in 1943).
He worked at Austen Riggs until his death from a
heart attack at the age of forty-nine.
Although he never worked as a psychoanalyst,
Rapaport was interested in treating schizophrenics
and borderline cases, and soon became an eminent
theoretician of psychoanalysis. His classes and conferences
on affects, activity-passivity, and memory,
his comments on chapter 7 of Sigmund Freud’s The
Interpretation of Dreams, his translations of Otto
Fenichel, Paul Schilder, and Heinz Hartmann, provided
him with many students and material for several
books, including Organization and Pathology of
Thought (1951), and many articles, which were collected
after his death and are often cited. A member
of the Western New England Psychoanalytical
Society, he was an at-large member of the International
Psychoanalytical Association and, shortly
before his death, in September 1960, received a prize
from the American Psychological Association’s division
of clinical psychology.
His close collaborator Merton Gill said of Rapaport
that “he spoke of metapsychological abstraction with
the fervor of a political orator and the thunder of a
Hebrew prophet.” Gill also recalled Rapaport’s desire
to create a general psychology that would include ego
psychology and social psychology while retaining
Freud’s revolutionary intuitions about the id.
ALAIN DE MYJOLLA
See also: Cognitivism and psychoanalysis; Ego autonomy;
Ego states; Hungarian School.
Bibliography
Gill, Merton M. (1961). David Rapaport, 1911-1960. Bulletin
of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 17, 755-759.
. (Ed.). (1967). The collected papers of David Rapaport.
New York: Basic Books.
Knight, Robert P. (1961). David Rapaport 1911-1960. Psychoanalytic
Quarterly, 30, 262-264.
Rapaport, David. (1951). Organization and pathology of
thought. New York: Columbia University Press.
. (1959). The structure of psychoanalytic theory: A
systematizing attempt. In S. Koch (Ed.), Psychology: A
study of a science, vol. 3. New York: McGraw-Hill. (Reprinted
in Psychological Issues Monographs, 6, 1960.)
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Rascovsky, Arnatoo (1907-1995)
RASCOVSKY, ARNALDO (1907-1995)
Arnaldo Rascovsky, an Argentinean physician and psychoanalyst,
was born in Cordoba, Argentina, on January
1, 1907, and died on May 1, 1995.
He graduated from the Medical School of the University
of Buenos Aires when he was 22 years old, and
became a pediatrician, much interested in neurology,
endocrinology, and psychosomatic medicine. He
became acquainted with Freudian ideas in 1936 and
started his personal analysis with Angel Garma, who
came to Argentina in 1938. Rascovsky was one of the
pioneers of psychoanalysis in Argentina and in Latin
America. He was the co-founder of the Argentine Psychoanalytic
Association in 1942, first director of the
Revista de Psicoandlisis, still appearing more than 50
years later in 2005. He was twice president of the
Argentine Psychoanalytic Association and then honorary
member of this association. He was the co-founder
and president of COPAL/FePAL (Latin American Psychoanalytic
Federation), founder and president of
Filium (Interdisciplinary Association for the Study
and Prevention of Filicide) and several times president
of the Society of Psychological Medicine, Psychoanalysis
and Psychosomatic Medicine, a branch of the
Argentine Medical Association.
Rascovsky made important contributions to the
understanding of the emotional troubles related to
psychosomatic disease. His most original contribution
to Psychoanalysis was his study of early psychic development
and his theoretical and clinical approach to
fetal psychism (El psiquismo fetal, 1960). The papers
on feminine psychology written in collaboration with
his wife Matilde Rascovsky (also a psychoanalyst)
threw new light on the complex phenomena taking
place in different moments of the feminine life cycle.
His numerous writings deal with the psychoanalytic
understanding of psychosomatics, the conceptualization
of fetal psychism from the metapsychological
point of view, and the understanding and prevention
of filicide (El filicidio, 1973; La Universalidad del felictdio,
1986). A gifted communicator, his lectures on television
and radio stimulated psychoanalytic thought
throughout Latin America. He is the author of more
than 50 psychoanalytic papers and several books. He
knew how to address parents, pediatricians, teachers,
and the community in general in defense of childhood,
mother-father-child relations, and to condemn sadism
in teaching, and filicidal behavior.
1447
“Rat Man’”’
He was a training analyst and teacher of the Argentine
Psychoanalytic Association and full member of
the International Psychoanalytical Association. He is
considered to be one of the main pioneers of the
Argentine Psychoanalytic Movement, highly cultivated,
gifted, and generous in his teaching.
ELFRIEDE S. LUSTIG DE FERRER
See also: Argentina; Colombia; Federaci6n psicoanalitica
de América latina; Revista de psicoanalisis.
Bibliography
Rascovsky, Arnaldo. (1956). Beyond the oral stage. International
Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 37, 4.
. (1960). El Psiquismo Fetal. Buenos Aires: Paidos.
. (1973). El Filicidio. Buenos Aires: Orion.
Rascovsky, Arnaldo, et al. (1971). Niveles profundos del Pstquismo.
Buenos Aires: Sudamericana.
. (1986). La universalidad del filicidio. Buenos Aires:
Legase.
"RAT MAN". See “Psycho-Analytic Notes of an Autobiographical
Account of a Case of Paranoia (Dementia
Paranoides)”
RATIONALIZATION
A rationalization is a logical or moral justification for
an action or attitude that is provided by a subject
whose (unconscious) motives are inaccessible. Two
examples are justifying a fear of cancer by referring to
other family members who suffered from the disease
and justifying one’s compulsive washing by offering
sanitary concerns. The term was introduced in psychoanalysis
by Ernest Jones (1908).
Rationalization is not really a symptom. It is more a
way of masking and denying the symptom. Nor is it a
compromise formation, since within certain limits it
satisfies the drive. Nor is it a defense mechanism, since
it is not directed toward any libidinal satisfaction. It is
more of a way to keep from recognizing neurotic conflicts.
It is the conscious secondary thought process of
covering the symptom with a screen.
1448
Rationalization is primarily found in cases of neurosis:
“Compulsive acts [that occur] in two successive stages, of
which the second neutralizes the first, are a typical occurrence
in obsessional neuroses. The patient’s consciousness
naturally misunderstand them and puts forward a
set of secondary motives to account for them—rationalizes
them, in short” (Freud 1909d, p..192).
Can the notion of rationalization be applied to delusion
in particular, the logical delusion of paranoiacs?
Some psychiatric studies have made use of an analogous
concept to show how megalomania is caused by a need
to explain and justify the feeling of persecution. In his
essay on Judge Schreber, Freud rejects this formulation:
“to ascribe such important affective consequences to a
rationalization is, as it seems to us, an entirely unpsychological
proceeding; and we would consequently draw a
sharp distinction between our opinion and the one
which we have quoted from the textbooks. We are making
no claim, for the moment, to knowing the origin of
the megalomania” (1911c [1910], p. 49).
Rationalization is sometimes compared to intellectualization,
but the two concepts must be distinguished.
In intellectualization, one distances oneself
from psychic processes by cathecting one’s own intellectual
processes and thought. Rationalization, in contrast,
primarily finds support in systems of thought,
representationasn,d beliefs that are socially constituted
and accepted.
MICHELE BERTRAND
See also: Intellectualization; Jones, Ernest; Negative, work
of the; Paranoia; Secondary revision; Thought.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1909d). Notes upon a case of obsessional
neurosis. SE, 10: 151-318.
. (1911c [1910]). Psycho-analytic notes on an autobiographical
account of a case of paranoia (Dementia Paranoides).
SE, 12: 1-82.
Jones, Ernest. (1908). Rationalization in everyday life. Journal
of Abnormal Psychology.
REACTION-FORMATION
“Reaction-formation” refers to an attitude or a character-
trait that responds to an unconscious (repressed)
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY oF PSYCHOANALYSIS
wish or desire by evoking the opposite of such a desire.
For example, generosity covers or conceals avariciousness
and hoarding; modesty may replace megalomania;
kindness or reluctance to engage in conflict can mask
sadistic tendencies. Reaction-formation is thus also a
symptom of a psychic conflict and a defense against
instinctive reactions.
Even though it occurs in various pathologies,
reaction-formation is most readily apparent in cases of
obsessional neurosis. In his. early writings, Freud
described the mechanisms of obsessive patients, discerning
in them clear signs of conflicts of ambivalence
through regression from tender to sadistic impulses. In
“Instincts and Their Vicissitudes” (1915c), he distinguished
between reaction formation and similar concepts,
such as substitute formation and compromise
formation, by showing that repression is carried out differently
in each case. Thus, a hostile impulse towards a
loved one is subject to repression, such an impulse itself
being the result of regression of the erotic drive. At first
the work of repression succeeds—that is, contents of
the representation vanish and the associated affect disappears.
A substitute formation would entail a modification
of the ego through establishment of scruples of
moral conscience, distinct from the symptom per se,
that involves a compromise formation.
Reaction-formation, by contrast, serves repression by
intensifying the opposite. However, although conceptually
and chronologically distinct, reaction formation and substitute
formations are not unrelated. The former distinguishes
itself by the antithetical choice of the substitution,
which at least indirectly implies ambivalence. And, contrary
to compromise formation, the instinct inhibited
with respect to a reaction formation is not represented. In
fact, it remains active and in evidence in various situations,
in the subject’s defensive rigidity and in specific contradictions
to the reactive stance.
In Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality (1905d),
Freud gave reaction-formation a more extended
meaning. He suggested it as a pathway to sublimation
inasmuch as the instinct is diverted from its aim.
Unlike sublimation, however, with reaction formation
the instinctual aim is not merely different but is diametrically
opposed to the original. On the other hand,
reaction formation does not entirely succeed in this
diversion, and the inhibited desire attempts constantly
to resurface.
Reaction-formation can also become a permanent
character trait and its significance can grow more
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
REACTION-FORMATION
general; it can become not just a symptom of a specific
pathology, but it heralds the process of socialization.
We become social beings by acquiring, as permanent
character-traits, “virtues” which move counter to our
sexual goals. “A sub-species of sublimation is to be
found in suppression by reaction-formation,” wrote
Freud (1905c), “which. . .begins during a child’s period
of latency and continues in favourable cases throughout
his whole life. What we describe as a person’s
‘character’ is built up to a considerable extent from the
material of sexual excitations and is composed of
instincts that have been fixed since childhood, of constructions
achieved by means of sublimation, and of
other constructions, employed for effectively holding
in check perverse impulses which have been recognized
as being unutilizable. The multifariously perverse
sexual disposition of childhood can accordingly
be regarded as the source of a number of our virtues,
in so far as through reaction-formation it stimulates
their development” (pp. 238-239).
Reaction-formation is not restricted to character
and moral virtues, but also includes the domain of
thought and intellect. The counter-cathexis of the system
of conscience, organized as a reaction formation,
supplies the first repression (Freud, 1915d). In
“Thoughts for the Times on War and Death” (1915b),
Freud showed how altruism may originate from selfishness,
and compassion from cruelty. “Noble”
motives can have the same effect as “non-noble”
motives. We cannot divine the instinctual life of a subject,
however; we only can observe his or her behavior.
Humankind’s capacity to reshape instinctual selfishness
is otherwise known as its aptitude for culture. People
have unequal abilities in this regard, and the most
solid among them may prove the least well-defended.
This explains how instinctual remodeling can be more
or less thoroughly undone by circumstance—war being
an event that puts culture most completely at risk—and
how acquired civility, or the capacity to conduct oneself
towards others according to ethical considerations, may
entirely unravel. Reaction-formation thus exposes the
fragility of morality and suggests how repressed
instincts are able to return with a great intensity, as acts
of barbarism and cruelty.
MICHELE BERTRAND
See also: Ambivalence; Character; Compromise formation;
Defense mechanisms; Desexualization; Ego and the
Mechanisms of Defense, The; Libidinal development.
1449
ReALity-EGo
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1905d). Three essays on the theory of sexuality.
SE, 7: 123-243.
. (1915b). Thoughts for the times on war and death.
SE, 14: 273-300.
. (1915c). Instincts and their vissicitudes. SE 14:
109-140.
. (1915d). Repression. SE, 14: 141-158.
REALITY-EGO. See pleastire ego/reality ego
REALITY PRINCIPLE
The reality principle is one of the two major principles
that govern the workings of the mind. It designates the
psyche’s necessary awareness of information concerning
reality and stands in contradistinction to the
pleasure/unpleasure principle, which seeks the discharge
or elimination of drive tension at all costs.
Although the reality principle was formally introduced
into the Freudian vocabulary in 1911 (“Formulations
on the Two Principles of Mental Functioning”), it can
be found in latent form in his thought as early as the
1895 “Project for a Scientific Psychology.”
The need for such a concept arose at that time as a
result of an internal contradiction in the pleasure
principle, or more specifically, in the notion of hallucinatory
wish fulfillment, which tends to mislead the
mental apparatus and leave it traumatized by producing
a satisfaction that is hallucinated rather than real.
It is therefore only by siding with the reality principle
that the mental apparatus gives up the hallucinatory
wish-fulfillment carried out by holding onto and
binding its cathexes of traces of previous pleasures. It
must be satisfied by representing what it wishes for,
and engaging in the specific acting needed to make
this wish a reality. This confirms why the reality principle
is the effect of an internal transformation of the
pleasure/unpleasure principle, because it arises first
and foremost from the question of whether a pleasure
is real, and because adaptation to reality is not its primary
function. This transformation brings together
both the question of external reality, concerning
whether the object of satisfaction is present or absent,
1450
and the question of internal reality, concerning
whether pleasure is real.
As soon as it is in place, however, the reality principle
comes into conflict with the pleasure principle,
insofar as the latter seeks hallucinatory, immediate,
wish-fulfillment. The reality principle, therefore, is the
domain of the most “secondary” layers of the psychical
apparatus. In the first topography it is expressed as the
preconscious, and assumes its various qualities (perception,
judgment, etc.).
However, in 1920 Freud in effect reversed the
respective positions of the pleasure principle and reality
principle when he overtly located a “beyond the
pleasure principle’—a repetition compulsion—at the
root of the psychical apparatus itself. The impact of
early reality—whether “pleasurable” or not—becomes
primary (“primitive” reality-ego), and the pleasure/
unpleasure principle appears as secondary (“pure”
pleasure-ego). Paradoxically, it would then be necessary
to depict primary reality as falling under the primary
of the reality principle (“definitive” reality-ego),
due to the intervention of the external object.
RENE ROUSSILLON
See also: Principles of mental functioning.
Bibliography
Ferenczi, Sandor. (1968). Le développement du sens de la
réalité et ses stades. In O.C., Psychanalyse (Volume 2, pp.
51-64). Paris: Payot. (Original work published 1913)
Freud, Sigmund. (1911b). Formulations on the two principles
of mental functioning. SE, 12: 213-226.
. (1920g). Beyond the pleasure principle. SE, 18:
1-64.
- (1950a [1887-1902]). Extracts from the Fliess
papers. SE, 1: 173-280.
Le Guen, Claude. (1995). Le principe de réalité psychique.
Revue frangaise de psychanalyse, 59 (1), 9-25.
REALITY TESTING
“Reality testing” is defined as the process through
which the psyche gauges the difference between the
internal and external worlds. Freud first defined this
process as founded on perception and motility, but as
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
he progressively elaborated his theory of the ego, reality
testing became one of the functions of the ego.
Freud’s most complete description of this concept
occurs in “A Metapsychological Supplement to the
Theory of Dreams” (1916-1917f [1915]), where it
appears in tandem with another concept, the “realityindicator,”
which makes it possible for the psyche to
determine whether the experience it is undergoing is
present or is the recall of a previous one. The need for
both of these concepts in psychoanalysis stems from
the psyche’s proclivity to hallucinate. If a previous
experience is hallucinated, meaning made present to
perception by the action of intense instinctual cathexis,
this may fog up the ego’s capacities to differentiate
between past and present, internal and external, and
thus require it to refer to the intensity of the cathexis
to differentiate between actual perception and
hallucination.
In Freud’s inaugural texts, the ego’s capacity to
make and change cathexes devolves upon reality testing.
In the texts that followed, this capacity was
assumed by perception, which conveys external reality
inward (1911b), then motility, which enables flight
from extreme sources of excitation and thereby enables
the ego to differentiate the excitation from internal
sources (1916—1917f).
However, all of these processes assume means that
cannot be used in the psychoanalytic session, where
motility and perception are in large part suspended.
Freud’s successors, Winnicott in particular, have therefore
emphasized another process that contributes to
distinguishing the realm of fantasy and differentiating
internal and external realities. This process is based on
the fact that external reality resists fantasized destruction
and is not destroyed by it. Reality, or rather
externality, can thus be discovered by its capacities to
resist the subject’s destructiveness. This confers upon
the analysis of negative transference a preponderant
role in treatment.
RENE ROUSSILLON
See also: Act, passage to the; Anxiety; Danger; Dementia;
Depressive position; Experience of satisfaction; Group
phenomenon; Idea/representation; Illusion; Internal/
external reality; Isakower phenomenon; Mythology and
psychoanalysis; Outline of Psycho-Analysis, An; Psychoanalytic
nosography; Splitting of the ego; Truth; Wish,
hallucinatory satisfaction of a; Wish/yearning.
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REALIZATION
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1911b). Formulations on the two principles
of mental functioning. SE, 12: 213-226.
. (1916-1917f [1915]). A metapsychological supplement
to the theory of dreams. SE, 14: 217-235.
Further Reading
Abend, Sander. (1982). Reality testing as a clinical concept.
Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 51, 218-238.
Arlow, Jacob. (1969). Fantasy, memory, and reality testing.
Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 38, 28-51.
REALIZATION
Implicit in Wilfred R. Bion’s concept of inherent preconceptions
is the notion of the future of the preconception
in a realization in actual experience with its
anticipated counterpart; thus, the infant’s inherent
preconception of a breast becomes mated with the
actual breast that is found and becomes real-ized as a
conception. Repeated confirmatory experiences of that
kind eventually confirm the anticipated experience as
a concept. Thus, realization, in its capacity to confirm
that which has already been autochthonously predicted
or expected, bestows confidence, faith, and
security to the infant’s sense of survival and thriving.
The concept of realization becomes even more ratified
when the infant is able to tolerate frustration and
thereby allow for the experience of the absence of the
breast in the context of having faith in its return.
Otherwise, in the case of the infant who cannot tolerate
frustration, the experience of the absent breast is
eclipsed by the negative experience of the “nobreast
present,’ a concrete image of a bad, persecuting breast.
The concept of realization belongs to Bion’s epistemological
forays into the fundamental understanding
of thinking and is associated with his notions of projective
identification, alpha function, and container/
contained. The inherent preconception of a breast
searches for the realization of the breast in the context
of felt neediness if there is an allowance for an absence
of a breast that awaits fulfillment and exploratorily
and projectively identifies itself in the realized breast.
The object of the search who possesses the needed
breast is the maternal container who is summoned by
the outcry of the infant and his preconception of the
1451
REAL, SYMBOLIC, AND IMAGINARY FATHER
breast. The container must appose itself accommodatingly
so as to contain the infant’s anxiety of nonconfirmation
(negative realization).
JAMES GROTSTEIN
See also: Catastrophic change; Concept; Containercontained;
Invariant; Preconception; Learning from
experience.
Bibliography
Bion, W. R. (1962). Learning from experience. London: Heinemann;
New York: Basic Books.
. (1962). A theory of thinking. International Journal
of Psycho-Analysis, 43, 4-5; in Second thoughts. London:
Heinemann, 1967.
REAL, SYMBOLIC, AND IMAGINARY FATHER
As Freud had already emphasized, the rather complicated
paternal function is not assumed only by the real
father, the progenitor, and the mother’s partner. In his
seminar on Object Relations (1956-57), Lacan proposed,
based on his rereading of Freud’s case of “Little
Hans,” a distinction between the actual father and the
function of the father in its real, symbolic, and imaginary
instances. In the reality of the child’s life, these
instances are incarnated by a variety of actual agents.
From the Lacanian perspective, the instance of the
real father (a term that Lacan sometimes uses in the
sense of the “father in reality”) is not only embodied
by the biological father or even the man who lives
with the mother, that is, by a “Dad” with his own
history, qualities, shortcomings, and psychic structure.
The real father—insofar as “he” desires the
mother and is the object of her desire—is also, and
even primarily, embodied by anything that carries out
the child’s symbolic castration, that is, both the
renunciation and the realization of the child’s incestuous
desire. Moreover, because he finds jouissance
in a woman, this father does not seek an incestuous
jouissance in the child. Still more broadly conceived,
the real father is any being that, either in reality or by
means of its reality, leads the child to give up being
the mother’s phallus, on the one hand, and leads the
mother to give up trying to make the child into
her phallus, on the other. This symbolic castration
determines the way in which the boy and the girl will
1452
FIGURE 1
Real of the father
Symbolic father
Real father Symbolic mother Imaginary father
Real child or
child in reality
Real mother(s) or
‘mother(s) in reality
Real father(s) or
father(s) in reality
assume their masculinity and femininity. Insofar as
fathers in reality are always somehow lacking as an
embodiment of the symbolic father and cannot measure
up to the imaginary father, to which they are
inevitably compared, the real father also partially
represents for the child the category of the impossible
(Figure 1).
It should be noted that Lacan sometimes uses the
term real father in a completely different way (in the
sense of the “real of the father”) to designate that
which is impossible for us to say concerning the father.
This is the unthinkable father, the primal father that
Freud was unable to bring to light except in the myth
that he developed in Totem and Taboo.
The imaginary father is the product of the child’s
imagination and finds support in the various cultural
representations of the father as terribly tyrannical or
immensely good, execrable or adorable, terrifying or
fascinating. Inevitably, the child makes the actual
father wear the masks and disguises of one or the
other of these imaginary fathers. Even though the imaginary
father can in some ways be a source of suffering,
usually neurotic or masochistic, he is not entirely without
beneficial effects, because he gives weight to the
symbolic father and thus protects the father against
the ravaging effects of the all-powerful archaic mother.
The symbolic father includes the two others. This
more general instance of the father, also called the
Name-of-the-Father, protects the child against psychosis.
He imposes castration through the intervention of
the real father (embodied in the actual father), frustration
through the intervention of the symbolic mother,
and privation through the mediation of the imaginary
father. This all-encompassing instance of the father
installs a definitive gap between the child and the
mother, just as it institutes a distinction between the
sexes and the generations.
The symbolic mother, as embodied by any particular
mother, participates by her speech and acts (her
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
absences, for example) in making present the Law of
the father.
PATRICK DE NEUTER
See also: Fatherhood; Name-of-the-EFather.
Bibliography
De Neuter, Patrick. (1993). Fonctions paternelles et naissances
du sujet. Cahiers des sciences familiales et sexologiques,
16, 105-127.
Dor, Joél. (1989). Le Pére et sa Fonction en psychanalyse.
Paris: Point hors ligne.
Julien, Philippe. (1991). Le Manteau de Noé: Essais sur la
paternite. Paris: Desclée de Brouwer.
Lacan, Jacques. (1956-1957). Le Séminaire-Livre IV, La Relation
d’Objet. Paris: Seuil, 1994.
. (1959). Ala mémoire d’Ernest Jones: Sur sa théorie
du symbolisme. In his Ecrits. Paris: Seuil, 1966.
REAL, THE (LACAN)
The real, a category established by Jacques Lacan, can
only be understood in connection with the categories
of the symbolic and the imaginary. Defined as what
escapes the symbolic, the real can be neither spoken
nor written. Thus it is related to the impossible,
defined as “that which never ceases to write itself.”
And because it cannot be reduced to meaning, the real
does not lend itself any more readily to univocal imaginary
representation than it does to symbolization.
The real situates the symbolic and the imaginary in
their respective positions.
In 1953, in a lecture called “Le symbolique, l’imaginaire
et le réel” (The symbolic, the imaginary, and the
real; 1982), Lacan introduced the real as connected
with the imaginary and the symbolic. The real, insofar
as it is situated in relation to the death drive and the
repetition compulsion, has nothing to do with Freudian
reality ( Wirklichkeit) or with the reality principle.
Lacan wrote, “One thing that is striking is that in analysis
there is an entire element of the real of the subject
that escapes us.... There is something that brings the
limits of analysis into play, and it involves the relation
of the subject to the real” (1982). Right away, Lacan
raised the question of the real in relation to analytic
training, and in 1953 more specifically in relation to
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REAL, THE (LACAN)
the choice of candidates for training analysis. The
issue concerned the fact that the real is defined not
solely by its relation to the symbolic but also by the
particular way in which each subject is caught up in it.
Lacan was able to extract this notion of the real
from his meticulous reading of Freud. In La relation
d’objet (Object relations; 1994), his seminar of 1956—
1957, Lacan, taking up the case of “little Hans” (Freud,
1909b), explained the boy’s mythical constructions as
a response to the real of sexual jouissance (enjoyment)
that had erupted in his field of subjectivity. Thanks to
his imaginary constructions and his phobia, little
Hans avoided the issue of castration. In his seminar
The Ego in Freud’s Theory and in the Technique of Psychoanalysis,
1954-1955 (1988), Lacan presented a
detailed reading of Freud’s dream of Irma’s injection
(Freud, 1900a). He emphasized that the terrifying
image that Freud saw at the back of Irma’s throat
revealed the irreducible real and designated a limit
point at which “all words cease” (1988, p. 164).
Lacan returned regularly to The Interpretation of
Dreams (Freud, 1900a) to indicate how the real is
located at the root of every dream, what Freud called
the dream’s navel, a limit point where the unknown
emerges (1900a, pp. JI In, 525)7 Its is here, ate the
dream’s navel, that Lacan located the point where the
real hooks up with the symbolic (Lacan, 1975). Lacan
approached the real through hallucination and psychosis
by careful study of Freud’s “Wolf man” case
(1918b [1914]), Freud’s commentary on Daniel Paul
Schreber (1911c [1910]), and “Negation” (Freud,
1925h). If the Name of the Father is foreclosed and the
symbolic function of castration is refused by the subject,
the signifiers of the father and of castration reappear
in reality, in the form of hallucinations. Hence
the Wolf Man’s hallucination of a severed finger and
Schreber’s delusions of communicating with God.
Thus, in developing the concept of foreclosure, Lacan
was able to declare, “What does not come to light in
the symbolic appears in the real” (1966, p. 388). Lacan
reconceived Freud’s hypothesis of an original affirmation
as a symbolic operation in which the subject
emerges from an already present real and recognizes
the signifying stroke that engages the subject in a
world symbolically ordered by the Name of the Father
and castration. In his seminar The Four Fundamental
Concepts of Psychoanalysis (1978), Lacan took up
Freud’s Beyond the Pleasure Principle (1920g) and
approached the real in terms of compulsion and
1453
Rea, THE (LACAN)
repetition. He proposed distinguishing between two
different aspects of repetition: a symbolic aspect that
depends on the compulsion of signifiers (automaton)
and a real aspect that he called tuché, the interruption
of the automaton by trauma or a bad encounter that
the subject is unable to avoid. Engendered by the real
of trauma, repetition is perpetuated by the failure of
symbolization. From this point on, Lacan defined the
real as “that which always returns to the same place”
(Lacan, 1978, p. 49). Trauma, which Freud situated
within the framework of the death drive, Lacan conceptualized
as the impossible-to-symbolize real.
The concept of the real also allowed Lacan to
approach questions of anxiety and the symptom in a
new way. While his early teaching was devoted to the
primacy of the symbolic, in later seminars (from 1972
to 1978) he argued that the real (R), the symbolic (S),
and the imaginary (I) are strictly equivalent. In effect,
the symbolism that Lacan borrowed from logic failed
to formalize the real, which “never ceases to write
itself” Thus Lacan attempted, by borrowing from the
mathematics of knot theory, to invent a formulation
independent of symbols. By affirming the equivalence
of the three categories R, S, and I, by representing
them as three perfectly identical circles that could be
distinguished only by the names they were given, and
by knotting these three circles together in specific ways
(such that if any one of them is cut, the other two are
set free), Lacan introduced a new object in psychoanalysis,
the Borromean knot. This knot is both a material
object that can be manipulated and a metaphor for the
structure of the subject. The knot, made up of three
rings, is characterized by how the rings (representing
the real, the symbolic, and the imaginary) interlock
and support each other. From this point on in Lacan’s
teaching, the real was no longer an opaque and terrifying
unconceptualizable entity. Rather, it is positioned
right alongside the symbolic and tied to it by mediation
of the imaginary. Thus, whatever our capacity for
symbolizing and imagining, there remains an irreducible
realm of the nonmeaning, and that is where the
real is located (see Lacan, 1974-1975).
In the final years of his teaching, Lacan took up the
question of the symptom and the end of the treatment
(1975; 1976). If the symptom is “the most real thing”
that subjects possess (1976, p. 41), then how must analysis
proceed to aim at the real of the symptom in order
to ensure that the symptom does not proliferate in
meaningful effects and even to eliminate the symptom?
1454
For analysis not to be an infinite process, for it to find
its own internal limit, the analyst’s interpretation,
which bears upon the signifier, must also reach the real
of the symptom, that is, the point where the symbolically
nonmeaningful latches on to the real, where the
first signifiers heard by the subject have left their
imprint (Lacan, 1985, p. 14). According to Lacan, to
reach its endpoint, an analysis must modify the relationship
of the subject to the real, which is an irreducible
whole in the symbolic from which the subject’s
fantasy and desire derive.
This notion of the real has given rise to numerous
misunderstandings. Some have interpreted its resistance
to formalization as a slide into irrationality.
Others, by identifying the real with trauma, have made
it a cause of fear and anxiety. Yet we all have an intuitive
experience of the real in such phenomena as the
uncanny, anxiety, the nonmeaningful, and poetic
humor that plays upon words at the expense of meaning.
Thus, when the framework of the imaginary
wavers and speech is lacking, when reality is no longer
organized and pacified by the fantasy screen, the
experience of the real emerges in a way that is unique
for each person.
MarTINE LERUDE
See also: Fantasy, formula of; Foreclosure; Fragmentation;
Imaginary, the; Internal/external reality; Knot; Object a;
Real, Symbolic, and Imaginary father; Signifier; Subject’s
castration; Symbolic, the; Symptom/sinthome.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1900a). The interpretation of dreams. SE,
4: 1-338; 5: 339-625.
- (1909b). Analysis of a phobia in a five-year-old boy.
SE, 10: 1-149.
. (191 1c [1910]). Psycho-analytic notes on an autobiographical
account of a case of paranoia (dementia paranoides).
SE, 12: 1-82.
. (1918b [1914]). From the history of an infantile
Neurosis. SE. l/s l—122%
- (1920g). Beyond the pleasure principle. SE, 18: 1-64.
. (1925h). Negation. SE, 19: 233-239.
Lacan, Jacques. (1966). Ecrits. Paris: Seuil.
. (1974-1975). Le séminaire. Book 22: R.S.1. Ornicar?,
2-5.
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« (1975), La troisieme, intervention de J. Lacan le 31
octobre 1974. Lettres de l’Ecole Freudienne, 16, 178-203.
. (1976). Conférences et entretiens dans les universites
nord-américaines. Scilicet, 6-7, 5-63.
. (1978). The seminar of Jacques Lacan. Book 11: The
four fundamental concepts of psycho-analysis (Alan Sheridan,
Trans.). New York: W. W. Norton. (Original work
published 1973)
. (1982). Le symbolique, Pimaginaire et le réel. Bulletin
de l’Association Freudienne, 1, 4-13.
. (1985). Geneva lecture on the symptom (Russell
Grigg, Trans.). Analysis, 1, 7-26. (Original work published
1975)
. (1988). The seminar of Jacques Lacan. Book 2: The
ego in Freud’s theory and in the technique of psychoanalysis,
1954-1955 (Sylvana Tomaselli, Trans.). New York: W. W.
Norton. (Original work published 1978)
. (1994). Le séminaire. Book 4: La relation d’objet
(1956-1957). Paris: Seuil.
REAL TRAUMA
A real trauma has an exogenous cause and its disturbing,
even disruptive effect is immediate and manifest.
This has been the usual definition of trauma ever
since its adoption in a surgical context in 1855: The
word always denoted a bodily injury, but its meaning
was soon expanded to alone cover the state of shock or
stupor induced by that injury. The adjective real has no
meaning save by way of contrast with the psychoanalytic
notion of psychical trauma. Freud used it to qualify
not the trauma per se but rather those childhood scenes
of seduction, which according to his theory of seduction,
constituted the first moment of the trauma.
Although he abandoned this theory, thereby promoting
the ideas of unconscious fantasy and psychic
reality, Freud argued unwaveringly for the existence of
real violent events and their pathogenic effects. By contrast,
the majority of his immediate followers, failing to
assimilate the oscillation throughout Freud’s work
between reality and fantasy, gave precedence to fantasy,
to the omnipotence of thought, and evinced a distinct
distrust of reality. Present-day analysts tend to pay
more attention to the real event in its traumatic brutality,
while recognizing that this does not free them from
the task of thoroughly following the fantasy activity
which that reality sets in motion; they espouse the eco-
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RECIPROCAL PATHS OF INFLUENCE (LIBIDINAL COEXCITATION)
nomic view of the trauma, as set forth by Freud in 1920,
according to which the nature and intensity of a traumatic
event can make it highly disruptive in its effects.
The underlying problem here, so often debated, is
the nature of internal as opposed to external reality, an
issue that occasioned a profound disagreement
between Freud and Ferenczi. Even if the impact of
reality—of the “bedrock” of biology and of eventgoverned
history—is inescapable, there can be no
question, despite all that, of reducing the trauma to a
strictly objective reality.
Talk of real trauma might suggest that there is such
a thing as fictitious, imaginary, or even “fraudulent”
traumas. The term is somewhat questionable therefore,
and is in fact little used in psychoanalysis. Quite
obviously, any trauma, whatever its origin, is distinctly
“real” in its effects.
FRANCOISE BRETTE
See also: Construction de Vespace analytique, La; Internal/
external reality; Trauma.
Bibliography
Ferenczi, Sandor. (1931). Child analysis in the analysis of
adults. In Final contributions to the problems and methods
of psycho-analysis. London: Hogarth/Institute of Psycho-
Analysis, 1955.
. (1933 [1932]). Confusion of tongues between
adults and the child. In Final contributions to the problems
and methods of psycho-analysis. London: Hogarth/Institute
of Psycho-Analysis, 1955.
Freud, Sigmund. (1896c). The aetiology of hysteria. SE, 3:
186-221.
. (1920g). Beyond the pleasure principle. SE, 18: 1-64.
Freud, Sigmund, and Sandor Ferenczi. (1993-2000). The
correspondence of Sigmund Freud and Sandor Ferenczi. (Eva
Brabant, et al., Eds., Peter T. Hoffer Trans.; 3 volumes)
Cambridge, MA/London: Belknap Press of Harvard University
Press.
RECIPROCAL PATHS OF INFLUENCE
(LIBIDINAL COEXCITATION)
The expression reciprocal paths of influence refers
to routes that lead from a nonsexual function to a sexual
function, but that can be traversed in both
directions.
1455
”
‘(RECOMMENDATIONS TO PHYSICIANS PRACTISING PSYCHOANALYSIS
In Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality (1905d)
Sigmund Freud added to the somatic sources of sexual
excitation (erotogenic zones) other sources that are
unlimited in number, since they involve any internal
process that has surpassed a certain quantitative
threshold.
Two aspects of this notion of reciprocal paths of
influence must be distinguished.
e First, the anaclitic relationship of the sexual
function to a given physiological function sexualizes
the latter (Laplanche, 1976). Thus the
lips or the tongue intervene in the act of taking
nourishment, but also in the pleasure that is
taken in this act (or repudiated, as in anorexia),
and that which can be found outside of the vital
function. This aspect makes it possible to understand
the alteration of physiological functions
(somatization) that in and of themselves do not
have a sexual character, but have taken it on secondarily
and can thus undergo the process of
repression.
e Second, a nonsexual activity such as intellectual
effort, for example, can, if a sufficient amount of
concentration accompanies it, create a related
sexual excitation. This case does not, therefore,
involve an anaclitic dependence on a bodily function,
but rather an indirect source of sexual
excitation that is in fact linked to the degree of
cathexis at stake. In Three Essays on the Theory of
Sexuality, Freud concluded that “it may well be
that nothing of considerable importance can
occur in the organism without contributing some
component to the excitation of the sexual
instinct” (pp. 204-205).
This hypothesis is extremely important because it
makes it possible simultaneously to account for sublimation
(attraction of the sexual toward the nonsexual)
and symptom formation (attraction of the nonsexual
toward the sexual). In fact, it considerably broadens
the notion of sexuality to encompass the notion of
“pleasure in thinking,” a very different perspective
from the one that equates thinking with labor.
SOPHIE DE MIjOLLA-MELLOR
See also: Erotogenic masochism; Fusion/defusion of
instincts; Intellectualization; Masochism; Pleasure in
thinking; Thought.
1456
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1905d). Three essays on the theory of
Sexuality. SE, 7: 123-243.
Laplanche, Jean. (1976). Life and death in psychoanalysis.
Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Mijolla-Mellor, Sophie de. (1992). Le Plaisir de pensée. Paris:
Presses Universitaires de France.
“RECOMMENDATIONS TO PHYSICIANS
PRACTISING PSYCHOANALYSIS”
“The technical rules which I am putting forward here
have been arrived at from my own experience in the
course of many years, after unfortunate results had led
me to abandon other methods” (1912e, 111). Thus
began Sigmund Freud’s “Recommendations to Physicians,”
which is, together with “The Handling of
Dream Interpretation in Psychoanalysis” (191le) and
“The Dynamics of Transference” (1912b), among the
rare technical essays that resulted from Freud’s 1908
attempt to write a “general methodology,’ a project he
abandoned in 1910.
Freud went on to specify that these recommendations
were the result of his own methods and that it
was possible that another physician would assume a
different position. But he insisted on their common
goal, which was to establish for the analyst conditions
that paralleled the “fundamental rule” imposed on the
patient. It was in line with this that he recommended
an attitude of “evenly suspended attention,” the use of
“unconscious memory” rather than notes, the absence
of a preconceived research “plan,” and therefore the
adoption of an attitude of “distance” similar to that of
a surgeon.
“The doctor should be opaque to his patients and,
like a mirror, should show them nothing but what is
shown to him” (1912e, p. 118). We know the fate of
this metaphor, as we do that of the other metaphor
that Freud would later return to: “To put it in a formula:
[the analyst] must turn his own unconscious
like a receptive organ towards the transmitting unconscious
of the patient. He must adjust himself to the
patient as a telephone receiver is adjusted to the transmitting
microphone. Just as the receiver converts back
into soundwaves the electric oscillations in the telephone
line which were set up by sound waves, so the
doctor’s unconscious is able, from the derivatives of
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the unconscious which are communicated to him, to
reconstruct that unconscious, which has determined
the patient’s free associations” (1912e, p. 115-116). It
was to Ludwig Binswanger, who was surprised at a
recommendation so similar to telepathy, that, on February
22, 1925, Freud made the following comment:
“The statement that the unconscious of the analysand
must be seized with one’s own unconscious, that we
must so to speak hold out the unconscious ear as a
receiver, was one I made in an unassuming and rationalistic
sense, although I grant that important problems
are concealed behind that formulation. I simply
meant that one must eschew the conscious intensification
of certain expectations and so set up in oneself the
same state one requires of the analysand. All ambiguities
disappear once you assume that, in the sentence
in question, the unconscious is meant purely descriptively.
In a more systematic formulation, unconscious
must be replaced with preconscious.”
In order for this balance to occur, the analyst must
first undergo an “analytic purification.” This is the
inception, by Freud himself, of the “training analysis,”
intended to help the analyst avoid the temptation of
using his own life as an example or trying to educate
the patient.
It is clear from this essay that Freud is responding
indirectly to the errors that the first psychoanalysts
inevitably made in their eagerness to understand or
heal. It also shows how difficult it was for physicians to
adopt the psychoanalytic attitude when, as a result of
their training and professional experience, they had
developed an active attitude, if not that of a miracle
worker, the very attitude that characterized Freud in
the Studies on Hysteria. Have the times really changed?
Freud’s “Recommendations” has continued to be read
and, as Freud wrote to Ludwig Binswanger on May 28,
1911, “In truth there is nothing for which man’s disposition
befits him less than occupying himself with
psychoanalysis.”
ALAIN DE MYOLLA
See also: Question of Lay Analysis, The.
Source Citation
Freud, Sigmund. (1912e). Ratschlage fiir den Arzt bei der
psychoanalytischen Behandlung. Zentralblatt fur Psychoanalyse,
II: 483-489; GW, VIII: 376-387; Recommendations
to physicians practising psycho-analysis. SE, 12:
111-120.
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Rees, JoHN Rawtinas (1890-1969)
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund, and Binswanger, Ludwig. (1992 [1908—
1938]). The Sigmund Freud-Ludwig Binswanger Correspondence
1908-1938 (Gerhard Fichtner, Ed.; Arnold J.
Pomerans and Tom Roberts, Trans.). New York: Other
Press.
REES, JOHN RAWLINGS (1890-1969)
A British physician and psychiatrist, John Rawlings
Rees was born on June 25, 1890, in Leicester and died
on April 11, 1969, in London. He was a Commander
of the British Empire and a Fellow of the Royal College
of Physicians.
Rees came from a religious background, his father
having been a Wesleyan Methodist minister (nonconformist
Protestant). He had thought of becoming a
missionary, but instead studied medicine. His sense of
mission was fulfilled by his leadership at the Tavistock
Clinic before World War II, later as chief psychiatrist to
the British Army and, after the war, founding and
becoming the first president of the International Federation
for Mental Health. Rees served as a doctor in
World War I, in France, Mesopotamia, and India. There
he saw soldiers with nervous breakdowns who were not
well treated. He ensured that good treatment was available
in World War II. He wrote that it was through his
military experiences that he grew up emotionally.
At first he was interested in public health, but
moved into psychiatry through meeting with Hugh
Crichton-Miller, a pioneer psychotherapist who had
founded Bowden House, an in-patient clinic for the
early treatment of psychiatric illness. Later Crichton-
Miller founded the Tavistock Clinic. Rees did not train
as a psychoanalyst, though he had a personal analysis
with Morris Nicoll, a Jungian. He was a fine administrator
and teacher, who recognized his limits as a
therapist. Crichton-Miller resigned in 1932, having
grown out of sympathy with developments at the Tavistock,
and Rees succeeded him as director. Under his
leadership the clinic grew to becoming the main center
for psychoanalytic psychiatry in the United Kingdom,
in opposition to the Maudsley Hospital at the University
of London.
Rees encouraged training in psychiatric social work
and child guidance. In the 1930s the clinic was eclectic,
with Jungian, Adlerian, and other psychotherapists of
many persuasions. Its leading figures were James
Arthur Hadfield and Ian Suttie, whose 1935 book The
1457
Récis, EMMANUEL JEAN-BAPTISTE JOSEPH (1855-1918)
Origins of Love and Hate had an important impact in
British psychotherapy. Both John Bowlby and Donald
Winnicott acknowledged this influence. Suttie attempted
to integrate the individual, the social, and the spiritual.
Among the staff in the 1930s was Wilfred R. Bion,
who treated Samuel Beckett. Henry V. Dicks, for many
years his colleague, described Rees “as a natural unselfconscious
leader and originator.”
Rees was surprised to be invited in 1939 to take command
of British Army psychiatry. He found that there
were hardly any psychiatrists in the army at that time
and quickly assembled a team, many of whom had
served under him at the Tavistock. Rees was able to
cooperate with the military hierarchy and to persuade
and to show them the value of psychiatry in the selection
and allocation of soldiers to work appropriate to their
personality and intelligence; in the rehabilitation of psychiatric
casualties; and in the maintenance of good morale.
He was ably assisted by Ronald Hargreaves. Through
their work senior psychiatrists were appointed to army
groups and were recognized as valuable advisors.
The education and training of soldiers with limited
intelligence was a major innovation in wartime which
cleared the way to post-war developments in this field.
By 1945 there were 300 trained army psychiatrists and
Rees had been promoted to brigadier. After World War
IJ the Tavistock was a changed institution as the
younger generation had experienced power and influence
in the armed forces, and they were enthusiastic to
train in psychoanalysis and to use psychoanalytic
knowledge in their work with the clinic. Rees was out
of tune with this development and felt pressured to
give up as director in 1947.
At the age of 57 he was at the height of his powers
and devoted himself to organizing the first Mental
Health Congress in London in 1948. He became the
leading figure in the movement to maintain and
develop wartime international cooperation among
psychiatrists. His mission then became the research
and treatment of mental illness in its social roots. He
was a leading figure in the formation of the World Federation
for Mental Health of which he was director for
many years. The Federation brought modern psychiatry
to undeveloped countries, trained their personnel,
and stimulated research. He was indefatigable in his
travels, and his London home was always a place of
welcome for colleagues worldwide.
Rees published an autobiographical volume, Reflections.
His own writings were not original, but he was
1458
able to explain psychotherapy in straightforward
terms to the general public, and his work in exploring
society was influential.
MaALcoLoM PINES
See also: Great Britain; Tavistock Clinic.
Bibliography
King, Pearl H.M. (1982). Activities of British psychoanalysts
during the Second World War and the influence of their
interdisciplinary collaboration on the development of
psychoanalysis in Great Britain. International Review of
Psycho-Analysis, 16, 15-33.
Rees, John Rawlings. (1929). The health of the mind. London:
Faber & Faber; New York: W. W. Norton, 1951.
. (1943). Three years of military psychiatry in the
United Kingdom. British Medical Journal, 2.
. (1944). A brief impression of British military
psychiatry. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 8, 29-35.
. (1945). The shaping of psychiatry by war. New York:
W. W. Norton.
REGIS, EMMANUEL JEAN-BAPTISTE JOSEPH
(1855-1918)
Emmanuel Régis, a French physician, was born on
April 29, 1855, in Auterive (Haute-Garonne) and died
on June 21, 1918, in Bordeaux. He studied medicine in
Paris, where he was taught by Baillarger, Laségue,
Motet, Falret, and Ball, and became a professor at the
Sainte-Anne psychiatric hospital, where he became
assistant physician in 1881. In 1883 Régis was back in
Bordeaux. Asked to teach a course on mental illness in
1892 by Albert Pitres, he became head of the department
of medicine, then associate professor in 1905. In
1913 Régis was appointed to the new chair of mental
pathology, which he held until his death.
Régis is the author of several works in the field of
criminal psychology and mental illness. His
approach to etiology is based on the notion of
degeneration and the importance of an accidental
toxic-infectious factor, ideas that were consistent
with his training and oriented his important work in
medical hygiene. Under the influence of Pitres, a
well-known student of Charcot, he explored the
study of neuroses and, like him, was forced ta
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
confront the paradoxes of hysteria. It was while
studying hysteria that both men encountered the
ideas of Sigmund Freud, whose nosographic conceptions
they shared without accepting his hypothesis of
an underlying sexual etiology.
The article “Seméiologie des obsessions et idées
fixes” (Pitres and Régis, Archives de neurologie,
1897) reflects this critical rapprochement. Les Obsessions
et les Impulsions (1902) followed, developing
points of view that Régis would again return to in
the four editions of his Précis de psychiatrie. Régis’s
opinion of Freudian theory is ultimately negative,
but Freud continued to arouse his curiosity. Thus,
in 1913, together with his assistant Angélo Hesnard
and his brother, a learned German linguist, he
initiated a project of reading all of Freud’s works.
This resulted in the article, “La doctrine de Freud et
de son école” (Regis and Hesnard, L’Encéphale,
1913) and La Psychanalyse des névroses et des psychoses
(1914).
This book, in which Régis challenges the scientific
value of psychoanalysis while recognizing its heuristic
usefulness, has the merit, as Ferenczi acknowledged in
his 1915 polemic, of describing Freudian theory accurately,
supported by an exhaustive bibliography. The
book marks the official entry of psychoanalysis in
France.
GERARD BAZALGETTE
See also: Breton, André; Claustrophobia; France; Hesnard,
Angélo Louis Marie; Phobias in children; Phobia of
committing impulsive acts.
Bibliography
Ferenczi, Sandor. (1939). Die psychiatrische Schule von Bordeaux
tiber die Psychoanalyse. In Sandor Ferenczi, Bausteine
zur Psychoanalyse (Vol. 4; pp. 12-45). Bern: Hans
Huber (Original work published 1915).
Pitres, Albert, and Régis, Emmanuel. (1902). Les Obsessions
et les Impulsions. Paris: O. Doin.
Régis, Emmanuel. (1909). Précis de psychiatrie (4th ed.).
Paris: Doin.
. (1913). La doctrine de Freud et de son école. L’Encéphale,
8, 356-378, 537-564.
Régis, Emmanuel, and Hesnard, Angélo. (1914). La Psychanalyse
des névroses et des psychoses. Ses applications medicales
et extra-médicales. Paris: Félix Alcan.
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
REGRESSION
REGRESSION
The Latin equivalent of regression means “return” or
“withdrawal”; it also signifies a retreat or a return to a
less-evolved state. There is no very precise psychoanalytic
definition of the concept of regression. It is useful
to introducs the idea of temporality. It could be said to
represent an articulation between the atemporality of
the unconscious, the primary processes, and the temporality
of the secondary processes. Some analysts
assign this notion a metaphoric value; it retains the
connotations of a journey through time and the
changes that will be necessary in psychoanalytic
treatment.
Sigmund Freud introduced the notion of regression
in The Interpretation of Dreams (1900a). The
concept was necessary for his description of the psychic
apparatus in terms of a topographical model,
represented by an instrument whose component
parts are agencies or systems with a spatial orientation.
Excitation traverses the system in a determined
temporal order, going from the sensory end to the
motor end. In hallucinatory dreams, excitation follows
a retrograde pathway. Dreams have a regressive
character due to the shutdown of the motor system;
the trajectory goes in the reverse direction, toward
perception and hallucinatory visual representation.
This regression is a psychological particularity of the
dream process, but dreams do not have a monopoly
on it. In the section of the last chapter of The Interpretation
of Dreams titled “Regression,” Freud wrote
that “in all probability this regression, wherever it
may occur, is an effect of a resistance opposing the
progress of a thought into consciousness along the
normal path.... It is to be further remarked that
regression plays a no less important part in the theory
of the formation of neurotic symptoms than it does
in that of dreams” (pp. 547-548). In this last chapter
Freud already distinguished between three types of
regression: topographical regression, in the sense of
the psychic system; temporal regression, in the case
of a return to earlier psychic formations; and formal
regression, where primitive modes of expression and
representation replace the usual ones. He also noted:
“All these three kinds of regression are, however, one
at bottom and occur together as a rule; for what is
older in time is more primitive in form and in psychical
topography lies nearer to the perceptual end”
(p. 548). This basic unity is central to his metapsychological
use of the concept.
1459
ReicH, Annie (1902-1971)
In Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality (1905d)
Freud implicitly invoked the idea of fixation, which is
inseparable from regression. In “A Metapsychological
Supplement to the Theory of Dreams” (1916-17f
[1915]), he underscored the distinction between “temporal
or developmental regression” (of the ego and the
libido) and topographical regression, and the fact that
“It]he two do not necessarily always coincide” (p. 227).
Then, in the twenty-second of the Introductory Lectures
on Psychoanalysis (1916-17a [1915-17]), he distinguished
two types of regression affecting the libido: a
return to the earliest objects marked by the libido,
which are of an incestuous nature, and a return of the
entire sexual organization to earlier stages. Libidinal
regression is only an effect of temporal regression, with
a reactivation of old libidinal structures preserved by
fixation. At that point he asserted that regression was a
“purely descriptive” concept, adding: “we cannot tell
where we should localize it in the mental apparatus”
(pp. 342-343). In making this assertion, he retrenched
from his earlier position and denied regression its metaphysical
status, which it would regain only after 1920
with the second theory of the instincts. It then becomes
constitutive of the death instinct and can threaten to
destroy psychic structures, but also becomes a mechanism
that can be used by the ego.
According to Marilia Aisenstein’s article “Des régressions
impossibles?” (Impossible regressions?), “Freud’s
reticence around the notion of regression in 1917 was
linked to its relation to the first theory of the instincts
and the first topography. He had difficulty in situating
and formulating regression not only in topographical
terms, but above all in terms of the libido and the
instincts of the ego. ... It then became necessary to separate
regression from disorganization, as the latter was
envisioned by Pierre Marty and the psychosomaticians
of the Paris School.... If the retrograde movement is not
stopped by regressive systems involving fixations, the
end result can be a process of somatization.” Regression
is indispensable to the work of psychoanalytic treatment;
it implies the notion of change and is part of the healing
process, according to Donald W. Winnicott (1958).
Regression is a form of defense and remains in the service
of the ego. From the analyst’s point of view, formal
regression provides another way of listening.
MartTINE MyQueL
See also: Acute psychoses; Amphimixia/amphimixis;
Benign/malignant regression; Choice of neurosis;
1460
Defense mechanisms; Disorganization; Dream; Ego and
the Mechanisms of Defense, The; Face-to-face situation;
Fixation; Imago; Libidinal development; Libido; Maternal;
“Metapsychological Supplement to the Theory of
Dreams”; “Mourning and Melancholia”; Narcissistic
withdrawal; Ontogenesis; Paranoia; Psychic causality;
Psychic temporality; Psychoses, chronic and delusional;
Psychosomatic; Psychotic transference; Representability;
Sadomasochism; Self (true/false); Sleep/wakefulness;
Stage (or phase); Suicide; Thalassa: A Theory of Genitality;
Time; Wish, hallucinatory satisfaction of a.
Bibliography
Aisenstein, Marilia. (1992). Des régressions impossibles?
Revue francaise de psychanalyse, 56 (4), 995-1004.
Freud, Sigmund. (1900a). The interpretation of dreams.
Parts I and II. SE, 4-5.
. (1905d). Three essays on the theory of sexuality. SE,
7: 123-243.
. (1916-17a [1915-17]). Introductory lectures on
psycho-analysis. Parts I and II. SE, 15-16.
Winnicott, Donald W. (1958). Through paediatrics to
psycho-analysis. London: Tavistock.
Further Reading
Balint, Michael, (1968). The basic fault. Therapeutic aspects
of regression. London: Tavistock.
Blum, Harold P. (1994). The conceptual development of
regression. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 49, 60-76.
Inderbitzin, Lawrence, and Levy, Steven. (2000). Regression
and psychoanalytic technique: A concept’s concretization.
Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 69, 195-224.
Sandler, Joseph, and Sandler, Anne—Marie. (1994). Theoretical,
technical comments on regression and anti-regression.
International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 75, 431-440.
REICH, ANNIE (1902-1971)
Austrian physician and psychoanalyst Annie Reich
(nee Pink) was born on April 9, 1902, in Vienna and
died on January 5, 1971, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
Reich was the third child of Theresa Singer, a primary
school teacher, and Alfred Pink, a Viennese
merchant; Annie’s father remarried shortly after her
mother’s death from influenza, during World War I.
Her older brother, Fritz, was killed during the
war, and her other brother, Ludwig, emigrated to
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Australia in 1939. Reich studied medicine at Vienna
University from 1921 and obtained her medical
degree in 1926.
In 1921 she began an analysis with Wilhelm Reich,
which was interrupted six months later when, in 1922,
they were married. Two daughters, Eva and Lore, born
in 1924 and 1928 respectively, issued from this marriage.
Reich began another analysis with Hermann
Nunberg and, years later, with Anna Freud. A member
of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society from 1928, she
worked at the proletariat-oriented sex-counseling
clinics founded by Wilhelm Reich and Marie
Frischauf. After moving to Berlin in 1930, she became
involved in the “Kinderseminar” for young, left-wing
analysts that was founded by Otto Fenichel, and joined
the Berlin Psychoanalytic Society.
In 1933, Reich and her husband separated. Reich
emigrated to Prague where she established a practice
and helped constitute the new psychoanalytic community
there; as a member of the Vienna Psychoanalytic
Society, she served as a training analyst until 1938.
That year, she married Thomas Rubinstein and emigrated
with him and her children to the United States,
where she was quickly admitted into the New York
Psychoanalytic Society; she served as its president
from 1960 to 1962. She was also active in the International
Psychoanalytical Association from 1938 until
her death.
Reich’s publications include some of the first psychoanalytic
works dealing with pedagogical aspects of
sexuality, including “Zur Frage der Sexualaufklarung”
(On the question of sexual enlightenment) in 1929. In
addition, she wrote numerous theoretical and clinical
articles, including key papers on counter-transference
and female psychology. A collection of her papers was
published posthumously in 1973.
LIL GAST
See also: Reich, Wilhelm.
Bibliography
Reich, Annie. (1929). Zur Frage der Sexualaufklarung. Zeitschrift
fiir psychoanalytische Padagogik, 3, 98-100.
. (1973). Psychoanalytic contributions. New York:
International Universities Press.
Sharaf, Myron R. (1983). Fury on Earth: A biography of Wilhelm
Reich. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
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Reicu, WithHeLm (1897-1957)
REICH, WILHELM (1897-1957)
Wilhelm Reich was an Austrian physician and psychoanalyst.
He was born March 27, 1897, in Dobrzcynica,
a part of Galicia belonging to the Austro-Hungarian
Empire, now a part of Poland. He died November 3,
1957, at the Lewisburg penitentiary in Connecticut.
Reich’s parents were assimilated middle-class Jews,
who had emigrated after his birth to Jujinetz, in the
Ukrainian region of Austria-Hungary. His father
owned an extensive tract of land, on which he raised
cattle. Two teachers were responsible for the young
Reich’s education. At the age of fourteen he entered
the local high school in Czernowitz. He was an officer
in the Austrian army during the war and began his
medical studies upon his return to Vienna.
In 1919 he was admitted to the local psychoanalytic
society. In 1921 he married Annie Pink, a brilliant student
who became a famous psychoanalyst. Reich had
important responsibilities as a teacher and in clinical
psychoanalysis, and in 1924 ran a seminar on psychoanalytic
technique. At the same time he was working
with Austrian socialists. In 1927 he published The
Function of the Orgasm, which established the existence
of a sexual economy focused on the power of the
orgasm and genitality. He enrolled in the communist
party in 1928 and, the following year, created the
Socialist Society of Sexual Advice and Sexual Research.
In 1929 he traveled to the USSR, where he familiarized
himself with the work of Vera Schmidt, a Russian teacher
who made use of psychoanalysis in her school for
children.
In 1930 he left Vienna for Berlin, where he continued
working to promote communism and psychoanalysis.
In 1931 he founded the German Association for a
Proletarian Sexual Policy, known as SEXPOL for short,
which at one point had several thousand members. In
a 1931 brochure, The Sexual Struggle of the Young, he
promoted a radical liberation of individual behavior.
In 1932 he published The Invasion of Compulsory Sexual
Morality, a sociological study based on the work of
the ethnologist Bronislaw Malinowski. Reich lived
with Elsa Lindenberg, a dancer who was active in the
same cell as he.
In 1933 Hitler was in power and Reich was thrown
out of the German communist party. He fled to Denmark,
where he published two of his most important
works, Character Analysis and The Mass Psychology of
Fascism. In 1934 he settled in Malm6, Sweden, and
1461
REik, THEODOR (1888-1969)
founded the Review of Political Psychology and Sexual
Economy. At the Lucerne Congress a decision was
made to exclude Reich from the International Psychoanalytical
Association (IPA). He took refuge in Oslo,
Norway, where he continued to train psychoanalysts
and conducted research on organic electricity. A campaign
of defamation—he was referred to as a “Jewish
pornographer”—led by a man named Quisling, led
Reich to accept the invitation of Theodore Wolfe to
move to the United States to teach “character-analytic
vegetotherapy.”
He arrived in New York in 1939, rented a cabin in
Maine and had several buildings constructed, which
he called the “Orgonon.” Here he conducted research,
taught, and performed clinical work. It was a period of
intense creative activity for Reich. In politics he
denounced the “emotional plague,” the source of fascism,
and developed the principles for a “democracy
of work.” He also became interested in newborns following
the birth of his son Peter to his third wife Ilse
Ollendorff in 1944. He investigated the problem of
cancer and, at the same time, struggled to determine
orgone formations in the atmosphere and the cosmos.
He successfully practiced vegetotherapy. Preoccupied
by the problems of the environment, he explored the
Arizona desert (“operation Orop Desert”). He continued
to publish and republish at a steady rate: in 1948
The Function of the Orgasm, an autobiographical work,
and the Biopathy of Cancer, The Sexual Revolution, and
Listen, Little Man; in 1951 Ether, God, and Devil, and
Cosmic Superimposition; in 1953 The Murder of Christ
and People in Trouble, published by the Orgone Institute
Press.
A campaign of lies and vilification in the tabloid
press resulted in Reich being called in for questioning
by the police. After refusing to cooperate with the court
he was convicted and sent to prison, where he died. A
year earlier, as a result of a court decision, nearly all of
Reich’s books were burned at the Gansevoort Street
incinerator in Manhattan (New York City).
RoGER DADOUN
See also: Allgemeine Arztliche Gesellschaft fiir Psychotherapie;
Berliner Psychoanalytisches Institut; Character; Denmark;
Lehrinstitut der Wiener psychoanalytischen Vereinigung;
Marxism and psychoanalysis; Norway; Orgasm;
Politics and psychoanalysis; Psychic causality; Reich, Annie;
Sociology and psychoanalysis/sociopsychoanalysis; Wiener
psychoanalytische Vereinigung.
1462
Bibliography
Dadoun, Roger. (1975). Cent Fleurs pour Wilhelm Reich.
Paris: Payot.
De Marchi, Luigi. (1973). Wilhelm Reich, biographie d’une
idée. Paris: Fayard.
Reich, Wilhelm. (1933). Character-analysis; principles and
technique for psychoanalysts in practice and in training
(Theodore P. Wolfe, Trans.). New York: Orgone Institute
Press.
. (1933). The mass psychology of fascism (Theodore P.
Wolfe, Trans.). New York: Orgone Institute Press, 1946.
. (1940). The function of the orgasm: Sex-economic
problems of biological energy (Theodore P. Wolfe, Trans.).
London: Panther, 1968.
. (1948). The cancer biopathy. New York: Orgone
Institute Press.
. (1988). Passion of youth: An autobiography 1897-—
1922. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux.
Sharaf, Myron. (1983). Fury on Earth: A biography of Wilhelm
Reich. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
Sinelnikoff, Constantin. (1970). LDG uvre de Wilhelm Reich.
Paris: Maspero.
REIK, THEODOR (1888-1969)
Lay analyst Theodor Reik was born on May 12, 1888, in
Vienna, and died on December 31, 1969, in New York.
He was the third child of four born to the cultured,
lower-middle-class Jewish family of Max and Caroline
Reik. Reik’s father was a low-salaried government clerk
who died when Theodor was aged 18. Freud became a
father figure for the rest of Reik’s life. He attended
public schools in Vienna and entered the University of
Vienna at the age of 18, where he studied psychology
and French and German literature. He received his
PhD in 1912, writing the first psychoanalytic dissertation,
on Flaubert’s The Temptation of St. Anthony. He
met Freud in 1910, and two years later became a member
of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society. From 1914
to 1915 he was in analysis with Karl Abraham in Berlin
and, with the outbreak of World War I, served as an
officer in the Austrian cavalry from 1915 to 1918, seeing
combat in Montenegro and Italy and being decorated
for bravery.
Following the resignation of Otto Rank, Reik
became the Secretary of the Vienna Psychoanalytic
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Society. For ten years he practiced in Vienna and
began to write so extensively that Freud asked him:
“Why do you piss around so much? Just piss in one
spot” (Natterson, 1966). Freud wrote “The Question
of Lay Analysis” in defense of Reik, who had been prosecuted
under the quackery laws of Austria for practicing
medicine.
Reik moved to Berlin, where he lived and practiced
from 1928 until 1934 and again was a celebrated teacher
at the psychoanalytic institute. Fearing the rise of
the Nazis, he left for The Hague, where he continued
practicing and teaching. During this time his first wife
Ella, mother of his son Arthur, died, and he married
Marija. Two children were born of this marriage,
Theodora and Miriam.
Still fearful of the Nazis, he moved to New York
where, as a non-medical analyst, he was denied full
membership in the New York Psychoanalytic Society.
Reik would not accept the position of research analyst,
although he could have made a “charade” of agreement
and practiced, as many did. Reik experienced
financial difficulties for many periods in his life. He
was treated gratis by both Karl Abraham and Freud
and for a time he received financial support of
200 marks a month from Freud. After he wrote for
help in 1938, Freud wrote back: “What ill wind has
blown you, just you, to America? You must have
known how amiably lay analysts would be received
there by our colleagues for whom psychoanalysis is
nothing more that one of the hand-maidens of psychiatry”
(Hale, 1995). Reik persevered, however, building
a practice, and soon a group of colleagues centered
around him and, in 1948, the National Psychological
Association for Psychoanalysis was founded.
Reik’s influence on the development of nonmedical
analysis in the United States was great. Not only did
his many books have a profound effect on the general
reading public but his influence through the NPAP
(National Psychological Association for Psychoanalysis)
and the institutes that split from it suggest that
Reik was the major promulgator of non-medical analysis
in the United States.
Reik’s psychoanalytic studies include discussions of
such writers as Beer-Hofmann, Flaubert, and Schnitzler
as well as Shakespeare, Goethe, and Gustav
Mahler, to name but a few. He had a unique way of
communicating and his writing and conversational
style was free associational. His autobiography is to be
found in his many works. Among his better known
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Reik, THEODOR (1888-1969)
are: Listening with the Third Ear (1948); the monumental
Masochism in Modern Man (1949); Surprise
and the Psychoanalyst (1935); his recollection of Freud,
From Thirty Years with Freud (1940); an autobiographical
study, Fragment of a Great Confession (1949);
applied psychoanalysis of the Bible in Mystery on the
Mountain (1958); anthropology in Ritual (1958); and
sexuality in Of Love and Lust (1959), Creation of
Woman (1960), and The Psychology of Sex Relations
(1961); and music in The Haunting Melody (1960).
Toward the end of his life Reik, who grew a beard,
resembled the older Freud and lived modestly, surrounded
by photographs of Freud from childhood to
old age. He died on December 31, 1969, after a long
illness.
Natterson says, of Reik: “In many ways, Reik is the
epitome of the sensitive aesthete, the pleasure-loving,
erotic, highly intellectual, secular Jewish scholar. These
characteristics are to be treasured” (Natterson, 1966).
Theodor Reik, disciple of Freud, Secretary of the
Vienna Psychoanalytic Society, author of over 20 books
and hundreds of papers on literature, music, religion,
analytic technique, and masochism, founder of the
National Psychological Association for Psychoanalysis
(NPAP) in New York, an analyst in four major cities
who wrote in a confessional way about his life, loves,
failures, and triumphs, occupies a unique place in the
history of psychoanalysis.
JOSEPH REPPEN
See also: Anthropology and psychoanalysis; Applied psychoanalysis
and the interactions of psychoanalysis;
“Dreams and Myths”; Evenly-suspended attention; Identification;
Judaism and psychoanalysis; Lay analysis; Lehrinstitut
der Wiener psychoanalytischen Vereinigung;
Music and psychoanalysis; National Psychological Association
for Psychoanalysis; Netherlands; New York Freudian
Society; Parenthood; Psychoanalytic Review, The;
Question of Lay Analysis, The; United States.
Bibliography
Hale, Nathan G., Jr. (1995). The rise and crisis of psychoanalysis
in the United States: Freud and the Americans 1917—
1985. New York: Oxford University Press.
Natterson, Joseph M. (1966). Theodor Reik: Masochism in
modern man. In Franz Alexander, S. Eisensten, and Martin
Grotjahn (Eds.), Psychoanalytic pioneers (pp. 249-264).
New York and London: Basic.
1463
RELATIONS (COMMENSALISM, SYMBIOSIS, PARASITISM)
RELATIONS (COMMENSALISM, SYMBIOSIS,
PARASITISM)
In his book Attention and Interpretation (1970),
Wilfred R. Bion conducted a parallel study of the relations
between the mystic and the group, between the
container and the contained, and between a new idea
and the psychism in which it appears. He used the
same relations model to describe these three situations
with three types of relations: commensal, symbiotic,
and parasitic.
Bion uses the relation of the mystic to the group as
a springboard for his developments. The mystic,
whom he also calls the genius or messiah, is the individual
who brings new ideas to the group. He is opposed
to the establishment, whose role is to maintain the
cohesion and stability of the group. The mystic and
the establishment need each other. By maintaining the
stability of the group, the establishment enables the
advent of the mystic who is engendered by the group
to which the mystic gives life (psychic, spiritual, or
scientific); the mystic needs the group, therefore the
establishment, in order to introduce new ideas to the
greatest number of people, for example the benefits of
Newton’s physics or Freud’s psychoanalysis.
But together the group and the mystic maintain
relations which, although they include a charge of
creativity, also imply a charge of destructiveness. The
new idea introduced by the mystic always threatens
the existence of the group or one of its sub-groups.
These are the definitions that Bion gives of the three
types of relations he describes: “By ‘commensal’ I mean
a relationship in which two objects share a third to the
advantage of all three. By ‘symbiotic’ I understand a
relationship in which one depends on another to
mutual advantage. By ‘parasitic’ I mean to represent a
relationship in which one depends on another to produce
a third, which is destructive of all three” (p. 95).
In the commensal relation there is coexistence on
each side of the relation in such a way that each is inoffensive
to the other. In the symbiotic relation “there is
a confrontation and the result is growth-producing”
(p. 78). In the parasitic relation the product of the
association destroys the two associated parties; it is a
relation that is marked by envy that “cannot be satisfactorily
ascribed to one or other party; in fact it is a
function of the relationship” (p. 78).
1464
Bion gives different examples of these three types of
relations, sometimes drawn from the relations of the
mystic and the group, sometimes from the relations of
the contained, noted 4, to the container, noted 9: “The
container.” he writes, “is represented by a mouth or a
vagina, the contained by a breast or a penis” (p. 95).
He illustrates the parasitic, symbiotic, and commensal
relations with the example of a man who wants to
communicate his annoyance but who is submerged by
the emotion and who begins to stutter and becomes
incoherent: “Such a failure is the outcome of a ‘parasitic’
relationship between the contained (or rather, not
contained) material and the speech devised to contain
it: ‘container’ and ‘contained’ have produced a third
‘object’-—incoherence—which makes expression and
the means of expression impossible. In so far as the
imaginary episode led to a development of powers of
expression and of the personality that strove to express
itself, the relationship could be described as symbiotic.
‘Commensal’ is illustrated by supposing that the episode
occurred in an age and society (as in Elizabethan
England) in which language had reached a point of
development where the ordinary man was inspired to
speak it well: that which was to be expressed and the
vehicle for its expression profited from the culture to
which they belonged” (p. 96).
DipierR HouzeL
See also: Bion, Wilfred Ruprecht; Symbiosis/symbiotic
relation.
Bibliography
Bion, Wilfred. R. (1970). Attention and interpretation. London:
Tavistock Publications.
Grinberg, Leon, et al. (1991). New introduction to the work of
Bion. Northvale, NJ, and London: Jason Aronson.
Symington, Joan, and Symington, Neville. (1996). The clinical
thinking of Wilfred Bion. London: Routledge.
RELAXATION PRINCIPLE AND
NEO-CATHARSIS
The relaxation principle and neo-catharsis is an element
in analytic technique that complements the principle
of frustration and makes it possible to reach
moments of self-hypnotic analytic trance. For Ferenczi
this represented technical progress because, along with
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?
the analysis of the transference, this relaxation made it
possible to reach very deep zones of the intrapsychic
teratorne consequent to precocious traumatisms (he
_ uses a metaphor from embryology, the teratome being
_ a tumor whose appearance evokes the different stages
of embryonic development). A laissez-faire principle
% establishes the relaxation that is already implicit in the
notion of free association.
Ferenczi describes how, with the help of this relaxation
and this trust, the patient reaches trance states,
transitory fits of veritable hysteria that have the great
advantage of “giving a feeling of reality and objectivity
that is closer to a real memory.” Moreover, these states
of autohypnosis relate back to the old catharsis “long
thought to be buried following the development of
such successful theoretical constructions.”
In 1929 he read a paper entitled “Progress in Analytic
Technique” to the eleventh congress of the International
Psychoanalytical Association, held in Oxford. The following
year he continued in the same vein with “Principle
of Relaxation and Neo-Catharsis.” In his 1929 paper
he referred to the work of Reich, Severn, Groddeck, and
Simmel, as well as to treatment projects in clinical psychiatry.
He also reported a discussion with Anna Freud,
to whom he felt very close because of the techniques she
used for psychoanalyzing children.
Dating from early psychoanalytic practice, this concept
appears to be quite different from what has since
come to be known as relaxation. The new catharsis he
speaks about is more, as he wrote: “A confirmation
from the Unconscious, a sign of our laborious work of
analytic construction, of our technique in relation to
the resistance and the transference which have finally
succeeded in achieving etiological reality.” These two
notions deserve their place in modern psychoanalysis,
although they imply a new development in traumatic
theory in order to explain the grave pathologies
observed when prepubescent shock leads to a “passing
psychosis,” which later results in the adult patient having
the equivalent of an “intrapsychic twin” or “teratome.”
Ferenczi progressively came to perceive the
“incestuous tendency of repressed adults who don the
mask of tenderness.” Two years later he developed these
notions in his famous text “The Confusion of Tongues
between Adults and the Child,” as well as in his Clinical
Diary, which did not appear until fifty years later.
Many of the notions expressed here have been
increasingly used by psychoanalysts dealing with
patients in great difficulty, although some resist the
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RELALATION PoYCHOTHERAPY
integration of this dynamic theory. It is worth remembering
that a psychoanalyst like Georges Devereux
developed the notion of the counter-Oedipus in a
comparable vein.
Pierre SABOUKIN
See also: Active technique; Development of psycho-analysis;
Elasticity.
Bibliography
Ferenczi, Sandor. (1930). The principle of relaxation and
neocatharsis. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 11,
426-443,
, (1949). Confusion of tongues between adults and
the child: The language of tenderness and of passion. International
Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 0, 225-20. (Original
work published 1933)
Freud, Sigmund. (1912¢). Recommendations to physicians
practising psycho-analysis. SE, 12: 109-120.
. (1937d). Constructions in analysis. SE, 23: 255-269.
RELAXATION PSYCHOTHERAPY
At the urging of eminent neuropsychiatrist Julian de
Ajuriaguerra, in the early 1960s a small group of psychoanalysts,
all members of the Paris Psychoanalytic
Society, attempted with certain patients to employ
autogenic therapy, a technique inspired by hypnosis.
Developed originally by German psychiatrist Johannes
Schultz (1884-1970), autogenic treatment involved
training a patient to experience well-being and comfort
induced by hypnosis, more or less independently
of a therapist.
Work with autogenic therapy soon led the group
(Michele Cahen, Jorge Garcia~-Badaracco and Marianne
Strauss) to develop a psychoanalytic technique that
aimed not so much to induce relaxation as to listen to
bodily sensations. The observation that each patient
experiences their own body in a unique way shifted
emphasis toward resistances, perception of body image,
and examination of the experience of relaxation itself.
The principal psychotherapeutic tool became what Ajuriaguerra
(1959) called the tonic dialogue. Spontaneous
modifications of muscle tone develop in the course of
any emotional relationship but almost always go unnoticed.
These variations reveal the body’s role in distinguishing
pleasure-unpleasure and represent the first
1465
RELIGION AND PSYCHOANALYSIS
“language” of the mother-infant dyad. The goal of relaxation
psychotherapy is not primarily to soothe the patient
but rather to lead them toward “verbal expression of the
states of one’s own body.” (Roux, 1968). Such states,
rather than the patient’s fantasies or stories, become the
“signifiers” in relaxation psychotherapy.
The work of relaxation therapy takes place along
two axes. First of all, it helps the patient to become
aware of bodily sensations as experienced in the therapist’s
presence, and also helps the patient to formulate
descriptions of them and to facilitate verbalization in
terms of secondary-process thinking. At the same
time, the therapist illuminates the role of the earliest
objects in formation of the ego as revealed by bodily
reactions in terms of the transference, which is more
clearly in evidence. It seems apparent that the therapeutic
work can take into account “behavioral” reactions
without serious risk of inflicting narcissistic
injury. Relaxation therapy produces in the patient a
“passive” attitude towards endopsychic functioning
and instinctual movements which are ordinarily in a
“discharge” mode.
Unlike other similar techniques, relaxation psychotherapy
does not employ suggestion. The therapist
remains in the patient’s line of sight and seeks to
observe “what’s happening with the body” while confining
participation to helping the patient describe, in
their own words, associated thoughts and feelings. The
“tonic-emotional responses” thus discovered are
reflected in the relationship with the therapist. This
“detour” via the body places the therapist in the position
of a primitive transitional object, introducing a
third party into the relationship. Therapeutically, this
facilitates recapture of secondary-process thinking,
development of insight, and integration of behavioral
phenomena that can be meaningfully interpreted.
Indications for relaxation psychotherapy include
cases with severe underlying weakness in ego structure,
whether with evidence of psychosomatic disorder or
in patients suffering from narcissistic pathology.
Marig-Lisz Roux
See also: Group psychotherapies; Psychotherapy.
Bibliography
Ajuriaguerra J. de. (1959). L’Entrainement psychophysiologique
par la relaxation. Paris: Expansion scientifique.
1466
Lemaire, Jean G. (1964). La Relaxation. Paris: Payot.
Roux, Marie-Lise. (1968). LExpression verbale du vécu corporel.
Revue francaise de psychosomatique, 14.
Roux, Marie-Lise, Dechaud-Ferbus, Monique, and Sacco,
Francois. (1994). Les Destins du corps. Toulouse: Erés.
Roux, Marie-Lise, et al. (1993). Le Corps dans la psyche.
Paris: L Harmattan.
RELAIND GPSYICHOOANANLYS IS
Religion is a body of beliefs and practices shared by a
given social group and connecting it to a higher
agency, generally a divinity or divine human. Interestingly,
the word religion is the same in most western
languages, Latin or Germanic. However, the origin of
the term has, for more than two thousand years, been
the object of an intense debate that is of interest to psychoanalysis.
According to the Latin authors Lactantius
and Tertullian, the word is related to the Latin verb
religare, “to reconnect, to bind again.” Religion would,
therefore, involve a twofold connection—among
humankind and between humankind and God. In
Cicero, religion is associated with the verb relegere, “to
gather.” In this case religion is said to be a gathering
together, an interiority, some scruple that prevents or
delays action and entails the performance of certain
rites. In this sense we agree with philosopher Michel
Serres and the linguist Emile Benveniste that the opposite
of religion is negligence.
The topic of religion was initially examined by
Freud and Breuer in the Studies on Hysteria (1895d),
where hysteria could be considered a reaction to mental
suffering associated with religious doubt. Freud’s
first detailed examination of religion, “Obsessive
Actions and Religious Practices,” appeared in 1907.
The first book in which he discussed religious themes
was Totem and Taboo (1912-1913a).
Freud saw religion in its collective and individual
forms. On the one hand he viewed the church as the
prototype of an artificial crowd (as the army), where
each individual must love his leader (Christ, for example)
as a father and other men as his brothers. Religion
helped maintain the cohesion of a human group threatened
with disintegration if there was a loss of faith
(1921c). On the other hand, he also saw religion, with its
ceremonies and detailed rites, as a universal neurosis,
where scruples were transformed into obsessive acts.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Religion would contribute to humankind’s transition
from a natural state to a cultured one through the sacrifice
of human drives. But the progress of civilization also
implied a return to the irrational and the maintenance
of illusions that maintained the individual within the
confines of his infantile neuroses (1927c).
The Freudian approach to religion has more to do
with anthropology than with theology: Religion is a part
of civilization and the discussion of its dogmas is less
important than its hold on society and the individual.
From this point of view Freud, who claimed to be an
atheist, had to confront the criticisms of his friend, Pastor
Pfister, along with those of his former student Carl Jung.
Moreover, Freudian conceptions of religion relied on the
knowledge available during the early twentieth century,
which has since often been challenged by the findings of
archeology and epigraphy. Thus the character of Moses
leading the people of Israel through the desert and out of
Egypt in Exodus, a figure magnified by Freud, seems in
the early twenty-first century to have more to do with
myth than with history. And, unlike Jung, Freud rarely
made reference to the religions of the Far East, which are
so unlike Hellenistic and Middle Eastern cultures.
ODON VALLET
See also: Beirnaert, Louis; Belief; Certeau, Michel de;
Choisy, Maryse; “Claims of Psychoanalysis to Scientific
Interest”; Future of an Illusion, The; Ideology; Illusion;
Judaism and psychoanalysis; Jung, Carl Gustav; Lacan,
Jacques-Marie Emile; Moses and Monotheism; Mysticism;
Oceanic feeling; Philippson Bible; Rite and ritual;
“Seventeenth-Century Demonological Neurosis, A.”
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1907b). Obsessive actions and religious
practices. SE, 9: 115-127.
. (1912-1913a). Totem and taboo. SE, 13: 1-161.
. (1921c). Group psychology and the analysis of the
ego. SE, 18: 65-143.
. (1927c). The future of an illusion. SE, 21: 1-56.
. (1939 [1934-1938]). Moses and monotheism:
Three essays. SE, 23: 1-137.
REMEMBERING
The term remembering designates the specific psychic
action of producing a memory and is to be distinguished
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
REMEMBERING
from reminiscences, flashbacks, and all other elements
of the past that might be seen to constitute other types
of representation. Freud, together with Josef Breuer,
introduced this notion in their preliminary communication
(1893a) as part of their cathartic therapy and
Freud’s initially trauma-based theory of hysteria. Freud
stressed that simple recollection of memories with no
accompanying affect, and so reduced to pure ideas,
would have no therapeutic value. Remembering that is
efficacious, and therefore of interest to psychoanalysis,
involves the subject’s reliving traumatic events with all
their original affective intensity. Here Freud, while also
stressing conditions of therapy, was already distinguishing
purely narrative ideas that have affective energy discharged
and that remain blocked in a split-off part of
consciousness.
The recollection of memories in treatment introduced
the difficulty of distinguishing between childhood
memories and “screen memories” (1899a),
despite certain clinical characteristics pertaining to the
latter. Freud noted that the disparity between screen
memories and other memories from childhood
remained ultimately problematic. Did conscious
screen memories originate in childhood or simply
relate to it?
This question, raised as early as 1899, remains very
much alive, because there is no guarantee that the recollection
of even the most authentic memories travel a
direct route from the past of childhood to the present of
analytic treatment, and the total reliability of such
remembering is certainly open to doubt. Inevitably,
childhood memories are subject to the happenstance
experience of the subject, leading to unconscious distortions,
infidelities, maskings, false leads, and so on. The
analyst who maintains that such memories are genuine,
even those with the best claim to being authentic, is
either naive or is laboring under a narcissistic illusion of
omniscience.
In the area of remembering, psychoanalysis has to
defend its sphere of authority by distinguishing itself
from neurobiological, neuropsychological, and cognitive
approaches to memory. Remembering remains a
key element of psychoanalytic treatment. As in other
relations that psychoanalysis has with proximate scientific
disciplines, the issue is generally one of a crossdisciplinary
misunderstanding, which it would be
proper to resolve. This is what motivated Jean
Laplanche to evoke Freudian pseudo-biology, pseudoneurology,
and pseudo-psychology. Unconscious
1467
REMEMBERING
phenomena, the area specific to psychoanalysis, inevitably
pervert, or at least distort, the various types of
positive knowledge about humans.
Remembering in psychoanalysis can only be pertinent,
therefore, when such remembering imitates the
mechanisms that govern the recall function of memory,
whose incredible complexity contemporary
science is just beginning to plumb. Conversely, because
of the necessary positivism of its project, the scientific
approach to remembering cannot account for the
negativism and emptiness in the psyche’s dialectic
between meaning and meaninglessness. Everything—
from birth to death—that constitutes the enigmatic
and singular design of an individual’s destiny escapes,
for the most part, from the individual’s consciousness.
Hence, there are limits to remembering.
To see how remembering functions in analysis, it is
appropriate to chart a history of the aims of analytic
treatment:
¢ The original memory model of psychoanalysis
aimed at recollecting a childhood past that was
buried but is likely to be brought to light.
e A subsequent model yielded increasingly to
structures not subject to the internal history of
the subject’s life (the death drive, the Oedipus
complex, repetition), in other words, to elements
introduced by Freud in his second conceptualization
of the psychic apparatus and to advances
made in psychoanalysis since around 1930.
Because psychoanalysis depends on the chance
elements of the transference, this substantially
relativized hope for a “spontaneous tendency
towards a return of the repressed.” As a result, the
unrepresentable, the repetition compulsion, and
various forms of psychic breaching have taken on
a prominent role in the transference (Baranés).
e Finally, since the 1970s, psychoanalysis has been
extending and openly accepting its own theoretical
and practical divisions.
Remembering should be regarded essentially as
reconstructing a certain historical truth together with
ceding to what is sometimes referred to as “structural
truth” (truth concerned with mental organization).
Remembering and the freedom to rediscover one’s
own history, along with the de-centering that this
entails, carves out a space that accords with some
modulations of fantasy play and with the necessary
mythology of origin. Analytic treatment—woven from
1468
the memorable, the infantile, the repeatable, while
encountering limitations to meaning and meaninglessness
and the absence of temporal references—would
be lost if the analyst’s constructions and interpretations
of the transference were not subordinate to the
analysand and his freedom.
An individual engages in analytic treatment to
effect change. An assemblage of memories, even an
organized one, that does not benefit from the work of
composition and that does not take into account the
inherent constraints of the psychic apparatuses,
whether grouped or corporeal, would be nothing but a
dead letter, destined to be neither interpreted nor recreated.
It is the fabric of the transference that facilitates,
for both analysand and analyst, the energetics
of transformation. As a result, while memories and
historical working through might not be enough in
themselves to move the analysis forward, they are
nevertheless a sine qua non of analysis. In this respect,
individuals are like nations: a community that has forgotten
its history is condemned to servitude.
CLAUDE BARROIS
See also: Abstinence/rule of abstinence; Acting out/acting
in; Active technique; Amnesia; Change; Construction/
reconstruction; Déja-vu; Development of Psycho-Analysis;
Ego states; Forgetting; Memory; Narcissistic elation;
Relaxation principle and neo-catharsis; “Remembering,
Repeating and Working-Through”; Reminiscences;
Repression, lifting of; Resistance; Silence; Transference;
Word-presentation.
Bibliography
Baranés, Jean-José. (1990). Etre a la fois mémoire et provocateur.
In Société psychanalytique de Paris (Ed.), La
psychanalyse: Questions pour demain. Paris: Presses Universitaires
de France.
Diatkine, Rene. (1990). Remémoration, prise de conscience.
Revue frangaise de psychanalyse, 54 (4), 911-921.
Freud, Sigmund. (1899a). Screen memories. SE, 3: 299-322.
Freud, Sigmund, and Breuer, Josef. (1893a). On the psychical
mechanism of hysterical phenomina: Preliminary communication.
SE, 2: 1-17.
Laplanche, Jean. (1987). Nouveaux fondements pour la psychanalyse.
Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
Widlécher, Daniel. (1994). Psychanalyse et processus de
changement. In his Traité de psychopathologie. Paris:
Presses Universitaires de France.
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
“REMEMBERING, REPEATING AND
WORKING-THROUGH”
Written and published in 1914, “Remembering, Repeating
and Working-Through” clearly established Freud’s
position on analytic technique, in which the cathartic
method had yielded to the associative method. It thus
deserves notice as one of the few technical writings to
complement the great metapsychological edifice of 1915.
Freud begins the essay by citing the cathartic
method, without doubt in order to mention how
much he owed to it for having “acquainted him with
certain analytical processes,” but above all so that the
reader could recognize how much technical progress
had been made with the new associative method. During
this period, 1914-1915, treatment began to involve
real psychic work for the patient for whom passive
hypnosis is no longer clinically effective. The goal of
this effort is to remember, “to fill in gaps in memory,”
as Freud states, and to “overcome resistances due to
repression” (p. 148). The growing complexity of analytic
technique was opposed to the simplicity of the hypnotic
technique, which responded only to the simplest
form of remembering.
This required that forgetting, a psychic fact that had
been previously thought to be negligible, be reconsidered
in all its amplitude and complexity. “Impressions”
and “experiences” (p. 148), insofar as they have
a rapport with forgetting, were opposed by Freud to
psychic reality, that is, to “phantasies, processes of
reference, emotional impulses, [and] thought connections”
(p. 148). From this point on, memory, a favorite
theme of Freud’s since his work on aphasia, was to
become an extensive subject for investigation. Yet
remembering is not a straightforward process; thus,
while the encounter between analyst and analysand
might stimulate the repetition of the past, it is does
not always take the form of a memory, but might
reside also in actions.
Repetition as action rather than as memory led
Freud to examine the links between the three concepts
of transference, repetition, and resistance. Transference
is simply a “piece of repetition” (p. 151), and repetition
is only the “transference of the forgotten past” (p.
151) onto the analyst but also onto “all the other
aspects of the current situation” (p. 151). Freud then
identified a further type of repetition, “the compulsion
to repeat,” which replaced the “impulsion to remember”
(p. 151) exposed by the analyst and which
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
““REMEMBERING, REPEATING AND WoRKING-THROUGH”’
demonstrated the powerful resistance to analysis
mounted by the defenses. Respect for this resistance,
and an acknowledgement of it in analytic technique, is
necessary if the work of analysis is to comprehend the
full extent of the psychic apparatus; hypnosis, conversely,
totally suppresses this resistance. The psychoanalyst’s
interest is in the contents of memory and the
meaning that he can attribute to them, but he must
remain particularly attentive to the means’ by which
these memories are recalled.
The handling of the transference then becomes an
essential task for the analyst while the treatment is
underway. Too intense an amorous transference, or,
conversely, a hostile transference toward the analyst,
will bolster the resistance, causing the analysis to slide
into repetition (as act). In this case, repression is the
customary defense mounted by the resistance, which
deprives the analysand’s thought of memorable ideational
content and displaces the corresponding quota
of affect onto the act.
It is clear in this article that the instinct’s quantitative
potency can be made to signify so long as
resistance to it is not excessively powerful, an a priori
structuring, then, of the psychic apparatus around the
transformation of instincts. Freud also provides some
technical advice on how to advance the treatment
towards a successful conclusion. Some of these recommendations
are represented in the figure of the analyst
and the analysand struggling against a common
enemy: a state of morbidity. Freud wrote that the task
of the analyst consists in treating the illness “not as an
event of the past, but as a present-day force.... which
consists in a large measure in tracing it back to the
past” (p. 151). This approach should lead to “a change
in the patient’s conscious attitude to his illness....
[and allow him to] find the courage to direct his attention
to the phenomena of his illness.” (p. 152); so that
it can ultimately “become an enemy worthy of his mettle”
(p. 152). So long as the analyst continues to
observe “the fundamental rule of analysis” (p. 155),
neither the framework of the analysis nor its influence
on the transference will be affected.
Freud admits that it is not always easy to derive
ideational mnemic content from acting out. Thus near
the end of the text he writes that occasionally, “it is
bound to happen that the untamed instincts assert
themselves” (p. 153-154), the effects of which can be
witnessed in the repetitive act whereby “the bonds
which attach the patient to the treatment are broken”
1469
REMINISCENCES
(p. 154), or through other instances of negative therapeutic
reaction. Freud advised that in these difficult
cases “The main instrument [...] for curbing the
patient’s compulsion to repeat and for turning it into a
motive for remembering lies in the handling of the
transference. We render the compulsion harmless and
indeed useful, by giving it the right to assert itself in a
definite field. We admit it into the transference as a
playground in which it is allowed to expand in almost
complete freedom” (p. 154). In order to transform the
morbid state into “an artificial illness, which is at
every point accessible” (p. 154) to analytical intervention,
the analyst should not rely only on the “workingthrough”
of the patient, but rather on an extension of
his knowledge of metapsychology, as well as an
acquaintance with aspects of his own character that
might pose an obstacle to the cure.
Freud’s conception of the psychic apparatus in 1914
was still based on the first topography; however, in
order to properly account for treatments whose virtually
unassailable resistances obstruct the progress of
the treatment, by mobilizing an entire procession of
negative phenomena, he had to wait for the introduction
of the “death drive” and the further complication
of the psychic apparatus by the second topography.
Thus, while Freud spoke of rendering “the compulsion
harmless, and indeed useful, by giving it the right
to assert itself in a definite field” (p. 154), he ended the
article on a less optimistic note only a few lines later.
The demonstration to a patient of their resistance is
often not enough to overcome it, and indeed frequently
intensifies it, which is why Freud stressed the
importance of “working in common” (p. 155) and the
continuation of analysis, even if the endeavour eventually
becomes “a trial of patience for the analyst” (p.
155). This advice, in a form more suited to the realities
of the analytic treatment, was reiterated and endorsed
by the theoretical developments introduced in his
1937 article “Analysis, Terminable and Interminable.”
Freud’s emphasis on the repetition compulsion
from 1914 onwards might make it the precursor of the
repetition compulsion of 1920, the consequence of an
instinctual dualism between the life instincts and the
death instinct. The compulsion to repeat of 1914 differs
from that of 1920 in that the former is under the
sway of the pleasure principle. In Beyond the Pleasure
Principle (1920g), Freud identified compulsive instinctual
phenomena that repeated psychic formations
foreign to the pleasure principle, thus placing the repe-
1470
tition compulsion of 1920 in an entirely different relationship
to the pleasure principle.
RENE PERAN
See also: “Analysis terminable and interminable”; Displacement
of the transference; Remembering; Repetition;
Silence; Transference neurosis; Working-through.
Source Citation
Freud, Sigmund. (1914g). Errinern, Wiederholen und
Durcharbeiten (Weitere Ratschlage zur Technik der Psychoanalyse,
II). Internationale Zeitschrift fur artztliche Psychoanalyse,
2, 485-491; Remembering, repeating and
working-through. SE, 12: 147-156.
Bibliography
Cournut, Jean. (1991). L’Ordinaire de la passion. Paris:
Presses Universitaires de France.
Guillaumin, Jean. (1983). Psyché. Paris: Presses Universitaires
de France.
Mijolla-Mellor, Sophie. (1992). Le Plaisir de pensée. Paris:
Presses Universitaires de France.
REMINISCENCES
Reminiscences are special forms of memory that rise
up from the past, confused, vague, involuntary, distorted,
or rendered unrecognizable by unconscious
mental activity. They also entail a relaxation of the psychic
apparatus such that the subject does not necessarily
recognize these “rememberings” as belonging to
his own past.
The concept entered into the field of psychopathology
in Sigmund Freud and Josef Breuer’s “Preliminary
Communication” (1893a). The phrase “der Hysterische
leidet grdsstenteils an Reminiszenzen’ (“the hysteric
suffers for the most part from reminiscences”) represents
both a break with earlier psychopathology and
an introductory maxim for psychoanalysis. This
phrase, linking hysteria and reminiscence, introduced
a new field of exploration by showing that hysteria
consists in alterations of remembering, that is, the
concrete affect of the past that will be lastingly
expressed in symptoms.
The concept of reminiscence, like its use in psychoanalysis,
turned out to be both incontrovertible and
difficult to identify. This difficulty has to do with
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY oF PSYCHOANALYSIS
the variety of the relationships between patients and
analysts and their own pasts, their histories, and conceptions
of reality, as well as the appearance, from
1896 until now, of new concepts and ideas. Given
growing experience with therapy and_ theoretical
research, these factors require continued attention to
terminological accuracy. In 1996, following the refocusing
of interest an reminiscence, the notion seemed
to be more difficult and problematic to identify
because of its increasingly generalized nature.
Initially the use of the term reminiscence referred to
both the nature of the psychogenesis of hysteria and the
effectiveness of cathartic therapy. Freud and Breuer
associated hysterical symptoms with old psychic traumas
whose memory had remained unconscious—in a
space that had been split off from consciousness; in their
attempt to transform these pathogenic reminiscences
into true memories, the therapists showed they were
capable of suppressing both the symptoms and healing
the splitting from consciousness that had produced
them. This, together with the notion of pathogenic psychic
trauma, prefigured the notion of the unconscious.
The different attempts to model the psychic apparatus
(homeostatic models, memory models, linguistic
models) were so many constructions needed to articulate
different realities: infantile reality and its effects,
sexuality, dreams, the container and content of psychoanalytic
therapy. Reminiscences, which are inherent
in all the analysand’s material, appear as the veiled
echo of a reality that is itself problematic. The products
of constructions and interpretations, these are
situated between a so-called “mystic writing pad” or
primal writing surface, and the decentering of a subject
who reappropriates their own history.
The clearest manifestation of reminiscences,
which extends beyond the Freudian context of 1893,
is found in the psychotraumatic syndromes or “traumatic
neuroses.” Here the patient suffers from an
implacable repetition of the traumatizing situation
in dreams and in the production of flashbacks,
which are either reproduced with cinematic accuracy
or distinctly transposed. This pathology, which is
fairly common and sometimes appears during the
analysis of a “classic” neurosis, closely resembles
Freud and Breuer’s 1893 discovery: the metaphor of
the internal foreign body and the irruption of mnemonic
material that does not consist of memories
but of images of an almost persecutory past. It is
extremely difficult to transform these reminiscences
»
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
REPARATION
into memories. Freud and Breuer themselves noted
that the psychic trauma did not only involve Jean
Martin Charcot’s traumatic hysteria, but the traumatic
neuroses more generally. In the early twentyfirst
century, the concept of reminiscence can provide
psychoanalysis with an opportunity to return to
the investigation of “psychic trauma” with greater
accuracy.
CLAUDE BARROIS
See also: Amnesia; Cathartic method; Cinema and psychoanalysis;
Five Lectures on Psychoanalysis; Forgetting;
Hysteria; Lie; Memory; Neurotica; Psychic reality;
Remembering; Repression, lifting of; Seduction; Scenes
of seduction; Studies on Hysteria; Symbolic, the (Lacan).
Bibliography
Barrois, Claude. (1988). Les Névroses traumatiques. Paris:
Dunod.
Dayan, Maurice. (1995). Inconscient et Realité. Paris: Presses
Universitaires de France.
Freud, Sigmund. (1925a [1924]). A note upon the “mystic
writing pad.” SE, 19: 225-232.
Freud, Sigmund, and Breuer, Josef. (1893a). On the psychical
mechanism of hysterical phenomina: Preliminary communication.
SE, 2: 1-17.
Laplanche, Jean. (1981). Problématiques IV, L’Inconscient et
le Ca. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
REPARATION
Reparation is a form of sublimation connected, in the
depressive position, with putting right damage done
to good objects.
The pain of depressive anxiety (or guilt) starts as a
deeply persecuting demand for a punishment—the
talion law of an eye-for-an-eye and a tooth-for-atooth.
As this position is worked through, new feelings
(pining, Melanie Klein called it) appear towards the
object, and are associated with specific impulses to
repair the damage done by aggressive phantasies or
acts. Development in the depressive position along
this axis depends on the capacity to sustain a feeling of
love towards the object despite the impulses of hating
and, in phantasy, wanting to attack the good object.
1471
REPETITION
Love takes the form of a kind of penance or atonement
to a loved one, creating a mixture of sadness, regret,
and activity. This is reparation.
In the characteristic manic defenses the ego takes
up a position in which the object is degraded, so that
damage to it becomes a matter of indifference. At first
reparation may be strongly colored by these defenses
(manic reparation) and then reparation is not yet
based on regret but is a demonstration of a strength
and energy superior to that of the object.
The depressive position is founded primarily on the
relations to the internal good object, and reparation is
a means of securing it. Though reparation may often
be directed to external objects, the latter represent the
internal object to which the ego is dedicated.
Like sublimation, reparation is deeply dependent
on the social context to provide useful directions for
the effort to be channeled. Klein described reparation
as a powerful impetus to creativity (1935). Aesthetic
achievements are examples of the most touching and
loving devotions to recreating the beauty of the loved
object (Segal, 1991). Reparation without the sadness
and regret betrays itself in a technical perfection of
prettiness, distinct from beauty. Hanna Segal (1991)
has greatly expanded the understanding of the Kleinian
views on the aesthetic process based in reparation;
and to some extent her descriptions of the aesthetic
process compliment Donald Winnicott’s
theory of the aesthetic object (as transitional object).
As a further addition to the psychoanalytic theory of
aesthetics, Donald Meltzer has pointed to the place
of the infant’s primary “worship” of the breast, and
of the parental creative couple, conflicted though
that is.
Sublimation is a similar drive toward the use of
libido in acceptable ways, though it is conceived in
terms of the quantitative distribution of the libido
while reparation is in terms of object-relations.
Because it is an attempt to repair the effects of aggressiveness,
reparation also links with undoing.
Reparation might be included within the term
sublimation. However, reparation is not the result of
desexualized and rechanneled libido. Instead it is the
mobilization of the libidinal impulses in the context of
a relationship with an object (especially an internal
one) to contest the aggressive ones.
Rosert D. HINSHELWOOD
1472
See also: Cruelty; Depression; Depressive position; Gift;
Melancholia; Schizophrenia; Splitting; Splitting of the
object.
Bibliography
Heimann, Paula. (1942). Sublimation and its relation to
processes of internalization. International Journal of
Psycho-Analysis, 23, 8-17.
Klein, Melanie. (1935). A contribution to the psychogenesis
of manic-depressive states. International Journal of Psycho-
Analysis, 16, 145-174; reprinted 1975 in The Writings of
Melanie Klein (Vol. 1, pp. 262-289). London: Hogarth.
Klein, Melanie, and Riviere, Joan. (1937). Love, hate and
reparation. London: Hogarth.
Segal, Hanna. Dreams, phantasy, and art. London: Institute
of Psychoanalysis-Routledge.
REPETITION
A characteristic expression of unconscious psychic
processes, repetition drives the subject, more or less
regularly, but inflexibly, to reiterate systematically certain
experiences, thoughts, ideas, and representations.
Discovering and accounting for repetition opened
up one of the most fertile areas of study for Freudian
psychoanalysis. Whereas others emphasized hereditary,
physiological, traumatic or circumstantial causes,
Freud stressed that what was involved was the automatic
repetition of memories and experiences that are
no longer conscious, according to modalities that vary
with the circumstances and individual case. The technique
adopted from the time of Studies on Hysteria
(1895) favored placing this process of repetition within
the special framework of the psychoanalytic relation,
wherein the idea or affect that was blocked from conscious
manifestation could be expressed (catharsis).
Freud pointed out, all the same, that if the memory
was blocked in the unconscious, this was because it
was comprised of elements that had taken the turn of
“deferred action.” Consequently, repetition does not
mean similitude, which contrasts it from the symptom
properly speaking, particularly the obsessional symptom,
where it is repeated as such.
The notion of repetition was originally introduced
by Karl Groos, for whom recognition was the basis of
ludic and aesthetic pleasure, and also by Gustav Fechner,
who defined pleasure as the result of an economy
of psychic effort, leading to a lowering of tension.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
‘pu _ tte pe area nap pia manne
In the subsewqoruk eofn Frteu d, there were two
_ distinct periods, separated in 1920 by Beyothne Pdle asure
Principle. Until this time, when repetition was
mentioned, in various contexts, it was always in the
_ game sense and often conjoined with other notions
such as recall, abreaction, construction, and working
through. After 1920, it almost never came up again
except in the form of a “repetition compulsion.” Here
the focus will be, essentiallyo,n repetition of the first
period, and its extensions.
In the first meaning of the term, repetition was
equivalent to reiteration. In The Interpretation of
Dreams it was a significant primary process: “The temporal
repetition of an act is regularly shown in dreams
by the numerical multiplication of an object” (1900a).
In Jokes and Their Relation to the Unconscious (1905),
it was the source of the comic, by reason of the economy
of concentrated effort and the effect of pleasure
thus obtained. With a child this pleasurable effect of
fepetisi qutitie eovidnen t. But for an adultwh,e n
something is repeated, what was first pleasurable
arouses anxiety and a feeling of abnormality, especially
when the repetition emerges from an encounter or an
experience where it was least expected. Freud cited a
few examples oft his in “The “Uncanny” (1919h), such
as the repetition of the same number, the same place,
or the multiplied encounter of the same face—all of
which can become the source of considerable anxiety.
Freud was known to harbor quasi-superstitious feelings
about certain times of the year, the repetition of
numbers, or about coincidences. In his Leonardo da
Vinci and a Memory of His Childhood (1910c), he
called a repetition that occurred in the context of the
death of the father perseveration, adding that “It is an
excellent means of indicating affective colour”
In his article “Remembering, Repeating and Working-
Through” (1914), Freud described the role of repetition
in the analytic cure, considerably narrowing its significance
by linking repetition to acting out. Repetition matters
only when the subject “does not remember anything
-
Inteewationar Dictiowazy or PsYcHOAWALYSIS
Revrerition
of what he has forgotten and repressed, but acts it out”
(p. 150). Inw hiccahse , “We soon perceive that the transference
is itself only a piece of repetition” (p. 151). This
accounts for the rule that no serious decision should be
made in the course of the analysis. Insofar as it is only
purely and simply repetition, transfeisr aer esnisctanece ,
since it is marked by the anachronism of repeated contents
and aims to disguise the effects of deferred action.
In dinical practice, the most typical example of this
is the fate neurosis, which produces ineluctably the
translation of memories or repressed events into acts,
a process discussed in “Remembering, Repeating and
Working-Through” (1914). In transference neurosis,
the repetition intervenes basically on the level of affects
or representations, which constitute undeniably for
Freud evidence of early repressed pleasures that the
subject has not been able to renounce, to the point
that his thoughts are invaded by the repetitions, or he
becomes fixated and obsessed. The problem here then
is to limit the fascination they exert, so as to make it
possiblet o break free of them, which can onble ydon e
in the framework of a transference-neurosis type of
repetition—but one made flexible by means of interpretation.
With perversion, the repetition is focused
essentially on the scenario, the practice or means utilized
in the search for pleasure, which leads to stereotyping
and systematizing.
Daniel Lagache placed much emphasis on the role of
repetition in the transference: “In the course of the sessions
of psychoanalysis, as in the course of life, the
patient draws from his repertoire of habits? and on this
basis, “the liquidation of the transference should be
understood as a liquidation of the transference neurosis,
that is to say of neurotic repetitions, inadequate for present-
day reality” This assimilation of “repetition” with
“inappropriate” characteristics was echoed a few years
later by Ralph Greenson (1967). Jean Laplanche ciiticized
this conception of repetition, which he considered
too adaptationist, opposing it to a repetition such as is
manifested in “full transference; which is a positive
repetition of infantile images or relations—or the kind
of repetition such as is behind the “hollow transference,’
whereby the infantile repeated relation rediscovers
its enigmatic quality, with meaningful questions
surgingt o the surface when this occurs (1987).
In childhood the role of repetition is decisive.
Through the first articulation of meaningful phonemes,
primitive gestures or initial mimicry, it results
in the establishment and gradual reinforcement of
1473
REPETITION COMPULSION
signs, rhythms, and habits that will shape the being of
the subject, his physiognomy and rapport with the
world.
However, in the form of tics, stereotypes, stammering,
etc., repetition signals real blockages; but when
repetition turns into swayings, rictus, suckings, cries,
and so on, it constitutes a valuable sign of early autism
(Leo Kanner) or of anaclitic depression (René Spitz).
These repetitions are evidence, in effect, of a progressive
withdrawal of the child into a regressive internal
world where his tendency is to lose himself. In this
sense, childhood is a privileged period for observing
the relation to others and situating oneself: as long as
the other person remains a partner, there are progressive
clarifications that result in a relatively stable habitus,
one that it is possible to build on. However, when
the partner is distant, unknown, mysterious, enigmatic,
and silent, then sometimes obstructions and
inhibitions occur that require external intervention.
On the other hand, when real stereotyping ensues, it
can only mean that the other has been confused with
an internal object.
Repetition plays an especially important role in all
activities centered on sublimation, and consequently
in literary or artistic creation. In analyzing the Gradiva
of Jensen (1907a), or meditating over Leonardo da
Vinci and a Memory of his Childhood (1910c), Freud
isolated a form of repetition that not only becomes
renewal, but also metamorphosis or creation: in the
case of Gradiva there was a risk of alienation from reality,
while repetition clearly allows, in the case of Leonardo,
for a very special way of working with reality.
Freud’s intuition was applied later to the subject of
music, where repetition becomes rhythm, which is
probably its source, engendering irreplaceable drive
pleasures and satisfactions at the deepest levels of psychic
functioning (Guy Rosolato).
GERARD BONNET
See also: Repetition compulsion.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1914g). Remembering, Repeating and
Working-Through (Further recommendations on the
technique of psycho-analysis II). SE, 12: 145-156.
Rosolato, Guy (1993). Lécoute musicale comme méditation.
In Pour une psychanalyse exploratrice de la culture
(pp. 187-197). Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
1474
REPETITION COMPULSION
Repetition compulsion is an inherent, primordial tendency
in the unconscious that impels the individual to
repeat certain actions, in particular, the most painful
or destructive ones. The repetition compulsion occupies
a significantly more prominent role in French psychoanalysis
than in North American psychoanalysis.
Freud introduced this notion in chapters 3 and 4 of
Beyond the Pleasure Principle (1920g), making it one of
the new foundations of his theory. In the first lines
of chapter 4 he presented this idea as being a “speculation,
... an attempt to follow out an idea consistently,
out of curiosity to see where it will lead” (p. 24). At the
same time, he stressed that he wanted to base it solidly
on analytic experience, especially that of treating
“traumatic neurosis” (p. 24). Just as the unconscious
mind reacts to an external trauma by repeating it—a
paradox, since the trauma is a frightening experience—
the conscious mind resorts to repetition when
unpleasurable unconscious contents surface and threaten
the equilibrium of the ego as a whole. Repetition
compulsion is thus initially a defense, an attempt to
bind, assimilate, and integrate undesirable experiences
that are incompatible with other experiences. Freud
saw this as “a function of the mental apparatus which,
though it does not contradict the pleasure principle, is
nevertheless independent of it and seems to be more
primitive than the purpose of gaining pleasure and
avoiding unpleasure” (p. 32). Thus “excitations from
within ... often occasion economic disturbances comparable
with traumatic neuroses” (p. 34).
Freud considered the repetition compulsion as a
largely dominate “universal attribute ... of organic life
in general” (p. 36). Modifications and development
take place only because external factors regularly force
the living organism to adapt to new life conditions. In
this regard, he wrote, “The aim of all life is death” (p.
38). In “ever more complicated détours ... these circuitous
paths to death ... would thus present us to-day
with the picture of the phenomena of life” (p. 39).
Unconscious instincts are also subject to this law, this
aim of life, and would be completely submerged in
repetition were it not for the environment and its
countless demands, on the one side, and sexuality and
its potentialities, on the other. “These germ-cells,
therefore, work against the death of the living substance
and succeed in winning for it what we can only
regard as potential immortality” (p. 40). In human
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
beings, these cells were posited as being at the source
of what Freud later called the “life instinct,’ while the
compulsion to repeat, which is primary, is associated
with the death instinct.
Freud thereafter continually tried to give a more precise
account of this initial insight. The phenomenon of
positive transference helped substantiate the idea of a
repetition compulsion, which could prove stronger
than the pleasure principle, he explained in “Remarks
on the Theory and Practice of Dream-Interpretation,”
(1923c [1922]). In “An Autobiographical Study” (1925d
[1924]), Freud wrote that “the essentially conservative
character of instincts is exemplified by the phenomena
of the compulsion to repeat” (p. 57). In Civilization and
Its Discontents (1930a [1929]), he explained that the
repetition compulsion involves a resistance of the id.
And in 1930 he explained why he preferred the term
compulsion to repetition automatism.
In his late work, Freud emphasized the destructiveness
of the repetition compulsion. In “New Introductory
Lectures to Psychoanalysis” (1933a [1932]), he wrote,
“And now the instincts we believe in divide themselves
into two groups—the erotic instincts, which seek to
combine more and more living substance into ever
greater unities, and the death instincts, which oppose
this effort and lead what is living back into an inorganic
state. From the concurrent and opposing action of these
two proceed the phenomena of life which are brought to
an end by death” (p. 107). Repetition compulsion thus
became synonymous with destructive impulses. Finally,
Freud associated it with primary masochism, in which
the subject turns violence against himself and subjugates
his libido to it, endlessly repeating certain damaging patterns
based on experiences rooted at the deepest levels
within the self. He theorized that this is a way of tolerating
feelings of guilt. The individual manifests a tendency
to destroy and suffer, which brings with it feelings of
overwhelming satisfaction, all of which are vestiges of a
time when the individual did not yet have a sense of reality.
In the famous text “Analysis Terminable and Interminable”
(1937c), Freud revealed his greatest pessimism
noting that instead of “permanently disposing of an
instincual demand [through analysis].... we mean
something else, something which may be roughly
described as a ‘taming’ of the instinct” (p. 224-225)
As on the dichotomy between the life and death
instincts, psychoanalysts have been divided on the issue
of repetition compulsion. As a result, it has been reinterpreted
in several ways. Among the most influential
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REPETITION COMPULSION
interpretations is that of Jacques Lacan (1978), who saw
repetition compulsion as one of the four major concepts
of psychoanalysis, along with the unconscious,
transference, and the instincts. He used it as the basis
for his distinction between jouissance (enjoyment) and
pleasure, with jouissance being situated “beyond the
pleasure principle” as the desired result of repetition of
the worst carried to its extreme. Jean Laplanche, by contrast,
emphasized that the “repetition compulsion and
the death instinct are not at all synonymous”: it is the
message of the Other as such that is traumatic, and
repetition is the first way of giving it meaning.
The concept of the repetition compulsion turned
Freudian theory on its head. It introduced the death
instinct, opened the way to the second theory of the
instincts, and led to modifications in clinical practice
and analytic technique that are still going on in the early
twenty-first century. Analysts no longer focus on deciphering
slips of the tongue or dreams, or on resolving a
particular symptom, but instead try to find ways to halt
repetitive behavior patterns by opening up diversionary
pathways for them. From a theoretical point of view, the
evolution of the notion of repetition compulsion and
the constant shifts it underwent in Freud’s thinking has
received far more consideration than one would expect.
In the beginning, the main role of the repetition compulsion
was to account for the psyche’s conservative tendencies,
its reactions in the face of anything that might
invade it. Only at a second stage did Freud emphasize
the compulsive, systematic, instinctual aspects of the
repetition compulsion and bring out its fundamentally
destructive side. This shift is problematic. To get beyond
the resulting contradiction, which emerges in the
opposing positions of Lacan and Laplanche (1980), one
must return anew to one of Freud’s statements in the
metapsychological articles of 1915, according to which
all instincts are fundamentally active, willed, and
enacted by the subject alone. And one must note in
addition that the subject exists in relation to others and
is the product of relationships. Subjects repeat what they
internalized during their earliest relationships, in order
to actively exploit this initial lived experience by all
means at their disposal. This repetition turns into automatism
pure and simple and becomes destructive when
it runs up against some of life’s obstacles. Then repetition
is completely beyond the control of the subject,
who is held hostage to it.
GERARD BONNET
1475
REPETITIVE DREAMS
See also: Automatism; Beyond the Pleasure Principle;
Compulsion; Death instinct (Thanatos); Jouissance
(Lacan); Obsession; Protective shield, breaking through
the; Punishment, dream of; Repetition; Repetitive
dreams; Trauma.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1920g). Beyond the pleasure principle. SE,
18: 1-64.
. (1923c [1922]). Remarks on the theory and practice
of dream-interpretation. SE, 19: 107-121.
. (1925d [1924]). An autobiographical study. SE, 20:
1-74.
. (1930a [1929]). Civilization and its discontents. SE,
21: 57-145.
. (1933a [1932]). New introductory lectures on psychoanalysis.
SE, 22: 1-182.
Freud, Sigmund. (1937c). Analysis, terminable and interminable.
SE, 23: 209-253.
Lacan, Jacques. (1964). Position de l’inconscient. In his
Ecrits. Paris: Seuil, 1966.
. (1978). The seminar of Jacques Lacan. Book 11: The
four fundamental concepts of psychoanalysis (Alan Sheridan,
Trans.). New York: W. W. Norton. (Original work published
1973)
Laplanche, Jean. (1980). Problématiques I: Castration, symbolisations.
Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
Further Reading
Gifford, Sanford, rep. (1964). Panel: Repetition compulsion.
Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 12,
632-649,
Inderbitzin, Lawrence, and Levy, Steven. (1998). Repetition
compulsion revisited: Implications for technique. Psychoanalytic
Quarterly, 67, 32-53.
Loewald, Hans W. (1971). Some considerations on repetition
and repetition compulsion. International Journal of
Psychoanalysis, 52, 59-66.
REPETITIVE DREAMS
The repetitive dream is a dream that is dreamt repeatedly
and more or less identically during one’s life.
Freud first thought that “a dream contains elements
from childhood...where the dream is of what has
been called the ‘recurrent’ type” (1900a, p. 190); subse-
1476
quently he was of the opinion that symbolic interpretation
was indispensable for an analysis of this kind of
dream (1901a). He undertook a comprehensive analysis
of such a repetitive dream in the case of Dora
(1905e), then later, in that of the “Wolf Man” (1918b).
Taking into consideration the traumatic underpinnings
of such dreams, he later changed his position,
especially as it related to anxiety dreams. In “Dreams
and Telepathy” (1922a) he discussed a dream, cause of
much anxiety, that pursued the dreaming woman “like
a ghost” (p. 209) for many years. This revision of his
view of the repetitive dream occurred in the general
context of metapsychological modifications resulting
from his reflection on repetition itself, “beyond the
pleasure principle” (1920g). Ferenczi (1931/1955) was
influenced by it in writing: “Every dream, even the
most disturbing ones, attempt at mastery and resolution
of a traumatic experience” (p. 238).
Subsequently, the repetitive dream has been generally
discussed from the perspective of the symptomatic
repetition of a trauma (Rabain, 1988), as well as within
the framework of metapsychological reflections on
time (Seulin, 1997).
ROGER PERRON
See also: Beyond the Pleasure Principle; Dream; Introjection.
Bibliography
Ferenczi, Sandor. (1955). On the Revision of the Interpretation
of Dreams. In his Selected Papers of Sandor Ferenczi, III
(Eric Mosbacher, et al, Trans.; pp. 238-243.). New York:
Basic Books. (Original work published 1931)
Freud, Sigmund. (1900a). The interpretation of dreams. SE,
4-5.
. (1920g). Beyond the pleasure principle. SE, 18: 1-64.
Rabain, Jean-Francois. (1988). La mise en scene du trauma.
Revue frangaise de psychanalyse, 53 (6), 1373-1389.
Seulin, Christian. (1997, April). Le temps figé des réves
recurrents. Bulletin de la Société de psychanalyse de Paris, 4,
91-99.
REPRESENTABILITY
Representability is a sensory capacity of the psychic
apparatus that makes it possible for an object that is
INTERNATIONAL DicTioNARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
absent to be made present in the form of an image. It
is active in the process of hallucination, artistic creation,
and the dream work, where latent and abstract
thoughts are transformed into visual images.
The notion of representability appears in chapter 6
of The Interpretation of Dreams (1900a) titled “The
Dream Work,” in which Sigmund Freud explores the
relationship between manifest content and latent
thoughts, and the psychic means used in the selection
and transformation of abstract thoughts into visual
images. It is also found in chapter 7, “The Psychology
of the Dream-Processes,” where the focus is on
the dream’s instinctual force, understood as a wishfulfillment
by means of regression to sensory images.
In the mind’s use of representability, abstract
thoughts are transformed into pictorial language.
Among the means involved are condensation through
selection of overdetermined elements, and displacement
of psychic intensities along associative chains.
The omission of logical and causal relationships that
cannot be represented is reminiscent of the plastic arts,
but the reduction to condensed terms also resembles
the work of poetry, and the ambiguous syntax
obtained by plays on words. The aim of this work is to
make it possible for free-flowing energy to be attracted
to visual images while at the same time satisfying the
mind’s endopsychic censorship by means of these distortions.
Primary representation-compulsion, noted
in Herbert Silberer’s account of self-symbolization,
should not lead us to overlook the aim of this formal
regression governed by the primary process: putting
an end to internal tension and “re-finding” the sensory
trace of the object and the illusion of its presence. In so
doing, the dream hallucinatorily fulfills a wish, and the
regression is both temporal and topographical insofar
as the wish is unconscious and dates from childhood.
In “A Metapsychological Supplement to the Theory
of Dreams” (1916-17f [1915]), his perspective
expanded by metapsychology, Freud delineated the
hallucinatory process in its topographical and psychopathological
dimensions. Representability involves a
conscious cathexis of an instinctual demand; a negative
hallucination makes it possible to deny the perception
of reality.
In “Du langage pictural au langage de l’interprete”
(From pictorial language to the language of the interpreter;
1980), with regard to psychosis, Piera Aulagnier
returned to the idea that a consideration of representability
is necessary for the analyst’s interpretation to be
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
REPRESENTATION OF AFFECT
dynamically effective, with regard to particular modes
of thought that remain fixed to thing-presentations.
The term representability poses the same problems
of translation as the term representation, which is used
to render two different German terms: Darstellung and
Vorstellung. Indeed the English terms do not capture
the connotation, inherent in the German Stellung-da,
of the presence of the object that is associated with all
hallucinatory productions.
KATIA VARENNE
See also: Dream work; Interpretation of Dreams, The;
Representability, considerations of; Screen memory;
Visual.
Bibliography
Aulagnier, Piera. (1980). Du langage pictural au langage de
linterprete. Topique, 26, 29-54.
Botella, Cesar, and Botella, Sara. (2001). La Figurabilite psychique.
Lausanne and Paris: Delachaux & Niestle.
Freud, Sigmund. (1900a). The interpretation of dreams.
Part I, SE, 4; 1—338; Part IL, SE, 5: 339-625.
. (1916-17f [1915]). A metapsychological supplement
to the theory of dreams. SE, 14: 217-35.
REPRESENTATION OF AFFECT
The term representation of affect can be defined as that
which constitutes the medium for the affect’s expression,
in a sense serving as its vehicle in mental
dynamics.
This expression, which is found in some psychoanalytic
texts, is nevertheless of dubious value for metapsychology
as it was expressed in Sigmund Freud’s 1915
texts brought together under that title. In those texts he
clearly established that instinct, situated at the “frontier”
between body and mind, is expressed in mental
dynamics by means of two components: on the one
hand, the ideational representative, and on the other, an
energy charge, the “quota of affect” (Affektbetrag), whose
fate can be distinct. This energy change, when it is temporarily
without a representational support, can be
qualitatively transformed into various emotions (fear,
pleasure, anxiety, etc.) and, under certain conditions,
can cathect ideational representations awaiting the arrival
of such a charge that will embody and validate them.
1477
REPRESSED
This is the case, for example, when anxiety “without an
object” (that is, without a conscious object) becomes
focused on a clearly identifiable phobogenic object; this
process was clearly demonstrated in the case of “Little
Hans,” related in “Analysis of a Phobia in a Five-year-old
Boy” (1909), whose castration anxiety was found to be
embodied in horses.
Thus, if we speak about representation of affect,
it is in the sense in which a traveling salesman
“represents” a product, delegated by his or her
employer to perform this function for the clients (in
this analogy, the instinct would be the employer,
and consciousness would be the client). This usage
of the term can be deemed to be congruent with
one of the terms used by Freud to denote representation,
Reprasentanz, which has precisely this meaning
of “delegate,” “deputy, or “representative” in
the commercial sense.
ROGER PERRON
See also: Psychic representative.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1909). Analysis of a phobia in a five-yearold
boy. SE, 10: 1-149.
. (1915c). Instincts and their vicissitudes. SE, 14:
273-300.
. (1915d). Repression. SE, 14: 141-158.
. (1915e). The unconscious. SE, 14: 159-204.
Further Reading
Caper, Robert. (2001). The place of affect in the representational
world. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 82,
597-600.
Slade, Arietta. (1999). Representation, symbolization, affect
regulation between mother and child. Psychoanalytical
Inquiry, 19, 797-830.
Steiner, Riccardo. (2001). Affect in psychoanalytic theory:
Andre Green on affect and representation. International
Journal of Psychoanalysis, 82, 877-900.
REPRESSED
The repressed is constituted by the operation of repression,
which rejects and maintains in the unconscious
representations deemed incompatible with the ego.
1478
The repressed is not directly knowable, since it pertains
wholly to the unconscious. It can be known only
by its effects and by what it produces through deferred
action, in particular “derivatives” of the unconscious.
Sigmund Freud always insisted on the unalterability
of the repressed, while at the same time recognizing
that it could be rearranged or even modified,
especially in the course of psychoanalytic treatment.
Initially, Freud considered the notion of the repressed
as a correlative to that of an unconscious still distinguished
by its dynamic role. In his early works
Freud attributed an “intentionality” to the mind that
seeks to forget and maintain outside of consciousness
a certain number of unpleasurable representations
(thoughts, images, memories). He posited that these
representations are isolated in a “second psychical
group” that is separated from the mainstream of
thoughts. The psyche then becomes “dissociated,” the
unpleasurable idea being relegated to another place,
repressed, thus blocking any discharge of the emotion
associated with it.
It can be seen that the notion of repression, as originally
set forth, is correlative to that of the unconscious.
For a long time—until he put forward the idea
of unconscious ego defenses—Freud used the term
repressed as a synonym for the unconscious.
However, the term intentionality used by Freud in
1895 must be understood in a nuanced fashion. As
Jean Laplanche and Jean-Bertrand Pontalis underscored
in The Language of Psychoanalysis (1967; trans.
1974), the “splitting of consciousness” is only
“initiated” by an intentional act (p. 353). Indeed, as a
“separate psychic group” repressed contents escape the
subject’s control and are governed by the laws of the
primary processes. The repressed representation in
and of itself is an initial “nucleus of crystallization”
capable of attracting other intolerable representations,
without the intervention of any conscious intention.
Repression is thus conceived as a dynamic process
that involves maintaining a counter-cathexis; it is
always susceptible to being thwarted by an unconscious
wish seeking to return to consciousness. Freud called
this process “the return of the repressed.” Repressed
wishes are not annihilated in the unconscious; rather,
they constantly tend to reappear in consciousness
through the intermediary of more or less unrecognizable
derivative formations that Freud generically called
“derivatives of the unconscious” or “derivatives of the
repressed.” In “Repression” (1915d), Freud explained
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY oF PSYCHOANALYSIS
that these derivatives can return to consciousness in
the form of substitutive formations or symptoms.
The repressed is not directly knowable, since it pertains
wholly to the unconscious. Just as only the products
of the unconscious can be known, we can only
know the derivatives of the repressed, its formations
under the effects of deferred action. According to
Claude Le Guen in Le Refoulement (1992; Repression):
“The repressed is indeed a constituent part of the id,
but the only thing that can make it comprehensible
to us has to do with the fact that it is a product of
the ego.”
Freud pointed out in “Repression” that “repression
does not hinder the instinctual representative from
continuing to exist in the unconscious, from organizing
itself further, from putting out derivatives and
establishing connections.” The instinctual representative
“proliferates in the dark ... and takes on extreme
forms of expression” that “not only... seem alien” to
the neurotic, but “frighten him” (p. 149). The repressed
undergoes distortions in and by means of the
derivatives that represent it, until, thus disguised, it
can elude censorship and gain access to consciousness.
The repressed, therefore, is anything but inert. Moreover,
it “exercises a continuous pressure in the direction
of the conscious, so that this pressure must be
balanced by an unceasing counter-pressure. Thus the
maintenance of a repression involves an uninterrupted
expenditure of force, while its removal results in a saving
from an economic point of view” (p. 151). Finally,
the repressed that returns is never identical to what
was originally repressed, because in the meantime it
has been distorted—it has “worked.” Indeed, such
changes are mandatory in order for the censorship to
give its authorization.
For a long time Freud privileged the study of the
repressed per se. His interest in the repressing agency,
the ego, only took shape later. What he described in
Beyond the Pleasure Principle as “the aim which had
been set up—the aim that what was unconscious
should become conscious” (1920g, p. 18) proved to be
a more difficult task than he had supposed in the early
days of interpreting dreams and parapraxes. Analysis
ran up against repetition compulsion, and the need for
punishment. The repressed could thus not explain
everything, and beginning in 1923 Freud shifted his
focus toward the repressing agency. In Civilization and
Its Discontents (1930a [1929]), he wrote: “Alterations
in [analytic theory] seemed essential, as our enquiries
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REPRESSED
advanced from the repressed to the repressing forces,
from the object-instincts to the ego” (p. 118).
In Beyond the Pleasure Principle, Freud posed the
problem: “We shall avoid a lack of clarity if we make
our contrast not between the conscious and the
unconscious but between the coherent ego and the
repressed. It is certain that much of the ego itself is
unconscious, and notably what we may deséribe as its
nucleus; only a small part of it is covered by the term
‘preconscious. Having replaced a purely descriptive
terminology by one which is systematic or dynamic,
we can say that the patient’s resistance arises from his
ego, and we then at once perceive that the compulsion
to repeat must be ascribed to the unconscious
repressed” (1920g, p.p. 19-20). It is therefore appropriate
to analyze the resistances rather than bringing
to light the repressed (which always represents the
dynamic unconscious). In the words of Claude Le
Guen (1992): “The opposition is no longer to be situated
between the systems, but rather between the
agencies.”
Unconscious resistance is thus a product not only
of the repressed, but also of the ego, which does not
want to eliminate repression. “We may say that repression
is the work of this super-ego and that it is carried
out either by itself or by the ego in obedience to its
orders,” wrote Freud in New Introductory Lectures on
Psycho-Analysis (1933a [1932], p. 69). The question of
the fate of the repressed remains crucial, above all in
relation to psychoanalytic treatment and the possibilities
for change it promises. Freud always insisted on
the “indestructibility” of unconscious contents. In The
Interpretation of Dreams (1900a) he described unconscious
repressed wishes as being “ever on the alert and,
so to say, immortal” (p. 553). The adjective immortal
was used again in the lecture “The Decomposition of
the Psychical Personality” in New Introductory Lectures
on Psycho-Analysis.
In the metapsychological writings of 1915, the derivatives
of the repressed are said to continue to become
organized, to work, and to undergo distortion in the
unconscious, but these transformations in service of
the defenses are not real “changes.” Freud subsequently
envisioned them in terms of the treatment. Returning
in the New Introductory Lectures to the problem of the
effects of treatment on the repressed, he noted that “in
certain cases the repressed instinctual impulse
can subsist unaltered in the id, albeit under constant
pressure from the ego. In other cases, it seems, it can
1479
REPRESSED
undergo a complete ‘destruction’ during which its
libido is definitively directed toward other pathways.”
He had already postulated the “decline” (Untergang)
of the oedipal repressed in “The Dissolution of the
Oedipus Complex” (1924d).
Returning to the question of the effects of treatment
on the repressed in “Analysis Terminable and Interminable”
(1937c)], Freud wrote: “Psychoanalysis leads
the ego, which has matured and grown stronger, to
revise its formerly repressed contents; some are
destroyed, while others are recognized but newly constructed
out of more solid materials.” He spoke here of
eliminating, destroying, and rebuilding with more
solid materials. Does this not imply true change, rather
than a mere distortion? “Despite the explicit repetition
of statements about the unalterability of the repressed,
the idea of its possible change remains implicitly present,’
noted Le Guen.
Freud again took up this question of the possibility
of modification of the repressed in a footnote in Inhibitions,
Symptoms and Anxiety (1926d): “Since the differentiation
of the ego and the id, our interest in the
problem of repression, too, was bound to receive a
fresh impetus. Up till then we had been content to
confine our interest to those aspects of repression
which concerned the ego—the keeping away from
consciousness and from motility, and the formation of
substitutes (symptoms). With regard to the repressed
instinctual impulses themselves, we assumed that they
remained unaltered in the unconscious for an indefinite
length of time. But now our interest is turned to
the vicissitudes of the repressed and we begin to suspect
that it is not self-evident, perhaps not even usual,
that those impulses should remain unaltered and unalterable
in this way. There is no doubt that the original
impulses have been inhibited and deflected from their
aim through repression. But has the portion of them
in the unconscious maintained itself and been proof
against the influences of life that tend to alter and
depreciate them? In other words, do the old wishes,
about whose former existence analysis tells us, still
exist? The answer seems ready to hand and certain. It
is that the old, repressed wishes must still be present in
the unconscious since we still find their derivatives,
the symptoms, in operation. But this answer is not sufficient.
It does not enable us to decide between two
possibilities: either that the old wish is now operating
only through its derivatives, having transferred the
whole of its cathectic energy to them, or that it is itself
1480
still in existence too. If its fate has been to exhaust itself
in cathecting its derivatives, there is yet a third possibility.
In the course of the neurosis it may have become
re-animated by regression, anachronistic though it
may now be” (p. 142n).
In “Le refoulement (les défenses)” (1986), Le Guen
gave a long analysis of this footnote and the new
metapsychological perspectives it can provide. Only
Freud’s third hypothesis seemed to Le Guen to correspond
to the experience of treatment. The old,
repressed wish, having disappeared as such after
expending its libidinal energy for the purpose of cathecting
its derivatives, can be revived by these derivatives
along a regressive pathway. This involves not a meeting
up, but instead a reconstruction. By reviving the past,
the present acts via deferred action (aprés-coup). By
organizing the past, deferred action thus serves the
function of facilitation, with the most recent derivatives
facilitating the older ones.
The question envisioned here—is the repressed
subject to modification?’—and the proposed answer—
old wishes are “re-animated by regression,” with current
events reviving and transforming the past—are
important, in that both theory and clinical practice are
closely related to our views on the fate of the repressed.
Is analysis a mere bringing to light of repressed contents
(Freud’s first hypothesis of a closed, inert system),
does it provoke a new, defensive arrangement of
them (the second hypothesis of a closed, dynamic system),
or does it have a transformative role and aims
(the third hypothesis of an open, dynamic system)?
These three viewpoints influence the techniques used
in treatment. Indeed, they indicate actual practices as
well as the implicit theories of the analyst.
JEAN-FRANCOIS RABAIN
See also: Repression.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1900a). The interpretation of dreams. SE,
4—5: 1-625.
. (1915d). Repression. SE, 14: 141-58.
- (1926d [1925]). Inhibitions, symptoms and anxiety.
SE, 20: 75-172.
Le Guen, Claude. (1992). Le Refoulement. Paris: Presses Universitaires
de France.
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Le Guen, Claude, et al. (1986). Le refoulement (les défenses).
Revue francaise de psychanalyse, 50, 1.
REPRESSED, DERIVATIVE OF THE;
DERIVATIVES OF THE UNCONSCIOUS
The term repressed was used by Sigmund Freud in the
context of his dynamic conception of the unconscious.
Repressed elements, which remain active in the unconscious,
constantly tend to reappear to consciousness in
derived formations that are unrecognizable to varying
degrees: These are the “derivatives” of the unconscious
that also appear in the forms of symptoms, fantasies,
or free associations in the course of analysis.
It would be impossible to conceive of repression
without the return of the repressed, and vice versa.
The point of articulation of this process is provided by
the “derivative of the unconscious” or “derivative of
the repressed.” That which has been repressed in the
unconscious tends to resurface in the conscious mind
in the form of derivatives that, in turn, become the
object of new defensive measures.
Freud used this expression, especially in the metapsychological
texts of 1915, to refer to the symptoms,
fantasies, and associations during the session that are
connected to repressed ideas. In “The Unconscious”
(1915), Freud compared these unconscious formations,
these derivatives, to “individuals of mixed race”:
“Thus qualitatively they belong to the system Pcs., but
factually to the Ucs. Their origin is what decides their
fate. We may compare them with individuals of mixed
race who, taken all round, resemble white men, but
who betray their coloured descent by some striking
feature or other, and on that account are excluded
from society and enjoy none of the privileges of white
people.... To this species belong the fantasmatic formations
of normal men as well as neurotics, in whom
we have recognized the preliminary degrees of the formation
of the dream and the symptom” (p. 191).
This dual, Preconscious-Unconscious affiliation,
together with their situation anterior to censorship,
makes these derivatives into “necessary places of
transition” through which the repressed can effect a
return and through which repression can act, according
to Claude Le Guen in Le Refoulement (Repression;
1992).
According to Freud in “The Unconscious,” the most
highly organized unconscious derivatives include the
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REPRESSION
“substitutive formations” (Ersatzbildungen), which
“succeed in breaking through into consciousness when
circumstances are favorable—for example, if they happen
to join forces with an anticathexis from the Pcs.”
(p. 191). The substitutive formations (“parapraxes,”
“jokes”) are nothing other than evolved derivatives
that replace unconscious contents. In Inhibitions,
Symptoms and Anxiety (1926 [1925]), Freyd likened
neurotic symptoms to substitutive formations put into
the place of the instinctual process that has undergone
the action of the defense.
The economic factor is what determines the various
possible fates of the derivative. A reinforcing energy
must retroactively intervene (for example, at puberty)
for a mnemic trace from childhood, reinforced by an
unconscious cathexis and having become a “tolerable”
derivative, to thereafter be perceived as bearable. Its
relationship to action is what seals the fate of the derivative
of the repressed. The derivative is condemned in
its capacity as a precursor or representative of a possible
putting into action.
The function of repression, which Freud in
“Repression” (1915) described as “something between
flight and condemnation” (p. 146), is to enlist the derivative
in situations that render impossible the direct
realization of unconscious desire—putting it into
action.
JEAN-FRANCOIS RABAIN
See also: Repression; Return of the repressed.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1915d). Repression. SE, 14: 141-158.
. (1915e). The unconscious. SE, 14: 159-204.
. (1926d [1925]). Inhibitions, symptoms and anxiety.
SE, 20: 75-172.
Le Guen, Claude. (1992). Le Refoulement. Paris: Presses Universitaires
de France.
Le Guen, Claude, et al. (1986). Le refoulement (les défenses).
Revue francaise de psychoanalyse, 50, 1.
REPRESSION
Repression is the operation by which the subject
repels and keeps at a distance from consciousness
1481
REPRESSION
representations (thoughts, images, memories) that
are disagreeable because they are incompatible with
the ego. For Sigmund Freud repression is the privileged
mode of defense against the instincts.
Closely linked to the discovery of the unconscious,
the notion of repression accompanies all the developments
of Freudian theory. It is one of its major points,
“the corner-stone on which the whole structure of psychoanalysis
rests” (“On the History of the Psycho-
Analytic Movement” [1914d], p. 16).
Initially described in conjunction with hysteria,
repression plays a major role in other mental disorders
as well as in normal psychic activity. It can be considered
a “universal” psychic process insofar as it is constitutive
of the unconscious, itself conceived of as a
separate realm of the psyche.
More generally, repression is one of the defenses (in
fact the primary one) mobilized by the mind to deal
with conflicts and to protect the ego from the demands
of the instincts.
Four main phases relating to the development of
the notion of repression can be schematically described
in Freud’s writings. Until 1895, based on the
idea of the “intentionality” of forgetting in the neuroses,
Freud assumed the existence of “unconscious
motivation.” From 1895 to 1910, his research into the
repressed and its contents led to the great discoveries
of this period: infantile sexuality and the Oedipus
complex. Repression became the mainspring of ordinary
psychic functioning. From 1911 to 1919, Freud
reconsidered the process of repression in terms of the
threefold metapsychological viewpoint, and he
described a “primal repression.” From 1920 to 1939,
with the second topography (instinctual theory),
repression became one “defense mechanism” among
others, but at the same time remained a “separate”
process. It remained at the center of analytic discourse.
Although the word had already been used in Johann
F. Herbart’s psychology, it stood out to Freud as a clinical
fact. He deduced from his treatment of hysterics
that forgetting is an active, intentional phenomenon,
since the return of forgotten memories under hypnosis
and their abreaction caused the symptoms to disappear.
In Studies on Hysteria (1895d) Freud and Josef
Breuer explained that it was “a question of things
which the patient wished to forget, and therefore
intentionally repressed from his conscious thought
and inhibited and suppressed” (p. 10).
1482
The term repression, borrowed from everyday language,
thereafter followed a remarkable trajectory. Not
only did it return to common speech with a different
meaning, but it became one of the four main concepts
of psychoanalysis.
Freud showed the existence of a veritable intentionality
of the mind that seeks to forget, to cause certain
disagreeable representations to disappear. These representations
are isolated in a “second consciousness, a
condition seconde” (p. 12) separated from the mainstream
of thought. The psyche is thereafter “dissociated,”
the unpleasant idea having been relegated to
another place, “repressed,” thus blocking any discharge
of painful emotion that might be associated with it. It
can be seen that the notion of repression, here seized
at its origins, from the outset appears as a correlate to
that of the unconscious. For a long time in Freud’s
work, until his positing of the idea of unconscious ego
defenses, the term repressed was essentially synonymous
with the action of the unconscious.
Moreover, the term intentionality used by Freud in
1895 must be understood in a nuanced way. As Jean
Laplanche and Jean-Bertrand Pontalis emphasized in
The Language of Psycho-Analysis (1967; trans. 1974),
the splitting of consciousness is only “introduced” by
an intentional act. As a “second consciousness,”
repressed contents elude the subject’s control and are
governed by the laws proper to the primary processes.
The specific processes of the unconscious thus mark
the operation of repression. The repressed representation
in itself constitutes what Freud described in Studies
on Hysteria as an initial “nucleus and centre of
crystallization” (p. 123) that can attract other unbearable
representations, without any conscious intention
having to intervene. From the outset, then, repression
is conceived as a dynamic process involving the maintenance
of a counter-cathexis; it is always capable of
being stymied by unconscious desire that seeks to
return to conscious awareness, which is what is meant
by “return of the repressed” (“Repression,” [1915d],
p. 154).
Moreover, representations are what are repressed,
but it is affect, or rather its conversion from pleasure
to unpleasure, that is the raison d’étre of repression.
The vicissitude of the affect is far more important than
that of the representation, for it is affect that determines
the judgment bearing upon the process of
repression. If the vicissitude of the representation is to
disappear or be held back from consciousness, the
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vicissitude of the affect, the quantitative factor of the
instinctual representative, is somewhat independent.
An instinct may be suppressed, or else the affect
may be affirmed under a given qualitative coloring, or,
in yet another case, affect itself may be transformed
into anxiety. The difference, Freud explained in
“Repression,” stems from the fact that representations
are cathexes, whereas affects correspond to processes
of discharge whose final manifestations are perceived
as sensations.
The term repression appeared in Freud’s writings for
the first time in the “Preliminary Communication”
(1893a). It was identified as a cause of pathogenic
amnesia, an etiological explanatory principle leading to
the envisioning of a therapeutic method that would
put an opposing tendency into action. At this early
date, repression was still presented as “intentional” and
was not well distinguished from simple suppression. A
representation appears to be painful because it is
incompatible with an ego that, at this time, is still
synonymous with consciousness. The ego thus treats
the disagreeable idea as a “non-arrival” by repressing it.
This repression is thus posited as being a mechanism
common to all mental disturbances, to hysteria,
obsessional neurosis, and hallucinatory confusion. It
affects only the representation; the vicissitude of the
affect, for its part, determines the specificity of the disorder:
conversion, isolation, or rejection (“The Neuro-
Psychoses of Defence” [1894a]).
With the metapsychological writings of 1915, Freud
distinguished different phases in the process of repression:
fixation, “repression proper” (“Repression,” p.
148) and finally, the “return of the repressed” (p. 154),
which occurs at the point of the fixation itself.
Freud described several stages in the organization of
repression, for if “repression and the unconscious are
correlated” (p. 148) there was a good basis for accepting
the idea of a “primal repression” (Urverdrangung,
p. 148) that represents its earliest stage. This repression
does not affect the instinct, the limit concept between
the psychic and the somatic, but rather its “representatives,”
which thus do not gain access to consciousness.
An initial unconscious nucleus is created that will
function as a first pole of attraction about which elements
will be repressed. This is accompanied by a
“fixation, and the so-called representative “persists
unaltered” (p. 148), along with the instinct attached to
it, in the unconscious.
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REPRESSION
The second stage of repression is that of “repression
proper” (eigentliche Verdringung) or “after-pressure”
(Nachdrangen, p. 148), which occurs through deferred
action. It involves the psychic derivatives of the
repressed representative, or else a given associative
chain, a predetermined train of thoughts that is related
to it by association. This is a double process that joins
to the attraction of the primal repressed (the earliest
unconscious nucleus) a force of repulsion (Abstossung)
that comes from consciousness and acts upon material
that is to be repressed. These two forces act in tandem,
with “something previously repressed ready to receive
what is repelled by the conscious” (p. 148). In a note
added in 1915 to the Three Essays on the Theory of
Sexuality (1905d), Freud compared this dual process
with “the manner in which tourists are conducted to
the top of the Great Pyramid of Giza by being pushed
from one direction and pulled from the other” (pp.
175-176, note 2). Finally, the third stage is that of the
“return of the repressed” ( Wiederkehr der Verdrangten)
(p. 154), expressed in the form of symptoms, dreams,
slips of the tongue, or parapraxes.
Repression does not entail the destruction or disappearance
of the repressed representation. As Freud
explained in “Repression,” it does not prevent the
instinctual representative “from continuing to exist in
the unconscious, from organizing itself further, putting
out derivatives and establishing connections....
[T]he instinctual representative develops with less
interference and more profusely if it is withdrawn by
repression from conscious influence. It proliferates in
the dark, as it were, and takes on extreme forms of
expression, which when they are translated and presented
to the neurotic are not only bound to seem
alien to him, but frighten him by giving him the picture
of an extraordinary strength of instinct” (p. 149).
Thus Freud in 1915 envisioned the operation of
repression from a threefold metapsychological perspective.
From the topographical point of view, repression
is initially described, in the first theory of the
instincts, as being maintained outside of consciousness.
Censorship is what ensures the role of the repressing
agency. In the second topography, it is posited as
a defensive operation of the ego that is considered to
be partially unconscious.
From the economic point of view, repression presupposes
an interplay of opposing forces—of cathexis,
decathexis, and anticathexis—that affect the instinctual
representatives. “We may suppose that the
1483
REPRESSION
repressed exercises a continuous pressure in the direction
of the conscious, so that this pressure must be
balanced by an unceasing counter-pressure. Thus the
maintenance of a repression involves an uninterrupted
expenditure of force, while its removal results in a saving
from an economic point of view” (“Repression,” p.
151). Similarly, in “The Unconscious” (1915e), Freud
specified that the preconscious protects itself from the
drive of unconscious repression by means of an anticathexis:
“It is this which represents the permanent
expenditure (of energy) of a primal repression, and
which also guarantees the permanence of that repression”
(p. 181). The fate of the instinctual representative
is to disappear from consciousness and to be kept
apart from the conscious mind, but the fate of the
affect, which, according to Freud, represents the quantitative
factor of the instinctual representative, is different.
The instinct can be suppressed, or else affect
can be either expressed under a given qualitative coloration
or transformed into anxiety.
Finally, from a dynamic point of view, the main
question is that of the reason for repression. According
to Freud, the process of repression is linked to the
group of defensive processes whose goal is to reduce,
or even eliminate, any modification that might endanger
the integrity and constancy of the psychobiological
individual. Repression is one of the great “vicissitudes”
of the instinct (along with sublimation and double
reversal). Freud considered it a mode of defense
against the instincts.
This dynamic conception of the repressed and the
unconscious is not without consequences. The unconscious
tends to produce material that is connected
with it to varying degrees, which Freud calls “derivatives
of the unconscious” (Abkémmlinge des Unbewussten)
(“Repression,” p. 152), and which reemerge in
conscious life and behaviors. These derivatives encompass,
for example, symptoms, fantasies, slips of the
tongue, or meaningful associations during the analytic
session. They are thus also “derivatives of the
repressed” (p. 149) that become, in turn, the object of
new defensive measures. In his essay on repression
Freud stressed that “it is not even correct to suppose
that repression withholds from the conscious all the
derivatives of what was primally repressed. If these
derivatives have become sufficiently far removed from
the repressed representative, whether owing to the
adoption of distortions or by reason of the number of
intermediate links inserted, they have free access to the
1484
conscious. It is as though the resistance of the conscious
against them is a function of their distance from
what was originally repressed” (p. 149).
In analytic practice, the analyst constantly invites
the patient to produce these so-called derivatives of
the repressed, which, following their distancing or
distortion, can pass through the censorship of consciousness..
Based on the patient’s associations, “we
reconstitute a conscious translation of the repressed
representative” (p. 150).
Freud explained that “Neurotic symptoms, too ...
are derivatives of the repressed, which has by their
means finally won the access to consciousness which
was previously denied to it.... Repression acts, therefore,
in a highly individual manner. Each single derivative
of the repressed may have its own special
vicissitude” (p. 150).
Thus, repression sometimes appears as a generic
term, and sometimes as a specific term. At times it is
the concept on which all of psychoanalysis rests, and at
other times it above all describes the mechanism of
hysterical neurosis. Sometimes it is just one defense
among others, and at other times it subsumes all the
defenses. In psychoanalytic treatment, the stage of
repression identified as “the return of the repressed” is
the basis for a clinical approach aimed at the lifting of
repression itself.
JEAN-FRANCOIS RABIN
See also: Actual neurosis/defense neurosis; Amnesia; Censorship;
Defense; Deferred action; Desexualization;
Dynamic point of view, the; Ego and the Mechanisms of
Defense, The; “Heredity and the Etiology of the Neuroses”;
Hysteria; Hysterical paralysis; Id; Latency period;
Organic repression; Parapraxis; Primal repression;
Repressed; Repressed, derivative of the/derivative of the
unconscious; “Repression”; Repression, lifting of; Resistance;
Return of the repressed; Scotomization; Signal
anxiety; Slips of the tongue; Suppression; Unconscious,
the; Unpleasure.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1905d). Three essays on the theory of
sexuality. SE, 7: 123-243.
. (1915d). Repression. SE, 14: 141-158.
Freud, Sigmund, and Breuer, Josef. (1893a). On the psychical
mechanism of hysterical phenomena: Preliminary communication.
SE, 2: 1-17.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Le Guen, Claude. (1992). Le Refoulement. Paris: Presses Universitaires
de France.
Le Guen, Claude, et al. (1986). Le refoulement (les defenses).
Revue frangaise de psychanalyse, 50, 1.
Further Reading
Eagle, Morris. (2000). Repression, part I of II. Psychoanalytic
Review, 87, 1-38.
- (2000). Repression, part II of II. Psychoanalytic
Review, 87, 161-188.
“REPRESSION”
Freud’s paper “Repression” is part of a larger work that
was to be called Preliminary Essays on Metapsychology
and that was to have included twelve essays; only five
of these were published. Other titles were considered,
notably “Introduction to Metapsychology” and “Overview
of the Transference Neuroses” (Jones, 1955, p.
185). Metapsychology was conceived as a group of conceptual
models that did not come directly from clinical
experience, but which aimed to explain clinical experience
in terms of mechanisms or fictional perspectives.
Freud’s project in these essays was to introduce and
synthesize its main elements. In “On the History of the
Psycho-Analytic Movement” (1914d) he had defined
the theory of repression as “the corner-stone on which
the whole structure of psychoanalysis rests ... the most
essential part of it” (p. 16).
In this paper Freud returned to the idea of repression
that had previously, in The Interpretation of
Dreams (1900a), been conflated with the idea of the
defense, which he had developed beginning with the
“Neuro-Psychoses of Defence” (1894a). Here repression
is the only defensive modality, whereas after 1920
repression would be seen as one defense among others.
Freud believed that he had found an absolutely original
idea in repression, and he did not acknowledge
having encountered it in the work of Schopenhauer
when Rank told him of analogous perspectives in the
latter’s work (Gay, 1988).
In “Repression” Freud described repression as
“something between flight and condemnation” (p. 146)
and said that “it is a concept which could not have been
formulated before the time of psycho-analytic studies”
(p. 146). His argumentation in this essay is developed
step by step, by reviewing all the possibilities of this
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““REPRESSION’’
vicissitude of the instinctual impulse. First of all, given
that instinctual satisfaction is by definition pleasurable,
it was necessary to posit a conflict that “would ... cause
pleasure in one place and unpleasure in another” and
the condition that “the motive force of unpleasure shall
have acquired more strength than the pleasure obtained
from satisfaction” (p. 147).
However, this mechanistic explanation is followed
by another that is dynamic in nature. Repression and
the unconscious are “correlated” (p. 148), and “We
have reason to assume that there is a primal repression,
a first phase of repression, which consists in the psychical
(ideational) representative of the instinct being
denied entrance into the conscious. With this a fixation
is established; the representative in question persists
unaltered from then onwards and the instinct
remains attached to it” (p. 148). This fixation will constitute
a point of attraction for other, later repressions
that are thus said to occur through “after-pressure”
(p. 148).
The same dynamism affects the instinctual representative
that is fixed in the unconscious, where derivatives
are formed and connections established. In
“Repression” Freud explained that “Repression acts ...
in a highly individual manner. Each single derivative of
the repressed may have its own special vicissitude; a
little more or a little less distortion alters the whole
outcome” (p. 150). If these derivatives are sufficiently
distorted, they can freely enter into consciousness.
Such occurrences provide the basis for psychoanalytic
treatment, in that the repressed contents can emerge
through free association, enabling a conscious reconstitution
of these contents through psychoanalytic
interpretation. Mentioned in passing here is the issue
of fetishism, which was already alluded to in Three
Essays on the Theory of Sexuality, and to which Freud
would return much later (1940a [1938]). Here he proposed,
as the origin of fetishism, a division of the
instinctual representative into two parts, one of which
is subjected to repression while “the remainder, precisely
on account of this intimate connection, undergoes
idealization” (p. 150).
The distinction that Freud then proposed between
representation and quota of affect enabled him to
refine his ideas on the vicissitude of the instinct. One
possibility is its “transformation into affects, and especially
into anxiety, of the psychical energies of instincts”
(p. 153). The repressed thus remains active, and returns
indirectly through these substitutive formations, but
1485
REPRESSION, LIFTING OF
also in the form of various symptoms. The “success” of
repression is often mitigated: A given representation
may indeed be eliminated, but something else has been
substituted for it, and “it [repression] has failed altogether
in sparing unpleasure” (p. 153).
In terms of the three major categories of neurosis—
anxiety hysteria, conversion hysteria, and obsessional
neurosis—Freud pointed to the links that can be established
between the workings of repression and the formation
of neurotic symptoms. However, he added in
conclusion that further research in this area needed to
be done.
SOPHIE DE MioLLA-MELLOR
See also: Conversion; Free energy/bound energy; Instinctual
representative; Metapsychology; Neurotic defenses;
Physical pain/psychic pain; Quota of affect; Repression.
Source Citation
Sigmund Freud. (1915d). Die Verdrangung. Internationale
Zeitschrift fiir arztliche Psychoanalyse, 3: 129-138; GW, 10:
248-261; Repression. SE, 14: 146-158.
Bibliography
Gay, Peter. (1988). Freud: A life for our time. London and
Melbourne: Dent.
Jones, Ernest. (1953-57). Sigmund Freud: Life and work.
London: Hogarth.
REPRESSION, LIFTING OF
Lifting of repression is the name for the process by
which gaps in memory are eliminated, notably during
psychoanalytic treatment, allowing for access to formerly
unknown material.
While psychoanalysis is indeed an ensemble of theoretical
conceptions that make up a metapsychology,
and while it is a method of investigation of psychic
processes, it is first a method of treatment (see Sigmund
Freud’s article “The Libido Theory, 1923a
[1922]). From this perspective, Freud often reiterated
his aim: “extracting the pure metal of the repressed
thoughts from the ore of the unintentional ideas”
(1904a [1903], p. 252). In “Lines of Advance in Psycho-
Analytic Theory” (1919a [1918]), he wrote that
“our task [is] to bring to the patient’s knowledge the
1486
unconscious, repressed impulses existing in him” (p.
159). And in “An Outline of Psycho-Analysis” (1940a
[1938]), he wrote that “the psycho-analyst is the one
who is in a position to guess at repressed material.”
All of these formulations refer to what Freud
usually called the “lifting of repression.” He used many
different formulations to remind readers of this essential
aspect of treatment. In Introductory Lectures on
Psycho-Analysis (1916—17a [1915-17]), he wrote: “We
can express the aim of our efforts in a variety of formulas:
making conscious what is unconscious, lifting
repressions, filling gaps in the memory—all these
amount to the same thing” (p. 435).
At the time of his early discoveries, Freud observed
that the sudden emergence of forgotten memories during
hypnosis sessions caused symptoms to disappear.
He concluded from this that forgetting was active
and pathogenic, and that being cured had to be the
result of the recollection and abreaction of traumatic
memories. It was as if the symptom appeared in
place of the memory, as if the symptom itself were a
way of remembering: “The hysteric suffers from
reminiscences.”
The observation of the revival of memories under
hypnosis enabled Freud to theorize that a repressed
representation could preserve a trace of that which had
been repressed. He then shifted his focus toward resistance
to remembering, the correlate of a repression
that was still considered to be “intentional,” and thus
onto resistance to the lifting of repression. In this way
the obstacle (resistance) became a new means of
unearthing meaning. The “talking cure” and the
method of free association supplanted hypnosis.
Memories no longer had to be rediscovered directly,
but were now to be found indirectly, through the resistance
that provided access to the repression.
“Suppressing gaps in memory,” that is, “eliminating
resistance,’ is reaffirmed in the metapsychological
writings of 1915 with the expression “making the
unconscious conscious.” But what in the unconscious
becomes conscious? “This question remains flawed
and is dependent upon a metapsychological conception
in which the unconscious is largely equivalent to
an immobilized past and is scarcely distinguishable
from the repressed,” commented Claude Le Guen
in 1992.
The central theory and the assertion “Wo Es war,
soll Ich werden” (“Where id was, there ego shall be”) in
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY oF PSYCHOANALYSIS
New Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis
(1933a [1932]) meant revisiting this issue. In 1923
Freud showed that the question was less that of bringing
the repressed into consciousness and the “lifting of
repression” than that of the paths to follow to be able
to lead the repressed into the preconscious-conscious.
The work of analysis is to put in place these preconscious
intermediary terms without the unconscious
having to “come up” into consciousness. Thus the
unconscious, as it is activated in the id, remains indestructible
and constantly active, without being affected
by the unconscious impulses taken into the ego, which
are capable of coming into consciousness due to the
lifting of repression. It is in this way that the ego
becomes the locus par excellence of conflicts between
the instinctual impulses and the defensive processes,
beginning with the first among them, repression. Analysis
of the resistances is the essential means that must
henceforth be used in treatment to bring about conscious
awareness of the repressed and a lifting of
repression. In the words of Le Guen, “The lifting of
repression, with the liberation of libidinal energy it
emanates and the unification of the ego it provokes,
remains the touchstone of change in treatment and its
main goal.”
JEAN-FRANCOIS RABAIN
See also: Femininity; German romanticism and psychoanalysis;
Infantile amnesia; Lifting of amnesia; “Negation”;
Repression; Subject.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1904a [1903]). Freud’s psycho-analytic
procedure. SE, 7: 247-254.
. (1916-17a [1915-17]). Introductory lectures on
psycho-analysis. Parts I and II. SE, 15-16.
. (1919a [1918]). Lines of advance in psycho-analytic
therapy. SE, 17: 157-168.
. (1923a [1922]). Encyclopaedia article: “The libido
theory.” SE, 18: 255-259.
Le Guen, Claude. (1992). Le Refoulement. Paris: Presses Universitaires
de France.
REPUDIATION
The term repudiation is the most literal translation of the
terms Verwerfung (“foreclosure”) and Verleugnung
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Rescue FANTASIES
(“denial-disavowal”) that Sigmund Freud used to refer
to a psychic act he wanted to distinguish clearly from
repression.
In his commentary on the “Wolf Man” he declared
that “A repression [ Verdringung]| is something different
from a repudiation [ Verwerfung],” (1918 [1914]).
Indeed, repression, while it erases an unpleasurable
idea from consciousness, cannot prevent ‘this idea
from “working” to produce symbolic derivatives in the
form of symptoms. Repudiation, by comparison, consists
in invalidating a perception or mental representation,
and thus is a way that allows it to remain
conscious, but emptied of meaning; it is thus unable
to have a role in the subject’s fantasy life.
The ultimate form of repudiation exists in what Jacques
Lacan called foreclosure, where the representation
is incapable of playing any symbolic role whatsoever
(foreclosure in the Name-of-the-Father). But it can
manifest itself elsewhere in a paradoxical manner by
becoming inscribed within the individual topology of
the split ego. In that case it will effect the kind of
repudiation-disavowal seen in the so-called perverse
structures. In any event, to varying degrees, such failure
to symbolize an idea makes it impossible for the
mental representation to be a part of the subject’s
mental and fantasy life.
BERNARD PENOT
See also: Foreclosure.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1918b [1914]). From the history of an
infantile neurosis. SE, 17: 1-122.
Lacan, Jacques. (1966). Du sujet enfin en question. In his
Ecrits (pp. 73-92). Paris: Seuil.
RESCUE FANTASIES
In “A Special Type of Choice of Object Made by Men”
(1910h), Sigmund Freud describes a type of man who
repeatedly falls in love with a woman who is “of bad
repute sexually” and “to whom another man can claim
right of possession.” What is striking in such men is
“the urge they show to ‘rescue’ the woman they love.”
Freud interprets the fantasy of rescue in light of the
Oedipus complex: The boy initially believes his mother
to be a saint and refuses to accept, when he begins to
1487
RESISTANCE
become aware of sexual relations between adults, that
his parents could behave in such a way. When the boy
accepts this, the figure of the mother switches from
that of the saint to that of the whore; the child is jealous
of the father and regrets that the mother has not
preferred him instead. “[H]e comes, as we say, under
the dominance of the Oedipus complex,” and if “these
impulses do not quickly pass, there is no outlet for
them other than to run their course in fantasies: that
of saving the beloved woman in order to win her love
and obtain a baby from her, and, as a reaction to his
hostility toward the father, the fantasy of saving him
from a life-threatening danger by some heroic action.
Freud concludes this article by evoking imaginary
scenes in which the mother is saved from drowning, a
symbolic translation of the birth of a child. The following
year, he added a brief reference to this theme in the
1911 edition of The Interpretation of Dreams. He
returned to the topic at greater length in “Dreams and
Telepathy” (1922a).
Although this theme is often encountered in clinical
practice, it does not seem to have been further elaborated
either in Freud’s work or thereafter.
ROGER PERRON
See also: Fantasy.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1910h). A special type of choice of object
made by men. SE, 11: 165-175.
—. (1922a). Dreams and telepathy. SE, 18: 195-220.
RESISTANCE
Psychoanalysis understands resistance as something
that stands in the way of the progress of analytic work
during treatment. The term appeared for the first time
in Sigmund Freud’s writings in the Studies on Hysteria
(1895d), where he reported—in connection with the
case of Lucy R.—how he had given up testing the
degree of hypnosis of his patients because “this roused
the patients’ resistances and shook their confidence in
me, which I needed for carrying out the more important
psychical work” (p. 108). During his treatment of
Elisabeth von R., already mindful of his own role in
the clinical work, Freud perceived this resistance
through the efforts he had to make in order to get his
1488
patient to remember certain painful representations.
In the Freudian psychodynamic approach, this concept
refers to the psychic force that the patient opposes
to the bringing into consciousness of certain unpleasurable
representations during treatment: the psychic
force developed to maintain repression.
If the topographical theory led to the idea that psychoanalysis
was, in Freud’s words, an interpretative art
that consisted of making the unconscious conscious,
the analyst’s task was henceforth to “lead the patient to
recognize his resistance and to reckon with it.” Analysis
of the resistances thus became one of the cornerstones
of analytic technique; analysis of the transference was
soon linked with it.
In “The Dynamics of Transference” (1912b), Freud
wondered why transference, the most effective among
the factors of success, could become the most powerful
agent of resistance. He was thus led to distinguish
between positive and negative transference, and to
conclude that “transference to the doctor is suitable
for resistance to the treatment only in so far as it is a
negative transference or a positive transference of
repressed erotic impulses.”
Freud agreed that nothing in analysis is more difficult
than overcoming the resistances. However, these
phenomena are valuable because they make it possible
to bring to light patients’ secret and forgotten emotions
of love; above all, by endowing these with a sense
of immediacy, the resistances facilitate the recognition
of these emotions, because, as Freud put it in a wellknown
formulation, “it is impossible to destroy anyone
in absentia or in effigie” (1912b, p. 108). Instead of
remembering, the patient reproduces attitudes and
feelings from his or her life, which, through the transference,
can be used as means of resistance against the
treatment and against the therapist. It is as if the
patient’s intention to confound the analyst, make him
feel his impotence, triumph over him, becomes more
powerful that his or her intention to bring an end to
his or her illness.
The article “Remembering, Repeating and Working-
Through (Further Recommendations on the Technique
of Psycho-Analysis II)”(1914g) marked a turning point
where the discovery of repetition compulsion put an
end to an illusion: Freud admitted that naming the
resistance still did not make it disappear immediately.
Analytic technique purported to be an art of interpretation
that focused above all on recognizing the
resistances and communicating them to the patient.
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Discovering that “The greater the resistance, the more
extensively will acting out (repetition) replace remembering”
(p. 151), Freud recognized the importance of
the need for working-through (durcharbeiten) “One
must allow the patient time to become more conversant
with this resistance with which he has now
become acquainted, to work through it, to overcome
it, by continuing, in defiance of it, the analytic work
according to the fundamental rule of analysis”
(p. 155). Freud constantly reiterated that it is the
working-through of the resistances that offers the
patient the greatest chance of change.
In the chapter “Resistance and Repression” in Introductory
Lectures on Psycho-Analysis (1916-17 [1915—
17]), Freud underscored the forms of the resistances,
which are very diversified, extremely refined, and
often difficult to recognize, and their protean character—
attributes that require the physician to be cautious
and to remain on guard against them. Thus,
during treatment, phenomena such as gaps in memory,
screen-memories, overabundant production of
dreams, cessation of free association, avoidance of causal
links, judgments about the insignificance of
thoughts that come to mind, or even flight into treatment
may all be understood as forms of resistance. But
it was the most paradoxical forms of resistance—repetition
compulsion and the negative therapeutic reaction—
which Freud linked to unconscious feelings of
guilt, that gave his study of the resistances its full
amplitude.
In Inhibitions, Symptoms and Anxiety (1926d),
Freud returned to the forms of the resistances and distinguished
those of the ego, the id, and the superego.
The first type is under the aegis of the pleasure principle
and includes three possibilities: resistance to the
lifting of repression, resistance to the loss of secondary
gains from illness, and transference resistance, which
aims to maintain repression. The second, resistance of
the id, corresponds to “the power of the compulsion
to repeat” (1926d, p. 159) and necessitates workingthrough.
The third, resistance of the superego, comes
out of the feeling of guilt and the need for punishment,
which stand in the way of successful treatment; this
type was later described as a negative therapeutic reaction,
itself linked to the death instinct.
If Freud remained reticent on the intrinsic nature of
the resistances while underscoring their variability,
richness, and solidity, he always believed that the
patient’s work on his or her own resistances was indis-
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RESISTANCE
pensable to the success of the treatment, even positing
in his last writings that this work alone carried in it the
potential for real and lasting change in the ego.
Analysts after Freud have done relatively little
further work on the manifestations of resistance during
treatment. However, Melanie Klein, by seeing resistance
essentially as a manifestation of negative
transference, paved the way for a certain number of
other studies, notably those of Wilfred Bion, who
described psychotic resistance as “attacks on linking.”
MICHELE POLLAK CORNILLOT
See also: Acting out/acting in; Active technique; “Analysis
Terminable and Interminable”; “Autobiographical
Study, An”; Cathartic method; Change; Character;
“Constructions in Analysis”; Cure; Defense; Development
of Psycho-Analysis; Doubt; Ego; Ego and the Id,
The; Evenly-suspended attention; Face-to-face situation;
Fundamental rule; Id; Interpretation; Negative therapeutic
reaction; Psychoanalysis of Children, The, Psychoanalyst;
“Remembering, Repeating and Working-Through’;
Repressed; Repression, lifting of; Silence; Studies on Hysteria;
Superego; Technique with adults, psychoanalytic;
Termintaion of treatment; Therapeutic alliance; Training
analysis; Transference; “Wild” Psycho-Analysis; Workingthrough.
Bibliography
Bion, Wilfred Ruprecht. (1959). Attacks on linking. International
Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 43 (4—5), 308.
Freud, Sigmund. (1912b). The dynamics of transference. SE,
12: 97-108.
. (1914g). Remembering, repeating and workingthrough
(further recommendations on the technique of
psycho-analysis II). SE, 12: 145-156.
. (1916-17a [1915-17]). Introductory lectures on
psycho-analysis. Parts I and II. SE, 15-16.
. (1926d [1925]). Inhibitions, symptoms and anxiety.
SE, 20: 75-172.
Freud, Sigmund, and Breuer, Josef. (1895d). Studies on hysteria.
SE, 2: 48-106.
Further Reading
Busch, Fred. (1995). Resistance analysis and object relations
theory. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 12, 43-54.
Gray, Paul. (1992). Memory as resistance, and the telling of a
dream. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association,
40, 307-326.
1489
RESOLUTION OF THE TRANSFERENCE
Smith, Henry F. (1997). Resistance, enactment, and interpretation:
A self—analytic study. Psychoanalytic Inquiry, 17,
13-30.
RESOLUTION OF THE TRANSFERENCE
The resolution or dissolution of the transference means
the end-point of a transference neurosis and the full
recognition by the analysand that his or her relationship
to the psychoanalyst is based primarily on the
repetition of earlier relationships, namely those of
childhood.
Freud’s first explicit mention of the resolution of
the transference was in “Recommendations to Physicians
Practising Psycho-Analysis,” where he described
it as “one of the main tasks of the treatment” (1912e,
p. 118). The introduction of this idea, implying as it
did an overall view of the transference, was part of
Freud’s conceptualization of the transference neurosis,
and of the analytic treatment as a process: “on the
whole, once begun, it goes its own way and does not
allow either the direction it takes or the order in
which it picks up its points to be prescribed for it....
A man can, it is true, beget a whole child, but even
the strongest man cannot create in the female organism
a head alone, or an arm or a leg.... He, too, only
sets in motion a highly complicated process, determined
by events in the remote past, which ends in
the severance of the child from its mother. A neurosis
as well has the character of an organism” (1913c,
p.130);
The “resolution of the transference” is one of the
most important issues of all for psychoanalytic technique.
The transference is at once the motor of the treatment
and a means for combating resistances, but it
may also itself be the source of resistances to the progress
of the analytic work. It can be seen as the manifest
content where the latent content is the infantile
neurosis. Transference is not just a kind of “acted-out”
repetition whose elucidation opens the way to the
patient’s remembering; it is at the same time a new
experience—“a piece of real experience, but one which
has been made possible by especially favorable conditions,
and it is of a provisional nature” (1914g, p. 154).
The resolution of the transference (or its “overcoming”
by the analysand) necessarily subsumes all this, as
well as the patient’s eventual detachment from the analyst
once this “piece of experience,” with its “provisional
nature,’ has come to an end.
1490
Freud was always much concerned with the proper
handling of transference phenomena, with restricting
the power of suggestion to what would advance the
analytic work, and with the danger of embarking on
some kind of mutual analysis or love relationship, even
in the most limited sense. As he wrote in “The
Dynamics of Transference,’ “We take care of the
patient’s final independence by employing suggestion
in order to get him to accomplish a piece of psychical
work which has as its necessary result a permanent
improvement in his psychical situation” (1912b, p.
106). Freud’s view was that the intensity of the transference
neurosis must be limited, so that the patient could
“recognize that what appears to be reality is in fact only
a reflection of a forgotten past” (1920g, p. 19).
Freud viewed the resolution of the transference as
an imperative in psychoanalysis, which was properly
so called solely “if the intensity of the transference has
been utilized for the overcoming of resistances. Only
then has being ill become impossible, even when the
transference has once more been dissolved, which is its
destined end” (1913c, p. 143). That this resolution had
to occur by degrees, along with the progress of the
treatment, was something that Freud indicated implicitly—
as for example when he recommended that “the
transferences” (considered here by analogy with symptoms)
be destroyed one by one, as the work proceeded,
or when he observed that negative aspects of the
transference “in good time” (1905 [1901], p. 118). The
“dissolution” of the transference, which coincided
necessarily with the end of the treatment—“At the end
of an analytic treatment the transference must itself be
cleared away” (1916-17a [1915-17], p. 453)—-was
possible only if its progress towards resolution had
paralleled the evolution of the analysis itself.
Thus the resolution of the transference was not just
an ethical necessity for Freud, it was also an intrinsic
aspect of the treatment; the patient’s presenting neurosis
was transformed into a transference neurosis, a kind
of relay condition whose cure by means of the resolution
of the transference secured a general therapeutic
outcome: “All the patient’s symptoms have abandoned
their original meaning and have taken on a new sense
which lies in a relation to the transference.... But the
mastering of this new, artificial neurosis coincides with
getting rid of the illness which was originally brought to
the treatment—with the accomplishment of our therapeutic
task. A person who has become normal and free
from the operation of repressed instinctual impulses in
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
his relation to the doctor will remain so in his own life
after the doctor has once more withdrawn from it”
1916—17a [1915-17], pp. 444-445).
James Strachey (1934) introduced transference
interpretation, a method of relating current transference
experience to the past as a way of helping resolve
the transference; he saw this method as a model of
“mutational” interpretation and as a specifically psychoanalytical
therapeutic approach.
Paut DENIs
See also: Counter-transference; Negative therapeutic reaction;
Transference.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1905e [1901]). Fragment of an analysis of
a case of hysteria. SE, 7: 1-122.
. (1912b). The dynamics of transference. SE, 12: 97—
108.
. (1912e). Recommendations to physicians practising
psycho-analysis. SE, 12: 109-120.
. (1913c). On beginning the treatment (further
recommendations on the technique of psycho-analysis I).
SE, 12: 121-144.
. (1914g). Remembering, repeating and workingthrough
(further recommendations on the technique of
psycho-analysis II). SE, 12: 145-156.
. (1916-17a [1915-17]). Introductory lectures on
psycho-analysis. SE, 15-16.
. (1920g). Beyond the pleasure principle. SE, 18:
1-64.
Strachey, James. (1934). The nature of the therapeutic action
of psycho-analysis. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis
15, 127-159. Reprinted in International Journal of Psycho-
Analysis 50 (1969), 275-291.
Further Reading
Modell, Arnold H. (1988). Treatment, psychic structure:
Resolution of the transference. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic
Association, 36 (S), 225-240.
RETURN OF THE REPRESSED
The return of the repressed is the process whereby
repressed elements, preserved in the unconscious, tend
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
RETURN OF THE REPRESSED
to reappear, in consciousness or in behavior, in the
shape of secondary and more or less unrecognizable
“derivatives of the unconscious.” Parapraxes, bungled
or symptomatic actions, are examples of such
derivatives.
Beginning with The Interpretation of Dreams
(1900a), Freud always emphasized the “indestructible”
nature of unconscious material, as likewise the irreducible
character of memory traces. If we have no memories
of events during the first years of life, this is
because of the repression that affects them. In a sense,
all memories may be said to be retained, their recollection
depending solely on the way in which they are
cathected, decathected, or anticathected.
In the thirty-first of his New Introductory Lectures,
“The Dissection of the Psychical Personality,’ Freud
posited the unalterability of the repressed in the following
terms: “impressions, ... which have been sunk
into the id by repression, are virtually immortal; after
the passage of decades they behave as though they had
just occurred” (1933a [1932], p. 74). In Moses and
Monotheism, he added: “What is forgotten is not extinguished
but only ‘repressed’; its memory-traces are
present in all their freshness, but isolated by ‘anticathexes....
they are unconscious—inaccessible to
consciousness” (1939a [1934-38], p. 94).
Thus for Freud repressed wishes are not destroyed in
the unconscious: rather, they are forever re-emerging in
the form of what are generically called derivatives of the
unconscious, some of which “become conscious as substitutive
formations and symptoms—generally, it is
true, after having undergone great distortion as compared
with the unconscious, though often retaining
many characteristics which call for repression” (1915e,
p. 193). Such derivatives include not only symptoms
but also fantasies, slips of the tongue, and parapraxes in
general, and even certain character traits. They are
expressions of the unconscious manifesting themselves
in consciousness without this necessarily implying
that what has been repressed becomes conscious: The
repressed returns, but often remains unrecognizable.
Such returns of the repressed are par excellence the
material that the psychoanalyst works on, and they may
refer as easily to the transference as to associations produced
in the analytic session that are connected to the
repressed ideas.
Freud links “symptom formation” (Symptombildung)
to the return of the repressed: “it is not
the repression itself which produces substitutive
1491
RevercHon-Jouve, BLancHe (1879-1974)
formations and symptoms, but that these latter are
indications of a return of the repressed” (1915d,
p. 154). Broadly speaking, symptom formation encompasses
not just the return of the repressed by
means of “substitutive formations” or “compromise
formations” but also “reaction formations” created as
bulwarks against repressed wishes.
The return of the repressed was considered by
Freud to be a “specific” mechanism (Freud to Ferenczi,
December 6, 1910), a view he reiterated in his paper
on “Repression,” where it is portrayed as a third distinct
phase in the overall process of repression, following
“primal repression” and “repression proper” or
“after-pressure” (1915d, p. 148).
In a section of Moses and Monotheism dealing with
the return of the repressed, Freud evokes the reemergence
of the “impressions” of early childhood
and the instinctual demands that can erupt into the
life of the subject, orientating his actions and subjecting
him to constraining impulses. The instinct “renews
its demand, and, since the path to normal satisfaction
remains closed to it by what we may call the scar of
repression, somewhere, at a weak spot, it opens
another path for itself to what is known as a substitutive
satisfaction, which comes to light as a symptom,
without the acquiescence of the ego.... All the phenomena
of the formation of symptoms may justly be
described as the ‘return of the repressed. Their distinguishing
characteristic, however, is the far-reaching
distortion to which the returning material has been
subjected as compared with the original” (1939a,
Pel27):
The repressed thus retains its initial impulse, its
urge to penetrate consciousness. It may achieve this,
according to Freud, under three conditions: “(1) if the
strength of the anticathexis is diminished by pathological
processes which overtake the other part [of the
mind], what we call the ego, or by a different distribution
of the cathectic energies in that ego, as happens
regularly in the state of sleep; (2) if the instinctual elements
attaching to the repressed receive a special reinforcement
(of which the best example is the processes
during puberty); and (3) if at any time in recent
experience impressions or experiences occur which
resemble the repressed so closely that they are able to
awaken it. In the last case the recent experience is reinforced
by the latent energy of the repressed, and the
repressed comes into operation behind the recent
experience and with its help.” Freud adds that “In
1492
none of these three alternatives does what has hitherto
been repressed enter consciousness smoothly and
unaltered; it must always put up with distortions
which testify to the influence of the resistance (not
entirely overcome) arising from the anticathexis, or to
the modifying influence of the recent experience or to
both” (1939a, p. 95).
JEAN-FRANCOIS RABAIN
See also: Acting out/acting in; Character; Double, the;
Dream; Estrangement; Fixation; Formations of the
unconscious; Neurotic defenses; Historical truth; Idea/
representation; Ideational representative; Interpretation
of Dreams, The; Judgment of condemnation; Moses and
Monotheism; Persecution; Projection; Remembering;
Repression; Substitute/substitutive formation; Substitutive
formation; Symbolic equation; Topology; Totem/
totemism; “‘Uncanny, The.”
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1900a). The interpretation of dreams. SE,
4-5,
. (1915d). Repression. SE, 14: 141-158.
. (1915e). The unconscious. SE, 14: 159-204.
. (1933a,[1932]). New introductory lectures on
psycho-analysis. SE, 22: 1-182.
. (1939a [1934—38]). Moses and monotheism: Three
essays. SE, 23: 1-137.
Freud, Sigmund, and Ferenczi, Sandor. (1993-2000). The correspondence
of Sigmund Freud and Sandor Ferenczi (Volume
1: 1908-14; Eva Brabant, Ernst Falzeder, and Patrizia Giampieri-
Deutsch, Eds.; Peter T. Hoffer, Trans.). Cambridge,
MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
Le Guen, Claude. (1992). Le Refoulement. Paris: Presses Universitaires
de France.
Le Guen, Claude, et al. (1986). Le refoulement (les défenses).
Revue frangaise de psychanalyse, 50, 1.
REVERCHON-JOUVE, BLANCHE
(1879-1974)
Blanche Reverchon-Jouve was a French physician and
psychoanalyst, a member of the Société psychanalytique
de Paris and the Société francaise de psychanalyse,
and a translator of Freud. She was born in 1879
and died January 8, 1974.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
She studied in France, and later specialized in neurology
under Babinski. She practiced psychiatry in
Geneva and was one of the women celebrated in La
Garconne (Margeuritte, 1922). In 1921 she met the
poet Pierre Jean Jouve. She and Jouve were invited by
Stefan Zweig to participate in two of the conferences
he gave in Salzburg. In 1923, after traveling to Bavaria,
they began living together in Paris. They were married
in 1925, following Jouve’s divorce.
Reverchon-Jouve was analyzed by Eugénie Sokolnicka
and became a member of the Société psychanalytique
de Paris. She appears on the 1932 list as an
associate member, then on a second, corrected list as a
full member.
In 1923 Gallimard published Trois essais sur la théorie
de la sexualité by Sigmund Freud, a translation she
completed with the help of Bernard Groethuysen.
With Jouve she wrote an article for the Nouvelle Revue
Francaise of 1933 entitled “Moments d’une psychanalyse.”
Although a clinical study, it did not resemble
those published by her peers. It was the work of an
analyst and writer, and its formal beauty as literature
casts doubt on the authenticity of the narrative.
On February 3, 1931, in Paris, she was presented as
a member the French section of the Soroptimists, the
international women’s association. She did not train
any students and her patients, often wealthy, provided
her and her husband with a good income. They created
a small circle around themselves, primarily centered
on her husband. Olivier, Jouve’s son by his first
wife, married a woman in their circle, a dancer, in spite
of his stepmother’s advice to the contrary.
Reverchon-Jouve participated in the 1950 World
Psychiatric Congress organized by Henri Ey and, at the
time of the 1953 split, she joined Daniel Lagache when
he founded the Société frangaise de psychanalyse.
JEAN-PIERRE BOURGERON
See also: France; Jouve, Pierre Jean; Société francaise de
Psychanalyse.
Bibliography
Reverchon-Jouve, Blanche, and Jouve, Pierre Jean. (1933).
Moments d’une psychanalyse. Nouvelle Revue Francaise,
234, 353-385.
Roudinesco, Elisabeth. (1990). Jacques Lacan & Co.: A history
of psychoanalysis in France, 1925-1985 (Jeffrey
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
REVERIE
Mehlman, Trans.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
(Original work published 1986)
REVERIE
The term reverie refers to an imaginary representation
created to help realize a desire. The term Phantasie was
used by Freud to designate such mental activity collectively,
whether conscious or unconscious. In French
the term fantasme prevailed in psychoanalytic use, for
it was felt that the term fantaisie was too marked by
current usage, where it connotes the idea of
capriciousness or gratuitousness. However, following
Daniel Lagache (1964), the term fantaisie came to refer
to imaginary conscious or preconscious creations,
without ignoring their continuity with the unconscious
fantasies they reflect.
Daydreams, which everyone experiences, are the
clearest examples of conscious or preconscious reveries.
In general they explicitly satisfy a desire, providing
some form of imaginary satisfaction, whether it be
erotic, aggressive, ambitious, self-aggrandizing, or
uplifting. It is not even unusual for people to visualize
painful or humiliating experiences to their own advantage.
In all these cases the narcissistic dimension of the
process is obvious.
There are references to such daydreams in the Studies
on Hysteria (1895d), primarily in the case study of Anna
O., written by Josef Breuer. Freud wrote about daydreams
in The Interpretation of Dreams (1900a). For
example, when analyzing his dream about the “botanical
monograph,” he relates a daydream during which
he imagines that, afflicted by glaucoma, he travels incognito
to Berlin for an operation and experiences considerable
pleasure in listening to the surgeon extol the
anesthetic qualities of cocaine (thus being compensated
for the pain Freud experienced through being too late to
be recognized as the one who discovered its properties).
The “phantasies or day-dreams are the immediate forerunners
of hysterical symptoms. ... Like dreams they are
wish-fulfilments; like dreams, they are based to a great
extent on impressions of infantile experiences; like
dreams, they benefit by a certain degree of relaxation of
censorship” (p. 491-492)
According to Freud, a daydream is initially the
expression of an unconscious fantasy; then, it is used
as available material among the latent thoughts used
by dreams. However, as he noted, there is an essential
1493
REVERSAL INTO THE OPPOSITE
difference between night dreams and daydreams: the
first is hallucinatory, the second is not, and the person
remains more or less clearly aware that his daydream
is an escape from a reality that is not completely
suspended.
This distinction can be blurred or even disappear
entirely. Freud analyzes this phenomenon in his detailed
commentary on Wilhelm Jensen’s Gradiva (1907a). In
the same period, in “Creative Writers and Daydreaming”
(1908e [1907]), he discusses the function of daydreaming
in the genesis of the literary work, and later,
in “Family Romances” (1909c [1908]), he foresees the
situation where daydreams are used by the child to
avoid the oedipal conflict by imagining himself to be
adopted, to be really the child of a king and queen.
Robert Desoille (1961) developed an_ original
method of psychotherapy based on the development
and analysis of the patient’s daydreams during therapy.
For some patients and under certain circumstances,
analytic psychodrama can create scenarios that are
related to daydreams.
ROGER PERRON
See also: Amentia; Boredom; Censoring the lover in her;
Compromise formation; “Creative Writers and Daydreaming”;
Creativity; Directed daydream (Robert Desoille);
Ego ideal; Family romance; Psychoanalysis of fire,
the; Unconscious fantasy.
Bibliography
Anargyros-Klinger, Annie, Reiss-Schimmel, Ilana, and
Wainrib, Steve. (1998). Création, psychanalyse. Paris: Presses
Universitaires de France.
Desoille, Robert. (1961). Théorie et Pratique du Réve-éveillédirigé.
Geneva: Le Mont-Blanc.
Lagache, Daniel. (1964). Fantaisie, réalité, verité. Revue fran-
¢aise de psychanalyse, 28 (4), 515-538.
REVERSAL INTO THE OPPOSITE
The expression reversal into the opposite refers to the
transformation of an idea, a representation, a logical
figure, a dream image, a symptom, an affect, or the
like into its opposite. It is a process that affects the fate
of the instincts, notably in the transformation of love
into hate, and was more clearly described in Freud’s
discussion of the notion of turning around.
1494
Freud first described this type of transformation
with regard to dream images. Such reversals are used
to create the disguises that enable the translation of
latent thoughts into acceptable thoughts (which are
thus able to cross the barrier of censorship). He gave
numerous examples of this in The Interpretation of
Dreams (1900). This process can affect characteristics
of objects or people; thus, a small object can appear to
be very large in a dream; someone whose intelligence
is envied appears stupid in the dream, and so forth.
Often a reversal of actions into their opposite is
involved: Climbing a staircase expresses the idea of
descending or falling; the latent idea of a heavy burden
is translated in the dream by the action of carrying a
light woman, and so on.
In the dream “Non vixit,’ the dreamer (Freud himself)
with the intensity of his gaze melts a person
whose blue eyes are growing paler: This expressed a
reversal into its opposite of the fear that he had experienced,
when he was young, under the gaze of Briicke’s
“terrible blue eyes” (1900a, p. 422). He gave a detailed
analysis of a particularly interesting instance of reversal
into the opposite in the case of the “Wolf Man”’s
dream (related in “From the History of an Infantile
Neurosis” [1918b]), in which the scary immobility of
the wolves was a reversal of a violent movement (that
of his parents’ coitus). Reversals of the dream protagonists’
roles may occur, such as the hare chasing the
hunter, or the dreamer punishing his father.
Certain logical relationships can also be expressed
in this way. Contradiction, for example, may lead in a
dream to a condensation in which opposites are
blended together in a depiction marked by a sense of
absurdity. Temporal reversal of dream episodes is particularly
interesting: “The outcome of the incident or
the conclusion of a line of reasoning is the introduction
to the dream, and the premises of the reasoning
or the cause of the incident is found at the end.”
But reversal into the opposite does not only affect
representations or relationships between representations,
it can also apply to affects: “There is yet another
way in which the dream-work can deal with affects in
the dream-thoughts.... It can turn them into their
opposite” (1900a, p. 471). Thus, a depressive feeling of
self-devaluation can inspire a dream of brilliant success,
or, on the contrary, a feeling of triumph may provoke
a dream that recalls a humiliating failure. In the
dream of the “uncle with the yellow beard,” Freud’s
“warm dream feeling of affection [for his friend R.] in
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
the dream” masked the wish that R. be a “simpleton” (p.
140—-141).” R. was a possible rival for nomination to the
title of professor. The analysis of such transformations is
a valuable tool for understanding the dream-work.
According to Freud in The Interpretation of Dreams:
“[RJeversal [Umkehrung], or turning a thing into its
opposite [Verwandlung ins Gegenteil], is one of the
means of representation most favoured by the dreamwork
and one which is capable of employment in the
most diverse directions.... [RJeversal is of quite special
use as a help to censorship” (p. 327). From this it
can be deduced that in this function as a process or a
subterfuge to circumvent censorship, reversal clearly
comes into play beyond the realm of the dream-work.
This is the case in many myths: for example, those in
which birth (emergence from water) is represented
either by rising from the waves (as in the birth of
Venus) or, on the contrary, by an episode in which the
hero enters the water (as in the story of Moses).
This play of opposites is found in certain linguistic
expressions that, according to context, can take on
opposite meanings: Thus, the Latin word sacer means
both “holy” and “damned”; the German Boden refers
both to that which is highest and that which is lowest
in a house, and so forth. According to Freud in “The
Antithetical Meaning of Primal Words” (1910e),
where he invoked the (now-contested) authority of the
linguist Karl Abel, this phenomenon was frequent in
“primitive languages” that were supposedly still poorly
differentiated and thus often used condensations. In
the eleventh lecture in the Introductory Lectures on
Psycho-Analysis (1916-1917a [1915-1917]), Freud
explicitly compared this play of opposites in language
with its function in the dream-work. But this is not
limited to the semantic level: Figures of speech can be
subjected to such a mechanism, the most obvious case
being that of negation, discussed in “Negation”
(1925h), in which a thought is expressed in inverse
form, accompanied by a projection that makes it possible
to attribute it to someone else (““You ask who this
person in the dream can be. It’s not my mother.’ We
emend this to: ‘So it is his mother” [1925h, 235].)
Symptom formation often makes use of this
mechanism. The hysteric who is simulating rape tears
her dress with one hand and clutches it around her
body with the other; the fantasy in which she holds her
sexual partner against herself is translated into her
hands clasped behind her back, and coitus itself is
expressed via hyperextension in a circular arc (“Some
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REVERSAL INTO THE OPPOSITE
General Remarks on Hysterical Attacks” (1909a
[1908]), and so on. In such cases, what the hysteric
acts out is an idea or image of an action—that is, a fantasy
that corresponds to one of the received meanings
of the idea. The same reversal of action is seen in
dreams that center on a given idea or image.
Reversal into the opposite, especially in the case of a
reversal of affect, involves a process very similar to
those referred to as turning [aJround. The terminology
is not very clear: Freud himself, moreover, in “Instincts
and Their Vicissitudes” (1915c), used the term reversal
to designate both processes, the turning around of
activity into passivity and the reversal into opposite of
the “contents” of the love/hate pair. However, it seems
judicious to distinguish the two notions and to use the
notion of turning around with reference (a) to expressions
of drives as affects (love into hate, or the reverse);
(b) to aims of drives (the active aim “turning around”
into a passive aim); and (c) to the objects of drives.
This also applies to the whole notion of the sadism/
masochism pair. The notion of reversal into the opposite
should be used, as is evident from the preceding,
when formal aspects of transformations affecting
representational contents are involved.
Both notions, however, can be subsumed into the
broader category of “pairs of opposites” frequently
found in Freud’s work, culminating in his second theory
of the instincts with the oppositional pair Eros/the
death instinct.
ROGER PERRON
See also: Activity/passivity; Death instinct (Thanatos); Ego
and the Mechanisms of Defence, The; Identification with the
aggressor; “Instincts and Their Vicissitudes”; Manifest;
Organic repression; Partial drive; Sadomasochism; “Theme
of the Three Caskets, The”; Turning around; Turning
around upon the subject’s own self; Voyeurism.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1900a). The interpretation of dreams. SE,
4—5: 1-625.
. (1909a [1908]). Some general remarks on hysterical
attacks. SE, 9: 227-234.
. (1916-1917a [1915-1917]). Introductory lectures
on psycho-analysis. SE, 15—16.
. (1918b [1914]). From the history of an infantile
neurosis. SE, 17: 1-122.
. (1925h). Negation. SE, 19: 233-239.
1495
REVISTA DE PSICOANALISIS
REVISTA DE PSICOANALISIS
The Argentine Psychoanalytic Association was
founded in 1942. The Revista de Psicoandlisis, its official
organ, appeared only seven months later, in 1943.
Its first editor was Arnaldo Rascovsky, one of the pioneers
of the Argentine psychoanalytic movement.
The Revista has appeared continuously ever since,
without interruption; it is thus the oldest psychoanalytic
journal in the Spanish language, as well as
one of the oldest psychoanalytic journals in the
world. From its beginning until 1976, the Revista de
Psicoandlisis appeared four times a year; since 1977
it has appeared six times yearly. These circumstances,
plus its edition (print run) of 2,000 issues,
its scientific quality, its prestige, and the important
role it has played in the diffusion of psychoanalysis
in Latin America, have caused the International Psychoanalytical
Association (IPA) to choose the Revista
to publish its Bulletin in Spanish whenever it was
required, to publish the “pre-published” Congress
papers, and to have the first right to choose the
Congress papers it wishes to publish. In return, the
Argentine Psychoanalytic Association sends an adequate
number of the issues, containing the Bulletin
and the pre-published Congress papers, to each of
the IPA’s Spanish-speaking component societies.
At first, the Revista contained more translated
papers than local productions. Long ago this situation
was reversed, however, and the scientific production of
Argentine analysts has come account for the vast
majority of papers in a given issue.
Many of Freud’s papers appeared in Spanish for the
first time in the Revista; for instance, “Analysis
Terminable and Interminable,” in 1946. The Freudian
tradition has remained continuous through the years.
All “classic” authors and their continuators have had a
place in the Revista. Also all contemporary schools or
frames of reference have found their place there, either
in their original authors’ publications, or through the
papers of local followers.
Argentina is equally far from both Europe and the
United States. This circumstance has many disadvantages
but some advantages, that is: psychoanalysts
from Argentina have been able to maintain a relative
independence of thought, have been exposed to all
frames of references, and have been able to avoid compromises,
political or otherwise, with a given system of
thought. This pluralism is reflected in the Revista de
1496
Psicoandlisis; the titles and authors who have appeared
in it offer a balanced view of current psychoanalytic
thinking. Also, in the bibliography of the papers of
Argentinian analysts, it is usual to find references to
European, North American, and Latin American
authors. Some decades ago the Kleinian School was
preponderant, as European authors have become
somewhat preponderant.
Following an international trend, the Revista has
begun to publish issues with a given theme. In addition,
a “Special International Issue,” also with a given
theme, has appeared, but with the collaboration of
invited and interested prominent analysts from many
countries.
In spite of its respectable age, the Revista de Psicoandlisis
remains an extremely active, contemporary, and
purposely pluralistic publication.
CARLOS MARIO ASLAN
See also: Argentina; Carcamo, Celes Ernesto; Rascovsky,
Arnaldo.
REVISTA DE PSIQUIATRIA Y DISCIPLINAS
CONEXAS
Hermilio Valdizan and Honorio Delgado founded
the review Revista de psiquiatria y disciplinas conexas
in Lima in 1918. The subtitle highlights its interdisciplinary
vocation: “A quarterly publication on psychiatry,
psychoanalysis, pedagogy, sociology, forensic
medicine, criminology and the history of medicine.”
By 1924 five volumes had appeared in quarterly
issues. The review achieved the objective it had set
for itself: it was the first modern review of psychiatry
in Peru.
The psychoanalytic content of the publication is
remarkable in comparison to the dates of appearance of
the dedicated psychoanalytic reviews of the time: Imago
(1912), Internationale Zeitschrift fiir Psychoanalyse
(1913), and The Psychoanalytic Review (1913) are the
only ones to precede it. The International Journal of Psycho-
Analysis and the Revue Frangaise de Psychanalyse did
not appear until 1920 and 1927 respectively. In a country
as isolated from the international psychoanalytic community
as Peru, and exposed to the difficulties of communication
and the prejudices of a Catholic society,
such an event is all the more remarkable.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
With the appearance of the third issue (January,
1920) the review became militant, with an editorial
signed by Delgado, “Freud and the psychoanalytic
movement,” illustrated with a full-page portrait of the
founding father. Sigmund Freud mentioned the publication
on two occasions: in a footnote added in 1923
to “On the History of the Psychoanalytic Movement,”
(1914d) and in a note added in 1924 to The Psychopathology
of Everyday Life (1901b).
These facts confirm that Freud read the review
attentively. In a letter dated 1924 he complained about
its disappearance and asked Delgado if he intended to
introduce another publication. In a report on Spanishlanguage
psychoanalytic literature, Karl Abraham
quotes from and comments on different works by Delgado
and authors writing in the review. In 1922 an
agreement was reached to publish a Spanish version of
Die Don Juan Gestalt, but the project was hindered by
the length of the work. The content of the review with
regard to psychoanalytic books and publications
proved to be top quality; it published timely comments
on recent works by Freud, Abraham, and
Sandor Ferenczi, and reports on the journals Imago,
Internationale Zeitschrift fir Psychoanalyse, and The
International Journal of Psycho-Analysis.
Honorio Delgado figures with Paul Wilson and
Hermilio Valdizan among those who published most
on psychoanalysis in Peru at the time. Wilson, who
always published in English, is most noteworthy for
“The Imperceptible Obvious,” on which Freud commented
in detail in the above-mentioned note in Psychopathology.
The article that appeared under the
pseudonym “A. Z.” in volume 2, number 1 (July,
1919): “Psychoanalytic treatment of a case of compulsive
neurosis,” constitutes the first Spanish-language
account of psychoanalytic treatment.
It is difficult to determine the impact of the review.
Its authors lacked analytic experience and made excessive
claims to therapeutic success. Their theories were
eclectic: a blend of ideas from Freud, Adler, and Jung.
In spite of this, the review played a pioneering role in
Latin America and in the Spanish-speaking community,
contributing in a remarkable fashion to the
spread of knowledge about psychoanalysis.
ALVARO Rey DE CASTRO
See also: “A. Z.”; Delgado, Honorio; Peru; Valdizan,
Hermilio.
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REVUE FRANCAISE DE PSYCHANALYSE
Bibliography
Abraham, Karl. (1921). Literatur in spanischer Sprache. In
Bericht iiber die Fortschritte der Psychoanalyse in den Jahren
1914-1919 (pp. 366-367). Leipzig, Wien and Ziirich:
Internationaler psychoanalytischer Verlag.
Freud, Sigmund. (1901b). The psychopathology of everyday
life. SE, 6.
. (1914d). On the history of the psycho-analytic
movement. SE, 14: 1-66.
Mariategui, Javier, and Leon, Ramon. (1987). La Revista de
psiquiatria y disciplinas conexas (1918-1924) (pp. 1-41).
Lima: Instituto de Salud Mental y Universidad Peruana
Cayetano Heredia.
Rey de Castro, Alvaro. (1993). Lettres de Sigmund Freud a
Honorio Delgado, 1919-1934. Revue internationale d’histoire
de la psychanalyse, 6.
REVUE FRANCAISE DE PSYCHANALYSE
At the founding of the Societe psychanalytique de
Paris (SPP; Paris Psychoanalytical Society) on November
4, 1926, “it was decided to create a French journal
of psychoanalysis, the medical part of which would be
edited by MM. Laforgue and Hesnard, possibly joined
by MM. de Saussure and Odier after their acceptance
into the society, and the nonmedical part of which
would be edited by the Princess Marie Bonaparte. M.
Ed. Pichon accepted in principle the responsibilities of
general secretary of this publication.”
From the very inception of this publication, which
could not have come into being without the financing
of Marie Bonaparte, Rene Laforgue, and Pryns
Hopkins, a very wealthy former patient of Ernest
Jones, disputes arose around the issue of whom it
belonged to. Even its title was contentious in this
regard, for while Laforgue presented it to Sigmund
Freud on November 27 as the “Revue internationale de
psychoanalyse,’ the spelling psychanalyse, associated
with the habits of the Swiss and the Jungians, was
finally chosen. There was another, more serious problem
that had to do with ambivalence on the part of the
young psychiatrists who had created the journal Evolution
psychiatrique (Developments in psychiatry) the
previous year and who dreamed of a “French-style”
psychoanalysis: the exclusion of the phrase “under the
patronage of Professor Freud” from the title page, on
the pretext that its presence might “gravely offend”
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REVUE FRANCAISE DE PSYCHANALYSE
Henri Claude. Writing to Laforgue from Vienna on
November 12, Marie Bonaparte expressed her indignation
over this: “But I feel we are cowards, triple
cowards, if we do not dare to put the name of the
founder of the science we represent on the first journal
in France devoted to his work.” She added: “Freud
made a comment to me that I must pass on to you. It
was that we should not name our journal the “Revue
internationale de psychanalyse, because it is not international
at all. If the British journal uses that name, it
is because it is only a reproduction of the German
journal.... Freud believes that we should go back to
one of our first titles: ‘Revue frangaise de psychanalyse;
with, below it, ‘organ of the Paris Psychoanalytical
Society, French section of the International Psychoanalytical
Association (and I say) published under
the patronage of Sigm. Freud. And nothing else on
the title page. All our names on the back of the page,
written in the smallest possible characters! If Claude
takes offense, he is really too stupid.”
Finally, the French opted for “Revue frangaise de la
psychanalyse, organ of the S.P.P., published under the
patronage of Professor Freud” in the first issue, which
appeared on June 25, 1927. “We believe that today
French psychoanalysis is ripe to have its own organ of
expression. It will be the mirror of the young Paris Psychoanalytical
Society, born this winter,” said the editorial.
Alongside original pieces by Laforgue, Charles
Odier, René Allendy, Angelo Hesnard, Félix Deutsch,
and the First Conference of French-Speaking Psychoanalysts,
and the administrative minutes of the
nascent SPP, the issue included Freud’s “Moses and
Michelangelo” and Bonaparte’s “The Case of Madame
Lefebvre.” By way of a contribution, Freud did not ask
for any royalties for his text, which was translated by
the princess, and even provided an unpublished
addendum. The phrase “section of the International
Psychoanalytical Association” did not appear until the
second issue.
It was the nationalistic contingent, enamored of a
“Latin” mindset tinged with anti-Semitism and led by
Edouard Pichon, that was behind these acts of pettiness—
to the great anger of Bonaparte, who would not
rest until she saw him removed from the editorship of
the journal; at one point she wanted to withdraw it
from the publisher Doin in favor of Gaston Gallimard.
In late October 1929, opposition to the International
Psychoanalytical Association by a “very active minority”
that wanted to take control of the journal, since it
1498
was referred to as the “Official Organ of the French
Group,” again raised the idea of “transforming the
French Journal into an International Journal of
Psych.” (letter from Laforgue to Freud, October 26,
1929). The princess was opposed to this and succeeded
in having Rudolph Loewenstein appointed editor in
place of Pichon. By contrast, Ernest Jones deplored the
label “French Journal” because it allowed the Americans
to use this precedent for The Psychoanalytic Quarterly,
which was a competitor to his International
Journal.
Publication went on, sometimes very irregularly, as
attested by the fact that there were only three issues,
rather than eight, for the year 1930-1931. It resumed
under a new publisher, Denoél & Steele, in 1932. In
1939 only a single issue was published, with a new blue
cover. It contained Freud’s “Analysis Terminable and
Interminable,” translated by Ann Berman.
Publication of the journal was interrupted for
eight years, despite John Leuba’s announcement to
Jones on December 31, 1944: “I have prepared two
complete issues of the journal of psychoanalysis. Our
printer has disappeared. We need to study the issue
of a publisher. In any case, it would be impossible
for us to publish until several months from now,
since owing to. the shortage of paper the number of
journals that are authorized for publication is extremely
limited.” The princess, on her side, explained
to Loewenstein on July 2, 1945: “As for the Revue, I
can no longer support it, either. Besides, it never
really took off. Perhaps Rodker could start up a journal
in London that would revive Imago in three languages,
where we could publish our articles in
French. The only risk would be problems with Jones,
who only wants his English journal with ultra-Kleinian
articles” (Bertin). Negotiations for the journal’s
resumed publication with the Presses Universitaires
de France took place only in 1947.
In fact, beginning with volume eleven, published in
1948, the SPP took over the publication of its “official
organ,’ underwritten by means of systematic subscription
of its members. Authors gave up all potential royalties
in exchange for disbursement by the publisher of
a global sum intended to cover editorial costs. Despite
discussions over the advantages and disadvantages of
contracts that were renegotiated over time, the journal
became sufficiently profitable to ensure its ongoing
publication.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
During the split of 1953, no disputes arose over the
journal, which remained in the hands of the SPP and
unfailingly published all information that was unfavorable
to its competitor, the Société frangaise de psychanalyse
(SPF; French Psychoanalytical Society). It
also disseminated the works arising out of rivalries
with the secessionists, and owing to its regular publication—
something other groups could not achieve—it
became the most stable reference work of French psychoanalytic
thinking during these decades.
Of anecdotal interest is the fact that in April 1960,
at the age of seventy-eight, the indefatigable Bonaparte
had a telegram sent to herself “accrediting her
as a reporter for the Revue francaise de psychanalyse,”
in order to visit Caryl Chessman in his cell
prior to his execution, which she tried in vain to prevent
(Bertin).
In the 1960s the problem arose of how to handle
the publication of the proceedings of the Congress of
Romance-Language Speaking Psychoanalysts, which
the journal had undertaken from the outset. The growing
importance of these proceedings had inflated the
number of pages required for them, and a series of
solutions were found. From 1961 to 1964 the congress
proceedings were printed in a separate volume, but
this practice was not maintained. Just as ineffective
was the reiterated wish of the Teaching Committee of
the Institute of Psychoanalysis that “the number of
pages of the reports and papers hereafter be limited.”
Denise Braunschweig and Jean Kestenberg obtained
permission from the Presses Universitaires de France
to return to the practice of publishing the proceedings
in a special number of the journal. The value of this
publication as a reference work must be underscored;
each year it treats in depth a well-defined theoretical or
practical point, and, beyond its historical perspective,
inaugurated during the 1951 Congress with Daniel
Lagache’s report on transference, it offers readers a
broad spectrum of research and discussions. Since
1991 the Bulletin de la S.P.P., created in October 1982
by Michel Fain, has undertaken advance publication
of reports and papers.
After Maurice Bénassy’s resignation as editor of the
Revue francaise de psychanalyse in April 1969, Christian
David, Michel de M’Uzan, and Serge Viderman
were chosen by the tenured members of the society in
January 1970, in an informal vote, to take over editorship
of the journal, with Jacqueline Adamov as copy
editor. They attempted to make the journal more inde-
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Revue FRANCAISE DE PSYCHANALYSE
pendent of the SPP so that it would not appear to be a
mere scientific brochure, but rather a publication unto
itself. Their effort, from 1970 to 1975, to have the
phrase “Official Organ of the S.P.P.” changed to “Published
under the aegis of,” if it had the merit of raising
the issue of a separation of objectives, was called into
question during negotiations for a new contract with
the Presses Universitaires de France. Beginning with
the first issue of 1976, the words “Official publication
of” reappeared. Overall it continued to run at a deficit,
despite undeniable editorial success: In November
1977, there were 2,382 subscriptions, 684 of these from
foreign subscribers, plus 1,022 copies sold by the issue.
In March 1980, Jean Gillibert, Claude Girard, and
Evelyne Kestemberg were named co-editors. They in
turn experienced problems and resigned three years
later. They were held responsible for a decrease in subscriptions,
even though the total readership had
increased. They cited as a reason for the decrease in
subscriptions the competition of the Bulletin de la
S.P.P., which nevertheless was the response to their
often-expressed wish to be relieved of the burden of
systematically publishing lectures and administrative
information.
The idea of thematic issues seemed sound, as
Claude Le Guen stressed in May 1983. After proposing
his own candidacy, he left the new editorship of the
journal to a team made up of Ilse Barande, Claude Girard,
Marie-Lise Roux, and Henri Vermorel. They
remained on the job beyond their mandate, which
ended in 1986, and were replaced only in February
1988.
The merger of the SPP and its Institute of Psychoanalysis
had taken place two years earlier when André
Green, then president of the SPP, announced on July 8,
1988: “The Board of Directors has entrusted the editorship
of the Revue to Claude Le Guen. The new editor
has presented to the Board of Directors the new
policy he intends to implement. Articles published by
the journal will be divided into two categories, each of
which will be entrusted to an adjunct editor. One category,
heated by J. Cornut, will bring together publications
and articles of a scientific nature. The other,
headed by G. Bayle, will bring together publications of
a more topical, critical, or even polemical nature, as
well as those focused on training: clinical, technical, or
theoretical points, in the form of regular columns. The
editorial staff will also include J. Adamov, C. Athanassiou,
J. J. Baranes, J. Begoin, T. Bokanowski, P. Denis,
1499
RICHARD, CASE OF
M. Gibeault, C. Janin, R. Menahem, J. F. Rabain, J.
Schaeffer, H. Troisier. The first issue of the R.F.P. produced
by the new team will appear in October 1988
with a new format and a new cover design.”
The choice of presenting thematic issues definitively
prevailed and led to a marked increase in the readership
of this journal, which is both the oldest and the most
widely read French psychoanalytic journal. The same
year, 1988, Le Guen, assisted by Gilbert Diatkine, also
created the “Monographies de la R.EP.” (Monographs
of the R.EP.), a series in which each volume, focused in
a specific theoretical or practical issue, was a sure-fire
editorial success. “Débats en psychanalyse” (Issues in
psychoanalysis), with Jacqueline Schaeffer as adjunct
editor, was created in 1995 for the purpose of publishing
papers from colloquia and scientific meetings,
which the Bulletin could no longer handle on its own.
Since 1996 Paul Denis, creator of the series “Psychanalystes
d’aujourd’hui” (Psychoanalysts of today), has
been the editor of the Revue francaise de psychanalyse.
ALAIN DE MIOLLA
See also: France; Societe psychanalytique de Paris and
Institut de psychanalyse de Paris.
Bibliography
Bertin, Celia. (1982). Marie Bonaparte, a life. New York:
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Bourgeron, Jean-Pierre. (1993). Marie Bonaparte et la Psychanalyse
a travers ses lettres a René Laforgue et les images
de son temps. Geneva: Champion-Slatkine.
Freud, Sigmund, and Laforgue, René. (1977h [1923-33]).
Correspondance Freud-Laforgue, preface d’André Bourgiugnon.
Nouvelle Revue de psychanalyse, 15, 235-314.
Mijolla, Alain de. (1991). Le Congrés des psychanalystes de
langue francaise des pays romans: Quelques éléments
Vhistoire. Revue frangaise de psychanalyse, 55 (1), 7-36.
. (1992). France (1893-1965). In P. Kutter (Ed.), Psychoanalysis
International: 4 Guide to Psychoanalysis
throughout the world, (Vol. 1; pp. 66-113). Stuttgart:
Frommann-Holzbog.
RICHARD, CASE OF
Melanie Klein’s case of Richard is published in two
forms: (a) “The Oedipus complex in the light of early
anxieties” (Klein, 1945) and (b) Narrative of a Child
Analysis (published posthumously, Klein, 1961).
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In 1939, Klein moved out of London because of the
war, and settled eventually in the small Scottish town
of Pitlochry between June 1940 and September 1941.
She used this time, away from colleagues, to reflect on
her work; to plan further writing, especially on technique,
and to conduct an exemplary analysis of a 10-
year-old boy, Richard, six sessions each week from
April to August 1941. She kept process records of the
play and conversations—for example, Richard’s associations,
and Klein’s interpretations of them—during
each of the sessions.
The theoretical conclusions from this case, especially
about the early form of the Oedipus complex in
a boy, were presented as a paper in 1945.
The book, Narrative of a Child Analysis, is a detailed
presentation of the case. The ten-year-old boy Richard
was treated in 1941. Each of 93 sessions is described in
a brief process record, and each is followed by a commentary
written much later, just before Klein’s death
in 1960. It was intended as a supplement to her early
book The Psycho-Analysis of Children, and to present
her technique in detail. The fact that it was not published
for nearly 20 years is due to a number of reasons,
including the fact that her interests had moved
on to the urgent need to present her developing theoretical
conclusions. But Klein believed this record
represented her technique at the time and that it had
not changed very much by the time the record was
published.
She wrote this case history for presentation as a
paper, “The Oedipus complex in the light of early
anxieties,” to the British Psycho-Analytical Society in
1945. It is a very detailed account of the early stages of
the Oedipus complex as it had emerged in her early
work with children, and then subsequently revised in
the light of her theory of the depressive position which
she had described five years before. She believed this
significantly added to Freud’s descriptions of the Oedipus
complex, though she was clear that it did not
replace Freud’s work.
As far as the boy’s complex is concerned, development
through the Oedipal conflicts is propelled not
only by the boy’s fear of castration from his vengeful
father, but the boy’s love for his father and wish to protect
him from his own damaging hatred. As to the little
girl, she concluded that Freud was only partly right in
his notion of penis envy, which he over-rated. More
prominently, the little girl is occupied by the phantasy
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of father’s penis residing inside mother with the future
babies there. The little girl is as preoccupied with the
desire for father’s penis inside her, and her internal
babies, as she is with the hopeless wish for a penis of
her own. The anxiety that little girls suffer most is
therefore the fear of a retaliatory mother arising out of
the girl’s wish to steal the penis from inside her
mother. Her conclusions were not new and are found
in her earlier book (Klein, 1932).
Klein’s wish to write a thorough account of her technique
was only partly realized in a paper in 1955 on
“The Psycho-Analytic Play Technique: Its History and
Significance.” Towards the end of her life she returned
to the full set of process notes she had made of Richard’s
analysis, and began the task of annotating every session.
She completed this just before her death, and the work
was published a few months later as Narrative of a Child
Analysis. This was her very last word on child analysis
and is a major statement on her technique.
What the book does is to explore in careful detail
the ways in which these configurations of objects are
worked out for the 10-year-old boy in an analytic setting.
In particular she concentrates carefully on the
location of the objects; felt by the boy to be inside him,
often accompanied by physical sensations, or in the
external world and represented by actual things and
people which interact in ways that make them suitable
to incorporate into his play, his phantasies, and his
dialogue.
The book is of fascinating and major interest for its
portrayal of a child analysis in detail. It is written with
considerable poignancy and charm, and with an
obvious affection for Richard, a frightened but quite
courageous little boy. At the time it attracted great
interest because it revealed Klein at work, and it has
remained an important complement to her often complex
theoretical writings.
By the time she published her first account of Richard,
in 1945, the technique employed by Klein and her colleagues
was about to change in significant ways as she
and her colleagues explored the fragmented and partobject
world of schizoid and schizophrenic patients.
Technical aspects of Anna Freud’s method of child analysis
had also changed by this time (Geleerd, 1963).
Rosert D. HINSHELWOOD
See also: Phobic neurosis.
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Rickman, JoHN (1880-1951)
Bibliography
Geleerd, Elisabeth R. (1963). Evaluation of Melanie Klein’s
narrative of a child analysis. International Journal of Psychoanalysis;
44, 493-506.
Klein, Melanie (1932). The psycho-analysis of children. London:
Hogarth.
. (1961). Narrative of a child analysis. London:
Hogarth.
RICKMAN, JOHN (1880-1951)
John Rickman, a doctor of medicine, psychiatrist,
and psychoanalyst, was born on April 10, 1880, at
Dorking, Surrey, England, and died on July 1, 1951,
in Regent’s Park, London. He was the only child of
Quaker parents, and his father died when he was two.
He went to Leighton Park, a Quaker boarding school
in Reading. He fulfilled the requirements of a Natural
Science Tripos at the University of Cambridge, and
he completed his medical degree and qualified in
1916 at St. Thomas’s Hospital in London. He joined
the Friends War Victims Relief Unit in Russia (Rickman,
1949). In 1918 he met and married Lydia Lewis,
an American. He then studied psychiatry at Cambridge,
where Dr. William H. R. Rivers advised him
to see Freud in Vienna. Freud agreed to see him for
two guineas.
Freud asked him to work on what was published as
The Development of the Psycho-Analytical Theory of the
Psychoses (Rickman, 1928a). He returned to London
and was elected an associate member of the British
Psycho-Analytical Society in 1920 and a member in
1922. He played a key role in the early years of the
society and its Institute of Psycho-Analysis, especially
in administration, publication activities, and links
with allied professions. In this regard, it was particularly
helpful that he was an editor of the British Journal
of Medical Psychology for 14 years.
He was elected to the council and to the first training
committee in 1926. In 1929 he went to Budapest to
have analysis with Sandor Ferenczi, and later, prior to
the Second World War, he underwent some analysis
with Melanie Klein and supported her approach.
After 1936 the Spanish Civil War convinced him of
the need to oppose the Nazis. He was often asked to
write editorials for The Lancet during periods of politi-
1501
Rie, Oskar (1863-1931)
cal crisis. In 1939 he joined the Emergency Medical
Services, later becoming a major in the Royal Army
Medical Corp. He met Wilfred R. Bion when he
worked in Wharncliffe and Northfield Hospitals. He
was then posted to the British Army War Officer Selection
Board to select officers. Impressed by his
approach, some colleagues later applied to be trained
as psychoanalysts.
After the war he took an active part in the British
Psycho-Analytical Society and in its new training
arrangements. He also facilitated the rapprochement
between the Tavistock Clinic and the society. In 1948
he was elected president of the society. At that time he
was considered a member of the Middle Group, not a
Kleinian. His thoughts as president are contained in
his seminal paper on the functions of a psychoanalytic
society (Rickman, 1951).
In 1928 he published The Development of the Psycho-
Analytical Theory of the Psychoses, 1893-1926 and also
Index Psycho-Analyticus. He edited the Psychoanalytical
Epitome Series and wrote over a hundred papers and
reviews. In 1957 his Selected Contributions to Psycho-
Analysis was published.
His early death in 1951 was a loss to the British
Psycho-Analytical Society, which missed his ability to
act as a bridge between colleagues in other disciplines
and analysts exploring the contributions that psychoanalysis
could make to the understanding of group
relations and the structure of society.
Peary H. M. Kinc
See also: Great Britain; Group analysis; International Journal
of Psychoanalysis, The; Tavistock Clinic.
Bibliography
Rickman, John. (1928a). The development of the psychoanalytical
theory of the psychoses, 1893-1926. London: Bailliere,
Tindall & Cox.
. (1928b). Index psycho-analyticus, 1893-1926. London:
Hogarth Press and the Institute of Psycho-Analysis.
. (1949). Sketches of Russian peasant life (1916-
1918). In Geoffrey Gorer and John Rickman (Eds.), The
peoples of greater Russia: A psychological study (pp. 23-89).
London: Cresset.
. (1951). Reflections on the functions and organization
of a psycho-analytical society. International Journal of
Psychoanalysis, 32, 218-237.
1502
. (1957). Selected contributions to psycho-analysis.
London: Hogarth Press and the Institute of Psycho-
Analysis.
RIE, OSKAR (1863-1931)
The Austrian pediatrician Oskar Rie, friend and physician
to Freud and his family, was born on December 8,
1863, in Vienna, where he died on September 17, 1931.
The Ries were a Jewish family from Prague; Isidor
Rie was a gem merchant. Oskar, the second of five children,
studied in Vienna and received his medical
degree in 1887.
Rie was one of Freud’s most faithful friends. From
1886 to 1896 he served as Freud’s assistant at the
Kassowitz Institute in Vienna (Offentliches Kinder-
Krankeninstitut), where Freud held consultations in
pediatric neurology several times each week. Together
they published a monograph on cerebral palsy in children,
Klinische Studie iiber due halbseitige Cerebrallahmung
der Kinder (Clinical study of cerebral paralysis of
children [1891a]), which won considerable influence
and insured Freud’s reputation as a specialist. Rie also
served as family physician to Freud’s children and
sister-in-law Minna Bernays. While often acknowledging
his devoted friendship, Freud viewed Rie with
antagonism around the end of his friendship with
Wilhlem Fliess.
In the psychoanalytic literature Rie is known above
all for his appearance as “Otto” in Freud’s famous
“dream of Irma’s injection” in The Interpretations of
Dreams (1900a). In the manifest dream, he is Freud’s
friend and the doctor who injected the patient with “a
preparation of propyl, propyls ... propionic acid ...
trimethylamin” (Freud 1900a, p. 140)—that aggravated
her condition. Free associations clearly indicated
Freud’s ambivalence toward Rie, who was also taken to
task in correspondence with Fliess. Freud took Rie’s
resentment concerning the revelations in The Interpretation
of Dreams and “his lack of understanding for
my findings” (Freud 1985, p. 447) to be another illustration
of his observation that “[a]n intimate friend
and a hated enemy have always been indispensable to
my emotional life; I have always been able to create
them anew, and not infrequently my childish
ideal has been so closely approached that friend and
enemy have coincided in the same person; but not
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simultaneously, of course, as was the case in my early
childhood” (1900a, p. 483).
But Rie would remain a close friend. He accompanied
Freud on vacations in the mountains, including
_ the sojourn at the Alpine retreat where Freud “treated”
Katharina, one of the cases presented in Studies on
Hysteria. Rie instructed Fliess (his brother-in-law) to
insist that Freud stop smoking. On Saturdays, he
played tarok with Freud and his brother Alfred, and
often accompanied Freud to the theater. On January 5,
1898, together they saw Theodor Herzl’s play The New
Ghetto, then later met Herzl at a meeting of B’nai
Brith, of which he became a member in 1901, the
same year as Alexander Freud.
A member of the Wednesday Evening Society, Rie
was admitted to the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society on
October 7, 1908, at the same time as Sandor Ferenczi,
and numerous traces of his presence can be found in
the Society's minutes.
Rie’s marriage to Ida Fliess’s sister, Melanie Bondy,
on November 10, 1896, generated further connections
in the history of psychoanalysis. In addition to a son,
Norbert (b. Oct. 30, 1897), his daughter Margarethe
(b. March 25, 1899) would marry Hermann Nunberg
in 1929 and be analyzed by Freud in the 1920s (about
the same time as her friend, Anna Freud). Marianne
(born May 27, 1900) would marry Ernst Kris in 1927
and become a well-known analyst in the United States.
Especially known for her work in psychoanalysis with
children, among her adult patients were Marilyn Monroe
and Diana Trilling; one of her closest friends was
Anna Freud.
On August 4, 1921, Freud wrote to Rie: “Your
friendly words about me have done me good although
they didn’t tell me anything new because I have been
looking upon your friendship for more than a lifetime
as an assured possession. I have been able to give
something to many people in my life; from you fate
has allowed me only to receive” (Freud 1960, p. 335).
ALAIN DE MYJOLLA
See also: Institute Max-Kassowitz; Kris-Rie, Marianne.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund, and Rie, Oskar. (1891a). Klinische Studie
iiber die halbseitige Cerebrallahmung der Kinder. Vienna:
Moritz Perles.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Rite AND RITUAL
Nunberg, Herman, and Federn, Ernst (Eds.). (1962-1975)
Minutes of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society, Vol. 1, 1906—
1908; Vol. II, 1908-1910; Vol. Ill, 1910-1911; Vol. IV,
1912-1918. New York: International Universities Press.
RITE AND RITUAL
Rites and rituals have been studied from antiquity:
Western philosophers pondered these practices, which
in modern times have become an object of study in
anthropology, ethnology, and sociology. The diversity
of practices makes an authoritative definition problematic,
but certain general descriptors apply: A rite is a
well-ordered, obligatory action or group of actions
that is performed precisely and repetitively; it often
moves to an individual or collective rhythm; its meaning
and aims are generally opaque, and of no obvious
practical purpose. Rites and rituals are related to the
sacred: religion, magic, purification, and so forth—the
notion of the rite of passage remains in use. Sigmund
Freud’s writings on the ritual can be included among
the great variety on the subject, although, but he privileges
the German word Zeremoniell, meaning ceremonial
or ceremonious; in so doing, he underscores the
sacred character of these practices.
+
From 1894 to 1896 Freud developed the idea of
obsessional neurosis. In “Further Remarks on the
Neuro-Psychoses of Defence” (1896b), in the context
of the trauma theory, he interpreted the ceremonials it
can entail. These derive from the idea of obsessive
actions, which are among the defenses and result from
repression. Freud cited ceremonials associated with
the anal zone and with infantile masturbation in,
respectively, Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality
(1905d) and the case of Dora, related in “Fragment of
an Analysis of a Case of Hysteria” (1905e [1901]). The
article “Obsessive Actions and Religious Practice”
(1907b) was devoted to this topic and, according to
Freud’s “Short Account of Psycho-Analysis” (1924f
[1923]), marked the beginning ofh is work on religious
psychology. The deepening of the analogy of the
dynamics between obsessional neurosis and collective
ritual practices, by way of the notion of primal
ambivalence and its expression toward the father, in
Totem and Taboo (1912-13a), is the basis for Freud’s
perspective on individual and collective ceremonials.
In “A Short Account of Psycho-Analysis,” written in
1923, Freud presented this study in a broad context: “If
1503
Rite AND RITUAL
the psychological discoveries gained from the study of
dreams were firmly kept in view, only one further step
was needed before psycho-analysis could be proclaimed
as the theory of the deeper mental processes not directly
accessible to consciousness—as a ‘depth-psychology —
and before it could be applied to almost all the mental
sciences. This step lay in the transition from the mental
activity of individual men to the psychical functions of
human communities and peoples—that is, from individual
to group psychology; and many surprising analogies
forced this transition upon us.... To take an
instance. ... It is impossible to escape the impression of
the perfect correspondence which can be discovered
between the obsessive actions of certain obsessional
patients and the religious observances of believers all
over the world. Some cases of obsessional neurosis actually
behave like a caricature of a private religion, so that
it is tempting to liken the official religions to an obsessional
neurosis that has been mitigated by becoming
universalized. This comparison, which is no doubt
highly objectionable to all believers, has nevertheless
proved most fruitful psychologically. For psychoanalysis
soon discovered in the case of obsessional
neurosis what the forces are that struggle with one
another in it till their conflicts find a remarkable expression
in the ceremonial of obsessive actions. Nothing
similar was suspected in the case of religious ceremonial
until, by tracing back religious feeling to the relation
with the father as its deepest root, it became possible to
point to an analogous dynamic situation in that case
too” (pp. 205-206).
In the Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis
(1916-17a [1915-17]), after noting an economic difference
between ceremonials in obsessional neurosis
and those of communities, the former expressing a
defense against repressed sexuality and the latter
against narcissistic and aggressive impulses, Freud
granted the importance of “extremely strong sadistic
impulses” in obsessional neurosis. The taboo against
touching, whether actual or metaphoric, that is evident
in the phenomenology of ceremonials thus
becomes intelligible. In fact, the fundamental theme of
any ritual having to do with “touching” is the “first
aim of object-cathexis, whether aggressive or tender,”
wrote Freud in Totem and Taboo (1912—13a). If we add
that the psychic position necessary for any ritual is
narcissistic, or animistic from the collective point of
view, and that it presupposes the omnipotence of
wishes and thoughts, it becomes apparent that the
underlying obsession in any ceremonial is that of the
1504
contagion of instinctual impulses; this explains the
prevalence of magical actions and thoughts having to
do with contagion—by contiguity, similarity, isolation,
and retroactive annulment.
Throughout his writings Freud described and gave
a detailed analysis of various rituals: scatological,
money-related, rituals of washing, for going to sleep,
or for beginning something. Collective rituals such as
those governing relations between son-in-law and
mother-in-law, rituals relating to the dead, to chiefs or
enemies who have been killed, and rituals relating to
defloration and marriage have been extensively studied,
in addition to the totemic meal and its repetition
in the Christian sacrament of Communion, based on
the idea of the murder and consumption of the primal
father of the horde.
Ceremonials, as compromise formations, presuppose
a repression, and the primary processes thus play
a part in their creation. Displacement and the condensation
of a multiplicity of fantasies in the ceremonial
lead to overdetermination; an absence of contradiction
that enables the ceremonial to actualize both wish and
defense. In addition, the abundance of symbolism is
unmistakable. From an economic point of view, the
pleasure principle prevails, and Freud emphasized the
sexual excitation that occurs during ceremonials. In
Inhibitions, Symptoms and Anxiety (1926d) Freud
explained that from a topographical and dynamic
point of view, regression, linked to powerful aggressive
impulses, results in “the erotic trends being disguised”
and that accordingly, “the struggle against sexuality
will hence-forward be carried on under the banner of
ethical principles” (p. 116). The ego “recoils in astonishment”
from suggestions of cruelty emanating from
the id, and “[t]he overstrict superego insists all the
more strongly on the suppression of sexuality, since
this has assumed such repellent forms” (p. 116). The
theme of guilt is omnipresent, which phenomenology
alone reveals, as is the theme of punishment. There is
thus continuity between ceremonials and _ taboos.
Moreover, the persistence of unconscious wishes and
their fulfillment in ceremonials, no matter what the
defenses have undertaken, provokes excessive scruples
in their enactment and systematic doubt as to their
propriety. The ceremonial’s common compulsion to
repeat seems to depend on the same factors.
In Inhibitions, Symptoms and Anxiety, written in
1925, Freud lamented the fact that “no one has as yet
collected [ceremonials] and systematically analysed
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
them” (p. 116). With regard to their emergence, often
during the latency period, he noted: “Why this should
be so is at present not at all clear; but the sublimation
of anal-erotic components plays an unmistakable part
in it” (p. 116). Sublimation remains a lively issue in
psychoanalysis. The compulsion to repeat, as linked to
the death instinct and to masochism, is another. Lastly,
the generalization of the obsession with touching or
not touching, in our ostensibly secular culture, seems
more misunderstood than acknowledged. Thus, ceremonials,
rites, and rituals are an area that awaits
further study.
MICHELE PorTE
See also: Framework of the psychoanalytic treatment;
Myth of origins; Religion and psychoanalysis; Sadism;
Symptom.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1912—13a). Totem and taboo. SE, 13:
1-161.
. (1916-17a [1915-17]). Introductory lectures on
psycho-analysis. Part I, SE, 15; Part II, SE, 16.
. (1924f). A short account of psycho-analysis. SE, 19:
189-209.
. (1926d). Inhibitions, symptoms and anxiety. SE,
20: 75-172.
Reik, Theodor. (1975). Ritual: Psycho-analytic studies (Douglas
Bryan, Trans.). Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. (Original
work published 1949)
Van Gennep, Arnold. (1960). The rites of passage. (M. B.
Vizedom and G. B. Caffee, Trans.). Chicago: University of
Chicago Press. (Original work published 1909)
RITTMEISTER, JOHN FRIEDRICH KARL
(1898-1943)
John Rittmeister, a German neurologist and psychoanalyst,
was born in Hamburg on August 21, 1898,
and was guillotined in Plotzensee prison, outside Berlin,
on May 13, 1943. The last of three children in a
long-established and well-to-do family of merchants,
he studied the humanities before joining the armed
forces in 1917 during World War I and serving on the
Italian and French fronts. From 1920 to 1925 he studied
medicine at the universities of Géttingen, Kiel, and
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
RITTMEISTER, JOHN FRIEDRICH KARL (1898-1943)
Hamburg. He specialized in neurology with Max
Nonne and received his state doctorate at Hamburg.
After three years of neuropsychiatric training in the
hospitals of Munich, he began practicing psychotherapy
there. He gave conferences and demonstrations of
hypnosis and familiarized himself with the teachings
of Carl Gustav Jung.
In 1929 he settled in Zurich, staying there for two
years before acquiring a post as a voluntary physician
at the polyclinic for nervous diseases of the Burghdlzli
Psychiatric Clinic, under the directorship of Erich
Katzenstein, where he also conducted neurological
research. From 1935 to 1937, with a few interruptions,
he worked as an assistant psychiatrist at the Miinsingen
cantonal hospital under Max Miller, where he
developed an excellent personal and philosophical
relationship with senior lecturer Alfred Storch, who
had been driven out of Germany.
During his stay in Switzerland, he joined socialist
groups for students and workers, went on a study trip
to the Soviet Union, and became a convinced Marxist,
for which the Swiss authorities often threatened to
deport him. In Zurich he quickly distanced himself
from Jung’s psychology club because of its “suffocating,
mystical and obscure atmosphere.” He explained
his position in a scientific lecture titled “Voraussetzungen
und Konsequenzen der Jungschen Archetypenlehre”
(The presuppositions and consequences of
teaching Jungian archetypes; 1982). In 1922, while still
a student in Munich, he sought psychological help
from Hans von Hattingberg, and in 1935 he commenced
his analysis with Gustav Bally in Zurich. In
“Die psychotherapeutische Aufgabe und der neue
Humanismus” (Psychotherapeutic duty and the new
humanism), published in Holland in 1936, he advocated
a comparison between the Freudian and Jungian
schools and “a humanism of decision, which establishes
joint, concrete goals.” He attacked, in a barely
disguised way, the political situation of National Socialist
Germany, and he returned to this theme at the end
of 1937.
In Berlin he was chief medical officer in a psychiatric
clinic. He trained in psychoanalytic work group
A of the Goring Institute, more formally known as
the Deutsches Institut fiir psychologische Forschung
und Psychotherapie (German Institute for Psychological
Research and Psychotherapy), doing his training
analysis with Werner Kemper. After he married Eva
Knieper in July 1939, he obtained a position in the
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RIVALRY
polyclinic in September and later became its director.
He played an active part in the scientific life of the
Goring Institute, giving lectures and conferences for
candidates. His report on the current state of the
polyclinic appeared in the Zentralblatt fiir Psychotherapie
in 1941, and his last conference in the spring of
1942, “Die mystiche Krise des jungen Descartes”
(The mystical crisis of the young Descartes) was published
as late as 1961, when it appeared in Confinia
psychiatria.
During the last years of his life in Berlin, he gathered
around him a circle of young people (mainly his
wife’s fellow students), teaching them philosophy
and politics and organizing them to help Jews and
foreign workers recruited by force. On Christmas
1941, with the help of Harro Schulze-Boysen, he
managed to join the Red Orchestra, a resistance
group organized around Schulze-Boysen and Arvid
Harnack. Rittmeister participated in clandestine political
work, designing and distributing pamphlets and
propagandizing for foreign workers, but he did not
spy for the Soviet Union, as was claimed. After being
arrested on September 26, 1942, he was condemned
to death by the war tribunal of the Reich, along with
most of the members of his group, and was executed
in May 1943.
LupGER M. HERMANNS
See also: Deutsches Institut fiir Psychologische Forschung
und Psychotherapie (Institut Goring); Germany; Marxism
-and psychoanalysis; Second World War: The effect
on the development of psychoanalysis; Kemper, Werner
Walther.
Bibliography
Brautigam, Walter. (1987). John Rittmeister: Leben und Sterben.
Ebenhausen bei Miinchen: Langewiesche-Brandt.
Hermanns, Ludger M. (1982). John F. Rittmeister und C. G.
Jung. Psyche, 36, 1022-1031.
Rittmeister, John F. (1936). Die Psychotherapeutische Aufgabe
und der neue Humanismus. Psychiatrische en neurologische
Bladen, 5, 777-796.
. (1961). Die mystische Krise des jungen Descartes.
Confinia psychiatrica, 4, 65-98.
. (1982). Voraussetzungen und Konsequenzen der
Jungschen Archetypenlehre. Psyche, 36, 1032-1044.
1506
. (1992). Hier brannte doch die Welt: Aufzeichnungen
aus dem Geftingnis, 1942-1943 (Christine Teller, Ed.).
Giitersloh, Germany: Jacob van Hoddis.
Schulz, Manfred. (1981). Dr. John Rittmeister, Nervenarzt
und Widerstandskampfer. Medical dissertation, Humboldt
University, Berlin.
RIVALRY
Etymologically, the word rival refers to people who
live by the river and draw their water from the same
stream. From a psychoanalytic point of view, rivalry is
not simply a struggle for possession of the object, but
can also be understood as having sexual, identificatory,
and narcissistic aspects.
The ensemble of partial drives directed toward the
mother, once she is perceived as an object that is differentiated
from the self, is accompanied by hostile rivalry
toward the father. This oedipal rivalry is extended
to the hostile relationships that occur among siblings.
The object of rivalry can change in relation to
bisexuality. Wishes for the rival’s death are repressed,
and the formerly hated rival becomes a homosexual
love-object. In “Neurotic Mechanisms in Jealousy,
Paranoia and Homosexuality” (1922b), Sigmund
Freud posited an analogy between this mechanism and
the process that is the basis for social bonds: “In both
processes, there is first the presence of jealous and hostile
impulses which cannot achieve satisfaction; and
both the affectionate and the social feelings of identification
arise as reactive formations against the
repressed aggressive impulses” (p. 232).
Freud thus attributed the decline of rivalry to
repression, which results from the establishing of the
superego and from the confrontation between hostile
wishes and the child’s impotence.
Rivalry creates a link of ambivalence between the subject
and an other who can always become the subject’s
alter ego, because the object of desire is the same for
both. Putting himself in the place of this other, the subject
imagines himself as being dispossessed of a source of
enjoyment (jouissance) that tolerates no sharing. The
subject’s hatred is all the stronger because unconsciously,
this struggle is for possession of an object that bears the
narcissistic illusion of perfect continuity between self
and other. The destructiveness of the tendency away
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
from differentiation is thus transformed into hatred and
suspended through triangulation.
Rivalry, which tends toward repetition and acquires
its various layers through reaction formations, is one
component in the structuring of human desire.
STEVEN WAINRIB
See also: “Analysis of a Phobia in a Five-Year-Old Boy”
(Little Hans); Anxiety; “Contributions to the Psychology
of Love”; Counter-Oedipus; Dead mother complex;
Examination dreams; Family romance; Forgetting; Masculine
protest (individual psychology); Oedipus complex,
early; Primitive horde; Wish for a baby; Wish/
yearning.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1909c). Family romances. SE, 9: 235-241.
(1922b). Neurotic mechanisms in jealousy, paranoia
and homosexuality. SE, 18: 221-232.
RIVIERE-HODGSON VERRAL, JOAN
(1883-1962)
British psychoanalyst Joan Riviere was born Joan
Hodgson Verrall in Brighton, England, June 28, 1883,
and died in London, May 20, 1962.
A founding member of the British Psycho-
Analytical Society, she used her highly accomplished
literary skills and sensitivity to meaning in her translations
of Freud’s work and the writings of other psychoanalysts.
As translation editor of the International Journal
of Psycho-Analysis she was responsible for the
translation of all papers from its inception in 1920
until 1937, after which she gave more time to her
teaching and writing.
As a friend, colleague, and collaborator of Melanie
Klein, she was an articulate proponent of Klein’s ideas,
probably the most able among Klein’s colleagues to
express her theories incisively and convey them with
subtlety. Most important, Riviere contributed many
original ideas to the body of psychoanalytical knowledge
that was being developed during the more than
40 years of her professional life.
Her education was irregular, even for late Victorian
times: school in Brighton, a seaside town in Sussex
where she was born, was followed by some unhappy
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
RivicRE-HopGson VERRAL, JOAN (1883-1962)
years in a girls’ boarding school. Then, at 17, she spent
a year in Gotha, Germany, where she gained the
remarkable command of German that was to play
such an important part in her translations.
She was married in 1906 to Evelyn Riviere, a barrister,
and her only child, Diana, was born in 1908. In the
following years she struggled to find a place in the professional
world. She was involved in various movements
for social change, such as divorce reform and
suffragette activity. However these efforts did not alleviate
the considerable emotional distress from which
she suffered, and this led her to a therapeutic psychoanalysis
with Ernest Jones in 1916. The latter was so
impressed with her deep and sensitive understanding
of psychoanalytic principles and processes that he
made her a founding member of the British Psycho-
Analytical Society, formed in 1919.
The analysis with Jones was difficult and, reaching
an impasse, he recommended her to Freud for further
psychoanalysis. This took place in 1922 with evident
success. On her return to London from Vienna, Riviere
became actively involved in the work of the British
Psycho-Analytical Society, becoming a training analyst
in 1930. She was the analyst of such well-known individuals
as Susan Isaacs, John Bowlby, and Donald
Winnicott. She was reported by those she supervised,
such as Hanna Segal, Herbert Rosenfeld, and Henri
Rey, to be an excellent supervisor.
Her original contributions to psychoanalysis are to
be found in her papers: “Femininity as a Masquerade”
(1929) examines an area of sexual development, in
which the femininity of certain women is found to be
the mask assumed to hide phallic rivalry and hatred
of men. “Jealousy as a Mechanism of Defence” (1932)
shows remarkable originality in that she finds jealousy
to be a defense against envy aroused by the primal
scene. Her most original work is “A Contribution to
the Analysis of the Negative Therapeutic Reaction”
(1936). In it she incorporates Klein’s findings on the
depressive position, and describes for the first time
the concept of a “defensive organization” as a protection
against a psychic catastrophe. In the same year
she showed her ability to put Klein’s theories in a context
of Freud’s discoveries with “The Genesis of Psychical
Conflict in Earliest Infancy,” delivered in
Vienna in 1936 in honor of Freud’s 80th birthday. The
richness of her thinking about our unconscious drives
is apparent in the inner world in Ibsen’s “Master-
Builder” (1952), where she describes how the forces
1507
RivisTA DI PSICOANALISI
that shape the world find expression on the stage as
in life.
ATHOL HuGHES
See also: British Psycho-Analytical Society; Controversial
Discussions; Dependence; Feminism and psychoanalysis;
Great Britain; Negative therapeutic reaction; Standard
Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund
Freud.
Bibliography
Riviere, Joan (1929). Womanliness as a masquerade. International
Journal of Psychoanalysis, 10, 303-313.
. (1932). Jealousy as a mechanism of defence. International
Journal of Psychoanalysis, 13, 414-424.
. (1936). A contribution to the analysis of a negative
therapeutic reaction. International Journal of Psychoanalysis,
17, 304-320.
. (1936). On the genesis of psychic conflict in earliest
infancy. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 17, 395—
422.
. (1952). The inner world in Ibsen’s “Master Builder.”
International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 33, 173-180.
RIVISTA DI PSICOANALISI
La Rivista di psicoanalisi has been the official organ of
the Italian Psychoanalytic Society (SPI) since 1955,
when this quarterly review was first published. Each
volume contains approximately 180 pages, for a total
of 720 to 760 pages per year. The articles are organized
by section: theory and clinical practice, current issues
(“Reflections on Psychoanalysis and Science”), ethics,
technique, and social issues (“Beyond the Couch”),
discussions of work in progress, reports of congresses
and meetings, reviews, reports of foreign-language
publications, reviews of studies and trials, and
obituaries.
Since being founded in 1925 and its subsequent
revivals (1932 and 1945), the SPI has always attempted
to publish a review that would serve as an instrument
of scientific understanding and the diffusion of knowledge.
In 1925, professor Marco Levi Bianchini, the
society's founder, transformed the review he had created
in 1920, Archivio generale di neurologia e psichiatria,
into the official publication of the SPI with the
1508
title Archivio generale di neurologia, psichiatria e psicoanalisi.
In 1938 Italy’s racial legislation forced him to
sell the publication to Agostino Gemelli, who changed
the title to Archivio di neurologia, psichiatria e
psicoterapia.
After re-establishing the SPI in 1932, Edoardo
Weiss provided it with a new official publication, the
Rwista italiana di psicoanalisi, the first issue of which
was published that same year. The Fascist government
suspended publication, and the first issue of 1934,
which had already been printed, was never distributed.
In addition to articles by Edoardo Weiss, Nicola Perrotti,
and Emilio Servadio, the first issue contained
contributions from foreign authors including Heinrich
Meng, Ernest Jones, Franz Alexander, Ludwig Jekels,
Paul Federn, Sophie Morgenstern, Sigmund Freud
(“The Moses of Michelangelo,’ 1914b), and Marie
Bonaparte. Two other articles defended psychoanalysis
against the attacks of the literary critic Francesco Flora
and the philosopher Guido De Ruggiero. The second
volume published Sigmund Freud’s New Introductory
Lectures on Psychoanalysis (nos. 29-35), along with
contributions by Weiss and Servadio, and two articles
by Cesare Musatti.
La Rivista di psicoanalisi, which has primarily promoted
Italian authors, has also published several special
issues: “Psychoanalysis of Psychiatric Institutions”
(1971), “Aggression” (1972), “Interpretation” (1974),
“Creative Processes” (1975), “Wilfred R. Bion” (1981).
In 1986, in a supplement to volume 32, there appeared
a general index covering the years 1932-1933 and
1955-1984, which provided information on authors,
titles, and keywords.
ROSARIO MERENDINO
See also: Italy.
Bibliography
La Rivista di psicoanalisi (1986). Supplemento al numero 2:
General index 1932-1933; 1955-1984,
ROBERTSON, JAMES (1911-1988)
A psychoanalyst, filmmaker, and influential researcher
at the Tavistock Clinic on the impact of early separation
on child development, James Robertson was born
in Rutherglen, Scotland, on March 22, 1911, and died
in London on December 31, 1988.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Robertson was the eldest child of five in a workingclass
Scottish family, and left education at 14 to work
in a Glasgow steelworks. From 19 to 27 years of age he
attended various part-time Glasgow University Extension
Courses on literature, history, economics, and
philosophy, and in 1939 spent a year at Fircroft College
for the Higher Education of Working Men in Birmingham,
studying the humanities. From 1941 to 1945 he
studied for the External Diploma in Social Studies at
London University. In 1946-47 he completed the
Mental Health Certificate at the London School of
Economics. He trained in the British Psychoanalytical
Society, attaining associate membership in 1952, and
full membership in 1970. Robertson met his future
wife and colleague, Joyce, while studying in Birmingham.
A Quaker, he registered as a conscientious objector
during the war, and joined his wife to work with
Anna Freud as the only male social worker at the
Hampstead War Nurseries. He was accepted for psychoanalytic
training on the recommendation of Anna
Freud, being analyzed by Barbara Lantos.
In 1948 he joined John Bowlby at the Tavistock
Clinic to do research on the effects on separation from
the mother in early childhood. This research was conducted
in children’s hospital wards at the time when
national policy was weekly visits. He could not forget
the unnecessary unhappiness of the children and was
concerned at the time that harm was being done. He
and his wife made a series of important films illustrating
these effects vividly, and actively campaigned for
change. Later films, about institutionalization, foster
care and substitute mothering, were influential in promoting
the use of fostering rather than children’s
homes.
Robertson’s untiring campaigning over 30 years
was critically important in changing the United Kingdom
National Policy on recognizing and meeting the
emotional needs of children in hospital. Parents are
now expected to stay with their young children in hospital.
The vivid illustration on film of increasing disturbance
in young children separated from their
families initially shocked many pediatricians and
nurses, and Robertson came under attack, but finally,
following the first two films, the Platt Report in 1959
recommended that practice should change. In the
1960s, the National Association for the Welfare of
Children in Hospital was formed, with the help and
support of both Robertson and his wife. Robertson's
pioneering use of film has been developed using video,
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Roueim, GEza (1891-1953)
particularly by those in the field of attachment, and in
recent studies of infant and child development.
JENNIFER JOHNS
See also: Tavistock Clinic.
Bibliography ,
Robertson, James. (1953). A two-year-old goes to hospital.
London: Robertson Centre and Ipswich, Concord Films
Council.
. (1958). Going to hospital with mother. London:
Robertson Centre and Ipswich, Concord Films Council.
. (1958). Young children in hospital. London: Tavistock
Publications.
. (1976). Young children in brief separation, series of
five. London, Robertson Centre and Ipswich, Concord
Films Council.
. (1989). Separation and the very young. London:
Free Association Books.
ROHEIM, GEZA (1891-1953)
Anthropologist and psychoanalyst Géza Roheim was
born in Budapest on September 12, 1891, and died in
New York on June 7, 1953.
Born to a prosperous family of Jewish merchants, as
a child Geza had a passion for folk tales and while a
high school student he delivered a paper before the
Hungarian Ethnological Society. At the University of
Budapest he studied geography, linguistics, philosophy,
law, and literature; then, in Berlin and Leipzig,
anthropology and the history of religion. Because
anthropology was not yet a fully developed discipline,
when he received his doctorate in 1914 his examination
was in geography. As an assistant librarian in 1917
in the Széchenyi Library of the Hungarian National
Museum, Roheim essentially specialized in folklore. In
1918 he married Ilona, who would become his partner
in anthropological research.
Roheim had become acquainted with psychoanalysis
while a student, and his first article “Dragons and Dragon
Killers,” published in 1911, brought a psychoanalytic
perspective to the explanation of myths. In 1916 he
began analysis, first with Sandor Ferenczi and later with
Vilma Kovacs. In Spiegelzauber (Mirror Magic), first
1509
RoLLAND, ROMAIN EDME Paut-Emice (1866-1944)
published in 1919, Roheim made extensive use of
Freud’s recently developed theory of narcissism.
During Béla Kun’s short-lived communist revolution
in 1918, Réheim helped reorganize the Hungarian
National Museum, where he held the first chair of
anthropology at the University of Budapest. But when
the regime failed after just three months, Roheim lost
his academic position. Henceforth he made a living
through analytic practice and by giving occasional
courses in English.
In 1921, Roheim received the Freud Prize for his
study “Das Selbst” (“The Self”) and for his paper on
Australian totemism delivered at The Hague Congress
in 1920. In 1927, when Bronislaw Malinowski
famously contested the existence of the Oedipus complex
in matrilineal societies, Roheim had the task of
gathering material to refute the ethnologist’s arguments.
Several expeditions, beginning in 1928 and
sponsored by Marie Bonaparte, enabled Roheim to do
field work in Central Australia, New Guinea, Normanby
Island, and in Arizona among the Yuma.
From this work in the field Roheim developed his
major themes. In 1932 he published “Psychoanalysis
of Primitive Cultural Types” and arguably his central
work, The Riddle of the Sphinx, appeared in 1934. He
emphasized the significance of the primal scene and,
relying on work in comparative anatomy by German
physiologist Ludwig Bolk, attempted to demonstrate
the role of fetal characteristics in human mental life,
which he believed had important and to some extent
pathogenic consequences.
In the autumn of 1938, after the rise of fascism and
with war fast approaching, Roheim emigrated to the
United States. He first settled in Worcester, Massachusetts,
where he practiced as a psychoanalyst at the State
Hospital for the Insane; he subsequently settled in
New York. As a non-medical analyst, R6heim was not
accepted into the New York Psychoanalytic Society,
nor could he find an academic appointment. His
work, based on a systematic human psychology, found
little support among the functionalist ethnologists
then predominant in the universities, while he himself
remained critical of cultural anthropology. Ever creative
and intrepid, Roheim organized a seminar in his
home that brought together, among others, anthropologists
Weston La Barre, Werner Miinsterberger, and
Georges Devereux. In 1947, he undertook a new expedition
among the Navajo.
1510
Roheim left a considerable body of work that
includes some one hundred fifty studies and a dozen
books on a host of topics in anthropology, sociology,
history, mythology, folklore, and psychoanalysis. To
him is owed a method of applied psychoanalysis
buttressed by field investigation. He developed an
ontogenetic theory of culture and, citing Ferenczi, he
contended that a foundational trauma lies at the root
of each culture. Also, influenced by Melanie Klein,
Roheim offered an account of basic human activities,
emphasizing the significance of fantasies of destruction
and reparation. Marked by a deep cultural
pessimism, Roheim always pointed to the cultural
superiority of “primitive” people while viewing Western
societies as dominated by anal retentiveness and
reaction formations.
EvA BRABANT-GERO
See also: Anthropology and psychoanalysis; Ethnopsychoanalysis;
Hungarian School; Hungary; Magical thinking;
Myth; Oedipus complex; Primitive horde; Second World
War: The effects on the development of psychoanalysis;
Sociology and psychoanalysis/sociopsychoanalysis.
Bibliography
Roheim, Géza (1919), Spiegelzauber. Wien: Internationaler
Psychoanalytischer Verlag.
. (1932). Psychoanalysis of primitive cultural types.
International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 13: 2-224.
. (1934). The riddle of the sphinx. London: Hogarth
Press
. (1943). The origin and function of culture. New
York: Nervous and mental disease monographs 3.
. (1955). Magic and schizophrenia. New York: International
Universities Press.
. (1992). Fire in the dragon and other psychoanalytic
essays on folklore (Alan Dundes, Ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press.
ROLLAND, ROMAIN EDME PAUL-EMILE
(1866-1944)
The French author Romain Edmé Paul Emile Rolland
was born on January 26, 1866, in Clamecy, a small
town in Burgundy, and died on December 30, 1944, in
the old village of Vézelay.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY oF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Freud held Rolland in high esteem for his insight
into the mind of a child, and he called The Enchanted
Soul “a most beautiful novel.” André Malraux thought
Rolland was “the last of the great French romantic
novelists.” Quite unlike Freud, Rolland was musical to
the core and the seven volumes of his Beethoven the
Creator were published between 1928 and 1943. He
was awarded the 1915 Nobel Prize for literature for his
novel Jean-Christophe.
A politically engaged intellectual from the time of
the Dreyfus Affair at the turn of the twentieth century,
Rolland aroused Freud’s admiration for the anti-war
stance he took in 1914 with his essay “Au-dessus de la
meélée” (Above the Battle), in which he argued for
international brotherhood instead of mutual destruction.
Rolland denounced Hitler as early as 1933 and
condemned Jewish persecution as a “crime against
humanity.” Indeed, Rolland declined the Goethe Prize
after the Nazis came to power. After lending critical
support to the Soviet Union as a part of anti-Hiterlian
strategy, Rolland’s idealism moved him for a time
in the direction of non-critical communist fellowtraveler.
Rolland’s correspondence shows his introspective
side and his value as an eyewitness to history.
(Duchatelet, 1976).
Aware of trends in German culture, Rolland read
Freud as early as 1909. The two men would exchange
about twenty letters from 1923 to 1936; Freud’s first
communication was written the same week he was
diagnosed with cancer of the jaw. Rolland visited
Freud only once, on May 14, 1924.
The highly idealized intellectual and emotional
relationship between Freud and Rolland suggests a
veritable epistolary transference that served Freud as a
sounding board for self-analysis during his later years,
and several of his major works found their point of
departure in exchanges with his “venerated” alter ego.
Despite differences of background and culture,
powerful affinities joined these two romantic heroes.
Freud admired the poet and “apostle of love for mankind”
(Freud, 1960), while Rolland viewed Freud as a
“conquistador” of the new world of the mind. In Spinoza
they shared a common thread of influence—
Rolland, the Christian without a church, inspired by
“the enlightened Spinoza” and Freud the “Jewish heretic.”
Both were critical of the dogmas of organized religion
but differed over the role of religious feeling.
Rolland reproached Freud for not having analyzed the
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Rottano, Romain Eomé Paut-Emite (1866-1944)
“oceanic feeling” associated with religiosity. Rolland’s
pantheism led him to view mysticism, by contrast, as a
path to knowledge of the human mind; this represents
an element of Spinoza’s intellectual heritage and contrasts
with the uncompromising nineteenth-century
atheism of David Friedrich Strauss and Ludwig Feuerbach,
to which Freud was heir.
In the first chapter of Civilization and Its Discontents
Freud located the “oceanic feeling” in the primitive,
undifferentiated ego; he pursued the dialogue
with Rolland by searching for the causes of civilized
unhappiness, which he attributed to excessive repression
of sexual and aggressive drives and to the loss of
collective ideals. Close to Rolland in his critique of
Nazi anti-Semitism, Freud differed with him in showing
that quasi-religious idealization of communist
dogma masked its underlying violence.
The Journey Within (1942), a kind of self-analysis,
which Rolland began after his visit to Freud, reveals an
unconscious communication with him: he wrote
about mourning his two-year-old sister, Madeleine,
who died when he was five. In a mirror transference,
with twelve years in age between them, Freud analyzed
his own childhood grief, associated with the death of
his infant brother Julius, when he was about two years
old, in his “A Disturbance of Memory on the Acropolis”
(1936a), addressed to Rolland on the occasion of
the latter’s seventieth birthday. Capping their correspondence
and transference relationship, several of
Freud’s last writings developed themes first sketched
in this final burst of self-analysis.
HENRI VERMOREL AND MADELEINE VERMOREL
See also: Certainty; Civilization and its Discontents; Disturbance
of Memory on the Acropolis, A; Future of an Illusion,
The; Jouissance (Lacan); Judaism and psychoanalysis;
Mysticism; Oceanic feeling; Symbiosis/symbiotic
relation.
Bibliography
Duchatelet, B. (1976). A propos dune correspondance qui
nest pas encore générale. Revue @’histoire littéraire de la
France, 76, 958-975.
Freud, Sigmund. (1927c). Future of an illusion. SE, 21.
. (1930a). Civilization and its discontents. SE, 21.
. (1960). Letters. New York: Basic.
1511
ROMANIA
Rolland, Romain. (1959). The journey within. New York:
Philosophical Library.
Vermorel, Henri, and Vermorel, Madeleine (Eds.). (1993)
Sigmund Freud et Romain Rolland: Correspondance 1923—
1936. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
ROMANIA
On returning from training courses in France and Germany,
Gheorghe Preda (1879-1965), a medical officer
in the Romanian army, published his considerations
on psychoanalysis in a Romanian journal of medical
sciences in 1912. Without any personal experience of
psychoanalysis, he encouraged the interest of his collaborators,
who were the first to propagate Freud’s
work. Later, in 1923, one of Jean Martin Charcot’s students,
Gheorghe Marinescu, contributed to making
psychoanalysis known to Romanian intellectuals by
publishing two articles: an introduction to the study of
psychoanalysis and a critique of Freudian theory. Several
psychologists and psychiatrists then took an interest
in psychoanalysis. One of them, Ion Popescu-Sibiu,
entered into correspondence with Freud and became
the author of a very complete book on the theory and
practice of psychoanalysis: Conceptia Psihanalitica
(1947). In 1932 he won a Romanian Academy prize
for this book. It was in fact a revision of the thesis he
presented in 1927, with an addendum of “medico-psychological
vocabulary.” It was first published in three
thousand copies. Around this time more than ten
books and theses were published dealing with the
applications of psychoanalysis to psychotherapy, forensic
medicine, literature, the study of dreams, spiritualism,
and career guidance. In a setback, in 1932 an
application of psychoanalysis to the work of the
Romanian national poet Mihai Eminescu (1850-1889)
was considered iconoclastic. In 1934, and again
in 1935, attempts to start a journal of psychoanalysis
resulted in the appearance of one issue and no
follow-up.
Over the next few decades the development of psychoanalysis
was limited by the economic crisis of 1929,
the rise of the fascist Iron Guard party, which aligned
Romania with Nazi Germany, and the communist
takeover of the country. In 1946, just after the Second
World War, Ion Popescu-Sibiu and Constantin Vlad
(1892-1971) founded the Romanian Society for
Psychopathology and Psychotherapy. They rallied
1512
around them all those who had been interested in analysis
before the war. But psychoanalysis was prohibited in
1948, as it was in all communist countries. Not until
1973 and the new directions opened up by the political
head of state Nicolae Ceausescu did a clinical psychological
circle organize regular meetings of practitioners.
This breach in the wall was short lived, however, and in
1977 it was forbidden to teach psychology. People nevertheless
continued to study psychoanalytic texts. The first
volume of a translation of Freud’s Introductory Lectures
on Psychoanalysis (1916-1917a [1915-1917]) was published
in 1980. But the almost total absence of personal
and training analysis was detrimental to any real development
of psychoanalysis.
Not until after the fall of the Ceausescu regime
could a group of psychotherapists, largely nonphysicians,
found the Romanian Psychoanalytic Society in
1990. This society publishes an internal bulletin and a
journal that appear on a regular basis. The desire of
Romanian analysts to improve themselves professionally
is manifest in the numbers that have gone abroad
for training and by the 1995 Conference for Eastern
Europeans at Constanza, organized with the help of
the European Federation for Psychoanalysis.
MiIcHEL VINCENT
Bibliography
Diatkine, Gilbert, Gibeault, Alain, Gibeault, Monique, and
Vincent, Michel. (1993). La psychanalyse en Europe orientale.
In Gilbert Diatkine, Gerard Le Goues, and Ilana Reiss-
Schimmel (Eds.), La psychanalyse et Europe de 1993.
Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
RORSCHACH, HERMANN (1884-1922)
Swiss psychoanalyst and creator of the projective test
that bears his name, Hermann Rorschach was born in
Zurich on November 8, 1884. He died in Herisau on
April 3, 1922, probably from acute appendicitis, at the
age of thirty-seven, nine months after publishing his
seminal work, Psychodiagnostik.
From childhood Rorschach evinced considerable
artistic skill and while in secondary school he hesitated
between fine art, natural science, and medicine, opting
finally for the latter. In Zurich, where Rorschach principally
studied, Eugen Bleuler had created a revolution in
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hospital psychiatry by introducing Freud’s theories,
while his colleague, Carl Gustav Jung, had worked out a
word association test on psychodynamic principles.
Rorschach obtained his medical license in 1909 and his
medical degree in 1912, from the University of Zurich.
From 1909 to 1913, Rorschach worked as an assistant
in the psychiatric hospital in Minsterlingen,
and there prepared his doctoral thesis, “On Reflex-
Hallucinations and Kindred Manifestations.” At the
same time, he conducted some early experiments on
children and adults in which he compared verbal associations
with associations aroused by blots of ink, but
did not elaborate on this work at the time. Rorschach
developed an interest in psychoanalysis about 1911,
the date of his first publication. He contributed short
articles, reports, and book reviews to the Zentralblatt
fiir Psychoanalyse from 1912 to 1914.
After visiting Russia in 1913, Rorschach returned to
Switzerland to assume a position as assistant in Waldau,
a psychiatric clinic near Bern; his main interest
during this period were several unusual Swiss religious
sects. In 1915 he was appointed associate director of
the asylum at the small town of Herisau, where he
would remain until his death.
While at Herisau, Rorschach rekindled his earlier interest
in the use of inkblots in psychiatric diagnosis. Over the
course of three years, beginning in 1918, he developed a
series of cards through experiments with patients to
develop a projective test that could indicate the presence
of certain personality traits and characteristics. The
Rorschach test is an example of a scientific advance due as
much to artistic talent as to intellectual rigor.
Published in 1921, Psychodiagnostics was not yet a
definitive text when Rorschach died the following year.
The test won acceptance over time, and by the 1930s it
had garnered considerable attention in the United States.
The Rorschach Institute was founded in New York in
1939, and Henri Ellenberger, with his biographical essay
in 1954, restored Rorschach’s stature and significance. In
the United States, although the test was widely criticized
from the 1950s and remains a controversial assessment
tool, a revision by John Exner in the 1970s brought the
Rorschach renewed and continuing attention.
In 1919, when the Swiss Society of Psychoanalysis
was founded by Oskar Pfister and Emil and Mira
Oberholzer, Rorschach was one of its eight members,
and served as vice-president. He practiced psychoanalysis
with a small number of patients. Training analyses
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ROSENFELD, Eva Maric (1892-1977)
were not then required, and Rorschach himself was
never analyzed. A selection of Rorschach’s articles was
published in Germany in 1965.
MuIREILLE CIFALI
See also: Psychological tests; Psychology and psychoanalysis;
Switzerland (German-speaking).
Bibliography
Ellenberger, Henri. (1954). Hermann Rorschach, M.D.,
1884-1922: A biographical study. Bulletin of the Menninger
Clinic, 18 (5), 173-219.
Exner, John E., Jr. (1974). The Rorschach: A comprehensive
system. New York: John Wiley.
Rorschach, Hermann. (1942). Psychodiagnostics: A diagnostic
test based on perception. New York: Grune & Stratton.
. Gesammelte Aufsdtze. (1965). Bern, Germany:
H. Huber, 1965.
ROSENFELD, EVA MARIE (1892-1977)
The psychoanalyst Eva Rosenfeld was born in Berlin
in 1892 and died in Great Britain in 1977.
Her father, Theodor Rosenfeld, an impresario and a
member of Berlin’s wealthy Jewish bourgeoisie, died in
1907, when she was fifteen, leaving her with a mother
who went into mourning until her death in 1942.
Shortly after her father’s death, she decided to look after
the Zellerhaus, an institution for poor young orphan
girls. At the age of seventeen she became engaged to her
cousin Valentin, a young lawyer who knew Freud, and
having married him in 1911, she moved to Vienna to
live. She had three children, the first two of whom, both
boys, died of dysentery in 1918.
She then created an establishment for adolescent
girls in difficulty, which Siegfried Bernfeld recommended
to Anna Freud in 1924 when Anna was seeking
a home for a patient in difficulty. This was the
beginning of a friendship between the two young
women that lasted until 1932. In July 1927 the death of
her fifteen-year-old daughter, Rosemarie (Madi), in a
mountain accident, again drove her to care for children
in order to overcome her heartbreak. With the
help of Dorothy Burlingham and under the pedagogical
and psychoanalytical authority of Anna Freud, she
then founded the Burlingham-Rosenfeld Heitzing
School, named after the district where the garden of
Eva’s house was home to the school.
1513
ROSENFELD, HERBERT ALEXANDER (1910-1986)
Encouraged by Anna Freud, she commenced analysis
with Freud in March 1929, an analysis that lasted
until 1932, of which she later said that the “transference
was intense and passionate.” She also exchanged
abundant correspondence with Anna while the latter
was staying with her father in the clinic at Tegel. Ernst
Simmel, who needed help to manage this disorganized
clinic, appealed to Rosenfeld in 1931. As bursar, she
was in charge of organizing its dissolution.
When Eva moved to Berlin, it marked the end of
the school and her intense friendship with Anna
Freud, which was further accentuated by her departure
for Great Britain in 1936. She met Melanie Klein
shortly after her arrival in London and, fired with
enthusiasm for her personality and her work, she
commenced analysis with her in 1938, an analysis
that was to last in fits and starts until 1941, when
Nein left for Scotland and Rosenfeld went to Oxford.
Their relationship ended with a break: “You have
sacrificed your analysis for the friendship of Anna
Freud!” Eva and Anna, in fact, remained in contact
until the very end.
There are few details concerning the rest of Rosenfeld’s
long life, and her career as an analyst. Throughout
her life she remained in contact with Anna Freud,
although it was obvious that as soon as she left Vienna
her place with Anna was taken by Dorothy Burlingham.
ALAIN DE MYOLLA
See also: Blos, Peter; Burlingham-Tiffany, Dorothy; Erikson,
Erik Homburger; Freud, Anna; Guilbert, Yvette;
Hietzing Schule/Burlingham-Rosenfeld School; Tegel
(Schloss Tegel).
Bibliography
Heller, Peter. (1990). A child analysis with Anna Freud.
Madison, CT: International Universities Press.
. (1992). Anna Freud’s letters to Eva Rosenfeld. Madison,
CT: International Universities Press.
ROSENFELD, HERBERT ALEXANDER
(1910-1986)
Psychoanalyst Herbert Alexander Rosenfeld was born
in Nuremberg, Germany, on July 2, 1910, and died in
London on October 27, 1986.
1514
Rosenfeld came from a middle-class Jewish family.
He studied medicine at several German universities
and became interested in psychiatry while at Munich
University, from which he graduated in 1934. In 1935,
due to the anti-Jewish racial laws, Rosenfeld emigrated
to England, where he worked in several hospitals after
having taken all his medical examinations again in
Glasgow. During this period he became interested in
the possibility of treating severely psychotic. patients
using psychotherapy instead of drugs. In 1942 he
began his training analysis with Melanie Klein at the
British Psycho-Analytical Society in London. He qualified
as an associate member in 1945, became a full
member in 1948 and a training analyst in 1949. In
1972 he became a FE. R. C. Psych, fellow of the Royal
College of Psychology.
For decades until his death, Rosenfeld practiced in
London and taught at the Institute of Psycho-Analysis
as well as abroad, being particularly interested in the
psychoanalytic treatment of psychotic and severely
disturbed patients. Together with Wilfred Bion and
Hanna Segal, he widened the teaching of Melanie
Klein and became a world-wide acknowledged authority
in his field. In 1947, using the clinical material
from his first training case, he published his first psychoanalytical
contribution, “Analysis of a Schizophrenic
State of Depersonalisation.” The case became one
of the landmarks in the history of the psychoanalytical
treatment of psychosis, because it was the first case of
an adult psychotic patient being successfully treated by
a purely interpretative psychoanalytic method. In this
paper Rosenfeld used Klein’s seminal concept of projective
identification, which he widened and clarified
in successive papers.
Another important observation already present in
his first paper was that of transference psychosis,
which Rosenfeld differentiated from that of transference
neuroses in order to describe the massive projection
of unconscious fantasies of the psychotic patient
on the analyst and the primitive nature of his object
relations.
Another important paper related to the problems
faced in treating psychotic patients was Rosenfeld’s
research into what he called “confusional states”
(1949). Although mainly related to processes characteristic
of chronic schizophrenia, Rosenfeld’s observations
help to better understand the problem of the
impossibility or difficulty in normal splitting between
bad and good aspects of the self and of the external
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and internal objects which massively characterize
chronic schizophrenia but to a certain degree can be
found even in less disturbed patients.He collected his
first set of papers in 1965 in a book Psychotic States,
which soon became a classic. Later, Rosenfeld became
increasingly interested in the study and treatment of
narcissistic disturbances and personalities. Particularly
important is his paper “A Clinical Approach to the
Psychoanalytic Theory of the Life and Death Instincts:
An Investigation into the Aggressive Aspects of Narcissism,”
published in 1971, where he stressed the link
between narcissism and the death drive.
During the last years of his life Rosenfeld became
interested in problems related to the difficulties in
communication and the impasse in the psychoanalytic
treatment of severely and less severely disturbed
patients, and on the role played by the analyst in creating
those impasses. (See Impasse and Interpretation,
published in 1986.)
RICCARDO STEINER
See also: Alcoholism; Envy; Infantile psychosis; Narcissism;
Projective identification; Paranoid position; Paranoidschizoid
position; Psychotic transference; Schizophrenia.
Bibliography
Green, André. (1976). Un, autre, neutre: Valeurs narcissiques
du méme. In Narcissisme de vie, narcissisme de mort
(pp 31-79). Paris: Minuit.
Kernberg, Otto F. (1989). Impasse and interpretation by
Herbert Rosenfeld. International Journal of Psycho-
Analysis, 70, 173-177.
Segal, Hanna, and Steiner, Riccardo. (1987). H. A. Rosenfeld.
International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 68, 415-419.
Steiner, John. (1993). Psychic retreats. London and New
York: Routledge.
Steiner, Riccardo. (1989). On narcissism: The Kleinian
approach. In Otto F. Kernberg (Ed.), Narcissistic Personality
Disorder, vol. 12 (pp. 741-770). Psychiatric Clinics of
North America.
ROSENTHAL, TATIANA (1885-1921)
Tatiana Rosenthal, a Russian psychoanalyst, physician,
and specialist in neurology, was born in Saint Petersburg
in 1885 and committed suicide there in 1921.
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ROSENTHAL, TATIANA (1885-1921)
Coming from a Jewish family, she emerged from childhood
with an uneasy disposition coupled with a passionate
temperament. During the Russian revolution
of 1905, she embraced the cause of the workers’ movement.
In 1906 she settled in Zurich, where she studied
medicine. When she read The Interpretation of Dreams
(Freud, 1900a), she was inspired with the idea of combining
the ideas of Freud and Marx.
After she finished her studies, she moved to Vienna.
She became a member of the Vienna Psychoanalytic
Society in 1911, and the following year she began to
attend the Wednesday meetings. After the outbreak of
World War I, she returned to Saint Petersburg and the
Psychoneurological Institute there, devoting considerable
energy to interesting Vladimir Bechterev, head of
the institute, in psychoanalysis. Fighting to have psychoanalysis
used in the education of children, she was
a precursor of Vera Schmidt at the Moscow Detski
dom (Children’s Home). In 1919 she became director
of the polyclinic for the treatment of psychoneuroses
attached to Psychoneurological Institute. In 1920 she
was appointed director of the clinic for neuropathic
children.
One year later Rosenthal, mother of a young child,
committed suicide. Her death at her own hand
becomes less enigmatic when placed in its historical
context: Bolshevism, having repressed the workers’
strikes in Saint Petersburg and crushed the Cronstadt
uprising, was beginning to show its terrorist face. Her
suicide, at the age of thirty-six, may have been the
reaction of a personality whose idealism was strained
to breaking point.
Rosenthal’s only published work is the essay “Stradanie
i tvortchestvo v Dostoievskoni” (Suffering and
creation in Dostoyevski), published in Russian in 1920
in the journal Voprosi psychologiu litschnosty. The second
part of this essay and two other articles, on war
neuroses and Alfred Adler’s individual psychology,
have never been published. In her Dostoyevski essay,
Rosenthal dealt with the psychology of the artist and
unconscious influences in the genesis of artistic work.
To do so, she had to clarify what psychoanalysis can
contribute to understanding works of art. For
Rosenthal, certain insufficiently sublimated pathological
components of the artist’s psychology detract from
artistic works. Dostoyevsky’s three youthful novels are
a case in point.
ANNA MariA ACCERBONI
1515
Ross, Heten (1890-1978)
See also: Germany; Russia/USSR.
Bibliography
Accerboni-Pavanello, Anna Maria. (1992). ‘Tatiana
Rosenthal: Une bréve saison analytique. Revue internationale
d’histoire de la psychanalyse, 5, 95-109.
Neidisch, S. (1921). Dr Tatiana Rosenthal, Petersburg. Internationale
Zeitschrift fiir Psychoanalyse, 7, 384-385.
Rosenthal, Tatiana. (1920). Stradanie i tvortchestvo v Dostoievskoni.
Voprosy psychologiu litschnosti.
ROSS, HELEN (1890-1978)
Helen Ross, a psychoanalyst and administrator, was
born March 16, 1890, in Independence, Missouri, and
died August 10, 1978, in Washington, D.C.
One of seven children, Helen Ross was born into a
family that highly valued education. Her older brother
supported her college education, and after her own
graduation from the University of Missouri in 1911,
she worked for five years as a school teacher to enable
her younger siblings to continue their education. During
this period she augmented her income by teaching
English to immigrants in a Jewish settlement night
school in Kansas City. In 1916 she began graduate
work in sociology and economics at Bryn Mawr. Ross
gave up her graduate studies, however, at the urging of
Pauline Goldmark, one of the famous Goldmark sisters,
whose sister Alice was married to Supreme Court
Justice Louis Brandeis, to accept a job as a field agent
for the U.S. Railroad Administration, whose women’s
division was headed by Pauline Goldmark. For two
years she traveled all over the United States, investigating
the working conditions of women working on the
railroads and, she emphasized in a memoir, making
sure they were getting equal pay for equal work.
In 1914 she and an older sister established a summer
camp for girls in Michigan, which they ran
together for the next thirty-four years. Ross later wrote
that the constant contact with “the everyday problems
of normal children” sharpened her interest in human
development and made her eager to deepen her understanding
of personality development. This led her to
an interest in psychoanalysis, and in 1929, at the
urging of Franz Alexander who had recently arrived in
Chicago, she went to Vienna. There she was analyzed
by Helene Deutsch and began a lifelong friendship and
1516
collaboration with Anna Freud. In particular, Ross was
instrumental in the establishment of the Hampstead
Clinic through her efforts to secure ongoing financial
support for the clinic from the Marshall Field Foundation
in Chicago. She also assisted in the translation of
August Aichhorn’s Wayward Youth.
After returning to Chicago in 1934, she began a private
practice and acted as a consultant to a number of
social agencies. She also wrote a newspaper column,
About Our Children, for the Chicago Sun-Times. Ross
used her influence as a consultant to social welfare
agencies and her newspaper column to convey in clear
and intelligent language the insights of psychoanalysis
to teachers, social workers, and parents. In 1942 she
began a fourteen-year tenure as the administrative
director of the Chicago Psychoanalytic Institute. In
1956, at the request of the American Psychoanalytic
Association, she and Bertram D. Lewin undertook an
extensive survey of the training programs of seventeen
American psychoanalytic institutes. The resulting
book, Psychoanalytic Education in the United States
(1960), reviewed, among other topics, the history of
psychoanalytic education, presented a detailed analysis
of candidates in training and how they were selected,
analyzed curriculums for both adult and child analysis
programs, and discussed the role of the teaching and
supervising analyst’ in psychoanalytic training. The
thoroughness of their survey, combined with its dispassionate
tone, created a climate that allowed many
institutes to closely examine and make changes in
their educational programs. This was a considerable
achievement and the success of the survey probably
owes something as well to the deep respect and affection
that their colleagues felt for Ross and Lewin.
After completing this project Ross moved to
Washington, D.C., and became a faculty member and
supervising child analyst of the Washington Psychoanalytic
Institute, and also served as a psychoanalytic
consultant, teacher, and supervisor at other institutes.
Helen Ross’s contributions to psychoanalysis as a
supervisor, writer, consultant, and administrator were
considerable. Anna Freud, in a touching letter to one
of Ross’s sisters after her death, described her own
sense of deep loss by gracefully noting the personal
qualities that made Ross such a formidable and
beloved figure. “For me it means that something inexpressibly
precious has gone and will never come again.
Helen’s rare combination of goodness and cleverness,
firmness and gentleness, tolerance and sharpness of
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judgment, friendship and undemandingness was hers
alone. I hope she knew how much not only I, but
many other people felt about her.” These personal qualities
were accompanied by an indomitable intellectual
curiosity and a determination that took her from the
Midwest of Missouri and Kansas east to Bryn Mawr
and finally to Europe and Vienna, where she found her
vocation in one of the most vibrant intellectual movements
of the twentieth century.
NELutE L. THOMPSON
Bibliography
Hunter, Doris. (1979). Helen Ross 1890-1978. The Psychoanalytic
Quarterly, 48, 465-469.
Ross, Helen. (1951). Fears of children. Chicago: Science
Research Associates.
Ross, Helen, and Lewin, Bertram D. (1960). Psychoanalytic
education in the United States. New York: W. W. Norton.
Thompson, Nellie. (2001). American women psychoanalysts
1911-1941. Annual of Psychoanalysis, 29, 161-177.
RUBINSTEIN, BENJAMIN B. (1905-1989)
American physician Benjamin B. Rubinstein was born
on December 3, 1905, in Helsinki and died on December
7, 1989, in New York City. He grew up in a warm,
moderately affluent family of Finnish Jews. After
attending a gymnasium in Copenhagen, he graduated
from the University of Helsinki Medical School in
1936. He worked as an undergraduate research assistant
to the neurophysiologist Ragnar Granit, gaining a
lasting appreciation of scientific research and neurophysiology.
His residency in psychiatry and neurology,
begun in London, was interrupted by military service
in the Finno-Russian wars, and completed at the University
Hospital, Helsinki, in 1947.
In 1940 he married Dinorah Rosenthal (who later
became a well-known photographer). David Rapaport
recruited him as a psychiatric research fellow at the
Menninger Foundation (Topeka, Kansas) in 1947.
From 1948 to 1953, he was a staff psychiatrist and
received psychoanalytic training. On graduating he
moved to New York, where he remained in private
practice until his death. He and his wife became American
citizens in 1957; they had no children.
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RUBINSTEIN, BENJAMIN B. (1905-1989)
Rubinstein had strong interest and talents in music,
poetry, and the theater, having been an actor and composer,
principally of songs. He held teaching positions
at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine and at
Bronx Municipal Hospital Center, and served as a consultant
to the Research Center for Mental Health,
NYU. For several years, with Hartvig Dahl, he led a
research seminar on clinical inference at the New York
Psychoanalytic Society. {
Because of the traumatic reception of his first
psychoanalytic paper in 1952 ( on the psychoanalytic
concept of sexuality), he was slow to attempt other
publication. He began with a paper on “Psychoanalytic
Theory and the Mind-Body Problem” (chapter 1 of
the Collected Papers of Benjamin B. Rubinstein; 1997).
His final published work was “The Experience of
Tragedy, Expectations, and the Moral Order” (chapter
17). All but a few discussions of papers were collected
in a posthumous volume, plus several previously
unpublished manuscripts.
Rubinstein had no peer among working clinical
psychoanalysts in his expert grasp of the philosophy of
science and his ability to apply it to psychoanalysis.
His contributions to the juncture of these disciplines
were warmly appreciated by such outstanding philosophers
of science as Adolf Grunbaum (University of
Pittsburgh) and Robert Cohen (Boston University).
He contributed to the training and inspired the work
of philosophers (Robert Shope), psychoanalysts (Hartvig
Dahl, Emanuel Peterfreund), and psychologists
(Morris N. Eagle, Robert R. Holt) alike, though his
works and via informal seminars on psychoanalytic
theory. His unpublished first paper anticipated many
of the most cogent criticisms of Freud’s metapsychology
that have appeared in the past four decades. His
clarification of the clinical theory, its basic assumptions,
and its hierarchical organization makes it more
easily convertible into a workable, cumulative, and
testable scientific theory. Rubinstein was first to
demonstrate the probabilistic nature of the theory’s
propositions, with profound implications for its verification—
for example, Karl Popper’s model of testability
is shown to be inapplicable. It is difficult to predict
the eventual impact of his work, but if psychoanalysis
makes major progress toward becoming a true science
it will have been made possible as much by his work as
by that of anyone else.
Rosert R. Hout
1517
Russia/USSR
See also: Psychoanalytic epistemology; Science and
psychoanalysis.
Bibliography
Rubinstein, Benjamin B. (1997). Psychoanalysis and the philosophy
of science. In Robert R. Holt (Ed.), Collected
papers of Benjamin B. Rubinstein, M.D. Madison, CT:
International Universities Press.
RUSSIA/USSR
Psychoanalysis was introduced into Russia in 1905
when Nikolai Osipov (1877-1934) returned to Moscow
after training with Carl G. Jung, about the same
time as Moshe Wulff (1878-1971) settled in Odessa
after studying with Karl Abraham. Like their teachers,
neither man underwent a personal analysis. Osipov
and psychiatrist Osip Feltzman carried out the first
psychoanalytically-based treatments and taught Freudian
theory at a university clinic directed by Vladimir
Serbski who, although critical of the significance
accorded sexuality in psychoanalysis, recognized therapeutic
successes of the approach.
Near the beginning of the First World War, Sigmund
Freud (1914d) wrote: “In Russia, psychoanalysis
has become generally known and has spread
widely; almost all my writings, as well as those of other
adherents of analysis, have been translated into Russian.
But a really penetrating comprehension of analytic
theories has not yet been evinced in Russia; so
that the contributions of Russian physicians are at present
not very notable. The only trained analyst there is
M. Wulff who practices in Odessa” (p. 33). That Wulff
was considered an exception is explained by the quality
of his publications in German; he was also the chief
translator of Freud’s works into Russian.
Among the early Russian analysts, Wulff and Sabina
Spielrein (1882-1941) produced the most innovative
clinical and theoretical work, but they wrote in German.
Spielrein’s important paper, “Destruction as the
Cause of Becoming,” influenced Freud’s development
of the theory of the death instinct. Articles by Osipov
and Alexander Luria (1902-1977) discussed applied
psychoanalysis while revealing their authors’ lack of
training and clinical experience.
The advent of the communist regime after the 1917
revolution upset the development of psychoanalysis,
1518
both ideologically and institutionally. The Communist
Party, with Nietzschian aspirations to create the “new
man,” at first lent its indispensable imprimatur to the
creation of the Russian Psychoanalytic Society in 1922,
presided over by Serbski’s successor at the State Psychoanalytic
Institute, Ivan Ermakov. These organizations
shared offices in a beautifully appointed Art
Nouveau mansion in Moscow.
Following in the footsteps of Tatiana Rosenthal,
who in 1911 had introduced psychoanalysis to St.
Petersburg, Vera Schmidt (1889-1937), a physician
and pedagogue, opened a psychoanalytic “children’s
home” (Detski Dom) in 1921. In 1922 her husband,
Otto J. Schmidt (1891-1956), although a mathematician,
began to supervise the Psychological and Psychoanalytic
Library, an imprint of the State Publishing
House; he made possible the publication in Russian of
Freud’s works.
In spite of such developments, conflicts inside the
Soviet Union proved lethal for analysis both as a profession
and a psychological theory even as it gained
international recognition. Although at the Berlin Congress
in 1922 Freud seemed pleased with progress, Ernest
Jones was more cautious, especially as regards the
Moscow group; he supported a group based in Kazan
and headed by Luria. The International Psychoanalytical
Association (IPA) requested that the Russian
Society have at least two “instructors”; Spielrein thus
returned to Moscow from Switzerland, joining Wulff,
who had been in the city since 1919. The Kazan group
relocated to Moscow and the IPA recognized the Russian
Society at the Salzburg Congress in 1924.
But all was not well from the start. Osipov had
already fled communism to settle in Prague, and after
just eighteen months in Moscow, Spielrein retired to
her birthplace, Rostov-on-Don, where she and her
family met a tragic end at the hands of the Nazis during
World War II. In 1927, Luria turned to neuropsychology
and Wulff fled to Berlin.
By the end of the 1920s, when physicians were compelled
to solemnly renounce private practice, training
analyses were no longer available in the Soviet Union.
The Russian Psychoanalytic Society, which formally
existed until 1933, was vitally dependant upon the
whims of various “red professors” who were controlled
by the Communist Party; this would have made training
with Wulff or Spielrein impossible in any event.
This situation went unappreciated by Wilhelm Reich
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
when he visited Russia in 1929 under the auspices of
the IPA. Reich paid no attention to Wulff and Spielrein;
he was instead duped by the communist professors
to such an extent that he reported that analysts
occupied important posts in the Soviet Union.
Psychoanalysis required the approbation of the
Communist Party, and initially received it most especially
from the revolutionary leader Leon Trotsky. The
fortunes of analysts in the Soviet Union declined upon
Trotsky’s fall from grace and political exile to Alma-
Ata (now Almaty, Kazakhstan) in 1928, shortly before
the Psychoanalytic Institute closed its doors and the
Psychoanalytic Society became inoperative. In 1930, a
year after Trotsky was exiled from the Soviet Union
altogether, all psychoanalytic publications stopped.
Otto Schmidt had not awaited the inevitable; he
retrained to become a noted Arctic scientist and
explorer.
In Civilization and Its Discontents (1930a [1929])
Freud commented, apropos Russian communism:
“One only wonders, with concern, what the Soviets
will do once they have wiped out their bourgeois” (p.
115). In 1931, the great proletarian writer Maxim
Gorky (1868-1936) settled into Ryabushinsky Mansion,
where Stalin met with him and famously called
writers “engineers of human souls.” Freud’s works
were consigned to “special storage” in public libraries;
they might be consulted, but propagation of Freudian
ideas was in this way greatly limited.
The Cold War saw development of a powerfully
anti-psychoanalytic establishment in the Soviet Union.
In 1950, at the Pavlov Conference, sponsored by the
Soviet Academy of Sciences and the Academy of Medical
Sciences, psychoanalytic concepts were criticized in
a welter of attacks, with many participants obliged to
repent for having previously voiced positive comments
about analysis.
The official anti-psychoanalytic stance was modified
somewhat three decades later when, at the end of
East-West detente, participants at the Tbilisi Congress,
held in Georgia in 1979, promoted a theory of
“unconscious behavior” proposed by the Georgian
experimental psychologist Dmitri Uznadze (1887—
1950). The congress was preceded by publication of
three long volumes on “the unconscious” that
included a significant number of articles by Western
authors such as André Green and Daniel Widlocher;
these texts, however, were not translated into Russian.
For fear of ideological manipulation and compro-
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
RussiaA/USSR
mise, well-known psychoanalysts from the IPA did
not attend, although Leon Chertok and others, and
especially Lacanians such as Serge Leclaire, accepted
the invitation in the hope of starting a dialogue that
was expected to be difficult in any event due to linguistic
and political barriers. The Western articles
were not included in the fourth volume, which
appeared in 1985, concerning “Results of the Discussion.”
Some present-day Russian analysts consider the
Tbilisi Congress the first step in the renewal of Russian
psychoanalysis.
During perestroika, from 1985 to 1991, Russians
were allowed to organize psychoanalytic meetings. In
1987, a first encounter with French analysts from the
Institute of the Freudian Field took place in Moscow,
followed by meetings with representatives of the
School of the Freudian Cause. In 1988, a meeting
seems also to have taken place with representatives of
the American Psychoanalytic Association. Two new
academic societies were created, the members of which
almost all belonged to the Society of Moscow Psychoanalysts.
The Franco-Soviet Group of the Freudian
Field, founded in 1988, became the Russian Circle of
the European School of Psychoanalysis from 1991
until 1995; its orientation was Lacanian and it was
established without official statutes or stable direction.
The Soviet Psychoanalytic Society, founded in 1989
and in 1991 renamed the Russian Psychoanalytical
Association, did have official statutes and was presided
over by Aron Belkin (1927-2003), who had a special
interest in the social uses of psychoanalysis. The IPA
welcomed Belkin at its congresses in Rome in 1989
and in Buenos Aires in 1991, and gave his group the
special status of guest study group.
The historic events of August 1991, during which
Russia separated from the Soviet Union (which itself
was dissolved several months later), created prospects
for travel and genuine psychoanalytic training. Thus,
in 1992, Pavel Katchalov was able to undergo a personal
analysis and training in Paris, helped by a grant
from the French government and an alliance between
Hopital Esquirol in Saint-Maurice, a suburb of Paris,
and the Serbski Center in Moscow. Alexander Khostov,
of Lomonosov University, and Victoria Potapova
traveled to Paris in 1994. All three joined the Paris
Psychoanalytical Institute; others followed _ suit.
When, in 1995, Lola Komarova left to train in London,
it was the end of the Russian Psychoanalytical
Association. Some former members, decided to create
1519
Rycrort, CHARLES FREDERICK (1914-1998)
a new group following an IPA curriculum, the Moscow
Society of Psychoanalysts. Several of its members
had classical or shuttle analysis; the French influence
was dominant. Since 1995, an annual Franco-Russian
debate has been held every fall by Katchalov and
Hervé Benhamou, a member of the Paris Psychoanalytic
Society, with the support of the French Embassy.
The Moscow Psychoanalytic Society was founded
due to Boris Kravtsov, who in the 1970s ran a psychoanalytic
seminar that was attended by a number of
psychologists, including Pavel Snejnevsky, Julia
Alyoshina, and Sergei Agrachev. In 1988 he established
a psychoanalytic section of the Association of Practicing
Psychologists, and by 1990 contacts were established
with IPA members in the United States,
Germany, the Netherlands, and the Czech Republic,
where several members were trained. Alyoshina and
Snejnevsky were trained in the United States and
decided to remain there. In 1995, this group became
the Moscow Psychoanalytic Society, over which Agrachev
presided until his death in 1998, promoting a
training program for psychoanalysts with IPA support.
Publications of this group soon included translations
of works by Otto Kernberg, the three volumes of the
Modern Psychoanalysis by Helmut Thoma and Horst
Kachele, and Melanie Klein’s Envy and Gratitude. The
institute’s subsequent director, Igor Kadyrov, was the
first Russian to be elected a direct member of the IPA;
he was trained by shuttle analysis, as were the other
members of the society, which by 2004 included six
members of the IPA.
In 1998 the St. Petersburg Society of Child Psychoanalysis
was founded, the result of productive
exchanges between psychoanalysts at the Anna Freud
Centre in London and a Russian group that included
Svetlana Chaeva and Nima Vasilieva, the society’s
president at that time.
Problems of quackery and imposture have plagued
recent psychoanalysis in Russia. Institutes and societies
of dubious origin have sprung up throughout the
country, which train ersatz therapists without personal
analysis, “certifying” them to take profitable advantage
of psychosocial misery. With the decree of June 19,
1996, concerning “the revival and development of philosophic
psychoanalysis, clinical and applied,” President
Boris Yeltsin made possible establishment of the
controversial East European Institute of Psychoanalysis
in St. Petersburg. The Russian intelligentsia and
general public alike have grown more distrustful of
1520
untrained or quack psychoanalysts. As a countermeasure,
the two Moscow Institutes have combined forces
to provide training and to improve awareness through
yearly psychoanalytic seminars.
ALEXANDRE MIKHALEVITCH
Bibliography —
Angelini, Alberto. (1988). La psicanalisi in Russia: dai Percursori
ali anni trenta. Naples: Liguori Editore.
Freud, Sigmund. (1914d). On the history of the psychoanalytic
movement. SE, 14: 1-66.
. (1930a [1929]). Civilization and its discontents. SE,
21: 57-145.
Katchalov, Pavel. (1994). Historiques des méthodes psychothérapiques
dans l’ancienne URSS. Journal de psychiatrie,
7, 102-104.
Marti, Jean. (1976). La psychanalyse en Russie et en Union
Sovietique. Critique, 32, 199-236.
Miller, Martin. (1998). Freud and the Bolsheviks: Psychoanalysis
in imperial Russia and the Soviet Union. New Haven,
CT: Yale University Press.
RYCROFT, CHARLES FREDERICK
(1914-1998)
Psychoanalyst and psychiatrist Charles Frederick Rycroft
was born on September, 9, 1914, in Basingstoke,
England, and died on May, 24, 1998, in London.
Rycroft grew up in Hampshire. His father, Sir
Richard, was a country squire and the fifth Baronet in
a family that traced its ancestry to before the Norman
Conquest. When Charles was eleven his father died,
and an elder half-brother succeeded to the title and the
estate. Charles was educated at Wellington College,
and then Trinity College, Cambridge, from which he
graduated with honors in 1936 in economics and history.
Charles had briefly been a Communist at Cambridge,
where the Bloomsbury analyst Karin Stephen
encouraged him to apply for psychoanalytic training.
Ernest Jones thought that Charles should become a
qualified physician; accordingly he started his psychoanalytic
and medical training in 1937. He was analyzed
first by Ella Sharpe, and after her death by Sylvia
Payne. He finally qualified in medicine in 1945.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
For almost three decades Rycroft was the leading
intellectual force in independent British psychoanalytic
circles. Within the British Psychoanalytic Society he
became an associate member in 1949, a full member in
1952, and a training analyst in 1954. He was joint
librarian (1952-54) with Masud Khan, served on the
editorial board of the International Journal of Psychoanalysis
(1953-54), and was scientific secretary (1956—
59). He began to write reviews and essays for The
Observer and The New York Review of Books, and
beginning in 1965 started to withdraw from the British
Society. Rycroft was bored and alienated by the longstanding
ideological quarrels within the British
Society.
Nonetheless he analyzed such notable figures as
R. D. Laing, Peter Lomas, and Alan Tyson, in addition
to a series of eminent people within British intellectual
life. He also became one of the most well-known public
expositors on psychoanalytic matters, best known
for his A Critical Dictionary of Psychoanalysis (1968)
and his book The Innocence of Dreams (1979). He
remained in private practice until a week before he
died.
Rycroft’s special contribution to psychoanalysis
stemmed directly from his being broadly welleducated
and cultured. Out of his aristocratic background
he succeeded in being a distinctive and original
voice. He always stressed the constructive power of
imagination, and he tried to steer clear of the reductionism
and negativism that characterized so much of
the early psychoanalytic thinking. Psychoanalysis
belonged, he felt, within the humanities and moral
sciences, not the natural sciences. He felt particularly
inspired by the examples of Donald Winnicott and
Erik Erikson, both of whom he considered kindred
spirits. Rycroft took a special interest in the problem
of creativity, and wrote on how analysts tended to rely
on the “ablation” of their biological pasts, substituting
instead their lineage in analytic training. The illusion
of having created oneself was, he proposed, a defensive
reaction characteristic of analysts, an ahistorical or
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Rycrort, CHARLES Freperick (1914-1998)
anti-historical tendency that could be good individually
but was not desirable for the field as a whole. Idealizations
of the training analysis and the so-called
apostolic succession follow from such use of ablation.
Ablation as a concept can help understand why it has
unfortunately been so often a case of lese-majesté to
talk about Freud—who had his own difficulties
acknowledging his antecedents—within the regular
categories of intellectual history. Rycroft’s spiritual
daring was in a sense an extension of Freud’s own historic
independence, even though that common trait
had inevitably to lead in different directions.
Rycroft, widely acknowledged for his general brilliance,
represented the best tradition of British
free-thinking within psychoanalysis. He not only interpreted
dreams independently of Freud, but took an
individual slant on Freud’s whole legacy. Rycroft
expressed himself in careful, understated prose that is
rewarding for its subtleties.
PauL ROAZEN
See also: Creativity; Dream; Great Britain; Internal/external
reality; Reich, Wilhelm.
Bibliography
Rycroft, Charles (Ed.). (1967). Psychoanalysis observed. New
York: Coward.
. (1968). Anxiety and neurosis. London: Allen Lane.
. (1968). A critical dictionary of psychoanalysis. London:
Nelson.
-. (1968). Imagination and reality. London: Hogarth
Press.
. (1971). Wilhelm Reich. New York: Viking.
. (1979). The Innocence of dreams. London: Hogarth
Press.
. (1985). Psychoanalysis and beyond. London: Chatto.
. (1991). Viewpoints. London: Hogarth.
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SACHS, HANNS (1881-1947)
The Austrian psychoanalyst and doctor of law Hanns
Sachs was born on January 10, 1881 in Vienna and
died on January 10, 1947 in Boston.
Sachs was the son of a Jewish lawyer whose family
roots were in Bohemia. After studying law at the University
of Vienna, he earned his doctorate in 1904 and
began to practice as a lawyer.
The same year was marked by the determining
experience of his life, his reading of Sigmund Freud’s
The Interpretation of Dreams (1900), which made a
very strong impression on him. He made contact with
Freud and, in 1909, was admitted to the Wednesday
society. He then participated in the “Committee,” the
limited circle of the first psychoanalysts around Freud.
Sachs had artistic and literary gifts. He translated
Rudyard Kipling’s poems into German, and had a sustained
interest in the possibilities of applying the views
and methods of psychoanalysis to cultural phenomena.
Together with Otto Rank, with whom he was closely
linked until Rank’s break with Freudian psychoanalysis,
he published The Significance of Psychoanalysis for the
Mental Sciences (1913), and co-directed the journal
Imago, created the previous year, whose title Sachs himself
had chosen with reference to Carl Spitteler’s 1906
novel.
In 1918 Sachs abandoned his legal practice to
become a professional analyst in Ziirich. In 1920 he
became a training analyst at the Berliner Psychoanalystiches
Institut (BPI; Berlin Psychoanalytic Institute)
headed by Karl Abraham. The analysts who trained
with him included, notably, Franz Alexander, Michael
Balint, Erich Fromm, Rudolf Lowenstein, and Karen
Horney. In 1932, anticipating the full magnitude of
political developments, he left Germany and emigrated
to the United States. He taught at the Harvard Medical
School in Boston, where he was one of the few analysts
without a degree in medicine. Despite his authority as
a training analyst in the Boston Psychoanalytic Society
(BoPS), and despite the esteem in which he was held
as someone close to Freud, his role was not universally
accepted, mainly because of the issue of lay analysis. In
1939, following in the footsteps of the Austrian journal,
he founded American Imago, which is still published
today. He died on January 10, 1947, on his
sixty-sixth birthday, in Boston.
Sachs always showed himself to be a loyal disciple of
Freud. His Freud: Master and Friend (1944) presents a
portrait of Freud that is dominated by loyalty, respect,
and sympathy. In his presentations on clinical analysis,
dealing with various themes, he always remained within
the framework of Freudian theory. In works intended
for the general public, such as Zur Menschenkenntnis:
Ein psypsychoanalytischer Wegweiser fiir den Umgang
mit sich selbst und anderen (Contribution to the knowledge
of man: psychoanalytic guide to relations with
oneself and others, 1936), he attempted to popularize
psychoanalysis. He and Abraham advised Georg Wilhelm
Pabst on Mysteries of a Soul (1926), a cinematic
translation of Freud’s world and ideas. Sachs took an
interest in all realms—political, social, cultural, and, in
particular, literary—whose understanding he believed
could be enhanced by psychoanalysis. He wrote essays
on Otto von Bismarck, the psychoanalysis of films, and
kitsch. In 1930 he published a historical psychoanalysis
of the Roman emperor Caligula, entitled Bubi Caligula
(Little Caligula). He was also interested in Shakespeare,
Schiller, and Baudelaire, among others.
1523
SanGer, Isipor Isaak (1867-1942?)
In Gemeinsame Tagtriume (Collective daydreams),
published in 1924, Sachs developed a remarkable theory
of literary creation that even today remains
under-appreciated. Its argument is as follows: The
determining factor is not talent or the individual
effort of the artist, but rather the social character of
the work. Sachs saw literary production first and foremost
as a social performance: Literature, he argued,
creates a social bond in the form of a recognized discourse,
in which the unconscious and the repressed,
which cannot express themselves otherwise, come
into language. The condition for this is the literary
form of the work of art, which he interpreted as a
social compromise in which repressed instinctual
needs are worked through. This theory of the work of
art as a collective daydream was further reworked in
his later works. His last book, Masks of Love and Life,
published posthumously in 1948, broadens these conceptions
by considering philosophical problems in the
light of psychoanalysis.
REINER WILD
See also: American Imago; Applied psychoanalysis and
the interaction of; Berliner Psychoanalystisches Institut;
Cinema criticism; Cinema and psychoanalysis;
Germany, history of psychoanalysis in; Imago. Zeitschrift
fiir die Anwendung der Psychoanalyse; Imago
Publishing Company; Secrets of a Soul; Visual arts and
psychoanalysis; Secret Committee; Sociéte psychanalytique
de Paris and Institut de psychanalyse; Training
analysis; Wiener psychoanalytische Vereinigung; World
War I.
Bibliography
Moellenhoff, Fritz. (1966). Hanns Sachs, 1881-1947: the
creative unconscious. In Psychoanalytic pioneers. (FE. Alexander,
S. Eisenstein, and M. Grotjahn, Eds.) New York and
London: Basic Books.
Sachs, Hanns. (1924). Gemeinsame tagtraume. Berlin, Leipzig,
and Vienna: Internationaler psychoanalytischer Verlag.
. (1942). The creative unconscious: Studies in the psychoanalysis
of art. Cambridge, MA: Sci-Arts Publishers.
. (1948). Masks of love and life: The philosophical
basis of psychoanalysis. (A. A. Roback, Ed.) Cambridge,
MA: Sci-Arts Publishers.
Sachs, Hanns, and Otto Rank. (1916). The significance of
psychoanalysis for the mental sciences. (Charles R. Payne,
Trans.) New York: Nervous and Mental Disease Publishing
Co.
1524
SADGER, ISIDOR ISAAK (1867-19427)
Austrian physician and psychoanalyst Isidor Isaak Sadger
was born in Neuzandec, in Galicia, on December
29, 1867, and died, probably in a Nazi concentration
camp, during the Second World War.
An important figure in early psychoanalysis, Sadger
began his career as a specialist in nervous diseases
who, in 1894, began publishing a series of articles on
psychophysiology. One such article, which vaunted the
discoveries of Paul Flechsig (who would become physician
to Daniel Paul Schreber), was noted when Freud,
after reading it, dreamed of the sentence: “It’s written
in a positive style” (1900a, p. 296).
A proponent of degeneracy theory, Sadger defined
this hereditarian concept as an abnormal reaction of
the central nervous system, and he investigated its incidence
in the lives of significant writers. In his early
writings, Sadger alluded to Freud in discussions of hysteria.
He also appears to have attended some of Freud’s
university lectures in the late 1890s, about the time he
began to practice the various neuropsychiatric therapies.
In addition to employing the degeneracy concept,
Sadger also evinced considerable interest in Freud’s
seduction theory.
In 1906, Sadger joined the group of analysts then
gathering around Freud. His disregard for psychoanalytic
conventions with patients earned him the disdain
of colleagues; he took notes in shorthand during sessions
and published them. However, he was regarded
by Freud as a “good worker” for his varied research
and particularly for his contributions concerning narcissism
and homosexuality.
Some of Sadger’s publications were devoted to the
medico-legal defense of homosexuality, and he analyzed
homosexuals with a view to curing “perversion.”
Such patients had to promise—indeed, certify—that
they would undergo treatment even if the law did not
punish their sexual behavior, and to admit that they
possibly already had experienced some feeling for the
opposite sex (Sadger, 1908). From these analyses
emerged an etiology. The homosexual had a dominating
mother and weak, sometimes absent father. Sadger
regularly claimed that his homosexual patients recovered
childhood memories of a precocious love for a
woman, most often the mother. Sadger’s biography of
Heinrich von Kleist, published in 1910, took up this
theme. While Freud accepted this discovery, and made
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
use of it in his study of Leonardo da Vinci (Freud,
1910c), he rejected most of Sadger’s ideas about narcissism
(Sadger, 1908).
Sadger was the first Viennese analyst to employ the
term “narcissism,” bringing together Wilhelm Fliess’s
theory of bisexuality and the word “Narzismuss”
which had been invented by Paul Niacke about 1899.
He developed a theory of the ontogenesis of sexuality
based on the concept of childhood seduction, in which
sexuality manifested by the adult toward the child is
taken up by the child and transformed into a closed
circle of adoration. By contrast, Freud created a theory
of narcissism in which the role of the object remains to
a great extent concealed (Vichyn, 1984).
Sadger ended his work with, and his participation
in, the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society about 1930. He
may have written a biography of Freud but the manuscript
has never been found. Sadger alone among
Viennese analysts was either unable or unwilling to
profit from his relationship with Freud in order to
escape Austria after the German annexation in 1938.
He died in the Theresienstadt camp in about 1942.
AUTHOR NAME
See also: Applied psychoanalysis and the interaction of
psychoanalysis; Heterosexuality; Homosexuality; Lehrinstitut
der Wiener psychoanalytischen Vereinigung; “On
Narcissism: An Introduction”.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1900a). The interpretation of dreams.
Part I, SE, 4: 1-338. The interpretation of dreams. Part II,
SE, 5: 339-625.
. (1910c). Leonardo da Vinci and a memory of his
childhood. SE, 11: 57-137.
Nunberg, Hermann and Federn, Ernst. (1962-75). Minutes
of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society. New York: International
Universities Press.
Sadger, Isidor. (1908). Psychiatrisch-Neurologisches in psychanalytischer
Beleuchtung. (Psychiatry and neurology in
the light of psychoanalysis). Zentralblatt fur das Gesamtgebiet
der Medizin und ihrer Hilfswissenschaften, 7-8.
. (1910). Ein fall von multipler perversion. (A case of
multiple perversion). Jahrbuch fiir psychoanalytische und
psychopathologische Forschungen, 2.
. (1921). Die lehre von den geschlechtsverirrungen
(Psychopathia sexualis), auf psychoanalytischer grundlage.
Leipzig-Vienna: F. Deuticke.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
SADISM
Vichyn, Bertrand. (1984). Naissance des concepts: autoérotisme
et narcissism. Psychanalyse a l Université, 936.
SADISM
Sadism is pleasure derived from inflicting cruelty on
another person. Richard von Krafft-Ebing coined the
term in reference to the writings of the Marquis de
Sade. In “Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality”
(1905d) Sigmund Freud described sadism as the active
form in a pair of opposites, masochism being the passive
form of the same sexual perversion.
Two pregenital libidinal phases are described, the
oral-sadistic (or cannibalistic) stage, and the analsadistic
stage, which remains active during later libidinal
development. During the genital stage sadism
becomes linked with the masculine position, owing to
the active character of both. In neurotic organization,
particularly of the obsessional type, sadism plays an
important part, both as an instinctual impulse to be
repressed, and because of the ambivalence of the
instinctual investment. The case of the “Rat Man,”
related in “Notes Upon a Case of Obsessional Neurosis”
(1909d) is particularly illustrative of sadism, as is
the case of the “Wolf Man,” described in “From the
History of an Infantile Neurosis” (1918b [1914]),
which shows that the child often interprets the primal
scene as sadistic.
Sexual sadism is propped analytically on certain
developmental events: the coming in of the teeth during
the oral stage, during which satisfaction coincides
with destruction of the object; mastery of the anal
sphincter muscles; and muscular development that
brings the genitalia under the control of reproductive
functions. Freud in addition took into account from
the outset a nonsexual type of aggression, in which a
need to eliminate an obstacle to instinctual satisfaction
also allows the instinct for mastery to be satisfied.
Thus, as he wrote in “Instincts and Their Vicissitudes”
(1915c): “Psycho-analysis would appear to
show that the infliction of pain plays no part among
the original purposive actions of the instinct. A sadistic
child takes no account of whether or not he inflicts
pain, nor does he intend to do so” (p. 128). It is in this
article that Freud gave his most complete account,
within the framework of the first theory of the
instincts, of the links between sadism and masochism.
Sadism, first, can be transformed into masochism by
1525
SADOMASOCHISM
means of a double reversal, wherein activity is transformed
into passivity and the subject is substituted for
the object. The same outcome is found in the other
pair of opposites described, voyeurism and exhibitionism.
Nevertheless, Freud noted that the sexual sadistic
component presupposes a prior knowledge of masochism,
and that it therefore entails the following contradiction:
“The enjoyment of pain would thus be an
aim which was originally masochistic, but which can
only become an instinctual aim in someone who was
originally sadistic” (p. 129).
This contradiction was resolved in 1924 in “The
Economic Problem of Masochism,” in which Freud
confirmed his earlier intuition from “Beyond the Pleasure
Principle” (1920g) of a masochism that could be
primary. He posited an erotogenic primary masochism
that binds the part of the death instinct remaining
within the organism. Sadism in effect results from
the diversion outward, through the intermediary of
the musculature, of the libidinally bound destructive
instinct onto objects. “It is appropriate, then, to call it
the destructive instinct, the instinct for mastery, the
will to power. Part of this instinct is directly placed in
the service of the sexual function, where it has an
important function to fill. This is sadism, properly
speaking.”
Even in his second version accompanying the introduction
of the death instinct, Freud allowed for consideration
of sadism in a broad and not necessarily
sexual sense, as representing the destructive instinct
directed outwards toward the objects. Analysts who
deem it, unnecessary to adhere to the second theory of
the instincts are thus justified in equating sadism and
destructiveness, all the more so in that anality, for all
its abundant potential for instinctual erotization, also
lends itself to the metaphorization, by means of fecalization,
of the most radical forms of deanimation (Béla
Grunberger). Some authors, such as Jean Bergeret,
have even maintained that sadism exists as a fundamental
narcissistic violence, well before the emergence
of sexuality is clinically revealed in narcissistic structures,
and that it is inaccurate to describe it in terms of
objects, even pregenital ones. Paul Denis has reassessed
the element of mastery present in any instinct, with
respect to the aim of satisfaction.
Like Karl Abraham, whom Freud also followed in
his conceptualization of sadism and the libidinal
stages, Melanie Klein adopted the second theory of the
instincts and their dualism, but in her clinical work
1526
she focused on sadism as the main expression of the
destructive impulse, giving it considerable and early
importance. Its turning back against the subject is
what puts him or her in danger.
Other authors, such as André Green and Benno
Rosenberg, have taken further Freud’s conception of
the fusion of life and death instincts prior to any sadism,
which thus becomes a projected masochism, and
accordingly they see sadism as a protection against the
threat of the death instinct and its deobjectivizing aim,
particularly in borderline states in which primary anality
(Green) intervenes against disintegration and its
destructive consequences (Rosenberg). In such a view,
sadism protects the individual just as masochism does,
but with a more secure external object. This is not
always the case, however, since in melancholia incorporation
of the object endangers the subject’s life and
illustrates the threat of the superego’s sadism toward
the ego, which is also present, in a less severe form, in
self-punishment.
Denys RIBAS
See also: Allergy, Ambivalence; Anality; Childhood; Compulsion;
Cruelty; Dipsomania; Eroticism, anal; Eroticism,
urethral; Hatred; Imago; Infantile sexual curiosity; Jouissance
(Lacan); Kantianism and psychoanalysis; Masochism;
Mastery; Mastery, instinct for; Melancholia;
“Notes upon a Case of Obsessional Neurosis” (Rat Man);
Object, change of/choice of; Organization; Phallic
mother; Phobias in children; Pregenital; Primal scene;
Psychosexual development; Reaction-formation; Rite
and ritual; Sadomasochism; Stage (or phase); Stammering;
Tics; Ulcerative colitis; “Vagina dentata,” fantasy of;
Violence, instinct of.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1905d). Three essays on the theory of
sexuality. SE, 7: 123-243.
. (1915c). Instincts and their vicissitudes. SE, 14:
109-140.
. (1924). The economic problem of masochism. SE,
19: 155-70.
SADOMASOCHISM
Sadism and masochism represent contrasting forms of
pleasure derived from sexual excitation linked to
cruelty and the infliction of pain. While both currents
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
are present in any given individual, they also represent
pregenital links in an intersubjective context in which
one partner is the sadist and the other the masochist.
Sadomasochism may have an oral component but
takes on characteristic form during the anal sadistic
stage.
In Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality (1905d),
Freud pointed out that sadism and masochism, terms
that first gained currency in the work of Richard
Krafft-Ebing, “are habitually found together in the
same individual” and “occur together regularly as
pairs of opposites” (pp. 159-60). Freud eventually
generalized this dynamic to psychic structures as a
whole, when he posited the relations governing the
mental agencies in his second topography. Thus the
superego’s sadism toward the ego figures prominently
in the idea of self-punishment and moral masochism.
Sadomasochism may also characterize relationships
between individuals, regardless of gender, and even if
the context is a normal sexual relationship.
Sadomasochism may be viewed as a regression in
the face of castration anxiety, provoked by the oedipal
conflict and associated with the perception of the anatomical
differences between the sexes. This interplay
can be seen in cases of obsessional neurosis—for
example, with the “Rat Man” in “Notes upon a Case of
Obsessional Neurosis” (1909d). Freud also found
sadomasochistic aspects to the oedipally tinged autoerotic
fantasies discussed in “A Child Is Being Beaten:
A Contribution to the Study of the Origin of Sexual
Perversions” (1919e). In general, Freud’s original conception
of sadomasochism developed from his early
instinct theory, which included a drive to mastery
without a sexual aim.
However, in terms of the genesis of the sadism and
masochism, Freud eventually gave pride of place to the
latter, which he discussed first in 1915 in “Instincts
and Their Vicissitudes” in terms of the presence of sexual
excitation, and then formulated more generally in
“The Economic Problem of Masochism” (1924c),
written after the introduction of the death instinct.
In Freud’s later theory, sadomasochism derives its
importance and power, so to speak, from a singularly
effective form of instinctual fusion that protects the
individual from the death instinct by diverting it outward
(sadism) or binding it either internally or to an
object (masochism). This amounts to a profound
explanation of the human capacity to hurt oneself and
one another, with both sexual and survival benefits.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
SAINTE-ANNE HOSPITAL
This idea can elicit at least as much if not more resistance
than infantile sexuality. In dealing with sadomasochism,
the analyst may confront resistances that are
especially rigid, together with fixations on pregenital
object relations, moral masochism, and negative therapeutic
reaction.
Freud’s conception of sadomasochism can be clinically
validated by role reversal found among sadomasochistic
couples, in the establishment of reverse
relationships with another partner, and in the special
durability of such relationships. The masochist’s victory
lies in the fact that the master cannot free him- or
herself from the ties that bind.
For analysts who remained faithful to Freud’s first
theory of instincts, sadomasochism expresses mental
destructiveness, sometimes in the most extreme fashion.
For those who preferred the death instinct, sadomasochism
instead offers protection from instinctual
destructiveness, both internally and through cathexis
of a particularly solid object relationship, albeit a pregenital
one. Both camps are in agreement in referring to
sadomasochism clinically in the analysis of borderline
or narcissistic situations in which triangulation gives
way to dyadic relations, but they view it differently, as
either negative or positive, with regard to destructiveness.
This difference would tend to dissolve if it were
specified whether internal destructiveness or external
destructiveness was involved, because only the latter is
taken into account in terms of aggression.
Denys RIBAS
See also: Sadism.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1905d). Three essays on the theory of
sexuality. SE, 7: 123-243.
. (1915c). Instincts and their vicissitudes. SE, 14:
109-140.
. (1919e). A child is being beaten: A contribution to the
study of the origin of sexual perversions. SE, 17: 175-204.
. (1924c). The economic problem of masochism. SE,
19: 155-170.
SAINTE-ANNE HOSPITAL
In an edict issued on July 30, 1863, Napoleon III “state
approved” that an asylum be established in Paris for
1527
SALPETRIERE HOSPITAL, LA
the treatment of mental illness. This hospital was built
on a plot of land that was formerly a farm called Saint-
Anne, which was in a remote district, but provided
forty-four acres that would allow for the construction
of a model facility based on the ideas of Jean-Etienne
Esquirol and able to accommodate up to 500 patients
of both sexes.
The program set out by the committee established
by Baron Haussmann included plans for a central
admissions office, which was intended to replace
immediately the “city madhouse,’ where patients
would be observed and then redirected to one of ten
buildings constructed around the periphery. Work was
quickly begun by Charles Auguste Questel, the architect
who had drawn up plans for the project under the
direction of alienist Girard de Caillaux, and construction
was completed in 1866. The chief administrator
of the central office was Valentin Magnan, but the
“madhouse” was made a special infirmary under the
prefecture of police, and when it was decided in 1875
that a clinical chair for mental illness and the study of
the brain was to be created, Benjamin Ball won the
appointment with the support of Charles Laségue,
under whom he served at the infirmary.
Sainte-Anne maintained a long tradition of competition
between academic teaching sponsored by the
chair and clinical lectures or seminars given by notable
teachers who attracted large audiences. Henri Claude,
who held the chair from 1922 to 1939, opened a public
clinic (which Edouard Toulouse turned into the
Henri-Rousselle Hospital in 1926). From 1936, Claude
entrusted consultations in psychoanalysis to René
Laforgue, and in 1926 sponsored a series of lectures on
psychoanalysis at Sainte-Anne. Under his chairmanship
Henri Claude allowed only doctors who had psychoanalytic
training to practice at the clinic.
When the war began, Claude was replaced by M.
Laignel-Lavastine, but in 1942, the faculty council
installed Leévy-Valensi, who was prohibited from
teaching under Vichy laws. He was arrested on September
15, 1943, and deported to Auschwitz where he
died in the gas chamber three days later. Jean Delay,
who served as acting chair after Lévy-Valensi, was
named permanent chair in 1946. An analysand of
Edouard Pinchon, Delay allowed only analysts to practice
in the clinic. Lacan held his seminar in the departmental
amphitheater until November 1963, while
Henri Ey spoke at the Magnan Amphitheater at Henri-
Rouselle Hospital.
1528
But the advent of psychopharmacology, heralded by
the International Conference on Thorazine at Sainte-
Anne, was to make the hospital one of the birthplaces
of neuroleptic treatment, in effect eliminating its role
in the development of clinical psychiatry and psychopathology
enriched by psychoanalysis.
JEAN GARRABE
See also: Aimée, the case of; Allendy, René Felix Eugene;
Aulagnier-Spairani, Piera; Berman, Anne; Borel, Adrien
Alphonse Alcide; Claude, Henri Charles Jules; Congress
of French-speaking analysts from Romance-language
countries; Delay, Jean; Ey, Henri; France; Heuyer,
Georges; Inconscient, L’; Janet, Pierre; Lacan, Jacques-
Marie Emile; Laforgue, Rene; Male, Pierre; Minkowski,
Eugene; Nacht, Sacha Emanoel; Narco-analysis; Parcheminey,
Georges; Pasche, Francis Léopold Philippe; Perrier,
Fran¢ois; Schiff, Paul; Seminar, Lacan’s; Sokolnicka-
Kutner, Eugenie.
SALPETRIERE HOSPITAL, LA
On the site of a former gunpowder warehouse for the
military, the “Salpétriere,’ Louis XIII constructed a
building that would become part of the General Hospital
of Paris and used to house beggars. The project
was part of the general cleanup of the city that resulted
from the edict published in 1656 by Louis XIV.
For more than two decades the Salpétriére Hospital
was used to house women. They lived in different
buildings depending on the reason for their confinement
(beggars, prostitutes, criminals, the ill). Gradually
the facility was transformed into an asylum.
Shortly before the Revolution of 1789, Philippe Pinel,
who had arrived from the Hospital of Bicétre (the
men’s asylum), working with the director, Cusin,
introduced patient control methods similar to those
he had already put into effect at Bicétre.
When, in 1862, Jean Martin Charcot joined the
General Hospital, it became his job to care for the
women in the asylum. He began conducting clinical
and anatomical-pathological research, which led to
the foundation of rheumatology and neurology in
France.
While conducting research on neuropathology (the
anatomical study of infantile brain diseases), Freud, in
1895, requested a grant to study at the Salpétriére.
INTERNATIONAL Dictionary oF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Coincidentally, Charcot had just begun a critical revision
of the pathogenesis of hysteria. Although Charcot
had long believed in the organic nature of full-blown
neurosis and in animal magnetism, when Freud came
to attend his lectures (October 1885-March 1886), his
approach was based on the psychological nature of
hysteria, where the symptom was believed to result
from a voluntary refusal to function. Hypnosis had no
therapeutic advantage. It could, however, “experimentally”
produce symptoms illustrating the role played
by suggestion in their pathogenesis.
Freud was deeply influenced by Charcot and his
ideas. Extremely disappointed by his welcome in Paris
(which perhaps led to his life-long antipathy for the
French), he idealized Charcot to the extent of calling
one of his sons Martin in his honor. In 1889 he
stopped in Nancy (the rival school) to deepen his
understanding of hypnosis. However, he remained
faithful to the teachings of the Salpétriére, which held
that the effect of hypnotic suggestion is observed only
in subjects who are predisposed to it and that hysteria
is the result of this predisposition. On his return to
Vienna, Freud found that Joseph Breuer maintained
the same position regarding hysteria.
Several years later, in 1890, Pierre Janet, with Charcot’s
support, opened a psychopathology laboratory
that allowed him, in spite of the organicist revisionism
of Joseph Babinski and Pierre Marie, to continue his
own clinical work, until Jules Déjerne had him
replaced in 1910.
DANIEL WIDLOCHER
See also: Charcot, Jean Martin; Congres International
de l’Hypnotisme Expérimental et Scientifique, Premier;
France; Hypnosis; Hysteria; Janet, Pierre.
SAN FRANCISCO PSYCHOANALYTIC
SOCIETY AND INSTITUTE
Psychoanalytic training came to the United States first
on the Atlantic seaboard during the 1930s with the
establishment of institutes connected with societies in
New York, Boston, and the Baltimore-Washington area
and then, in one extension westward, in Chicago. A decade
later, in the early 1940s, a society and institute were
established for the first time west of the Mississippi
River, in Topeka, Kansas, by Karl and Will Menninger,
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
SAN FRANCISCO PSYCHOANALYTIC SOCIETY AND INSTITUTE
who had been trained psychoanalytically by commuting
to Chicago during the 1930s. The Topeka institute was
authorized to sponsor all training in the western part of
the United States, including California.
The San Francisco Psychoanalytic Institute was
established in 1942 as part of the combined California
Psychoanalytic Society (a joint society of Los Angeles
and San Francisco), both branches being under the
direction and supervision of the Topeka society and
institute. The initial ten charter members of the new
society (in Los Angeles and San Francisco, with one
even in New York) were William G. Barrett, Bernhard
Berliner, Otto Fenichel, George Gero, Bernard A.
Kamm, Jascha Kasanin, Donald McFarlane, Douglass
W. Orr, Ernst Simmel, and Emanuel Windholz.
Because of the strictures of the American Psychoanalytic
Association at that time against the training or
membership of nonphysicians (lay analysts), the local
nonmedical members of the analytic community
(Frances Deri in Los Angeles and Siegfried Bernfeld,
Erik Erikson, and Anna Manchen in San Francisco)
had to be designated as honorary members in the local
society, not eligible for membership in the American
Psychoanalytic Association. Almost all of these charter
members in the new California society were refugees
from Hitler’s Europe who had immigrated to America
in the 1930s. In the latter half of the 1930s they started
an informal psychoanalytic study group in San Francisco.
This group was open to all interested medical or
academic individuals, whether they had been psychoanalytically
trained or not. One of the most prominent
and active participants of the group was Robert
Oppenheimer, the famed nuclear scientist, then at the
University of California at Berkeley.
From these initial members, soon joined by others
(such as David Brunswick, Ralph Greenson, Norman
Reider, and May Romm), the California Psychoanalytic
Society grew rapidly in the post-World War II
boom years, and soon separated into two organizations.
With candidacy limited at the time to psychiatric
physicians, the San Francisco Society and Institute
drew some candidates from among those in psychiatric
training at the two local medical schools, Stanford
University and the University of California at San
Francisco, but the Departments of Psychiatry at both
these medical schools, despite having a number of psychoanalysts
on their clinical teaching faculty, were
quite unfriendly to psychoanalysis and thus furnished
fewer psychoanalytic candidates than the next source.
1529
San FRANCISCO PSYCHOANALYTIC SOCIETY AND INSTITUTE
The greater bulk of the candidates came rather
from the Department of Psychiatry of the Mt. Zion
Hospital, a local independent Jewish clinical and
teaching hospital. Its Department of Psychiatry was
established when, in the late 1930s, it recruited as
chief the psychoanalyst Jascha Kasanin from Chicago
(who was, as stated above, one of the charter members
of the California Psychoanalytic Society). Over a
three-decade period, he was succeeded as chief by psychoanalysts
Norman Reider, Edward Weinshel, and
Robert Wallerstein. During this same period the
department grew in scope in its training of residents
in adult and child psychiatry and also, in accord with
its multidisciplinary commitments, in its training of
graduate and postgraduate students in clinical psychology
and psychiatric social work, growing to a size
and prominence that rivaled the training programs at
the two medical schools.
This deeply psychoanalytic Department of Psychiatry
became so well-known nationally that internship
applications to this regional Jewish hospital came
from all over the country, with the majority of the
interns coming so that they could vie for acceptance
into specialty training in the Department of Psychiatry,
often to the dismay of the medical and surgical
specialties, which competed for interns. Over a fifteenyear
period (1973-1988), the Mt. Zion Department of
Psychiatry conducted a Doctor of Mental Health program,
a five-year experimental program for psychoanalytically
informed mental-health practitionersi, n
content an amalgam of the most relevant aspects of
separate disciplinary training in clinical psychiatry,
clinical psychology, and psychiatric social work. This
program furnished a substantial additional cadre of
applicants for full psychoanalytic training at the San
Francisco Institute (see Wallerstein, 1978, 1991, for a
detailed account of the Doctor of Mental Health).
Until the early 1960s the San Francisco Society and
Institute had no building. Its seminars and supervisions
were held in institute instructors’ and supervisors’ private
offices, which were primarily in the clusters of
medical office buildings surrounding Mt. Zion Hospital,
and the monthly scientific meetings were held in
the hospital auditorium. When the San Francisco
Society and Institute did erect a building, on the site
where it still stands, it was kitty-corner from Mt. Zion
Hospital. About half the training analysts in the institute,
plus other graduate analysts, held part-time salaried
administrative and teaching positions on the
Mt. Zion Hospital staff, and the Department of Psy-
1530
chiatry at the hospital served much like a prep school
for the institute. Psychiatric trainees hoped to enhance
their chances to be accepted as a candidate at the institute
by impressing their psychotherapy supervisors and
their clinical and theoretical seminar leaders who were
also institute faculty members.
During the 1960s and 1970s, serious tensions over
training issues arose within the Education Committee
and threatened to split the institute. One of the principle
protagonists in these battles regularly urged Robert
Wallerstein, as chief of psychiatry at Mt. Zion Hospital,
to join him and other training analysts on the Mt.
Zion staff and split from the San Francisco society to
found an alternative and rival Mt. Zion Psychoanalytic
Society. One of Wallerstein’s periodic tasks was to
block this move. The internecine difficulties at the
institute were finally resolved by the end of the 1970s,
and the integrity of the society and institute has not
been threatened since.
During the 1980s the long-simmering struggles
within the American Psychoanalytic Association
came to a head over the issue of accepting nonmedical
mental-health professionals (for the most part,
clinical psychologists and psychiatric social workers)
for full clinical psychoanalytic training. In early 1985
four clinical psychologists, on behalf of a presumed
class of many thousands, instigated a lawsuit against
the American Psychoanalytic Association for its
restrictive training and membership policies, a suit
based on Sherman Antitrust grounds. They had the
full backing of Division 39, the psychoanalytic division,
of the American Psychological Association. (See
Wallerstein, 1998, for a detailed accounting of the
almost century-long struggle over this issue until its
final resolution with the settlement of the lawsuit in
1988.) Many of the leading figures in the San Francisco
society and institute had long been in the substantial
minority within the American Psychoanalytic
Association, who favored opening its doors to full
clinical training of nonphysicians. As early as the
early 1970s, Stanley Goodman, then the chairperson
of the Education Committee of the San Francisco
institute, led a finally successful effort to get the
American Psychoanalytic Association to accord membership
to the dozen or so nonmedical training analysis
in institutes around the country, who, to that
point, had not been allowed as members, though
those they trained were, of course, eligible. This
enabled Anna Manchen, the one nonmedical analyst
from the original nonmedical trio of founding
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
members of the psychoanalytic group in San Francisco
and a long-time training analyst at the San
Francisco Institute, to become an official member of
the American Psychoanalytic Association.
While the 1984-1985 countrywide planning for the
lawsuit against the American Psychoanalytic Association
was underway, a group of nonmedical mentalhealth
professionals in the San Francisco Bay Area
were planning a similar suit, and they were actually
given moral and financial support by a significant
number of members of the San Francisco institute,
including the then chairperson of its Education Committee,
Daniel Greenson, even though those who supported
the effort were at the same time members of
the American Psychoanalytic Association, the parent
organization that was planning a vigorous resistance
to the lawsuit.
The lawsuit was settled in October 1988, and under
the terms of the settlement, nonmedical mentalhealth
professionals became eligible for candidacy,
and later membership, in the institutes and societies
of the American Psychoanalytic Association, and
organized psychoanalytic training centers outside the
American Psychoanalytic Association could qualify
for membership in the International Psychoanalytical
Association if they met its standards. Before the settlement
of the lawsuit, membership in the International
Psychoanalytical Association was possible in the United
States only through the American Psychoanalytic
Association.
Although the local group in the San Francisco Bay
Area never filed a lawsuit separate from that of Division
39, the individuals involved in the lawsuit went
on in 1989 to create a new and separate entity, the Psychoanalytic
Institute of Northern California, with
strong assistance from some senior members of the
San Francisco Psychoanalytic Society and Institutes.
The Psychoanalytic Institute of Northern California
has had a thriving history of over a decade and in 2004
is in the process of working out membership in the
International Psychoanalytical Association, outside
the American Psychoanalytic Association. During the
tise of the Psychoanalytic Institute of Northern California,
several dissident members of the San Francisco
Psychoanalytic Society and Institutes also established a
new entity, the San Francisco Institute and Society for
Psychoanalysis and Psychotherapy, and it too, now
more than a decade later, is in the process of working
out membership in the International Psychoanalytical
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
SAN FRANCISCO PSYCHOANALYTIC SOCIETY AND INSTITUTE
Association outside the framework of the American
Psychoanalytic Association.
Thus San Francisco now has three mainline psychoanalytic
societies and institutes: the San Francisco
Psychoanalytic Society and Institute (since 1942 a member
of the International Psychoanalytical Association
through the American Psychoanalytic Association),
and in addition the Psychoanalytic Institute of Northern
California and the San Francisco Institute and
Society for Psychoanalysis and Psychotherapy (two
recent groups that became members of the International
Psychoanalytical Association outside the American
Psychoanalytic Association). San Francisco has
also been one of the few American cities with a functioning
Jungian Psychoanalytic Society and Institute,
with a history of more than a half century. For the last
decade it has also had a Lacanian training program
inaugurated by two Belgium-trained Lacanian analysts,
one from Greece and the other from Germany. In
2004 this amounts to five psychoanalytic groups in the
San Francisco Bay area, all seemingly thriving and living
together in relative harmony. On occasion, scientific
events are organized across more than one of them
(usually the San Francisco Psychoanalytic Society and
the Psychoanalytic Institute of Northern California),
and at times, scientific and social events are held for
candidates of all five groups.
Yet none of these developments have in any way
diminished the intellectual vigor or activity of the original
San Francisco Psychoanalytic Society and Institute.
With the 1988 opening of training possibilities
for nonmedical mental-health professionals, there was
a fresh burst of applications from individuals who had
for years been hoping for just this opportunity, and
the San Francisco Psychoanalytic Society and Institutes
has offered a steady curriculum of active classes
for candidates through the years since then. This is
despite the decline in candidate applications that has
beset most institutes of the American Psychoanalytic
Association and around the world during these years.
This is also despite the collapse of the renowned
Department of Psychiatry at Mt. Zion Hospital after
the School of Medicine of the University of California
at San Francisco took over Mt. Zion Hospital. After
Robert Wallerstein left the chair of the university’s
Department of Psychiatry, which he held from 1975 to
1985 after holding the chair of the Mt. Zion department,
his successor as department chair at the university
was a biological psychiatrist and neuroscience
1531
San FRANCISCO PSYCHOTHERAPY RESEARCH Group AND CONTROL-MASTERY THEORY
researcher not friendly to psychoanalysis. Nonetheless,
the flow of psychoanalytic candidates from medical
and nonmedical sources has continued unabated.
Morale in the society and institute has been consistently
high: the educational program has been pointed
to in many circles of the American Psychoanalytic
Association as a model for the nation; a supportive
San Francisco Psychoanalytic Foundation has been
established; and plans are now in the final phase for an
improved and enlarged physical headquarters for the
society and institute on the same site. Such developments
promise to continue. Although the San Francisco
society is only middle-sized, and not among the
larger groups within the American Psychoanalytic
Association, two of its members, William Barrett and
Robert Wallerstein, have been presidents of the American
Psychoanalytic Association, and two other members,
Stanley Goodman and Edward Weinshel, have
been chairpersons of the Board on Professional Standards,
the educational arm of the American Psychoanalytic
Association. And from 1985 to 1989, Robert
Wallerstein was president of the International Psychoanalytical
Association and Edward Weinshel was
secretary.
ROBERT S. WALLERSTEIN
Bibliography
Wallerstein, Robert S. (1978). The mental health professions:
Conceptualization and reconceptualization of a new
discipline. International Review of Psychoanalysis, 5, 377—
B92,
. (Ed.). (1991). The doctorate in mental health: An
experiment in mental health professional education. Lanham,
MD: University Press of America.
. (1998). Lay analysis: Life inside the controversy.
Hillsdale, NJ: Analytic Press.
SAN FRANCISCO PSYCHOTHERAPY
RESEARCH GROUP AND CONTROLMASTERY
THEORY
The San Francisco Psychotherapy Research Group
(formerly called the Mount Zion Psychotherapy
Research Group) was founded in the early 1970s by
Joseph Weiss, M.D., and Harold Sampson, Ph.D., both
analysts at the San Francisco Psychoanalytic Institute.
1532
A large number of professionals have been associated
with the group, which is one of the few in the United
States engaged in programmatic research of the therapeutic
process and development of a full-scale psychoanalytic
theory. The theory is informally known as
Control-Mastery Theory, from two of its assumptions:
(1) people exercise considerable unconscious control
of their mental lives (an assumption that contrasts
with the view that the unconscious serves only as a
repository of drives, blindly seeking expression), and
(2) patients enter treatment seeking to master their
difficulties, although they may be unaware of significant
parts of their treatment goals (an assumption that
contrasts with the perspective that sees patients
as seeking to continue infantile gratifications and
resisting modification even of partial symptomatic
expression of such impulses). Symptoms stem from
“unconscious pathogenic beliefs,” which are inferences
about traumatic events, often involving fear of harm
to a loved one as a consequence of trying to meet a
normal developmental goal (Weiss, 1990; 1993).
These assumptions and several others have been
articulated in many publications, in case examples,
and especially in formal research. An early phase of the
research examined psychoanalytic cases, especially
the case of Mrs. C (see Weiss, Sampson, et al., 1986).
Among other things, it was shown that patients test
their therapists, often unconsciously, by (1) transferring
(acting toward the therapist as they had acted
toward a parent earlier in life) and (2) turning passive
into active (acting toward the therapist as a parent had
acted toward them earlier). In both cases, the patient
unconsciously hopes that the therapist will not be
traumatized as the patient was earlier. When the therapist
responds in a way that passes the test, the patient
improves immediately (as measured by standard psychotherapy
progress measures, as well as several measures
developed specifically by the researchers). Other
research has investigated short-term psychodynamically
oriented psychotherapy, short-term therapy
conducted from other theoretical frameworks (for
example, cognitive-behavioral therapy), and therapy
with elderly clients and several other patient populations.
It has been shown that explicit plan formulations
can be developed for patients. The more congruent
that a therapist’s interventions are with this plan, the
greater the improvement (Silberschatz, Fretter and
Curtis, 1986).
ROBERT SHILKRET
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Bibliography
Sampson, Harold. (1992). A new psychoanalytic theory and
its testing in formal research. In James W. Barron, Morris
N. Eagle and David L. Wolitzky (Eds.), Interface of psychoanalysis
and psychology (pp. 586-604). Washington, D.C.:
American Psychological Association.
Silberschatz, G., Fretter, P., and Curtis, J. (1986). How do
interpretations influence the process of psychotherapy?
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 54, 646-652.
Weiss, Joseph. (1990, March). Unconscious mental functioning.
Scientific American, 103-109.
. (1993). How psychotherapy works: Process and technique.
New York: Guilford.
Weiss, Joseph; Sampson, Harold; and The Mount Zion Psychotherapy
Research Group. (1986). The psychoanalytic
process: Theory, clinical observation, and empirical research.
New York: Guilford.
SANDLER, JOSEPH (1927-1998)
Joseph Sandler, English physician, psychoanalyst, and
psychologist, was born in Cape Town, South Africa on
January 10, 1927 and died in London on October 6, 1998.
Sandler’s family was Jewish. He received his Master’s
degree in psychology at age nineteen, from the University
of Cape Town. He moved to England in the late
1940s to further specialize in psychology, and received
his PhD from London University at age twenty-three.
He then began his medical education at University
College London, and applied to become a psychoanalyst.
In 1952 he qualified as psychoanalyst of the British
Psychoanalytical Society, having been trained by the
classical Freudian psychoanalyst Willie Hoffer, and then
by his wife, Hedwig Hoffer. He became a training analyst
at the age of twenty-eight, and specialized also in
child analysis. Subsequently he was awarded both a MD
and a D.Sc. Sandler had a outstanding career both as
theoretician and clinician, but also as an administrator
in psychoanalysis. He is considered a central figure in
the second half of twentieth century psychoanalysis.
He was editor of the British Journal of Psychology
(1959-1963), and then became the editor of the International
Journal of Psycho-analysis from 1969 to 1978,
and he founded the International Review of Psychoanalysis.
He was the first Sigmund Freud professor of
psychoanalysis at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
He then became the first full-time Sigmund Freud professor
of Psychoanalysis at London University, until
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
SANDLER, JosSePH (1927-1998)
his retirement in 1992, the year in which was nominated
Professor Emeritus.
He held several honorary degrees. He held more
than twenty visiting professorships, and was elected
President of the International Association of Psychoanalysis
in 1989.
As a theoretician, Sandler is remembered for his
effort to reexamine and update the theoretical and clinical
issues of classical psychoanalysis. He was the leader
of the so-called Hampstead Index Project, working with
Anna Freud and her colleagues for many years at the
Hampstead Child Therapy Clinic during the 1960s and
the 1970s. He became more and more interested in trying
to bridge the gap between classical Freudian psychoanalysis
and the British school of object relations. His
close friend Arnold Cooper described his work as “the
silent revolution in psychoanalysis.”
Sandler was the author of more than 200 papers
and author, editor, or co-editor of forty-four books.
The most important of his papers are collected in
From Safety to Superego (1988), The Patient and the
Analyst, written in collaboration with Christopher
Dare and Alex Holder (1973), and particularly in
Internal Objects Revisited (1998), which he wrote
together with his wife, Anne Marie Sandler.
In addition to being a prolific author, Sandler was
also a great facilitator of the work of colleagues and
young psychoanalysts. He also pioneered the rapprochement
between psychoanalysis and empirical research,
creating the annual research conference of the IPA at
University College, London. This annual meeting of
researchers has been given in his name since his death.
Sandler was married twice, having lost his first wife,
and he had three children.
RICCARDO STEINER
See also: British Psycho-Analytical Society; Evenlysuspended
attention; Great Britain; Identification; International
Journal of Psychoanalysis, The; International Psychoanalytical
Association; Israel; Object relations theory;
Primary identification; Projective identification; Pscyhoanalyst;
Tavistock Clinic; Technique with children,
psychoanalytic; Therapeutic alliance.
Bibliography
Sandler, Joseph. (1988). From safety to superego. New York,
London: Karnac Books International Universities Press.
1533
SaRASIN, PHILipe (1888-1968)
Sandler, Joseph, Dare, Christopher, and Holder, Alex.
(1997). The patient and the analyst: The basis of the psychoanalytic
process. New York: International Universities
Press:
Sandler, Joseph, and Sandler, Anne-Marie. (1998). Internal
objects revisited. London: Karnac Books.
Steiner, Riccardo. (1999). Some observations on ‘projection,
identification, projective I fication. (Joseph Sandler, Ed.)
International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 70, 727-35. (Original
work published 1989)
Fonagy, Peter; Cooper, Arnold; and Wallerstein, Robert S.
(Eds.) (1999). Psychoanalysis on the move: The work of
Joseph Sandler. London, New York: Routledge.
SARASIN, PHILIPP (1888-1968)
Philipp Sarasin, the Swiss physician, psychoanalyst,
and specialist on psychiatry and psychotherapy, was
born at Basel on May 22, 1888, and died there on
November 28, 1968.
He came from an old Huguenot family that played
an important role in the cultural and economic life of
Basel. Having first hesitated between studying Greek
or botany, he finally opted for medicine. When he
finished his studies in 1915 he worked as a volunteer
physician with Eugen Bleuler in Ziirich, where he commenced
his first Jungian analysis with Franz Riklin.
From 1916 to 1921 he worked under Ris as an assistant
physician in the Rheinau clinic.
After a short period of analysis with Hanns Sachs,
he had the opportunity to encounter Freud at the 1920
congress in The Hague. In spring 1921 he began his
analysis with Freud, and in 1924 he set up his own
practice in Basel as an independent psychoanalyst.
He was a member of the Swiss Psychoanalytic
Society (SGPsa) from its foundation and, following
the breakaway of president Emil Oberholzer he
replaced him as president from 1928 to 1961. Thanks
to his unstinting devotion to Freudian orthodoxy and
the fact that he never pushed himself to the fore, he
succeeded in saving the SGPsa from crisis and maintained
its cohesion through difficult circumstances.
Although his contribution was limited in terms of
publications and lectures his main activity consisted in
adopting “positions that were constantly renewed
through considered comments in the course of hundreds
of discussions on the scientific and practical
questions that arose.... Through his eniightened
mind, his rigorous thinking and honesty he formed
1534
the scientific conscience of our country’s psychoanalysts”
(Parin).
His only psychoanalytic writing of import, on
Goethe’s Mignon, was in his own words the result of
his discussions with Freud in the course of his analysis.
It is also based on a good knowledge of Goethe’s life
and work. In it, he analyzes the character of the androgynous
young woman, Mignon, who dies as a result of
being separated from her beloved, fatherly friend, and
the old Harfner, who grows violent in the course of a
melancholic episode, as a reworking of the poet’s
youthful memories.
KASPAR WEBER
See also: Schweizerische Arztegesellschaft fiir Psychoanalyse;
Société Psychanalytique de Geneve; Switzerland
(French-speaking); Switzerland (German-speaking).
Bibliography
Parin, Paul. (1968). Philipp Sarasin: 80 jahre. Bulletin der
Schweizerischen Gesellschaft fiir psychanalyse, 7, 1—2.
Roazen, Paul. (2001). Interview with Philipp Sarasin. In The
historiography of psychoanalysis. (p. 167-171) New Brunswick,
NJ : Transaction Publishers.
Sarasin, Philipp. (1929). Goethes Mignon. Eine psychoanalytische
Studie Imago, 15.
. (1966). Meine richtlinien. Bulletin der Schweizerischen
Gesellschaft fiir psychanalyse, 3, p. 1.
. (1968). Wie ich zu Freud kam. Bulletin der Schweizerischen
Gesellschaft fiir psychanalyse, Sommer 1968, pp.
1-2.
SARTRE AND PSYCHOANALYSIS
French philosopher, novelist, and playwright Jean Paul
Sartre (1905-1980) attended the Ecole Normale
Superieure, received his accreditation in philosophy,
and was a resident at the Institut Francais in Berlin
during 1933-34. He was awarded, but declined, the
Nobel Prize for literature in 1964.
Sartre’s first major work, The Transcendence of the
Ego (1936-1937) published in English in 1957, called
into question the interiority of consciousness and,
based on Edmund Husserl’s phenomenology, he wrote
that “the ego is neither formally nor materially in consciousness:
it is outside, in the world. It is a being of
the world, like the ego of another.’ The subject does
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
not possess himself and consciousness, “defined by
intentionality,” provides no privileged self-knowledge
because, as Sartre writes, “My I, in effect, is no more
certain for consciousness than the I of other men. It is
only more intimate.” These ideas formed the springboard
for a radical critique of introspection, selfknowledge,
and inner life.
Sartre developed his ideas further in Being and
Nothingness (1943). In this text he suggested that
Sigmund Freud’s work (which he characterizes as
“empirical”), in his estimation, represents a provisional
formulation, subject to critique, of what he calls
(more by reference to Soren Kierkegaard than to Ludwig
Binswanger) “existential” psychoanalysis. He postulates
the principle that the human being is a totality,
expressed completely through fortuitous conduct. “In
other words there is not a taste, a mannerism, or a
human act which is not revealing” (p. 568). The goal,
to elucidate the actual behavior of human beings, is
based on “the fundamental, preontological comprehension
which man has of the human person” (p.
568). All conduct symbolizes and conceals, in various
ways, the basic choice of every individual subject. Each
person must be unveiled and revealed, as Sartre himself
would attempt to do with Jean Genet (1952) and
Gustave Flaubert (1971-72). With this as a starting
point, Sartre moves on to discuss the similarities and
differences between Freudian psychoanalysis and what
he calls existential psychoanalysis.
In terms of similarities, both analysis and existential
psychoanalysis “consider the human being as a perpetual,
searching, historization. Rather than uncovering
static, constant givens they discover the meaning,
orientation, and adventures of this history” (p. 569).
With knowledge anterior to logic, the subject has absolutely
no privileged capacity for self-knowledge, while
conflicts and projects can be apprehended only from
the point of view of the other.
But there are also radical differences. Most decisive,
according to Sartre, is that for Freud the libido is an
irreducible psychobiological given. By contrast, Sartre
suggested that the subject’s own demarche is centered
on choices that cannot be constituted in advance and
which vary with each individual. “For human reality
there is no difference between existing and choosing
for itself” (p. 572) because “consciousness is a being,
the nature of which is to be conscious of the nothingness
ofi ts being” (p. 47).
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
SAUSSURE, RAYMOND DE (1894-1971)
In sum, from a somewhat dated view of Freud’s
work, Sartre fashions a critique that views psychoanalysis
as an acceptable albeit awkward and provisional
expression of what will become existential psychoanalysis,
while on a practical level it is more successful.
“Empirical psychoanalysis, to the extent that its
method is better than its principles, is often in sight of
an existential discovery, but it always stops part way”
(p. 573).
GEORGES LANTERI-LAURA
See also: Action-language; Determinism; France; Freud,
the Secret Passion; Phenomenology and psychoanalysis;
Politzer, Georges; Thought-thinking apparatus.
Bibliography
Sartre, Jean Paul. (1972 [c1957]). The transcendence of the
ego: An existentialist theory of consciousness. New York:
Octagon Books. (Original work published 1936-1937)
. (1964 [c1956]). Being and nothingness: An essay in
phenomenological ontology. Special abridged ed. New York:
Citadel Press. (Original work published 1943)
. (1963). Saint Genet, actor and martyr. (Bernard
Frechtman, Trans.) New York: G. Braziller. (Original work
published 1952)
. (1976). Critique of dialectical reason, theory of practical
ensembles. (Jonathan Rée, Ed.; Alan Sheridan-Smith,
Trans.) London: NLB; Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities
Press. (Original work published 1960)
. (1981 [1993]). The family idiot: Gustave Flaubert,
1821-1857. (Carol Cosman, Trans.) Chicago: University of
Chicago Press. (Original work published 1971-1972)
SATISFACTION. See Experience of satisfaction
SAUSSURE, RAYMOND DE (1894-1971)
Raymond de Saussure, the Swiss psychoanalyst, was
born in Geneva in 1894 and died there on October 19,
LOT1 s
Descending in a direct line from a number of Geneva
scientists, Raymond was the son of Ferdinand de
Saussure, the founder of modern linguistics. He studied
medicine in Geneva and Zurich from 1914 to
1535
Saussure, Raymonp dE (1894-1971)
1920, then trained as a psychiatrist in Paris, Vienna,
and Berlin.
While still very young, Saussure took an interest in
psychoanalysis, and in 1919 he became a member of
the newly-founded Swiss Psychoanalytic Society. In
1921 he met Freud at the conference in The Hague and
began analysis with him in 1921. He then set up in
Geneva, practicing essentially as a psychoanalyst until
1937. During the 1920s he began another analysis with
Franz Alexander in Berlin. Spreading Freud’s ideas to
France, he and Charles Odier were among the founders
of the Paris Psychoanalytic Society in 1926, the
Revue francaise de psychanalyse and the Congress
of French-Speaking Psychoanalysts. In 1937 he left
Geneva for Paris, where he began a new analysis with
Rudolph Loewenstein, but returned to Switzerland in
1939 because of the war. In 1940 Saussure was sent to
the United States as part of the Swiss American Fund
for Scientific Exchanges. He lived in New York until
1952, became a member of the New York Psychoanalytic
Society, took an active role in the training activities
of the New York Institute, was Associate Professor at
Columbia University, and taught in the Free France
university.
Upon returning to Geneva in 1952, Saussure put all
his experience and energy into developing psychoanalysis
in French-speaking Switzerland. He organized
clinical and theoretical training seminars in collaboration
with Germaine Guex in Lausanne, with Michel
Gressot in Geneva, as well as with Marcelle Spira, a
Swiss psychoanalyst trained in Argentina. He also lectured
in psychotherapy in the medical faculty of Geneva
University. He continued his efforts to promote
the development of psychoanalysis not only in his own
country—he was president of the Swiss Society for
several years—but also internationally, and was one of
the vice-presidents of the International Psychoanalytic
Association (IPA) from 1955 to 1961. In 1966 he
helped found the European Federation for Psychoanalysis.
In the late 1960s Saussure lent his support to a
movement, coming mainly from candidates in Frenchspeaking
Switzerland, for the creation of a psychoanalytic
training center. This movement resulted in the
inauguration of the Centre Psychanalytique Raymond-
de-Saussure (Raymond de Saussure Psychoanalytic
Center) in Geneva in 1973, two years after his death.
This center for exchange and encounter played a leading
role in the expansion of psychoanalysis in French-speaking
Switzerland that began in the early 1970s, particularly
in Geneva.
1536
La Méthode psychoanalytique (The psychoanalytic
method; 1922), with a preface by Freud (1922e), surprised
the public of the time and was prohibited.
“Les fixations homosexuelles chez les femmes névrosées”
(Homosexual fixations in neurotic women), a
report to the Conference of French-speaking Psychoanalysts,
puts forward the original notion of “hermaphroditic
narcissism,” in order to shed light on
identity problems in homosexuality (1929). “Psychologie
génétique et psychanalyse” (Genetic psychology
and psychoanalysis), a congress report, attempts to
reconcile the ideas of Freud and Jean Piaget (1933).
Le Miracle grec (The Greek miracle; 1939), a psychoanalytic
study of the century of Pericles, was burned
by the Nazis. In 1959 at the IPA Congress in Copenhagen
he presented “The Metapsychology of Pleasure,”
a reflection on desire, pleasure, and happiness,
in their relationship to the conscious and unconscious
ego. His bibliography numbers about ninety
publications.
Raymond de Saussure was intimately involved in
the foundation and development of the Swiss society
in 1919 and the Paris society in 1926, as well as the
European Foundation for Psychoanalysis in 1966.
JEAN-MICHEL QUINODOZ
See also: Character; Congrés de psychanalystes de langue
francaise des pays romans; Fédération européenne de psychanalyse;
France; Revue frangaise de psychanalyse; Société
Psychanalytique de Geneve; Société Psychanalytique de
Paris et Institut de Psychanalyse de Paris; Switzerland
(French-speaking); Switzerland (German-speaking).
Bibliography
Roch, Marcel. (1980) A propos de histoire de la psychanalyse
en Suisse romande. Bulletin de la Société Suisse de psychanalyse,
10, 17-30.
Saussure, Raymond de. (1929). Les fixations homosexuelles
chez les femmes nevrosees. Revue francaise de psychanalyse,
3, 50-91.
. (1939). Le miracle grec. Paris : Denoél.
. (1959). The metapsychology of pleasure. International
Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 22, 649-674.
Vermorel, Henri. (1994). Raymond de Saussure ou la passion
de la psychanalyse. (p. 74) In C. Degoumois (Ed.),
Actes du centenaire de la naissance de Raymond de Saussure.
Geneve : Medecine et Hygiene.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
SCHIFF, PAUL (1891-1947)
Paul Schiff—French physician, psychoanalyst, psychiatrist,
and neuropsychiatrist known for his work with
prisoners—was born in Vienna on August 5, 1891, and
died in Paris on May 17, 1947.
Though Austrian by birth, Schiff was culturally
French. His father, a foreign correspondent for an Austrian
newspaper, settled in Paris when his son was a
month old. At the Collége de France, Schiff studied
philosophy and was especially influenced by Henri
Bergson’s lectures on Spinoza (1632-1677). He subsequently
studied medicine. During World War I, Schiff,
not a French citizen but unwilling to fight in the Austrian
army, moved to Switzerland, where he became
friends with the novelist Romain Rolland and the poet
Pierre-Jean Jouve. Returning to France, he interned in
psychiatry at the Asiles de la Seine (Asylums of the
Seine) and later served as chief of the psychiatric clinic
at Sainte-Anne Hospital in 1927. He married Suzanne
Wertheimer, an ophthalmologist.
Analyzed by Eugenie Sokolnicka, Schiff became a
member of the Société Psychanalytique de Paris (Paris
Psychoanalytic Society) in 1928. He was also a founding
member of Evolution psychiatrique, a medical
organization for French psychoanalysts. He worked
with Edouard Toulouse at the Henri-Rousselle Pavilion,
where he directed a clinic for sex-related disorders
until 1936.
Increasingly drawn to criminology, Schiff was
appointed neuropsychiatrist of prisons in 1935. The same
year, at the Ninth Conference of French-Speaking
Psychoanalysts, he presented the paper “Psychoanalysis
and the Paranoias.” In his work on criminality,
Schiff established an intellectual foundation for crossdisciplinary
research employing a range of different
perspectives, including the biological bases of behavior
and the role of unconscious conflict. But World War II
intruded, and his projected treatise on criminology
remained unpublished. In 1938, with Daniel Lagache
and others, Schiff founded the publication Psychologie
Collective (Collective psychology), which terminated
with the war.
Schiff enlisted as a battalion physician before
returning to Paris after the 1940 defeat of the French
forces. He and his wife both entered the Resistance and
then joined the Free French in Algeria; he was later
taken prisoner in Germany. Back in Paris after the end
of the war, he immediately returned to his work with
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
SCHILDER, PAUL FERDINAND (1886-1940)
prisoners, published actively, but suddenly died of a
stroke just two years later.
CLAIRE Doz-SCHIFF
See also: Congres des psychanalystes de langue frangaise
des pays romans; Criminology and_ psychoanalysis;
France; Societe psychanalytique de Paris and Institut de
psychanalyse de Paris; Second World War: The effect on
the development of psychoanalysis.
Bibliography
Mijolla, Alain de. (1988). Psychoanalysis and psychoanalysts
in France between 1939 and 1945. International Forum for
Psychoanalysis, 12, 136-156.
Schiff, Paul. (1935). Les paranoias et la psychanalyse. Revue
francaise de psychanalyse, 8, 44-105.
. (1946). La paranoia de destruction: Réaction de
Samson et fantasme de la fin du monde, séance du 25 mars
1946. Annales Meédico-Psychologiques, 1, 3, 279-289.
Schiff, Paul, and Antheaume, André. (1925, July). La psychanalyse
envisagee du point de vue de quelques applications
meédico-legales. Encephale (July 1925): 400.
SCHILDER, PAUL FERDINAND (1886-1940)
The Austrian psychiatrist and psychoanalyst Paul
Schilder was born in Vienna on February 2, 1886, and
died in New York on December 7, 1940.
He was the son of Ferdinand Schilder, a Jewish silk
merchant who died when he was three, and Berta Firth,
who favored him over his brother. He attended secondary
school and received his medical training in Vienna. He
became a medical doctor in 1909, but he also always
maintained an interest in philosophy; he earned a doctorate
in that field 1922 and in 1928 published Gedanken
zur Naturphilosophie (Reflections on natural philosophy).
Schilder turned his attention toward neurology and
psychiatry and became the assistant of Gabriel Anton
in Halle, and later of Paul Flechsig in Leipzig. At this
time he published an article on Encephalitis periaxalis
diffusa (a syndrome that thereafter bore his name),
that made him famous in the field of neurology from
1912. In 1914 he published Selbstbewusstein und Personlichkeitsbewusstein.
Eine psychopathologische Studie
(Consciousness of self and personality: a psychological
study), a work informed by Edmund Husserl’s phenomenology,
before serving as a doctor in the First
1537
ScHILDER, PAUL FERDINAND (1886-1940)
World War. But it was Wahn und Erkenntnis. Eine psychopathologische
Studie (Delusion and knowledge: A
psychological study), published in 1922, that marked his
first real approach to psychoanalysis, despite the fact
that on March 22 Sigmund Freud wrote to Karl Abraham:
“Today I received—after the Simmel—a monograph
extracted from the Lewandowskysche Sammlung
(notebook number 15): Delusion and knowledge by Paul
Schilder (Leipzig), which, in its results, is already thoroughly
analytical, and which only leaves aside, as is
appropriate, the Oedipus complex. Of course, Sch. acts
as if these gentlemen had discovered everything themselves,
or almost everything. In short, this is how German
clinicians are going to ‘appropriate’ our discoveries.
All things considered, I vow, it is of no importance.”
In fact, in 1919 Schilder was elected to membership
in the Psychoanalytical Society of Vienna, and on
March 7, 1920, he presented his first paper, on identification,
there. During the same time, he became the
assistant, at the Vienna Hospital, of Julius Wagner-
Juaregg, who took a somewhat dim view of his interest
in psychoanalysis. He was nevertheless appointed Privatdozenti
n 1921 and professor in 1925.
Although his book Uber das Wesen der Hypnose (On
the nature of hypnosis) led Paul Federn to accuse him
of plagiarism in 1922, Schilder’s works were nonetheless
known and recognized by Freud and psychoanalytic
circles. In 1923 he began to elaborate his theory of
“body image,” an expression borrowed from the psychiatrists
Arnold Pick and Henry Head, in Le Schema
corporel. Contribution a Tétude du corps propre (The
corporeal schema: contribution to the study of the
individual’s own body). He developed Freud’s suggestion
that the ego is derived from bodily sensations (elaborated
in Freud’s 1923 encyclopedia article, “The
Libido Theory”), and he made the body image a formation
under construction that brings together perceptions,
affects, fantasies, and thoughts, and that plays
a fundamental role in human behavior and relations
with others. In 1935 Schilder published his most
famous work, The Image and Appearance of the Human
Body. Donald Winnicott, Esther Bick, Piera Aulagnier,
Gisela Pankow, Francoise Dolto, and Didier Anzieu are
among the many psychoanalysts who subsequently
further developed this notion, which is particularly
useful for understanding certain psychotic states.
In 1923 he had also published Seele und Leben (Soul
and life), a prelude to the many works that made him
one of the most original and productive thinkers in his
1538
generation of psychoanalysts—but he remained a relatively
isolated man, because he did not wish to become
linked with Freud, as was attested by his repudiation of
the death instinct. However, although Freud, according
to Fritz Wittels (1941) reproached him for working in
“overly broad dimensions” instead of limiting himself to
a miscroscopic psychoanalysis, he continued to hold
him in esteem and in 1927, for example, he advised
Marie Bonaparte to attend Schilder’s visits and lectures
at the Vienna Hospital. Before her, Anna Freud had
gone to learn the essential basics of psychiatry from him
and from Heinz Hartmann, Wagner-Jauregg’s other
assistant. Schilder was consistently hostile to the practice
of psychoanalysis by non-physicians, attached as he was
and would remain to his hospital-based psychiatric
practice. He also refused to undergo training analysis
and publicly maintained its uselessness. Still, his book
Entwurf zu einer Psychiatrie auf psychoanalytischer
Grundlage (Outline for a psychoanalytically based psychiatry),
published in Leipzig in 1925, was a pioneering
work on psychoanalytic approaches to the psychoses
and has been too often neglected by his successors.
In 1928 he traveled to the United States at the invitation
of Adolf Meyer and taught for three months at the
Henry Phipps Psychiatric Clinic. He left the Vienna
Hospital in 1929 and emigrated to the United States, in
1930 becoming médical director of the psychiatric division
of Bellevue Hospital and research professor of psychiatry
in New York University’s College of Medicine.
He married his collaborator Lauretta Bender in 1937.
Although he resigned from the New York Psychoanalytic
Society that same year, his contributions continued
to influence American psychoanalytic thought.
Struck by a car as he was leaving the hospital where
his son had been born a few days earlier, Paul Schilder
died in New York on December 7, 1940, a short time
after the accident.
As Hartmann wrote, “In my view, Schilder’s conception
of the psychic apparatus is very close to the ideas
that have been developed in recent years in another
field, the psychoanalytic psychology of the ego” (cited
in Ziferstein). He also stated, in “The Psychiatric Work
of Paul Schilder”: “Schilder did more to spread psychoanalytic
discoveries among European psychiatrists than,
with the exception of Freud, any other psychoanalyst.”
ALAIN DE MYOLLA
See also: Body image.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIGNARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Bibliography
Hartmann, Heinz. (1944). The psychiatric work of Paul
Schilder. Psychoanalytic Review, 31, 1, 296.
Muhllheitner, Elke. (1992). Biographisches lexikon der psychoanalyse
(die mitglieder der psychologischen Mittwoch-
Gesellschaft und der Wiener Psychoanalytischen Vereinigung
1902-1938). Tubingen: Diskord.
Schilder, Paul (1953). Medical psychology. (D. Rapaport, Ed.)
New York: International Universities Press. (Original work
published 1924)
. (1925). Entwurf zu einer psychiatrie auf psychoanalytischer
grundlage. Leipzig, Vienne, Ziirich: Internationaler
Psychoanalytischer Verlag.
. (1935). The image and appearance of the human
body. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.
Wittels, Fritz. (1941). Paul Schilder, 1886-1940. Psychoanalytic
Quarterly, 10, 131-134.
Ziferstein, Isidore. (1966). Paul Ferdinand Schilder 1886—
1940. Psychoanalysis and psychiatry. In Psychoanalytic pioneers
(F. Alexander, S. Eisenstein, and M. Grotjahn, Eds.)
London: Basic Books.
SCHILLER AND PSYCHOANALYSIS
Johann Christoph Friedrich von Schiller, the German
poet and dramaturge, was born on November 10, 1759
in Morbach and died on May 9, 1805 in Weimar. He
was the last and most exemplary representative of the
Sturm und Drang movement before evolving—always
in the company of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe,
whose friend he became in Weimar—toward the
aesthetic humanism of his classical period. He was a
fundamental model for Sigmund Freud, whose identification
with the poet was so strong that Schiller was a
familiar figure in his dreams: for example, the dream
about Hollthurn, in which Schiller’s birthplace was the
object of scorn, analyzed by Freud in The Psychopathology
of Everyday Life (1901b).
In difficult periods in his self-analysis, Freud’s
dreams referred to the plays of Schiller, whose sensibility
is darker and more violent than Goethe’s. Freud
had been familiar with these works since his adolescence,
and at age fourteen, with his nephew John, had
performed an act from Schiller’s Brigands (1781)
depicting the murder of Caesar by his adoptive son,
Brutus; he evoked this memory in his associations
with the dream “Non vixit” to analyze his rivalry with
his brother. Schiller’s modernity exalts the “deviltry of
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SCHILLER AND PSYCHOANALYSIS
freedom,” the main theme of the play that earned its
author honorary citizenship in the French Republic.
The twenty-seven quotations from Schiller in Freud’s
work, as identified in the Concordance, attest to his intimate
knowledge of the writer, who was also a Dicterphilosoph
(poet-philosopher) who articulated a theory of
the drives: “The animal drives [Triebe] awaken and
develop the spiritual drives”; he opposed ‘the material
drive (Stofftrieb) to the form drive (Formtrieb). The
Spieltrieb (play-drive)—which expresses play, the beautiful,
freedom, and the total man—is posited as an ideal
nexus between the two Triebe. It is also the force that
drives creation: “It is union of the unconscious and
reflection that makes the poetic artist.”
In 1910, Freud situated himself in Schiller’s wake by
distinguishing the sexual instincts from the ego
instincts, acknowledging in 1930 that Schiller, with
hunger and love, had provided him with an initial
“foothold.” The poet was again called to the rescue to
provide the words to complete an elaboration, dealing
with the oceanic feeling that was being held in abeyance:
Freud alluded to the poem “Der Taucher” (The
diver) to evoke the dangers of the maternal body
inhabited by monsters, citing only the diver’s ascent
toward “the rosy light,” to justify his avoidance of submersion
in the maternal unconscious. Elsewhere, he
used Schiller’s poem “The Ring of Polycrates” as an
illustration in “The Uncanny” (1919).
Ultimately, Freud considered the age of Goethe to
be a prehistory to psychoanalysis, and he credited
Schiller for his emphasis on free association as the
basis for literary creation.
MADELEINE VERMOREL
See also: Ego; Goethe and psychoanalysis; Instinct;
Sudden involuntary idea; ““Uncanny,’ The.”
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1901b). The psychopathology of everyday
life. SE, 6.
. (1920b). A note on the prehistory of the technique
ofa nalysis. SE, 18: 263-65.
Hell, Victor. (1974). Friedrich von Schiller: théories esthetiques
et structures dramatiques. Paris: Aubier.
Vermorel, Madeleine. (1990). The drive (Trieb), from
Goethe to Freud. International Review of Psychoanalysis,
17, 249-56.
1539
SCHIZOPHRENIA
. (1995). La pulsion, de Goethe et de Schiller a Freud.
In Freud, judéité, lumiéres et romantisme. (p. 133-49) (H.
Vermorel, et al, Eds.) Lausanne: Delachaus and Niestlé.
SCHIZOPHRENIA
For psychoanalysis, as for medical research and the
entire field of mental health, schizophrenia is a
complex, baffling, and frustrating disorder. It is not
particularly rare, affecting about 1 percent of the
population; its distribution is worldwide. A century
after Emil Kraepelin created the diagnosis of dementia
praecox and its extensive symptomology—renamed
schizophrenia by Eugen Bleuler—it remains poorly
understood. In spite of revolutionary advances in biology
and neuroscience, no treatment or combination of
therapies offers a reliable cure.
Like all the psychotic disorders, schizophrenia was
thought from the start to have an organic basis, but
Kraepelin was forced describe it as a “functional disorder.’
Early age of onset and absence of brain
lesions such as might be found in epilepsy or tertiary
syphilis, for example, encouraged early analysts to
attempt treatment, especially in light of the limitations
of other therapeutic modalities. It became
plausible to suggest, at least tentatively, that schizophrenia
was a psychological disorder that originated,
like neurotic conflicts, in infancy and early childhood.
The fact that some small but significant percentage
of patients experienced full or partial recovery made
it a target for therapies of all kinds, including psychoanalysis.
Although Freud himself was skeptical about prospects
for successfully treating schizophrenia, the disorder
was central to the activity of many early analysts,
who often were associated with hospitals for the
insane. Karl Abraham’s first letters to Freud concerned
psychosis; like Carl Jung, he worked at the Burgholzi
Central Asylum and University Clinic in Zurich,
which Bleuler directed. In the United States, where
psychiatry only gradually became a primarily office
practice beginning about 1920, psychiatrists influenced
by Freud also worked in asylums. Adolf Meyer
and William Alanson White were both hospital-based
psychiatrists, as was Harry Stack Sullivan, who
reported impressive results with his analytically
oriented treatment beginning in the 1920s. Particularly
influential, Sullivan’s work led to the creation of a psychoanalytic
enclave at Chestnut Lodge in Rockville,
1540
Maryland, devoted to the treatment of patients with
schizophrenia and related disorders.
The rapid growth of psychoanalysis as a medical
specialty in the United States after World War Il
affected the way that schizophrenia was perceived,
understood, and treated. The broad theoretical reach
of psychoanalysis, with its ambitious aims to provide a
general psychology, extended to schizophrenia both as
an explanatory tool and treatment modality. In retrospect
it is clear that as a treatment it was not successful
and that the early-childhood environmental deficit
model that analysts proposed could not be sustained.
At the time, however, without benefit of drugs or a significant
knowledge base in neurochemistry, and in the
wake of a period during which biological explanations
of mental disease had favored eugenics, psychoanalysts
appeared to be modern and forward-looking professionals
who were making an earnest and humane
effort to understand severe psychopathology in terms
of developmental deficits.
Psychoanalysis was not seriously affected by the
introduction of phenothiazine in the mid-1950s. But
the narcoleptics and their successor drugs set the stage
for the de-institutionalization of the mentally ill that
began a decade later and also opened the way for the
dopamine hypothesis, the first of various neurochemical
pathways to be implicated in schizophrenia. By the
late 1960s the authority of psychoanalysis was eroding,
both as therapy and theory, and it had to compete
with a diversified marketplace of competing treatments.
As psychoanalysis in the United States entered
a period of steep decline in the 1980s, its efforts on
both a theoretical and clinical level were often held to
be of no account. However, one positive outcome of
analytic interest in the severe mental disorders, in fact,
was a sophisticated and durable typology of what
became known as the borderline and narcissistic disorders
(Kernberg 1975), which developed along separate
lines and found a respected place in clinical psychiatry
and mental health practice more generally.
The list of analysts who studied and wrote about
schizophrenia is long and includes interpersonalists,
ego psychologists, Kleinians and their successors,
together with any number who might be described as
individualistic or idiosyncratic. Key texts included
papers by Paul Federn, Melanie Klein, Harold Searles,
and many others. Some analysts published books on
schizophrenia that remained in print for decades, such
as Frieda Fromm-Reichman’s Principles of Intensive
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Psychotherapy (1950) and Silvano Arieti’s The I nterpretation
of Schizophrenia (1955). Arieti served for years
as editor of the voluminous American Handbook of
Psychiatry.
Today, psychoanalysts view schizophrenia through a
diversity of lenses. Many if not most would acknowledge
the medical consensus that it is essentially a biological
disorder and would not recommend the kind of
intensive therapeutic efforts employed in the past. Analysts
seeking an in media res would hold that analytic
therapy can be beneficial while giving up earlier etiological
views. A minority of analysts, post-Kleinians and
others, continue to view schizophrenia as amenable in
a global sense to therapeutic intervention and theoretical
elaboration. Although the classic psychoanalytic
model of the etiology of schizophrenia is definitively
obsolete, all these currents can coexist and develop
alongside the diathesis-stress model of the disorder,
currently dominant in psychiatry and medicine.
JOHN GALBRAITH SIMMONS
See also: Ambivalence; Anti-Oedipus: Capitalism and
Schizophrenia; As if personality; Basic Problems of Ethnopsychiatry;
Blank/nondelusional psychoses; Character
Analysis; “Claims of Psycho-Analysis to Scientific Interest”;
Collected Papers on Schizophrenia and Related Subjects,
Dementia; Disintegration, feelings of, (anxieties);
Ego Psychology and Psychosis; Foreclosure; Infantile schizophrenia;
Internal/external reality; Language and disturbances
of language; “Metapsychological Supplement to
the Theory of Dreams”; Narcissism, secondary; Numinous
(analytical psychology); “On the Origin of the
‘Influencing Machine’ in Schizophrenia’; Organic psychoses;
Paranoia; Paranoid psychosis; Paranoidschizoid
position; Paraphrenia; Persecution; Psychological
types (analytical psychology); Psychology of
Dementia preecox, Psychology of the Unconscious, The; Psychoses,
chronic and delusional; Psychotic/neurotic; Psychotic
transference; Splitting of the ego; Symbolic equation;
Symbolic realization; Thought-thinking apparatus;
“Unconscious, The”; Violence of Interpretation, The:
From Pictogram to Statement, Word-presentation.
Bibliography
Arieti, Silvano. (1955). The interpretation of schizophrenia.
New York: Brunner.
Fromm-Reichmann, Freida. (1950). Principles of intensive
psychotherapy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Kernberg, Otto. (1975). Borderline personality disorders and
pathological narcissism. New York: Jason Aronson.
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ScHLUMBERGER, Marc (1900-1977)
Shapiro, Sue. (1981). Contemporary theories of schizophrenia:
Review and synthesis. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Willick, Martin. (2001). Psychoanalysis and schizophrenia:
A cautionary tale. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic
Association, 49, 27-56.
Further Reading
Munich, R.L. (1997). Contemporary treatment of schizophrenia.
Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 61, 189-221.
SCHLUMBERGER, MARC (1900-1977)
Marc Schlumberger, the French physician and psychoanalyst,
was born in Mayenne on July 26, 1900 and
died in Paris on June 26, 1977.
Son of the writer Jean Schlumberger, whose homosexuality
he had difficulty in coming to terms with,
and a British mother who died prematurely, he studied
medicine purely with a view to becoming a psychoanalyst.
Dissatisfied with his first training analysis with
Rene Laforgue, he began a second round of analysis
with Sacha Nacht. He became an associate member of
the Paris Psychoanalytic Society (SPP) on October 17,
1933, and a full member on March 2, 1937. He was
secretary of the Revue frangaise de psychanalyse from
1934 to 1936. He continued to practice discreetly during
the Occupation, forming, along with Andre Berge,
Francoise Dolto and Juliette Boutonier, what they
called the “Sainte-Geneviéve Quartet.” He also contributed
to Georges Parcheminey’s lectures on psychoanalysis,
given at the Sainte-Anne hospital. In 1946 he
became secretary of the first bureau of the SPP under
John Leuba as president, a position he retained until
1951. He remained true to Sacha Nacht during the
1953 rift and became president of the Society in 1957—
1958. While occupying various positions within the
SPP and in the training Commission he continued to
practice as psychoanalyst until his death.
He stated without reserve that the future of psychoanalysis
depended on women and “non-physicians.”
(Chasseguet-Smirgel J., 1978) Although his colleagues
recognized him as an excellent practitioner, the fact
that he never overcame his reluctance to write prevented
him from being among the leading figures of
the SPP. In his first lecture to the SPP in November
1936 he described a case of masculine impotence that
improved greatly after the patient admitted to using a
dildo as a penis substitute. Although the analysand
1541
ScHMIDEBERG-KLEIN, Metitta (1904-1983)
was very satisfied with this “cure” and terminated the
treatment shortly afterward, the analyst went on to
outline elements that could have been brought more
to the fore while stressing the unconscious aggressive
instinct and the insufficiently explored transference.
The few articles he wrote illustrate his interest in
interpreting dreams and studying the transference in
the analytic process. He wrote a report: “Introduction
4 étude du transfert en clinique psychanalytique”
(Introduction to the study of the transference in clinical
psychoanalysis) for the fourteenth Conference of
French-Speaking Psychoanalysts in 1951 and, with
Serge Lebovici and Maurice Benassy, for the SPP colloquium
in Paris in 1958.
An article entitled “Paul,” written directly in English,
recounts the short therapy and death of a young
epileptic; in it, the depth of Schlumberger’s psychoanalytic
thinking combines with the esthetic sense of a
talented writer. In his obituary Janine Chasseguet-
Smirgel saw the article as the sublimated elaboration
of the author’s mourning for his young patient. She
also stressed his “great independence of spirit, his
humor and the total absence of conformism that his
reserve, his courtesy and discretion at first belied.”
His training couch was very much in demand. He
analyzed Wladimir Granoff, Evelyne Kestemberg,
Pierre Marty, Ruth Lebovici, Moustapha Safouan,
Joyce McDougall, Conrad Stein, Georges Devereux,
and many others.
JEAN-PIERRE BOURGERON
See also: France.
Bibliography
Chasseguet-Smirgel, Janine. (1978). Hommage a Marc
Schlumberger. Revue francaise de psychanalyse, 42, 4, 757—
VSD.
Schlumberger, Marc. (1936). Sur la guerison @un cas d’impuissance.
Revue francaise de psychanalyse, 9, 4, 589-605.
. (1952). Introduction a l’étude du transfert en clinique
psychanalytique. XIVth Congress of French-Speaking
Psychoanalysts, Paris, 1951. Revue francaise de psychanalyse,
16, 1-2, 123-169.
. (1959). Expression du transfert dans les réves.
Revue francaise de psychanalyse, 23, 3, 381-392.
Schlumberger, Marc; Benassy, Maurice; and Lebovici, Serge.
(1958). Sur Putilisation du materiel onirique en thérapeu-
1542
tique psychanalytique chez l’adulte. Introduction. Colloque
de la S.P.P., Paris, 1958. Revue francaise de psychana-
VW Sepa Sy ln x ede
SCHMIDEBERG-KLEIN, MELITTA
(1904-1983)
Melitta Schmideberg-Klein, physician, psychiatrist,
and psychoanalyst, was born on January 17, 1904 in
Rosenberg, Slovakia. She died in London on February
10, 1983, at seventy-nine.
Melitta was the oldest child and only daughter of
Arthur and Melanie Klein. Before the 1914-1918 war,
the family moved to Hungary and Melitta grew up and
was educated in Budapest. After the war Arthur Klein
moved to Sweden and Melanie Klein moved to Rosenberg,
where Melitta matriculated in 1921. She joined
her mother in Berlin. Melitta worked for and obtained
her MD in 1927 from Wilhelms-Universitat in Berlin.
In 1924 she met and married Walter Schmideberg,
who was an Austrian psychoanalyst and a friend of
Freud, and who had joined the Berlin Society. In 1929
she started her analytic training with Karen Horney at
the Berlin Institute, qualifying as an associate member
of the Berlin Society in 1931.
In 1927, Melanie Klein moved to London and
joined the British Society. In view of the growing anti-
Semitism in Germany, the Schmidebergs also moved
to London and joined the British Society. Schmideberg-
Klein was elected an associate member in 1932
and a full member the next year. She wrote many
papers and eventually became a training analyst.
Initially she often made use of her mother’s ideas in
her papers (1930, 1935). She then went into analysis
with Edward Glover in order to deal with her dependence
on her mother, whom she hoped would understand.
However, following the death of her elder
brother Hans in 1934, and her mother’s reaction to it,
she became increasingly critical of both her mother’s
contributions and her behavior in the Society, as was
her analyst, Glover.
As Melitta increased her criticisms, the atmosphere in
scientific meetings worsened. With the arrival of numerous
colleagues from Vienna in 1938, the theoretical differences
became more obvious, together with the fear
that the essentials of psychoanalysis were in danger.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
When Schmideberg-Klein addressed the “extraordinary
business” meetings to discuss these issues, her main contribution
was concerned with the effect of Kleinian proselytizing
on the conduct of the affairs of the Society,
rather than concern about theoretical issues (1942).
When Glover resigned from the training committee and
from the Society in 1944, Melitta also withdrew from
active participation in the Society, and she concentrated
on her other interest—the treatment of delinquents.
In 1945 she went to America. There she helped to
found the Association for the Psychiatric Treatment of
Offenders in New York. After the death of her mother
in 1960, she decided to return to Europe. In 1962 she
resigned her membership of the British Society, having
developed her own form of psychotherapy (1938).
In addition to many scientific papers and reviews,
in 1948 she published her book Children in Need
(1948). In 1957 she started The International Journal of
Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology of
which she was managing editor.
She died in 1983, unfortunately unable to make a
rapprochement with her family or with other psychoanalysts
in the British Society.
PEARL H.M. KING
See also: Controversial Discussions; Klein-Reizes,
Melanie.
Bibliography
Schmideberg, Melitta. (1930). Psychotic mechanisms in
relation to the development of civilisation. International
Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 11, 387-418.
. (1935). The psycho-analysis of asocial children and
adolescents. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 16,
22-48.
. (1938). After the analysis... some phantasies of
patients. Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 7, 122-142.
. (1991). Paper read at the second Extraordinary Business
Meeting. In PH.M. King, R. Steiner (Eds.), The Freud-
Klein controversies 1941-1945. London: Institute of Psycho-
Analysis-Routledge, p. 92-99. (Original work published 1942)
SCHMIDT, VERA FEDEROVNA (1889-1937)
Vera Schmidt, the Russian educationist, was born in
Odessa in 1889 and died in Moscow in 1937.
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ScHmipt, VERA FeDERovNA (1889-1937)
She was one of the leading figures of the “Silver
Age” of psychoanalysis in Russia. Her parents were
both physicians and she was particularly attached to
her mother, Elisaveta Yanitskaia, who treated children
who suffered from neurological disorders. Vera was
later to say that her mother had a determining influence
on her choice of career.
In 1908 Vera enrolled in the Bestoujev classes in
Saint Petersburg. This prestigious establishment was
reserved for young girls: it specialized in training educationists
and physicians. In 1912 she was brilliantly
successful in completing her studies and graduated as
a teacher. In 1913 she met Otto Youlievitch Schmidt
and they married in the same year. Early in 1917 she
worked Kiev in the supplies Committee. It was also at
this time that she developed a passion for reading
Freud, her perfect German enabling her to read him in
the original.
Otto Schmidt shared his wife’s passion for psychoanalysis
and in this respect his role merits our
attention. He was the only member of a large family of
originally German peasants to have a university education.
The brilliant young mathematician became a
Privatdozent (university lecturer) while preparing his
PhD thesis in order to become a professor. An enthusiastic
supporter of the 1917 Revolution, he enlisted
his talents as a scientist and organizer in support of the
Soviets. He was a high-ranking functionary in several
ministries ranging from public education to finance
and the Gosplan (State Planning Committee), as well
as being vice-president of the USSR Academy for
Science. As a scientist he conducted several polar expeditions,
exploits that won him a place in schoolbooks.
However, the man had another passion: psychoanalysis.
In 1921 and 1926 as vice-president of the coordinating
committee of the Moscow Psychoanalytic
Society and the Psychoanalytic Institute (with Ivan
Ermakov as the head), he financed the publication of
the “Library of Psychology and Psychoanalysis,” an
important collection, under the directorship of the
same Ermakov. Still via the Coordinating Committee,
and thanks to his government posts, Otto Schmidt
provided the necessary means for psychoanalytic institutions.
In 1917 the committee moved from Petrograd
to Moscow and the Schmidts moved also. Vera worked
in the Childhood department of the Ministry for Public
Education. She applied herself to an in-depth reading
of Freud’s works, as well as writings by other western
psychoanalysts.
1543
ScHnelper, ERNST (1878-1957)
August 1921 saw the opening of the experimental
child laboratory Home (Detski Dom), which was to be
her life’s work. Vera had no psychoanalytic training,
but her publications on the experiment and the work
methods of the Home (which she herself translated
into German for foreign reviews) were greatly appreciated
by her colleagues in the West. Moreover, Vera
kept a day-to-day detailed diary of the development of
her son, Vladimir Schmidt, born in 1920. He was nicknamed
Volik, not Alik, as erroneously indicated by certain
publications on psychoanalysis in Russia. This
immense monograph has never been published in
Russian, nor translated into any other language.
In early 1923 the Schmidts went to Vienna where
they met Freud, with whom they discussed the children’s
Home and psychoanalytic activities in Russia.
They also visited other analysts, most notably Otto
Rank and Karl Abraham. Discussions focused mainly
on psychoanalysis and the organization of the collective
educational system. This constituted a veritable
apotheosis for the Russian Psychoanalytic Association,
which became an associate member of the International
Psychoanalytic Association (IPA) in 1924.
However, as early as mid-1923 problems began to
arise for the Home. The threat of ideological censorship
cast its shadow over psychology and child education.
On August 14, 1925 the ministry for public
education decreed the definitive closure of the children’s
Home. Until 1929 Vera Schmidt was a researcher
at the nervous system Study Center attached to the
Academy of Science, where she worked on conditioned
reflexes. From 1930 to 1937 she conducted research, in
the cerebral pathology Experimental Center, into
innate illnesses of the nervous system in young children.
But she was already seriously ill with a thyroid
tumor and her participation in the Tchelouskine polar
expedition organized by her husband only contributed
to hastening her demise. On July 17, 1937, Vera
Schmidt died on the operating table.
IRINA MANSON
See also: Detski Dom; Russia/USSR.
Bibliography
Etkind, Alexandre. (1995). Eros niévozmojnogo-Istoria psykhoanalisa
v Rossit. Moscow : Progress; Histoire de la psychanalyse
in Russie. (B. Berelowitch, Trans.) Paris: Presses
Universitaires de France.
1544
Schmidt, Vera. (1920-22). Le Journal de Volik
(unpublished).
SCHNEIDER, ERNST (1878-1957)
A psychoanalytically oriented Swiss educator, Ernst
Schneider was born on October 17, 1878, near Liestal,
and died in 1957 in Muttenz, near Basel.
A member of a large family living in the countryside
around Basel, Ernst entered the Protestant Normal
School of Muristalden, near Berne, at the age of sixteen.
For five years he was a teacher in a one-room
schoolhouse, then pursued studies at the University of
Berne. During a year he spent in a pedagogical seminar
at the University of Jena, his attention was drawn to
the new currents of thought circulating in Germany.
Back in Switzerland, in 1903 he headed a course in
continuing education for teachers and thereafter, from
1905, the Hofwil-Berne Normal School. There Schneider
put into practice his ideas on school reform, wrote
instructional manuals for use in the primary grades,
and in 1907 founded the Berner Seminarblatter, a
renowned pedagogical journal that was later renamed
Schulreform, which he headed until 1920.
Schneider first learned of psychoanalysis in 1910.
He then entered into contact with the Swiss Society of
Psychoanalysis, underwent analysis with Oskar Pfister
and later with Carl Gustav Jung, and participated
actively in the summer courses organized by Pfister in
1912 on the relationship between pedagogy and psychoanalysis;
he introduced Sigmund Freud’s science
into his courses at the Normal School, where Hans
Zulliger was his student. Recalled from his post as
director in 1916, he taught psychoanalysis to educators
at the Institut Jean-Jacques Rousseau in Geneva, then,
from 1920 to 1928, taught general psychology, psychopathology,
and characterology at the University of
Riga (Latvia). He then established himself as a therapist
in Stuttgart. On his return to Switzerland in 1946,
he taught at the Institut de psychologie appliquée
(Institute of applied psychology) in Ziirich.
In 1926, together with Heinrich Meng, whom he
had met in 1922 at the Berlin Congress (where he also
met Freud), he founded the Zeitschrift fiir psychoanalytische
Paidagogik (Revue of psychoanalytic pedagogy).
He was an active contributor, publishing numerous
articles on the relationship between the two sciences
and on teacher training.
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An independent thinker who was passionate about
pedagogy and open to new ideas, Schneider was more
a practitioner than a theorist. Still, his institutional
activity promoting an educational model informed by
Freud’s discoveries is worth remembering.
JEANNE MOLL
See also: Switzerland (French-speaking); Switzerland
(German-speaking).
Bibliography
Moll, Jeanne. (1989). La pédagogie psychanalytique. Origine
et histoire. Paris: Dunod.
Schneider, Ernst. (1929). Psychoanalyse und lehrerbildung.
Zeitschrift fiir psychoanalytische Padagogik., 3, 237-251.
SCHREBER, DANIEL PAUL (1842-1911)
Daniel Paul Schreber, the subject of Freud’s famous
retrospective case history, was born on July 15, 1842,
in Leipzig, and died in April 1911 in the state mental
asylum at Leipzig-Désen.
In 1893 Paul was at the zenith of his legal career, having
just been promoted to presiding judge at the Dresden
Higher Regional Court, when he suffered a severe
mental breakdown. Thereafter he spent about thirteen
years of his life in mental institutions, and while at the
Sonnenstein Asylum he composed his only book, Memoirs
of My Nervous Illness (1988), a masterpiece that has
since inspired scholars in diverse fields. Freud (1911c
[1910]) used the book to illustrate his theory of the causal
link between homosexuality and paranoia. This
heuristically important essay was an exercise in applied,
not clinical, psychoanalysis; it was a hermeneutic, not
historical, account of a paradigmatic case of paranoia; it
was not about Schreber’s life.
Paul’s father, the son of Moritz Schreber and Pauline
(née Wenck) Schreber, was a physician who specialized
in exercise therapy for skeletal and muscular
disorders, both with and without appliances. He
attained fame with his 1855 book, I/lustrated Medical
In-Door Gymnastics, which may be considered a forerunner
of modern rehabilitation medicine. Moritz also
published works on child rearing and education and
was posthumously immortalized by the eponym
“Schrebergarten,” or community garden, which he
advocated as part of healthful living.
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SCHREBER, DANIEL PauL (1842-1911)
After completing his studies at the well-known
Thomasschule (Thomas school), in 1860 Paul began
studying law at the University of Leipzig, obtaining his
doctorate in jurisprudence in 1869. Two years earlier
he entered the ministry of justice and served as judge
in a variety of cities in Saxony. In 1878 he wed Ottilie
Sabine Behr (1857-1912), the daughter of operatic
director Heinrich Behr. His family considered the
bride unsuitable. A diabetic, Sabine suffered six miscarriages
or stillbirths.
Schreber was hospitalized three times with depressive
illnesses, all following real and symbolically
important losses: in 1884, after he was defeated in elections
to the Reichstag; in 1892-1893, after he was
made presiding judge and his wife gave birth to a stillborn
boy; and in 1907, when his mother died and his
wife suffered a stroke. He functioned normally after
the first (moderate, nonpsychotic) depression, and
between the second and third (severe, psychotic) episodes,
during which time he raised an adopted
daughter.
The second depression (the first psychotic episode)
began as a prodrome in the summer of 1893. He
experienced anxiety dreams about his illness returning
and had a fantasy of what a woman might feel during
intercourse. By the fall he had a dramatic explosion of
symptoms, including insomnia, agitation, hypochondriacal
and nihilistic delusions, and attempts at suicide.
He voluntarily returned to the Psychiatric Hospital of
Leipzig University, under Paul Flechsig, director of the
hospital. Months after admission, his agitated depression
evolved into a syndrome that involved prosecutory
hallucinations and delusions of sexual abuse and hostile
human and divine influences, which Schreber
described as soul murder. The human influences he
attributed mainly to Flechsig. He also developed elaborate
ideas of a fantastic cosmology and religion.
By June 1894, with his wife’s consent and collaboration,
Schreber was transferred by Flechsig to Sonnenstein.
There major depression abated by 1897 but his
wishes to be allowed to go home went unheeded.
Superintendent Guido Weber (using Emil Kraepelin’s
taxonomy) diagnosed him with incurable paranoia,
and he was declared mentally incompetent, yet his
wife remained hesitant. Schreber continued to express
rage, and he elaborated fantasies that he was to be
transformed into a woman to redeem the world. But
he was lucid and able to get along socially. He was also
able to write his book and to conduct his own defense
1545
ScHREBER, DANIEL Paut (1842-1911)
in court, setting a legal precedent and regaining his
freedom in 1902.
However paranoia and schizophrenia might be
parsed in the history of psychiatry, in psychoanalysis
the former came to signify a delusional defense
against homosexuality. Freud followed Kraepelin’s
classification but was more interested in syndromes
and character than in psychiatric diagnoses. He
developed his dynamic formulation in collaboration
with Sandor Ferenczi and in 1908 shared his ideas
with Carl Gustav Jung, from whom he learned
about Schreber in 1910. Locked into his theory, the
universality and validity of which have since been
challenged, Freud hypothesized that Schreber had a
passive-negative oedipal constellation. He suggested
that Schreber experienced through transference a
passive sexual desire for Flechsig, transformed into
the delusion of soul murder. This conflicted wish,
Freud claimed, was pathogenic in Schreber’s second
illness. It had previously appeared in the prodromal
fantasy of what a woman feels during intercourse, a
fantasy that occurred before Schreber had any personal
dealings with Flechsig. In his delusion of soul
murder, Schreber intended the soul murder to indicate
that Flechsig betrayed him by banishing him to
Sonnenstein.
One should differentiate what may be valid in
Freud’s dynamic ideas from what remains correct in
his interpretation of Schreber. Focusing on Schreber’s
so-called paranoia, Freud did not seem to consider the
possibility of what today would be called a mood disorder;
his own “Mourning and Melancholia” would
not appear until 1917, after analytic contributions by
Karl Abraham and Alphonse Maeder.
Subsequent studies of the Schreber case have
brought to light much new material. Zvi Lothane
(1992) extended work by William G. Niederland
(1974) and Hans Israéls (1989). Schreber’s fears of sexual
abuse were a result of the psychotic process, not
the cause; he suffered from repressed and manifest
envy, aggression, and rage. In his illness, his real conflicts
and transference relationships were decisive.
These included conflicts with his mother (not mentioned
by Freud), his relationships with the psychiatrists
Flechsig and Weber, his career choice and work
as a judge, and conflicts with his wife (which included
serious disputes over money). In addition, there was
the transfer to Sonnenstein and the incompetency ruling,
which doomed his legal career.
1546
On the other hand, Freud did acknowledge that the
fantasy of being transformed into a woman, completing
the trajectory of the prodromal feminine daydream,
was a self-healing rediscovery of a lost human
relatedness. Lothane discovered that Schreber engaged
in nonhomosexual cross dressing, a vehicle for dealing
with heterosexual conflicts by means of diffusion of
gender identity arising from identification with
woman, mother, and wife.
Although Niederland developed a heuristically
fruitful formulation, he departed from Freud significantly
by reading Schreber’s symptoms as determined
not by endogenous wishes but by childhood trauma:
paternal sadism alternating with physical seduction.
These ideas are unsupported by the extant biographical
evidence. For Niederland, Schreber’s father was a
tyrant who tortured his son with terror-inspiring
“machines.” In reality, these were rather innocuous
appliances. Lothane showed a lack of support for Niederland’s
inference of such trauma taking place when
Paul was three to four years old, or for the idea that
the father made use of antimasturbation devices.
Israéls first pointed out that the father was unduly
demonized. Niederland (1974) suggested that some of
Moritz Schreber’s ideas were “useful in our effort to
unravel a few among the many obscure features of the
clinical picture and to make the hitherto incomprehensible
aspects of Schreber’s delusional system accessible
to further investigation” (p. 206). A psychoanalytically
informed longitudinal case study supports a
reappraisal of the basic facts, premises, diagnoses, and
dynamics of Schreber’s story. Generally, psychoanalytic
method, to be clinically valid, must combine hermeneutics
and history.
Zv1 LOTHANE
See also: “Psycho-Analytic Notes on an Autobiographical
Account of a Case of Paranoia (Dementia Paranoides).”
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1911c [1910]). Psycho-analytic notes on
an autobiographical account of a case of paranoia (dementia
paranoides). SE,12: 1-82.
Israéls, Han. (1989). Schreber, father and son. Guilford, CT:
International Universities Press.
Lothane, Zvi. (1992). In defense of Schreber: Soul, murder,
and psychiatry. London: Analytic Press.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
ScHULTZ-HENCKE, HarRALD JULIUS ALFRED Cart-Luowie (1892-1953)
Niederland, William G. (1974). The Schreber case: Psychoanalytic
profile of a paranoid personality. New York:
Quadrangle.
Schreber, Daniel Paul. (1988). Memoirs of my mental illness
(Ida Macalpine and Richard A. Hunter, Trans.). Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press. (Original work
published 1903)
SCHULTZ-HENCKE, HARALD JULIUS ALFRED
CARL-LUDWIG (1892-1953)
Harald Schultz-Hencke, the German general practitioner,
was born in Berlin on August 18, 1892 and died
there on May 23, 1953.
His father, Dankmar Carl Sigbert Schultz-Hencke, a
physicist and chemist, founded an Institute of Photography
(Lette-Verein) in Berlin, where he taught. His
mother, Rosalie Adelaide May Zingler, a graphologist,
claimed to be the natural daughter of Edward VII. She
died of tuberculosis in 1902. Schultz-Hencke had a sister,
Luanna Astrda, a half-sister, Hanna, and a brother,
Walter, wno was killed during World War I (on May
aid 15).
In 1911 he began to study: medicine at Fribourgen-
Brisgau (doctorate in 1917), philosophy with Heinrich
Rickert, Edmund Husserl, and Martin Heidegger,
and psychiatry with August Hoche and Ferdinand
Kehrer. He volunteered as an army physician in 1914
and in 1915 he joined the Freideutsche Jugend, a German
youth organization. Having somewhat mediocre
health, he set about perfecting his knowledge of biology
(studying fish from the Cichlidae family) and
philosophy.
Influenced by Siegfried Bernfeld, he “resolved” to
shed light on schizophrenia “with the help of Freud.”
In 1922 he did his training analysis with Sandor Rado,
then trained in the Berlin Psychoanalytic Institute
(BPI). In 1927-28 he lectured there and created, with
Otto Fenichel, the Clinical Seminar for “young analysts”
(Kinderseminar). His critiques of metapsycholcgy
and libido theory, as well as his relatively active
therapeutic methods, resulted in his being forbidden
to teach, and made him an “enemy within” for the
German Society.
First married to Frieda von Brixen, who suffered
from acute nephritis, he left her and, after her death,
married one of his patients, Gerda Bally, a Swiss half-
Jew and former wife of analyst Gustav Bally. They
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
divorced in 1945. Neither union resulted in any
children.
In 1934 he was one of the founding members of the
Deutsches Allgemeine Artzliche Gesellschaft fiir Psychotherapie
(General german society for psychotherapeutic
medicine) under Matthias H. Goring, and
developed “neoanalysis.” In 1942-43, though not a
member of the NSDAP (the Nazi party), he was chief
medical officer to the army, before being freed from
this to do therapeutic work in the Géring Institute,
founded in 1936.
On May 4, 1945, he founded the Institute for Psychopathology
and Psychotherapy (IPP) with Werner
Kemper, and became its director. The Institute practiced
“neopsychoanalysis” (Neopsychoanalyse), supposed
to be an amalgamation of all psychoanalytic
schools, which Schultz-Hencke hadcreated in opposition
to classic psychoanalysis. On November 7 of the
same year he created the Neopsychoanalytische Vereinigung
(Neopsychoanalytic association). The IPP was
then transferred to the Zentralinstitut fiir psychogene
Erkrankungen der Versicherungsanstalt Berlin (Berlin
social security central institute for psychogenic diseases),
which united the social security and retirement
authorities under the directorship of Werner Kemper.
The Institute for Psychotherapy was then founded on
May 9, 1947.
At the sixteenth Congress of the International Psychoanalytic
Association (IPA) in August 1949, a controversy
broke out, in which Schultz-Hencke found
himself in total opposition to Carl Miiller-Braunschweig
and he refused to resign from the German Psychoanalytic
Society (DPG) because he was convinced
that he enjoyed the support of the “progressive forces”
in the IPA. This resulted in Miller-Braunschweig
creating the Deutsche Psychoanalytische Vereinigung
(DPV, German psychoanalytic association) on June
10, 1950.
Schultz-Hencke’s request for a chair of psychotherapy
at the Charity was refused because of opposition
from the DPG (September 26, 1949) which, in accordance
with a directive from the Berlin court, opposed
his appointment because the candidate already had
financial revenues both in East Berlin (Charity) and
West Berlin (director of the Institute for Psychotherapy).
A brilliant and much respected professor, he was
extremely disappointed by this lack of international
recognition for his neopsychoanalysis. But in the GDR
1547
Scuur, Max (1897-1969)
his psychoanalysis was the only form recognized until
the end of the fifties and the DPG remained under the
influence of his teachings until the sixties.
His most outstanding works are: Einfiihrung in die
Psychoanalyse (Introduction to psychoanalysis; 1927),
Schicksal und Neurose (Fate and neurosis; 1931), Der
gehemmte Mensch (The inhibited being; 1940), and
Lehrbuch der analytischen Psychotherapie (Treatise on
analytical psychotherapy;1951).
REGINE LOCKOT
See also: Allgemeine Arztliche Gesellschaft fiir Psychotherapie;
Berliner Psychoanalytische Poliklinik;
Deutsches Institut fiir Psychologische Forschung und
Psychotherapie (“Institut Géring”); Germany; International
Federation of Psychoanalytic Societies; Psyche.
Zeitschrift fiir Psychoanalyse und ihre Anwendungen; Psychoanalytic
splits.
Bibliography
Kemper, Werner W. (1973). Selbstdarstellung. In L. Pongratz
(Ed.), Psychotherapie in Selbstdarstellungen. Bern-Stuttgart:
Hans Huber, pp. 259-345.
Schultz-Hencke, Harald. (1972). Einfiihrung in die psychoanalyse.
Jena-Gottingen: Fischer-Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht.
(Original work published 1927)
. (1931). Schicksal und neurose. Jena: S. Fischer.
. (1982). Der gehemmte mensch. Leipzig, Stuttgart:
Thieme. (Original work published 1940)
. (1951). Lehrbuch der analytischen psychotherapie.
Thieme.
SCHUR, MAX (1897-1969)
Austrian physician Dr. Max Schur was born September
26, 1897 in Stanislaw, then in the Austro—Hungarian
Empire and today part of the Ukraine. He died in
New York on October 12, 1969.
He completed his high school education in Vienna
after his family moved there in 1914 to escape the
advancing Russian army. After attending medical
school at the University of Vienna from 1915 to 1920,
he had most of his postgraduate training at the Vienna
Poliklinik. He remained there as an associate in internal
medicine until he left Vienna in 1938.
His psychoanalytic education was less direct. As a
medical student he attended Sigmund Freud’s intro-
1548
ductory lectures, which kindled a lifelong interest in
psychoanalysis. He had a personal analysis with Ruth
Mack Brunswick from 1924 to 1932 and was accepted
into the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society in 1932. It was
this combination of psychoanalytic orientation and
internal medicine that led to his becoming Freud’s
physician in 1929, a position he fulfilled admirably
until Freud’s death in 1939. In the “biological study,”
Freud: Living and Dying (1972), Schur tells the full
story of this relationship and traces the theme of death
in Freud’s life and writings.
After Freud’s death the Schur family emigrated to the
United States. Schur resumed his medical practice and
obtained a position at the Bellevue Hospital in New York.
While there he analyzed several patients with chronic
skin disorders and in 1950 published a series of papers
on the psychopathology and psychoanalytic treatment of
psychosomatic disorders. In 1953 he became a training
and supervising analyst and teacher at the Psychoanalytic
Institute at the Downstate Medical Center of the State
University of New York, where he was appointed Clinical
Professor of Psychiatry. His scholarship and critical skills
led to an editorial career that included three terms on the
editorial board of The Journal of the American Psychoanalytic
Association, and positions as editor of Drives, Affects,
Behavior Volume 2 (1965), an anniversary volume dedicated
to Marie Bonaparte, and co-editor of Psychoanalysis—
A General Psychology (1966), a volume to honor
Heinz Hartman on his seventieth birthday. ©
He was a founding member Psychoanalytic Association
of New York and was its President in 1967 when the
officers and board presented him with a festschrift as the
most suitable gift for a man with his love of knowledge
and learning. He died before it was published as The
Unconscious Today: Essays in Honor of Max Schur (1971).
By 1950 he had published more than fifty papers on
medical subjects, rarely with psychological emphasis.
From then on he published a series of clinically
detailed and theoretically reasoned psychoanalytic
articles and books. The first group of papers, on symptom
formation and the development of affects,
explored the implications of structural theory, especially
from a genetic and adaptive perspective. “The
ego in anxiety,” “The ego and the id in anxiety,” and
“Comments on the metapsychology of somatization”
were instantly influential and his concepts “somatization,’
“desomatization,’ and “resomatization” have
entered the psychoanalytic lexicon. Studying the development
of the instinctual drives, Schur compared
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ethological and child developmental concepts, as can
be seen in his critical discussion of Bowlby’s Grief and
Mourning in Infancy (1960) and “The Theory of the
parent—infant relationship.” (1962) His monograph,
The Id and the Regulatory Principles of Psychoanalysis
(1966), argues firmly for a structured id and clarifies
the pleasure/unpleasure principle. He felt that the idea
of the repetition compulsion as a regulatory principle
was superfluous.
Schur was a major contributor among those analysts
who in the 1950s and 1960s worked to elaborate, integrate,
and systematize the theoretical and clinical implications
of the later work of Freud, working to expand the
ideas in Inhibitions, Symptoms and Anxiety, Anna Freud’s
The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defense, and Heinz Hartmann’s
Ego Psychology and the Problem of Adaptation.
Roy K. LILLesKov
Work discussed: Freud: Living and Dying.
See also: Annihilation anxiety; Coprophilia; Wiener psychoanalytische
Vereinigung.
Bibliography
Schur, Max. (1953). The ego in anxiety. In R.M. Loewenstein
(Ed.), Drives, affects, behavior. Essays in memory of Marie
Bonaparte. (p. 67-103). New York: International Universities
Press.
. (1955). Comments on the metapsychology of
somatizatization. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 10,
119-164.
. (1958). The ego and the id in anxiety. Psychoanalytic
Study of the Child, 13, 190-220.
. (1962). The theory of the infant-parent relationship.
International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 43, 243-245.
. (1966). Some additional “day residues” of “the specimen
dream of psychoanalysis.” In R.M. Loewenstein,
L.M. Newman, M. Schur, A.J. Solnit (Eds.), Psychoanalysis.
A general psychology. (p. 462). New York: International
Universities Press.
. (1972). Freud: Living and dying. New York: International
Universities Press.
SCHWEIZERISCHE ARZTEGESELLESCHAFT
FUR PSYCHOANALYSE
The Swiss Psychoanalytic Society (SGPsa), consisting
of physicians and non-physicians, was created in 1919.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
SCHWEIZERISCHE ARZTEGESELLESCHAFT FUR PSYCHOANALYSE
The Swiss Medical Society for Psychoanalysis, or
Schweizerische Arztegeselleschaft fiir Psychoanalyse, is
the result of a rift that took place within the first
society in 1928.
In 1928 Emil Oberholzer and Rudolf Brun founded
a medical society for psychoanalysis, which admitted
only physicians as full members, non-physicians being
considered as no more than “scientific collaborators or
collaborators in their specialty.’ This new society
applied to be admitted to the International Psychoanalytic
Association (IPA) in 1929. The central committee
of the IPA rejected the application in the following
terms: “After careful consideration of the question the
central committee feels obliged to reject this application
because it deems the reasons given in justification
of this new foundation to be insufficient. It deeply
regrets the fact that the differences that appeared could
not be resolved otherwise than through a rift of the old
group.” The wording is Anna Freud’s.
Oberholzer and Brun explained the reasons for the
foundation of the new 1928 society in a very long
memorandum. The rift was born out of a desire to
reorder and was introduced in opposition to “the
membership of non-physicians in the Swiss Psychoanalytic
Society,” but also in rejection of “pseudoanalysts
and physicians to whom psychoanalysis is in
fact unknown.” The difficulties with regard to the
non-physician fraction of the old society crystallized
around Oskar Pfister. He was reproached with a variety
of things: contenting himself with short treatment
periods; being essentially preoccupied with symptoms
to the detriment of defenses; practicing propaganda;
receiving into the society people who claimed to be
psychoanalysts when they had in fact been insufficiently
trained; being unable to discuss deep theoretical
matters; working insufficiently on his own selfanalysis;
and using religious faith as a therapeutic lever.
This difficulty seems to have existed from the foundation
of the SGPsa. The division of the society into
two sections, one medical, the other non-medical, had
already been suggested in 1926. It was quite probably
Freud’s 1926 text on lay analysis (1926e) that led to
this foundation.
Sigmund Freud, Max Eitingon and Johan H. W.
Van Ophuijsen took the side of the old society. In 1936
the Swiss Medical Society for Psychoanalysis renewed
its application for membership of the IPA. Philipp Sarasin,
as president of the SGPsa, set up a commission,
1549
SCIENCE AND PSYCHOANALYSIS
comprising Pfister, Kielholz, Zulliger, Christoffel, and
Blum, which proposed to recognize the members of
the medical Society on condition that they request it
and that they accept “Freud’s point of view on the
question of lay analysis and upon their agreeing to
accept the Oxford ruling by non-physicians.” This
report seems to have remained unanswered.
In 1938 some members of the medical Society
joined the SGPsa individually just as Oberholzer was
emigrating to the United States.
MuIREILLE CIPALI
See also: Brun, Rudolf; Oberholzer, Emil; Switzerland
(German-speaking).
Bibliography
Cifali, Mireille. (1990). De quelques remous helvétiques
autour de l’analyse profane. Revue internationale d'histoire
de la psychanalyse, 4, 291-305.
Meerwein, Fritz. (1979). Reflexionen zur Geschichte der
Schweizerischen Gesellschaft fiir Psychoanalyse in der
deutschen Schweiz. Bulletin de la Société suisse de psychanalse,
9, 25-40.
SCIENCE AND PSYCHOANALYSIS
Sigmund Freud defined psychoanalysis as the “science
of the unconscious” (Wissenschaft des Unbewussten).
The use of the German term Wissenschaft suggests a
particular mode of understanding: Wissenschaft is constituted
as a system of knowledge organized into a
coherent and ordered arrangement of fundamental
concepts (doctrine), capable of accounting for empirically
observed phenomena (the objects of possible
experiments) by means of a method that ensures their
intelligibility and verification through controlled
reproduction of the experiment. This view of science,
which was dominant in the nineteenth century, characterizes
a form of rational experimentalism that gradually
reduced the meaning of the word “science” to a
narrowly defined “phenomeno-technique” (in the
coinage of Gaston Bachelard).
Freud’s project to scientifically account for psychic
processes appears clearly in 1895 in the introduction
to the Project for a Scientific Psychology: “In this ‘Project’
the intention is to furnish a psychology that shall
be a natural science: that is, to represent psychical processes
as quantitatively determinate states of specifi-
1550
able material particles, thus making those processes
perspicuous and free from contradiction” (1950c
[1895]). At this time he situated his discovery within
the field of positivist materialism, where psychic processes
are represented by means of the concepts of
neurophysiology and the empirical data of clinical
research; described, ordered, and _ reconstructed
according to the method of the natural sciences (Naturwissenschaften).
The construction of a metapsychology,
a set of concepts specific to psychoanalysis, would
lead Freud to abandon the neurophysiological representations
found in the “Project” without renouncing
his ideal of science.
Freud’s belief in a “scientific conception of the
world,” his fidelity to the positivist ideals of his masters
(especially Ernst Briicke) led him, in 1911, to
cosign, along with Albert Einstein, David Hilbert, and
Ernst Mach, an appeal (Aufruf) in favor of the creation
of a society to help develop the awareness of positivist
philosophy. This belief in the ideals of science can be
found throughout his work, up to and including the
Outline of Psychoanalysis (1940a [1938]), in which he
writes: “Whereas the psychology of consciousness
never went beyond the broken sequences which were
obviously dependent on something else, the other
view, which held that the psychical is unconscious in
itself, enabled psychology to take its place as a natural
science like any other. The processes with which it is
concerned are in themselves just as unknowable as
those dealt with by other sciences, by chemistry or
physics, for example; but it is possible to establish laws
which they obey and to follow their mutual relations
and interdependences unbroken over long stretches—
in short, to arrive at what is described as an ‘understanding’
of the field of natural phenomena in
question.”
Freud’s adherence to the ideals of science is tempered
by an epistemological relativism remote from a
“scientific catechism.” He writes: “It is a mistake to
believe that a science consists in nothing but conclusively
proved propositions, and it is unjust to demand
that it should. It is a demand only made by those who
feel a craving for authority in some form and a need to
replace the religious catechism by something else, even
if it be a scientific one. Science in its catechism has but
few apodictic precepts; it consists mainly of statements
which it has developed to varying degrees of probability.
The capacity to be content with these approximations
to certainty and the ability to carry on
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
constructive work despite the lack of final confirmation
are actually a mark of the scientific habit of mind”
(1916-17a). In other words, science demands that we
renounce beliefs like magic, globalizing visions of the
world, and absolute knowledge of metaphysics and religion.
The work of the scientist entails the sublimation
of epistemophilic sexual drives, which are present in
the primal paradigm of the theories and techniques of
infantile sexual investigation. Freud raised science to
the level of a perfect model of the renunciation of the
pleasure principle.
Freud’s need to preserve psychoanalysis from the
grip of religion and philosophy did not result in his
abandoning it to physicians and scientists. As early as
The Interpretation of Dreams (1900a) and the Psychopathology
of Everyday Life (1901b), he took the side of
antiquity and popular knowledge against the exclusivity
of official science. Throughout his work he manifested
this oscillation between art and science, which
he discovered that he shared with Leonardo da Vinci.
On several occasions he pays homage to the poets and
novelists, the true precursors of his own discoveries:
“The authors of works of the imagination are valuable
colleagues and their knowledge should be held in high
esteem, for they have the gift of understanding many
things that occur between heaven and earth and of
which we have no idea. As for knowledge of the
human heart, they exceed us considerably, we humble
mortals, for they appeal to sources that are not yet
accessible to science” (1908e [1907]).
Freud recognized the role of the imagination in
scientific work. This element of fiction within any
theory leads him to speak of a “mythology of drives”
and the metapsychological “sorcerer.” He identifies a
dream element at work in science itself and shows,
especially in Delusions and Dreams in Jensen's “Gradiva”
(1907a [1906]), the overdetermination inherent
in scientific discourse: science, as a whole, can be
used for fantasy. Science, with its origins in dream
and fantasy, can withdraw only temporarily behind
respect for its methodological protocols and critical
rationalism. Psychoanalysis can only maintain its
scientificity through the implementation of a method
within a given form of practice. This epistemological
option appears constant over the development of
Freudian thought: “What characterizes psychoanalysis,
as a science, is less the material on which it
works, than the technique of which it makes use”
(1916-1917a).
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SCIENCE AND PSYCHOANALYSIS
The ideal of Freudian epistemology has gradually
given way to the ideal of analysis, which has sometimes
been referred to as an ethic. The scientific ideology to
which Freud clung has shown itself to be dated, and
has been rejected by modern epistemology. Freud’s
initial belief in the positivist demands of science has
been beneficial: It has situated the specificity of psychoanalysis
within a method capable of elevating resistance
and transference, along with their analysis, to the
rank of operators of knowledge of the unconscious.
Freud refused to construct and describe a particular
structure in which concepts, as well as objects, would
remain inseparable from a method. But his positivist
and realist prejudices sometimes prevented him from
recognizing that the psychoanalytic system created its
objects as it discovered them.
With Freud, psychoanalysis, by recognizing its debt
to poets and scholars, continued to enjoy the prerogatives
of one and the privileges of the other, and vice
versa, inscribing its praxeological specificity within the
interstices of the traditional loci of knowledge. Having
done so, and notwithstanding the classical and modern
culture of its founder, it participates indirectly in
the decompartmentalization of discourse characteristic
of postmodernity.
ROLAND GorRI
See also: Catastrophe theory and psychoanalysis; Future
of an Illusion, The, Matheme; Psychoanalytic epistemology;
Psychoanalytic research; Weltanschauung.
Bibliography
Bachelard, Gaston. (1938). La Formation de I esprit scientifique:
Contribution a une psychanalyse de la connaissance
objective. Paris: Vrin.
Freud, Sigmund. (1908e [1907]). Creative writers and daydreaming.
SE, 9: 141-153.
. (1916-1917a). Introductory lectures on psychoanalysis.
Part I, SE, 15; Part II, SE, 16.
. (1940a [1938]). An outline of psycho-analysis. SE,
23: 139-207.
. (1950c [1895]). Project for a scientific psychology.
SE, 1: 281-387.
Hoffmann, Christian. (1995). Le manifeste positiviste signe
par S. Freud en 1911. Cliniques méditerraneéennes, 45—46.
Lacan, Jacques. (1966). La science et la verite. In Ecrits (p.
855-878). Paris: Le Seuil.
1551
SCILICET
Further Reading
Grunbaum, Adolph. (1984). The foundations of psychoanalysis.
A philosophical critique. Berkeley: University of
California Press.
Holt, Robert (Ed.). (1997). Psychoanalysis and the philosophy
of science. Collected papers of Benjamin Rubenstein.
Madison, CT: International Universities Press.
Wallerstein, Robert S. (1986). Psychoanalysis as a science:
Response to new challenges. Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 55,
414-451.
Weinberger, J. et al. (2000). On integrating psychoanalysis
and cognitive science. Psychoanalysis and Contemporary
Thought, 23, 147-176.
SCILICET
The first issue of the review Scilicet, under the direction
of Jacques Lacan, appeared in May, 1968 from
Seuil, the same publisher that two years earlier had
brought out his Ecrits. Just seven issues would appear
in all, counting two double numbers (2/3 and 6/7),
over the next eight years.
The Latin adverbial Scilicet (scire licet) means “it
goes without saying”; Lacan translated it, as he stated
in the first issue of the review, as: “You are permitted
to know.”
Beginning with the observation that he had “failed
in a teaching project over the course of a dozen years
which addressed only analysts,” Lacan added that during
four years of teaching at the Ecole Normale Supérieure
he had taken an interest in notions of formal
mathematics. He wrote, “This review is one of the
ways by which I expect success in my school, which
operates differently from the so-called Societies, over
resistance I encountered elsewhere”
Thus, Scilicet was not addressed to analysts but to
novices. That was why, punning on the English word
bachelor, he stated, “I’ve decided to call you bachelier,
to remind you of your place in this empire of pedantry,
now so prevalent that actually entering this world will
guarantee you nothing except a cultural sewer.” This
comment may be viewed as a harbinger of the revolutionary
period of May, 1968.
Texts published in Scilicet were to be unsigned, “at
least by anybody who would publish as a psychoanalyst.”
The no-signature rule appeared to Lacan as “a
radical solution... the right one to disentangle the
1552
contortions by which in psychoanalysis experience is
forced to reject anything that might change it.”
The decision to publish Scilicet was announced in
the “Proposition of October 9, 1967...” that introduced
the idea of the passe, a test that Lacan designed
to evaluate students as they advanced from being analysands
to becoming analysts. He also made reference
to “Nicolas. Bourbaki,” the pen name that an influential
group of French mathematicians lent to their collective
work beginning in the 1930s. “Let us be clear,”
Lacan added: “Scilicet excludes no one, but that whoever
does not appear in it will not be recognized as one
of my students.”
Although Lacan listed the names of analysts who
wrote for the journal in the next issue (2/3), anonymity
for individual articles was maintained. Lacan published
a number of interventions in Scilicet, these
would later be republished in Autres Ecrits (2001).
Around the same time, another review, L’Ordinaire du
psychanalyste, also appeared, also with anonymous
contributions, under the direction of Francis Hofstein
and Radmila Zygouris. Although inspired by Lacan,
these analysts had no allegiance to him and their
review was a forum in which they could freely discuss
clinical matters, providing a counterweight to Scilicet
that proved a great critical success.
After Scilicet ceased publication in 1976 due to
Lacan’s loss of interest, it was followed by the first issue
of Ornicar? in which Lacan published “Peut-étre a Vincennes....”
Here he reaffirmed his aspirations for the
department of psychoanalysis at the University of Vincennes
and reiterated his confidence in Jacques-Alain
Miller: “Hopefully, the curriculum at Vincennes will
include teachings that Freud considered fundamental,
enabling the analyst to confirm the findings of his personal
analysis, to understand not so much the ends it
served as the knowledge of which it made use.” By this
time, Lacan seemed to be counting on the school to
advance the foundations he laid down. He had furthered
efforts to bring to bear mathematically-inspired formulas
on psychoanalysis, with a lecture by Jean-Toussaint
Desanti, “Reflections on the Concept of Mathesis,”
which he introduced at a conference at Sainte Anne on
“Psychoanalytic Knowledge,” on December 2, 1971.
JACQUES SEDAT
See also: Ecole freudienne de Paris (Freudian School of
Paris); Ornicar?.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY oF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Bibliography
Lacan, Jacques. (2001). Autres ecrits. Paris: Seuil.
SCOPTOPHILIA/SCOPOPHILIA
The term scoptophilia, subsequently replaced by scopophilia,
took its place in Anglophone psychoanalytic literature
as a translation of the Freudian notion of
Schaulust, “pleasure in looking,” in the sense of both
seeing and being seen, as well as “curiosity.” Freud distinguished
between two frequently encountered forms
of this partial drive: one active, “voyeurism,” and the
other passive, “exhibitionism,” neither of which he
would necessarily rank among perversions (1910a
[1909]).
As early as 1936, Ernest Jones wrote a critique of
Howard C. Warren’s Dictionary of Psychology in which
he noted that the Glossary of Psychoanalytical Terms,
which Jones edited in 1924 in preparation for the
planned Standard Edition, contained “an important
mistake ... , one which has been widely copied in psycho-
analytical literature, namely, the incorrect term
scoptophilia, which should be scopophilia” (p. 247). In
1963, James Strachey gave a more detailed explanation:
“I must admit that the Glossary Committee disgraced
itself lamentably over at least one word. The question
was how to translate “Schaulust—the pleasure in looking.
Greek terminology was all the rage, and the word
‘scoptophilia’ was suggested and accepted with acclamation.
It certainly looked a little odd; but nevertheless
it passed into all the four volumes of the Collected
Papers uncriticized. You might have imagined that we
should have remembered telescopes and microscopes
and so have suspected that the Greek root for looking
was something like ‘scop.’ Actually there is a Greek
root ‘scopt,’ but what it means is ‘to make fun of.’ And
so to this day you may still come upon references to
the component sexual instinct of pleasure in derision”
(p. 229).
In fact, just as Bruno Bettelheim wrote in Freud and
Man’s Soul, both terms are wrong and “the monstrosity
contrived by Freud’s translators and perpetuated in
the Standard Edition—“scopophilia”—certainly conveys
nothing at all” (p. 91). He comments moreover
that this seems a betrayal of Freudian thought: “It
would admittedly be difficult to find a single English
word to express what Freud had in mind with Schaulust—
a term that combines the German word for lust,
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
SCOTOMIZATION
or sexual desire, with that for looking, seeing, or contemplating—
but a phrase on the order of ‘the sexual
pleasure in looking’ would make his meaning clear; or
since ‘lust’ is the near equivalent of the German Lust
and has the further advantage that it can be used both
as a noun and as a verb, it might be preferable to
‘sexual pleasure.’ In either case, the reader would
know immediately what is meant. Sincewe have all
repeatedly experienced great pleasure in watching
something, in taking it in with our eyes, and have
occasionally been ashamed of doing so, or even been
afraid to look, although we wished to see, it would be
easy to have both a direct intellectual and emotional
understanding of Freud’s concept” (p. 90-91).
Several hundred articles by the most illustrious
names in psychoanalysis nevertheless testify to the persistence
of the use of these two suspect terms up to the
present day—a particularly striking example of the
absurd errors that can be passed on from text to text.
ALAIN DE MIOLLA
See also: Exhibitionism; Identification with the aggressor;
Look/gaze; Voyeurism.
Bibliography
Bettelheim, Bruno. (1983). Freud and man’s soul. New York:
Alfred A. Knopf.
Freud, Sigmund. (1910a [1909]). Five lectures on psychoanalysis.
SE, 11: 7-55.
Jones, Ernest. (1936). Review of the “Dictionary of psychology.”
(Howard C. Warren, Ed.) London: Allen and Unwin.
International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 17, 247-248.
Strachey, James. (1963). Obituary of Joan Riviere, 1883-—
1962. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 44, 228-
230.
SCOTOMIZATION
The term scotomization, borrowed from ocular pathology,
where scotoma refers to a spot in the visual field
in which vision is deficient or absent, came into use
by young psychiatrists in the 1920s to refer to a lack
of awareness of others. Rene Laforgue, who refers to
this origin for the term, proposed the notion in the
context of his thinking on schizophrenics and “schizonoia”
at the time of his earliest work in psychoanalysis.
He believed it would account for his patients’
1553
SCOTOMIZATION
misapprehension of reality, and explained in a letter of
June 10, 1925, to Sigmund Freud that “scotomization
corresponds to the wish that is infantile, and therefore
not repressed, not to acknowledge the external world
but to put the ego itself into its place. In these conditions,
the process of repression seemingly has not
overcome the primitive stages in the normal way, but,
on the contrary, has allowed them to persist.”
Freud was puzzled and rather opposed to this innovation,
which seemed to him a bit too “French” in its
tendency toward simplification. In a letter to Laforgue
dated May 1925, he argued: “A very important point
seems to me that in repression ( Verdrangung) you distinguish
a scotomization. I do not believe there are any
grounds for this. We have stated that repression means
that an instinct is suppressed and that the fact of being
conscious is withdrawn from its ideational representation.
Why split this unitary process in two? As for the
other differences you establish between repression and
scotomization, I do not understand them.” He nevertheless
accepted Laforgue’s presentation of the notion
in the article “Verdrangung und Skotomisation”
(Repression and scotomization), which appeared in
1926 in the Internationale Zeitschrift fiir Psychoanalyse.
However, he criticized it in a letter of February 18,
1926: “I read your article in German on scotomization
from start to finish. I now understand why this concept
and its relationship to repression pose such difficulties
for me. I note that on one point you have abandoned
me. You do not accept the metapsychological
view that tries to characterize a psychical event in
terms of its dynamic, topographical, and economic
aspects—in terms of three coordinates, so to speak. It
is especially by disregarding the topographical coordinate
that you give up a sort of certainty, whereas it
makes itself felt in the whole. You are not concerned
with what happens in the three layers of the conscious,
preconscious, and unconscious, and phenomena are
therefore ambiguous. No doubt you have not dared to
present to your compatriots this element of complication
and speculation.”
Freud returned to the topic in “Inhibitions, Symptoms
and Anxiety” (1926d), citing Laforgue’s notion
as an example of the hysterical mechanism “which, by
means of restrictions of the ego, causes situations to be
avoided that would entail such perceptions, or, if they
do occur, manages to withdraw the subject’s attention
from them”. But his reflections on lack of awareness
1554
continued in the article “Fetishism,” where he wrote:
“If we wish to separate in it [repression] more clearly
the vicissitude of the representation from that of the
affect and reserve the expression ‘repression’ for the
affect, for the vicissitude of the representation it would
be correct to say in German Verleugnung (disavowal).
The term ‘scotomization’ seems to me to be particularly
improper, for it evokes the idea that perception
has been completely swept away, as in the case where a
visual impression strikes the blind spot of the retina.
On the contrary, the situation which we are describing
shows that perception remains and that a very energetic
action has been undertaken to maintain its
denial.”
Laforgue attempted a further refinement the following
year in “Uberlegungen zum Begriff der Verdrangung”
(Considerations on the notion of repression),
but the notion of scotomization did not
withstand Freud’s commentaries for long, even in
France, where Edouard Pichon had been extremely
receptive to it.
If this notion is no longer used today, we can imagine
that the discussions to which it gave rise, before
the war, and Freud’s refusal to believe that a perception
could be purely and simply suppressed, without conflict
or any permanent psychic modifications, such as a
splitting of the ego (1938), were no doubt not unrelated
to what Jacques Lacan based on his-translation of
Verwerfung called “foreclosure.”
ALAIN DE MyOLLA
See also: Disavowal; Laforgue, René; Pichon, Edouard
Jean Baptiste.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1926d). Inhibitions, symptoms and anxiety.
SE, 20: 75-172.
. (1927e). Fetishism. SE, 21: 147-57.
Freud, Sigmund, and Laforgue, René. (1977h [1923-33]).
Correspondance Freud-Laforgue, préface d’André Bourguignon.
Nouvelle Revue de psychanalyse, 15 (1977), 235—
314.
Laforgue, René. (1926). Verdrangung und Skotomisation.
Internationale Zeitschrift fiir Psychoanalyse, 12, 54-65.
. (1928). Uberlegungen zum Begriff der Verdrangung.
Internationale Zeitschrift fiir PsychoanalySE, 4, 371—
7A.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
SCREEN MEMORY
A screen memory (like forgetting and amnesia) is a
compromise between repressed elements and defense
against them. A paradoxical feature of recollections of
this kind is they are less childhood memories than
memories about childhood, characterized typically by
their singular clarity and the apparent insignificance of
their content. Important facts are not retained;
instead, their psychic significance is displaced onto
closely associated but less important details. Displacement
is indeed the main mechanism here, as it is in the
case of mnemic symbols or in the forgetting of a
proper name, although to some degree condensation
may also be present.
The notion of screen memories was first presented
by Freud in his paper so named (1899a), an extension
of his work on mnemic symbols and the recollection
of trauma in hysteria, a paper written as he was beginning
to develop the idea of unconscious fantasy. Later,
he concluded that such memories, so long as one knew
how to interpret them, supplied the best available
source of knowledge about the “forgotten” childhood
years (1914g, p. 148). Any memory could be a screen
memory inasmuch as one aspect of it screened out
something unacceptable to the ego.
In the “Project for a Scientific Psychology” (1950c
[1895]), Freud told of Emma, who attributed her phobia
to an insignificant scene recalled from adolescence
while repressing a more important childhood event.
The scene from adolescence, described by Freud as
pseudos, was in effect a screen memory serving to
negate the unacceptable fact of the traumatic seduction
of a child by an adult, the memory of which was
transformed into age-appropriate amorous feelings of
adolescence (pp. 352-54). Freud clarified his notion of
the defensive and idealizing falsification of memories
in his account of the “Rat Man” case, where he noted
“that people’s ‘childhood memories’ are only consolidated
at a later period, usually at the age of puberty,
and that this involves a complicated process of remodeling,
analogous in every way to the process by which
a nation constructs legends about its early history. It at
once becomes evident that in his phantasies about his
infancy the individual as he grows up “endeavours to
efface the recollection of his auto-erotic activities’
(1909d, p. 206n). The adolescent’s memories concerning
his or her childhood thus sought to negate an
infantile sexuality incapable of oedipal victory and
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Screen Memory
replaced it with more heroic ideas by means of a process
that Freud compared to the creation of legends
and myths.
In “Remembering, Repeating and Working-
Through” (1914g), Freud compared screen memories
and dreams, observing that their common trait of
visual representability enabled them to contain mnemic
traces, albeit in the form of “dream-thoughts.” He
added that the analysis of dreams and screen memories
facilitated access to the reality of the direct experience
of the past just as effectively as the analysis of simple
memories: screen memories, he wrote, retained “all of
what is essential. ... They represent the forgotten years
of childhood as adequately as the manifest content of a
dream represents the dream-thoughts” (p. 148). Could
screen memories conceivably be considered a more
faithful representation than memories per se? A note
added in 1920 to the Three Essays on the Theory of
Sexuality drew an analogy between screen memories
and the fetish which conceals female castration
(1905d, p. 154n); and in Leonardo da Vinci and a
Memory of his Childhood, memory covers up a fantasy
of the mother with a penis (1910c, p. 98). This fetishistic
aspect of screen memories, as likewise of sensorily
intense mnemic symbols and images, clearly foreshadows
Freud’s later view of fetishism.
The key reference here nevertheless remains “Screen
Memories” (1899a). In this paper Freud evoked one of
his own memories of childhood (though he ascribed it
to someone else), in which he saw himself playing with
other children in a very green meadow across which
vivid yellow flowers were sprinkled; analysis led to a
later memory, from adolescence, in which he was in
love with a girl in a yellow dress. Thus the childhood
memory was in this case screening off a later sexual
wish: “there was no childhood memory, but only a
phantasy put back into childhood” (p. 315). The displacement
was flagged by the intensity of sensory
representability (a gauge of the persistence of the
wish). Sensory representability was not always primary,
however: figurative elements could sometimes
reflect wishful verbal connections, as, in the present
context, when the delicious taste of bread in memory
could be interpreted as reflecting the adolescent wish
to “earn one’s bread” like an adult.
As early as 1899, then, Freud suspected that any
memory that presented itself to consciousness with
great intensity might be a screen, so creating a theory
of memory as a realm deeply affected by elements of
1555
SecHEHAYE, MARGuUERITE (1887-1964)
fantasy: “There is in general no guarantee of the data
produced by our memory” (p. 315). Without such a
guarantee, psychoanalytical interpretation would place
its hopes in the study of repetition (1914g) or on the
evidence from analytic constructions (1937d).
Inasmuch as screen memories cover up that which
is unacceptable to the ego, they may be considered
essentially defensive in nature. Their illusory aspect
tends to infect all remembering, which thus may
always be suspected of having a screen function. The
notion tends to subvert the idea of historical reality,
for it prompts the question whether such a reality is
the outcome of creative interpretation or of genuine
access to mnemic traces. In analyzing his own screen
memories, therefore, Freud developed an idea that
implied a new epistemology of time and of the complexity
of reality: “as though a memory-trace from
childhood had here been translated back... at a later
date” (p. 321). “The recognition of this fact must
diminish the distinction we have drawn between
screen memories and other memories derived from
our childhood” (p. 322).
FRANCOIS RICHARD
See also: Adolescence; Bernfeld, Siegfried; Lifting of
amnesia; Memory.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1899a). Screen memories. SE, 3: 299-322.
. (1905d). Three essays on the theory of sexuality. SE,
7: 123-243.
. (1909d). Notes upon a case of obsessional neurosis.
SE, 10: 151-318.
. (1910c). Leonardo da Vinci and a memory of his
childhood. SE, 11: 57-137.
. (1914g). Remembering, repeating and workingthrough
(Further recommendations on the technique of
psycho-analysis II). SE, 12: 145-156.
. (1937d). Constructions in analysis. SE, 23: 255-269.
. (1950c [1895]). Project for a scientific psychology.
SE, 1: 281-387.
SECHEHAYE, MARGUERITE (1887-1964)
Swiss psychologist Marguerite Sechehaye was born on
September 27, 1887, and died in Geneva on June 1,
1964.
1556
The child of an authoritarian mother and an egalitarian
father, Marguerite Burdet received a Protestant
education, attended a secondary school for girls, and
graduated with a diploma in literature and pedagogy.
While at the university, she attended Ferdinand de
Saussure’s lectures on linguistics and, thanks in part to
her notes from that course, Charles. Bally and Albert
Sechehaye, her husband, established the famous
Course in General Linguistics. She also studied psychology
and professional orientation at the Institut
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, which was directed by psychologist
Eduard Claparéde. After graduation, she
became Claparéde’s assistant and opened a private
practice as a psychologist.
Psychoanalyst Raymond de Saussure was friends
with Marguerite and Albert Sechehaye and, according
to their adoptive daughter, Louisa Sechehaye-Duess,
“Saussure once asked Marguerite why she would not
undergo psychoanalysis. She refused on the pretext
that psychoanalysis was too concerned with sexuality
and that her religion forbade it. When Saussure replied
that she ought not judge a method without having
experienced it, Sechehaye quickly admitted as much
and the next day began a training analysis with Saussure.
According to her own emotional reactions at the
time, she seems not to have considered it a serious analysis.
This was during 1927-28. Soon thereafter, Saussure
advised her to take on cases of her own, to analyze
them first under control, then he let her practice on
her own.”
A group of analysts used to meet, during the 1930s,
at the homes of Saussure and the Sechehayes, including
Charles Odier, Henri Flournoy, Gustave Richard,
and Georges Dubal. This gathering represented the
first circle of analysts in Geneva after those of Charles
Baudouin and Sabina Spielrein, who had analyzed
Jean Piaget. Louisa Sechehaye-Duess wrote that Sechehaye
“had a special influence among this group, gained
by daring to show her ignorance while proposing very
modern ideas. Everybody admired her mind and her
beauty, knowledge, and modesty.”
Marguerite Sechehaye was an attentive reader of
Freud and Piaget. Analytic practice with schizophrenic
patients led her to develop an original method of psychotherapy.
When Freud learned of her research, he
wrote her an encouraging note, but also informed her
of his doubts. The method she called “symbolic realization”
would become her tool in psychotherapy with
schizophrenics. In 1950, she published her major
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SeEcoND WorLD War: THE EFFECT ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
work, Autobiography of a Schizophrenic Girl, in which
she demonstrated, directly and indirectly, the essentials
of her method applied to her patient Renée,
whom she would eventually adopt and who would
later become a psychoanalyst. Marguerite Sechehaye
agreed with Melanie Klein on many issues. For both,
the quality of mothering was essential. They corresponded
on the decisive importance of the earliest
stages of psychic development. Sechehaye had also frequent
contacts with renowned analysts such as Marie
Bonaparte, Renée Spitz, Anna Freud, and Donald W.
Winicott.
In 1951-52, at Zurich University, assisted by her
daughter, she gave a series of lectures to the physicians
of the Burgholzli Psychiatric Clinic. She examined several
schizophrenic patients in the presence of the
house physicians and taught them the steps of her psychotherapeutic
method. Sechehaye also published articles
and refined her concept of symbolic realization. In
1962, psychiatrists in Milan honored her with a gold
medal. On January 1, 1964, several months before her
death, Christian Miller honored Sechehaye with a stirring
homage before the Swiss Psychoanalytic Society,
noting her influence upon young Swiss psychiatrists
and psychoanalysts.
Mario CIFALI
See also: Psychoses, chronic and delusional; Schizophrenia;
Switzerland (French-speaking); Symbolic realization.
Bibliography
Sechehaye, Marguerite. (1951). Autobiography of a schizophrenic
girl. New York: Grune and Stratton.
. (1956). A new psychotherapy in schizophrenia: Relief
of frustrations by symbolic realization. New York: Grune
and Stratton.
. (1970, [c1951]). Symbolic realization. New York:
International Universities Press.
SECOND WORLD WAR: THE EFFECT ON THE
DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
The Second World War, like the First and in spite of
the upheavals it caused in the psychoanalytic movement,
was the origin of the international expansion of
psychoanalytic theories and practices. Three principal
factors were involved: The Nazi persecutions, by forcing
Jewish psychoanalysts to emigrate and by elimi-
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
nating all references to Freud in occupied Europe,
shifted the international core of the movement to
America. Freud’s death in the first weeks of the world
conflict made all psychoanalysts responsible for what
would or would not be considered “psychoanalytic,”
leading to the gradual evolution from an autocratic to
a democratic structure within the movement. The
Allied victory in 1945, by spreading American culture
abroad, promoted interest in liberated Europe in a certain
conception of psychoanalysis, understood as a liberalization
of behavior and a new understanding of the
individual in a “free” Western world, essentially
opposed to Soviet totalitarianism.
Anna Freud and Ernest Jones made a determined
effort to organize the emigration of Jewish analysts
from Europe to countries willing to receive them (Steiner).
Once Hitler came to power in Germany in 1933,
persecutions against Jews forced many of them to leave
professional organizations, emigrate from Germany
and leave the famed Psychoanalytic Institute in the
hands of Matthias Goring. The “German Institute of
Psychological Research and Psychotherapy” attempted
to eradicate psychoanalytic theory and practice, and
the majority of therapists who remained in Germany
compromised themselves during the twelve years the
Nazi regime was in existence, although a few of them
resisted. John Rittmeister attempted to, and was guillotined
in 1943. Karl Landauer died in the Theresienstadt
camp, Salomea Kempner in the Warsaw ghetto.
In Austria the situation was similar after the Anschluss,
when analysts were forced to emigrate. Freud and several
family members and friends left Austria in 1938.
In Italy Mussolini’s fascists had, less brutally but just as
efficiently, muzzled publishing and destroyed psychotherapy
and helped to eradicate support for Freud
in Europe, where psychoanalysis had come into being
and flourished. There were a number of Hungarian
analysts, for example, who had to flee to South America
or Australia, where they became active proponents
of Freudian theories.
In France, where several psychoanalysts like Rene
Spitz and Heinz Hartmann had gone before the war
and where Rudolf Loewenstein and Marie Bonaparte
had emigrated after closing their institute and discontinuing
the Revue frangaise de psychanalyse, some psychoanalysts
continued to practice, although discreetly.
Only René Laforgue, originally from Alsace, tried to
collaborate with the Goring Institute, an attempt that
was ultimately unsuccessful. Sacha Nacht joined the
1557
SECONDARY GAIN
Resistance movement and Paul Schiff joined the Free
French forces with whom he fought until the Allied
victory.
But it was among the Allies that psychoanalysis
found the greatest support, and it was in Allied countries
that it flourished to an unprecedented degree. In
Great Britain the controversy between Melanie Klein
and Anna Freud gave the British Psychoanalytic
Society the tripartite structure it subsequently retained.
Just as important were the contributions by psychoanalysts
to the war effort through selection and
psychological care of English soldiers. John Rickman
and Wilfred Bion, among others, developed techniques
that were the origin of group therapy practices such as
the application of psychoanalytic practices to social
problems.
In America the influx of refugees disturbed the
equilibrium of the American Psychoanalytic Society
(APSA), the number of members rising from ninetytwo
in 1932 to one hundred ninety-two in 1940 and to
two hundred forty-seven in 1945. Obviously there
were conflicts. In 1941 Karen Horney left the New
York Psychoanalytic Society to found, with Harry
Stack Sullivan and Clara Thompson, the Association
for the Advancement of Psychoanalysis. The European
analysts and their students took the reins of the APA
and continued the discussions and quarrels that had
characterized their behavior prior to emigrating.
Some, like Otto Fenichel, who had been politically
militant in the past, had to keep their opinions to
themselves and adapt to an “American way of life,” of
which, with the passage of generations, they became
the most ardent defenders. We know that the APSA’s
requirement of a medical degree led to the exclusion of
many highly capable analysts, like Theodor Reik, from
traditional psychoanalytic organizations; others, like
Géza Roheim, were not allowed to teach.
The International Psychoanalytic Association was
in turn “Americanized,” with Freud’s prestigious students
taking an increasingly greater part in its management.
Their responsibilities also grew through the global
expansion of psychoanalysis that emigration had
caused and which accentuated the popular vogue for
Freudian ideas in the United States. The 1945 Allied
victory put an end to the dominance of German as the
language of psychoanalysis, and English became the
principle vehicle for Freudian theories. This was
secured by the publication, between 1953 and 1974, of
1558
the twenty-four volumes of the Standard Edition of the
Works of Sigmund Freud.
The Cold War, and the time it took for traditional
European psychoanalytic organizations to resume
their activities in countries not subject to Soviet control,
resulted in the unchallenged dominance of
Anglo-American ideas for nearly fifty years in both
international politics and psychoanalysis.
ALAIN DE MIJOLLA
See also: First World War: The effect on the development
of psychoanalysis.
Bibliography
La psychanalyse et les psychanalystes dans le monde durant
la Deuxiéme Guerre mondiale. (1988). Revue internationale
dhistoire de la psychanalyse, 1.
Steiner, Riccardo. (2000). ‘It is a new kind of diaspora’:
Explorations in the sociopolitical and cultural context of psychoanalysis.
London: Karnac.
SECONDARY GAIN. See Gain (primary and
secondary)
SECONDARY PROCESS. see Primary process/
Secondary process
SECONDARY REVISION
Secondary revision first appears in The Interpretation
of Dreams (Freud, 1900), at the end of the section in
Chapter 6 describing the mechanisms of the dream
work.
Viewed strictly with respect to dreams, secondary
revision is a rearrangement of the seemingly incoherent
elements of the dream into a form serviceable
for narration. This involves logical and temporal
reorganization in obedience to the principles
of noncontradiction, temporal sequence, and causality
which characterize the secondary processes of
conscious thought. Above all, it is instrumental
dream censorship and may produce omissions or
additions.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
But this process, Freud goes on to explain, is also at
work in daydreams, which organize remembered
materials by “threading them onto the string of desire,
between past, present, and future.” Furthermore,
dreams may rework such fantasies, since they are just
nearby in the Preconscious. Secondary revision may
also be found in the symptoms of various afflictions,
neurotic or otherwise, involving rationalization, the
most extreme instances of which may be seen in obsessional
neurosis.
Secondary revision is a concept that has been studied
relatively little since Freud (except for rationalization
in obsessional neurosis), because analysts have
preferred to explore the mechanisms of condensation,
displacement, and symbolic representation. However,
there is no shortage of promising avenues of research
in this realm.
First of all, we might consider its most important
modes of operation: the act of putting into words, the
translation of dream images into verbal images, and
the transformation into narrative structure. This is
somewhat akin to the rhetorical modes that effect the
translation of visual images into figures of speech or
style and, inversely, produce images in the mind of the
listener. The difference is that the rhetoric of secondary
revision serves the ends of censorship more than those
of the drives and the primary processes of the unconscious
(Duparc, 1995).
Secondary revision seems to be more or less constituted
of ready-made, second-hand rhetorical figures
that are already stored in a dictionary of such images
without occasioning the emergence of much in the
way of the affect or desire of the person using them, in
contrast to the novel and creative images produced by
the representation of unconscious wish. The images in
secondary revision are like the prefabricated fantasies
that the dream disposes of like the day’s residues. They
might also be compared to symbols, impersonal or
collective materials described by Freud as the remains
of ancient linguistic identities and cultural artifacts
that work against the emergence of the dreamer’s individual
unconscious.
For some, the construction of the dream’s narrative
is one of its most important aspects, perhaps even its
driving force. Dreams are always meant to be told,
even if only to oneself, and it is the moment of awakening
itself, accompanied by the waning of the paradoxical
sleep observed by neurobiologists, that triggers
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SECONDARY REVISION
the transformation of reactualized remembered material
into instinctual manifestations and finally into an
organized narrative (Dejours, 1986). Moreover, dreams
that have undergone secondary revision are, as Freud
puts it in The Interpretation of Dreams, “dreams which
might be said to have been already interpreted once,
before being submitted to waking interpretation”
(p. 490). This aspect might lead us to reflect upon the
deferred effect of intellectual revision which analytic
treatment aims for and which assumes, insofar as
secondary revision is concerned, the somewhat
dubious form of constructions involving a significant
temporal element.
As for pathology, the predominance of secondary
revision over the other mechanisms of representation
in dreams and language produces a hypermanifest discourse,
in contrast to living discourse that is capable of
breathing and resonating with the various levels of
representation and figuration (rhythms of speech,
mobile shapes, visual images, living rhetorical figures,
and contemporary fantasies tied into a network of
primal fantasies).
This discourse is composed of what could be called
“manifest mechanisms,” as opposed to representations
with multiple meanings that allow for glimpses of latent
thought and the return of the repressed. These mechanisms
are a caricature of the mechanisms of dream
representation: incessant displacement leading to acceleration,
a manic flight by thinking, flooding-dreams
(manic defense); massive metaphorization that produces
uninterpretable symbolic dreams (for example
symbolic equations in the dreams of paranoid patients),
major ellipses, or traumatic repetitions in the operative
thought of certain psychosomatic patients.
FRANCOIS DUPARC
See also: Day’s residues; Displacement; Dream; Dream
work; Dream symbolism; Evenly-suspended attention;
Manifest; Myth; Working-over.
Bibliography
Dejours, Christophe. (1986). Le Corps entre biologie et psychanalyse.
Paris: Payot.
Duparc, Frangois. (1995). L’Image sur le divan. Paris:
L’Harmattan.
Freud, Sigmund. (1900a). The interpretation of dreams. SE,
4—5: 1-625.
1559
SECRET
Guillaumin, Jean. (1972). Le réveur et son réve. Revue francaise
de psychanalyse, 37 (1-2), 5-39.
Further Reading
Jacobs, Theodore. (2002). Secondary revision: rethinking
the analytic process and technique. Psychoanalytic Inquiry,
22, 3-28.
SECRET
A secret is a form of hidden knowledge. The word is
etymologically related to excrement and seduction.
Secret and excrement are both derived from the Latin
verb cernere (crevi, cretum) which means: 1) to sift, to
separate, to sort; 2) to discern or distinguish an object
from a distance. The prefix “ex” relates to the idea of
evacuation by sifting (excrement), the prefix “se” to
the idea of separation, setting aside, and preserving
(secretion, secret).
The secret has a positive, necessary side and a negative,
destructive side. Freud referred to it periodically
throughout his work, but gave it a central place that
anticipated his later research in “The Uncanny”
(1919h). In 1892 the term appeared in his writings with
an anal connotation whenever it brought to mind “foul
words, those secrets we all know, knowledge of which
we force ourselves to hide from others” (“A Case of Successful
Treatment by Hypnotism” (1892-93a)). The
secret was then associated with unhealthy obsessions in
the neuro-psychoses of defense (1894a). In 1900, in The
Interpretation of Dreams (1900a), Freud interpreted
dreams of exhibitionism as a desire to “keep a secret.”
In his discussion of Dora’s secret, masturbation,
Freud wrote, “He who has eyes to see and ears to hear
knows that mortals cannot keep any secret” (1905e
[1901]). In 1906, in “Psycho-Analysis and the Establishment
of Facts in Legal Proceedings,’ (1906c),
Freud distinguished the criminal’s conscious secret
from the unconscious secret of the hysteric. In “Infantile
Sexual Theories” (1908c), he demonstrated the
importance of the parents’ lying and secrecy regarding
the question of the child’s origins, which allows the
infant to access the secret in turn. “Children, once they
have been deceived (the stork theory) ... begin to suspect
that there is something hidden that grownups
keep for themselves and for this reason they surround
their later research in secrecy.” The parents’ secret is an
enigmatic message triggering the birth of thinking in
the infant.
1560
In 1919, in his article “The Uncanny” (1919h),
Freud gave considerable space to secrets and their
transmission. He discussed the various meanings of
the secret and its connections with the familiar, meetings,
love affairs, sin, intimate organs, commodes, and
oubliettes. He also quotes Friedrich Schelling, who
writes: “‘We call unheimlich anything that must remain
secret and which becomes manifest.’ Heimlich also designates
a ‘place without a ghost.’” Freud goes on to
study the theme of the double, and its analysis strangely
anticipates the ideas of Nicolas Abraham and
Maria Torok on the phantom, the crypt, and the
intrapsychic cave, and all the later work on the transmission
of the secret across generations: “Doubling of
the ego, splitting of the ego, substitution of the ego—
the constant return of the similar, repetition of the
same traits, characteristics, criminal acts, even the
same names in several successive generations.”
Abraham and Torok make an analogy between the
work of the phantom and the work of the death drive,
both working in silence without being mediated in
words. In their article, “De la topic réalitaire: Notations
sur une métapsychologie du secret,” they define
the phantom as “a formation of the unconscious that
is unique in never having been conscious. It is a result
of the transition, whose method remains to be determined,
from the parents’ unconscious to the child’s
unconscious.” They add that the phantom is the “work
in the unconscious of another’s inadmissible secret.”
The phantoms that haunt the living are “the holes left
in us by the secrets of others.” For these authors the
phantom is associated with a preservative repression
that fixes, immobilizes, and “the present past forms a
block of buried reality, incapable of coming back to
life without crumbling into dust.”
After 1970 research on the role of the secret and
non-symbolization in alienating transgenerational
transmission increased. Clinical work increasingly
helped illuminate concepts such as non-transmission,
the transmission of the inert (with Micheline Enriquez
and the heritage of psychosis), the leaping of generations
and alienating unconscious identification (Alain
de Mijolla, Haydee Faimberg), and failed blocked
mourning (Jean Cournut). Incorporation, encryption,
psychic fossilization, and unfulfilled mourning are
reflections of the work of the negative that is active in
the transmission of secrets across several generations.
The work of Daniel Stern on affective tuning may, perhaps,
serve as an explanatory link to account for this
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intergenerational psychic transmission, which continues
to remain enigmatic.
Systemic family therapy is also relevant to secrets
and their relation to family myths. The oedipal myth is
already a history of a family secret. In families it is
guilt that creates secrets and all the pathogenic rules
that follow from them. Many American family therapists
have shown that family secrets (divorce, suicide,
madness, incest) can mask an implicit narcissistic
wound, a devaluation of self image and family image
leading to abnormal behavior in a descendant.
We must not forget that our psychic life can only
develop against a background that remains silent,
secret—the secret Self of which Winnicott speaks. And
along with negative and positive secrets, living transmissions
exist alongside deadly transmissions of the secret.
ANNE-MARrRIE MAIRESSE
See also: Boundary violations; Cultural transmission;
Free association; Ideational representation; Intergenerational;
Phantom; Psychoanalytic treatment; Secret Committee;
Thing, the; Truth; ““Uncanny, ’ The.”
Bibliography
Abraham, Nicolas, and Torok, Maria. (1994). The shell and
the kernel. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. (Original
work published 1971)
Faimberg, Haydeeée. (1988). A Vécoute du télescopage des
generations: pertinence psychanalytique du concept. Topique,
42, 223-238.
Freud, Sigmund. (1919h). The “uncanny.” SE, 17: 217-256.
Kaés, René. (1993). “Introduction au concept de la transmission
psychique dans la pensée de Freud,” in R. Kaés et
al., Transmission de la vie psychique entre generations, Panis:
Dunod.
Mijolla, Alain de. (1982). En guise d’ouverture ... In Psychanalyse
et musique, Paris: Les Belles Lettres.
. (1987). Unconscious identification fantasies and
family prehistory. International Journal of Psychoanalysis,
68, 397-403.
SECRET COMMITTEE
The “Secret Committee” was the name given by Freud
to the intimate circle of his closest collaborators. Its
members were Karl Abraham, Sandor Ferenczi, Otto
Rank, Ernest Jones, Max Eitingon, and Hanns Sachs.
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SECRET COMMITTEE
Hanns Sachs revealed its existence for the first time in
1944 in Freud, Master and Friend. Since Sachs was
himself a member of this mysterious group, which had
a profound effect on the construction and extension of
the “psychoanalytic movement,” his memoirs must be
taken with a grain of salt, especially when it concerns
the image of his “hero Freud.” Nonetheless, the information
is invaluable for understanding the significance
of this group for the psychoanalytic movement
and the institutionalization of psychoanalysis.
The “psychoanalytic movement” achieved its organizational
goals through the drafting of its first bylaws
in 1910 by Freud and Ferenczi. What appears to
be an alternate process of institutional development
was initiated in 1912 with the formation of the secret
committee. The creation of an informal organization
within the organization was the result of tension
between Sigmund Freud and his Swiss “dauphin” Carl
Gustav Jung. Between 1910 and 1912 Jung had begun
to distance himself from Freud, not only in terms of
theory and clinical practice, but also in terms of their
personal relationship (Schréter, Michael, 1995).
The history of the secret committee took place in
three phases: from 1912 to 1920, from 1920 to 1927,
then from 1927 to 1936 (Wittenberger, Gerhard,
1995). Details about the committee’s first period—
from its creation during the summer of 1912 until
the Hague congress in 1920—are provided in five
Komiteebriefe (committee letters), which do not yet
present all the characteristics of the Rundbriefe (circular
letters). These letters illustrate how, at this time,
members of the committee discussed and jointly
worked out the policies of the International Psychoanalytic
Association (Wittenberger, 1996). The second
phase covers the actual history of the institution.
From this time, September 20, 1920, until March 14,
1926, there is an extensive correspondence of 361 circular
letters.
The significance Freud gave to the creation of the
secret committee and the importance of each of its
members in the struggle for “the thing” (die Sache)
held in common, is reflected in the symbol of the ring
bearing a Greek inscription, which he offered to each
of his colleagues as a sign of recognition and esteem.
Those who were so honored wore the ring as a mark of
their intimacy. The uncertainty about when the
exchange of circular letters ended is an indication that
the secret committee had been disbanded. This was
the result of the dynamic of the group as well as the
1561
SECRETS OF A SOUL
relational dynamic between Otto Rank and Sigmund
Freud and between Rank and his rival colleagues.
There is a break in the circular letters (April 1924 to
November 1926) corresponding to the period between
the gradual cessation of letter writing among the
members, following Rank’s break with Freud and his
colleagues and ultimately from psychoanalysis, and
the official renewal of correspondence. At the same
time there was an increased exchange of private letters
among the members of the secret committee and
Freud, which had been noted by Ferenczi in a letter to
Freud in March 1924. Because of the important role
played by Rank during the peak years of the “international
psychoanalytic movement” (Lieberman, E.
James, 1985), his departure (end 1924—beginning
1925) and Abraham’s death (December 1925),
together with Freud’s cancer (1923) all contributed to
the destabilization and final breakup of the committee.
It was only after the appearance of a circular letter,
dated November 23, 1926, written by Anna Freud
under her father’s dictation, that a new agreement was
reached to reintroduce the circular letters.
This initiated the third period of the former secret
committee, which now functioned as the “central
governing body of the International Psychoanalytic
Association.” Jones relates how “After the Innsbruck
Congress (1927), we modified the structure of the
committee by establishing our private group at the
head of the International Psychoanalytic Association.
Eitingon was named president, Ferenczi and myself,
vice presidents, Anna Freud secretary, and van Ophuijsen
treasurer” (1957). Hanns Sachs left the committee.
The governing body resumed writing the circular letters.
The eighty-three letters whose existence we are
currently aware of provide a glimpse of the problems
facing those who were forced to emigrate during the
rise to power of National Socialism.
GERHARD WITTENBERGER
See also: International Psychoanalytical Association; “On
the History of the Psychoanalytic Movement”; Psychoanalytic
filiations.
Bibliography
Grosskurth, Phylliss. (1991). The secret ring. Toronto:
McFarlane, Walter & Ross.
Jones, Ernest. (1957). Sigmund Freud: Life and work.
London: Hogarth Press.
1562
Lieberman, E. James. (1985). Acts of will: The life and work of
Otto Rank. New York: The Free Press.
Schréter, Michael. (1995). Freuds Komitee, 1912-1914: Ein
Beitrag zum Verstandnis psychoanalytischer Gruppenbildung.
Psyche, 49, 513-563.
Wittenberger, Gerhard. (1995). Das “Geheime Komitee” Sigmund
Freuds. Institutionalisierungsprozesse in der psychoanalytischen
Bewegung zwischen 1912 und 1927. Tubingen:
Diskord.
. (1996). The circular letters (Rundbriefe), as a
means of communication of the “secret committee” of Sigmund
Freud. International Forum of Psychoanalysis, 5,
111-121.
SECRETS OF A SOUL
A silent film about the talking cure which tells the
story of the outbreak, psychoanalytic treatment, and
cure of a knife phobia in a man, who has been living
for some years in a happy but childless marriage. A
murder next door and the return of his wife’s cousin
from abroad release in him a desire to murder his wife,
which he does in a nightmare, but which a sudden
inability to touch knives of any kind prevents him
from carrying out in reality. Distressed to the point of
suicide, he flees to his mother’s house where he
remembers a psychoanalyst, who had previously
recognized his state of mind, and whose help he now
seeks. During months of treatment, telescoped into
three sessions of intense dream interpretation, the
analyst takes the analysand through the presenting
problem back to the original childhood trauma and
forward into health via a cathartic abreaction as
unconscious processes are made conscious.
Originally conceived as an educational film (Lehrfilm)
with a booklet explaining the basic tenets of psychoanalysis
in simple yet scientifically correct language,
and based on an actual case history supplied by Karl
Abraham and Hanns Sachs, the film developed into a
full-length feature film with a cast of famous actors
directed by Georg Wilhelm Pabst. Hailed as a masterpiece
on its first showing in Berlin on March 24, 1926 it
remains a milestone in the history of European cinema.
By contrast, it sparked off an intense controversy
among psychoanalysts. Siegfried Bernfeld and Adolph
Joseph Storfer used Vienna and the Verlag to publicly
accuse their Berlin colleagues of bringing psychoanalysis
into disrepute by presenting it in a facile and bowdlerized
version and tried, unsuccessfully, to launch a
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rival project of their own. Freud, who from the outset
had expressed his doubts about he feasibility of the
Berlin project, was supported in his opposition to the
making of any psychoanalytic film by Max Eitingon,
Sandor Ferenczi, and Ernest Jones.
The even-handed review printed in the Internationale
Zeitschrift fiir Psychoanalyse—but not in the International
Journal of Psychoanalysis—praised Abraham
and Sachs for what they had achieved within the limitations
imposed by the medium, and Sachs’s booklet
as a textbook on the essentials of psychoanalysis. But it
also made the point that the resolution to psychic conflict
as presented was similar to the cathartic abreaction
as described by Freud in his first two American
lectures, and concluded that the film did not represent
psychoanalysis as a whole, but the quintessence of
“psychoanalytic therapy.”
Paut Ries
See also: Cinema criticism; Cinema and psychoanalysis;
Germany; Sachs, Hanns.
Source Citation
Pabst, Georg Wilhelm. (1926). Geheimnisse einer Seele (Mysteries
of a Soul). Newmann-film de Ufa-Kulturabteilung,
Berlin.
Bibliography
Fallend, Karl; and Reichmayr, Johannes. (1992). Psychoanalyse,
Film und Offentlichkeit : Konflikte hinter den Kulissen.
In Fallend and Reichmayr, (Eds.): Siegfried Bernfeld
oder Grenzen der Psychoanalyse Frankfurt am Main:
Stroemfeld-Nexus.
Harnik, Jend. (1927). Psychoanalytischer Film. Internationale
Zeitschrift fiir Psychoanalyse, 13, 580-581.
Lacoste, Patrick. (1990). L’Etrange Cas du Pr. M. Psychanalyse
a Vécran. Paris: Gallimard.
Ries, Paul. (1995). Popularise and/or be damned. Psychoanalysis
and film at the crossroads in 1925, International
Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 76, 759-792.
Sachs, Hanns. (1926). Psychoanalyse. Ratsel des Unbewussten.
Berlin: Buchdruckerei Lichtbildbihne.
SEDUCTION
The “scene of seduction” connotes attempts at seduction,
real or fantasied, in the form of advances, incita-
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SEDUCTION
tions, manipulations, or suggestions that are actively
initiated by an adult vis-a-vis a child who is passive,
even frightened.
The “theory of seduction” was a metapsychological
model worked out by Sigmund Freud between 1895
and 1897 and then abandoned; it assigned an etiological
role in the production of psychoneuroses to memories
of actual seduction attempts. In 1893, bolstered
by the accounts given him by his patients, Freud spoke
of seduction as a clinical discovery. During the period
1895-1897, based on these clinical observations, he
worked out a theory designed to explain the repression
of infantile sexuality. On September 21, 1897, in a
well-known letter to Wilhelm Fliess, he laid out his
reasons for abandoning this model (1950a, pp. 259-
260). This whole episode is eminently instructive from
an epistemological as from a heuristic point of view,
and is worth reviewing.
On May 30, 1893, Freud wrote to Fliess: “I believe I
understand the anxiety neuroses of young people who
must be regarded as virgins with no history of sexual
abuse” (1950c, p. 73). This was his first allusion to the
role of sexual seduction, still very broad in its application.
In “Draft H,” dated January 24, 1895, he presented
the following narrative: “He had called her up
to the bed, and, when she unsuspectingly obeyed, put
his penis in her hand. There had been no sequel to the
scene, and soon afterwards the stranger had gone off.
In the course of the next few years the sister who had
had this experience fell ill... . I endeavored to cure her
tendency to paranoia by trying to reinstate the memory
of the scene. I failed in this.... She wished not to
reminded of it and consequently intentionally
repressed it.... She had probably really been excited
by what she had seen and by its memory. ... The judgment
about her had been transposed outwards: people
were saying what otherwise she would have said to herself”
(1950a, pp. 207-209). Here then we have seduction,
repression, and the foreshadowing of rejection,
or what would much later be called foreclosure. On
October 15, 1895, Freud wrote enthusiastically to
Fliess: “Have I revealed the great clinical secret to you,
either in writing or by word of mouth? Hysteria is the
consequence of a presexual sexual shock. Obsessional
neurosis is the consequence of a presexual sexual pleasure
later transformed into guilt. ‘Presexual’ means
before puberty, before the production of the sexual
substance; the relevant events become effective only
as memories” (1895c, p. 127). On May 30, 1896, he
1563
SEDUCTION
distinguished the periods of life in which the event
occurred from those in which repression came into
play (1950a, pp. 229-231); and on May 2, 1897, with
reference to fantasies in hysteria, he elaborated: “all
their material is, of course, genuine. They are protective
structures, sublimations of the facts, embellishments
of them, and at the same time serve for selfexoneration.
Their precipitating origin is perhaps
from masturbation fantasies” (p. 247). The references
to “structures” “embellishments,” and “fantasies”
indicate clearly that Freud was becoming increasingly
dubious. In “Draft L”” an attachment to this last-cited
letter, he went on: “The aim seems to be to arrive
[back] at the primal scenes. In a few cases this is
achieved directly, but in others only by a roundabout
path, via phantasies. For phantasies are psychical
facades constructed in order to bar the way to these
memories. Phantasies at the same time serve the trend
towards refining the memories, towards sublimating
them” (p. 248). Truth to tell, the great revision was
already under way.
In the famous letter to Fliess of September 21, 1897,
Freud wrote: “I will confide in you at once the great
secret that has been slowly dawning on me in the last
few months. I no longer believe in my neurotica. This
is probably not intelligible without an explanation. ...
Then came surprise at the fact that in every case the
father, not excluding my own [a phrase long censored
by successive editors of the Freud-Fliess papers], had
to be blamed as a pervert... though such a widespread
extent of perversity towards children is, after all, not
very probable” (p. 259). Freud now realized that scenes
of seduction could be the product of reconstructions
in fantasy whose purpose was to conceal the child’s
autoerotic activity. This was a historic moment in the
shaping of psychoanalysis, rich in lessons about
Freud’s creative functioning and typical of the tendency
of his innovative thinking to be overtaken by its
own development, often changing course when faced
by contrary evidence but always anchored in clinical
experience. Freud’s self-analysis, undertaken in the
preceding months, following the death of his father,
certainly made it possible for him to carry through
this radical break, to approach the discovery of the
Oedipus complex, and eventually to reject his seduction
hypothesis as false. Much later, in 1924, he would
write the following in a footnote to his “Further
Remarks on the Neuro-Psychoses of Defence”
(1896b): “At that time I was not yet able to distinguish
1564
between my patients’ phantasies about their childhood
years and their real recollections. As a result, I attributed
to the aetiological factor of seduction a significance
and universality which it did not possess. When this
error had been overcome, it became possible to obtain
an insight into the spontaneous manifestations of the
sexuality of children which I described in my Three
Essays on the Theory of Sexuality (1905d)” (p. 168n). A
return to clinical observation was thus mandatory, and
Freud had no theoretical alternative in the end but to
assign seduction to the category of those primal fantasies
whose origin he ascribed to the prehistory of
humanity.
In the first Freudian clinical doctrine, the child at
birth was naive, innocent, and when confronted by the
sexuality of the other perceived it as external, foreign,
and strange: this was the context of the seduction theory;
in Freud’s second clinical doctrine, the child was
acknowledged to be the “polymorphously perverse,”
inherent possessor of a primitive sexuality, destined to
unfold in its interactions with its human surround.
But while, historically speaking, infantile sexuality
thus replaced seduction (scene and theory), it never
obliterated it completely, and both clinical views continued
to be discernible within psychoanalytic treatment,
as Freud himself frequently pointed out from
the Three Essays to the Outline of Psycho-Analysis
(1940a [1938]).
HENRI SZTULMAN
See also: Amnesia; Character neurosis; Childhood;
Deferred action; Fantasy; General theory of seduction;
“Heredity and the Aetiology of the Neuroses; Memories;
Mnemic symbol; Primal fantasies; Hysteria; Introjection;
Libido; Narcissism; Neurotica; Seduction scenes; Trauma.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1896b). Further remarks on the neuropsychoses
of defence. SE, 3: 157-185.
. (1905d). Three essays on the theory of sexuality. SE,
7: 123-243.
. (1925d [1924]). An autobiographical study. SE, 20:
1-74.
(1940a [1938]). An outline of psycho-analysis. SE,
23: 139-207.
. (1950a [1887—1902]). Extracts from the Fliess
papers. SE, 1: 173-280.
INTERNATIONAL DiCTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
- (1950c [1895]). Project for a scientific psychology.
SE; 1; 281-387.
Le Goues, Gérard, and Roger Perron (Eds.). (1996). Scenes
originaires. Monographs of the Revue francaise de psychanalyse.
Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
Further Reading
Blum, Harold. (1996). Seduction trauma: representation,
deferred action, pathogenic development. Journal of the
American Psychoanalytic Association, 44, 1147-1164.
Eissler, Kurt R. (1993). Erroneous interpretations of Freud’s
seduction theory. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic
Association, 41, 571-584.
SEDUCTION SCENES
Seduction scenes are real or imaginary situations of a
sexual character involving a child, whether as a spectator
or forced participant. During the first period in his
work, Freud placed under the rubric of “seduction
scenes” both the child’s observation of sexual relations
between adults (generally the parents) and sexual
advances made by an adult (often the father) or by an
older child.
Freud early on had the idea of seeking the cause of
the neuroses in traumas brought on by premature sexual
experiences imposed on a child by an adult. In a
letter to Wilhelm Fliess dated May 30, 1893, he
reported having “analysed two such cases, and the
cause was an apprehensive terror of sexuality, against
the background of things [a child] had seen or heard
and only half-understood; thus the aetiology was
purely emotional, but still of a sexual nature” (1950c,
p- 73).
This theme was central to Freud’s contribution to
Studies on Hysteria (1895d), written in collaboration
with Josef Breuer. The case of Katharina reported there
(pp. 125-134) is typical: Freud related the young
woman’s trouble to the fact that she has been a furtive
witness to sexual relations between her elder sister and
their father and then herself suffered similar assaults
from him (in Freud’s original account, the father was
discreetly described as an uncle).
To begin with, Freud believed that such “seductions”
were imposed upon children still in an asexual
state. Their fright arose from incomprehensible scenes
that they interpreted as violent and from their mystification
by the adults’ apparent excitement. The imma-
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SEDUCTION SCENES
ture child thereafter retained a trace of an event whose
traumatic character emerged only later, at puberty,
when new events revived it.
Freud’s initial misapprehension of childhood sexuality
gave rise to two major psychoanalytic notions:
the idea of the diphasic character of sexuality (the
notion that psychosexual development occurred in
two steps) and the idea of deferred action’ (according
to which a mental event could derive its meaning and
force from later events, by which it was reorganized
retrospectively). From the outset, Freud faced the problem
of how such a potential trauma could actually be
deferred in this way. He first attempted to delineate an
obscure “sexual-presexual” period (1950c, p. 127). He
acknowledged that excitement and pleasure in
response to a scene of seduction could exist in boys, if
not in girls. Boys, he argued, being more active, tended
toward obsessional neurosis, whereas girls, who
experienced such scenes passively, were more likely
fated to relive them in a hysterical mode (1950a, pp.
223-224, 228). The unsatisfactory nature of such
attempted solutions led Freud, in his Three Essays on
the Theory of Sexuality (1905d), unequivocally to
accept the role of infantile sexuality.
A correlated major revision is foreshadowed in
Freud’s letter to Wilhelm Fliess of September 21, 1897.
There he conceded that the scenes of “seduction” by
the father that his hysterics recounted probably related
“in every case” not to real events but to fantasies
(1950a, p. 259). Although this startled Freud at first,
he made a swift recovery, as he later recounted in vivid
terms in his Autobiographical Study (1925d [1924]).
The psychic implications of fantasies were much more
important than the real event, he there claimed, and
fantasies could be nourished by apparently banal or
minor incidents (for example, the copulation of animals
might be related in the child’s imagination to sexual
activity between the parents).
Freud never disavowed his theory of trauma, but in
his second period, in which he focused his attention on
the “primal scene” (the real or fantasized observation of
sexual relations between the parents), he returned again
and again to the issue of the relationship between “psychic”
and “historical” (event-governed) reality. In his
account of the “Wolf Man” case (1918b [1914]), the following
question forms a veritable leitmotif: did the
eighteen-month-old child really see his parents engaged
in coitus a tergo (vaginal penetration from behind), with
the trauma making its appearance by way of a dream
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SELECTED FACT
only when he was four, or was the entire scene merely a
“product of the imagination” (p. 49)? Freud was thus
led to postulate that primal scenes, bequeathed to every
individual by the history of humanity itself, helped
form the psychic apparatus (1912—1913a).
Sandor Ferenczi (1955), who fully acknowledged
the role of childhood sexuality, emphasized the traumatic
character not of the seduction itself but rather of
the frustration that the child dramatically experiences
when an adult, in the wake of exciting solicitations,
disappoints the child by a rejection that points up the
child’s powerlessness. This is perhaps inevitable if, as
Freud himself emphasized, the mother, as the earliest
caregiver, is, by force of circumstance, the first seductress
(psychoanalytically conceived). Along similar
lines, Jean Laplanche has made his “general theory of
seduction” the centerpiece of his New Foundations for
Psychoanalysis (1989).
ROGER PERRON
See also: “Confusion of Tongues between Adults and the
Child”; Deferred action; “From the History of an Infantile
Neurosis (Wolf Man)”; General theory of seduction;
Katharina, case of; Seduction; Sexual trauma.
Bibliography
Ferenczi, Sandor. (1955). Confusion of tongues between
adults and the child. In his Final contributions to the problems
and methods of psycho-analysis. London: Hogarth
Press and the Institute of Psycho-Analysis. (Original work
published 1933)
Freud, Sigmund. (1905d). Three essays on the theory of
sexuality. SE, 7: 123-243.
. (1912-1913a). Totem and taboo. SE, 13: 1-161.
. (1918b [1914]). From the history of an infantile
neurosis. SE, 17: 1-122.
. (1925d [1924]). An autobiographical study. SE, 20:
1-74.
. (1950a [1887—-1902]). Extracts from the Fliess
papers. SE, 1: 173-280.
. (1950c [1895]). The origins of psycho-analysis: Letters
to Wilhelm Fliess, drafts and notes, 1887-1902 (Eric
Mosbacher and James Strachey, Trans.). London: Imago,
1954.
. (1895d). Studies on hysteria. SE, 2: 48-106.
Laplanche, Jean. (1989). New foundations for psychoanalysis
(David Macey, Trans.). Oxford: Blackwell. (Original work
published 1987)
1566
SELECTED FACT
The expression “selected fact” was borrowed by
Wilfred R. Bion from the French mathematician Henri
Poincaré to refer to the element that makes it possible
to give coherence to a group of scattered data.
In Science and Method (1908), Poincaré considered
the “selection of facts” that enabled science to discover
laws of general validity—that is, facts that introduce
order and coherence into the complexity of the world.
Bion, elaborating his ideas in “A Theory of Thinking”
(1962), initially placed emphasis on the containercontained
relationship, taking as his paradigm the
mother-infant dyad: The baby projects unassimilable
“bad” elements of its own psyche onto the maternal
psyche, and the mother bears the responsibility of restituting
this material to the baby in a form that is psychically
assimilable. Bion denotes this relationship
using the conventional female and male symbols: 9 3.
Bion later became interested in the process by
which the mind transforms a chaotic, persecutory
experience into an experience that is integrated, representable,
and thinkable. This corresponds to the passage
from what Melanie Klein calls the schizoid-paranoid
position, in which the elements of the psyche are
split and projected, and thus dispersed, to what she
calls the depressive position, where these elements can
come together and become stabilized in a stable configuration.
Bion proposes the equation PS [<¢] D,
where PS represents the schizoid-paranoid position
and D represents the depressive position. The selected
fact is the element that allows for passage from the first
position to the second; it serves as a starting point for
interpretation by the psychoanalyst, who becomes
aware that a multitude of aspects of the patient’s material
come together and make sense, beginning with a
given element of the transference.
Although he borrows the notion of the selected fact
from scientific methodology, Bion establishes an
essential difference between the scientific approach
that seeks the laws of nature and the psychoanalyst
exploring the psychic reality of their patient. The
scientist is searching for logical connections among
the objective data collected, whereas the psychoanalyst
is interested in the emotional links that seem both to
dominate the transference relationship and to create
interconnections among the disparate elements of
associative material: “Selected fact is the name for an
emotional experience, the emotional experience that
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
consists in discovering coherence; its meaning is thus
epistemological, and the relation among selected facts
must not be considered logical,” writes Bion in “A
Theory of Thinking.”
Diper Houze.
See also: Bion, Wilfred Ruprecht
Bibliography
Bion, Wilfred Ruprecht. (1962). A theory of thinking. International
Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 63, 4—5. Reprinted in
Second thoughts. London, Heinemann: 1967.
Grinberg, Léon, Sor, Dario, and Tabak de Bianchedi, Elizabeth.
(1991). New introduction to the work of Bion. Northvale,
NJ, and London: Jason Aronson.
Symington, Joan, and Symington, Neville. (1996). The clinical
thinking of Wilfred Bion. London: Routledge.
SELF
The term se/fis used in several different senses. It can
refer to the ensemble of the psychic agencies, the narcissistic
organization of the psyche, or the conscious
part of the psyche that enables the individual to recognize
himself or herself as an agent and a subject
endowed with reflexive consciousness.
The German Selbst is sometimes encountered in
Freud’s writings to refer to the person. Beginning in
the 1940s, Melanie Klein used the word self in the general
sense of representation of the inner world. We can
attribute the first psychoanalytic usage of the term to
Heinz Hartmann, who in 1950 used it to refer to the
ensemble of the psychic agencies, all of them being the
object of the narcissistic drive.
The concept of self was partly included in the term
Ich (“TY”), in the sense that Freud used it until 1920. Ich
was both the person in his or her totality and subjectivity,
and the organizing portion of the psyche. From
the time of the second topography, the ego became a
specific structure. To avoid ambiguity, some Englishspeaking
psychoanalysts began to use the word self,
already in use in philosophy and social psychology
(William James, George Herbert Mead, Gordon William
Allport), to refer to the whole person.
The term self evolved in three different directions.
During the 1950s it was used with similar meanings by
the two British schools. In “Our Adult World and Its
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
SELF
Roots in Infancy” (1959), Melanie Klein proposed this
definition of it: “The self is used to cover the whole of
the personality, which includes not only the ego but
the instinctual life which Freud called the id” (p. 249).
Anna Freud also used it to refer to the totality of the
psyche, but preferred to use it in reference to the self
understood as the object of narcissistic investment.
In the theories of Heinz Kohut, the self is no longer
the object of narcissistic libido but instead an organizing
structure of the mind. In his “generalized” conception
(1978), the self is a “superordered” center,
constructed outside of the action of the drives through
the relationship with the self objects. The self objects
(ideal, mirroring, or alter ego), which are manifested
by the corresponding narcissistic transferences, create
the major components of the self: the pole of ideals,
the pole of ambitions, and the pole of knowledge
(1984). The cohesion of the self, which depends on the
empathy of the self-objects, determines the capacity to
overcome the conflicts linked to the drives. The self is
a structure, but Kohut also often alluded to self-representation
and self-consciousness.
The mind’s reflexive function was not particularly
explored by psychoanalysis, although in The Interpretation
of Dreams (1900) Freud defined consciousness
as “a sense organ for the perception of psychical qualities”
(p. 615). Edith Jacobson described the self as the
source of internal subjective reality and referred to the
representations of self that are manifested in analysis
(1964). Donald Winnicott (1961) considered this subjective
perspective obvious. He attributed to the self
the feeling of the reality, continuity, and rhythm of
mental life, at the same time emphasizing that it is
rooted in bodily sensations. In “Ego Distortion in
Terms of True and False Self” (1960), he contrasted
the true self, whose positive aim is “the preservation of
the individual in spite of abnormal environmental
conditions” (p. 143), to the false self, which is constructed
in conformity to parental expectations and
throughout life takes on the role of protecting the true
self.
Formation of the self is an aspect of psychic development,
whether in terms of an epigenetic conception
of development (Erik Erikson, Heinz Lichtenstein), a
psychic skin (Esther Bick, Didier Anzieu), or precursors
to the self (Daniel N. Stern). Kohut’s followers
proposed an intersubjective theory of the analytic process
that attributes a structuring role to the selfs
reflexivity (Robert D. Stolorow, George E. Atwood,
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SeLF-ANALYSIS
Bernard Brandschaft). A similar orientation is found
in the work of Thomas Ogden, a post-Kleinian who
developed the notion of the “analytic object” (André
Green) in a theory of a third, subjective space, the
locus of the relationship between patient and analyst.
The use of self in a specific sense is often criticized
for potentially depriving the word ego of the richness
of its multiple meanings. Yet clearly, this concept has
been instrumental in the formation of several important
developments in psychoanalysis. However, owing
to the very breadth of the term self, it only has a heuristic
value if the sense in which it is being used is
specified.
MavurICE DESPINOY AND MONIQUE PINOL-DOURIEZ
See also: Autism; Ego; Ego psychology; Fragmentation;
Heroic self, the; Identity; Narcissism; Principle of identity
preservation; Self (analytical psychology); Self psychology;
Self (true/false); Symbolic equation.
Bibliography
Hartmann, Heinz. (1950). Comments on the psychoanalytic
theory of the ego. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 7, 9-30.
Klein, Melanie. (1959). Our adult world and its roots in
infancy. In Envy and Gratitude and Other Works 1946—
1963. London: Hogarth, 1975.
Kohut, Heinz. (1977). The restoration of the self. New York:
International Universities Press.
Ogden, Thomas. (1994).Subjects of analysis. London: Karnac
Books.
Winnicott, Donald W. (1960). Ego distortion in terms of
true and false self. In The Maturational Processes and the
Facilitating Environment. London: Hogarth and Institute
for Psycho-Analysis, 1965.
SELF-ANALYSIS
Self-analysis consists of interpreting one’s own preconscious
and unconscious material (such as dreams,
parapraxes, memories, fleeting thoughts, and intense
emotions).
Psychoanalysis is to a great extent a result of Freud’s
self-analysis between 1895 and 1902. The analysis of
his own dreams brought him confirmation of what he
found in the dreams of his patients and, reciprocally,
he better understood their dreams on the basis of his
own. Freud’s self-analysis only became systematic after
1568
the death of his father in October 1896, and that it
complemented and sustained his project of writing a
book on the interpretation of dreams.
The method of self-analysis developed by Freud
included four steps: writing down the material
obtained; breaking it up into sequences; free associating
on each of the sequences; and finally, forging links
based on the associations produced, these links thus
taking on an interpretive significance.
In his first conception of psychoanalytic training,
Freud assumed that what was needed was a preliminary
experience of self-analysis based on his model.
Later, he took the position that the experience of a personal
analysis should be required of future analysts.
The risk of self-analysis is that it favors narcissistic selfsatisfaction
or obsessional rumination. Self-analysis
could never be a purely solitary mental activity: Freud
developed it in the course of a scientific, emotional,
and fantasy exchange with his friend Wilhelm Fliess
from Berlin. An active self-analysis takes place within
the context of interrelations (with family or patients,
for example). Furthermore it presupposes a subjective
commitment to remain in analysis despite the development
of personal crises.
Self-analysis can be fruitful if it prolongs the psychoanalytic
work of which it is an echo. The main
difficulty is the neglect of transference/countertransference
relationships. One solution to this problem
might be an introjection of the image of the
analyst as an ideal object with whom an interior
dialogue may then be pursued. This is probably
what occurred in the case of Samuel Beckett after
the interruption of his analysis with Wilfred Bion.
His subsequent novels Mercier and Camier, Molloy,
Malone Dies, and The Unnamable may thus constitute
fictional sessions with a fictional analyst.
DipiER ANZIEU
Freud’s Self-Analysis; Interpretation of Dreams, The; Introspection;
Jung, Carl Gustav.
See also: “Disturbance of Memory on the Acropolis, A”;
Bibliography
Anzieu, Didier. (1986). Freud's self-analysis (Peter Graham,
Trans.). Madison, CT: International Universities Press.
(Original work published 1975)
Barron, James W., et al. (1993). Self-analysis. Hillsdale, NJ,
and London: The Analytic Press.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS
Self-consciousness is the mental activity through
which the subject feels a sense of being or existing as a
unique and total individual. Although it does not
obviate the idea of the unconscious, this notion comes
out of reflexive philosophy and its derivatives that
hold that the human faculty of consciousness, apparent
to itself and having itself as its object, marks the
primacy of consciousness in the definition of the
human psyche. This sense of identity, this initial subjective
stance, is established gradually, being linked
with the general development of the human mind in
its relationship to itself and the outside world.
This notion has taken on different forms throughout
intellectual history, beginning with René Descartes’s
insistence on the primacy of consciousness in the
human mind. In the nineteenth century, after Georg
Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel’s work but before that of
Edmund Husserl, Franz von Brentano posited selfconsciousness
as being secondary to consciousness or
intentionality toward the object. Husserl inverted that
order, positing a reflective unit that is the mental locus
of the relationship between subject and world, a pronominal
form in which the subject, through discourse,
identifies with what it believes it is or would like to be.
This internal perception is also linked to the specular
image of the body.
Finally, this notion is found in the work of Ludovic
Dugas, a late-nineteenth-century semiologist. Drawing
from the work of Hippolyte Taine and Théodule
Ribot, Dugas approached the idea of self-consciousness
from a negative perspective by looking at its dysfunction:
“state[s] in which the subject feels estranged
from his being and from things and begins to doubt
that all that he is feeling is real.” Such states entail alienation
and the ego’s inner loss of meaning—a loss of
the immediate grasp of the ego’s own inner states and
the sense of existing. This sense of self-estrangement
when the subject, in a state of indifference, feels his
acts and emotions eluding him, is called depersonalization
or loss of self-consciousness.
The idea of mental activity that supposedly situates
the individual as being self-present and in an unmediated
state in relation to himself, first attacked by
Friedrich Nietzsche, was to be further diminished by
Sigmund Freud and psychoanalysis. Jacques Lacan
showed how Freud’s discoveries decentered the subject
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS
from the self-consciousness heretofore upheld by
Hegelian philosophy and the solipsism of the Cartesian
cogito. In “The Mirror Stage As Formative of the I
Function” (1949/2002), Lacan describes the conditions
for the appearance of self-consciousness: the moment
when the infant, first in its mother’s arms and later,
once the baby is physically able, by itself, can “already
recognize his own image as such in a mirror. This
recognition is indicated by the illuminative mimicry of
the Aha-Erlebnis” (p. 3). This jubilatory assumption
on the part of the infant situates the ego and the recognition
of the bodily imago within the necessary mediation
of the gaze and the desire of the other, initially
represented by the mother. Without letting himself be
caught up within the fiction of this movement, Lacan
emphasizes “the imaginary capture of the self through
specular reflection within the function of misrecognition
[méconnaissance|] that remains attached to it”
since alienation is the fact of the subject who is not “a
being conscious of itself.” Jean Laplanche later called
this mental activity the “capability or incapability of
consciousness.”
Child psychoanalysis (Donald Winnicott, Serge
Lebovici, and Michel Soulé) defines the child’s sense of
existing within the movement of his or her constitution
of an inner universe, a container that makes possible
relations with the self and the outside world. This
container is elaborated gradually beginning with the
child’s experience with the mother, which is never
totalizing, and it keeps the subject from being absent
from itself. The child’s rudimentary ego, after a period
where there is no distinction between it and the world,
creates a boundary where the J and the not-/ are distinguishable,
just as the image of the body takes on
wholeness.
Didier Anzieu emphasizes in The Skin-Ego (1985)
that “all mental function, in its development, is supported
by a bodily function whose workings it transposes
onto the mental plane.” This implies that all ego
feeling is both mental and corporeal. Involved here are
the subject’s sense of continuity in time, of proximity
to self, of causality (the I), and of boundaries of which
the subject is not always conscious, but which are
revealed when normal mechanisms fail (depersonalization
and certain states of mystical ecstasy). Carl Gustav
Jung, although he prefers to speak in terms of
“ego-consciousness,’ also links this mental activity to
the child’s progressive individual differentiation. If
the mother is the condition for the appearance of ego-
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SELF-ESTEEM
consciousness, she is also that from which the child
must distinguish itself. The process of individuation
becomes merged with self-consciousness and “affect
enables us to experience consciousness of ourselves
with greater acuity and intensity.” Finally, in Freud’s
work the notion of self-consciousness is not often
used. In The Interpretation of Dreams (1900) he
emphasizes that self-consciousness is suspended in
dreams. In “On Narcissism: An Introduction” (1914)
he links it to, on the one hand, moral consciousness,
which serves philosophical introspection, and, on the
other, to the self-perception that nourishes self-esteem.
In “Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego”
(1921) this sense of continuity that the individual
acquires through his traditions, habits, and sphere of
activity, this conscious personality, this “voice of consciousness”
will be overtaken by the force of suggestion
and hypnosis or, alternatively, will be deemed to be
temporarily lost to the individual “following his
absorption into the crowd.”
Expanded knowledge about children, neurology,
and the study of failures of self-consciousness can provide
a better approach. It should also be noted that the
distinctions between the self (in the various usages of
that term) and the ego can help to establish with precision
their locus and movement.
Overall, the notion of self-consciousness remains
marked by its philosophical origins. There can be no
complete assurance of its consistency within
psychoanalysis.
Maris CLAIRE LANCTOT BELANGER
See also: Alienation; Alpha-elements; Brentano, Franz
von; Depersonalization; Ego feeling; I; Identity; Infant
development; Mirror stage; Phenomenology and psychoanalysis;
Schilder, Paul Ferdinand; Self-image; Selfrepresentation.
Bibliography
Anzieu, Didier. (1989). The skin ego. New Haven and London:
Yale University Press. (Original work published 1985)
Dugas, Ludovic. (1898). Observations et documents: Un cas
de dépersonnalisation. Revue philosophique, 14, 500-507.
Freud, Sigmund. (1921). Group psychology and the analysis
oft he ego. SE, 18: 65-143.
Lacan, Jacques. (2002). The mirror stage as formative of the
I function. In Ecrits: A selection (Bruce Fink, Trans.). New
York: W. W. Norton. (Original work published 1949)
1570
SELF-ESTEEM
Esteem for the self consolidates the sense of one’s own
value or, more mundanely, one’s pride. Hence Freud’s
interest in it in “On Narcissism” (1914c): “One part of
self-regard is primary—the residue of infantile narcissism;
another part arises out of the omnipotence
which is corroborated by experience (the fulfillment of
the ego ideal), whilst a third part proceeds from the
satisfaction of object-libido” (p. 100). As the effect of
ego demands on the “narcissistic” ego ideal and
“moral conscience,” the feeling of self-esteem is at the
origin of repression: “In paraphrenics self-regard is
increased, while in the transference neuroses it is
diminished” (p. 98). It is nevertheless the narcissistic
part that proves to be determinant: when self-esteem is
threatened, the result is shame rather than guilt. It
therefore depends, in each individual life and in the
different psychopathological cases, on the quality of
the subject’s narcissism and thus on the modalities of
the subject’s cathexis by and of the object, as it
depends for its regulation on its relations with the ego
ideal (Janine Chasseguet-Smirgel). All situations of
existential crisis shatter it particularly, adolescence
being an example, but especially melancholy because,
according to Freud (1916—-17g), what differentiates it
from “normal mourning,’ over and above the common
loss of object that characterizes them both, is the
fact that it calls itself into question.
RAYMOND CAHN
See also: Ego ideal; Inferiority, feeling of; “Mourning and
melancholia”; Omnipotence of thought; “On Narcissism:
An Introduction”; Self-consciousness; Self, the; Suicide.
Bibliography
Chasseguet-Smirgel, Janine. (1973). Essai sur ’Idéal du Moi.
Contribution a l’etat psychanalytique de “la maladie d’idéalite.”
Revue francaise psychanalyse, 37 (5-6), 735-929.
Freud, Sigmund. (1914c). On narcissism: An introduction.
SE, 14: 67-102.
. (1916-17g). Mourning and melancholia. SE, 14:
237-258.
SELF-HATRED
Self-hatred is a reflexive notion: In it, the subject is the
hating person and at the same time the hated person.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
The concept of self-hatred appeared in Sigmund
Freud’s “Mourning and Melancholia” (1916-17a
[1915-17]): “If the love for the object... takes refuge
in narcissistic identification, then the hate comes into
operation on this substitutive object” (p. 251).
This concept was thus initially understood as the
vicissitude of identification with the object of loss: “The
self-tormenting in melancholia... signifies... a satisfaction
of trends of sadism and hate which relate to an
object, and which have been turned round upon the subject’s
own self” (p. 251). Later, in “The Ego and the Id”
(1923), it was developed in connection with obsessional
neurosis and melancholia, but this time within the framework
of the second topography. At this point, the
superego was theorized as replacing the object that persecutes
the ego: “The fear of death in melancholia admits
of one explanation: that the ego gives itself up because it
feels itself hated and persecuted by the super-ego, instead
of being loved” (p. 58). Revealed here is the degree to
which self-hatred is infiltrated by sadomasochism, and
to which the superego, in this context, can become the
“culture of the death instinct” (1923b, p. 53).
In Language and Insight (1978), Roy Schafer emphasized
the idea that the persecutor and the victim can
unconsciously be persons other than the self, “say, one’s
father in the act of hating one’s mother; here, ‘I hate
myself translates into ‘In this way I enact, experience,
and perpetuate my father’s hating my mother” (pp.
123-124). In (1990), André Green introduced the interesting
idea of the logic of despair, in which self-hatred is
posited as reflecting “a compromise between the inextinguishable
desire for revenge and concern for protecting
the object from the hostile desires directed against it.”
NICOLE JEAMMET
See also: Turning around upon the subject’s own self.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1916-17a [1915-17]). Mourning and
melancholia. SE, 14: 237-258.
. (1923b). The ego and the id. SE, 19: 1-66.
Schafer, Roy. (1978). Language and insight. New Haven:
Yale University Press.
SELF-IMAGE
The term self-image has entered common usage. Initially
referred to by psychologists, it was then taken up
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
SELF-IMAGE
by psychoanalysts without really being theorized. The
self-image is ostensibly the representation that everyone
has of themselves, in physical as well as physiological,
sociological, and mental terms, envisioned
through the prism of each individual self-evaluation at
different stages of development and in different
situations.
Formerly, this notion was often considered to be
the equivalent of the body scheme, postural scheme,
somatopsyche, image of body-ego, or even somatognosia,
although each of these notions had its own characteristics
in terms of both its limits and its basic conception.
Within this current of thought, the self-image
can be seen as the representation of one’s own body, as
both body-object within one’s environment and body
in relation to others; or as the totality of a body that is
initially experienced as being fragmented; or, finally, as
a body that is experienced as autonomous, upon emergence
from the period of non-differentiation.
When used in psychoanalysis, the self-image brings
together the notions of body image, self-consciousness,
the concept of the self, self-identity, and egoidentity.
Self-image is constructed through imitations
of (for psychology), or identifications with (in psychoanalysis),
people around the subject or real or heroic
imaginary figures, throughout the development of
narcissism and the setting up of the ideal ego, the ego
ideal, and the superego. The self-image is dependent as
well upon the type of object relations established.
The notion of the self-image emerged in and was
refined through the work of a number of authors, in
particular that of Henri Wallon, who described the
emergence, during the fifth stage of development (personalism),
of self-awareness, which can only occur if
the child is capable of having a self-image. This ability
is related to the test in which the child recognizes itself
in a mirror, whereas previously it had mistaken its
specular image for another person. Heinz Hartmann,
founder of the ego psychology movement, introduced
the distinction between the ego, as psychic agency, and
the self, in the sense of the person or personality
proper. Paul Schilder posited that the formation of
body image plays a determining role in the genesis of
the representation of self that follows organization
of the ego and the evolution of narcissism. In the view
of Donald Winnicott, the mother and the primary
mothering environment mirror (or do not mirror)
back to the child an image of itself with which the
child can (or cannot) identify. In this view, the self is
1571
SeELF-MUTILATION IN CHILDREN
an agency of the personality in the narcissistic sense, a
representation of self for the self, a libidinal investment
of self. Heinz Kohut, in self-psychology theory, proposed
the self as a notion that relates to the personality
in its entirety, to psychic functioning as a whole, to the
bodily self, as well as to more clearly defined elements
such as self-representation. Jacques Lacan returned to
the “mirror stage” to show that the young child’s
recognition of its own specular image founds the dual
relation, the dimension of the imaginary, and the ideal
ego. In the view of Francoise Dolto, body image plays a
part in the subject’s identification and determines the
possibility of a feeling of self—of self within a body.
Here, the body is the basis for the construction of the
subject’s identity in relation to others, and the unconscious
image of the body is the forgotten (repressed)
bodily foundation for the feeling of self.
It is important, too, to make clear that the selfimage
also depends on how others see and assess us.
We should perhaps add to the notion of the self-image
the feeling of competence that is the cognitive construction
corresponding to the opinion that each of us
is subject to on the cognitive, social, and physical
levels, and the relational feeling of self-esteem.
PHILIPPINE MEFFRE
See also: Body image.
Bibliography
Ajuriaguerra, Julian de. (c1980). Handbook of child psychiatry‘
and psychology. (Raymond P. Lorion, Ed.) New York:
Masson. (Original work published 1970)
Dolto, Francoise. (1997). Sentiment de soi, aux sources de
limage du corps. Paris: Gallimard.
Oppenheimer, Agnés. (1998). Heinz Kohut. Paris: Presses
Universitaires de France.
SELF-MUTILATION IN CHILDREN
In psychiatric usage the term “self-mutilation” (automutilation),
a combination of the Greek root autos
(self) and the Latin verb mutilare (mutilate), refers to
behavioral forms characterized by acts of physical
injury initiated by the subject; such acts are subject to
various interpretations. Some authors have suggested
the use of the expression “unintentionally self-inflicted
injury,’ which avoids the assumption of intentionality
(Carraz, Yves, and Ehrhardt, Raymond, 1973).
1572
The term “self-mutilation” was first used to
describe physical injuries that schizophrenic patients
or those suffering from melancholia sometimes
inflicted on themselves. These were frequently directed
at the genital organs, but the hands and eyes were also
affected, especially in schizoid patients experiencing a
period of mystical delirium. Karl-A. Menninger in
1935 wrote.a psychoanalytic study on the question.
Menninger considered these signs of self-mutilation
to be acts of self-punishment, which symbolized
castration.
Self-mutilation has also been described in other
psychopathological contexts: in relation to masochistic
compulsions or within the context of some perversion;
such behavior has also been described during states of
heightened or chronic anxiety.
A particular and relatively frequent aspect is represented
by the repetitive scarification or carving
resorted to by some adolescents. The meaning of such
behavior is difficult to interpret, especially since the
subjects themselves do not associate any mental imagery
with it. Aside from serving as a discharge
designed to temporarily eliminate psychic suffering
and short-circuit the activity of thought (Delarai-
Chabaux, Catherine, and Roche, Jean-Francois, 1996)
common to the majority of such behavior, this type of
self-mutilation involves questions about the psychic
status of the body in the adolescent.
In the infant, self-mutilation is observed in children
who are severely mentally retarded or autistic, and
especially when both types of pathological organization
are combined. The most severe forms occur in
children who cannot speak. In this clinical context,
several authors have attempted to identify the different
psychopathological interpretations of self-mutilation.
Salem A. Shentoub and Andre Soulairac refer to
motor discharges, possibly “self-offensive,’ that can
arise during normal development, especially between
the ages of twelve and eighteen months, during the
activity of sensory-motor exploration, although these
have no pathological value. This primitive self-mutilation
decreases rapidly with the development of the
bodily schema and the differentiation between ego and
not-ego. The infant perceives the causality of the pain;
aggressive behavior towards others may then appear.
In infantile psychoses self-mutilation is associated
with the inability to modulate relational distance and
the failure of defense mechanisms, which leads to a
massive regression to undifferentiated stages of psychic
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
organization, where the ego is confused with the nonego.
F. Dumesnil attempted to differentiate self-mutilating
behavior in different forms of autism and infantile
psychosis. Referring to the work of Frances Tustin and
Margaret Mahler, he distinguished between “internal
shell autism,” “external shell autism,” the “regressive
autistic position,” “symbiotic psychosis,” and “moderate
retardation.” In internal shell autism, self-mutilation
appears to be a ritualized self-injurious gesture
intended more for protection than destruction, in
which the mutilatory aspects appear to be accidental.
In external shell autism, self-mutilation, which is less
mechanical but more violent than in the previous
group, can be considered a self-destructive gesture
without any specific intentionality. According to
Dumesnil, its appearance is determined by an “experience
of conflict” and must be understood as “the acting
out of an intensely difficult emotion,” probably of
a depressive nature. In the regressive autistic position,
self-mutilation corresponds to a “discharge of hostility
and anxiety” that occurs in connection with an anxiety-
causing situation of internal or external origin,
and which can be directed, in an undifferentiated
manner, towards others or the self, because of the
absence of a defined bodily limit. In symbiotic
psychoses, where the mechanisms of splitting are prevalent,
self-mutilation appears in situations where
hostility gives rise to an “intense discharge of hatred.”
Again, according to Dumesnil, these violent acts of
self-mutilation, which specifically affect certain parts
of the body, involve “an interplay of introjections and
projections enabling the person to actualize the bad
object within himself” and to maintain the feeling that
the outside is completely good. Finally, in moderate
retardation, self-mutilation results in a relatively disorganized
discharge of anger triggered by some kind of
frustration; it does not appear to be “directed” toward
an object.
Some self-injurious behavior observed in cases of
autism or mental retardation seems to fall within the
framework of the auto-sensory phenomena described
by Frances Tustin. These serve to maintain the child in
a “constant bath of stimuli” that helps to form a “psychic
skin” (Esther Bick), protecting the child from
environmental discontinuities. The attempt to damage
corporal integrity here appears to be an unintentional
consequence of self-stimulation. The physiological
phenomenon of habituation likely contributes to their
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
SELF-MUTILATION IN CHILDREN
gradual intensification. In other cases, the deliberate
search for a more or less violent contact with hard
objects evokes what Tustin has described as an “autistic
object.” The sensation of hardness serves to ensure
a corporal limit while avoiding separation from the
nipple. The distinction observed in clinical psychoanalytic
work between the repetitive search for experiences
of pure stimulation—which are aimed, well below the
threshold of autoeroticism, at “feeling that one
exists”—and a very real self-destruction can be compared
with the opposition between life narcissism and
death narcissism introduced by André Green.
Self-mutilating behavior can also occur when relations
involve a form of partial object cathexis, which
gives rise to attempts at omnipotent control of the
object; separation then leads to violent displays directed
toward another or toward the infant himself. The
intentionality of self-mutilating behavior appears
more clearly here since it reflects a form of aggression
turned against the self, as a response to frustration, or
because it represents an appeal or request, possibly
reinforced by the responses provided by those in the
subject’s immediate environment.
On another level self-mutilation raises the question
of pain and its perception in the autistic child. Is there
an elevation in the threshold of pain perception in
these infants, as some neurobiological theories claim
(endorphins)? Or is this apparent insensitivity the
expression of an “intractable interweaving of pleasure
and pain,” leaving the observer with the impression of
a “desperate pleasure” (Jean Ochonisky)?
There also exist a number of forms of rhythmic
behavior, most notably head banging, which can result
in lesions of varying severity. It is known that these
symptoms are particularly frequent in situations of
separation or emotional deprivation. It can be hypothesized
that for the infant rocking plays the role of maternal
holding, or that the self-mutilation is a substitute, in
the body of the child, for the missing object.
These attempts at psychopathological understanding
are important for ensuring proper institutional care of
such pathologies. Self-mutilating behavior arouses
strong feelings of powerlessness and guilt, and sometimes
even depression, in caregivers as well as parents.
CLAUDE BURSZSTEJN
See also: Autism; Infantile psychosis; Suicide.
1573
SeELF-OBJECT
Bibliography
Carraz, Yves, and Ehrhardt, Raymond. (1973). Lautomutilation
chez des enfants en institution. Revue de neuropsychiatrie
infantile, 21, 217-227.
Delarai-Chabaux, Catherine, and Roche, Jean-Fran¢ois.
(1996). Les coupures cutanées a l’adolescence: le carving.
Sens et fonction du symptéme. Neuropsychiatrie de lenfance
et de adolescence, 44, 43-48.
Dumesnil, E. (1984). Analyse différentielle de cing pathologies
précoces et des automutilations qui en découlent.
Neuropsychiatrie de ’enfance et de ladolescence, 32, 183-—
195.
Ochonisky, Jean. (1984). Lautomutilation a-t-elle un sens?
Neuropsychiatrie de V'enfance et de adolescence, 32, 171—
181.
Shentoub, Salem A., and Soulairac, André. (1961). Venfant
automutilateur. Psychiatrie de l'enfant, 3, 111-145.
Further Reading
Fowler, C., and Hilsenroth, M. (1999). Some reflections on
self-mutilation. Psychoanalytic Review, 86, 721-732.
Fowler, J.C., et al. (2000). The inner world of self-mutilating
borderline patients. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 64,
365-385.
SELF-OBJECT
The term self-object refers to any narcissistic experience
in which the other is in the service of the self, the latter
being defined as a structure that accounts for the
experience of continuity, coherence, and well-being. It
is a source of narcissistic feeling.
The notion of selfobject appeared in the work of
Heinz Kohut as early as his 1968 article, “The Psychoanalytic
Treatment of Narcissistic Personality Disorders,”
in his discussion of the narcissistic transference,
in which the analyst is an archaic selfobject function in
the narcissistic pathology. It was further developed in
The Analysis of the Self (1971) in Kohut’s reconceptualization
of narcissism. It refers to a normal narcissistic
function that evolves in stages. The selfobject can be
the object of a fixation that is the basis for a narcissistic
transference. When the object is narcissistically
invested, the narcissistic object relation is opposed to
object-love.
The hyphen (self-object) disappeared in The
Restoration of the Self (1977), because the selfobject is
1574
not reducible to the archaic configurations of narcissism,
but is rather defined as a dimension of experience.
In 1979, Kohut generalized a selfobject that is
inseparable from the self, of which it is the existential
correlate and the source. At the beginning, Kohut
reminded us in his 1980 article, “Selected Problems of
Self Psychological Theory,” the descriptor selfobject
was reserved for pathology in the sense of an archaic
fixation, with the emphasis being placed on the grandiose
self or the omnipotent selfobject. Like the object,
the selfobject is at first replaceable, before becoming
meaningful. In the mature self/selfobject relationship,
the archaic selfobjects continue to exist at a deep level
and to resonate as leitmotivs at various times.
In How Does Analysis Cure? (1984), the selfobject
became a dimension of experiencing another person
whose functions are related to the self. The selfobject
can thus be archaic or mature, anachronistic or appropriate.
A support for the vulnerable self, it is the
appropriate medium of the healthy self, like the oxygen
that is necessary for life. The self is a feeling of
unity, strength, and harmony if, at each stage of life, it
receives the appropriate responses from the selfobject
environment: availability and receptivity, the conditions
for all mental life. The selfobject is an intrapsychic
experience. In times of temporary vulnerabilty,
the better equipped the subject is to find the selfobjects
he or she needs, the healthier he or she will be. The
selfobject is not necessarily a person; it can be music,
an outing, a talent, culture, and so forth.
It is often difficult to distinguish between that
which comes from the object and that which comes
from the selfobject, especially in adults. In pathologies
or in the context of treatment, the distinction is easier
to make. The object is recognizable through representation
and comes from desire. The selfobject is an
archaic or mature function that comes from need. If
the other is the target of desire, anger, love, or aggression,
that other is an object. If the other maintains
cohesion, strength, and personal harmony, it is a selfobject.
Object-loss results in mourning; the relationship
to the selfobject cannot be lost but can instead
undergo transformation.
Kohut’s successors disagreed about the generalization
of this term. In the view of some, the selfobject
reflects vulnerability, even if it is temporary, in the self.
An intact Self, according to this view, does not need
a selfobject and the notion should be reserved
for pathology. However, Kohut’s view is clear: The
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
selfobject is the oxygen that we are only aware of when
we think about it. Deficiencies in the self result from
the self/selfobject relationship. What was once limited
to pathologies is generalizable to every subject and
every course of treatment, and pathology stems from
narcissism alone. The selfobject preserves the ambiguity
of being simultaneously both a relationship and an
experience. The metapsychology of the self underlying
this concept can be criticized.
AGNES OPPENHEIMER
See also: Alter ego; Amae, concept of; Disintegration products;
Idealized parental imago; Narcissistic injury;
Narcissistic rage; Self psychology.
Bibliography
Kohut, Heinz. (1971). The analysis of the self. New York:
International Universities Press.
. (1978). The psychoanalytic treatment of narcissistic
personality disorders. In The search for the self: Selected
writings of Heinz Kohut (Vol. 1). New York: International
Universities Press. (Original work published 1968)
. (1984). How does analysis cure? Chicago: University
of Chicago Press.
. (1991). Four basic concepts in self psychology. In
The search for the self: Selected writings of Heinz Kohut (Vol.
4). New York: International Universities Press. (Original
work published 1979)
. (1991). Selected problems of self psychological theory.
In The search for the self: Selected writings of Heinz
Kohut (Vol. 4). New York: International Universities Press.
(Original work published 1980)
SELF-PRESERVATION
The term self-preservation in its simplest definition
describes both the set of behaviors by means of which
individuals attempt to preserve their own existence
and the psychical processes that establish these
behaviors.
In an initial period of his work Freud associated
these behaviors with the sexual instincts. He claimed
that a person’s life is conditioned by two major forces:
self-preservation instincts, by means of which people
preserve their own existence, and sexual instincts, by
means of which they ensure the survival of the species.
This, he asserted, was fundamental biological data,
adding that, as simple observation illustrates, they can
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
SELF-PRESERVATION
be opposed in conflicts that result in the essentials of
psychic dynamics.
Although the notion of “self-preservation’ itself
did not appear until later, we find it foreshadowed as
early as 1895 in “A Project for a Scientific Psychology”
(Freud, 1950a), in which Freud accords major importance
to attention viewed as the cathexis of perception
and thought processes by the ego for the purpose of
adaptation. He did not however explicitly formulate
his thesis until 1910 in an article on “The Psychoanalytic
View of Psychogenic Disturbance of Vision”
(1910i, pp. 209-218), where he evoked “the undeniable
opposition between the instincts which subserve
sexuality, the attainment of sexual pleasure, and those
other instincts, which have as their aim the self-preservation
of the individual, the ego instincts” (p.
214). He was to return to this question and discuss it
in greater detail in “Instincts and their Vicissitudes”
(1915c, p. 124): “I have proposed that two groups of
such primal instincts should be distinguished: the
ego, or self-preservative, instincts and the sexual
instincts.” He added cautiously—and somewhat short
of his earlier affirmation that it was “fundamental
biological data’—that it was merely a working
hypothesis.
In this passage we notice that in accordance with
the approach opened up in the “Project,” he considers
“self-preservative instincts” and “ego instincts” as
being equivalent terms and that they are indeed
instincts. However, “As the poet has said, all the
organic instincts [...] may be classified as ‘hunger’ or
‘love’” (1910i, p. 214-215). This brings up the question
as to what is a purely organic need (Berdiirfnis),
what is instinctive behavior (Instinkt, in the sense of
preformed and automatically executed behavior), and
what is drive (Trieb, in the sense of a “borderline-concept”
between the organic and the psychic). Freud was
to be much more explicit on this question in relation
to psychosexuality than in relation to self-preservation,
which was relegated somewhat to the rear of his
theoretical preoccupations. This opposition-complementarity
nevertheless plays an important role in the
theory that the sexual instincts are connected to the
self-preservation instincts, based on the first case of
sucking (1905d), and in the opposition between the
pleasure principle and the reality principle: the ego
instincts force the way to the reality principle, whereas
the sexual instincts remain much more durably in the
service of the pleasure principle (1911b).
1575
SELF PSYCHOLOGY
With the arrival of the structural theory and the second
theory of instincts opposing life instincts and death
instincts, the question takes on new dimensions. All
instincts are now seen as libidinal whereas the ego—at
the expense of its largely unconscious function—more
clearly takes charge of all adaptive functions (in the service
of one of its “masters,” the reality of the external
world, though simultaneously tyrannized by the other
two, the id and the superego). The result is that, in the
structural theory with the notion of conflict among the
agencies, the status of the notion of “self-preservation”
becomes relatively uncertain and the expression “ego
instincts” tends to disappear from Freudian vocabulary.
However, several post-Freudian trends have again
highlighted the value of the notions of self-preservation
instincts and ego instincts, particularly the Paris
psychosomatic school (Marty, 1990).
ROGER PERRON
See also: Anaclisis/anaclitic; Drive/instinct; Ego-instinct;
Eros; Sexual drive; Violence, instinct of.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1910i). The psychoanalytic view of psychogenic
disturbance of vision. SE, 11: 209-218.
. (1911b). Formulations on the two principles of
mental functioning. SE, 12: 213-226.
. (1915c). Instincts and their vicissitudes. SE, 14:
109-140.
—. (1950a). Extracts from the Fliess papers. SE, 1:
173-280.
Marty, Pierre (1990). La Psychosomatique de Padulte. Paris:
Presses Universitaires de France.
SELF PSYCHOLOGY
Self psychology is the name Heinz Kohut chose for his
psychoanalytic theory, which focused on narcissism.
Beginning with his new metapsychology of the Self
in Restoration of the Self (1977), Kohut distinguished
between the limited form of self psychology proposed
in The Analysis of the Self (1971), in which he maintained
the classical theoretical formulations, and a
generalized self psychology that formed a system,
albeit a replaceable one. The application of self psychology
to other pathologies was the result of further
clinical and theoretical elaboration, and also of criti-
1576
cisms leveled against Kohut that may have led him to
adopt more or less extreme positions.
Kohut presented the limited form of self psychology
as both a complement to Freudian psychoanalysis and
a critique of Heinz Hartmann’s ego psychology. He
held that uncovering narcissistic transference makes it
possible to analyze narcissistic pefsonalities, just as
transference neuroses do for neurosis. The rehabilitation
of narcissism against the ideal of health and
maturity led to a preoccupation with development of
the self and its defects. Soon, however, postulations
concerning the self as a narcissistic structure came into
conflict with the theory of the drives. Without eliminating
the latter, Kohut considered them to be secondary
to the structural defects in the self. The status of
neurosis always remained ambiguous in Kohut’s work,
where it was seen both as a nosological entity unto
itself and as being included among the disorders of the
self. Neurosis is seen as resulting from oedipal conflicts
and castration, but the self is deemed either to be
whole at this phase of development, or else already
weakened and incapable of resolving the difficulties of
the oedipal phase, which then becomes a complex.
Self psychology, through the empathic method
advocated by Kohut from 1959, focuses on the self and
its fluctuations. It considers microstructures, in contrast
to the analysis of neuroses, which focuses on
- macrostructures—the agencies of the psyche. Self psychology
represented an epistemological turning point
in which the analyst was no longer, or no longer only, a
screen for the patient’s projections, but rather a participant
in treatment, which the analyst influences; the
impact of the analyst’s presence and, of course, his or
her attitudes and interventions on the patient’s narcissism,
becomes an object for analysis.
The emergence of self psychology can only be
understood in relation to ego psychology, in which the
ego, as an agency endowed with functions, is distinguished
from self-representations that are the object
of narcissistic cathexis. Self-representations are supplanted
by representations of the Self, and the Self thus
becomes a structure within the psychic apparatus, a
reflection of the state of the subject’s narcissism.
Self psychology is sometimes considered to be a
major deviation from metapsychology. Its focus on a
psychology of defects and not only on instinctual conflict
has generated a great deal of controversy.
AGNES OPPENHEIMER
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
See also: Action-thought (H. Kohut); Alter ego; Bipolar
self; Borderline conditions; Compensatory structures;
Disintegration products; Ego; Ego (ego psychology);
Empty Fortress, The; Fragmentation; Grandiose self; Id;
Identity; Instance; Kohut, Heinz; Mirror transference;
Narcissistic defenses; Narcissistic injury; Narcissistic
transference; Object; Paranoia; Principle of identity preservation;
Schizophrenia; Self; Self (analytical psychology);
Self-image; Self-object; Self-state dream; Self, the;
Self (true/false); Transference of creativity; Twinship
transference/alter ego transference; United States.
Bibliography
Kohut, Heinz. (1971). The analysis of the self. New York:
International Universities Press.
. (1974). The restoration of the self. New York: International
Universities Press.
. (1984). How does analysis cure? Chicago: University
of Chicago Press.
Further Reading
Goldberg, Arnold. (1988). A fresh look at psychoanalysis: The
view from self psychology. Hillsdale, NJ: The Analytic Press.
. (1998). Self psychology since Kohut. Psychoanalytic
Quarterly, 67, 240-255.
SELF-PUNISHMENT
Self-punishment (or the “need for punishment”) is a
tendency, postulated by Freud, which drives certain
subjects to inflict suffering upon themselves and search
out painful situations, for the purpose of neutralizing a
feeling of unconscious guilt. In the framework of the
second topography of the psychic apparatus, Freud later
attributed self-punishment to the activity of an especially
intransigent superego, to which the ego submits.
Freud utilized the two notions “need for punishment”
and “self-punishment” throughout his work.
The emphasis in the former was on the feeling of
unconscious guilt, and on the masochism proper to
the ego, which demands punishment, whether it
comes from the superego or from the outside, whereas
the latter stressed the punishing activity of the superego,
to which the ego submits—the superego in turn
draws its energy from the reversal of sadism into autosadism.
Punishment then was applied with no recourse
to an external object, through the intervention of
internal topographical duality of the ego-superego.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
SELF-PUNISHMENT
Very early in his career, Freud began noticing a certain
number of phenomena and symptoms which conveyed
a dimension of self-punishment. In manuscript
N (May 31, 1897, in 1950a) he discussed the question
of symptom formation and postulated that it constituted
a compromise between the libido and the desire
for punishment, based on hostile feelings towards the
parents: “The motives of libido and of wish-fulfillment
as a punishment then act by summation.” In The Interpretation
of Dreams (1900a), he distinguished certain
“punishment dreams,” whose punitive value allows the
lifting of censorship and thereby the realization of certain
desires.
Subsequently, the whole field of pathology and all
the suffering connected with it came to be looked at
through the perspective of self-punishment, whose
goal was to satisfy feelings of unconscious guilt:
e in obsessional neurosis, where self-reproach and
self-punishing behavior were connected to
repressed, aggressive, hostile, and cruel feelings.
¢ in melancholia, where the self-punishment compulsion
can lead to suicide. In a fit of melancholia
there is introjection of the lost object and the possibility
of unleashing sadism against the object.
Without introjection, the guilt of the melancholic
prevents the sadism from emerging. After the
introjection the sadism can reign unchecked
because it is also an attack on the subject, becoming
self-punishment (1916—17g [1915]).
Within the second topography, Freud attributed to
the superego the punitive role to which the ego submits,
and culpability became a tension between the
two entities. He emphasized also that some behavior
can be motivated by the quest for punishment. For
example, the transgressing subject, by obtaining punishment,
is looking to gratify a desire for masochistic
satisfaction (1928b [1927]). Freud was especially interested
in what he called the negative therapeutic reaction,
where the repressed sadism of the patient inclines
him to sabotage the cure, combining revenge against
the therapist with self-punishment.
More recent works have attempted to distinguish
more clearly between guilt and moral masochism.
Schematically, it can be averred that in neurotic guilt,
the sadism of the superego is in control, while in
moral masochism, the ego eroticizes the feeling of
guilt. The desire for punishment is then resexualized
1577
SeELF-REPRESENTATION
in a regressive way, becoming the source of masochistic
satisfactions.
BERTRAND ETIENNE AND DOMINIQUE DEYON
See also: Aimée, case of; Castration complex; “Dostoyevsky
and Parricide”; Guilt, feeling of; Moral masochism;
Suicide; Superego.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1900a). The interpretation of dreams.
Parts I and II. SE, 4-5.
. (1916—17¢ [1915]). Mourning and melancholia. SE,
14: 237-258.
. (1923b). The ego and the id. SE, 19: 1-66.
. (1924c). The economic problem of masochism. SE,
19: 155-170.
. (1928b [1927]). Dostoevsky and parricide. SE, 21:
173-196.
. (1950a [1887-1902]). Extracts from the Fliess
papers. SE, 1: 173-280.
Mvuzan, Michel de. (1972). Un cas de masochisme pervers.
In La Sexualité perverse. Paris: Payot.
Nacht, Sacha. (1971). Le transfert. In Guérir avec Freud (pp.
41-43). Paris: Payot. (Original work published 1965)
Rosenberg, Benno. (1991). Masochisme mortifere et Masochisme
gardien de la vie. Paris: Presses Universitaires de
France.
Further Reading
Fenichel, Otto. (1928). The clinical aspect of the need for punishment.
International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 9, 47-70.
Roth, Bennett. (2000). The piano: A modern film melodrama
about passion and punishment. Psychoanalytic Psychology,
17, 405-413.
SELF-REPRESENTATION
Self representation is the image the subject has of him
or herself based on his or her own interpretation. It is
one of the factors of the ego and its representation as
termed “an individual, differentiated, real, and permanent
entity” (Racamier) particularized by a distinctive
history and modes of feeling, thinking, and doing.
This accounts for Heinz Hartmann’s distinction
between, on the one hand, the ego as a function and
1578
the self as the object of narcissistic investment, and, on
the other, “object representations” and “self representations,”
meaning the unconscious, preconscious, and
conscious representations of the corporeal and mental
self within the system of the ego, representations that
are invested with both libidinal and destructive energy
to become love objects and objects of hatred.
Jacques Lacan took a different approach. In “The Mirror
Stage as Formative of the Function of the I as
Revealed in Psychoanalytic Experience” (1949/2004), he
described the mirror stage as “a drama whose internal
pressure pushes precipitously from insufficiency to
anticipation—and, for the subject caught up in the lure
of spatial identification, turns out fantasies that extends
from a fragmented image of the body to what I call
“orthopedic” form of its totality—and to the finally
donned armor of an alienating identity that will mark his
entire mental development with its rigid structure” (p. 6).
Thus self representation is just of one aspect of the
subject’s representations, marked by its belonging to the
ego—that is, its insertion into reality, the aim of a consubstantial
coherence with its narcissistic dimension and
the lure it implies. To varying degrees it can be destabilized,
called into question, unmasked by desires and
conflicts, or seriously disturbed. The latter may take the
form of the radical self-depreciation of melancholia, the
overvaluation of self in mania, or a collapse into schizophrenia,
where a more or less delusional new self representationis
reconstituted as savior of the world, self-procreator
of all human lineages, of other such variant.
Other less dramatic but particularly trying forms occur
when the self representation is called into question in
borderline states or transformed into transsexualism.
Any existential crisis, particularly in adolescence, can
challenge or cause serious disturbances in self representation.
These occur in anorexia, bulimia, dysmorphophobia
(fear of deformity), or psychotic decompensation,
all considered by American authors as defects in
self-representation or as pathologies of identity (Erikson).
Among the various elaborations proposed by
authors who espouse Hartmann’s conception, Edith
Jacobson’s has the merit of showing the correlation
between the self and the object world, between identity
and the feeling of identity within a framework that
combines individuation and identification, and thus
grants a determining role to the unconscious.
RAYMOND CAHN
See also: Object; Object relations theory; Self; Self-image.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Bibliography
Erikson, Erik H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. New York:
Norton.
Jacobson, Edith. (1964). The self and the object world. New
York: International Universities Press.
Lacan, Jacques. (2004). The mirror stage as formative of the
function of the I as revealed in psychoanalytic experience.
In Ecrits: A selection (Bruce Fink, Trans. ), pp. 3-9. New
York: Norton. (Original work published 1949)
Racamier, Paul-Claude. (1963). Sur la personnation. In De
psychanalyse en psychiatrie. Paris: Payot.
SELF-STATE DREAM
Heinz Kohut believed that there were two types of
dreams: the first expresses verbalizable latent contents,
such as conflicts; the second expresses efforts to bind
the nonverbai tensions of traumatic states. In the first
type, the analyst can follow the free associations of the
patient to uncover unconscious meaning. In the second,
free associations do not lead to unconscious
layers of the mind; rather, the imagery remains on the
same level as that of the manifest content. Examination
of the manifest content reveals that the healthy
sectors of the psyche of the patient are reacting to a
changed condition of the self, either overstimulation
or depletion or a threatened dissolution. This second
type of dream is called a “self-state dream” and is similar
to dreams occurring in traumatic states. The correct
interpretation of such dreams is to recognize the
patient’s specific and general vulnerabilities.
Other writers after Kohut have expanded on his
idea, stating that nearly all dreams can be seen as
representing the state of the self in that they all express
some vulnerability and/or psychoeconomic imbalance.
On this view, a dream may be interpreted both as to its
latent content and as to its portrayal of the self. These
authors see no inherent contradiction in Kohut’s dualistic
view of dreams, though some have suggested that
patients have limited capacity for association.
ARNOLD GOLDBERG
See also: Dream; Self psychology.
Bibliography
Kohut, Heinz. (1977). The restoration of the self. New York:
International Universities Press.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
SELF, THE
SELF, THE
The concept of the Self that was proposed by Heinz
Kohut in The Analysis of the Self (1971) is not a Freudian
concept and it does not appear as such in the
Vocabulaire de la psychanalyse (Laplanche and Pontalis);
nor does another concept of self that refers to the
narcissistic axis of the psyche. When Freud spoke of
the instinctive mechanism of “turning around upon
the subject’s own self” in “Instincts and Their Vicissitudes”
(1915c, p. 126), he did not mean the subject’s
own self as an intrapsychic entity, but rather an
equivalent of the subject’s own body, upon which the
second phase of the drives was founded.
The concept of “Self” is really the invention of
Heinz Kohut: the Freudian idea of the “splitting of the
ego, through the Kleinian idea of the splitting of the
object molding the ego, by way of the mechanisms of
introjection and projectionled, finally to the Kohutian
idea of a Self, which becomes the object of all the
narcissistic cathexes.
Understanding Kohut’s model is only possible
within the context of the history of ideas. In the 1960s
the nosographic concept of limit-states and borderline
pathologies, belonging neither to neurotic nor psychotic
structures, surfaced. This resulted in the progressive
delineation of hybrid or composite disorders, centered
on issues linked to representation or identity of the
Self—that is to say, in the last resort, to narcissistic
personality disorders (Otto Kernberg).
Researchers and clinicians had swung back-andforth
from the oedipal to the narcissistic axis. This seesawing
may be what is behind the emergence of the
concept of Self. In effect, Heinz Kohut proposed a new
theory of the ego, adding a notion of the Self, partially
of Winnicottian provenance (c.f. Winnicott’s false self)
to the Freudian Ich.
In any case, the Kohutian theory of the Self has
shown itself to be quite fecund. It has had considerably
more of an impact in the Anglo-Saxon world than in
Europe, especially in France, where it has been often
understood as an attempt to desexualize psychopathology,
or even as something similar to the ego psychology
of Heinz Hartmann, Ernst Kris, and Rudolph
M. Loewenstein. Even Kohut has been very critical of
the so-called psychology of the ego. Anxious to purify
psychoanalysis of any notion foreign to its domain,
Kohut first defined empathy as specific to psychology,
thinking of it as a technique of vicarious introspection
1579
Sef, THE (ANALYTICAL PsycHoLoGy)
enabling knowledge of another’s psyche. He did this
as part of the larger project of extending psychoanalysis
to types of personalities previously thought
unanalyzable.
Having defined two particular transferences, the
“mirror transference” and the “idealizing transference,”
he reconsidered the question of narcissism, which,
according to him, could not be understood as a simple
libidinal retreat into the ego. For Kohut, the quality of
lived experience defines narcissism, which he then
opposes to what he termed a “Self-object” relation, in
which other people seem to exist predominantly in
roles defined by function. In the cure, as in psychic
ontogenesis, narcissism and object love develop conjointly
and interactively, with Self-object roles finding
themselves gradually interiorized in the form of internal
regulatory structures (there is a hint of a goal of adaptation
in this model).
On this basis, in The Analysis of the Self (1971),
Heinz Kohut proposed what he called a restricted theory
of the Self and, later, what he called a general theory
of the Self. This was presented as complementary
to Freudian theory, but in reality it attempted to subsume
the latter into a larger model. The Self became
progressively a relatively autonomous principle of
motivation, integrating the drives, and accorded its
own program of realization; it no longer was separate
from the Self-object, a concept that was enlarged to
include the entire narcissistic dimension of experience.
A third kind of transference was described as “alterego
transference,” where the controlling element is the
need, for a peer, particularly someone of the same sex.
For Kohut, the Self is something very much different
from intrapsychic entities like the ego, id, or superego.
Beyond a certain number of notions, like the corporal
or archaic Self, the nuclear Self, the consistency of
the self, the permanent disintegration of the self, the
fragmented self, and self-esteem, Kohut has particularly
emphasized the notion of the grandiose Self to try to
account for “the child’s solipsistic vision of the world
and the manifest pleasure he derives from the admiration
he receives from it.’ However, his descriptions of
the grandiose Self cover a wide range of phenomena,
from “paranoiac delirium and the crudely sexual acts of
the adult pervert, to certain kinds of simple, sublimated
satisfaction that adults derive from what they are, what
they do, and what they succeed in.”
Some authors have attempted to deal with the
concept of Self from a more topical point of view.
1580
Among them is Jean Bergeret, who describes the ego
ideal as originating in the maternal, rather than the
paternal, attachment. Finally, the concept of the Self,
in spite of all ambiguity and the criticism directed at
it, has been shown to be of heuristic value; it has
influenced many works, including The Privacy of the
Self (1974), by Masud Khan, and, more recently The
Forces of Destiny (1989) by Christopher Bollas. For
Bollas, the destiny of the subject is the result of an
encounter with an object; certain objects favor the
emergence of the true Self, while others obstruct and
condemn the individual to organize himself around a
false Self.
Donald W. Winnicott has also used the notion of
the Self in developing his work on the “false self.” Both
concepts, however, invite questions about the status of
the Freudian theory of drives, which runs the risk of
being somewhat obscured.
BERNARD GOLSE
See also: Self psychology.
Bibliography
Bollas, Christopher. (1989). The forces of destiny. London:
Free Association Books.
Freud, Sigmund. (1915c). Instincts and their vicissitudes.
SE, 14: 109-140.
Kernberg, Otto F. (1975). Borderline conditions and pathological
narcissism. New York: Jason Aronson.
Khan, Masud. (1974). The privacy of the self. London:
Hogarth.
Kohut, Heinz. (1971). The analysis of the self. New York:
International Universities Press.
Laplanche, Jean, and Pontalis, Jean-Bertrand. (1967). Vocabulaire
de la psychanalyse. Paris: Presses Universitaires de
France.
Oppenheimer, Agnes. (1995). Psychanalyse du Moi, psychologie
du Moi et psychologie du Self. Encyclopédie médicochirurgicale
(Vol. Psychiatrie).
SELF, THE (ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY)
Jung originally defined his concept, “the Self”
(Selbst), as follows: “As an empirical concept, the Self
designates the whole range of psychic phenomena in
man. It expresses the unity of the personality as a
whole.”
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
“But insofar as the total personality, because of its
unconscious component, can only be partly conscious,
the concept of the Self is, in part, only potentially
empirical and is to that extent a postulate. In other
words, it encompasses both the experienceable and the
unexperienceable (or the not-yet experienced). From
an intellectual point of view it is only a working
hypothesis. Its empirical symbols, on the other hand,
very often possess a distinct numinosity, that is, an
emotional value. It thus proves to be an archetypal
idea... which differs from other ideas of the kind in
that it occupies a central position befitting the significance
of its content and numinosity.”
Of the content and development of his ideas, Jung
wrote: “The Self appears in dreams, myths, and fairy
tales in the figure of a ‘supra-ordinate personality, ’
such as a king, prophet, or savior, etc., or in the form
of a totality symbol, such as the circle, square....
When it represents... a union of opposites it can also
appear as a united duality in the form, for instance, of
Tao as the interplay of Yang and Yin.” Related ideas
pertaining to Self-symbolism were initially described
by Jung: “The Self is not a philosophical idea since it
does not predicate its own existence.”
By way of critical appraisal the Journal of Analytical
Psychology published a symposium on the self in
1985. In Joseph L. Henderson’s contribution it is written:
“I am impressed with how much serious thinking
by Jungian analysts has gone into clarifying the multifaceted
subject. For the most part the theoretical basis
as expressed by Jung himself has been reaffirmed,
namely that the Self as a symbol of totality of psychic
life and as a central archetype of order equally exist.”
But if we place metaphor to one side and look at
the manifestation of self-hood in action we may find
our centering totality at work in more humanly understandable
forms, as in analysis where analyst and analysand
enter into a common ego-self relationship.
The self in this context approaches the concept of
the self in other psychologies, such as Kohut’s self-psychology.
Perhaps Jungians are in general becoming
more comfortable with self as a psychological concept
only and less in awe of the self as an archetype with its
metaphysical aura.
Knowing the danger that too much emphasis upon
the self may have an inflationary effect on the ego
(grandiosity), or that too little emphasis upon it may
agerandize the importance of ego consciousness over
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
SetF (TRUE/FaLSE)
the unconscious, normal self-definition is found
where ego and self are separate but inherently related.
Jung writes: “Sensing the Self as something irrational,
as an undefinable existent, to which the ego is neither
opposed or subjected, but merely attached, and about
which it revolves very much as the earth revolves
around the sun—thus we come to the goal of individuation.”
The individuated ego senses itself as the
object of an unknown and supra-ordinate subject. It
seems that a psychological inquiry might come to a
stop here.
JosePH L. HENDERSON
See also: Archetype (analytical psychology); Compensation
(analytical psychology); Ego (analytical psychology);
Individuation (analytical psychology); Numinous (analytical
psychology); Projection and “participation
mystique” (analytical psychology); Psychological types
(analytical psychology); Shadow (analytical psychology);
Transference (analytical psychology).
Bibliography
Henderson, Joseph L. (1985). The self in review. Journal of
Analytical Psychology, London, 30, p. 243-246.
Jung, Carl Gustav. (1923). Psychological types. Coll. works,
Vol. VI. Bollingen Series XX. Princeton, N.J., Princeton
University Press, 1971, p. 460-461.
Kohut, Heinz. (1971). The analysis of the self. New York,
International Universities Press.
. (1977). The restoration of the self. New York, International
Universities Press.
SELF (TRUE/FALSE)
Donald Winnicott used the term “self” to describe
both “ego” and self-as-object. He describes the self in
terms of a psychosomatic organization, emerging from
a primary state of “unintegration” by gradual stages.
The true self, which in health expresses the authenticity
and vitality of the person, will always be in part or
in whole hidden; the false self is a compliant adaptation
to environmental impingement.
This characteristically fluid use of the term can be
traced throughout his work, evolving in terms of true
and false selves. The first paper to clarify the existence
of true and false selves as entities is “Aggression in
Relation to Emotional Development” (1950-55).
Winnicott, from within his own object-relations
1581
Secr (TRuE/FALSE)
theory, postulates the necessity for the innate maturational
tendency to operate within the facilitating
environment (1960). This is expressed in terms of the
individual baby’s need for an environment allowing
uninterrupted continuity of being, which lays the
foundations for psychosomatic integration, aliveness,
and the beginnings of awareness of self, true self being
“the summation of sensori-motor aliveness.’ In several
papers, notably “Primary Maternal Preoccupation”
(1956) and “Ego Distortion in Terms of True
and False Self,’ (1960) he describes the exquisite
adaptation, or primary maternal preoccupation in the
new mother, whose handling (and in particular, holding)
of her infant, protects the baby from “impingement,”
or environmental failure. Within such holding,
which must involve both physical contact and
empathic attunement, “going on being” is supported,
and this allows the beginning of individuation. Environmental
failure at this stage, when primitive agonies
threaten, can result in psychosis, which Winnicott
thought of as an environmental deficiency disease
(1949).
Later, careful maternal adaptation must of necessity
fail, gradually, and in stages (good-enough mothering),
at such a pace that the developing infant can
manage each stage, and replace each environmental
lack with mental activity. Early on, the “good-enough
mother” succeeds repeatedly in meeting and realizing
the infant’s sensory hallucination, or “gesture,” thus
allowing in infantile sense of omnipotence and the
development of the later capacity for symbolization.
With gradual failures of response from mother, the
infant’s experience of omnipotence can then be gradually
relinquished, and recognition of reality, together
with spontaneity and authenticity, becomes possible—
the “true self.”
The “not-good-enough mother” cannot respond
sensitively and empathically, and fails to “meet the
infant’s gesture.” While the infant can adapt to this up
to a point, filling the gap with hallucination, eventually
this mechanism fails and the infant loses touch with
their own needs, responds excessively to the environment,
and becomes “impinged upon,” traumatized,
and incapable of symbol-usage. At this point the
infant, seduced into compliance, develops a “false self,”
reacting to environmental demands and relinquishing
or hiding the remnants of spontaneity, the “true self.”
The existence of the “false self” is a defense against the
feared annihilation of the true self, and becomes a
1582
“caretaker self,” taking over those functions unfulfilled
by mother.
In some infants, particularly those well endowed
with intellectual potential, the mind becomes the
“caretaker self” over-valued and in conflict with the
psyche-soma (1949). Winnicott described five degrees
of false self formation, from severe limitation of spontaneity
and liveliness with convincing imitation of
normality, to those ordinary social adaptations necessary
for life in human society. False self personalities
may be superficially successful, but empty; they may
become caretakers of others while being unable to
allow dependency in themselves.
Winnicott believed that in psychoanalysis regression
was a necessary phase for “false self personalities,”
in order to work through the earliest environmental
failures. He advised against inexperienced analysts taking
on this kind of work.
Winnicott’s work has been usefully adapted in several
ways. For Ronald Fairbairn, the “schizoid personality”
derives from his understanding that the infant’s
primary need is for intimacy. In his reading environmental
failure leads to splitting and to defenses against
it. Michael Balint’s “harmonious mix-up” can be seen
as an early undifferentiated phase; his ideas about the
“basic fault” relate to primary position of the infant’s
desire to be loved by its mother. Heinz Kohut develops
a “psychology of the self” and describes “maternal
self-object functioning.” Margaret Mahler locates in
early childhood a “symbiotic fusion” with the mother,
and describes separation/individuation phases. Daniel
Stern compares the “core self” and the “self with
other.”
Winnicott, while not abandoning drive theory,
stresses the importance of relationships from the
beginning. His writing is elusive, idiosyncratic, and
often cryptic. Unlike Melanie Klein, whose concern
was with the infant’s internal, often instinctual struggles,
his focus was on the emergence of the individual
from the earliest relationship, an emergence which
could be adversely affected by either impingement or
deficiency of provision.
JENNIFER JOHNS
See also: Addiction; Anality; As if personality; Autistic
capsule/nucleus; Breakdown; Child analysis; Creativity;
False self; Good-enough mother; Holding; Integration;
Internal object; Lie; Narcissism; Object; Protective shield,
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
breaking through the; Self; Splitting; Transitional
phenomena.
Bibliography
Winnicott, Donald. (1949). Mind and its relation to the
psych-soma. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 27, 1954;
and in Collected papers, through paediatrics to psycho-analysis.
London: Tavistock Publications, 1958, pp. 243-254.
. (1955). Aggression in relation to emotional development.
In Collected papers, through paediatrics to psychoanalysis.
London: Tavistock Publications, 1958, pp. 204-218.
. (1956). Primary maternal preoccupation. In Collected
papers, through paediatrics to psycho-analysis.
London: Tavistock Publications, 1958, pp. 300-305.
. (1962). Ego distortion in terms of true and false
self. In Maturational processes and the facilitating environment.
London: Hogarth Press and the Institute of Psychoanalysis,
1965, pp. 140-152.
SEMINAR, LACAN’S
In contrast with Freud, whose work was primarily
written, Jacques Lacan’s work was for the most part an
oral improvisation from notes delivered as an ongoing
seminar that he held in Paris from 1953 to 1980. From
1953 to 1963, Lacan’s seminar was held at the Sainte-
Anne Hospital in Paris. From 1964 to 1969, starting
with seminar 11, it was held at the Ecole Normale
Supérieure on rue d’Ulm. And finally, from 1969 to
1980, starting with seminar 17, it was held before a
much larger audience in the amphitheater of the law
school at the Pantheon.
Even during Lacan’s lifetime, the seminar circulated
in the form of photocopies of diverse and unreliable
written versions of the spoken text. Beginning in 1973,
Lacan entrusted the transcription of the seminar to
Jacques-Alain Miller. In an editor’s note to The Four
Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis, the first of his
publications of Lacan’s seminars, Miller wrote, “My
intention here was to be as unobtrusive as possible and
to obtain from Jacques Lacan’s spoken work an
authentic version that would stand, in the future, for
the origina!, which does not exist apex).
The individual seminars that make up Lacan’s
seminar are as follows:
a) Seminar 1 (1953-1954): Freud’s Papers on Technique.
(John Forrester, Trans.) New York: W. W.
Norton, 1988.
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
SEMINAR, LACAN’S
b) Seminar 2 (1954-1955): The Ego in Freud's Theory
and in the Technique of Psychoanalysis. (Sylvana
Tomaselli, Trans.) New York: W. W. Norton, 1988.
c) Seminar 3 (1955-1956): The Psychoses. (Russell
Grigg, Trans.) New York: W. W. Norton, 1993.
d) Seminar 4 (1956-1957): La relation do bjet
(Object relations). Paris: Seuil, 1994.
e) Seminar 5 (1957-1958): Les formations de linconscient
(Formations of the unconscious).
Paris: Seuil, 1998.
f) Seminar 6 (1958-1959): Le désir et son interprétation
(Desire and its interpretation). Unpublished.
g) Seminar 7 (1959-1960): The Ethics of Psychoanalysis.
(Dennis Porter, Trans.) New York: W.
W. Norton, 1992.
h) Seminar 8 (1960-1961): Transfert (Transference).
2nd ed. Paris: Seuil, 2001.
i) Seminar 9 (1961-1962): Lidentification (Identification).
Unpublished.
j) Seminar 10 (1962-1963): L’angoisse (Anxiety).
Paris: Seuil, 2004.
Name-of-the-Father was to be the next seminar, but
only a single session was given, on November 25, 1963,
at Sainte-Anne Hospital. Lacan stopped giving this
seminar when he learned that the International Psychoanalytical
Association had refused to reinstate him
as a training analyst.
k) Seminar 11 (1964): The Four Fundamental Concepts
of Psychoanalysis. (Alan Sheridan, Trans.)
New York, W. W. Norton, 1978.
1) Seminar 12 (1964-1965): Problemes cruciaux
pour la psychanalyse (Crucial problems for psychoanalysis).
Unpublished.
m) Seminar 13 (1965-1966): L’objet de la psychanalyse
(The object of psychoanalysis).
Unpublished.
n) Seminar 14 (1966-1967): La logique du fantasme
(The logic of fantasy). Unpublished.
o) Seminar 15 (1967-1968): L’acte psychanalytique
(The psychoanalytic act). Unpublished.
p) Seminar 16 (1968-1969): D’un Autre a Tautre
(From one Other to the other). Unpublished.
q) Seminar 17 (1969-1970): L’envers de la psychanalyse
(The other side of psychoanalysis). Paris:
Seuil 99d:
1583
Sense/NONSENSE
r) Seminar 18 (1970-1971): D'un discours qui ne
serait pas du semblant (On a discourse that
might not be a semblance). Unpublished.
s) Seminar 19 (1971-1972):...
worse). Unpublished.
t) Seminar 20 (1972-1973): On Feminine Sexuality:
The Limits of Love and Knowledge, Encore. Translated
by Bruce Fink. New York: Norton, 1998.
u) Seminar 21 (1973-1974): Les non-dupes errent
(Those who are not duped err). Unpublished.
v) Seminar 22 (1974-1975): R.S.I. Ornicar? 2-5.
w) Seminar 23 (1975-1976): Le sinthome (The
sinthome [an archaic spelling of the word
“symptom” ]). Ornicar? 6-11.
x) Seminar 24 (1976-1977): L’insu que sait de l'une
bévue s aile a mourre. Ornicar? 12-18.
our pie... OF
The punning French title of this seminar is based
on a fanciful French translation of the German word
for the unconscious, “Unbewusste,” as “une-bévue,’
which means a blunder or a mistake. As written, the
title might be translated as “The unknown that knows
about the one-blunder chances love.” But as spoken,
with written puns ignored, the French title might be
rendered most simply as “L’insuccés de l’une-bévue,
cest l'amour,” which means “Love is the failure of the
one-blunder.’
y) Seminar 25 (1977-1978): Le moment de conclure
(Time to conclude). Unpublished.
z) Seminar 26 (1978-1979): La topologie et le temps
(Topology and time). Unpublished.
aa) Seminar 27 (1980): Dissolution. Ornicar? 20-23.
Because Lacan was old and ill, seminar 27 was not
delivered publicly but only published. It dealt with the
dissolution of his school, Ecole freudienne de Paris
(Freudian School of Paris).
JACQUES SEDAT
See also: Delay, Jean; Ecole freudienne de Paris (Freudian
School of Paris); France; Lacan, Jacques-Marie Emile;
Merleau-Ponty, Maurice; Ornicar?; Sainte-Anne Hospital;
Splits, psychoanalytic.
Bibliography
Dor, Joél. (1994). Nouvelle bibliographie des travaux de Jacques
Lacan. Paris: E.P.E.L.
1584
Ecole Lacanienne de psychanalyse. (1991). Le transfert dans
tous ses errata and Pour une transcription critique des seminaires
de Jacques Lacan. Paris: E.P.E.L.
Miller, Jacques-Alain. (1985). Entretien sur le seéminaire avec
Francois Ansermet. Paris: Navarin.
SENSE/NONSENSE
Unlike meaning (signification), which unites a signifier,
the material manifestation of the sign, to a signified,
the concept to which it corresponds, sense (sens)
has an axiological dimension: It is a sense “for” and
orders a behavior by linking an object to a desire. Jacques
Lacan (1966) and Piera Aulagnier (The Violence
of Interpretation: From Pictogram to Statement, 1975/
2001) showed that the preverbal infant’s manifestations
of needs are interpreted by the mother as signs
that have a sense. She will consequently respond to
them according to her own desire, which will or will
not be in agreement with the sense that she has given
to the infant’s demand. The latter’s responses will in
turn take on sense and value for her. Sense later corresponds
to a need for causality that constitutes, in the
realm of thought, the equivalent of a rediscovery of the
earliest experience of satisfaction.
In Lacan’s work there is a specific theory of sense
that will not be treated here. In the work of Sigmund
Freud, this issue was essentially addressed in connection
with jokes and the pleasure of sense in nonsense.
Traces of the issue are nevertheless present elsewhere,
particularly in all of the manifestations of the unconscious
that the subject takes to be absurd or devoid of
sense. However, Freud was much more specific about
absurdity in dreams, which is not just a product of its
noninterpretation. In The Interpretation of Dreams
(1900), he wrote: “A dream is made absurd, then, if a
judgement that something ‘is absurd’ is among the elements
included in the dream-thoughts—that is to say,
if any one of the dreamer’s unconscious trains of
thoughts has criticism or ridicule as its motive.
Absurdity is accordingly one of the methods by
which the dream-work represents a contradiction....
Absurdity in a dream, however, is not to be translated
by a simple ‘no’; it is intended to reproduce the mood
of the dream-thoughts, which combines derision or
laughter with the contradiction” (pp. 434-435). This
is the laughter of irony, the oedipal game par excellence,
for it perverts the identification that is supposedly
necessary to the edification of the superego by
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identifying not with the manifest level of what is given
as an example, but with its latent, infantile, and
instinctual content. In this, the joke converges with the
art of the ellipsis characteristic of ironic persiflage, by
actualizing what Freud, in “Jokes and Their Relation
to the Unconscious” (1905), calls an “omission without
a substitute” (p. 77), in which the forbidden representation
disappears.
How does nonsense become a joke? The nonsense
contained in a joke is in fact a criticism; it imitates a
supposedly profound proposition that in reality is
ridiculous or a sophistry, and, precisely in doing so,
reveals the nonsense behind its respectable appearance.
Hence Freud’s formulation in “Jokes and Their Relation
to the Unconscious”: “[I]n jokes nonsense often
replaces ridicule and criticism in the thoughts lying
behind the joke” (p. 107). However, the tendentious
joke also uses a technique characteristic of jokes in
general, which is “pleasure in nonsense” (p. 125), a
relic of the pleasure of playing with words for their
assonance alone, independent of meaning. Children,
like adults, give themselves up to this pleasure, fully
aware of its absurdity, just for the sake of the attraction
of fruit forbidden by reason. Inherent in this is a perspective
that goes beyond tendentious wit, since the
capacity for rational thought is what is challenged
here.
In “Jokes and Their Relation to the Unconscious”
Freud associated this pleasure of untrammeled nonsense
with adolescence, but also with adults in a
relaxed state, especially as a result of drinking alcohol.
He cited as examples the “cheerful nonsense of the
Bierschwefel (a ludicrous speech delivered at a beer
party)” and the Kneipzeitung (literally, “tavern newspaper”;
a comic set of minutes), and noted: “Under
the influence of alcohol the grown man once more
becomes a child, who finds pleasure in having the
course of his thoughts freely at his disposal without
paying regard to the compulsion of logic” (p. 126).
Pleasure in nonsense, a challenge to the constraints of
reason and a narcissistic claim to being the omnipotent
master of meaning, appeared to Freud to be the
basis for the “sense in nonsense” factor: “The psychogenesis
of jokes has taught us that the pleasure in a
joke is derived from play with words or from the liberation
of nonsense, and that the meaning of the joke
is merely to protect that pleasure from being done
away with by criticism” (p. 131). In the mind, nonsense
appears as an end unto itself, and “the intention
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Sense/NONSENSE
of recovering the old pleasure in nonsense is one of the
joke-work’s motives” (p. 176).
However, we can wonder about the function of this
challenge, precisely because it allows sense to subsist.
More than a destruction, at issue here is a condensation
that brings to light contradictions, and this process
could be compared to what Freud wrote in “The
Antithetical Meaning of Primal Words,” emphasizing,
with the linguist Karl Abel, that “our concepts owe
their existence to comparison” (p. 157) and in consequence
they simultaneously express contradictory
images, each of them ensuring its pregnance by its
relational dependence on the other.
For sense constitutes a fundamental need, and
when the a-sense of psychosis develops, this again
involves a sense in revolt against another that has been
unduly imposed upon the subject. Aulagnier showed
how psychosis does not stem from a revolt of the id
against reality, as Freud stated, but rather from “the
struggle the infantile psyche puts up each time it is
confronted with the powerlessness of the maternal discourse
to make sense of lived experience and with the
overwhelming power of the mother’s desire to appropriate
the ‘thinking activity’ of the child.” Aulagnier,
like Wilfred Bion (1963), showed how the mother substitutes
for the a-sense of the real a reality that is
cathected and thought by the mother, who retransmits
it to the baby. This work of sense-making is later
incumbent upon the I itself, and accordingly, causal
explanations are a part of what is necessary for
thought. This sense is not abstract, for it is initially a
libidinal sense, all acts of knowledge being preceded by
an act of cathexis. Constructing sense makes the I’s
relationship to reality coherent; such, then, is the primary
function of the activity of thinking and, accordingly,
delusions themselves will have as their function
the creation of a meaningful interpretation of the violence
undergone by the subject (Mijolla-Mellor).
SOPHIE DE MijOLLA-MELLOR
See also: Abel, Carl; Bulimia; Infans; Jokes; Manifest;
Metonymy; Need for causality; “Psycho-Analytic Notes
on an Autobiographical Account of a Case of Paranoia
(Dementia Paranoides)”; Remembering.
Bibliography
Aulagnier, Piera. (2001). The violence of interpretation: From
pictogram to statement. (Alan Sheridan, Trans.). Hove, UK,
1585
Servaplo, Emitio (1904-1994)
and Philadelphia: Brunner/Routledge. (Original work
published 1975)
Bion, Wilfred. (1963). Elements of psycho-analysis. London:
Heinemann.
Freud, Sigmund. (1900a). The interpretation of dreams. SE,
4-5; 1-625.
. (1905c). Jokes and their relation to the unconscious.
SE, 8: 1-236.
Mijolla-Mellor, Sophie de. (1998). Penser la psychose: Une
lecture de l oeuvre de Piera Aulagnier. Paris: Dunod.
SERVADIO, EMILIO (1904-1994)
Emilio Servadio, an Italian physician and psychoanalyst,
was born in Sestri (Genoa) in 1904 and died in
Rome in 1994. Servadio was born into a Jewish family
and studied in Genoa, where he received a law degree.
He wrote his dissertation on forensic medicine, specifically
about hypnosis. It was the beginning of his
interest in paranormal phenomena, which became one
of his primary areas of research throughout his life.
Servadio was the editor of the Enciclopedia italiana
Treccani in Rome, where he settled in 1929. He met
Edoardo Weiss and asked him to write several articles
on psychoanalysis for the encyclopedia. Weiss, in turn,
began analyzing Servadio, who became a devoted
student of psychoanalysis. After his departure for
America, he remained in contact with Servadio, who
was always grateful to Weiss for the role he played in
his training.
In 1934 at the Lucerne Congress, in which the Italian
contingent, led by Weiss, participated for the first
time, Servadio made his first appearance on the international
psychoanalytic scene by presenting a study on
the links between psychoanalysis and telepathy. His
paper, “Psychoanalysis and Telepathy,’ was subsequently
published in Imago. For the time it was an
innovative and courageous work, in which he tried to
relocate the telepathic phenomena that occur during
the course of a seance within the framework of the
patient-analyst relationship.
Far from leading Servadio to abandon an original
field of research, his encounter with psychoanalysis—as
his most brilliant student, Eugenio Gaddini, has written—
enabled him to “investigate as fully as possible his initial
aspirations and make use of an investigative method
appropriate to the study of paranormal phenomena.”
1586
Servadio’s use of psychoanalysis was unconventional and
could have had an influence on psychoanalysis through
his focus on the scope of counter-transference phenomena,
which he wrote about in 1962 in an article that
appeared in the Rivista di psicoanalisi (VII, [2]). In
1939, because of the race laws then in effect in Italy, he
was forced to leave the country. He settled in India,
attracted by Asian cultures and ancient religions.
After his return to Italy in 1946, Servadio was,
together with Nicola Perrotti and Cesare Musatti, one
of the principal protagonists in the rebirth of psychoanalysis
in the country. In 1962 he created a center for
psychoanalysis in Rome and was president of the Italian
Psychoanalytic Society (SPI) from 1964 to 1969.
Servadio was highly esteemed within the International
Psychoanalytic Association (IPA) and was a
friend of Anna Freud, Marie Bonaparte, and Ernest
Jones; within the Italian psychoanalytic movement he
played the role of institutional tutor. At the end of the
1950s, he visited Weiss, then in America, to request
that an audit committee from the IPA come to Italy to
ensure that its training regulations were consistent
with international norms. In 1992, leading a minority
group that had broken with the SPI, he helped form a
second Italian Psychoanalytic Society, which was
recognized by the IPA in 1993.
Although Servadio was intransigent in institutional
matters and a brilliant writer and popularizer of psychoanalysis,
he was very open-minded in matters of
behavior and current events. He was a prolific writer,
primarily in the field of applied psychoanalysis, with
essays on a wide range of topics. They include his
“Punzione dei conflitti preedipici” (Functions of preoedipal
conflicts), published in 1953 in the Rivista di
psicoanalisi (republished in issue 20 [3], 1974, devoted
to Servadio), which remains his most important contribution
to metapsychology.
ANNA Maria ACCERBONI
See also: Congres des psychanalystes de langue frangais
des pays romans; India; Italy.
Bibliography
Errera, Giovanni. (1990). Emilio Servadio: Dall’ipnosi alla
psicoanalisi. Florence: Nardini.
Gaddini, Eugenio. (1974). I settanta anni di Emilio Servadio:
Un tributo. Rivista di psicoanalisi, 20 (2), pp. 5-13.
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Novelletto, Arnaldo. (1995). Emilio Servadio. Rivista di psicoanalisi,
61 (1), pp. 171-179.
Servadio, Emilio. (1935). Psychoanalyse und Telepathie.
Imago, 23, pp. 489-497.
(1955). A presumptively telepathic precognitive
dream during analysis. International Journal of Psycho-
Analysis, 36, pp. 27-30.
“SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY
DEMONOLOGICAL NEUROSIS, A”
In this work Sigmund Freud examined the case of
Christopher Haitzmann, a painter whose story he had
learned from documents preserved in the sanctuary at
Mariazell (in Lower Austria).
According to these documents, in 1668 Haitzmann
wrote and signed in his own blood a pact with the
Devil, thereby becoming his son and, in addition,
vowing to belong to him body and soul nine years
later. In 1677, when the nine years were almost up,
Haitzmann was seized with remorse and terror, asked
for help from monks, and was freed from his promise
through the intercession of the Virgin Mary. Among
the documents preserved at Mariazell are his diary,
relating the apparitions of Satan, paintings by Haitzmann
himself illustrating these scenes, and texts written
by monks who witnessed or were commenting on
the miracle. These documents were the basis for
Freud’s analysis.
Freud emphasized the evidence of the psychopathological
problems afflicting this man. He further noted
that the “pact with the Devil” had been concluded at a
time when Haitzmann, having no commissions and
suffering from serious inhibitions in his work, had
been reduced to poverty. This distress grew more acute
at the death of his father, and shortly thereafter he
declared himself to be Satan’s son, thus instituting
Satan as a father substitute—although in Haitzmann’s
paintings Satan was depicted with monstrous breasts.
Referring back to the Schreber case, published twelve
years earlier, Freud interpreted this “demonological
neurosis” as stemming from Haitzmann’s homosexual
position in relation to his father, and from the castration
anxiety linked to such a position (cf. Malcapaine
and Hunter; Urtubey).
ROGER PERRON
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SEX AND CHARACTER
See also: Castration complex; Neurosis; “Psycho-Analytic
Notes on an Autobiographical Account of a Case of Paranoia
(Dementia Paranoides).”
Source Citation
Freud, Sigmund. (1923d [1922]) Eine Teufels-neurose im
siebzehnten Jarhundert. Imago 9, 1-34; GW, XIII, 317-53;
A seventeenth-century demonological neurosis. SE, 19,
72-105.
Bibliography
Macalpine, Ida, and Hunter, Richard. Schizophrenia 1677.
London: William Dawson: 1956.
Urtubey, Luisa de. Freud et le Diable. Paris: Presses Universitaires
de France, 1983.
SEX AND CHARACTER
Otto Weininger began to draft Sex and Character in
1900, at the time when Hermann Swoboda informed
him of Freud’s interpretation of bisexuality, and the
book was elaborated concurrently with an exchange of
ideas between the two friends. In 1901, having registered
his manuscript, then called Eros and Psyche, in
order to preserve his intellectual property rights, he
wished to have it published and to this end this he met
with Freud who took an unfavorable view of it. In
1902 Weininger successfully presented his reworked
manuscript for his doctoral thesis in philosophy. He
converted to Protestantism and then presented a third
version of the book, which was characterized by the
addition of chapters on Jews and women and the fact
that he extended the metaphysical system.
First published in 1903 by a major publisher, Braumiller,
the book became a bestseller after its author’s
suicide. It ran to twenty-eight editions between 1903
and 1947 and was translated into ten languages. Many
articles in The Torch (Die Fackel) contributed to the
success of the book, as did accusations of plagiarism,
by Paul J. Moebius in 1904 and most of all by Otto
Fliess in 1906. Otto Rank was convinced by the work,
each of its arguments reflecting his personal experience:
“They were even expressed in my own terms,” he
said. In a footnote to Herbert Grafs (“Little Hans”)
analysis, Freud wrote that “Being a neurotic, Weininger
was completely under the sway of his infantile
complexes; and from that standpoint what is common
1587
Sexual DIFFERENCE
to Jews and women is their relation to the castration
complex” (1909b, p. 36).
Although consisting of multiple philosophical digressions,
Weininger’s book does in fact revolve around a
central question that brings it closer to psychoanalytic
research, the impossibility of establishing a definite
group relation between the sexes. For Weininger there
were two ideal types, M and §, which are analogous to
Platonic types. Real individuals were intermediary
bisexual states, defined by their proportions of M and F.
There was no break in nature between masculine and
feminine but a bisexual structure in varied proportions
which, because of psycho-physiological parallelism,
involved both the microscopic body and the mind. This
Male/Female mosaic explains sexual attraction, which
seeks to achieve complementarity: a man with the equation
3/4M+1/4F seeks a woman with the equation 3/
4F+1/4M. It thus transpires that the ideal relation would
be between a homosexual man and a homosexual
woman. However, men and women who are attracted to
each other are corporally individuated; they are not
types. Weininger realized that: “In spite of the infinite
gradation of the intermediary forms, the human being
is definitively either man or woman,” but diverges from
the point when he postulates a substance that he used as
the basis of his characterology. The permanent confusion
between the outline of substantialized types and
empirical experience gives his statements about women
a shocking character—“The absolute female has no
ego” (p. 186). The same holds true for his comments on
Jews, whom he compares to women, speaking of Judaism
as a “Platonic idea” (p. 311). For this reason he
sometimes has to explain that he does not wish to “lend
the faintest support to any practical or theoretical persecution
of Jews” (p. 311). Jewish himself, Weininger’s
thesis is a testament to what he calls “self hatred.”
ERIK PORGE
See also: Bisexuality; Fliess, Wilhelm; Self-Hatred; Swoboda,
Hermann; Weininger, Otto.
Source Citation
Weininger Otto. (1908). Geschlecht und Charakter. London:
Heinemann. (Original work published 1903)
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1909b). Analysis of a phobia in a fiveyear-
old boy. SE, 10: 1-149.
1588
Le Rider, Jacques. (1982). Le cas Otto Weininger. Paris: P.U.F.
. (1990). Modernité viennoise et crises de Tidentité.
Paris: P.U.F.
Porte, Erik. (1994). Vol didées?. Paris: Denoél.
Rodlauer, Hannelore. (1990). Otto Weiningers Eros und Psyche.
Vienna: Osterreich Akademie der Wissenschaften.
SEXUAL DIFFERENCE
Sexual difference refers to recognition by the child of
the difference of the sexes. This recognition is related
to the Oedipus complex and the castration complex.
In 1908 (1908c) Sigmund Freud presented for the
first time the notion of the castration complex, centered
on fantasies of castration and closely linked to
the drives. Through this complex, whose framework is
the “theory of infantile sexuality,” the child is able to
acknowledge sexual difference. In the same text Freud
indicated that before the question of castration
becomes important for the child, the child is capable,
through the use of external signs, of making a (gender)
distinction between men and women. Of its own
initiative, the child will develop a sense of gender identity—
male or female. This distinction is not dependent
on the drives or the genitals. It is only with the
“primacy of the phallus” (1923e) that the genital
- organ will be taken into account for both sexes, based
on the presence or absence of the male genital organ. It
is this awareness that leads to the question of castration.
Moreover, it is through identification with the
father and mother during the oedipal period that the
child acquires the symbolic cues for masculine and
feminine, whose dynamic will not be completed until
adolescence. At that time, the material reality of the
penis-vagina duality will replace the apparent reality of
the phallus-missing phallus duality.
By separating penis and phallus and emphasizing
symbolic castration, an operation though which the
subject is formed, Jacques Lacan provides a very different
interpretation for the castration complex, which
now becomes dependent on phallic logic. If human
sexuality is immediately subverted by language and if
“the imaginary function of the phallus completes the
challenge to sexuality through the castration complex in
both sexes” (1958), then understanding what differentiates
the sexes becomes problematic. Lacan then developed
his idea of sexuation—a term borrowed from
biology—to show the subject’s modes of inscription in
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the phallic function. This refers to the way in which
both sexes recognize and differentiate themselves in the
unconscious.
Since Freud recognized that his description related
only to boys and for Lacan the relation to the phallus
“was established without regard for the anatomical
difference of the sexes,” we are led to the conclusion
that psychoanalytic theory on sexual difference and, in
particular, on what a woman is, remains highly
incomplete.
Finally, it is important to point out that sexual difference,
which enables the subject to relate to its own
anatomical sex and position itself as man or woman,
introduces important questions in psychoanalysis, as
important as the problematic of identification/
identity.
PauLo R. CECCARELLI
See also: Gender identity; Oedipus complex; Phallus;
Sexuality.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1908c). On the sexual theories of children.
SE, 9: 205-226.
. (1923e). The infantile genital organization (An
interpolation into the theory of sexuality). SE, 19: 141-
145.
Lacan, Jacques. (1966). La signification du phallus (Die
Bedeutung des Phallus). Ecrits, 685-695. Paris: Le Seuil.
(Original work published 1958)
SEXUAL DRIVE
“ _.. The sexual [drive] does not originally serve the
purposes of reproduction at all, but has as its aim the
gaining of particular kinds of pleasure. It manifests
itself in this way in human infancy, during which it
attains its aim of gaining pleasure not only from the
genitals but from other parts of the body (the erotogenic
zones).... We call this stage the stage of autoerotism....
The development of the sexual [drive]
then proceeds from auto-erotism to object-love and
from the autonomy of the erotogenic zones to their
subordination under the primacy of the genitals which
are put at the service of reproduction” (Freud, 1908d,
p. 188). The psychoanalytic movement is a revolution
of “The sexual [drive]—or more correctly, the sexual
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SEXUAL DRIVE
[drives], for analytic investigation teaches us that the
sexual [drive] is made up of many separate constituents
or component [drives]” (p. 187).
Thus Freud dissociated reproduction and sexuality.
The innate sexual drive appears in earliest infancy. Its
composite origin accounts for its perverse, neurotic, and
normal adult manifestations, which appear, in a vast
synthesis. The importance of its dynamic manifestations
in the psyche is well recognized in the form of libido,
which is the fixed point in psychic conflict. The libido is
opposed first to the drives of self-preservation or the ego
drives, and then to the death drive. In this latter case, the
libido goes under the name of “life drives” or Eros.
The term Geschlechtstrieb (sexual drive) appeared in
1894, at the same time as “libido” (1895b [1894]). In
1895, Freud published a review of a lecture entitled,
“Der Geschlechtstrieb,’ and denounced the underestimation
of the sexual drive (1895i). He noted the importance
of sexuality in the etiology of the neuroses and
referred to “the participation of sexual motive forces as
an indispensable premise” (1896c, p. 200). The discovery
of infantile sexuality and its synthesis with the diversity
of adult sexual life was announce in 1905 in the
Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality (1905d).
The Three Essays can be credited with “enlarging
the concept of sexuality” (1905d, p. 134). Insofar as it
is supported by all the other vital functions, the sexual
drive in infancy is perverse, ubiquitous, and a composite
of partial drives. Education and the development
of the ego are able to modify the sexual drive: with no
predetermined object it is entirely plastic, except for
fixation. When its energy is deflected, libido can be
invested in the interests of the ego and of culture.
This view of the sexual drives (though disturbing)
accounted for the essentials of psychic energy with
repression playing a central role and is to be modified
through the next two steps. Libidinal investment in
the ego makes its appearance as an original contribution,
necessary and essential to the sexual drive for survival.
And then it is only the sexual drives that have
the power to stand against the death drive.
As the very paradigm of the drive, the sexual drive
is so central that there could be no conception of psychoanalysis
without it. As Freud stated at the time of
his break with Carl Jung in 1913, to dispute the importance
of the sexual drive is tantamount to rejecting
psychoanalysis.
MICHELE PORTE
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“SexyAL ENLIGHTENMENT OF CHILDREN, THE”?
See also: Adolescence; Anaclisis/anaclictic; Anxiety;
Desexualization; Dipsomania; Drive/instinct; Ego-libido/
object-libido; Eroticism, anal; Eroticism, oral; Libido;
Lost object; Oral stage; Otherness; Pleasure ego/reality
ego; Psychogenic blindness; Puberty; Reciprocal paths
of influence (libidinal coexcitation); Sexuality; Symbol;
Transference/counter-transference (analytical §psychology);
Work (as a psychoanalytical notion).
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1896c). The aetiology of hysteria. SE, 3:
186-221.
. (1908d). “Civilized” sexual morality and modern
nervous illness. SE, 9: 177-204.
. (1895b [1894]). On the grounds for detaching a
particular syndrome from neurasthenia under the description
“anxiety neurosis.” SE, 3: 85-115.
. (1895i). Rezension von: Hegar, Alfred, Der Geschlechtstrieb.
Eine social-medicinische Studie. In Wiener
klin. Rdsch., 9 (1895): 77.
. (1905d). Three essays on the theory of sexuality. SE,
7: 123-245.
“SEXUAL ENLIGHTENMENT
OF CHILDREN, THE”
This short text by Freud was written in the form of an
open letter addressed to Dr. First for publication in a
journal on social medicine and hygiene. “The Sexual
Enlightenment of Children” is contemporaneous with
the: Three Essays on Sexuality (1905d) and “Little
Hans” (1909b), in both of which this same question of
infantile sexual curiosity is developed. However, in
this essay Freud discusses the ethical and epidemiological
(with regard to the prevention of neuroses)
aspects of a question he will examine from a more relativist
perspective thirty years later in “Analysis Terminable
and Interminable” (1937c).
Freud’s question has three components: “Can we,
in general, supply explanations to children about sexual
activity? At what age and how?” Freud strongly
rejects the relevance of the first question, arguing that
any possible refusal will only lead the child to obtain
the withheld information from a different source and
consider sexuality as something dirty. His principal
argument is related to the existence of infantile sexuality
as revealed in the Three Essays and he concludes
that “‘refusal’ only deprives the child of the ability to
1590
intellectually overcome the exploits for which he is
psychically prepared and somatically ‘adjusted’ except
with respect to reproduction.”
Freud addressed the two major problems that preoccupy
the child: the difference between the sexes and
the origin of children, and he refers to infantile sexual
theories, which are first discussed in a short essay that
would be published later on (“On the Sexual Theories
of Children,” 1908c). He concluded with these words:
“What is most important is that children never
develop the idea that we prefer to hide from them the
facts of sexual life rather than other facts that are not
yet accessible to their understanding.” The question of
how to express this is resolved in the suggestion
of adapting knowledge of sexual matters to knowledge
of animal life in general, depending on the age and
aptitude of the child.
This short essay is a precious example of how concepts
in ethics and pedagogy can be spontaneously
generated by the process of psychoanalytic discovery.
SOPHIE DE MioLLA-MELLOR
See also: Sexual theories of children; Technique with children,
psychoanalytic.
Source Citation
Freud, Sigmund. (1907c). Zur sexuellen Aufklarung der Kinder
(Offener Brief an Dr M. Furst). Soz. Med. Hyg., 2, 360—
367; GW, 7, 19-27; The sexual enlightenment of children.
SE, 9: 131-139.
SEXUAL THEORIES OF CHILDREN
In Freud’s view, children’s sexual theories arise neither
in response to “some inborn need for established causality”
nor out of an interest in sex that assumes a theoretical
dimension. Rather, they are the product ofa life
need (Lebensnot) that encourages the child to master
in thought, and perhaps even to avert, the feared arrival
in the family of a new, younger sibling with whom
the parents’ love will have to be shared.
Such theories seek to explain the differences
between the sexes and the origins of sexual relations.
Three aspects may be considered for each theory: its
content, the modalities of its development, and the
sexual (not theoretical) cathexis that the child can
thereby mobilize. In this last aspect, the child’s sexual
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theories closely resemble fantasies in that they are
largely excluded from the demands of critical reasoning.
Freud describes children’s sexual theories as the
direct expression, uninhibited and untransformed, of
infantile sexual component instincts. This explains
why children can maintain “accurate” theories,
imparted by adults, alongside their own, for which
they have a preference of an instinctual kind. “For a
long time after they have been given sexual enlightenment
[children] behave like primitive races who
have had Christianity thrust upon them and who
continue to worship their old idols in secret” (Freud,
1937c, p. 234).
More generally, the sexual fantasies of adults, especially
masturbatory fantasies, may be looked upon as
remnants of childhood theories. They are never
abstract, for they are accompanied by a sexual excitement
that supports the ideational content.
The sexual cathexis of a “theoretical” realm offers
the best possible example of the origin of the sublimating
function, which makes possible a diversion of sexual
excitation to a theoretical activity dissociated from
sexual questions (investigation and the invention of
answers to riddles). This process, however, may be
eliminated, impeded (as in inhibition), or aborted (as
in obsessional rumination). According to Freud, the
construction of childhood sexual theories is based on
information provided by adults and other children
and also on the sensations of the child’s own body that
accompany the work of thinking: “If children could
follow the hints given by the excitation of the penis
they would get a little nearer to the solution of their
problem” (Freud, 1905d, p. 218). Observation of the
animal world can also be a source of “exact” knowledge
and the basis of projections, as with “little Hans”
and the horse (Freud, 1909b).
It is fair to say, even though Freud does not theorize
matters thus, that the case history of little Hans
reveals the role of language in how children work out
their theories. Before it is possible to speak of a theory,
and not merely of a fantasy, what is being represented
must be capable of attaching itself to words. If
in general the naming of affects always falls short of
reality, this is especially flagrant when a child has to
relate direct experience as murky and violent as that
associated with the primal scene (adults engaged in
sex) or birth. So the child sets up a divide: the
child reacts to experience by either abdicating or
else relentlessly pursuing a quest for a theory that no
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SEXUAL THEORIES OF CHILDREN
setback can stop, since it merely supplies another
motive for research.
The content of childhood sexual theories, as
described by Freud, is confined to a few typical ideas
that can also be found in folklore and that constitute
the basis of complexes (as for example the castration
complex). However, the subject matter of these theories
is just as varied as the content of ordinary fantasies
(as distinct from primal fantasies). The content
depends on whatever elements the child happens to
come across: magical words, formulas, distorted words
given a sexual meaning by the child (like the phrase
“horse way” for Little Hans), or obscenities (Ferenczi,
1910).
At first sight, the term “sexual theories” might seem
open to objection, but the great utility of the notion
has been demonstrated by the link it makes between
abstract theorizing and the sexual origins of such theorizing.
These theories are clearly marked by a childish
manner of thinking, a cumulative logic in which one
causal explanation can be superimposed upon another
without creating any contradiction overall. The child’s
research does not proceed by making use of known
elements in order to master other, unknown elements,
which is the usual form of the theoretical approach;
instead, the child collects heterogeneous clues, because
one mystery may stand for another and can therefore
be conjoined with it (Mijolla-Mellor, 1999).
SOPHIE DE MijoLLA-MELLOR
See also: Infantile sexual curiosity; Family romance;
Feces; Historical reality; Knowledge or research, instinct
for; Modesty; Pregnancy, fantasy of; Primal scene; Psychic
revision; “Sexual Enlightenment Of Children, The”;
Trauma of Birth, The; “Vagina dentata,” fantasy of.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1905d). Three essays on the theory of
sexuality. SE, 7: 123-243.
. (1908c). On the sexual theories of children. SE, 9:
205-226.
. (1909b). Analysis of a phobia in a five-year-old boy.
SE, 10: 1-149.
. (1918b [1914]). From the history of an infantile
neurosis. SE, 17: 1-122.
. (1937c). Analysis terminable and interminable. SE,
23: 209-253.
hog
SEXUAL TRAUMA
Mijolla-Mellor, Sophie de. (1996). Le meurtre comme théorie
sexuelle infantile. Topique, 59, 15-29.
_ (1999). Les mythes magico-sexuels autour de l’origine
et de la fin. Topique, 68, 19-32.
Further Reading
Maldonado, J.L. (1998). Panel: Childhood sexual theories
and childhood sexuality. International Journal of Psychoanalysis,
79, 148-151.
SEXUAL TRAUMA
The term sexual trauma refers to a sexual situation that
causes intense fear because the subject, a child, is
exposed to it in a state of passivity and unpreparedness.
Classical psychiatry was already interested in traumas
when Freud was developing his ideas. He borrowed
the term, but replaced the psychiatric notion of
a shock from a serious accident causing a fear of death
with that of the impact of sexual aggressions against
children. In a letter of October 15, 1895, he wrote to
Wilhelm Fliess: “Have I revealed the great clinical
secret to you?... Hysteria is the consequence of a
presexual sexual shock” (1954a [1887-1902], p. 127).
The notion of sexual trauma was here implicitly
evoked for the first time; it would play a fundamental
role in the history of psychoanalysis.
In the early days of his practice, Freud concluded
from the frequency with which his patients recounted
sexual scenes that such adult seductions of children
were real, and that psychical traumas were always sexual
in nature. Based on these clinical observations,
Freud developed a theory, in 1895-1897, of the twostep
effect of the trauma. According to this view, an
initial event left traces that would be awakened a later
time, usually at puberty, and lead to a flooding of the
psyche with libidinal energy and a corresponding generation
of anxiety.
With the discovery of infantile sexuality (1905d),
Freud realized that scenes of seduction were often fantasy
reconstructions; nevertheless, despite the abandonment
of what he called his “neurotica,’ he never
stopped worrying about the question of just how fictitious
and how real such scenes were. What was traumatizing
in Freud’s view was not the event per se but
the affects and representations, including fantasies, to
which it gave rise. Its impact was a function of the
1592
time it occurred relative to the child’s ego development
and ability to metabolize the excitation thus initiated
and relative to the effects it had on the child’s fantasy
organization. For a trauma to be represented on an
inner stage, and in more than one phase—and so to
“offer by far the more favorable field for analysis”
(Freud, 1937c, p. 220)—it must be neither premature
nor too strong.
Sexual trauma, as defined by Freud in his first topography,
cannot be understood independently of the
notions of seduction, repression, deferred action, and
internal versus external reality. At this phase of his
thinking Freud did not yet consider the narcissistic
injury caused by such traumas. And in his concern to
locate scenes of seduction at an ever earlier date and to
study their much later pathological effects—a concern
that necessarily put the spotlight on the mechanism of
deferred action—he paid scant attention to sexual
aggressions suffered in adulthood or to their traumatic
effects.
FRANCOISE BRETTE
See also: “Confusion of Tongues between Adults and the
Child”; “Heredity and the Etiology of the Neuroses”;
Hysteria; Memories; Neurotica; Seduction scenes;
Trauma.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1905d). Three essays on the theory of
sexuality. SE, 7: 123-243.
. (1937c). Analysis terminable and interminable. SE,
23: 209-253.
. (1939a). Moses and monotheism. SE, 23: 1-137.
. (1954a [1887-1902]). The origins of psycho-analysis:
Letters to Wilhelm Fliess, drafts and notes, 1887—1902
(Marie Bonaparte et al., Eds.; Eric Mosbacher and James
Strachey, Trans.). London: Imago.
Freud, Sigmund, and Breuer, Josef. (1895d). Studies on hysteria.
SE, 2: 48-106.
Further Reading
Levine, Howard (Ed.). (1990). Adult analysis and childhood
sexual abuse. Hillsdale, NJ: Analytic Press.
Scharff, Jill S., and Scharff, David E. (1994). Object relations
therapy of physical and sexual trauma. Northvale, NJ: Aronson,
Inc.
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Shengold, Leonard. (1989). Soul murder: The effects of childhood
abuse and deprivation. New Haven: Yale University
Press.
SEXUALITY
Sexuality as understood by Sigmund Freud is “psychosexuality,”
and should be taken “in the same comprehensive
sense as that in which the German language
uses the word ‘lieben’ (to love).” (1910k, pp. 222-23)
In his clinical work during the closing years of the
nineteenth century, Freud noticed how significant a
role sexuality played in the mental conflicts of his
patients, eventually concluding that it was invariably
one of the poles of any symptom-generating conflict.
In The Interpretation of Dreams (1900a), he evoked the
importance of childhood sexuality solely in connection
with neurotics, but beginning with the first edition
of the Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality
(1905d) he asserted its presence and its essential role
in all children. Thereafter Freud conceived of human
sexuality in a broadened sense that included childhood
and perverse sexuality. Childhood sexuality had three
main characteristics: it was autoerotic, subject to the
primacy of erotogenic zones and component instincts,
and anaclitically dependent on the self-preservation
instincts or ego-instincts.
It would take twenty or so years for Freud to arrive
at the theory of the four stages of psychosexual development
that we now find in the manuals. Each stage
was characterized by the dominance of a different erotogenic
zone: oral, anal, phallic, genital. The child was
polymorphously perverse in that the primacy of the
genital zone and of the relationship to the object was
not yet established. The pervert remained fixated in, or
regressed to, a subordination to one or other of the
non-genital zones, ruled by component instincts.
Despite this broadening of the concept of sexuality,
Freud continued to define a so-called normal sexuality,
reached at the end-point of development and characterized
by the primacy of the genital zone and of the
relationship to the object. But he had trouble completely
detaching normal sexuality from the goal of procreation,
something he had been able to do in the
cases of infantile and perverse sexuality (see the twentieth
of the Introductory Lectures | 1916-17a]).
Another point, often insufficiently stressed, is the
distinction Freud drew between two currents, the
affectionate and the sensual, “whose union is necessary
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
SEXUALITY
to ensure a completely normal attitude in love”
(1912p.41 8,0) .
The whole of childhood sexuality falls under the
rubric of the “Oedipus complex,” a term first used by
Freud in “A Special Type of Choice of Object Made by
Men” (1910h, p. 171), even though he had referred to
Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex as early as 1897 in a letter to
Fliess. The Oedipus complex was at first presented by
Freud from the young boy’s point of view, and in a
simplified form: the little boy is in love with his
mother and so becomes his father’s rival. In the complete
form, bisexuality came into play: the boy also
wants to take his mother’s place vis-a-vis his father
(inverted Oedipus complex). The Oedipus complex of
the girl was not in Freud’s view symmetrical with that
of the boy, for the girl did not experience the tragic
conjunction of love for the mother and a rivalry with
the father provoking murderous wishes.
A sexuality that could be called perverse inasmuch
it activated erotogenic zones other than the genital
nevertheless had a place in normal sexuality in the
shape of “fore-pleasure.” What characterized perverse
sexuality proper was the rigidity and exclusiveness of
the manner of achieving orgasm.
Until 1920 Freud described mental conflict as a
clash between the sexual instincts and the self-preservative
instincts, also known as ego-instincts. Beginning
with Beyond the Pleasure Principle (1920g), however, a
new opposition came to the fore in Freud’s thinking,
though without eradicating the earlier: that between
Eros (life instincts or sexual instincts) and Thanatos
(death instincts). This was yet another broadening of
the concept of sexuality: Eros—love—sought to hold
things together, while Thanatos—death—strove to
tear them apart and destroy them. As noted above,
Freud gave sexuality the same extension as the verb “to
love”; since one side of the conflict is always sexuality,
it may reasonably be deduced that all mental disturbance
has a connection with sexuality conceived as
love, as a tie to an object.
Freud was accused by some of “pansexualism.” It is
true that sexuality was present everywhere in his theory,
yet it was always seen as in conflict with other
instinctual forces, so that Freud was surely right to
defend himself against this charge.
On the other hand, the issue of the relationship
between sexual disturbances and psychopathology is not
simple. It is quite possible to encounter dysfunctional
1593
SEXUALITY
sexuality in the strict sense in a person who presents no
particular mental symptoms in other areas, while a perfectly
satisfactory orgasm may occur in otherwise deeply
disturbed individuals. But the libidinal tie and the relationship
to the object are always implicated in the organization
of the personality and in mental pathology. In
psychoanalytic treatment, the transference instates a
relationship of libidinal dependence with the analyst
that repeats the relationship with parental figures.
The transference—the motor of psychoanalysis—may
become an obstacle to treatment if it takes a totally eroticized
form.
For Freud, then, human sexuality was psychosexual,
and individual and cultural ideas played an important
role therein; yet in his view it was also biological, and
he was certainly not mistaken in this. The object of the
instinct is not given with the instinct itself. The history
of the individual, which is to say the history of that
individual’s relationships with his mother, father, and
other key people in the entourage, contributes to the
constitution of his particular sexuality. Freud wrote
that the infant’s relationship with the mother who
gave it the breast supplied the prototype for the adult’s
later love relationships. Weaning brought about the
loss of the breast as libidinal object, and thereafter the
individual would seek to rediscover that lost object.
But some infants are not breast-fed, in which case
weaning will not have the same character, and may not
be so late. The breast has become a metaphor for all
bodily attentions from the mother (Donald W. Winnicott),
or else as a part-object (Melanie Klein). In language,
and for the infant—even an infant which has
not been breast-fed—the breast symbolizes the
mother, and is an object of desire. Freud seems never
to have heard little boys crying because they cannot
have breasts like their mother, and he retained only the
little girl’s penis envy as a mark of the child’s confrontation
with the anatomical difference between the
sexes. Freud’s patriarchal and phallocentric assumptions
echo his culture, and he was unaware of them.
Only rarely do we now see the typical neuroses and
disturbances of sexuality that Freud described in his
“Contributions to the Psychology of Love” (1910h,
1912d); and when we do, patients usually come from
families where they have received a traditional patriarchal
upbringing.
Freud never suggested that unbridled sexual activity
could remedy sexual and mental problems. Certainly,
he at first emphasized the conflict between sexual
1594
wishes and the external world, and made “civilized
sexual morality” responsible for “modern nervous illness.”
(1908d). But later on he located the essential
conflict—that between the forces of binding and the
forces of unbinding—within the psyche. A strong
superego, constituted by means of identification with
the father as prohibitor of incest—and also (as something
of an afterthought on Freud’s part) by the
mother—he judged necessary not only to morality but
also to creativity, to sublimation, that is to say to the
inhibition and diversion of strictly sexual instinctual
aims. Libido seemed to Freud to be masculine in
essence, and he considered the woman’s superego—
and hence her moral sense and creativity—to be
weaker than the man’s. Women were destined to passivity,
or at least to activities with passive aims. Freud
rejected feminist aspirations to equality between men
and women.
COLETTE CHILAND
See also: Bisexuality; Death instinct (Thanatos); Female
sexuality; Heterosexuality; Homosexuality; Life instinct
(Eros).
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1900a). The interpretation of dreams. SE,
4-5,
. (1905d). Three essays on the theory of sexuality.
SEs
. (1908d). “Civilized” sexual morality and modern
nervous illness. SE, 9.
(1910h). A special type of choice of object
made by men (contributions to the psychology of love
DY SEO
. (1910k). “Wild” psycho-analysis. SE, 11.
. (1912d). On the universal tendency to debasement
in the sphere of love (contributions to the psychology of
love II). SE, 11.
———. (1916-17a). Introductory lectures on psycho-analysis.
SE, 15-16.
. (1920g). Beyond the pleasure principle. SE, 18.
Further Reading
Chodorow, Nancy. (1989). Feminism and psychoanalytic
theory. New Haven: Yale University Press.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Friedman, Robert. (2001). Psychoanalysis and human sexuality.
Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association,
49, 1115-1132.
Kulish, Nancy. (2002). Female sexuality: Pleasure of secrets
and the secret of pleasure. Psychoanalytic Study of the
Child, 57, 151-176.
SEXUALIZATION
Heinz Kohut has a view of sexualization that differs
from Freud’s. In fact, he sees it not so much as a defensive
structure, but rather as the indication of a structural
deficit. From the point of view of the drives, this deficit
appears as an insufficient neutralization. From the
point of view of the Selfobject [SIC], one might say that
there is a lack of a necessary relation with another
source of responsiveness. There is another idea involved,
too: it is possible to attenuate or to dissipate
sexualization by establishing a Selfobject transference.
Independently of the theoretical perspective, sexualization
becomes, in practice, an activity that imbues the
whole personality and contributes, in an episodic or
regular way, to the maintenance of psychological equilibrium.
It procures pleasure and helps to obliterate painful
feelings. It can also help to stem regression and
enable the establishment of a relation that, while it may
appear infantile, still helps to develop the Self’s cohesion.
Given all the psychological gains that it implies, it
often resists analytical intervention without the elaboration
and working-through of a Selfobject transference.
The way the diverse forms of sexualization are considered
consists in translating behavior into a narrative
that represents individual psychodynamics. Thus the
exhibitionist or the pedophile is expressing a specific
psychological configuration that can be read as a manifest
content. This is most probably an exaggerated
simplification, since many forms of sexualization are
more a matter of fortuitous circumstances, or even of
biology, than of psychological meaning. Sexualization
is essentially perpetuated by vertical splitting. Any
treatment of difficulties involving sexualization needs
to study this particular structural problem.
ARNOLD GOLDBERG
See also: Self-object; Splitting, vertical and horizontal.
Bibliography
Goldberg, Arnold. (1995). The problem of perversion. (p. 29—
45, 64-79). New Haven: Yale University Press.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
SEXUATION, FORMULAS OF
Kohut, Heinz. (1971). The analysis of the self. New York:
International Universities Press.
SEXUATION, FORMULAS OF
According to Jacques Lacan, sexuation, as distinct from
biological sexuality, designates the way in which the
subject is inscribed in the difference between the sexes,
specifically in terms of the unconscious and castration,
that is, as “inhabiting language” (Lacan, 1998, p. 80).
Lacan presented the complete table of the formulas
of sexuation on March 13, 1973, during one of the lectures
of his seminar Encore (1972-1973), but as early
as 1971 he began to use his own symbols for the logical
quantifiers and the function ®x (figure 1).
Lacan’s choice of the term sexuation, and not sexuality,
indicates that being recognized as a man or
woman is a matter of the signifier.
The phallus is situated as a symbol, the signifier of
castration and thus also of desire. The Law that is
transmitted by the father and that states the prohibition
against incest is also the foundation of desire. And
this is the Law of castration, which Lacan designated
in his graph as the phallic function, ®x.
To construct these formulas, Lacan relied on the
Aristotelian logic according to which propositions are
categorized in four classes: the universal affirmative,
the universal negative, the particular affirmative, and
the particular negative. But Lacan adopted modern
symbols for these categories, which are based on the
universal quantifier, V, and the existential quantifier, 3.
On the left side of the table, there appears the formula
Vx@®x, for all x ® of x (all men are submitted to the phallic
function, that is, castration). But modern logic has
demonstrated the necessity of a particular negative,
4x@x (there exists at least one that is not submitted to
the phallic function), in order to found the universal
affirmative. This is the hypothesis that Sigmund Freud
developed in his myth of the primal father in Totem and
Taboo (1912-1913a), and also in his argument that
Moses was not a Jew in Moses and Monotheism (1939a):
there always exists one who is an exception. This is how
man is inscribed: by the phallic function, but on the condition
that this function “is limited due to the existence
of an x by which the function ®x is negated” (Lacan, p.
79). This is the function of the father.
The other side of the table concerns the “woman
portion of speaking beings” (p. 80). The upper line is
1595
SHapow (ANALYTICAL PsycHOLoGy)
FIGURE 1
read as follows: there does not exist any x that does not
fall under the phallic function. In other words, castration
functions for all women. But on the lower line
Lacan introduced a negation marked by the barring of
the universal quantifier, which is quite inconceivable
from the perspective of formal logic. Lacan proposed
that it be read as “not-whole.”
The woman’s side of the table “will not allow for
any universality” (p. 80). Woman is not wholly within
the phallic function. On this side there is no exception
that could serve as the basis for a set of women. It is
from this fact that Lacan derived the formula,
“Woman doesn’t exist.” This formula leaves no room
for any idea of an “essence” of femininity.
Below the table of formulas, there is a “scanded |
indication of what is in question” (p. 80). On the masculine
side, there is the barred subject “and the ® that
props him up as signifier” (p. 80). For the male is only
able to reach his partner, the Other, through castration
and the mediation of the object a as its effect. This is
indicated by the arrow that crosses from the male side
to the female side, which also reproduces the Lacanian
formula of fantasy. On the feminine side, woman is
doubled: she has a relation with ®, insofar as a man
incarnates it for her. But she is not wholly in that relation.
She also has a relation to the signifier of A, the
signifier that the Other would need if a set of women
were going to be formed. Woman’s jouissance is thus
divided between phallic jouissance, linked to castration
and appearing on the graph as ®, and an Other
jouissance that is unique to her. Thus there is neither
symmetry between the two sides of the table, nor any
complementarity between the sexes.
ALAN VANIER
See also: Graph of Desire; Jouissance (Lacan); Matheme;
Phallus; Sex differences.
1596
Bibliography
Lacan, Jacques. (1970-1971). Le séminaire-livre XVIII, dun
discours qui ne serait pas du semblant. [On a discourse that
might not bea semblance] (unpublished seminar).
. (1971-1972). Le séminaire-livre XIX, ... ou pire [...
or worse].(unpublished seminar).
. (1998). The seminar of Jacques Lacan, book XX, on
feminine sexuality: The limits of love and knowledge, encore.
(Bruce Fink, Trans.) New York: Norton. (Original work
published 1972-1973)
SHADOW (ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY) —
In Carl Gustav Jung’s analytical psychology, the shadow
as a concept comprises everything the conscious
personality experiences as negative. In dreams and fantasies
the shadow appears with the characteristics ofa
personality of the same sex as the ego, but in a very different
configuration. It is presented as the eternal
antagonist of an individual or group, or the dark
brother within, who always accompanies one, the way
Mephistopheles accompanied Goethe's Faust.
The role of the shadow within is sometimes hidden,
and sometimes rejected or repressed, by the conscious
ego. In the latter case it is pushed into the unconscious,
where, because of its energy, it acts as a complex. People
can, for example, be fully aware that they are avaricious,
greedy, or aggressive and still manage to hide
these truths from others beneath the mask of the persona.
But they can also repress those characteristics.
Then they are no longer conscious of them at all, and
their moral ego is reestablished.
The shadow in everyone varies considerably
depending on the guidelines in force within the family,
the community, and the culture in which they grow
up. Moreover, the shadow is not only made up of
aspects of personality experienced as disagreeable or
negative, but it can also have a positive side.
When the shadow is not integrated into the conscious
personality and remains unconscious, it can
manifest itself in two different forms. On the one
hand, it can project itself onto another person in one’s
immediate or distant circle, leading to serious conflicts
among siblings, couples, or colleagues that have a tendency
to recur and lead to lasting misunderstandings.
On the other hand, it can also cause deflation, so that
those involved find themselves subjugated and thus
inferior, bad, or clumsy. In fact, the shadow corre-
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
sponds to what one does not want to become but still
is, within the self. It is even something necessary, for
just as a painting needs shadow to give it life and
depth, each human needs a shadow—as illustrated by
Peter Schlemihl de Chamisso (1824)—to become a
true human being with all the genuine weaknesses and
defects, qualities which can even make them likeable.
Jung developed and enriched the concept of the
shadow throughout the 1930s, when he began studying
closely alchemical literature and iconography in
relation to his experience and conception of the process
of individuation. He compared the “black work”
of the alchemists (the nigredo) with the often highly
critical involvement experienced by the ego, until it
accepts the new equilibrium brought about by the
creation of the self.
In the work he did after World War II, Jung developed
the distinction between the personal shadow and
the collective shadow, emphasizing the fact that while
recognition and analysis of the shadow lead to a confrontation
with the drives and the most intimate representations,
they also lead to a confrontation with the
collective unconscious. It is this that gives rise to projections
of the shadow onto other cultures, other peoples,
and other races—something that occurred during
the twentieth century to an alarming extent.
Hans DIECKMANN
See also: Analytical psychology; Collective unconscious
(analytical psychology); Ego (analytical psychology);
Jung, Carl Gustav; Projection and “mystical participation”
(analytical psychology).
Bibliography
Jung, Carl Gustav. (1921). Psychological types. Collected
works, v. 6. Princeton: Princeton University Press (Bollingen
Series).
. (1928d). Instinct and the unconscious. Collected
works, v. 8. Princeton: Princeton University Press (Bollingen
Series).
. (1944). Psychology and alchemy. Collected works, v.
12. Princeton: Princeton University Press (Bollingen
Series).
. (1951). Aion: researches into the phenomenology
of the self. Collected works, v. 9. Princeton: Princeton University
Press (Bollingen Series).
. (1955-1956). Mysterium conjunctionis: an inquiry
into the separation and synthesis of psychic opposites in
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
SHAKESPEARE AND PSYCHOANALYSIS
alchemy. Collected works, v. 14. Princeton: Princeton University
Press (Bollingen Series).
SHAKESPEARE AND PSYCHOANALYSIS
Throughout the century, psychoanalysts have studied
Shakespeare’s works to deepen their understanding of
psychic conflict and to hone their interpretive skills.
Literary scholars have turned to psychoanalysis to
solve perennial problems in interpreting Shakespeare’s
text.
In a letter to his friend Wilhelm Fliess (15 October,
1897), Sigmund Freud sketched out his first formulation
of what he would come to call the Oedipus complex,
then promptly went on to show how this notion
could be used to interpret some notorious cruxes in
Hamlet. Freud linked, through the triangular structure
of the Oedipus complex, Hamlet’s hesitation to avenge
his father, his pangs of conscience, his hostility to
Ophelia, the sexual disgust expressed to Gertrude, and
his final destruction (1900a, 4: 264-266). “There are
more things in heaven and earth Horatio, than are
dreamt of in your philosophy” (1910c, 11: 137n.):
Freud’s favorite quotation from any source, according
to Jones, was this tribute to the complexity of existence,
from Hamlet.
The nature of Freud’s attachment to Shakespeare’s
work is also conveyed in his association of a “special
cadence” in his own dream speech, with a cadence in
Brutus’s speech of self-justification in Julius Caesar.
“As Caesar loved me, I weep for him; as he was fortunate,
I rejoice at it; as he was valiant, I honor him; but,
as he was ambitious, I slew him.” (1900a, 5: 424) Freud
shed light on the unconscious conflict over gender and
ambition that fractured Lady Macbeth’s psyche, and
on Shakespeare’s technique of splitting a character in
two “she becomes all remorse and he all defiance”
(1916d, 14: 324).
In Shakespeare criticism, after classic papers by
Ludwig Jekels, Ernest Jones, Theodor Reik, Hanns
Sachs, Wangh (Faber, M., 1970) and others, there has
been a proliferation of essays, applying various aspects
of psychoanalytic theory to Shakespeare’s texts: dream
theory, the structural model, incest fantasies, primal
scene fantasies, and the symbolizing and creative functions
of the psyche itself. There are several English bibliographies
that catalogue these works, including those
by Norman Holland (1964), D. Wilbern (1978), and
Murray Schwartz and Copelia Kahn (1980). “On the
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SHAME
Universal Tendency to Debasement in the Sphere of
Love” (1912d, 11: 179-190) has featured in the discussion
of obstacles to love regularly encountered in
comedy. “Mourning and Melancholia” (1916-1917,
14: 239-258), has been used in thinking about ambivalence
toward the lost object and severe depression in
tragedy or in a comedy like Twelfth Night. Freud’s “On
Narcissism” (1914c, 14: 69-91), and the thinking that
grew out of it on the structure of the psyche and its
roots in infantile development, have influenced many
recent interpretations of Shakespeare’s plays. “Negation”
(1925h, 19: 235-239) has been useful to Shakespeareans
as it explores one way in which the psyche
negotiates its own internal contradictions.
Beyond Freud, Jacques Lacan’s “mirror stage,”
Donald Winnicott’s “transitional object,” Margaret
Mahler’s “separation/individuation,” and Erik Erikson’s
“basic trust” have generated new psychoanalytic
readings of Shakespeare’s plays. Of the classic psychoanalytic
essays on Shakespeare, Ernst Kris’s essay,
“Prince Hal’s Conflict” (Faber, 1970) has remained a
model of sophistication. Integrating elements of
the play’s language, characterization, and plot with
corresponding elements of psychic structure, Kris,
examining the play’s sources and speeches, recognizes
Shakespeare’s exceptional genius for historical and
psychological observation. More recently, psychoanalysis
has influenced the critics who see Shakespeare as
a dramatist whose “plays and poems do not merely
illustrate his identity but are in each instance a
dynamic expression of the struggle to re-create and
explore its origins” (Schwartz, 1980, xv—xvi). In this
spirit, Janet Adelman (1992) has analyzed masculine
identity and “fantasies of maternal power” and of “the
maternal body” in Shakespeare.
Psychoanalytic criticism of Shakespeare has dominated
the application of psychoanalytic theory to the
arts and has articulated debates over the nature of
applied psychoanalysis. One side insists that Shakespeare’s
text be treated with respect for its genre, for its
formal and aesthetic properties, for its artifice, so that
we must not invent an unconscious or an infantile
neurosis for a character, or do wild analysis on the
author; we must not go beyond the language of the
text. Another position responds that a text is the product
of the human psyche, which always uses the
unconscious and its desires in creativity. Perhaps the
most fruitful psychoanalytic interpretations of Shakespeare
occupy a middle ground wherein the text is
1598
evidence and arbiter, but where the characteristically
Shakespearean illusion that a stage person has interior
being, with motives that he himself does not fully
understand, is recognized and explored.
MARGARET ANN FITZPATRICK HANLY
See also: Failure neurosis; Hamlet and Oedipus; Literature
and psychoanalysis; Mythology and psychoanalysis;
Negative capability; Parricide; Primal fantasy; “Theme of
the Three Caskets, the.”
Bibliography
Adelman, Janet. (1992). Suffocating mothers: Fantasies of
maternal origin in Shakespeare’s plays. “Hamlet” to lhe
Tempest.” New York: Routledge.
Faber, M.D. (Ed.). (1970). The design within: Psychoanalytic
approaches to Shakespeare. New York: Science House.
Freud, Sigmund. (1900a). The interpretation of dreams.
Part I. SE, 4: 1-338; The interpretation of dreams. Part II.
SE, 5: 339-625.
. (1910c). Leonardo da Vinci and a memory of his
childhood. SE, 11: 57-137.
. (1912d). On the universal tendency to debasement
in the sphere ofl ove. SE, 11: 177-190.
. (1914c).-On narcissism: an introduction. SE, 14:
67-102.
. (1916d). Some character-types met with in psychoanalytic
work. SE, 14: 309-333.
. (1925h). Negation. SE, 19: 233-239.
. (1950a). Extracts from the Fliess papers. SE, 1: 173—
280.
Holland, Norman N. (1966). Psychoanalysis and Shakespeare.
New York and London: McGraw-Hill Book
Company.
Kris, Ernst. (1952). Psychoanalytic explorations in art. New
York: International Universities Press.
Schwartz, Murray and Kahn, Copelia. (1980). Representing
Shakespeare. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University.
SHAME
The word shame encompasses: 1) the raw emotion
linked to a loss of one’s bearings; 2) judgment about
this state (the perception of shame as such resulting
from the comparison of oneself with a model); and 3)
judgment about both this emotion and the possible
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
causes of shame (implying possibilities for action). In
all cases, shame is a sense of anxiety about being
excluded, that is, not only fear of a withdrawal of love,
but even withdrawal of any form of interest.
In “Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality”
(1905), Sigmund Freud linked shame to the action
of the forces of repression (what was initially an object
of pleasure becomes an object of modesty, disgust, or
shame). By contrast, in “La honte comme angoisse
sociale” (Shame as a Social Anxiety; 1929), Imre Hermann
described shame as a “social anxiety” linked to
attachment.
Shame always has two aspects: one relating to individual
mental functioning (anxiety about mental disintegration),
and the other relating to relations with
the group (anxiety about being excluded). Pathological
shame is to be distinguished from shame as a signal
of alarm. Coping with shame involves both naming it
and reinforcing the secondary processes to limit its
disintegrative effects. It can be displaced or masked,
especially by resignation, anger, guilt, or hate.
To a certain extent, shame was a “blind spot” for
Freud and, in his wake, for many psychoanalysts who
reduced it to a pathological affect linked to the ideal
ego and opposed to the guilt associated with the oedipal
superego. However, it is a concept that is essential
to the understanding of the dynamics of social bonds
(it protects people from engaging in nonhuman
actions) and intergenerational secrets.
SERGE TISSERON
See also: Alcoholism; Bulimia; Clinging instinct; Erythrophobia;
Latency period; Modesty; Nakedness, dream of;
Narcissistic injury; Narcissistic rage; Obsessional neurosis;
Organic repression; Self-esteem; Unpleasure.
Bibliography
Chasseguet-Smirgel, Janine. (1973). Essai sur L’Idéal du
Moi. Contribution a l’état psychanalytique de la “maladie
didéalité.” Revue francaise de psychanalyse, 37, 5-6, 735-
929:
Freud, Sigmund. (1905). Three essays on the theory of sexuality.
SE, 7: 123-243.
Hermann, Imre. (1982). La honte comme angoisse sociale.
Confrontation, 8, 167-177. (Original work published 1929)
Nathanson, Donald L. (Ed.). (1987). The many faces of
shame. New York and London: Guilford Press.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
SHARPE, ELLA FREEMAN (1875-1947)
Tisseron, Serge. (1993). La honte, psychanalyse dun lien
social. Paris: Dunod.
SHARPE, ELLA FREEMAN (1875-1947)
British teacher and psychoanalyst, Ella Freeman
Sharpe was born in Haverhill, Suffolk, England, on
February 22, 1875, and died in London on June 1,
1947,
Ella Sharpe was the eldest of three daughters. Her
father, who read Shakespeare to her as a child, died
when she was in her teens, and she took over responsibility
for the family. She studied English at Nottingham
University, but turned down a position at Oxford
University in order to take a teaching job to support
her family. She was then co-head and English mistress
of Hucknall Pupil Teachers Training Centre for boy
and girls from 1904-1916.
Ella Sharpe became depressed at the death of friends
and pupils during the First World War and suffered
anxiety attacks. She went to the Medico-Psychological
Clinic in Brunswick Square, London, was treated successfully
by Jesse Murray and James Glover, and
became interested in Psychoanalysis. In 1917 she gave
up teaching to study psychoanalysis at the clinic.
In 1920 she went to Berlin to be analyzed by Hanns
Sachs, who shared her interest in art and literature. On
October 13, 1921. she was elected an Associate Member
of the British Psycho-analytical Society and a Full
Member two years later, in 1923.
She took an active role in the administration of the
Society and Institute, and was elected to the Board and
Council a number of times, being a director of the
Institute when war broke out. She was first elected a
member of the Training Committee in 1930, and
served on it for many years. She was soon involved in
teaching analytic technique, and her experience as a
teacher enabled her to present her material in a lively
and clear way. She was one of the first British Analysts
to work with children, and she supervised both child
and adult patients.
She read her first paper to the Society in 1923 on
the work of Francis Thompson. At the Oxford Congress
in 1929, she read a paper on sublimation and
delusion, and at the Lucerne Congress in 1934, she
read a paper on sublimations underlying pure art and
pure science (Sharpe, 1935), using ideas from Klein’s
work. She was particularly interested in those artists,
1599
SIGMUND FREUD ARCHIVES
including Shakespeare, who used words to express
themselves. Her paper on her examination of metaphor
and poetic diction shows her own rich understanding
of words and the link between metaphor and
instinctual tension (Sharpe, 1940).
Her lectures on technique (Sharpe, E., 1930/ 1931)
were published in the International Journal of Psycho-
Analysis (vols. 11 and 12) and later in book form
together with her other papers (Sharpe, 1950). Her lectures
on dreams were also published as a book
(Sharpe, 1937).
Ella Sharpe’s main impact was that she could apply
Freud’s technical concepts to her clinical experience
and communicate it to others, and she alerted readers
to the importance of understanding, more deeply, the
language of patients.
Peart H.M. KING
See also: Controversial Discussions; Great Britain;
Hamlet and Oedipus.
Bibliography
Sharpe, Ella F. (1930). The technique of psycho-analysis.
Seven lectures. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 11,
251-277; 12, 24-60.
. (1935). Similar and divergent unconscious deteminants
underlying the sublimations of pure art and pure
science. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 16, 180—
202.
. (1937). Dream analysis: A practical handbook for
psychoanalysts. London: Hogarth and the Institute for Psycho-
Analysis.
. (1940). Psycho-physical problems revealed in language:
An examination of metaphor. International Journal
of Psycho-Analysis, 21, 201-213.
. (1950). Collected papers on psycho-analysis. (M.
Brierley, Ed.) International Psycho-Analytical Library, vol.
29. London: Hogarth and the Institute for Psycho-
Analysis,
SIGMUND FREUD ARCHIVES
The Sigmund Freud Archives, incorporated in the
United States in 1952 by the leading analysts of that
period, developed under the leadership of Dr. Kurt R.
Eissler, who was the chief administrative officer until
1985. Dr. Harold P. Blum succeeded him as executive
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director of the archive. The other officers in 2005 were
Drs. Alexander Grinstein, president; Bernard L.
Pacella, secretary and treasurer; and Sidney S. Furst.
The goal of the archive is to discover, collect, and
preserve all of Freud’s publications, letters, and other
documents and to maintain an archive of these materials.
The archive also facilitates research, writing, publishing,
and other activities relating to the work of
Freud and other pioneers of psychoanalysis. The Sigmund
Freud Collection comprises Freud’s letters,
publications, first editions, personal documents,
photographs, movies, and other personal items. Letters
and papers of Anna Freud and many other
renowned psychoanalysts are in separate collections,
coordinated with the Sigmund Freud Collection. The
archive has a continuing contract with the Library of
Congress under which the Freud Collection is protected
and preserved at the Library of Congress in
Washington, D.C. The Freud Collection was almost
completely derestricted as of 2005, and is accessible to
all scholars upon application to the Library of Congress.
As a co-trustee, the archive is also responsible for
the administration and development of the Freud
Museum in London. The Freud Museum opened in
July 1986 and contains a major collection of Freud’s
personal effects, including his extensive library,
antiques, study, and consulting room. The Freud
Museum displays Freud’s professional and working
environment, and sponsors relevant education, writing,
and research.
A nonprofit organization, the archive offers all
scholars equal access to all unrestricted documents.
For more than a decade, the archive has steadily been
derestricting documents in its control. Most of the
Freud correspondence that has recently become available
has been released by the archive. The goal of total
derestriction was reached the year 2000, when documents
under Anna Freud’s will were scheduled for
derestriction. Then only documents legally restricted,
in writing, by the donor, will still be unavailable to
scholars.
Documents are released at the Library of Congress
for reading and research, but such release does not entail
permission for publication. Documents are released
completely unaltered and unexpurgated, with the single
exception of the names of psychoanalytic patients.
Patients’ names are deleted to protect anonymity and
confidentiality, but to facilitate scholarly research,
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
names are available to editors of correspondence upon
special application to the Sigmund Freud Archives. In
such cases, the editors are bound to maintain the confidentiality
of patients’ identities. Everyone using the
documents in the Freud Collection is obligated to abide
by the rules of the Library of Congress.
Dr. Harold Blum proposed a “Freud Exhibit” to the
United states Library of Congress. Developed over several
years, relying mainly on the Freud Collection of
the Library of Congress, it opened in 1998 at the
Library of Congress in Washington, DC. It was the largest
exhibit of the life and work of Sigmund Freud ever
held. The exhibit traveled to venues in four continents,
including several additional major American cities,
Vienna, Rio de Janeiro, and Tel Aviv.
The Freud Archives continues to support Freud
scholarship and research. Plans are under consideration
to digitize the Freud collection and as many other
Freud documents as possible. In 2004 the Sigmund
Freud Archives constructed its own web site, which
will eventually be linked to the Library of Congress.
An outline of the Freud Collection and its contents
can be viewed on the web site. Derestriction of the
small number of still classified correspondence and
interviews is proceeding, consistent with legal and
ethical requirements.
Haro_p P. Blum
See also: Eissler, Kurt Robert; Freud Museum.
SIGMUND FREUD COPYRIGHTS LIMITED
Sigmund Freud bequeathed the income from this
world copyrights, which was seen as “pocket money,’
to five of his grandchildren, who were still all minors
at the time of his death in 1939. His will appointed
three of his children, Ernst, Martin, and Anna as
trustees.
After World War II, the trustees decided that a
limited company should be formed to handle the
copyrights, promote publication and translations, and
collect royalties and distribute them to the grandchildren.
The company was incorporated April 15, 1946,
and acquired from the trustees the copyright in all Sigmund
Freud’s works and other writings, letters, and so
on, by an agreement of April 5, 1947.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
SIGMUND FREUD CopyriGHTs LiMiTED
The company was managed for many years by Ernst
Freud, operating from his home in St. John’s Wood,
London, where he also continued to carry on his architect’s
practice. With his wife, Lucie, Ernst was also closely
involved with editorial work, dedicating himself
wholeheartedly to keeping his father’s name before the
public. He acquired an intimate knowledge of his
father’s vast correspondence and one of the earliest
volumes of these letters, a selection to various correspondents,
published under the title The Letters of Sigmund
Freud 1879-1939 (1960) was entirely Ernst’s
idea and his almost unaided achievement. Several
other volumes followed, such as Psych-analysis and
Faith; The Letters of Sigmund Freud and Oskar Pfister
(with Heinrich Meng) in 1963; A Psycho-alanytic Dialogue;
The Letters of Sigmund Freud and Karl Abraham
1907-1926 (with Hilda C. Abraham) in 1965; and The
Letters of Sigmund Freud and Arnold Zweig in 1970. It
had also long been Ernst’s dream to publish a picture
biography of his father, using letters and other documents
and photographs mainly from the family’s private
collection. He worked on this for many years,
together with his devoted wife, Lucie. The work
remained uncompleted when he died in 1970, when
the German scholar and psychoanalyst, Ilse Grubrich-
Simitis, took on the task of finishing it. It finally
appeared as Sigmund Freud: His Life in Pictures and
Words in 1976 and was translated into many
languages.
Although in 1960 he had passed the work of administering
most German and foreign language rights in
his father’s published works (except English, Spanish,
and Portuguese) to the S. Fischer publishing house in
Frankfurt, by the mid-1960s Ernst Freud’s health was
failing and he was seeking someone to help him. At
this point the literary agent, Mark Paterson, was asked
by an American publisher to clear the rights in one of
Freud’s pre-analytic works. He contacted Anna Freud,
who referred him to her brother Ernst. The two men
met and warmed to each other immediately, and
Paterson was appointed as a consultant. Shortly after
Ernst’s death he took over as Director.
The company continued to thrive, promoting new
editions of Freud’s works and many more editions of
correspondences. The limited company became dormant
in 1987 but the name “Sigmund Freud Copyrights”
continues to be used as the collective name of
the literary heirs of Sigmund Freud and its affairs are
handled by Mark Paterson and Associates, 10 Brook
Street, Wivenhoe, Essex, GB-C07 9DS.
1601
SIGMUND FREUD INSTITUTE
This company also handles the works of many other
psychoanalysts, including those of Anna Freud, and in
conjunction with administering the Freud copyright,
maintains a small archive comprising letters and other
documents, many of them originals, relating to the
history of psychoanalysis.
THoMaS ROBERTS AND MARK PATERSON
See also: Freud, Anna; Freud, Ernst.
SIGMUND FREUD INSTITUTE
Located in Frankfurt, Germany, the Sigmund Freud
Institute is a state-supported research institute for psychoanalysis
and its various applications. Research
covers three broad areas: psychoanalytic therapy, foundations
of psychoanalysis, and psychoanalysis and
society; investigators target aspects of psychological
health and illness in the context of economic development,
and they study the theoretical and practical
bases of psychoanalysis. The institute’s psychoanalytically-
oriented psychotherapy clinic focuses on treatment
and research alike.
The institute is closely identified with its founder
and first director, Alexander Mitscherlich (1908-
1982). In the summer of 1956, Mitscherlich organized
a series of conferences at the Institut fiir Sozialforschung
(Institute for Social Research) with the
support of Max Horkheimer (1895-1973). With the
intention of restoring contacts with the international
psychoanalytic community, Mitscherlich invited the
participation of analysts who had left Germany prior
to the Second World War. Somewhat later, on April
27, 1960, the Institut und Ausbildungszentrum fur
Psychoanalyse und Psychosomatische Medizin (Institute
and Training Center for Psychoanalysis and
Psychosomatic Medicine) officially opened. After
moving to new quarters in West Frankfurt on
October 14, 1964, it was rechristened the Sigmund
Freud Institute.
Psychoanalysis originated in Frankfurt with the
Frankfurter Psychoanalytisches Institut, which opened
in 1929 but met an abrupt end when in 1933 the
National Socialists expelled its first director, Karl
Landauer, who would later to die at the Nazi concentration
camp at Bergen-Belsen. Heinrich Meng (1887-
1972), the institute’s second director, was forced to
1602
emigrate along with colleagues Frieda Fromm-Reichmann
(1889-1957), Erich Fromm (1900-1980), and
Siegmund Heinrich Fuchs (S.H. Foulkes, 1898-1976).
The considerable achievement of the Sigmund
Freud Institute under Mitscherlich’s direction was to
train new analysts with the help of analysts from
abroad and to mount and maintain a conceptual and
institutional forum for psychoanalysis in Germany.
During the Cold War, the Sigmund Freud Institute
became the most important psychoanalytic teaching
institute in West Germany; its training protocols conforming
to guidelines set by the German Psychoanalytic
Society (DPV/API).
In addition to Mitscherlich, who led the institute
from 1960 to 1976, its other directors include Clemens
de Boor (1976-1983), Hermann Argelander (acting
director, 1983-1985), Dieter Ohlmeier (1985-1992),
and Horst-Eberhard Richter. Since 1995, in addition
to providing treatment on an outpatient basis, the
institute has supported research and education programs.
The training of analysts, however, was transferred
from the Freud Institute to the newly-created
Frankfurter Psychoanalytische Institut in 1994. Werner
Bohleber became president of the Frankfurter Institut
in 1994.
The Sigmund Freud Institute, state supported and
independent of the university system, has greatly
contributed to reestablishing psychoanalysis in Germany,
with its unique dual role as a research center
and training institute. It has developed an original
approach to research projects and brought psychoanalytic
investigations to bear on questions of social
psychology.
MiIcHAEL LAIER
See also: Berliner Psychoanalytisches Institut; Foulkes
(Fuchs), Siegmund Heinrich; Germany; Goethe Prize;
Landauer, Karl; Meng, Heinrich; Mitscherlich, Alexander.
Bibliography
Bareuther, Herbert et al. (1989). Forschen und Heilen. Auf
dem Weg zu einer psychoanalytischen Hochschule, Beitrage
aus Anlass des 25 jahrigen Bestehens des Sigmund-Freud
Instituts. Frankfurt: Suhrkamp.
Kutter, Peter. Germany. In Psychoanalysis international: A
guide to psychoanalysis throughout the world. Vol. 1, Europe.
(p. 114-136) Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt: Frommann-
Holzboog.
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Mitscherlich, Alexander. (1980). Ein Leben fiir die Psychoanalyse,
Anmerkungen zu meiner Zeit. Frankfurt:
Suhrkamp.
Plankers, Thomas et al. (1996). Psychoanalyse in Frankfurt
am Main: Zerstorte Anfinge, Wiederanniherung, Entwicklungen.
Tubingen: Diskord.
SIGMUND FREUD MUSEUM
In 1971 in Vienna, with Anna Freud present at inaugural
ceremonies, the Sigmund Freud Museum opened
in Berggasse 19, the apartment house where Freud had
lived and worked from 1891 until 1938. Originally the
museum consisted of the rooms on the first floor (second
floor in American usage) that housed Freud’s
office; it subsequently expanded to include Anna
Freud’s consulting room and the family apartment,
which opened to the public in 1996. The Sigmund
Freud Museum, managed by the Sigmund Freud
Foundation, is private. It shares the bulk of Freud’s
legacy with the Freud Museum in London and the
Library of Congress in Washington, D.C.
Visitors enter the museum through the entrance hall
of the family’s private apartment. In the lobby that leads
to Freud’s office, the original wood paneling with bast
covering has been preserved; several of Freud’s belongings
are on display and his diplomas hang on the wall.
Freud’s patients and visitors entered his consulting
room from the waiting room, which was restored in
accordance with the memories of Anna Freud and
Paula Fichti, the Freud’s housekeeper. Furnishings,
donated by Anna Freud, comprise a wooden table,
three armchairs and a dark red couch. Objects from
her father’s collection of antiquities are also displayed
in a glass case, a selection that offers a sampling of
Freud’s taste and his passion for archeology. Some
bookcases have been replaced by pictures from Freud’s
scientific career.
Patients entered Freud’s offices through soundproof
padded double doors; his consulting room opened
onto a separate study. On the walls, photomontages by
Edmund Engelman, taken in 1938, show the way the
rooms were furnished just before Freud left Austria.
Beginning in the consulting room and continuing
through the study, documents and memorabilia line
the walls. Showcases include more items from Freud’s
collection of antiquities; first editions of his books and
offprints, some signed by him; handwritten inscriptions;
and various other documents and personal
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
SIGMUND Freup Museum
memorabilia. Photographs provide a visual and chronological
account of the founder of the psychoanalysis
from his birth and early childhood in Freiberg through
his decades in Vienna and the final months of his life
in London. Freud’s education, his cultural milieu and
personal relationships throughout his career are highlighted;
scenes from his private life, which Freud
attempted to keep strictly apart from his professional
life, are also on view.
In a media room located in an adjoining room, formerly
the kitchen, a documentary film, Freud 1930-
1939, features a commentary by Anna Freud, who
helped produce it just prior to her death. It includes
footage of Freud from 1930 to 1939 in Vienna, Paris,
and London with family, friends, and close collaborators.
The original print of the film remains at the Anna
Freud Center in London; the museum has exclusive
rights to its use in continental Europe. Another film,
by Philip R. Lehrman and Lynne Lehrman Weiner, Sigmund
Freud. His Family and Colleagues, 1928-1947,
finished in 1985, is also shown at the museum.
Anna Freud’s consulting room, dedicated in her
memory, opened in November 1992 on the occasion
of the tenth anniversary of her death; furniture from
the Freud family private apartments and part of Anna
Freud’s library are on view. A multipurpose room
(three former bedrooms) has been appointed for exhibitions
and lectures. A library, which opened in the
museum in 1991, has holdings of over 30,000 items,
the largest collection of its kind in Europe.
In 1996, the Sigmund Freud Museum celebrated its
twenty-fifth year; on this occasion, the new exhibition
room and lecture hall were inaugurated. Together with
the exhibition and lecture rooms they provide suitable
spaces for temporary exhibitions. In 2002, a show called
“Freud’s Lost Neighbors” was put on; it showed the history
of the residents of the house at Berggasse 19 from
1939 to the present. The Foundation for the Arts, Sigmund
Freud Museum Vienna, a collection of contemporary
art, has been on display in the exhibition rooms
since 1997; the theme is the relationship between psychoanalysis
and artistic production. In 2003, the
Museum opened another exhibition space on the
ground floor, with a display window facing the street.
This is used for the mounting of art installations.
INGRID SCHOLZ-STRASSER
See also: Austria; Berggasse 19, Wien IX.
1603
SIGNAL ANXIETY
SIGNAL ANXIETY
In the Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality, written
in 1905, Sigmund Freud saw the anxiety of separation
as a special case of anxiety based on the phenomenon
of “unused libido.” The absence of the mother (due to
separation) prevented the infant from binding its
affects to the maternal representation and it was these
affects, together with their libidinal energy, that were
transformed into anxiety. Otto Rank (1924) saw anxiety
as rooted in the trauma of birth, which constitutes
the quintessential separation experience (biologically,
in fantasy, etc.).
In Inhibitions, Symptoms and Anxiety (Freud, 1926d
[1925]), which, to a large extent, is a response to the
position taken by Otto Rank two years earlier, Freud
developed the theory of signal anxiety, which represents
a kind of evolutionary progress since it involves anticipatory
behavior. The infant no longer experiences anx1-
ety when faced with the loss of an object but when faced
with the fear of the loss of love from the object. There
Freud developed different models of anxiety that, rather
than being mutually exclusive, probably refer to different
types of anxiety and different maturational steps. The
conceptual transition from automatic anxiety to signal
anxiety involves a profound reworking of his thinking
about repression. In the case of automatic anxiety Freud
made anxiety a direct consequence of repression.
Repression, by ejecting the instinctual representation
from consciousness, leaves a certain amount of libido
unused, which is immediately transformed into anxiety.
“One of the most important results of psycho-analytic
research is this discovery that neurotic anxiety arises out
of libido, that it is the product of a transformation of it,
and that it is thus related to it in the same kind of way
that vinegar is to wine” (1905d, note of 1920). When
discussing signal anxiety, repression is no longer the origin
but the consequence of the anxiety.
When an instinctual representation becomes dangerous,
threatening, or guilt-ridden, it gives rise to
anxiety within the ego, leading to repression. Anxiety
now serves to alert the subject to the dangers associated
with the possible separation and is no longer
simply the expression of an instantaneous and automatic
anxiety reaction to loss or separation.
BERNARD GOLSE
See also: Anxiety.
1604
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1905d). Three essays on the theory of
sexuality. SE, 7: 130-243.
. (1926d). Inhibitions, symptoms, and anxiety. SE,
20: 87-172.
Rank, Otto. (1924). The trauma of birth. Reprinted, with a
new introduction by E. James Lieberman. New York:
Dover Press, 1993.
SIGNIFIER
As it is understood today, the notion of the signifier is
attributed to Ferdinand de Saussure, founder of linguistics
and semiology and author of the influential
Course of General Linguistics (1907/1960). For Saussure,
the linguistic sign was a mental entity with two
aspects: the signified (the “concept”) and the signifier
(the mental impression of the sound). The relationship
between these two aspects, which Saussure compared
to the recto and verso of a sheet of paper, was
considered “arbitrary” in that what linked signifier to
signified was merely a convention: the signifier “sister”
and the signifier “soeur,’ for instance, both refer
to the same signified element, even though they
belong to two different linguistic systems. At the same
time, signifier and signified were connected syntagmatically
and paradigmatically, and these connections—
and not the designation of a referent or
external object—were the basis of the meaning of
statements. In the wake of Saussure, structural linguistics
from Roman Jakobson to Emile Benveniste
built extensively on his work. This account of the
structure of the sign supplied the chief algorithm of
the science of semiology, whose mandate was to assess
and decipher all the sign systems generated by a given
society, linguistics being merely a part of this whole—
and a model for it.
Critical thinking about the signifier centered at first
on what was called the priority of the signifier relative
to the signified. Inasmuch as the material nature of
signifiers was highly diverse (including sounds,
images, objects, text, and so on), semiology opened
onto all fields of expression—art, fashion, discourse—
to the point where it came to be defined as the science
of the signifier, or rather, of signifying practices (Kristeva).
Claude Lévi-Strauss’s structural anthropology is
a magisterial demonstration of this linguistics-inspired
approach.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
In psychoanalysis, Jacques Lacan, invoking both
Freud and Saussure, as well as linguistic and anthropological
structuralism, took the discussion beyond the
signifier to what he called “the signifying chain.”
Deeming that “the unconscious is structured like a
language,” Lacan borrowed the methodology and
operating concepts of Saussurian linguistics and
applied them in an idiosyncratic way to psychoanalysis.
In his view the discovery of the unconscious coincided
with the discovery of a subject whose position,
decentered (or “ex-centric”) relative to consciousness,
was established solely by virtue of the retroactive
operation of certain signifiers. Accordingly, the definition
of the signifier as a component in a signifying
chain was worked out on the basis of three notions:
¢ Vacillation: The signifier can fulfill its purpose of
engendering meaning only by ceding its place to
another signifier with which it is linked in the
chain of signifiers.
e The subject: Located nowhere before the advent
of the signifier, nor anywhere outside the signifier,
the subject receives its place from the signifier,
yet can occupy its own place only as a
function of the lack whose place a signifier fills;
the subject thus becomes the extra signifier that
supports enunciation as it proceeds. This is the
basis of Lacan’s formula according to which the
order of the signifier is founded on the fact that
“a signifier is what represents a subject to another
signifier” (Ecrits).
¢ The object: The object is that towards which discourse
qua desire is directed; it governs the signifying
chain and its operation. The object of
enunciation too is always decentered relative to
the one designated by an utterance. That object is
also always lacking, for the subject is never finished
with the work of signifying that desire
entails. For Lacan, that work is orthonormal,
both vertically by virtue of metaphor (condensation
or substitution of signifiers), and horizontally
by virtue of metonymy (displacement or
contiguity of signifiers).
The idea of the signifier is cardinal in Lacan’s theory,
determining as it does the very definition of the
unconscious, of the subject, of the oedipal law, of castration,
and of desire. It lies at the intersection ofsa
reformulation of the Oedipus complex conceived of as
the subjugation of the subject to the law (of language)
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
SIGNIFIER
and a consideration specific to Lacan (and only hinted
at by Freud) of the effects of speech on the subject as
revealed by analysis. To say that the unconscious is a
“signifying chain” is the same thing as saying that the
“symbolic function” is what superimposes the rule of
culture (Oedipus) on the rule of nature. The Other
was viewed by Lacan from the outset as the logical
empty place where the laws of language and speech are
laid down; he described the Other as a “treasure trove
of signifiers.” The fact remains that Lacan’s system
retained aspects not subsumed by the linguistic realm:
the “subject” (of the unconscious) qua “signifier
effect,” the object of desire as alien to the sphere of
need and even to that of demand, desire as inseparable
from speech effects. This independent realm of the
signifier was anchored to that “pure signifier,’ the
Name-of-the-Father: the three clinical categories of
neurosis, psychosis, and perversion were viewed as
three possible variants of the relationship of the subject
of the unconscious to this paternal signifier. Later
in his work, Lacan would in fact insist that his teaching
was not akin to linguistics; before his final “knot”
theory, he proposed an account of “the letter” as an
element linking the three orders of the Real, the
Imaginary, and the Symbolic—as distinct from his
first theory of the signifier, which seemed to concern
itself solely with the order of the Symbolic.
Saussure’s account of the structure of the sign (signifier/
signified) and Lacan’s thinking on the signifier
prompted a philosophical critique of the notion of the
signifier that took Freud’s idea of “facilitation” as its
starting-point and developed the concept of “trace”
(Derrida). The resulting deconstruction of the Saussurian
sign led in turn to the deconstruction of metaphysics
and opened up the question of the truth of
meaning from the point of view of Derrida’s “grammatology’—
a perspective of distinct relevance to
psychoanalytical interpretation. In the light of psychoanalytical
discourse, though also in that of poetic
language, Julia Kristeva has suggested another way of
understanding the Saussurian signifier: first, in
“semiotic” terms, taking into account the infralinguistic
indications of the drive, as discernible in the language
of poetry and also in the discourse of psychotic
or depressed patients—indications excluded from the
realm of the signifier as understood by Lacan; and, secondly,
in “symbolic” terms, opening up the dimension
of signs and syntax.
JULIA KRISTEVA
1605
SIGNIFIER/SIGNIFIED
See also: Economic point of view; Intergenerational;
Linguistics and psychoanalysis; Sense/nonsense; Signifier/
signified; Symbol; Symbolism; Thing-presentation;
Word-presentation.
Bibliography
Derrida, Jacques. (1974). Of grammatology (Gayatri Chakravorty
Spivak, Trans.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins. (Original
work published 1967)
Kristeva, Julia. (1974). La Révolution du langage poétique.
LAvant-garde a la fin du dix-neuvieme siecle—Lautréamont
et Mallarmé. Paris: Seuil.
Lacan, Jacques. (2002). Ecrits: A selection (Bruce Fink,
Trans.). New York: Norton. (Original work published
1966)
Saussure, Ferdinand de. (1960). Course in general linguistics
(Wade Baskin, Trans.). London: Peter Owen. (Original
work published 1907)
SIGNIFIER/SIGNIFIED
A signifier, an element of language, is a material representation
of a linguistic sign. In psychoanalysis, it is a
phonemic sequence of the discourse that intervenes in
conscious and unconscious processes to determine the
subject engaged in the discourse. A signified is the idea
or concept associated with a signifier, which together
constitute the linguistic sign.
These elements, which come from Ferdinand de
Saussure’s linguistic theory, were introduced and problematized
in the field of psychoanalysis by Jacques
Lacan during his “return to Freud” phase in early
1950s. Lacan relied on the following main points of
Saussure’s structural model. The linguistic sign, which
belongs to language, establishes a relationship between
an acoustic wave form, or signifier, and a concept, or
signified (Figure 1).
The directed and temporal sequence of an articulation
presupposes the division of language into two
axes: the syntagmatic axis, which refers to a system of
speech as a system of signs capable of being combined
and concatenated, and the paradigmatic axis, which
refers to a system of language as a system of signs
selected and substituted for particular meanings.
A sign taken in isolation does not define a meaning:
a signifier can refer to several signifieds. Each sign thus
gains its value by being placed in the context of other
1606
FIGURE 1
signified
signifier
concept
acoustic image
signs. The “break” between a flow of sounds and a
flow of thought associates the signifier with a signified.
Freud’s definition of psychoanalysis as a treatment
through speech led Lacan to propose that the “unconscious
[is] structured like a language.” This theory,
advanced and developed on the basis of Freud’s work,
led Lacan to assign to the signifier and to the structure
of language a fundamental role in the unconscious
processes of the speaking subject.
At the level of the primary processes, Lacan posited
an analogy between condensation and metaphor, as a
substitution of meaning, and between displacement
and metonymy, as a connection in meaning. At the
level of the expressions of the unconscious, the elaboration
of symptoms appears to be analogous to the
mechanisms of metaphor, while witticisms and slips of
the tongue appear to be analogous to metaphorical
condensation and/or metonymic displacement.
The dynamic of desire in the speaking subject is
expressed in an indefinite sequence of signifiers operating
metonymically. However, this notion only holds
because Lacan transformed Saussure’s definition of the
linguistic sign and, more specifically, that of the signifier
in the structure of language. He referred to this as
his “linguisteria” (linguistérie).
Analysis of the neuroses, the structure of unconscious
formations, and the discourse of psychotics led
Lacan to believe that the signifier is autonomous and
dominant over the signified, which he symbolized as
shown in Figure 2.
The bar that separates S from s shows the relationship
between the subject and the language. The subject
is thus subordinated to signifiers, without always having
access to the meaning that they delimit. This is
seen clearly in psychotic discourse, which unleashes
the signifier.
The primacy of the signifier implies that signifieds
draw their coherence only from a network of signifiers.
The relationship between signifier and signified can
come undone at any time. Lacan replaced Saussure’s
“break” (coupure), Saussure’s correspondence between
the flow of signifiers and the flow of signifieds, with
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
FIGURE 2
Signifier
signified
the point de capiton (literally, “quilting stitch”), the
operation that stops the indefinite slippage of meaning
by making a deferred limitation.
The logic of the signifier thus defined by Lacan calls
for a change in how the unconscious processes are
analyzed. Lacan focused on how the unconscious
expresses itself in the patient’s language, as revealed
through meter, punctuation, and interpretative breaks.
Within this logic, certain signifiers, such as “phallus”,
“Name-of-the-Father”, and “lack in the Other’, are
invested with a fundamental metapsychological value.
JoEL Dor
See also: Blank/nondelusional psychoses;Cinema and
psychoanalysis; Displacement; Ego ideal/ideal ego; Fantasy,
formula of; Feminine sexuality; Feminism and psychoanalysis;
Foreclosure; Formations of the unconscious;
Four discourses; Graph of Desire; Imaginary identification/
symbolic identification; Infans; Jouissance (Lacan);
Letter, the; Literature and psychoanalysis; Matheme;
Metaphor; Metonymy; Monism; Mother goddess; Nameof-
the-Father; Negation; Object a; Other, the; Parade of
the signifier; Phallus; Philosophy and psychoanalysis;
Phobias in children; Phobic neurosis; Psychoses, chronic
and delusional; Real, the (Lacan); Schizophrenia; Sexuation,
formulas of; Signifier; Signifying chain; Slips of the
tongue; Splitting of the subject; Structuralism and
psychoanalysis; Subject; Subject of the unconscious;
Subject’s castration; Symbolic, the (Lacan); Symptom/
sinthome; Thing, the; Topology; Unary trait.
Bibliography
Dor, Joél. (1997). Introduction to the reading of Lacan: The
unconscious structured like a language. Northvale, N.J.:
J. Aronson.
Lacan, Jacques. (2002). The function and field of speech and
language in psychoanalysis. In his Ecrits: A selection (Bruce
Fink, Trans.). New York: W. W. Norton. (Original work
published 1953.)
. (1993). The seminar of Jacques Lacan (Book 3:
The psychoses). (Russell Grigg, Trans.). New York: W. W.
Norton. (Original work published 1955-1956)
Saussure, Ferdinand de. (1986). Course in general linguistics
(Roy Harris, Trans.). LaSalle, IL: Open Court. (Original
work published 1915)
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
SIGNIFYING CHAIN
SIGNIFYING CHAIN
Inspired by the notion of facilitation, which was central
to Freud’s description of the functioning of the
psychic apparatus, Jacques Lacan defined the signifying
chain as an association and combination of signifiers,
connected in diverse ways, like the “links by
which a necklace firmly hooks onto a link of another
necklace made of links” (Lacan, 2002a, p. 145). The
unconscious activity of desire is expressed through the
associative and combinatory links of the signifier and
is repeated in a kind of succession that sets up a chain
reaction.
The signifying chain originates in the process of primal
repression, during which the Name-of-the-Father
signifiers are substituted for the signifier of the desire for
the mother. From then on, conscious and unconscious
signifiers are woven together through metonymy and
metaphor, the two functions that generate signifieds.
The signifying chain has only one destiny: to insert
the subject’s unconscious desire in the subject’s utterances.
Thus it constitutes the design and the weave of
the speaking subject’s psychic fabric. More generally, it
is involved in all psychic causality.
JozL Dor
See also: Four discourses; Graph of Desire; Infantile, the;
Letter, the; Matheme; Psychic causality; Signifier; Symptom,
sinthome; Unary trait.
Bibliography
Lacan Jacques. (1993). The seminar of Jacques Lacan. Book 3:
The psychoses, 1955-1956 (Russell Grigg, Trans.) New
York: W. W. Norton.
. (2002a). Ecrits: A selection (Bruce Fink, Trans.)
New York: W. W. Norton.
. (2002b). The function and field of speech and language
in psychoanalysis. In his Ecrits: A selection (Bruce
Fink, Trans.) New York: W. W. Norton. (Original work
published 1953)
. (2002c). The instance of the letter in the unconscious,
or reason since Freud. In his Ecrits: A selection
(Bruce Fink, Trans.) New York: W. W. Norton. (Original
work published 1957)
. (2002d). The subversion of the subject and the dialectic
of desire in the Freudian unconcsious. In his Ecrits: A
selection (Bruce Fink, Trans.) New York: W. W. Norton.
(Original work published 1960)
1607
SILBERER, HERBERT (1882-1923)
SILBERER, HERBERT (1882-1923)
Austrian psychoanalyst Herbert Silberer was born on
February 28, 1882, in Vienna, where he ended his life
by suicide on January 12, 1923.
Victor Silberer, his father, was a self-made man who
ran a sports newspaper and a publishing house. A
sportsman himself, Herbert was one of the pioneers of
Austro-Hungarian aeronautics. He came to psychoanalysis
self-taught, with a view to resolving his personal
conflicts.
After receiving Silberer’s observations on the intermediary
stages between waking and sleep, Freud
advised Jung (July 19, 1909) to publish the paper,
remarking, “Silberer is an unknown young man, probably
a better-class degenerate; his father is a wellknown
figure in Vienna, a member of the city council
and an ‘operator.’ But his piece is good and throws
light on an aspect of dream work” (p. 242).
In 1909, Silberer’s “Report on a Method of Eliciting
and Observing Certain Symbolic Hallucination-
Phenomena” was published in the second volume of the
newly launched Jahrbuch; it eventually appeared in
English (Silberer 1951). In this article, Silberer described
the hypnagogic states and explained the formation
of symbols as revealing affects and emotions in a
“functional” way and personalizing various states characteristic
of the dreamer’s psychic processes. In “On
Narcissism: An Introduction” (1914c), Freud wrote that
this was “one of the few indisputably valuable additions
to the theory of dreams,” adding that Silberer had “thus
demonstrated the part played by observation—in the
sense of the paranoiac’s delusions of being watched—in
the formation of dreams” (p. 97).
In October 1910, Silberer became a member of the
Vienna Psychoanalytic Society. Articles published over
the next several years showed Silberer’s increasing
interest in esotericism and mysticism. Freud recognized
his contributions to symbolism, as did Wilhelm
Stekel, with whom Silberer would maintain a close
relationship after the latter’s rupture with Freud.
Silberer’s major work, Problems of Mysticism and Its
Symbolism, published in 1914 and translated into English
three years later, distinguished Freud’s views on
the dream from his own. Freud criticized his concept
of “anagogic” interpretation, describing the evolution
of dreams during treatment toward more general and
universal symbolization, and he also noted Silberer’s
1608
deemphasis of sexuality and tendency to rationalize.
Similarly, Ernest Jones wrote to Freud (February 8,
1911), “As to Silberer, I don’t know what to make of
him. He seems to be badly infected by the philosophic
virus.” Jones subsequently elaborated still stronger criticism
of Silberer in his 1916 paper on “The Theory of
Symbolism.” Although it left Freudian colleagues more
than skeptical, Silberer’s comparison of transference to
the alchemical reactions between male and female elements
in nature inspired both Theodor Flournoy and,
in particular, Carl G. Jung.
With Wilhelm Stekel and Samuel Tannenbaum, Silberer
directed a review published in the United States,
Psyche and Eros. Despite resigning after the publication
grew increasingly hostile to Freud and psychoanalysis,
his association with the journal further damaged his
relations with the Vienna Society. Paul Roazen (1976)
published a letter of Freud dated April 17, 1922: “Most
Honored Sir, I ask you not to make your intended visit
to me. After my observations and impressions of
recent years I no longer desire personal contact with
you.” Roazen believes this letter was addressed to Silberer
and became one of the motives for his suicide
nine months later. Bernd Nitzschke (1989) does not
share Roazen’s conviction; based on the obituary by
Stekel (1924), he believes the letter was addressed to
Silberer’s father, Viktor. In fact, Stekel, who was sur-
‘prised by Silberer’s suicide, stressed the Vienna
Society’s unfavorable reaction to his lecture on dreams
on November 1, 1922.
Forty years after his death, Carl G. Jung wrote: “Herbert
Silberer has the merit of being the first to discover
the secret threads that lead from alchemy to the psychology
of the unconscious” (Jung, 1955-57, p. 792).
ALAIN DE MIJOLLA
See also: Alchemy; Anagogical interpretation; Functional
phenomenon; Representability.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1914c). On narcissism: an introduction.
SE, 14: 67-102.
mae (1993 [1908-39]). The complete correspondence of
Sigmund Freud and Ernest Jones,1908-1939. Cambridge,
MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
Jones, Ernest. (1961 [1916]). The theory of symbolism. In
Papers on psychoanalysis. Boston: Beacon Press.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Jung, Carl Gustav. (1955-57). Mysterium Conjunctionis. An
Inquiry into the separation and synthesis of psychic opposites
in alchemy. Coll. Works, Vol. 14, London, Routledge &
Kegan Paul .
Nitzschke, Bernd. (1989). Freud et Herbert Silberer.
Hypotheses concernant les destinataire d’une lettre de
Freud de 1922. Revue internationale d’histoire de la psychanalyse,
2, 267-277.
- (1989). Freud und Fechner. Einige Anmerkungen
zu den psychoanalytischen Konzepten “Lustprinzip” und
“Todestrieb.” In Freud un die akademische Psychologie.
Beitrage zu einer historischen Kontroverse. Munich: Psychologie
Verlagsunion.
Roazen, Paul. (1976). Freud and his followers. New York:
Alfred A.Knopf.
Silberer, Herbert. (1917). Problems of mysticism and its symbolism.
New York: Moffat, Yard.
. (1951). Report on a method of eliciting and observing
certain symbolic hallucination-phenomena. In Rapaport,
David. Organization and pathology of thought.
Selected sources. New York: Columbia University Press.
Stekel, Wilhelm. (1924). In memoriam Herbert Silberer. Fortschritte
der Sexualwissenschaft und Psychoanalyse, 1, 408—
420.
SILBERSTEIN, EDUARD (1856-1925)
Eduard Silberstein, an intimate friend of Freud’s when
he was an adolescent and young adult, was born on
December 27, 1856, in Iasi, then the capital of Romania,
and died in Braila, Romania, in 1925. Freud’s
eighty extant letters to Silberstein, part of their steady
correspondence from 1871 to 1881, have been preserved
and published.
His father, Osias Silberstein, was a prosperous merchant,
Orthodox Jew, and father of four. He sent
Eduard and his brother Adolf to a local heder, but they
soon rebelled against the narrowly religious education.
Eduard then pursued his studies in Vienna, where he
was one of Freud’s classmates in the gymnasium. They
were friends by 1870.
Tongue in cheek, Freud and Silberstein founded a
secret “Spanish Academy” (Academia castellana), of
which they were the sole members. In correspondence
Freud often signed using the nickname “Cipion, dog of
the hospital at Seville”; Silberstein was “Berganza,”
another canine hero from Cervantes’s Exemplary Stories.
Freud’s letters paint a lively picture of Freud’s adolescence:
the two students’ academic worries, readings,
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
SILBERSTEIN, Enuarpo (1856-1925)
and early infatuations with girls. During the summer
of 1871, when Freud was fifteen, Silberstein and Freud
went to Freiberg, where Freud had a very brief meeting
with Gisela Fluss, a girl almost twelve years old. This
encounter was important enough to Freud that he
recalled it while writing “Screen Memories” (1899a)
and again in a slip of the pen in preparing his “Notes
on a Case of Obsessional Neurosis” (1909d, p. 209).
During his first stay in Great Britain in 1875, at the
Manchester home of his half-brothers Emanuel and
Philipp, and during his stay in Trieste, Italy, at the
experimental zoological station, Freud confided to Silberstein
his impressions, youthful desires, and ambitions.
Freud’s last preserved letter to Silberstein dates
to January 1881, when Freud was preparing to receive
his medical diploma.
On February 7, 1884, Freud wrote to his fiancée,
“We became friends at a time when one doesn’t look
upon friendship as a sport or an asset, but when one
needs a friend with whom to share things. We used to
be together literally every hour of the day that was not
spent on the school bench.... [We] compiled a great
mass of humorous work which must still exist somewhere
among my old papers” (1960a [1873-1939], pp.
96-97). Those papers probably disappeared in the fire
of April 1885.
As for Silberstein, after his exams he left for Leipzig
to study jurisprudence, later moving to Vienna, where
in 1875 he attended classes in law and Franz Brentano’s
lectures on philosophy. He took his doctorate in law in
1879, but would never practice. After a reversal in his
family’s financial situation, he was compelled to work
in banking, then in the grain trade.
Silberstein’s first marriage, with Pauline Theiler,
ended sadly. According to his granddaughter Rosita
Braunstein Vieyra, this young woman “became mentally
ill, was treated unsuccessfully by his friend Sigmund
Freud, and threw herself from a window in
Freud’s apartment building” (Freud, 1989a [1871-
1881, 1910], p. 192). By other accounts, published at
the time of the incident in 1891, she did not actually
see Freud before committing suicide. Silberstein subsequently
remarried and had a daughter, Theodora.
A socialist, Silberstein, together with fellow student
Heinrich Braun, initiated Freud into social-democratic
politics. Throughout his life Silberstein was politically
active and played an important role in the Jewish
community, fighting for the right of Jews to become
1609
SILENCE
Romanian citizens and for their right to vote. He was
president of the Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society, the
Alliance Israélite universelle, and B’nai Brith.
Three years after Silberstein’s death, Freud recalled
him a final time in a letter to the president of B'nai
Brith in Braila: “I was deeply touched to learn of the
honor your Lodge has bestowed on my late childhood
friend, Dr. Eduard Silberstein. I spent many years of
my boyhood and young manhood in intimate friendship,
indeed in fraternal fellowship, with him. ... Later,
life and physical distance separated us, but early
friendship can never be forgotten” (1989a [1871—1881,
1910], p. 186).
ALAIN DE MIOLLA
See also: Fechner, Gustav Theodor; Fluss, Gisela; Freud,
Sigmund (siblings); Vienna, Freud’s secondary school in;
Vienna, University of.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1899a). Screen memories. SE, 3: 299-322.
. (1909d). Notes on a case of obsessional neurosis
(“the rat man”). SE, 10: 151-318.
. (1960a [1873-1939]). Letters of Sigmund Freud
(Tania Stern and James Stern, Trans.) New York: Basic
Books.
. (1989a [1871-1881, 1910]). Letters of Sigmund
Freud to Eduard Silberstein, 1871-1881 (Arnold J. Pomerans,
Trans.) Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press,
1990.
SILENCE
Silence in the course of an analytical session, whether
it comes from the patient or the analyst, has constantly
posed problems for the theorists of psychoanalytical
technique.
According to certain authors, silence is to be interpreted
as a resistance (Karl Abraham, Sandor Ferenczi,
Sigmund Freud, Wilhelm Reich, Otto Fenichel, Anna
Freud, Stephen Weissman). Edward Glover was the
first to emphasize the counter-transferential positions
involved in it, and noted the role of the super-ego. Karl
Abraham, Sandor Ferenczi, Edmund Bergler, Ella
Sharpe, Robert Fliess and Kata Levy make of it a particular
mode of instinctual expression, while Rudolph
Loewenstein and Leo S. Loomie approach it as the
1610
translation of a distortion of the ego. Silence has also
been studied as an object relation by Jacob Arlow
(defense or discharge) and by Ralph Greenson (resistance
or communication), as an object relation properly
speaking (Carel Van der Heide, Meyer A. Zeligs)
and as a particular mode of object choice (Robert
Barande).
According to Freud (“The Dynamics of Transference.”
1912b, p. 101): “Ifa patient’s free associations fail,
the stoppage can invariably be removed by an assurance
that he is being dominated at the moment by an association
which is concerned with the doctor himself or with
something concerned with him. As soon as this explanation
is given, the stoppage is removed, or the situation is
changed from one in which the associations fail into one
in which they are being kept back.” And elsewhere, in
“The Theme of the Three Caskets” (1913f, p. 295): “in
dreams dumbness is a common representation of
death.” He also says in “Remembering, Repeating and
Working-Through” (1914g, p. 150) that when the
patient “is silent and declares that nothing occurs to
him,” this, “of course, is merely a repetition of a homosexual
attitude which comes to the fore as a resistance
against remembering anything,” while Sophie Morgenstern,
in “A Case of Psychogenous Muteness” (1927),
gave us the first work known in France to use drawing,
in place of speaking, as a method of child analysis.
Other authors have added to these views: silence is
“a state of restoration of primary narcissism, it is the
realization of desire” enabling one to “re-experience
narcissistic omnipotence” (Pierre Luquet, Béla Grunberger),
or a sign of “good maternal care that provides
the ego with a silent but vital support” (Donald W.
Winnicott). The sense of the ego’s inability to mask
instincts from the super-ego in discourse may explain
the very frequent silences that are encountered in child
therapy. In the analytical couple, of whatever kind,
“the support of the amorous exchange as the patient
lives it is indeed silence [...] It’s within the crucible of
the therapist’s silence that the patient’s spoken words
will be revealed as fantasy” (Robert Barande).
Luisa de Urtubey, in her report on the “work of the
counter-transference” (1994), sets out the theories of a
great number of authors who discuss silence. For her,
“silence—as well as speech, its interpretations, its
emphases, the links it weaves—is the expression of
counter-transference in this analytical space and at this
precise moment.” Pearl Lombard expresses an aptitude
for the silent maternal counter-transference: “speech is
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
> silver, silence is golden” (“The Silence of the Mother,
or: Twenty Years Later”, 1986). She remarks that “a
succession of images wells up in the analyst’s mind as
she or he accompanies a silent patient: astonishment,
anxious questioning, an experience of depression and
an obligation to imagine if we are to survive, but also
if our patients are to survive psychologically. There are
long periods in which the exchange between patient
and analyst, although it is very intense, happens in
both directions, in the mysterious depth of silence.
The way these analyses evolve depends to a large extent
on the existence of counter-transferential movements
that are sufficiently intense to arouse representations
of highly personal images or things, related to the analyst’s
narcissism—representations that can invigorate
the treatment only insofar as they can be linked and
bound to a moment in the patient’s history, either in
narrative form, or in the shape of images visualized on
the basis of that narrative. Thus the vital bridge
between word representations and thing representations
is created or recreated in the analyst himself or
herself. This bridge is highlighted by interpretation,
the invigorating effect of which fulfils the silence and
makes it speak.”
The evaluation of “silence” is possible only if each
case—patient and analyst—is taken on its merits.
PEARL LOMBARD
See also: “Fragment of an Analysis of a Case of Hysteria”
(Dora/Ida Bauer); Listening; Nacht, Sacha Emanoel;
Stone, Leo.
Bibliography
Barande, Robert. (1989). Parcours d’un psychanalyste, son
esthétique et son éthique. Paris: Pro-Edi.
Freud, Sigmund. (1912b). The dynamics of transference. SE,
12: 97-108.
. (1913f). The theme of the three caskets. SE, 12:
289-301.
. (1914g). Remembering, repeating and workingthrough
(Further recommendations on the technique of
psycho-analysis II). SE, 12: 145-156.
Green, André. (1979). Le silence du psychanalyste. Topique,
23, p. 5-25.
Lombard, Pearl. (1986). Le silence de la mere ou vingt ans
apres. Bulletin de la Société de psychanalyse de Paris, 9, p.
33-48.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Simmec, Ernst (1882-1947)
Nasio, Jean-David. (1987). Le Silence en psychanalyse. Paris:
Rivages.
Urtubey, Luisa de. (1994). Le travail de contre-transfert. Bulletin
de la Société de psychanalyse de Paris, 31, p. 147-148.
SIMMEL, ERNST (1882-1947)
Neurologist and psychoanalyst Ernst Simmel was born
on April 4, 1882, in Breslau, Germany (now Wroclaw,
Poland) and died in Los Angeles on November 11,
1947.
From a Jewish background, Simmel was the youngest
of nine children. His father, Siegfried, was a banker;
his mother, Johanna, managed an employment agency
for domestic servants.
After studying medicine and psychiatry in Berlin
and Rostock, Simmel received his medical degree in
1908; his dissertation concerned the psychogenic etiology
of dementia praecox. Early in his career he worked
as a general practitioner in Berlin. During World War
I, however, he served as military doctor and chief of a
hospital for psychiatric battle casualties in Posen.
There he introduced the use of psychodynamic principles;
at the time, he was still self-taught in psychoanalysis.
Returning to Berlin after the war, Simmel underwent
a didactic analysis with Karl Abraham in 1919.
Together with Abraham and Max Eitington, he helped
establish the Berlin Psychoanalytic Institute in 1920.
He served as president of the Berlin Psychoanalytic
Society from 1926 to 1930, and founded and served as
chief physician of the Tegel sanatoriumat Schloss
Tegel, outside Berlin, in 1927. The sanatorium, the
first ever designed to employ psychoanalytic principles
in treating patients who might benefit from observation,
went bankrupt and closed in 1931.
In 1910, Simmel married Alice Seckelson, and the
couple would have two sons. In 1929 he married his
second wife, Hertha Briggemann.
Simmel, a liberal who had helped to found the
Society of Socialist Physicians and served as its president
from 1924 to 1933, ran afoul of Nazi authorities
soon after Hitler came to power in 1933. Emigrating to
the United States in 1934, he moved to Los Angeles
after a brief period at the Topeka Psychoanalytic Institute.
He was instrumental in founding the Los Angeles
Psychoanalytic Institute soon after the Second World
1611
SKIN
War; he also helped establish the San Francisco Psychoanalytic
Society, and served as its first president.
Simmel published both clinical and theoretical
papers. On the Psychoanalysis of War Neuroses (1921)
became a classic. His 1927 lecture at the Innsbruck
Congress on the use of psychoanalytic principles in
treating institutionalized patients was also highly original.
A major theoretical contribution is “Self-Preservation
and the Death Instinct,’ published in 1944.
Another significant contribution to theory was Simmel’s
hypothesis concerning the existence of pre-oedipal
anal libido, germane to certain psychosomatic and
psychotic disorders. These ideas would find resonance
in the work of Melanie Klein, Wilfred Bion, and
Donald Meltzer.
Simmel also published some thirty original works on
social issues, clinical problems, and matters of mental
health policy. He is important both as a founder of the
institutions noted above and for establishing a place for
psychoanalysis in health care and suggesting its applications
to clinical medicine. Many of his works concern
psychosomatic medicine, including his “Uber die Psychogenese
von Organst6rungen und ihre psychoanalytische
Behandlung” (The Psychogenesis of Organic Disturbances
and Their Psychoanalytic treatment”) from
1931. He edited the anthology Anti-Semitism. A Social
Disease, published in 1946. Psychoanalyse und ihre
Anwendungen [Psychoanalysis and its applications], a
collection of numerous abstracts, lectures, and unpublished
manuscripts, appeared in 1993.
LuDGER M. HERMANNS
ULLRICH SCHULTZ- VENRATH
See also: Alcoholism; Berliner Psychoanalytische Poliklinik;
Berliner Psychoanalytisches Institut; Christians and
Jews: A Psychoanalytical Study; First World War: The
effect on the development of psychoanalysis; Germany;
Indications and contraindications for psychoanalysis for
an adult; “Lines of Advance in Psycho-Analytic Therapy’;
Money and psychoanalytic treatment; Racism,
antisemitism, and psychoanalysis; Relaxation principle
and neo-catharsis; Technique with adults, psychoanalytic;
Tegel (Schloss Tegel); War neurosis.
Bibliography
Peck, John S. (1966). Ernst Simmel: psychoanalytic pioneering
in California. In F Alexander, S. Eisenstein, M.
Grotjahn (Eds.), Psychoanalytic pioneers. New York: Basic
Books.
1612
Simmel, Ernst. (1921). On the psychoanalysis and the war
neuroses. London: International Psychoanalytic Press.
. (1931). Uber die Psychogenese von Organstorungen
und ihre psychoanalytische Behandlung. In Report on
the sixth general medical congress for psychotherapy (p. 56—
65; 251-260). Leipzig: Hirzel.
. (1937). The psychoanalytic sanitarium and the psychoanalytic
movement. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 1,
133-143.
. (1944). Self-preservation and the death instinct.
Pyschoanalytic Quarterly, 13, 160-185.
. (1946). Anti-Semitism: A social disease. New York:
International Universities Press.
. (1993). Psychoanalyse und ihre Anwendungen.
Frankfurt-am-Main: S. Fischer.
SKIN
The skin is of interest to psychoanalysis because it is
anaclitically related to narcissism, because it is an erotogenic
zone, and because it is the object of particular
kinds of assaults. Manifestly, the skin is a potential vector
for the main instincts (attachment, libido, destructive
impulses).
At the end of the first essay of Three Essays on the
Theory of Sexuality (1905d), in connection with his
notion of polymorphous component instincts, Freud
treated the skin as an erotogenic zone specifically excitable
by the sadism/masochism “pair of opposites,” in
contrast with the eyes, which he conceived of as the
bodily seat of the voyeurism/exhibitionism antithesis.
Later, in his paper “ ‘A Child Is Being Beaten” (1919e),
he described and analyzed the basic scene in masochism:
an active adult beats a passive child, while
another child bears silent witness to the event.
The skin has a particular place in the evolution of
living beings: while the husk characterizes the vegetable
realm and the membrane the animal realm, the
skin is peculiar to vertebrates. In the development of
the embryo in vertebrates, the ectoderm gives rise to
both the skin and the cortex, so that the skin is in a
sense the surface of the brain. The structure of the skin
is complex in that it is a sense organ that contains the
other sense organs. It comprises several interlocked
layers of greatly varied structures. The skin and the
sense organs that it envelops constitute an interface
ensuring the individual’s contact with the outside
world. Like most outer coverings or membranes, the
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
skin has a twofold nature: it is a protective shield and
it facilitates the communication of meanings. Freud
mentioned this nature in his discussion of the “mystic
writing pad” (1925a [1924]), on which traces and
signs are inscribed. The skin helps give the body its
form and coherence. The human body can more readily
assume a vertical posture because the skin protects
and holds in the skeleton and musculature. The unity
of the individual thus depends on the skin.
Certain areas of the skin (mucous membranes, erectile
tissue, hair on the head, pubic hair, hollows) are
especially sensitive to sexual arousal (in comparison
with overall presexual skin-to-skin contact). Didier
Anzieu has advanced the hypothesis of a fantasy of a
skin common to mother and child, and on that basis
he developed the idea of a skin ego—an idea that converges
with Esther Bick’s notion of a psychic skin and
Wilfred R. Bion’s concept of container/contained. For
Anzieu, this fantasy of a common skin contributes
both to the narcissistic foundation of the individual
and to the anaclitic reinforcement of the sexual
instinct.
In sadism and masochism, humans experience a
mixture of pleasure and pain. Here the fantasy of a
common skin is replaced by the fantasy of its being
ripped off, which is necessary if the individual is to
progress toward autonomy but also is a source of guilt
feelings. Mother’s and child’s joint cathexis of the newborn’s
skin is immediate and is sometimes a source of
sexual pleasure. Indeed, if the mother does not spontaneously
cathect this first contact, any of a large number
of pathologies, ranging from asthma to autism, may
result.
Psychodermatology has shown a correlation
between flaws in the ego and skin disorders. The
greater the impairment of the ego, the more seriously
the skin seems to be affected.
DipierR ANZIEU
See also: Adhesive identification; Anzieu, Didier; Bick,
Esther; Body image; Dream screen; Erotogenic zone;
Infant development; Infant observation; Isakower phenomenon,
the; Masochism; Object; Protective shield;
Psychic envelope; Skin-ego; Tenderness.
Bibliography
Anzieu, Didier. (1990). Formal signifiers and the ego-skin.
In Didier Anzieu et al. (Eds.), Psychic envelopes (Daphne
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
SKIN-EGo
Briggs, Trans.). London: Karnac Books. (Originally published
1987)
. (1989). The skin ego (Chris Turner, Trans.). New
Haven, CT: Yale University Press. (Originally published
1985)
. (1994). Le penser: du moi-peau au moi-pensant.
Paris: Dunod.
Freud, Sigmund. (1905d). Three essays on the theory of
sexuality. SE, 7: 123-243.
. (1919e). “A child is being beaten”: a contribution to
the study of the origin of sexual perversions. SE, 17: 175—
204.
. (1925a [1924]). A note upon the “mystic writing
pad. SE, 19: 225-232.
SKIN-EGO
The term “skin-ego” designates a mental representation
that the child forms on the basis of its experience
of the surface of its body and uses to picture itself as
the vessel of mental contents. The skin-ego belongs to
the period in development when the psychic ego differentiates
from the body ego on the practical level
while remaining indistinguishable from it in the imagination.
Intermediate between metaphor and concept,
the notion of the skin-ego was worked out by
Didier Anzieu and first presented in 1974.
According to Anzieu, the ego encloses the psychic
apparatus much as the skin encloses the body. The chief
functions of the skin are transposed onto the level of
the skin-ego, and from there onto the level of the thinking
ego. The functions of the skin-ego are to maintain
thoughts, to contain ideas and affects, to provide a protective
shield, to register traces of primary communication
with the outside world, to manage intersensorial
correspondences, to individuate, to support sexual excitation,
and to recharge the libido. In brief, the skin-ego
is an interface between inside and outside, and is the
foundation of the container/contained relationship.
The skin-ego develops and is enriched by integration
into the various envelopes of the sensorimotor
system. It has two functional aspects, with one aspect
focused on excitations of either internal or external
origin and the other oriented toward communications
with its entourage.
An important part of psychoanalytic work with
borderline patients is the reconstruction of the earliest
1613
Svceer/WAKEFULNESS
phases of the skin-ego and their consequences for
mental organization. This task calls on the techniques
of transitional analysis.
DipierR ANZIEU
See also: Adhesive identification; Body image; Ego; Infant
development; Infant observation; Protective shield; Psychic
envelope; Skin; Tenderness.
Bibliography
Anzieu, Didier. (1974). Le moi-peau. Nouvelle revue de psychanalyse,
9, 195-208.
. (1989). The skin ego (Chris Turner, Trans.). New
Haven, CT: Yale University Press. (Original work published
1985)
SLEEP/WAKEFULNESS
Unlike being awake, a vigilant consciousness, sleep
corresponds to a withdrawal of cathexis from the outside
world accompanied by a suspension of motor
activity. It is an active phenomenon, and although at
the beginning of life the opposition wakefulness/sleep
is closely dependent upon that of satisfactions and
needs; wishes, the capacity for regression, and the
nature of the infant’s relations to the mother soon
modify this binary rhythm. In the waking state, excitation
begins with sensory perception and in a sense
traverses the psychic apparatus to emerge any motility;
whereas during sleep the reverse happens: excitation
passes from ideation to sensory perception, the
dream.
Sigmund Freud approached the issue of waking and
sleep through the analysis of dreams. In The Interpretation
of Dreams (1900a), he advanced the hypothesis
that dreams are the guardians of sleep. Unconscious
excitation, linked to previous day’s residues, is liable to
disturb sleep. The dream is responsible for bringing
this free energy under the control of the Preconscious;
it diverts this energy, serves as a safety valve, and thus,
with a minimal effort of vigilance, ensures sleep.
Freud did not modify this hypothesis, but later did
flesh it out, most notably in the article “A Metapsychological
Supplement to the Theory of Dreams” (1916—
1917 [1915]), where he introduces the concept of a
wish to sleep emanating from the ego, a veritable sleep
drive that impels the sleeper to return to intrauterine
1614
life. Sleep must be understood as a period of withdrawal
toward primary narcissism: The mind renounces
most of its acquisitions via a return to its developmental
starting point as a way of reliving of its stay in the
maternal body, some of the conditions of which are
reproduced in sleep. It is as if a kind of inversion happens
in sleep: The subject turns: toward his or her
inner world by almost totally withdrawing interest in
the outer world of waking reality.
As Freud pointed out in the introduction to his
“supplement,” sleep, like mourning or being in love,
can be considered the normal prototype of a pathological
state. Regression and backward steps in development
are observed. There are two types of regression.
First, a temporal regression involving the organization
of the ego, which, through this step backward, moves
closer to the id. Second, a regression of libidinal development
at the level of the drives which goes so far as to
restore primary narcissism during sleep. Associated
with a relaxation of repression during sleep, which is
conducive to the emergence of the Id’s drive energies,
this state leads to the formation of dreams through
hallucinatory wish-fulfillments. The dreamer is only
interested in external reality to the degree it may threaten
to bring about an end to the sleeping state by
awakening.
After Freud, and until the early 1950s, this conception
of the opposition sleep waking remained unchanged,
and made enriched by concepts such as Bertram
D. Lewin’s 1949 postulation of the “screen dream,” the
result of introjecting the good maternal breast, which
opens up “the dream space” and actualizes the matrix
in which the dream’s binding activity can occur. In
1953, when electroencephalographic images revealed
the alternation between periods of slow sleep (also
called non-rapid eye movement, or NREM sleep),
which has a reparative function, and periods of paradoxical
sleep (or REM sleep), in which dreams occur,
attempts were made to distinguish between the somatic
and psychic aspects of hypnic phenomena. As André
Green emphasized, it appears to be essential to not
transpose concepts from one domain to the other.
However, it is both legitimate and productive to
explore points of convergence between the two.
Authors do agree that sleep plays an organizing role
in the case of both the physiological paradoxical sleep,
and the psychological dreams. Dream phenomena
seem to have binding functions: maintaining the continuity
of sleep, connecting waking mental life to
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
sleeping mental life, and integrating lived experiences
by binding them to libidinal needs. Masud Khan called
this linking function the “capacity for dreaming,” and
Didier Houzel suggested that this involves a process of
stabilization, not in the form of a return to a fixed
energy level of zero, but rather as a form of “structural
stability,” that is, a dynamic equilibrium that assumes
constant exchange with the environmental milieu.
PHILIPPE METELLO
See also: Alpha-elements; Amphimixia/amphimixis;
Animal magnetism; Contact-barrier; Day’s residues;
Development disorders; Dream; Ego feeling; Functional
phenomenon; Hypnosis; Infantile omnipotence; Infantile
psychosis; Isakower phenomenon; Mania; Manifest;
Maternal care; “Metapsychological Supplement to the
Theory of Dreams”; Mourning; Narcissistic withdrawal;
Narco-analysis; Nightmare; Night terrors; Outline of Psychoanalysis,
An; Perception-consciousness (Pcpt.-Cs.);
Phobias in children; Projection; Somnambulism; Thalassa.
A Theory of Genitality; Wish, hallucinatory satisfaction
of a.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1900a). The interpretation of dreams. SE,
4-5.
. (1916-17f [1915]). A metapsychological supplement
to the theory of dreams. SE, 14: 217-235.
Houzel, Didier. (1980). Réve et psychopathologie de l’enfant.
Neuropsychiatrie de Tenfance et de Padolescence, 28
155-164.
Khan, Masud. (1972). La capacité de réver. Nouvelle Revue
de psychanalyse, 5 283-286.
Lewin, Bertram D. (1949). Sleep, the mouth and the dream
screen. Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 15, 419-434.
SLIPS OF THE TONGUE
Slips of the tongue are errors involving the uttering
(Versprechen), or hearing (Verhdren), or writing (Verschreiben),
or reading (Verlesen) of a word and which
entail an involuntary parody of the word, assuming
the word is known. This kind of slip is an ordinary
occurrence but is structurally related to the paraphasias
found in pathological conditions.
Freud became interested in slips and word play
in 1890, and discussed them in his correspondence
with Wilhelm Fliess. Both resemble dreams in that
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
SLIPS OF THE TONGUE
they are part of normal behavior although they introduce
an incongruous and, in the case of slips of the
tongue and dreams, an involuntary element. Freud’s
interest arose from his conviction that it would be
impossible to understand psychopathological processes
without having a clear notion of their relation
to normal mental processes. It was in The Psychopathology
of Everyday Life (1901b) that he provided
the first and most complete discussion of slips of the
tongue, but he discussed them again at length in the
Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis (1916—1917a
[1915-1917]).
In The Psychopathology of Everyday Life, Freud
made use of an earlier, essentially functionalist work
on slips of the tongue and reading errors (Meringer
and Mayer, 1895), which he contrasted with his own
theory. He eliminated two hypotheses: that of the
“contamination” of the sound of one word by another
and that of “wandering” speech images, which interested
Freud to the extent that these disturbances were
located below the threshold of consciousness (1901b,
pp. 57-58). Using numerous examples, some of which
are undeniably comical, Freud illustrated the way in
which repressed drives return in the disturbance of
language.
Slips during reading and writing are not structurally
different from those that occur in hearing or speaking,
and the same motives are found in both, either libidinal
or hostile. But slips provide infinite forms of
expression for those drives, while disguising them, and
some require a complex effort of interpretation that
presupposes familiarity with the life and memories of
their author. In general, slips of the pen are not as
readily noticed by their authors as slips of the tongue.
Freud sums up the character of slips of the tongue
as follows in the Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis:
“the suppression of the speaker’s intention to say
something is the indispensable condition for the
occurrence of a slip of the tongue.’ However, the
intention can be conscious or unconscious and still
produce a slip. “In almost every case in which a slip of
the tongue reverses the sense, the disturbing intention
expresses the contrary to the disturbed one and the
parapraxis represents a conflict between two incompatible
inclinations.”
Slips are especially interesting when they lead us, in
trying to understand them, to dissociate the sound
(the signifier) from the meaning contained in the
1615
SMELL, SENSE OF
word (the signified). The same was true for the most
famous parapraxis made by Freud, forgetting the
name Signorelli, to which Jacques Lacan (1966)
devoted an entire essay. We find in both word play and
jokes, as in slips or the forgetting of names, a complex
dynamic and the same processes (displacement and
condensation) that Freud showed to be operative in
dreams, whose relevance for the study of the unconscious
he recognized. Listening for slips of our own
often has an immediate revelatory component, similar
to that of the patient who hears himself say things that
are unknown and yet familiar during the course of
analysis.
SOPHIE DE MioLLA-MELLOR
See also: Five Lectures on Psycho-Analysis, Formations of
the unconscious; Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis;
Language and disturbances of language; Linguistics
and psychoanalysis; Parapraxis; Psychopathology of Everyday
Life, The; Repression; Substitutive formation;
Topology.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1901b). The psychopathology of everyday
life..SE, 6;
. (1916-1917a [1915-1917]). Introductory lectures
on psycho-analysis. SE, 15-16.
Lacan, Jacques. (1966). Ecrits. Paris: Le Seuil.
Meringer, Rudolf, and Mayer, Carl. (1895). Versprechen und
Verlesen: eine psychologisch-linguistiche Studie. Stuttgart:
G.J. Géschen.
SMELL, SENSE OF
Throughout his writings, Sigmund Freud made explicit
reference to the role of the sense of smell in mental
sexuality. “Olfactory substances...are disintegrated
products of the sexual metabolism.... At time of menstruation
and of other sexual processes the body produces
an increased number of these substances and
therefore of these stimuli,’ he wrote to Wilhelm Fliess
on January 1, 1896. Later, in his “Three Essays on the
Theory of Sexuality” (1905d), he added that the repression
of a coprophilic olfactory pleasure governs fetish
choice: “Both the feet and the hair are objects with a
strong smell which have been exalted into fetishes after
the olfactory sensation has become unpleasurable and
has been abandoned” (p. 155, note 3).
1616
This inhibition of the sense of smell in humans,
under the sign of the repression of the pleasure that it
can bring, can play a major role in the development of
certain neuroses; this is what Freud maintained in the
case of the “Rat Man,” recorded in “Notes upon a Case
of Obsessional Neurosis” (1909d). “The ‘organic’
repression of smell is also a factor in civilization,” he
told his students at the Psychoanalytic Society of
Vienna in a lecture delivered on November 17, 1909.
Soon thereafter, in “On the Universal Tendency to
Debasement in the Sphere of Love” (1912d), he posited
this as a consequence of the fact that the human
sensory organ had been raised up off the ground with
the appearance of the upright stance. The coprophilic
instinctual components then became incompatible
with the esthetic demands of human civilization. He
further elaborated this line of thought in “Civilization
and Its Discontents” (1930a), where he speculated that
the role of the olfactory sensations “was taken over by
visual excitations, which, in contrast to the intermittent
olfactory stimuli, were able to maintain a permanent
effect. The taboo on menstruation is derived
from this ‘organic repression’, as a defence against a
phase of development that has been surmounted” (p.
99, note 1).
DoMINIQUE J. ARNOUX
~ See also: Coprophilia.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund (1905d). Three essays on the theory of
sexuality. SE, 7: 123-243.
. (1909d). Notes upon a case of obsessional neurosis.
SE, 10: 151-318.
. (1912d). On the universal tendency to debasement
in the sphere of love. SE, 11: 177-190.
. (1930a). Civilization and its discontents. SE, 21:
57-145.
. (1950a). Extracts from the Fliess papers. SE, 1: 173—
280.
. (1950c [1895]). The origins of psychoanalysis: Letters
to Wilhelm Fliess, drafts and notes: 1887-1902. (Marie
Bonaparte, Anna Freud, and Ernst Kris, Eds.; Eric Mosbacher
and James Strachey, Trans.) New York: Basic Books,
1954.
Nunberg, Hermann, and Federn, Ernst. (1962-1975). Minutes
of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society. New York: International
Universities Press.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PsYCHOANALYSIS
SMIRNOFF, VICTOR NIKOLAIEVITCH
(1919-1995)
The French psychoanalyst and neuropsychiatrist Victor
Smirnoff was born on November 27, 1919, in Petrograd
and died in Paris on November 5, 1995.
The child of doctors belonging to the social-democratic
intelligentsia, he emigrated with his parents in
1921 after the Bolsheviks came to power. He spent
some early years in Berlin before moving to Paris in
1929. After medical training, he worked as a psychiatrist
under Georges Heuyer. In 1950, a grant from the
Rockefeller Foundation took him to the United States
on a fellowship in child psychiatry. There he came into
contact with the pioneers of the Child Guidance movement,
while his cultural interests and love of books led
him into artistic and literary avant-garde circles.
Back in Paris in 1954, he undertook an analysis
with Jacques Lacan at the suggestion of Wladimir
Granoff. Much involved in the internal debates of the
Societe Francaise de Psychanalyse leading up to the
split of 1963, Smirnoff was one of those, when that
split occurred, who opted for rejoining the International
Psychoanalytical Association and distanced
themselves from Lacan’s practical procedures while
acknowledging the value of his teaching.
As a child psychoanalyst, Smirnoff took part in the
organization of teaching at La Salpéetriere with Jean-
Louis Lang and Daniel Widlécher, and founded the
psychotherapy clinic of the fifteenth arrondissement of
Paris, known as “La Rue Tiphaine,’ where the psychoanalytical
approach predominated. He was very active
in the founding and running of the Association Psychanalytique
de France (APF), contributing most
importantly to training issues through his writings
and his many control analyses. He was the association’s
president in 1975 and again in 1984. He took
part in numerous conferences and built up the association’s
external relationships as much in France (notably
with the Quatriéme Group) as abroad. Smirnoff’s
friendship with Masud Khan in London and his desire
for cultural expansion led to his translation into
French of several essential texts, including Winnicott’s
“Transitional Objects and Transitional Phenomena”
(1953) and Klein’s Envy and Gratitude (1955).
Smirnoff's book The Scope of Child Analysis, first
published in 1966, has been widely translated and frequently
reprinted, and in 1992 it was completely
revised. It is a basic work of reference in its field.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
SOCIAL FEELING (INDIVIDUAL PsYCHoLoGy)
A member of the editorial board of the Nouvelle
Revue de psychanalyse, Smirnoff also contributed
many articles to other journals, among them Topique,
LEsprit du Temps, and L’Inactuel. The titles of his
books attest to his eclecticism: Et Guérir de plaisir, De
Vienne a Paris, Une Tenébreuse Affaire, and Les Limbes
de la répression (written in collaboration with Marie-
Claude Fusco, his partner of many years). ,
Victor Smirnoff contributed broadly to the development
of the psychoanalysis of adults as well as that
of children, and he never cordoned child analysis off,
preferring to integrate it into an overall theoretical
perspective.
He liked to refer to himself as ein analytischer Wandersmann,
an analytic journeyman, and his personal
itinerary indeed enabled him to maintain a cosmopolitan
cultural openness and a wide acquaintanceship
with a variety of analytical tendencies without wavering
in his commitment to the APF and his position
within it.
The legacy of Victor Smirnoff is that of a humanist
for whom psychoanalysis was a true passion, a way of
thinking, and indeed a way of living.
HELENE TRrvouss-WIDLOCHER
See also: Association Psychanalytique de France; Documents
et Deébats; France; Nouvelle Revue de psychanalyse;
Societe francaise de psychanalyse.
Bibliography
Smirnoff, Victor. (1971 [1966]). The scope of child analysis.
(Stephen Corrin, Trans.) New York: International Universities
Press.
. (1978). “.. Et mourir de plaisir.” Nouvelle Revue de
psychanalyse, 17, 139-167.
. (1979). De Vienne a Paris. Sur les origines d’une
psychanalyse a la francaise. Nouvelle Revue de psychanalyse,
20, 13-59.
. (1994). Autopresentation. In L. M. Hermmanns
(Ed.), Psychoanalyse in Selbstdarstellungen, vol. 2. Sonderdr.
Tiibingen: Diskord.
SOCIAL FEELING (INDIVIDUAL
PSYCHOLOGY)
After long emphasizing feelings of inferiority and their
consequences, Alfred Adler came to grant more and
1617
SOclETE FRANCAISE DE PSYCHANALYSE
more importance to the social feeling found in the
notions of bonds or attachments that had been studied
by such authors as René Spitz, John Bowlby, and
Hubert Montagner.
At birth, the infant is extremely vulnerable because
of its physiological immaturity. The mother-child relationship
is thus vital for the newborn. In Adler’s view,
preestablished schemes are triggered in the interactions
between mother and child: “The mother, taken
as the nearest kin at the threshold of development of
social feeling, is the source of the first impulses enjoining
the child to enter into life as an element of the
whole,” he wrote. He thus considered the act of suckling
the mother’s breast as an act of cooperation. The
socialization of the infant is a potentiality that represents
an evolutionary acquisition of the species: “The
evolutionary acquisition of maternal love is generally
so strong in animals and human beings that it can
easily outweigh the instinct for food and the sexual
instinct.”
Social feeling is not simply adaptation to the group,
which itself can be a form of compensation for feelings
of insecurity, as can be seen in cults or in totalitarian
systems. This notion extends to both the political and
economic dimensions of the object-relations that
ensure the subject’s autonomy. In the child, compensation
for feelings of inferiority is modulated by the harmonious
development of social feeling, in which the
mother plays an essential role. According to Adler in
Problems of Neurosis: A Book of Case Histories (1929/
1964), it is she who “effects the first major and specifically
human changes in the infant’s behavior. Under
her influence, the infant, for the first time, inhibits its
desires and organic instincts and introduces delays
and indirect methods into the pursuit of what it
desires ... it is also the mother who interests the infant
in other people and enlarges its social circle.”
This potentiality is not expressed automatically.
The mother may reject the child from birth, as happens
in puerperal psychosis. A fusional relationship,
by contrast, will prevent any possibility of autonomy.
René Magritte’s painting The Spirit of Geometry illustrates
this type of relationship, in which the mother
can see herself as the son she would have liked to be.
Fernando Botero’s painting Melancholy represents one
of its consequences. Compensation for feelings of
inferiority mobilizes aggressive impulses, expressed in
the form of antisocial behaviors that may develop in
the direction of delinquency or criminality. It is the
1618
development of social feeling that directs these aggressive
impulses toward socialized behaviors or sublimation.
In the neurotic, the aggressive behaviors are only
masked. They are expressed in a systematic tendency
toward devaluation.
In The Practice and Theory of Individual Psychology
(1920/1951), Adler likened melancholia to paranoia.
This is not surprising if we think in terms of compensation
for feelings of inferiority and the degree of social
feeling—that is, the relationship to the other in the
two cases. The melancholic expresses a narcissistic
breakdown resulting from a loss of love, for which he
or she blames the other. The paranoiac hallucinates
this feminine other, which enables him to idealize
himself at the price of homosexual feelings of persecution,
since he becomes both God and the wife of God.
The annihilation of the other in the schizophrenic culminates
in an all-pervasive self in a delusional world.
FRANCOIS COMPAN
See also: Attachment; Inferiority, feeling of (individual
psychology); Masculine protest (individual psychology).
Bibliography
Adler, Alfred. (1951). The practice and theory of individual
psychology (P. Radin, Trans.). New York: Humanities Press.
(Original work published 1920)
. (1964). Problems of neurosis: A book of case histories
(P. Mairet, Trans.). New York: Harper and Row. (Original
work published 1929)
SOCIETE FRANCAISE DE PSYCHANALYSE
The Societe francaise de psychanalyse (SFP; French
Society of Psychoanalysis) was born in 1953 out of
the first split in the French psychoanalytic movement.
The reasons for its creation, already present within the
Societe psychanalytique de Paris (Paris Psychoanalytic
Society), involved disagreements about the criteria for
the selection and training of future analysts. The conceptions
of Sacha Nacht, among other points of disagreement,
were concretized in the statutes of the new
Institut de psychanalyse (Institute of Psychoanalysis),
and these were opposed by Jacques Lacan. At the
administrative session of the meeting of the Paris Psychoanalytic
Society on June 16, 1953, Lacan resigned
after his presidential mandate was withdrawn in favor
of Vice President Daniel Lagache. Lagache then
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
announced his own resignation. Also resigning were
Fran¢oise Dolto and Juliette Favez-Boutonier, soon
followed by Blanche Reverchon-Jouve. Lacan joined
forces with them to found the SFP, which André Berge
and George Mauco also joined, though they concomitantly
remained members of the Paris Psychoanalytic
Society.
During the ten or eleven years of its existence, the
SFP proved to be singularly active, productive, and
open to other disciplines under the influence of, in
particular, Lagache, Lacan, Dolto, Favez-Boutonier,
and Georges Favez, seconded by the “troika” of Serge
Leclaire, Vladimir Granoff, and Francois Perrier, who
were to play a major role. Among the successes of the
society, especially noteworthy are the Royaumont Colloquium
of 1961 and the creation in 1956 of the journal
La psychanalyse, which was active until 1964, eight
issues later.
Meanwhile, a setback came to light. The founders
of the SFP did not realize that by leaving the Paris
Psychoanalytic Society, they were also, ipso facto,
relinquishing their membership in the International
Psychoanalytical Association. Thereafter, successive
presidents of the society—Lagache, Lacan, and Angélo
Hesnard—repeatedly approached the International
Psychoanalytical Association to get the association to
recognize the SFP.
The history of the second split, for anyone who did
not actually experience it, is difficult to reconstruct.
Those in charge of the future Association psychanalytique
de France (French Psychoanalytic Association),
except perhaps for Vladimir Granoff in veiled form,
have not given their versions of events, while those in
rival societies, except for Alain de Mijolla, gave only
approximate glimpses often lacking in objectivity, or
even obviously biased, imprecise, and polemical.
The reasons for this second split appear to be twofold
and intertwined: recognition of the SFP by the
International Psychoanalytical Association and the
issue of training, in particular, training analysis. After
a defeat on the former goal at the 1959 Congress of
the International Psychoanalytical Association in
Copenhagen, which had dispatched an investigative
commission, the next congress, in Edinburgh in 1961,
recognized the SFP with the provisional status of a
study group and named Lagache, Leclaire, and Favez-
Boutonier as members at large, but it combined these
decisions with a series of “recommendations”—all
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SOCIETE FRANCAISE DE PSYCHANALYSE
technical in nature, dealing with training, and challenging
the practices of Lacan and Dolto.
The approach of the Stockholm congress in 1963,
which was supposed to rule on the request for affiliation,
sparked intense discussion, both within the SFP
and with members of a new investigative commission.
These discussions, not always devoid, of misunderstanding
or naiveté, mainly involved attempts at
reconciliation, notably through the mediation of
Granoff and Leclaire. A motion for relative reconciliation
was thus presented to the International Psychoanalytical
Association on July 11, 1963, by six of
Lacan’s analysands, dubbed the “motionnaires”:
Piera Aulagnier, Jean-Louis Lang, Jean Laplanche,
Jean-Bertrand Pontalis, Victor Smirnoff, and Daniel
Widlocher; with the support of Didier Anzieu and
Jean-Claude Lavie (also analysands of Lacan) and
Granoff. But the executive committee of the association,
though it added Granoff to the previously
recognized members at large, further hardened its
requirements, demanding that Lacan and Dolto be
excluded from all training activity.
From then on, the split gradually solidified between
the two groups: one around Lacan, with Leclaire and
Perrier, and the other with Lagache, Favez-Boutonier,
Favez, and Berge. The representatives of the first
group, until then in the majority in the administration
of the SFP, resigned in October 1963 and in December
created, around Jean Clavreul, a “psychoanalysis study
group” not recognized by the SFP. The second group,
which became the majority in November, was recognized
by the International Psychoanalytical Association
only as a “French study group.” The split was then
inevitable. The statutes of the Association psychanalytique
de France were registered on June 9, 1964, and
Lacan, on June 21, announced the founding of the
Ecole francaise de psychanalyse (French School of Psychoanalysis),
which quickly renamed itself the Ecole
Freudienne de Paris (Freudian School of Paris). In
January 1965 representatives of the two societies
announced the dissolution of the SFP, whose membership
at the time included 20 permanent members, 25
associate members, 4 corresponding members, and 80
candidates.
JeEAN-Louis LANG
Association psychanalytique de France;
of French-speaking psychoanalysts from
See also:
Congress
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Société PSYCHANALYTIQUE DE GENEVE
Romance-language-speaking countries; Ecole freudienne
de Paris (Freudian School of Paris); France; Psychanalyse,
La; Société psychanalytique de Paris and Institut de psychanalyse
de Paris; Splits in psychoanalysis.
Bibliography
Editors of Ornicar? (1977, December). Sur la passe. Ornicar?,
12-13.
Lang, Jean-Louis. (1996). La scission de 1963. Cliniques
meéditerranéennes, 49-50, 73-77.
Mijolla, Alain de. (1996). La scission de la Société psychanalytique
de Paris en 1953: quelques notes pour un rappel
historique. Cliniques méditerranéennes, 49-50, 9-30.
. (1988). Splits in the French psychoanalytic movement
between 1953 and 1964. In R. Steiner and J. Johns
(Eds.), Within Time and Beyond Time (pp. 1-24). London:
Karnac.
Roudinesco, Elisabeth. (1990). Jacques Lacan & Co.: A history
of psychoanalysis in France, 1925-1985 (Jeffrey Mehlman,
Trans.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. (Original
work published 1986.)
SOCIETE PSYCHANALYTIQUE DE GENEVE
The Geneva Psychoanalytic Society was founded in
September 1920, its creation being announced in the
Internationale Zeitschrift fur Psychoanalyse (1921),
although it never figured among the component societies
recognized by the International Psychoanalytic
Association. It was founded shortly after the Swiss Psychoanalytic
Society, which was constituted in Zurich
in 1919.
The Geneva Psychoanalytic Society brought
together both physicians and non-physicians, as well
as people who practiced psychoanalysis and others
who took an interest in it without practicing it. Its president
was Edouard Claparéde, physician and professor
of psychology at the science faculty of Geneva
University. Although not a psychoanalyst, Claparede
took a great interest in psychoanalysis from 1906
onwards and regularly kept the readers of Archives de
psychologie up to date with Freud’s latest discoveries.
In 1920 he wrote the preface to the first French translation
of Freud’s Five Lectures on Psychoanalysis (1910a),
which he first published in the Revue de Geneve.
Alongside Claparéde we find Pierre Bovet, director of
the Jean-Jacques Rousseau Institute, as well as Henri
Flournoy and Charles Odier, who were among the first
to practice psychoanalysis, and Raymond de Saussure,
1620
who joined the society a little later. Also active in the
society was Dr. Ferdinand Morel, who later abandoned
psychoanalysis, Dr. William Boven, from the Lausanne
medical faculty, and Sabina Spielrein. One of Jung’s
former patients, Sabina Spielrein came to Geneva in
1920 and was Jean Piaget’s analyst. We know little
enough about the life of the society or how it came to
be dissolved. It is easy to imagine that after 1928 the
Swiss Psychoanalytic Society, reorganized by its new
president, Philipp Sarasin, had a greater attraction for
psychoanalysts in French-speaking Switzerland.
JEAN-MICHEL QUINODOZ
See also: Claparede, Edouard; Flournoy, Henri; Odier,
Charles; Sarasin, Philipp; Spielrein, Sabina.
Bibliography
Roch, Marcel. (1980). A propos de histoire de la psychanalyse
en Suisse romande. Bulletin de la Société suisse de psychanalyse,
10, 17-30.
Saussure, Raymond de. (1967-68). L’histoire de la psychanalyse
en Suisse romande. Bulletin de la Société suisse de
psychanalyse, 6, 1-4.
SOCIETE PSYCHANALYTIQUE DE
MONTREAL
Around 1968 and 1969 it became obvious that for linguistic
and geographic reasons, among others, sections
based on a federal model were needed within the
Canadian Psychoanalytic Society. In the Francophone
community, the growing number of candidates and
the emergence of a strong nationalist sentiment meant
that the training program in English had become
an anachronism. In and around Toronto, with the
increase in the number of psychoanalysts between
1959 and 1969, there was no longer any reason why
candidates should have to travel every week from Toronto
to Montreal for their training, as had been the
case for ten years.
The Canadian Psychoanalytic Society thus created
Francophone and Anglophone sections for Montreal,
called respectively the Société psychanalytique de
Montreal (SPM) and the Canadian Psychoanalytic
Society/Quebec English. A third section was created
for Ontario: Ontario Branches. As early as May 1965,
the Canadian Institute of Psychoanalysis communicated
its intention of setting up.a training program in
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French, beginning in 1967. Initially, the three sections
used the same training program that the institute had
established in 1959, which corresponded to the program
used by the British Institute of Psycho-Analysis.
This four-year program consisted of conferences; clinical,
technical, and theoretical seminars; and three
supervised analyses. Considering the program to be
too classical, the new wave of French-speaking psychoanalysts
trained in Paris in the 1960s began to question
it toward 1970.
In September 1969 a few Paris-trained Frenchspeaking
psychoanalysts created the Groupe frangais
de Montréal (Montreal French Group). Some Englishspeaking
colleagues quickly saw this as a desire for
separation that was inspired by the political movement
Souveraineté-Association. After the initial euphoria,
the new group quickly found itself confronted with the
harsh political realities of the Canadian Psychoanalytic
Society: the requirements, programs, and traditions of
the Canadian Institute of Psychoanalysis were very different
from what they had known in Paris, and they
aspired to greater autonomy than their Anglophone
colleagues were willing to grant them. The Sociéte psychanalytique
de Montréal diverged from the other two
sections of the society mainly over training issues: differences
in the teaching program, a refusal to allow the
institute to intrude in personal analyses, a non-evaluative
concept of training, ongoing seminars that could
be run by nontrainers, and above all, the creation of
the category of authorized analysts, which allowed
nontrainer analysts to analyze candidates after five
years of membership.
It is important to point out that as early as 1965
those concerned had agreed on how the three Canadian
sections would be constituted, and that in the
winter of 1965/1966 the three future sections had
established a common ground. At this stage the Francophone
members of the institute expressed their fears
that “due consideration for the needs of the sections in
terms of geographic and cultural autonomy was hardly
compatible with the maintenance of organizational
unity.” Nevertheless, in 1968 the three sections of the
institute were created, and in 1969 those of the society
were created. On October 9, 1969, the members of the
Francophone group unanimously adopted the name
Société psychanalytique de Montréal (Psychoanalytic
Society of Montreal), although the name was not officially
adopted by the Canadian Psychoanalytic Society
until 1972. At this point some members favored a
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SocieTE PSYCHANALYTIQUE DE MONTREAL
complete separation in the Canadian Psychoanalytic
Society, while others feared the isolation that such an
early separation might lead to. Another attempt to
launch the idea of a separation was again rejected by
the members in the mid-1990s.
In the fall of 1967, the first monolingual French
training program got its start. There were 8 analysts
and 9 students. Twenty-one years later (1988), 95 students
had completed their training in French. The first
elected council of the Société psychanalytique de Montreal
held its inaugural meeting on November 24,
1969. Dr. Jean-Louis Langlois was the first president.
During this meeting Roger Dufresne put forward the
idea of ongoing seminars with a view to enhancing
collaboration between the institute and the society,
and the members voted in favor of an annual scientific
colloquium to be held every spring, an idea that was
dear to Andre Lussier.
The teaching at the institute was initially didactic
and continued the tradition of the 1959 program. This
situation continued until 1972, when ongoing open
seminars directed by both members and nonmembers
of the institute were made available to candidates.
Work in such small groups best fostered the free and
open exchange of ideas. The great originality of these
seminars was that they consisted of older members,
younger members, and students. The only requirement
retained was study of Freud’s texts, spread out
over four years, the training being dispensed by any
member who expressed the desire to do so, whether a
training analyst or an ordinary member. In addition,
stress was placed on supervision (which was seen as
more helpful than evaluation) and particularly on the
training analysis, later considered to be the core of
training. For this reason the position of reporting analyst
was abolished, in order to protect the transference
of the training analysis from third-party institutional
interference. In this context, the training analysis was
considered a personal analysis in which the desire to
become an analyst also had to be analyzed. As part of
the commitment of candidate analysts, as soon as candidates
are accepted, they are required to attend all
scientific meetings.
This teaching model became the obvious choice
among alternatives as the result of debate at international
precongress meetings on training, the influence
of the Francophone analytic groups, and the workshop
“The current situation for psychoanalysis,’ launched
in February 1970 by four Paris-trained members: Jean
1621
SocléTe PSYCHANALYTIQUE DE MONTREAL
Bossé, Claude Brodeur, Roger Dufresne, and Jean-Louis
Saucier. Every second Wednesday they reflected on the
nature of the analytic process and on the relationships
between psychoanalysis and society, psychoanalysis and
medicine, psychoanalysis and psychoanalytic institutions,
free treatment and direct payment by insurers,
training analysis and personal analysis, training seminars
and ongoing seminars, and supervision as assistance versus
evaluation. Also important was the first annual
scientific congress of the French section, in June 1970,
on the theme “the transmission of psychoanalysis.” The
reflections arising from these debates led to many policies
later adopted at administrative meetings. Even in
2005 the structures of the Société psychanalytique de
Montréal remain profoundly marked by the principles
that made their appearance at that time.
Early on, the society found itself confronted with
considerable challenges, particularly the establishment
of the Quebec social security system. Psychoanalystphysicians
in Quebec had to decide on the medical or
nonmedical character of psychoanalysis. At stake was
the issue of state payment for analyses conducted by
psychiatrists and whether there would be two categories
of analysts: analysts with medical degrees and
those without. Sufficiently aware of the obstacles that
arise when the state interferes in treatment and
because a second-class status would make it practically
impossible for nonphysicians to practice, the French
and English Quebec societies, after intense debate,
bravely affirmed the nonmedical character of psychoanalysis.
The Toronto Psychoanalytic Society made the
opposite decision. This is one indication that many
Canadian analysts, as well as many American analysts,
considered psychoanalysis a subspecialty of psychiatry,
and it provides a glimpse of the cleavage existing in the
Canadian Psychoanalytic Society with regard to the
nature of psychoanalysis.
The questioning was then extended to society-institute
relations, to training in accordance with the
Anglo-Saxon model (so different from the prevalent
models in Paris), and to the centralizing influence of
the Canadian Psychoanalytic Society, which delegated
only the scientific program to sections, without providing
any financial resources to organize scientific life
or set up a library. During the three decades from 1967
to 1997, the financing and administration of the sections
was partly autonomous and partly centralized.
Up until the foundation of the Société psychanalytique
de Montréal, all theoretical references were to works in
1622
English, with the exception of Freud’s works, which
had to be read in English. The authors to whom Paristrained
analysts referred seemed to be unknown. The
difficulty of establishing a French-language library was
the beginning of a long and arduous struggle toward
administrative and financial autonomy for the sections—
a struggle that reached its conclusion only in
1997 when they acquired complete autonomy in these
domains.
The Société psychanalytique de Montréal was distinctly
different from other Canadian psychoanalytic
societies. First, it was open to diverse influences, but
gravitated toward French psychoanalytic thinking.
When founded in 1969, the society had 29 members,
13 of whom had trained in Paris, 3 in the United
States, 1 in London, and 12 in Montreal. Second, it
choose an open training program, unlike what was
practiced in the other sections of the Canadian Psychoanalytic
Society and in the United States. The
Société psychanalytique de Montréal, like the Canadian
Psychoanalytic Society/Quebec English, is the
fruit of diverse contributions arising from several
theoretical models following in the wake of Freud. As
a result, points of dissent and rupture tend to be
situated more around language and culture, or
around questions of training and modes of transmitting
psychoanalysis, rather than around schools and
the theoretical rifts that found them. From a long
cohabitation with English-speaking analysts, Francophone
analysts have developed the arts of compromise
and gentlemen’s agreements, which have
enabled them so far to avoid the rifts that are so
common in Europe. As a North American Francophone
society, the Sociéte psychanalytique de Montréal
serves as a point of convergence between European
and American influences.
The Societe psychanalytique de Montreal and the
Canadian Psychoanalytic Society/Quebec English
share the same building, which is also the headquarters
of the Canadian Psychoanalytic Society. Relations
between the two sections have always been characterized
by respect and courtesy. Some members of each
section are greatly esteemed by those of the other. Ever
since the establishment of the sections and in varying
ways, there have always been candidates on either side
who have gone to the other side for their supervision
or analysis, just as from time to time some analysts,
after their training, request transfers to the other section.
Moreover, members of the French section attend
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
meetings of the Anglophone section more frequently
than the converse.
In spite of all this, apart from differences over common
issues that were resolved for a time, relations
between the two sections have long been characterized
by mutual incomprehension and distance. Though not
applicable to all members, the most tenacious preconception
is that the Francophones indulge in abstract
philosophy and literature and are not clinically
oriented, whereas the Anglophones are pragmatically
engaged in psychiatry and psychology, but not psychoanalysis.
These prejudices have not, however, prevented
friendships and collaborations from developing
between individuals. Moreover, by incarnating an
external enemy against which cohesion had to be
maintained, each society may perhaps have enabled
the other to avoid internal divisions. Scientific relations
with other sections are more tenuous. Even so,
some members of the Société psychanalytique de
Montreal are regularly present at the annual scientific
congresses of the Canadian Psychoanalytic Society and
play an active part in the different study committees of
the umbrella organization.
Thirty years after its foundation, the Société psychanalytique
de Montreal has more than quadrupled
in size despite the inevitable departures. The society
prides itself on having opened its doors to nonphysicians,
which has enriched it with points of view from
associated disciplines and consequently has enabled it
to get a clearer grasp of the specific nature of psychoanalysis.
The ongoing seminars of the society have
exceeded the wildest hopes. They have enabled analysts,
after their training is complete, to remain in contact
with reflective networks of analysts of all ages.
These seminars also serve to counterbalance the more
impersonal relations that set in as the society grew larger.
Analysts thus have a forum where they can discuss
questions that arise in individual practice. Unfortunately,
the society has not succeeded in providing an
analytical presence in Quebec’s main regions outside
of Montreal and Quebec. As a result, the society has
often been reproached for being closed.
In spite of the risks involved, the Société psychanalytique
de Montréal, always supposing that its window
onto society is compatible with its nature, has sought
in the 1990s to maintain a higher social profile. The
public conferences (Francoise Boulanger conferences,
Julien Bigras roundtables), the open-house days, the
project for an institutional psychoanalytic clinic, and
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SOcIETE PSYCHANALYTIQUE DE PARIS
the creation of a permanent communications committee
are all signs of a new desire to be open to society.
JACQUES VIGNEAULT
Bibliography
Editors of Frayages. (1987). La naissance de la psychanalyse
... a Montréal. Frayages, 3.
Parkin, Allan. (1987). History of psychoanalysis in Canada.
Toronto: Toronto Psychoanalytical Society.
Societe psychanalytique de Montréal. (1992). Bulletin de la
SPM.
. (1994). Bulletin de la SPM.
Vigneault, Jacques. (1993). Transferts et déplacements: fondements
de psychanalyse en Amérique du Nord. Trans, 3,
223-237.
SOCIETE PSYCHANALYTIQUE DE PARIS AND
INSTITUT DE PSYCHANALYSE DE PARIS
From its creation in 1926 until the split of 1953, the
history of the Société psychanalytique de Paris (SPP;
Paris Psychoanalytical Society) practically coincides
with the history of psychoanalysis in France, and since
1954 the society’s history has been indissociable from
that of the Institut de psychanalyse de Paris (Paris
Institute of Psychoanalysis).
“On November 4, 1926, Princess George of Greece,
née Marie Bonaparte, Mme. Eugenie Sokolnicka, Professor
Angelo Hesnard, the two Drs. Allendy, A. Borel,
R[ene] Laforgue, Rudolph Lowenstein, Georges Parcheminey,
and Edouard Pichon founded the SPP. The goal
of this Society is to bring together all the French-speaking
doctors qualified to practice the Freudian therapeutic
method and to give doctors who wish to become psychoanalysts
the opportunity to undergo the training analysis
that is indispensable to the practice of Freud’s method.”
This was a fairly heterogeneous group of young psychiatrists
(their average age was around thirty) who,
after founding the group Evolution psychiatrique
(Psychiatric Development) in 1925, were led to join
forces with the non-physicians Eugenie Sokolnicka, a
Polish-born emigrant; Freud’s “legitimate representative”
Marie Bonaparte, the main instigator of the organization
(de Mijolla, 1988); and another emigrant of
Polish origin, Rudolf Lowenstein, who had trained at
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Société PSYCHANALYTIQUE DE PARIS
the Berliner Psychoanalytisches Institut (Berlin Psychoanalytic
Institute) and would become their main
training analyst. Although they were united around
projects such as continuing the conferences of Frenchspeaking
psychoanalysts, initiated in August of the
previous year, the launching of the Revue francaise de
psychanalyse in 1927, or the formation of a Linguistic
Commission for the unification of French psychoanalytic
terminology, there were also a number of points
of opposition that were exacerbated over the years.
Two clans formed: One was made up of those who
were faithful to Freud and to the International Psychoanalytical
Association (IPA); the other consisted of
those who, like Angélo Hesnard, or following Professor
Henri Claude, who brought them together in his
ward, were hostile to non-physicians. The latter group
wished to invent a psychoanalysis purged of the “Germanic
mystique,” adapted to the needs of psychiatry
and, tellingly, to the French “mentality”—Edouard
Pichon, after all, was a disciple of Charles Maurras of
the right-wing Action Frangaise.
The two factions nevertheless continued to pull in
tandem, for better or for worse, until World War II,
ensuring the publication of the Revue, the translation
of a number of Freud’s works (many of these thanks to
the efforts of Marie Bonaparte), and the introduction
into the medical community of Freud’s theories,
which had been rendered more than a little suspect by
the voguish effects that had accompanied their dissemination
in France by way of the literary milieus of
the Nouvelle revue francaise and surrealism.
When the society was created, René Laforgue was
elected president (a post he held until 1930), Eugenie
Sokolnicka vice president, and Rudolph Lowenstein
secretary-treasurer. The first permanent member to be
elected was Dr. Henri Codet, on December 20, 1926;
Anne Berman, at the time Marie Bonaparte’s secretary,
became the first regular member on January 10, 1927.
Ernest Jones came to give a lecture on April 5 (Hanns
Sachs was invited to lecture in 1928 and Hanz Prinzhorn
in 1929, despite Edouard Pichon’s opposition to
those who did not speak French), and in May it was
announced that “Messieurs Codet, de Saussure, and
Odier will be known as founding members.” In 1927
Sacha Nacht, as a “guest of the society,” presented
“Quelques considérations sur une psychanalyse chez
une schizophréne” (Some considerations on a psychoanalysis
of a schizophrenic woman); he was elected to
[membership on January 17, 1928, and to permanent
1624
membership on October 21, 1929. A week later, the
Second Congress of French-speaking Psychoanalysts
discussed Charles Nodier’s report, “Obsessional Neurosis,”
the first official manifestation of the SPP and the
first in the long series of these Conferences (later called
Congresses) that continue even today to bring together
Europe’s French-speaking psychoanalysts and to put
on their agenda various theoretical and clinical aspects
of Freudian psychoanalysis: “Psychoanalytic Technique”
by René Laforgue and Rudolph Lowenstein in
1928 and Eugénie Sokolnicka’s presentation on the
same topic, also in 1928; “Les processus de Pautopunition
en psychologie des nevroses et des psychoses, en
psychologie criminelle et pathologie générale” (The
processes of self-punishment in the psychology of the
neuroses and the psychoses, in criminal psychology
and general pathology) by Angelo Hesnard and René
Laforgue in 1930; “L’hystérie de conversion” (Conversion
hysteria) by Georges Parcheminey in 1931; “La
psychanalyse et le développement intellectuel” (Psychoanalysis
and intellectual development) by Jean Piaget
in 1933; and “Le masochisme, étude historique,
clinique, psychogénétique, prophylactique et therapeutic”
(Masochism: a historical, clinical, psychogenetic,
prophylactic, and therapeutic study) by Sacha Nacht in
1938, the last lecture before the war.
After discussions and revisions, which would often
recur over the years, the statutes of the society, whose
headquarters had been established at René Laforgue’s
home, were officially registered on October 25, 1927.
In 1928 the bureau saw Angélo Hesnard become vice
president, Marie Bonaparte treasurer, and René
Allendy secretary. In 1929, however, there was a crisis,
because, as Laforgue wrote to Freud on October 26: “A
very active minority of our group is against the International
Psychoanalytical Association and against lay
analysis.” The conflict was resolved, but at the price of
Laforgue’s giving up the presidency.
On January 10, 1934, the first Institut de psychanalyse
de Paris was inaugurated. Marie Bonaparte, who
had made its creation possible, was named director.
On July 13, 1937, Daniel Lagache was elected to permanent
membership, as Jacques Lacan would be in
December 1938.
Beginning in 1933 the issue arose of what welcome
should be extended to analysts fleeing the threat of
Nazism, first from Germany and then from other Central
European countries. It was essentially Marie Bonaparte,
supported by Anne Berman, René Laforgue, and
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Paul Schiff, who pleaded in favor of these analysts and
attempted to integrate them into a society whose
nationalistic members—together, moreover, with the
French population as a whole—wanted it to be more
closed. René Spitz and Heinz Hartmann, among
others, passed through Paris before emigrating across
the Atlantic. The SPP offered no official welcome to
Freud when he passed through Paris on June 5, 1938.
The beginning of the war in 1939 did not stop
courses at the Institut de psychanalyse, but the German
occupation brought all psychoanalytic activity to
a halt. The Revue francaise de psychanalyse ceased
publication.
The society’s activities gradually resumed after 1946
under the presidency of John Leuba. In the wake of
Sacha Nacht, wreathed in the laurels of his resistance
activities, there appeared newcomers such as Serge
Lebovici, the first among those who would soon form
the core of his team. Discredited by his attempts at collaboration
with Matthias Goring, René Laforgue was
excluded, and those who had undergone analysis with
him—Juliette Favez-Boutonier, Francoise Dolto—suffered
from this discrediting. However, the Revue
francaise de psychanalyse, published by the Presses
Universitaires de France, was reborn in 1948, the same
year that the Eleventh Congress of French-Speaking
Psychoanalysts in Brussels saw joint presentations by
Sacha Nacht and Jacques Lacan: “L’aggressivité en psychanalyse”
(Aggressiveness in psychoanalysis).
This theme presaged the conflicts that would crystallize
around the issue of the training of new candidates,
for Freud had again become fashionable in
France, and the prisonlike structures of psychiatric
institutions were being called into question by young
psychiatrists. The SPP, which no longer knew where to
hold meetings, had no library and no means of accepting
students (there were seventy of them in 1950), and
needed to establish premises for its operations. Sacha
Nacht was elected president in 1949 and took in hand
the future of the institute of psychoanalysis that everyone
was determined to create. Although there was
unanimity around the contents of the “Rules and Doctrine
of the Commission on Teaching Delegated by the
SPP” drafted by Sacha Nacht and Jacques Lacan in
September 1949, Daniel Lagache quickly became
opposed to its authoritarian views and convinced a
number of René Laforgue’s analysands, and then
Lacan himself, to take his side. After three years of
internecine struggles, Lacan was shown, on June 16,
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SOCIETE PSYCHANALYTIQUE DE Paris
1953, to have minority support as president of the SPP
and resigned, while Daniel Lagache announced the
founding of the Société frangaise de psychanalyse
(SFP; French Society of Psychoanalysis). Meanwhile,
legal proceedings filed in 1950 against a non-physician
colleague, Mrs. Clark-Williams, for the “illegal practice
of medicine,” had established that a psychoanalytic
society had a the collective responsibility to civil
society. There were thus ample arguments to support
Nacht’s imposition of strict, medically-oriented standards
for training, applying the criteria of co-option
defined by the IPA with regard to the number, frequency,
and duration of sessions in the “training
analysis” or the “supervised treatments” required of
candidates.
For some thirty years, issues related to training took
center stage in French psychoanalysis; at the same
time, they stimulated unprecedented emulation in the
theoretical, clinical, and institutional creativity of
members of an SPP that was spurred on by rivalry
with the SFP and later, increasingly, by the renown of
Jacques Lacan and the growingnumber of his students.
The June 1954 inauguration of the Institut de psychanalyse,
headed by Nacht until 1962, created a split
that was not transcended until 1986. Although the SPP,
in the eyes of the IPA, remained the sole representative
of psychoanalysis in France until 1965, it was then
reduced to the rank of a mere scientific society, without
decision-making powers with regard to training policies
or the dissemination of Freud’s theories. To be sure, the
society still played a determining role in the organization
of “Romance-language congresses” (a new appellation
suggested by Lacan before the split, and of which
Pierre Luquet became permanent secretary in 1956), on
commissions, and in international congresses, but the
dynamism of the society was concentrated around the
team that directed the Institut de psychanalyse (Serge
Lebovici, René Diatkine, Maurice Benassy, Henri Sauget).
They formed the core of the “Commission on
Teaching,” whose members were co-opted from among
the permanent membership, and where choices and
decisions were made regarding candidates for various
posts. While dual membership in both societies may
have been mandatory, the importance given to the criteria
for training and selection was such that soon the
public no longer spoke of the “Society,” but instead
referred to the group as “the Institute.”
Sacha Nacht’s leadership style was autocratic, and
he implemented a number of changes that remained
1625
Socl€Te PSYCHANALYTIQUE DE PARIS
after his departure, such as the professional development
seminar for analysts from the provinces. His students
and partisans were quickly elected to permanent
membership to replace those who had left as a result of
the split: Béla Grunberger in November 1953, Michel
Fain and René Held in early 1954, and others thereafter.
Above all, Nacht created a mindset and a way of
conceiving of psychoanalysis that are evident in the
works published during his tenure, such as La Psychanalyse
d aujourd hui (Psychoanalysis Today, 1956). At
the Twentieth Congress of the IPA in Paris at the end
of July 1957, he was elected vice president of that organization.
His work was a central reference in almost all
the scientific papers presented in meetings of the SPP,
and he was the preferred target for attacks by his former
friend Lacan and his followers, although Maurice
Bouvet, before his death in 1960, was another such victim,
particularly with regard to his work on object
relations. In 1962 a prize was created in memory of
this analyst; until 1978, when it went to Micheline
Enriquez, a member of the Quatrieme Groupe
O.P.L.E, it was awarded only to analysts from the SPP.
During the 1960s new names appeared in the ranks
of the permanent membership, such as Conrad Stein,
Serge Viderman, Robert Barande, and André Green,
who would represent the next generation of the SPP
and build bridges of scientific communication with
psychoanalysts from “enemy” organizations. In 1962 a
minor revolution displaced Sacha Nacht from the leadership
of the institute in favor of Serge Lebovici,
assisted by Michel Fain, with Francis Pasche responsible.
for the presidency of the society. The autocracy of
Nacht and his restricted Commission on Teaching
gave way to an oligarchy, that of the “permanent members”
(there were thirty of them in 1963). By way of
elections held within the society, this group for a number
of years maintained their control over what was
always the living part of the society, the institute and
its Commission on Teaching, on which they all secured
ongoing membership in 1965. This was also the terrain
of after-conflicts, since over time the play of politics
led to the election of about one-third dissenting voices,
which, although they never managed to impose the
liberal reforms they wished to promote, gradually
caused movement in the ponderousness of this large,
two-headed institution.
The 1964 election to permanent membership of
Evelyne Kestemberg , the first nonphysician since the
times of Marie Bonaparte (who had died in 1962),
provided proof of the thorough expunging of the poli-
1626
cies of Sacha Nacht, who had always opposed. this.
Others followed, such as Janine Chasseguet-Smirgel
and Joyce McDougall in 1965, and then Salem Shentoub
in 1966, providing the SPP with the openness
and diversity that gradually came to characterize it and
cause it to lose its monolithic aspect. It was also the
year of the rapprochement between the society and the
Association psychanalytique de France (APF; Psychoanalytical
Association of France), which was recognized
by the IPA in July and in 1970 fully participated
for the first time in a Congress of Romance-languagespeaking
Psychoanalysts, with a presentation by Didier
Anzieu entitled “Eléments d’une théorie de Pinterpretation”
(Elements of a theory of interpretation).
The founding in October 1966 of the European
Federation of Psychoanalysis, in which societies’
representation was proportionate to their membership
base, led to a broadening of the SPP, the consequences
of which were crucial for its development.
This was the creation, in November 1967, of the category
of “affiliated members,” which was to serve as a
screening stage between the completion of the curriculum
at the institute and election to full membership
in the society upon submission of a clinical thesis,
which henceforth was the only path of access to
membership. This new category would not be the last
thing to agitate the tumultuous meetings of May
1968, where institutional constraints were called into
question within the Commission on the Degree Program
and Hierarchy—although without immediately
producing any spectacular modifications. A January
1969 report by Jean-Luc Donnet on behalf of this
commission set forth a proposed degree program, the
first in a long series, for discussions, counterproposals,
meetings, conflicts, and open letters addressing
the problems of training which thereafter took center
stage in most of the meetings and general assemblies
of the SPP and the institute.
A new reform of the statutes promoted by Pierre
Marty, who was elected president in 1969, that aimed
to create an administrative college was voted in on
June 16, 1970, on the condition that the problem of
the “affiliated members” be set aside. Indeed, this category
considerably changed the numerical ratio of the
membership in an association where, by law, each
dues-paying member was supposed to have administrative
power and the right to vote: there were 43
affiliated members when the category was created and
81 in 1969, but there were 214 by 1986, while during
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the same time period the ranks of the regular members
grew from 44 to 49 and then 79, and the number of
permanent members grew from35 to 38 and then to
66. The college thus represented a first step toward
expanding institutional responsibilities over the three
categories of members, even though initially only the
regular members were allowed to play a role, for example,
on the candidature commissions and the election
of their peers. The area of training analysis (in French,
analyse didactique), although the word “didactic” discreetly
disappeared from usage, like the election of permanent
members, remained a closed field reserved
only for members of the Commission on Teaching.
Only twenty-four years later, on September 27, 1994,
would the permanent members modify the conditions
for admission to the degree course and agree to allow
any person who had been in analysis for more than
three years with a member of the SPP to ask to be
received by the Commission on the Degree Program.
This measure put an end to the struggle that had
underlain all the episodes of administrative turbulence
that had beset the society and the institute from 1970.
A new attempt to reform the statutes to integrate
the affiliated members into the institute failed in 1974
because of a negative vote from the permanent members,
among whom a conservative majority continued
to prevail. A gentleman’s agreement was nonetheless
adopted that provided for a three-year trial of a board
of directors made up of the three categories of members,
but this was followed by a series of discussions
and votes that were aborted because one or several
categories did not have a quorum.
In 1974, René Major had to resign in a climate of
hostility from his post as director of the institute
because he was not French and his naturalization
remained blocked for an unusually long time. André
Green, who succeeded him, proposed in a letter of
December 19, 1974, an idea that would run its course,
that of the “merger of two associations into a single
one, with that society taking responsibility the totality
of our psychoanalytic life in the three institutional sectors
related to it: the scientific sector, the training sector,
and the therapeutic sector, which currently go by the
names of the Société psychanalytique de Paris, the Institut
de psychanalyse, and the Centre de consultations et
traitements psychanalytiques [Center for Psychoanalytic
Consultation and Treatment].”
This idea was taken up anew by Pierre Luquet, president
of the SPP after 1975, but nothing was settled,
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SociéTE PSYCHANALYTIQUE DE PARIS
and the conflicts intensified to the point where in 1979
another split might have occurred had the dissidents
been united around anything other than their opposition
to the majority in place. The proposal for a training
program with two tracks, one “classic,” proposed
by Serge Lebovici, and the other more “liberal,” supported
by Serge Viderman, was presented and in turn
buried. The institutions held together only because of
“moratoriums” whose end-dates were contested and
extended, for no one could come to an agreement.
The IPA then intervened, dispatching its president,
Edward Joseph, on a visit on October 6, 1980, to
attempt to clarify the situation and encourage the
SPP to find a solution to the conflicts. Raymond
Cahn, elected president of the society, decided on
November 25 to create a joint society-institute committee
charged with presenting, within four months,
a proposal for global revision of the statutes of the
society and the institute. This proposed merger was
voted in by the SPP on June 23, 1981, but rejected
the following week at the level of the institute, essentially
by the college of the affiliated members. At the
Thirty-second International Congress in Helsinki the
following month, the IPA decided to nominate an
external committee charged with investigating the
SPP’s problems. It proposed a six-month moratorium,
but nothing had been resolved as of June 18,
1982, when Adam Limentani, who had become president
of the IPA, went to Paris. There had still been
no resolution by March 1984, when conflicts between
the offices of the SPP, under Michel Fain’s presidency,
and the Institut de psychanalyse, headed by
Claude Girard, nonetheless precipitated the end of
the crisis.
In a letter dated May 21, 1984, Adam Limentani
noted that no one wanted to succeed Michel Fain, and
announced that the SPP had to be placed under oversight,
and that the institute had to transfer to the
society all of its training activities. Daniel Widlécher
was a member of the oversight committee. In October
1984, Augustin Jeanneau was elected president, and he
was determined to bring to its conclusion this reform
that had been dragging on for ten years. He nevertheless
had to wait almost another year and a half before
the SPP, on May 6, 1986, voted to accept the new proposal
for a merger that he had elaborated with the
active help of Michele Perron-Borelli; an extraordinary
session of the Institut de psychanalyse on June 3 in
turn formally ratified it.
1627
SociéTe PSYCHANALYTIQUE DE PARIS
The merger at last took place, and the SPP
reclaimed the ground that it had lost with the creation
of the Institut de psychanalyse in 1953. The institute
remained its “training organ,’ but the autonomous
organization that constituted it was dissolved. The
price of this compromise was that the problems relating
to training analyses were not taken into account in
drawing up the statutes, but instead left to the initiative
and responsibility of the institute’s Commission
on Teaching—that is, the permanent members. The
society, meanwhile, was henceforth managed by a
general committee made up of all the members, represented
by an administrative board of forty-five members
elected by the college in a system of parity representation.
The society put an end to the unsound,
two-headed functioning that was also in violation of
French laws on associations.
On December 2, 1986, André Green was elected
president of the new bureau of the organization whose
creation he had set in motion exactly twelve years earlier.
Simone Decobert became the first director of the
new institute and remained in this post until 1996,
when she was replaced by Paul Israél.
Suddenly, everything calmed down, or almost.
There was an influx of candidates for permanent
membership, and the SPP, four hundred and fifty
members strong, encouraged the formation of groups
in the provinces that brought together former students
and attracted new ones: the Groupe lyonnais, the oldest
of these (1958), the Groupe toulousain (1980), and
the Groupe de travail méditerranean (1984) were followed
by other groups in Bordeaux, Brittany, the Loire
region, Normandy, Pas-de-Calais-Picardy in the
north, Grenoble, and Savoy. The creation of the Journées
occitanes de psychanalyse (Occitan Days of
Psychoanalysis) in 1978 gave the signal for regional
initiatives.
Certain personalities, such as Robert Barande,
Conrad Stein, or Serge Viderman more or less distanced
themselves from the society’s activities, but
on the whole the members appeared to be relieved
by the outcome and determined to show the outside
world that all that these years of dispute had brought
much that was ultimately constructive for the discipline.
They had been schooled in the exercise of
democracy, with its contradictions, but also with the
possibility of the confrontation of contradictory opinions,
without any new “autocrat” having taken the
dominant ideological position, and without another
1628
split occurring to bring a brutal resolution to the
apparent incompatibilities.
Moreover, work in the field of psychoanalysis had
never ceased, even though too much time and energy
had been tied up in the endless statutory discussions.
The Tuesday evening scientific meetings maintained
their monthly schedule and the Saturday Encounters
continued to be held twice each month, providing a
proving ground for the next generation of analysts.
The society’s colloquium, started by René Diatkine in
1964, took place regularly in Deauville every autumn,
focusing on theoretical and clinical topics. In March
1998, responsibility for organizing the colloquium was
entrusted to André Green, and it was named the Rene
Diatkine Colloquium in honor of its founder. The
Congresses of French-speaking Psychoanalysts, under
the guidance of Augustin Jeanneau, who succeeded
Pierre Luquet in 1989, and Pearl Lombard, and then,
beginning in 1997, that of Gérard Bayle and Georges
Pragier, held in alternating years in Paris and a neighboring
region, continued to serve as a forum for
annual presentation of reports as a way of taking stock
of advances in psychoanalytic theory in France and
worldwide. From 1989, Franco-Italian colloquia confirmed
the need for meetings between neighboring
societies. The precursors of a trend toward openness
that would increase over time, the Rencontres psychanalytiques
d’Aix-en-Provence (Aix-en-Provence Psychoanalytic
Meetings), placed under the aegis of the
society by Jacques Cain and Alain de Mijolla, from
1982 to 1991 brought a member of the SPP together
with a psychoanalytic personality from another group
and a non-psychoanalyst specialist from the field of
the chosen common theme, ranging from “Languages”
to “The Body and History,’ “Autobiography,” and
“Music.” Christian David, Jean Guillaumin, Andre
Green, René Diatkine, Francis Pasche, Joyce McDougall,
Michel Fain, Jean Cournut, Michel Neyraut,
Claude Le Guen, and Conrad Stein thus met with
Piera Aulagnier, Jean-Bertrand Pontalis, Pierre Fédida,
Olivier Flournoy, Michel Artiéres, Marie Moscovici,
and Michel Schneider, and compared their psychoanalytic
point of view with the perspectives offered
by non-psychoanalysts such as Maurice Olender,
Edmond Jabés, Eugene Enriquez, Philippe Lejeune,
Isabelle Stengers, Marcel Détienne, Yves Hersant, and
Andre Boucourechliev.
Begun on a modest scale beginning in the 1960s,
when it was handled by Louis Dujarrier and distribu-
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
ted in the form of galleys duplicated by Roneo ®,
information for the membership became a major
necessity that was concretized in the creation of a journal,
the Bulletin de la S.P.P, the first issue of which was
published in 1982, introduced by Michel Fain. Jacqueline
Schaeffer took over as head of the journal in 1985.
The society’s library, which had a wealth of holdings
thanks to the bequest of Marie Bonaparte and the
accumulation of other consignments and acquisitions
over the years, was housed, under the direction of
Roger Perron (who succeeded Gérard Bayle), in new
quarters in the Rue Vauquelin in 1994; named the Bibliotheque
Sigmund Freud, it became France’s most
comprehensive repository of psychoanalytic works. Its
computerized catalogue was made available to
researchers by means of the Internet under the leadership
of Ruth Menahem, who was succeeded by Eva
Weil. For several years the library published a bulletin
of reviews of works, Lectures, headed by Perel Wilgowicz.
Meanwhile, the creation of a Department of
Archives and History, decided on in January 1988, and
headed by Alain de Mijolla, then by Alexandra Munier,
and then, after 2002, by Nicolas Gougoulis, witnessed
the constitution of an audiovisual archive devoted to
some eminent members of the society. The Archives
de France took responsibility for the cataloguing and
archiving of all the administrative documents that had
accumulated since the 1950s.
Relations with the government were marked by
intense discussions around the 1982 proposal presented
by Maurice Godelier to the minister of Research
and Industry with the aim of creating a center for the
development of psychoanalytic research. Supported at
the SPP by Gérard Mendel and discussed at length, the
proposal in the end did not lead anywhere, but the
issue of the “status of psychoanalysis” regularly came
up in government debates and at the instigation of certain
people, such as Serge Leclaire in December 1989;
however, this did not lead the SPP to abandon its
reserve and go back on its refusal to sanction the official
recognition under the label “psychoanalysts” certain,
essentially Lacanian, groups whose training
criteria it viewed as inadequate. Not that the SPP was
excessively rigorous on this matter, as its frays with the
IPA had continually shown. The SPP recognized three
sessions per week as the minimum for a training
analysis, instead of the four sessions required by the
international organization. The society, under the leadership
of Sacha Nacht, had been one of the first in the
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SOCIETE PSYCHANALYTIQUE DE PARIS
world to totally exclude a candidate’s analyst from discussions
and decisions concerning his or her accreditation.
As early as the 1950s the SPP had implemented
“collective supervision,” which was unknown in the
other IPA member organizations, and, around 1965,
the “trial assessment.” In terms of relations with the
government, after successfully fighting against the
1981 decision of the Ministry of Finance ,to subject
non-physician psychoanalysts, and subsequently those
who did not have a degree in psychology, to the valueadded
tax (VAT), the society’s only official step was its
1997 request for recognition as a public service organization,
a possibility that had been raised as early as
1967—at the time, there were rumors that Jacques
Lacan had requested this—but that had been ruled out
owing to the society’s desire to remain independent of
any control by the state. In the fall of 2003, the tumult
occasioned by the threat of an “amendment” intended
to regulate the practice of psychotherapy enabled the
SPP to state its position clearly: “Psychoanalysis,
which includes what is known as ‘psychoanalytic psychotherapy,
° is the purview only of psychoanalytic
organizations accredited to guarantee the training and
qualification of their members.”
Thus, from 1987, under the presidency of Andre
Green and his successors, the SPP practiced a policy of
communication with the outside, a different image
from the slightly outmoded one of a conservative
“orthodoxy” that had been associated with the institute.
Already, the Thursday lecture series, open to the public
simply by registration, had made it possible to transmit
the basics of Freudian theory and clinical practice to listeners
from all walks of life. The two days for reflection
organized on January 14-15, 1989, in the UNESCO
building, on the theme of “Psychoanalysis: Questions
for Tomorrow,’ under André Green’s presidency, were a
major success in this direction, mobilizing the media
and making it possible to disseminate to some 950
registered listeners documents that clearly explained the
goals and mode of operation of an organization whose
previous desire to remain outside of the public realm
had resulted in its being misunderstood and misjudged.
Two additional days of meetings, organized by Andre
Green and Alain Fine on November 23-24, 2002, created
a forum for dialogue on the theme of “The Work
of Psychoanalysis” between practitioners and the principal
French psychoanalytic societies.
This was also a way of responding to the media
attention garnered by the many groups and micro-
1629
Société PSYCHANALYTIQUE DE PARIS
groups born of the dissolution of the Ecole freudienne
de Paris. Other colloquia open to the public were organized
by Gilbert Diatkine in 1994, on the “Powers and
Limits of Psychoanalysis,” and by Marilia Aisenstein in
1996, on “Ill-Being: Anxiety and Violence.” At the
same time, internal colloquia were held, such as
“The Drives,” organized by André Green in 1995; “The
Object in Person,” organized by Paul Denis in 1996;
and “Psychotherapeutic interpretation, psychoanalytic
interpretation,” organized by Gilbert Diatkine in
March 1997.
Among the institutions linked to the SPP that continued
their work throughout these years, mention
must be made of the Centre de consultations et de traitements
psychanalytiques, which, from its creation in
1954, made psychoanalytic treatment available free of
charge for the most economically disadvantaged. Under
the leadership of Michel Cénac and René Diatkine, Jean
Favreau and Robert Barande, Jean-Luc Donnet and
Monique Cournut, and, from January 2000, Jean-Louis
Baldacci, it also provided for the clinical training of several
generations of psychoanalysts. It was renamed the
Centre Jean-Favreau in December 1993.
The Revue francaise de psychanalyse, meanwhile,
continued in its efforts to present the work of members
of the SPP. The journal made no further changes
in publisher after 1947, when it was taken on by the
Presses Universitaires de France, and the successive
managing and editorial teams, despite not-infrequent
conflicts, first and foremost sought to ensure the regular
publication of the congresses of the French-speaking
psychoanalytic community and the work coming
out of the various conferences, colloquia, and other
scientific meetings. However, from 1988, under the
direction of Claude Le Guen, assisted by Gérard Bayle
and Jean Cornut, the journal’s autonomy in relation to
the society, which had tried in vain to obtain the previous
directorships, intensified, the latter having
found a place for expression in its Bulletin, which,
from 1991, also published texts from the congresses.
The decision henceforth to produce thematic issues
led to a clear-cut increase in the readership of the
Revue, which was both older and the most widespread
of the French psychoanalytic journals. That same year,
1988, Claude Le Guen, assisted by Gilbert Diatkine,
created the Monographies de la R.EP. (Monographs of
the R.EP.), a series in which each issue, focusing on a
specific theoretical or practical point, was an assured
publishing success. The series Debats de psychanalyse
(Debates in Psychoanalysis), of which Jacqueline
1630
Schaeffer was the assistant director, was created in
1995 with the aim of publishing the proceedings of
colloquia and scientific meetings, which the Bulletin
alone could no longer handle. In March 1996 Paul
Denis took over the direction of the Revue frangaise de
psychanalyse and created the series Psychanalystes
d’aujourd’hui (Psychoanalysts of today).
The Society’s membership in and faithfulness to the
IPA were concretized—following the lead of Marie
Bonaparte, vice president after the war and honorary
president from 1957—by Sacha Nacht, vice president
from 1957 to 1969, by André Green from 1975 to 1977,
and, above all, by Serge Lebovici, vice president from
1967 to 1973, and up to that point the only Frenchman
to have been elected president of the IPA, from 1973 to
1977, and then by Haydée Faimberg and Paul Israél,
each of whom served in turn as vice president. The SPP,
however, was never subservient to the IPA, as attested to
by the numerous disagreements that marked the history
of relations between the two institutions, from the criteria
for training analysis to the creation of the Chamber
of Delegates announced in 1993. The SPP also
maintained links with the European Federation of Psychoanalysis,
in which a number of its members played
important roles, such as Alain Gibeault, who was president
from 1995 to 1999 before being named secretary
general of the IPA alongside Daniel Widlécher.
Citing the names of members of the SPP throughout
this article makes it unnecessary to say more about
the organization’s scientific resonance and the place
that the work of its members ensured within the psychoanalytic
landscape in France and internationally.
Whether in terms of readings of psychoanalytic texts,
reflections on metapsychology, studies on the psychoanalytic
process and situation, on psychoanalytic
conceptions in the areas of psychopathology or therapeutics,
child psychoanalysis, individual or group
psychoanalytic psychotherapy, psychodrama, psychosomatics,
research on the history of psychoanalysis, or
the relationship between science and psychoanalysis,
the number of institutional creations or original theoretical
contributions by members of the SPP is considerable,
as is the list of collections of reference works or
journals that they head or in which they participate.
André Green’s successors to the presidency of the
society, Michéle Perron-Borelli (elected in January
1989, she resigned in February 1990 after a dispute
with the board of directors over policies regarding
Serge Leclaire’s proposed “ordinal authority”), Paul
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Israél (1990-94), Gilbert Diatkine (1994-96), Marilia
Aisenstein (1996-98), Jean Cournut (1998-2002), and
Alain Fine (1998-2004) have pursued the policies of
openness initiated by the 1986 reforms, in a spirit of
rigor attested to by the creation in 1995 of a Commission
on Deontology charged with elaborating and
enforcing a code of ethics. A report by Paul Denis on
behalf of the Socioprofessional Commission, supported
by Michéle Perron-Borelli, petitioned beginning
in 1989 to ask for recognition as a public service
organization; in January 1996 a general assembly of
the SPP voted in favor of requesting such recognition.
A new modification of the statutes followed to make
the necessary adaptations for this change in status,
which was granted by a degree published in the Journal
officiel of August 20, 1997.
With nearly 600 members extensively trained in
psychoanalytic theory and practice (109 permanent
members, 82 members, and 383 affiliated members),
the SPP provides, for the diversity in thinking implicit
in such a gathering, an open forum for discussion and
developments that nevertheless remain with the strict
framework of Freudian thought. Plans are under study
for a federation-type organization that would bring
together the psychoanalysts in France who would feel
linked to such an entity, for the importance of regional
groups has only grown over the years, making up for
the lag that occurred from the 1960s to the 1980s, to
the benefit of other psychoanalytic organizations, particularly
those coming out of the Ecole freudienne de
Paris. The Institut de psychanalyse de Lyon’s move to
become autonomous in 1996, with Francoise Brette as
its first director, is a testament to this. Doubtless one
of the next tasks of the SPP will be to organize this
mode of affiliation on a national scale, since there is
such lively demand from those who identify with the
currents of thought and the institutional building that
have characterized, with the many vicissitudes that are
synonymous with life and many democratic debates,
its long historic pathway and the place it has been able
to take and maintain for almost eighty years in the
French psychoanalytic movement.
ALAIN DE MYOLLA
Bibliography
Mijolla, Alain de. (1992). France, 1893-1965, in Psychoanalysis
international: A guide to psychoanalysis throughout the
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SOCIOLOGY AND PSYCHOANALYSIS/SOCIOPSYCHOANALYSIS
world, volume 1: Europe. (p. 66-113) Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt:
Frommann-Holzboog, .
. (1988). Psychoanalysis and psychoanalysts in
France between 1939 and 1945. International Forum of Psychoanalysis,
12, 136-156.
. (1988). Quelques apercus sur le réle de la princesse
Marie Bonaparte dans la création de la Société psychanalytique
de Paris. Revue frangaise de psychanalyse, 52 (5),
1197-1214.
. (1991). Les congres des psychanalystes de langue
fran¢aise des pays romans: Quelques éléments d’histoire.
Revue francaise de psychanalyse, 55 (1), 7-36.
. (2001). Splits in the French Psychoanalytic movement
between 1953 and 1964. In R. Steiner and J. Johns
(Eds.), Within Time and Beyond Time (pp. 1-24). London:
Karnac.
Perron, Roger. (1990). Médecins et non-médecins dans l’histoire
de la Sociéte psychanalytique de Paris. Revue internationale
@histoire de la psychanalyse, 3, 167-98.
SOCIOLOGY AND PSYCHOANALYSIS/
SOCIOPSYCHOANALYSIS
Sociology is the methodological study of social facts,
processes, and actions. Depending on the author, it is
a general nomothetic science of society (Emile Durkheim),
a science of the social forms resulting from the
interaction among individuals (Georg Simmel), a discipline
that strives to comprehend social activity (Max
Weber), or “the living aspect, “the living aspect, the
fleeting moment when society, or men, become sentimentally
aware of themselves and of their relation to
others” (Mauss M., 1923/1990, 80). Psychoanalysis is a
method of investigating the individual psychic apparatus
and a psychotherapeutic method that uses the
transference that occurs during treatment as a powerful
means of healing. Sociopsychoanalysis (a term not
yet fully accepted) is a discipline that aims to articulate
the relationship between the psychic and the social. In
this respect, sociopsychoanalysis continues in the tradition
of Freud’s sociological and anthropological
efforts.
The term “sociology” was created by Auguste
Comte, who used it in volume 4 of his Cours de philosophie
positive (1847). It replaced the term “social physiology,”
put forward by Henri de Saint-Simon (1813).
Yet it did not take on its modern meaning until Durkheim’s
Rules of Sociological Method (1895). The
French terms “sociopsychanalyse,” “socioanalyse, ” and
1631
SoclOLOGY AND PSYCHOANALYSIS/SOCIOPSYCHOANALYSIS
“sociothérapie” were used by different French authors
after World War II (André Amar, Guy Palmade, Max
Pagés, Jacques and Maria Van Bockstaele, Gérand Mendel,
among others). It seems that the Englishman Eliott
Jaques was the first to use the English term “socio-analysis,”
in 1947, in his work of rehabilitating soldiers back
from the war.
The desire to establish a link between psychoanalysis
and sociology appears very early on in Freud’s
work. The articles “Obsessive Actions and Religious
Practices” (1907b) and “ ‘Civilized’ Sexual Morality
and Modern Nervous Illness” (1908d) are evidence of
this. In 1913 in “The Claims of Psychoanalysis to
Scientific Interest,’ Freud stressed the contributions
that psychoanalysis could make to all the previously
constituted psychological and social sciences, the
unconscious often playing a role of primordial importance
in all sorts of human behavior. In his later works,
from Totem and Taboo (1912-1913a) to Moses and
Monotheism (1939a), Freud analyzed the events that
presided over the foundation and modification of
social links, the advent of civilization, and the rise of
its current discontents.
Many authors have followed in the path opened up
by Freud in an effort to understand the evolution of
civilization. Wilhelm Reich, the founder of “Freudo-
Marxism,” analyzed the role of the family in the creation
of authoritarian behaviors and the role of capitalistpatriarchal
society in suppressing the instincts. Herbert
Marcuse stressed the excessive suppression engendered
by the capitalist system and the capacity of the most
alienated classes to fight against the modern state and
its tendency to make the individual into a “one-dimensional
man.” By studying various types of societies and
analyzing many different myths and legends, the
anthropologist and psychoanalyst Géza Roheim succeeded
in demonstrating that Freud’s fundamental
hypotheses (the primitive horde, murder of the father,
the Oedipus complex) are pertinent to all cultures,
regardless of how different they might be.
Other researchers have taken a greater interest in
the relations between psychoanalysis and politics and
the phenomenon of power in modern societies. Theodor
W. Adorno attempted to define the authoritarian
personality, the source of all fascisms. Norman Brown
tried to demonstrate the role of the life and death
instincts in social functioning. Serge Moscovici studied
crowds and the role of the leader, thus paying
homage to the pioneering character of Freud’s Totem
1632
and Taboo (1912-1913a) and Group Psychology and the
Analysis of the Ego (1921c). Eugene Enriquez found in
Freud’s work the elements necessary for his theory of
the social link, and Cornelius Castoriadis used this
theory to define the primary role of the imaginary in
the institution of society. Pierre Legendre highlighted
underdogs’ love for superiors, and Pierre Ansart
focused on how political passions are managed.
Moreover, psychoanalysis has contributed to the
creation of an original school of psychology and clinical
sociology by analyzing the unconscious processes
at work in groups, organizations, and institutions.
First British authors (Wilfred R. Bion, Eliott Jaques),
then French authors (Max Pagés, Gérard Mendel,
Didier Anzieu, René Kaés, Jean-Claude Rouchy, André
Lévy, and Eugéne Enriquez), contributed new elements
on the fantasies, projections, and identifications
constantly at play in these groups, as well as on the
organizational imaginary and on the processes of
repression, suppression, and idealization at work in
organizations. In South America, a school was formed
to conduct a “social clinic.”
Undergoing particular development since 1990
have been “psycho-sociology,” the science of groups,
organizations, and institutions (Kurt Lewin and the
French authors mentioned above), and clinical sociology
(Louis Wirth), particularly in Quebec and in
France. In fact, clinical sociology was recognized as a
branch of sociology by the International Sociological
Association in 1993. It seeks to create a sociology that
is close to lived experience and that makes the subject
and the subject’s splitting and contradictions central
elements in social construction.
Efforts to link sociology and psychoanalysis have
yielded varied results. While some authors have
defined original approaches, enriched analytic theory,
and furthered the comprehension of social phenomena,
others in France, intoxicated by the success of
analysis, have indiscriminately applied psychoanalytic
concepts to social reality and have succeeded only in
bastardizing psychoanalysis (making it a management
tool) and disfiguring social processes.
EUGENE ENRIQUEZ
See also: “Claims of Psychoanalysis to Scientific Interest”;
Collective psychology; Criminology and psychoanalysis;
Ego; Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego; Le
Bon, Gustave; Moses and Monotheism; Politics and
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
psychoanalysis; Reich, Wilhelm; Rite and ritual; Taboo;
Totem and Taboo.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1907b). Obsessive actions and religious
practices. SE, 9: 115-127.
. (1908d). “Civilized” sexual morality and modern
nervous illness. SE, 9: 177-204.
. (1913}). The claims of psychoanalysis to scientific
interest. SE, 13: 163-190.
. (1912-1913a). Totem and taboo. SE, 13: 1-161.
. (1921c). Group psychology and the analysis of the
ego. SE, 18: 65-143.
. (1930a [1929]). Civilization and its discontents. SE,
21: 57-145.
. (1939a [1934-1938]). Moses and monotheism:
three essays. SE, 23: 1-137.
Kaés, René. (1993). Le groupe et le sujet du groupe. Paris:
Dunod.
Marcuse, Herbert. (1964). One dimensional man. Boston:
Beacon Press.
Mauss, Marcel. (1990). The gift: The form and reason for
exchange in archaic societies (W. D. Halls, Trans.) New
York: W.W. Norton. (Original work published 1923)
Mendel, Gérard. (1968). La révolte contre le pere. Paris:
Payot.
Roheim, Géza. (1950). Psychoanalysis and anthropology.
New York: International Universities Press.
SOKOLNICKA-KUTNER, EUGENIE
(1884-1934)
Eugénie Sokolnicka-Kutner, the Polish psychoanalyst
who introduced psychoanalysis to France, was born in
Warsaw on June 14, 1884 and died in Paris on May 19,
1934,
Eugenia Kutner came from a Jewish bourgeois
family that had demonstrated its political attachment
to the Polish nation. Having been reared by a French
governess, she naturally turned to France at the end of
her secondary education with a view to enrolling in
the Sorbonne to study biology and majoring in
science. She also attended Pierre Janet’s lectures and
established friendships in literary circles that she
would rediscover fifteen years later.
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SOKOLNICKA-KUTNER, EUGENE (1884-1934)
She met M. Sokolnicki there and they got married
when she returned to Poland. She devoted herself
exclusively to family life until 1911 when she went to
study at the Burghdélzli asylum in Zurich, where she
met Carl Gustav Jung. At the time of Jung’s break with
Freud, she decided to go to Vienna and began her analysis
with Freud; this lasted about one year and provoked
a rather hostile counter-transference in Freud.
She and Sokolnicki divorced at this time.
Also at this time she attended a few sessions of the
Vienna Psychoanalytic Society (Nunberg H., Federn
E., 1962-75) before settling in Munich on Freud’s
advice. It may have been during this period that she
analyzed Felix Boehm. The First World War forced her
to return to Warsaw until the threat from the Germans
and the Russians caused her to again flee, this time to
Zurich in 1916. She became a member of the Zurich
Psychoanalytic Society and was also elected to the
Vienna Psychoanalytic Society on November 8, 1916.
Toward the end of 1917 she returned to Poland, and
Freud wrote, in a letter to Sandor Ferenczi dated January
19, 1918 that “Sokolnick seems to be founding a
psychoanalytic society in Warsaw.” For six weeks in
1919 she treated a little Jewish boy from Minsk who
was suffering from an obsessional neurosis, the cure
being classically centered round the transference and
the interpretation of dreams, although a pedagogical
attitude made its appearance, mainly with regard to
sexuality (Ferenczi described it as an example of the
“active technique”). It is, however, one of the first
examples of a child analysis being conducted under
conditions similar to those used for adults. She published
the case the following year under the title:
“Analysis of a Case of Infantile Obsessional Neurosis.”
At the start of 1920 she went to Budapest, and in
January she began an analysis lasting about one year
with Sandor Ferenczi who, sometimes as if in a kind of
supervision, described its progression in his correspondence
with Freud. She was not an easy patient,
suffering from personality problems, mainly irritability,
and describing Ferenczi as incapable compared to
Freud, whom she nevertheless accused of putting an
end to her analysis because she had no money as a
result of her divorce. She also complained that Otto
Rank had wounded her. These so-called paranoid
characteristics were linked to depressive tendencies
and accompanied by disturbing suicide threats. Alongside
all of this, Ferenczi stressed her talent as a psychoanalyst
and the quality of her interpretations.
1633
Somatic COMPLIANCE
In September 1920 she took part in the sixth
International Congress at The Hague, presenting a
paper on “Diagnosis and symptoms of neuroses in
the light of psychoanalytic doctrines” and, in January
1921, expressed her intention of joining her
brother in Paris. Ferenczi then asked Freud to
recommend her to his Payot editor and his translator
Samuel Jankélévitch, a request that Freud deferred
granting until later, adding: “Besides, we both don’t
like her, whereas you obviously have a weakness for
this disagreeable person” (letter dated January 16,
1921). She again visited Freud between February and
March and, upon finally receiving his approval, left
for Paris.
Her relations were then in the literary milieu,
particularly around the Nouvelle Revue francaise.
There, as soon as she arrived in the fall of 1921, she
found a public that was passionate about the “Freud
sessions” she organized and which were attended by
Jacques Riviére and André Gide. The latter is thought
to have had a few analysis sessions with her and have
depicted her in 1925 as “Doctoress Sophroniska” in
The Counterfeiters.
During the winter of 1922-1923 she delivered several
lectures at the Ecole des hautes etudes en sciences
sociales, meeting Georges Heuyer there through Paul
Bourget. Heuyer, who ran the mental illness clinic of
the Sainte-Anne hospital before the arrival of Henri
Claude, invited her to attend the meetings and case
presentations in his department. There she met young
psychiatrists who, like René Laforgue for a few months
or his friend Edouard Pichon for three years (1923-
1926), were to go through the experience of training
analysis with her. She soon either fled the hospital
before Georges Dumas’s sarcasm, or was pushed out
by Henri Claude who would have nothing to do with
non-physician psychoanalysts. She failed to become
the leader of a French psychoanalytic movement,
abandoning that position to Laforgue and Marie
Bonaparte, in spite of her support from Freud, who
took her side rather than trust Laforgue, to whom he
wrote on January 15, 1924: “We would have very
much appreciated your working in cooperation with
Mme Sokolnicka because we have known her for a
very long time and we cannot help seeing her as our
legitimate representative.”
She was appointed vice-president at the founding
of the Paris Psychoanalytic Society in November 1926
and her teaching activity continued to increase con-
1634
stantly. In June 1929 she presented a report to the
fourth Conference of French-Speaking Psychoanalysts
on “Some problems in psychoanalytic technique.” She
analyzed Paulette Laforgue after her hysterectomy,
Blanche Reverchon-Jouve, and Paul Schiff, but her clientele
diminished over the years, leading her to practice
shortened cures that barely earned her enough to
live. Perhaps her turbulent sexual life was to blame, or
the manifestations of the quick temper that Ferenczi
described to Freud on February 11, 1921: “Actually she
has suffered and is suffering not from a typical neurosis
but from pathological sensitivity.”
It may be that from 1931 onward she progressively
came under the influence of a state of depression. Having
been announced for the opening of the Paris Psychoanalytic
Institute in 1934 as speaking from May 2
to 23 on the “psychoanalysis of the character,” she died
of what was probably a deliberate case of gas poisoning
on May 19, 1934, less than a month from her fiftieth
birthday.
ALAIN DE MIJOLLA
See also: Claude, Henri Charles Jules; Heuyer, Georges;
Literature and psychoanalysis; Poland; Technique with
children, psychoanalytic; Société psychanalytique de
Paris et Institut de psychanalyse de Paris.
Bibliography
Duhamel, Pascale. (1988). Eugénie Sokolnicka (1884-1934):
entre l’oublie et le tragique. Memoire pour le Certificat
d études spéciales de psychiatrie. Bordeaux-II.
Pichon, Edouard. (1934). Eugenie Sokolnicka. Revue fran-
¢aise de psychanalyse, 9 (4), 559—588.
Sokolnicka, Eugénie. (1920). Analysis of an obsessional neurosis
in a child. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 3,
306-319.
. (1929). Quelques problémes de technique psychoanalytique.
Revue frangaise de psychanalyse, 3 (1), 1-91.
SOMATIC COMPLIANCE
The notion of somatic compliance was introduced by
Sigmund Freud within the framework of certain
so-called somatic symptoms found exclusively in the
hysteric, pointing toward what he calls “conversion
phenomena.”
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
“Some PsycHicaL CONSEQUENCES OF THE ANATOMICAL DISTINCTION...”
Freud uses this expression for the first time in the
case of Dora (“Fragment of an Analysis of a Case of
Hysteria” [1905e]): The hysterical symptom requires
input from both sides, and “cannot occur without the
presence of a certain degree of somatic compliance
offered by some normal or pathological process in or
connected with one of the bodily organs” (p. 40). It is
this “compliance” at the somatic level which “may
afford the unconscious mental processes with a physical
outlet” (p. 41) and which, accordingly, becomes a
determining factor in the choice of neurosis. Meanwhile,
this somewhat enigmatic notion of somatic
compliance helps explain the equally enigmatic leap
from the mental to the somatic level. “Conversion” is
posited as one of the outcomes of unconscious processes,
providing a privileged medium for the symbolic
expression of unconscious conflict and especially well
able to signify the repressed. Conversion is thus part of
the framework of symbolization, in contrast to the
somatic symptom properly speaking. Freud provides
examples of somatic compliance, and thus of the phenomenon
of conversion, in the case of Dora. In the
same context he mentions “secondary gain from illness”
and “flight into illness.”
Aside from hysteria, somatic compliance in a more
general sense raises the question of the expressive
power of a given organ or body area that is in some
sense hystericized or erogenized, as indeed of the
whole body as a means of expression—as a vicissitude
of the narcissistic cathexis of the body.
Can the notion be used, as in the conception of
Jean-Paul Valabrega, to buttress a theory of psychosomatic
phenomena as the outcome of a general process
of conversion occurring outside the realm of hysteria,
but clearly investing somatic symptoms with meaning?
If so, the notion of compliance would take on another
dimension altogether.
ALAIN FINE
See also: Psychosomatic.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1905e [1901]). Fragment of an analysis of
a case of hysteria. SE, 7: 7-122.
Valabrega, Jean-Paul. (1974). Problemes de theorie psychosomatique.
In Encyclopédie médico-chirurgicale ( Vol. Psychiatrie).
Paris: EMC. (Original work published 1966)
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
“SOME PSYCHICAL CONSEQUENCES OF
THE ANATOMICAL DISTINCTION BETWEEN
THE SEXES”
This paper, finished by Freud in 1925 and read by his
daughter Anna at the International Psycho-Analytical
Congress in Hamburg on September 3, first appeared
in the Internationale Zeitschrift fiir Psychoanalyse in the
same year.
Freud began by noting that he could no longer
afford, as in his early days when he had no fellow
researchers, to put off publication of new discoveries
made on the basis of a mere handful of cases, even
though they might not as yet have been confirmed.
Then, starting out (as usual) from consideration of
boys, Freud drew several new conclusions concerning
girls. During the phallic phase, he argued, the boy
remains attached to his mother and experiences his
father as a rival whose place vis-a-vis his mother he
wishes to usurp; at the same time, he would like to
replace his mother as his father’s love object. The
Oedipus complex is thus described as having two
forms, active and passive—a duality consonant with
the bisexual constitution of humans. When the boy
first sees the girl’s genital area, he denies his perception
that she has no penis (only later will the threat of
castration arouse an emotional storm in him). In contrast,
when the girl discovers the penis of the boy, “she
has seen it and knows that she is without it and wants
to have it” (1925j, p. 252). She falls victim to penis
envy and to a masculinity complex. Consequences
include a feeling of inferiority, jealousy (1919e), and a
loosening of the girl’s tender relationship with her
mother, whom she blames for her lack of a penis
(1925, p. 254).
For Freud, clitoral masturbation is masculine in
character, and the mutilated aspect of the organ in question
explains why women tolerate masturbation worse
than men. The unfolding of femininity is based on a
desire to eliminate clitoral sexuality. Under the sway of
the Oedipus complex, the girl abandons her desire for a
penis and replaces it by the desire for a child, and with
this in mind takes her father as love object: “Whereas in
boys the Oedipus complex is destroyed by the castration
complex, in girls it is made possible and led up to by the
castration complex” (1925j, p. 256). Indeed, the Oedipus
complex never really disappears in women (1924d).
This, according to Freud, accounts for characteristically
feminine traits linked to a weaker and less perfectly
1635
SOMNAMBULISM
formed superego. In this connection, Freud refused to
see the sexes as equal.
It should be noted that Freud’s description of
women as castrated beings who “refuse to accept the
fact of being castrated” is hardly endorsed by all
psychoanalysts.
COLETTE CHILAND
See also: Archaic; Bisexuality; Castration complex; Disavowal;
Female sexuality; Feminism and psychoanalysis;
Masculinity/femininity; Negative hallucination; Penis
envy.
Source Citation
Freud, Sigmund. (1925j). Some psychical consequences of
the anatomical distinction between the sexes. SE, 19: 248—
258.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1919e). “A child is being beaten”: a contribution
to the study of the origin of sexual perversions. SE,
17: 175-204.
. (1923e). The infantile genital organization. SE 19:
141-145.
. (1924d). The dissolution of the Oedipus complex.
SE 19: 171-179.
SOMNAMBULISM
Somnambulism (or sleepwalking) describes an apparently
aimless nighttime walking in an unconscious
state, accompanied by motor activity of varying
degrees of complexity. The next day, the sleeper has
no memory of the episode. Sleepwalking episodes,
which occur during the first part of the night, last
from a few seconds to around thirty minutes. They
begin in the latency period and generally stop after
puberty.
Owing to the amnesia that follows episodes of
sleepwalking, no secondary revision can be made by
the sleeper. This did not prevent Sigmund Freud from
taking an interest in the phenomenon. In 1907 he
spoke about it to the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society
(Nunberg and Federn): He believed that sleepwalking
was related to the fulfillment of sexual wishes and was
thus surprised that there could be mobility without
1636
interruption of the dream life. Finally, at that time, he
suggested that the essence of this phenomenon was the
desire to go to sleep where the individual had slept in
childhood.
Ten years later, he again speculated about somnambulism
in the article “A Metapsychological
Supplement to the Theory of Dreams” (1916-17
[1915]). In this essay, where he proposed to clarify
and expand his hypothetical ideas on dreams, the
dream is a fragile equilibrium that is only partially
successful: first, because the repressed unconscious
impulses of the unconscious system, which do not
obey the wishes of the ego and maintain their
countercathexis, mean that “some amount of the
expenditure on repression (anticathexis) would
have to be maintained throughout the night, in
order to meet the instinctual danger” (p. 225); and
second, because certain preconscious daytime
thoughts can be resistant, and these, too, retain a
part of their cathexis. It is thus apparent how
unconscious impulses and day residues can come
together and result in a conflict.
Freud then wondered about the outcome of this
wishful impulse, which represents an unconscious
instinctual demand and which becomes a dream wish
in the preconscious. Further, he envisioned the case in
which this unconscious impulse could be expressed as
mobility during sleep. This would be what is observed
in somnambulism, though what actually makes it
possible remains unknown.
More recently, based on data from electrophysiological
sleep studies showing that sleepwalking episodes
occur in the early phases of sleep (phases III and IV),
the psychoanalyst Didier Houzel has leaned in the
direction of the Freud’s hypotheses, positing that the
slow sleep phase, by interfering with the phase of
paradoxical sleep that follows and interrupts the latter,
prevents the possibility of dream work. Somnambulism
thus results from a blocking of the possibilities
of mentalization and a diversion of the instinctual
energy onto paths of motor discharge. Houzel’s viewpoint
posits equivalences between night terrors, sleepwalking,
and nocturnal enuresis, all of which have the
same relationship to paradoxical sleep.
PHILIPPE METELLO
See also: Animal magnetism; Hypnosis; Janet, Pierre;
Trance.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1916-17f [1915]). A metapsychological
supplement to the theory of dreams. SE, 14: 217-235.
Houzel, Didier. (1980). Réve et psychopathologie de I’enfant.
Neuropsychiatrie de Tenfance et de T adolescence, 28,
155-164.
Nunberg, Hermann, and Federn, Ernst. (1962-1975). Minutes
of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society. New York: International
Univeristies Press.
SPAIN
In February and March 1893, one month after its
appearance in the Viennese journal Neurologisches
Zentralblatt, two Spanish journals, the Revista de ciencias
médicas in Barcelona and the Gaceta médica in
Granada, published On the Psychical Mechanism of
Hysterical Phenomena by Josef Breuer and Sigmund
Freud (1893a). It was, in the words of James Strachey,
“the very first publication in the world of a translation
of a psychological work by Freud.”
In 1911 José Ortega y Gasset, the well-known intellectual,
published a long article titled “Psicoanalisis,
ciencia problematica” (Psychoanalysis, a problematic
science), in which he recognized the importance of a
great number of Freud’s contributions. This article
provoked the publication of Freud’s works in Spanish.
At Ortega’s suggestion, the publisher Ruiz Castillo
acquired the rights to publish all existing and future
works by Freud and commissioned Lopez Ballesteros
to translate them. The publication of the first translation
in the world of Freud’s complete works in seventeen
volumes appeared over ten years (1922-1932).
The most eminent psychiatrists of the time published
various works in which they analyzed Freud’s
work and assessed the value of his contributions,
but they also criticized what they considered “the
omnipotent unconscious sexuality in all psychical
phenomena” and the subjectivity of the therapeutic
method. Psychoanalytic ideas exercised a considerable
influence on judges, teachers, and thinkers.
Writers and artists also felt attracted by Freud’s discoveries.
A group of intellectuals invited Freud to
Spain to give conferences, but his illness prevented
him from realizing this project. Sandor Ferenczi
nevertheless went to Spain in October 1928 and
conducted the communication program Learning
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
SPAIN
Psychoanalysis and Psychoanalytic Transformation
of the Character.
The discourse on psychoanalysis, already present in
Spanish psychiatry, prompted two psychiatrists,
Ramon Sarr6é and Angel Garma, to acquire psychoanalytic
training. Garma trained at the Vienna Psychoanalytic
Institute. He returned to Madrid in
November 1931 and left Spain for good in 1936. For
the five years between 1931 and 1936, motivated by
the desire to create a psychoanalytic movement in
Spain, he worked intensely to promote the discipline.
The Spanish Civil War broke out in July 1936 and put
an end to his hopes. He then emigrated to Argentina,
where he participated in the creation of the Asociacion
psicoanalitica argentina (Argentine Psychoanalytic
Association).
The Civil War (1936-1939) and the years of dictatorship
imposed silence on many cultural and scientific
sectors, particularly psychoanalysis. It was not until
the end of the 1940s that two small groups of psychiatrists
and intellectuals, one in Madrid and the other in
Barcelona, took steps to train as psychoanalysts and to
introduce psychoanalysis to Spain. In 1949 the Madrid
psychiatrist R. del Portillo turned to the Deutsche psychoanalytische
Gesellschaft (German Psychoanalytic
Society) for training. He was analyzed by M. Steimback,
whom he invited to Madrid to act as a training
analyst. Steimback accepted and, until 1954, the year
of his death, participated in training such analysts as
Drs. R. del Portillo, Ma Teresa Ruiz, Carolina Zamora,
J. Pertejo, and Julio Corominas.
During this same period Drs. Bofill, Folch, and
Nuria Abello from Barcelona turned to the Swiss
Psychoanalytical Society for training. There they
came into contact with Drs. Rallo from Madrid and
FE. Alvin from Lisbon. Drs. Pertejo, Zamora, and
Corominas organized the Grupo Luso-Espanol de
psicoanalisis (Portuguese-Spanish Group for Psychoanalysis),
which, sponsored by the Swiss and Paris
societies, was recognized by the International Psychoanalytical
Association (IPA) in 1957. In 1958 R.
del Portillo and Ma Teresa Ruiz joined the group.
During the International Congress in 1959 the International
Psychoanalytical Association admitted
the group as a member. Following the break with the
Portuguese group in 1966, the Sociedad Luso-Espafol
de psicoanalisis (Portuguese-Spanish Society for
Psychoanalysis) became the Sociedad Espanola de
psicoanalisis (Spanish Psychoanalytical Society).
1637
Speciric ACTION
In 1973 psychoanalysts practicing in Madrid
decided to form an independent group, and in 1979
the International Psychoanalytical Association recognized
the Asociacion de psicoanalitica de Madrid
(Madrid Psychoanalytical Association) at the thirtyfirst
congress. From then on the two IPA-affiliated
societies together contributed to the development of
psychoanalysis in Spain.
The scientific activity of the two societies proved to
be intense and prolific throughout the years. Publications
by Drs. Leon Grinberg, Folch, Bofill, Coderch,
Torres de Bea, Spilka, Cruz Roche, Manuel Pérez Sanchez,
Utrilla, Paz, Olmos, Loren, Guimon, congresses,
symposia, schools, conferences; the publication of the
journals Revista catalana de psicoanalisis and the
Revista de psicoandlisis de Madrid—all bear witness to
ongoing reflections on psychoanalytic theory and clinical
practice. In these and other ways the two societies
were active in both the medical and academic spheres,
thus contributing to the dissemination of psychoanalytic
thought.
In 1975 Oscar Masotta, an Argentinean philosopher
and member of the Freudian School of Paris, introduced
Jacques Lacan’s ideas in Spain. In 1977 the
library Biblioteca Freudiana was created in Barcelona,
thus embodying the first institutional form of Lacan’s
ideas in the country.
After Masotta’s death (1979), the dissolution of the
Freudian school of psychoanalysis (1980), and the
death of Lacan himself (1981), the Lacanian groups
broke up and dispersed. In 1990, a group of eminent
personalities, among them Jacques-Alain Miller, Eric
Laurent, and Colette Soler, founded the European
School of Psychoanalysis and the first section of the
branch school in Barcelona. Later in the 1990s, different
sections have come together in the European
School of Psychoanalysis—Spain. Other Lacanian
groups also exist and are directly linked to various
French groups.
One hundred years after the first publication in
Spain of a work by Freud, a great many psychoanalytic
ideas have taken hold in psychiatry, medicine, psychology,
teaching, and ethics, and many psychoanalysts are
actively working to relieve psychic pain and contribute
to a better knowledge of human development, both
normal and pathological.
Maria Luisa Munoz
1638
Bibliography
Bermejo, Frijole V. (1993). La institucionalizacion del psicoanalisis
en Espafia en el marco de la A.P.I. Doctoral thesis,
faculty of psychology, University of Valencia.
Caries, Egea. (1983). Introduccién al psicoanalisis en
Espana, 1893-1922. Doctoral thesis, University of Murcia.
Mujfioz, Maria Luisa. (1989, May-November). Contribucion
a la historia del movimiento psicoanalitico en Espana.
Revista de psicoandlisis. Madrid.
Mufioz Gonzalez, J. (1987). Evolucién del psicoanalisis en
Espafia (1923-1936). Doctoral thesis, University of
Murcia.
Pérez Sanchez, Manuel. (1984). Inicios del movimiento psicoanalitico.
Revista catalana de psicoanalisis, 1, 1.
SPECIFIC ACTION
The purpose of specific action is to permit the release
of tension in ways comparable with the instinctual
aim. This term appeared in Freud’s earliest writings,
but he rarely used it afterwards.
The term “specific reaction” (spezifische Reaktion)
was used by Freud in “Draft E” of his correspondence
with Wilhelm Fliess, which dates probably to June
1894, and which he entitled “How Anxiety Originates”
(in 1950a). He sketched an answer to this question
from the point of view of an energetics of somatic-mental
functioning, an approach that went on to play a
major role in the development of his thought: anxiety
resulted from an accumulation of tension (biological
tension, in the sense that need was involved; but also
mental tension, for it implied a wish in search of an
object), when there was no way for this tension to be
released. Tension could be released in two ways: in the
form of violent cries, emotional outbursts, destructiveness,
and so forth; or in a way adequate to the need—as
for example, the ingestion of food for a baby, or engaging
in coitus for an adult. Such adequate kinds of
releases are what Freud called “specific reactions.”
Freud developed these views in other writings of the
same period (1894a [1895]), particularly in the “Project
for a Scientific Psychology” (1950c [1895]).
The notion of “specific action” is sometimes
deemed obsolete, or tainted by a naive behaviorism. In
fact, as early as 1894, Freud very plainly stressed the
need to distinguish between the biological tension of
need and the properly psychic level, where specific
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
action presupposes “preparations,” a whole “psychical
working-through,” in the framework of the conflictual
dynamic specific to the subject (Perron-Borelli). Much
later, when Freud reframed his conception of anxiety,
he added a “signal of anxiety”—a testimony to, and
outcome of those working-through processes—to his
earlier “automatic anxiety,” generated by the accumulation
of tension.
ROGER PERRON
See also: Act/action; Anxiety.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1894a). The neuro-psychoses of defence.
SE, 3: 41-61.
. (1895b). On the grounds for detaching a particular
syndrome from neurasthenia under the description “anxiety
neurosis.” SE, 3: 85-115.
. (1926d [1925]). Inhibitions, symptoms and anxiety.
SE, 20: 75-172.
. (1950a [1887—1902]). Extracts from the Fliess
papers. SE, 1: 173-280.
. (1950c [1895]). Project for a scientific psychology.
SE, 1: 281-387.
Perron-Borelli, Michele. (1997). Dynamique du fantasme.
Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
SPIELREIN, SABINA (1885-C. 1941)
Sabina Spielrein, a Russian psychoanalyst, was born in
1885 in Rostov, and died in the city of her birth, in the
Soviet Union, in 1941 or 1942, during World War II.
Born into a wealthy Jewish middle-class family,
Sabina at age nineteen was taken to Zurich to be treated
for severe hysteria. She was hospitalized at Burghélzli,
the famous psychiatric university hospital run
by Eugen Bleuler. There Carl G. Jung became her physician
and succeeded in alleviating most of her symptoms.
Within a year, by 1905, she was able to begin
medical studies. She continued an analysis with Jung
that he described as “Freudian” and that offered him
an opportunity to initiate a relationship with Freud,
from 1907.
The therapeutic relationship between Jung and
Spielrein evolved into a personal relationship, probably
a brief affair, after which Jung appears to have distanced
himself from her and then called for Freud’s
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SPIELREIN, SABINA (1885-c. 1941)
help. The two men, who by then had been friends for
two years, discussed the relationship in their correspondence,
and at Jung’s request Freud wrote to
Spielrein’s mother. In spite of what the two men
thought, however, Freud’s intervention did not end
Sabina’s passion for Jung, a passion documented in
her diaries. Nonetheless, in 1911 she finished her
studies in psychiatry under Jung’s direction with the
thesis “The Psychological Content of a Case of Schizophrenia.”
As Freud and Jung moved toward the
rupture of their friendship and collaboration, Spielrein
went to Vienna, where, in 1911, she presented
her paper “Destruction as the Cause of Becoming”
(1995), which received a mixed reception in the context
of much anti-Jung sentiment.
After the break between Freud and Jung, in which
she could not clearly decide which side to take, Spielrein’s
life and career becomes more difficult to follow.
In 1912 she married a Russian physician, Paul Scheftel,
with whom she had a daughter in 1913; he returned to
Russia in 1915. Spielrein could not settle down, moving
successively to Zurich, Munich, Lausanne, and
Geneva. She worked as an analyst but appears to have
been uncertain whether her real calling was to psychoanalysis,
art history, or music. A second daughter was
born in 1926.
By 1923, with Freud’s encouragement, Spielrein
had returned to Soviet Russia. She was admitted to the
new Moscow Psychoanalytic Institute and taught psychoanalysis
until it was prohibited in 1927. After
returning to her birthplace, Rostov, during World War
II, Spielrein was murdered by the Nazis, together with
all the Jewish inhabitants of the city, in 1941 or 1942.
Spielrein published about thirty articles, the best
known being her 1995 paper, which develops original
ideas on female sexuality and is sometimes said to
adumbrate Freud’s concept of the death instinct. It is
unfortunate that a love affair and the troubled relationship
between Freud and Jung played a role in her
early disappearance from the intellectual ferment of
psychoanalysis.
In spite of more shadow than light, her story retains
an indisputable fascination. A series of fortuitous
discoveries rescued Spielrein from oblivion. In 1977 a
carton was discovered containing her diary and some
of the letters she exchanged with Freud and Jung.
A second cache, then a third, were recovered. These
documents revealed the details of the long-suppressed
1639
SPINOZA AND PSYCHOANALYSIS
secret—an analysand seduced and abandoned by her
analyst—which would have embarrassed Jung first and
foremost, but also Freud, who had helped minimize
the affair.
An intriguing and original figure in the early years
of psychoanalysis, Spielrein subsequently became the
object of considerable attention and the subject of several
books.
NICOLLE Kress-ROSEN
See also: Abstinence/rule of abstinence; Ethics; Jung, Carl
Gustav; Death instinct (Thanatos); Russia/USSR; Société
psychanalytique de Geneve; Switzerland (Germanspeaking);
Tranference love.
Bibliography
Carotenuto, Aldo, and Trombetta, Carlo. (1982). A secret
symmetry: Sabina Spielrein between Jung and Freud (Arno
Pomerans, John Shepley, and Krishna Winston, Trans.).
New York: Pantheon Books. (Original work published
1977)
Kerr, John. (1993). A most dangerous method: The story of
Jung, Freud, and Sabina Spielrein. New York: Alfred A.
Knopf.
Kress-Rosen, Nicolle. (1993). Trois figures de la passion.
Paris: Arcanes.
Spielrein, Sabina. (1995). Destruction as a cause of coming
into being (S. K. Witt, Trans.). Psychoanalysis and Contemporary
Thought, 18, 85-118. (Original work published 1911)
SPINOZA AND PSYCHOANALYSIS
In the history of psychoanalysis, several philosophers
became subjects of a privileged confrontation with
Freud. One such philosopher was Baruch Spinoza
(1632-1677). From the 1920s intellectuals noted correspondences
between Freudian thought and Spinoza’s
philosophy (Smith, 1924; Alexander, 1927). This discussion
continues to more recent times (Bodei, 1991;
Ogilvie, 1993).
Freud himself rarely spoke of Spinoza. Although
he referred to Spinoza in Leonardo da Vinci and a
Memory of his Childhood (1910c), he did not explicitly
mention Spinoza anyplace else. In the work of
Jacques Lacan, Spinoza is often present in the background
and occasionally cited. For instance, proposition
57 of part 3 of Spinoza’s Ethics appears as an
epigraph to Lacan’s medical dissertation (1932).
1640
Authors who have tried to situate Spinoza vis-a-vis
psychoanalysis have pondered several different kinds of
questions. W. Aron (1977) asked about the overall influence
of Spinoza on Freud’s thought. C. Rathbun (1934)
noted that the libido, a fundamental concept of psychoanalysis,
is adumbrated in Spinoza’s concept of conatus,
an inborn drive that leads to striving and persisting. On
Walter Bernard’s reading (1946), it is perhaps closer to
eros or desire. But what, according to these authors,
were Spinoza’s therapeutic principles? These works
today appear dated, indicative as much of the intellectual
state of psychoanalysis, particularly in Anglo-Saxon
countries, as of a poorly informed reading of Spinoza.
Some authors, such as Abraham Kaplan (1977) recall
that Spinoza’s philosophy was not a proto-psychoanalytic
science, but a very knowledgeable metaphysics. Francis
Pasche (1981) discusses the idea of “practical psychoanalysis.”
Gilles Deleuze’s work on Spinoza,
Expression in Philosophy (1992), has opened the way
toward a confrontation between Spinozistic and psychoanalytic
ethics. Finally, several psychoanalytic
authors (Bertrand, 1984; Ogilvie, 1993; Burbage and
Chouchan, 1993) have discovered unconscious implications
in Spinoza’s philosophy.
MICHELE BERTRAND
See also: Althusser, Louis; Breuer, Josef; Determinism;
Doubt; German romanticism and psychoanalysis; Goethe
and psychoanalysis; Kantianism and _ psychoanalysis;
Oceanic feeling; Philosophy and psychoanalysis; Pleasure
in thinking; Rolland, Romain Edme Paul-Emile.
Bibliography
Alexander, Bernhard. (1927). Spinoza und Psychoanalyse.
Chronicum Spinosanum, 5, 96-103.
Bernard, Walter. (1946). Freud and Spinoza. Psychiatry, 5,
99-108.
Bertrand, Michéle. (1984). Spinoza et Pimaginaire. Paris:
Presses Universitaires de France.
Bodei, Remo. (1991). Geometrica delle passioni. Rome:
Feltrinelli.
Burbage, Frank, and Chouchan, Nathalie. (1993). Freud et
Spinoza: la question de la transformation et le devenir actif
du sujet. In Olivier Bloch (Ed.), Spinoza au XXe siécle (pp.
525-545). Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
Deleuze, Gilles. (1992). Expression in philosophy: Spinoza.
Cambridge, MA: Zone Books.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Freud, Sigmund. (1910c). Leonardo da Vinci and a memory
of his childhood. SE, 11: 57-137.
Kaplan, Abraham. (1977). Spinoza and Freud. Journal of the
American Academy of Psychoanalysis, 5, 299-326.
Lacan, Jacques. (1932). De la psychose paranoiaque dans ses
rapports avec la personnalite. Paris: Le Francois.
Ogilvie, Bertrand. (1993). Spinoza dans la psychanalyse. In
Olivier Bloch (Ed.), Spinoza au XXe siécle (pp. 549-571).
Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
Pasche, Francis. (1981). Métaphysique et inconscient. Revue
Frangaise de PsychanalySE, 45 (1), 9-30.
Rathbun, C. (1934). On certain similarities between Spinoza
and psychoanalysis. Psychoanalytic Review, 21, 1, 1-14.
Smith, Maurice Hamblin. (1924). An interesting dream.
International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 5, 4, 468-446.
Spinoza, Benedictus de. (2000). Ethics (G. H. R. Parkinson,
Trans.). New York: Oxford University Press.
SPITZ, RENE ARPAD (1887-1974)
Hungarian psychiatrist and psychoanalyst René Arpad
Spitz was born in Vienna, Austria, on January 29,
1887, and died in Denver, Colorado, on September 14,
1974.
From a wealthy Jewish family background, Spitz
spent most of his childhood in Hungary. While
studying medicine in Budapest—he became a physician
in 1910—he discovered the works of Freud. During
the First World War, he served in the army as a
military physician. Encouraged by Sandor Ferenczi,
he became one of the first to undergo a training analysis
with Freud himself. Between 1924 and 1928, he
participated in the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society
and, subsequently, worked in Berlin, where he
became member of the German Psychoanalytic
Society (DPG).
Between 1932 and 1938 Spitz lived in Paris, where
he taught psychoanalysis and child development at
the elite Ecole Normale Supérieure, and he frequently
attended conferences of the Paris Psychoanalytic
Society. In 1939 he emigrated to the United States
and found work as a psychiatrist at Mount Sinai
Hospital in New York (1940-1943). He served as a
visiting professor at several universities before settling
at the University of Colorado, where he conducted
much of his research on infant development.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Spitz, René Arpad (1887-1974)
He served as president of the Denver Psychoanalytic
Society (1962-63).
At the end of World War II, Spitz (1945, 1946)
published his influential research with infants and
young children in various settings, including a foundling
home and a penal nursery. Serious developmental
pathologies, as he documented with careful
research, arose in infants who, though adequately
nourished, were deprived of maternal care and emotional
sustenance. Through direct observation he
developed the diagnoses of “hospitalism” and “anaclitic
depression,” two pathologies that led him to
further study mental and emotional development
from birth to two years of age.
Spitz is best known for his books on the infant and
the mother-infant dyad, including No and Yes: On the
Genesis of Human Communication (1957); A Genetic
Field Theory of Ego Formation (1959); and The First
Year of Life (1965). According to Spitz, infants pass
through three stages corresponding to stepwise developments
in object relations: (1) the objectless stage
(three first months of life), characterized by “nondifferentiation”
between baby and its mother; (2) the
stage of “the precursor of the object” (from three to
eight months) in which the smiling response indicates
the beginning of object relations; and (3) the
stage of the libidinal object (from eighth to fifteenth
month), by which time the mother is recognized as a
real partner and the infant can distinguish her face
from strangers’ faces. From the fifteenth month, the
child enters into semantic communication with gesture
and the use of “no,” indicating the emergence of
the autonomous ego.
Spitz was the first of a small number of distinguished
psychoanalysts to actively pursue research in
child development by employing methods commonly
used in experimental psychology; his use of films was
particularly influential. In contrast to behavioral psychologists,
however, Spitz believed that deep psychic
process, while not directly observable, may be identified
by surface “indicators” such as the smile. These
reveal “the organizers of the psyche” that serve as evidence
oft he child’s maturation.
KATHLEEN KELLEY-LAINE
See also: Abandonment; Allergic object relationship;
Congress of French-speaking psychoanalysts; Defense;
Depravation; Ethology and psychoanalysis; Fear; France;
1641
Split OBJECT
Hungarian school; Infant observation (therapeutic);
Infant development; International Federation of Psychoanalytic
Societies; Masturbation; Maturation; Mothering;
Oral stage; Phobias in children; Phobic neurosis; Primary
identification; Stranger, fear of; Sucking/thumbsucking;
Switzerland (French-speaking); | Symbiosis/symbiotic
relation.
Bibliography
Emde, Robert N. (Ed.). (1984). Rene Spitz: Dialogues from
infancy. Madison, CT: International Universities Press.
Spitz, René. (1945). Hospitalism: An inquiry into the genesis
of psychiatric conditions in early childhood. Psychoanalytic
Study of the Child, 1, 53-74.
. (1946). Anaclitic depression. Psychoanalytic Study
of the Child, 2, 313-342.
. (1957). No and yes: On the genesis of human communication.
New York: International Universities Press.
. (1959). A genetic field theory of ego formation. New
York: International Universities Press.
. (1965). The first year of life. New York: International
Universities Press.
(1958). On the genesis of superego components.
Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 13, 375-404.
SPLIT OBJECT
The concept of the splitting of the object was elaborated
by Melanie Klein. This is a defense mechanism
deployed by the ego against anxieties concerning the
destructiveness of the death drive, and which is directed
at maintaining the separation between a good
object and a bad object to safeguard the security and
integrity of the ego.
The object that is split in this way is the internal
object; Klein developed this concept of internal object
on the basis of the concept of introjection. In fact,
according to Freud, the ego introjects external objects
that are sources of pleasure, and expels outside of
itself that which causes unpleasure. For Melanie
Klein, splitting, introjection, and projection constitute
the first defense mechanisms. In his “phantasies,’
the child introjects parts of his parents’ bodies
(the breast, the penis, and so on), and the parents are
split into gratifying good objects and frustrating bad
objects.
1642
The infant’s first relationship is a relationship to
part-objects, principally to the mother’s breast, which
is split into the ideal breast and the persecuting breast.
In this relationship, the ego projects the death drive
outwards and introjects an ideal object that is the product
of the projection of the life drive. Historically
speaking, Melanie Klein described the depressive position
first, but it was the elaboration of the concept of
the paranoid-schizoid position that then enabled her
to study the mechanism of projective identification,
as the result of primitive projections. Projective identification
consists in the identification of the object
with the part of the self that has been projected, and it
concerns both the good and the bad parts of the self
and the object. The paranoid-schizoid position, which
is characterized by the fragmentation of the ego and
the splitting of the object, is followed by the depressive
position, in which the ego is integrated but is in
the grip of the conflict between opposed drives;
repression then gradually takes over from splitting,
and projective anxiety gives way to guilt. In the paranoid-
schizoid position, splitting therefore relates to
part-objects, whereas in the ensuing depressive position
it relates to a total object.
The interest in the internal object and its splitting
has led Kleinian analysts to develop an entire conceptual
apparatus concerning the genesis, evolution, and
position of the object in the psychic apparatus and in
the dynamics of the object relationship. Also deserving
mention here are Wilfred Bion’s beta-elements
and alpha-elements and “K” and “O,” Frances Tustin’s
sensation-objects and Donald Winnicott’s transitional
object, as well as the role of dimensionality in
Donald Meltzer’s work.
In clinical practice, these concepts provide a better
understanding of the way in which the line of the
splitting protects and maintains the idealized object,
by separating it from the frustrating object that bears
the hallmark of castration (particularly in perverse,
depressive, or obsessional neurotic structures).
The concept of the splitting of the object, based
on the concept of the splitting of the ego introduced
by Freud, has made it possible to focus attention on
the importance of the internal object and of the
phantasy, and has opened up some productive perspectives
concerning intersubjectivity.
PANos ALOUPIS
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
See also: Object; Object, change of/choice of: Splitting;
Splitting of the object.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1915c). Instincts and their vicissitudes.
SE, 14: 109-140.
Klein, Melanie. (1948). Contributions to psychoanalysis, London,
Hogarth, 1967.
- (1952). The mutual influences in the development
of ego and id. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 7, 51-53.
Further Reading
Bass, Alan. (2001). Difference and disavowal. Palo Alto:
Stanford University Press.
Grotstein, James. (1981). Splitting and projective identification.
New York: Aronson.
SPLITS IN PSYCHOANALYSIS
Since its beginning, the psychoanalytic movement has
been plagued by conflicts and has given rise not only
to numerous splinter movements, but also to adversarial
sub-groups and internal divisions within its larger
institutions. Some see this as an indication of the psychoanalytic
movement’s tendency towards dogmatic
organizations that practice exclusion and “excommunication.”
But others see signs of what they call “heteroglossia,’
noting that with conflict, propositions that
were once judged to be inconsistent with the general
theory of psychoanalysis are later reincorporated into
it.
The breakup of Freud’s friendship with Wilhelm
Fliess could be called, albeit a bit arbitrarily, the first
psychoanalytic “split.” The way they split seems almost
paradigmatic: two passionate researchers who seemed
similar were able to collaborate in spite of profound
contradictions between them that remained hidden
until the moment one of them began to assert himself.
The 1912 break between Freud and Alfred Adler
could be described in just the same way, and likewise
that of Freud and Carl Jung in 1913. Neither of the two
came to Freud empty-handed. They each had their
own theoretical ideas and their own body of research.
And their encounters with Freud were for a time more
like those between like-minded individuals. They were
not waiting for any kind of illumination, which they
believed they already possessed, but rather supplemen-
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SPLITS IN PSYCHOANALYSIS
tal clarifications, or better still, Freud’s approval. Both
followed theoretical tendencies that diverged from
Preud’s own ideas and personality and that indicated
orientations characteristic of their time: Adler emphasized
social factors, under the influence of the Marxist
movement that unfolded for most of the twentieth
century; Jung was preoccupied with mysticism and the
esoteric tradition from which Freud, in spite of his
curiosity, kept a distance in his theorizing, if not in
private life. Each of them founded parallel movements
that refused to take any advantage of their connections
to psychoanalysis even by virtue of their names:
Adler’s “individual psychology” and Jung’s “analytical
psychology.” Wilhelm Stekel, who left the psychoanalytic
movement after Adler in 1912, remained a marginal
figure and only had a few disciples who followed
him personally without constituting a group.
The first true psychoanalytic split was that of Otto
Rank in the aftermath of the publication of his book
The Trauma of Birth in 1924. Rank was educated with
Freud’s help and even somewhat under Freud’s wing,
and he was a crucial player in the conception and the
organization of the psychoanalytic movement. On the
basis of Freudian premises, and by claiming to be their
true inheritor, Rank separated himself from the very
person to whom he owed his entire career. In contrast
to others who moved up the Freudian ranks for a time
and then took a divergent path only to disappear forever
after, Rank did not remain alone, and only his
early death prevented him from developing a school
with successors to carry on his ideas. His ideas on
trauma, the primal relation to the mother, and the
shortening of the duration of the treatment are some
of the themes that later emerged to take an increasingly
important place in contemporary psychoanalysis.
Sandor Ferenczi’s influence in psychoanalysis
followed a similar trajectory, and he only narrowly
avoided a break with Freud over the experimental
techniques of his late career, as detailed in his article
on the “Confusion of Tongues” (1932). His death prevented
a break with Freud, which would have been one
of the last to have a theoretical cause. The same can be
said of Wilhelm Reich, who was thrown out of the psychoanalytic
movement in 1934, though his political
activism was a precursor of the Freudian-Marxist
movements that would appear some decades later.
Problems of training increasingly came to overtake
theoretical disputes as the primary motive for splits.
This shift was signaled in 1926 by the trial of Theodor
1643
SPLITS IN PSYCHOANALYSIS
Reik for quackery, by Freud’s commentary on the case
in The Question of Lay Analysis, and by the discussion
that ensued within the International Psychoanalytic
Association in 1927. Training was confirmed as the
new topic of debate by the creation of the Swiss Medical
Society for Psychoanalysis in Zurich in 1928. The
new society excluded non-physicians, a measure
aimed specifically at Oskar Pfister. The debate intensified
when, in 1938, the American Psychoanalytic Association’s
refusal to admit non-physicians to their
membership led to the brink of a split with the International
Psychoanalytic Association (I.P.A.). But as
Ernest Jones said in all seriousness, “the advent of the
Second World War altered the whole situation ... and
the Americans ... cordially cooperated with [the
LP.A.]” (Jones, Vol. 3, p. 300). But it was actually the
death of Freud in September 1939, along with the disruptions
that accompanied the exodus of Jewish analysts
from Europe, that would radically alter relations
among analysts (Mijolla). This led to the codification
of the qualifications for the status of “psychoanalyst,”
which Freud had held the supreme right to confer
while he lived.
One of the last great theoretical debates was the
controversy between the partisans of Anna Freud and
those of Melanie Klein from 1941 to 1945. The debate
almost provoked a split, with each of the parties considering
themselves to be more faithful to Freud’s
thought, but in the end the crisis was averted by a
compromise that allowed the British Psychoanalytic
Society to split into three subdivisions that have managed
to coexist as well as could be expected. Meanwhile,
in the United States, Karen Horney was kept out of the
New York Institute, also for theoretical differences. In
1941, along with others who shared her “culturalist”
views, she founded the Association for the Advancement
of Psychoanalysis and the American Institute of
Psychoanalysis. A series of splits followed, in Washington,
Boston, and Los Angeles, while at the same time a
number of associations for lay analysts were founded,
such as the National Psychological Association for Psychoanalysis,
founded by Theodor Reik in 1948. In
1987, this association was, after a lony struggle, the
cause of a reversal! in I.P.A.’s policy on lay analysts.
In Germany after the war, theoretical grounds were
used to settle scores for the positions that some had
taken during the Nazi era. The German Psychoanalytic
Society (Deutsche Psychoanalytische Gesellschaft,
D.P.G.), which was reestablished in 1945 under the
1644
strict leadership of Carl Miiller-Braunschweig and
Harald Schultz-Hencke, was a heterogeneous assembly
that had hardly any conceptual or practical relationship
with I.P.A.’s conception of psychoanalysis as
represented at the Zurich Congress in 1949. Harald
Schultz-Hencke advocated a “neo-psychoanalysis,”
and several of the group’s members were more Jungian
than Freudian. Thus Carl Miiller-Braunschweig, in
spite of the fact that his past did not inspire much confidence,
was encouraged by those who held more
orthodox views to found the German Psychoanalytic
Association (Deutsche Psychoanalytische Vereinigung,
D.P.V.), which was the only German group to be recognized
by the I.P.A. as authorized to train analysts. The
two groups would coexist until the German Psychoanalytic
Society was eventually readmitted into the
international psychoanalytic community.
Increasingly, problems of recruitment and training
caused crises and splits within the international psychoanalytic
movement. After World War II, the growing
popularity of psychoanalysis and its geographical
expansion linked to the exodus of analysts from
Europe led to an increased demand for analysts and
trainers in the western world.
The example of France is significant in this context.
Young psychiatrists were already interested in
psychoanalysis, but the creation of a bachelor’s
degree in psychology by Daniel Lagache in 1947
broadened this interest considerably. The decision
to found a psychoanalytic institute in Paris triggered
a struggle both for leadership and for authority over
the candidates who began to flock to it. The outcome
was the split of 1953, which left the Psychoanalytic
Society of Paris (Société psychanalytique de
Paris, S.P.P.) under the control of Sacha Nacht and
led to the creation of the French Psychoanalytic
Society (Société francaise de psychanalyse, S.F.P.) and
a “free institute” co-directed by Daniel Lagache and
Jacques Lacan. The new group then requested membership
in the I.P.A., which, with an unprecedented
intensity, took on the role of arbiter and even
supreme authority in matters of training. Excluded
from the I.P.A. by their own secession, the analysts
of the S.RP. fought for twelve years before their credentials
as training analysts were granted. This
recognition came at the price of excluding Jacques
Lacan, who refused to comply with the norms that
the I.P.A. imposed on analysts all over the world,
such as the quantity and frequency of sessions in a
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
training analysis, the length of sessions, and the
rituals concerning the required supervised analyses.
But conflicts over training reemerged after the foundation
of the Freudian School of Paris (Ecole freudienne
de Paris, E.RP.) by Jacques Lacan in 1964. A case in
point was the split of 1969, when Piera Aulangier, Frangois
Perrier, and Jean-Paul Valabrega left to form the
Quatrieme Groupe (“Fourth Group” or O.P.L.EB). After
Lacan dissolved the E.EP. in 1980 and died the following
year, the Lacanian movement suffered split after
split, giving rise, in fact, to a plethora of small groups,
most of them not very long-lived. In spite of its violent
internal conflicts, the School of the Freudian Cause
(Ecole de la Cause freudienne, E.C.E.), the successor to
the E.F.P., remained the most stable institution. Its longest
lasting contemporary, the Center for Psychoanalytic
Training and Research, broke up in 1995.
Psychoanalytic splits are often political, like the formation
of the Psychoanalytic Seminar of Zurich in
1977, and often emotional, like the divisions over Kleinian
theory in the Argentinean Societies. In the end,
they are too numerous for a comprehensive overview.
It has been impossible to give more than the most significant
examples here. Nevertheless, they do have
common features, among them emotional breakups,
rebelliousness, and ideological schisms. Each split presents
a mixture of these features in different proportions.
Splits resemble emotional breakups insofar as
old friendships are broken, transferential bonds are
brutally cut, and choices must be made. “It reminds
you of parents who are divorcing,” as Anna Freud said
in 1953 (Lacan, p. 72). As for “rebelliousness,” its
traces are to be found in the new structures and regulations
that arise, with much of the focus being on the
functions of training, supervision, and so on. And
ideological schisms, though generally masked by
administrative operations, are always present. The fact
that debates over ideas rarely reflect contrasting theoretical
visions does not mean that they are any less
vital. This is evident from the fact that every split is followed
by a burst of creative activity on both sides.
It is possible to see in this last feature the invigorating
potential of splits, which might otherwise seem like
a kind of destruction. New, often formally unstable
ideas can cause a definitive break, yet later they may
reemerge in the mainstream of a psychoanalysis that is
in perpetual evolution.
ALAIN DE MIJOLLA
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SPLITTING
See also: Adler, Alfred; American Academy of Psychoanalysis;
Belgium; Congrés des psychanalystes de langue
francaise des pays romans; Ecole freudienne de Paris
(Freudian School of Paris); France;Jahrbuch der Psychoanalyse;
Jung, Carl Gustav; Minutes of the Vienna
Psychoanalytic Society; Mouvement lacanien frangais;
Netherlands; New York Freudian Society; Psychic causality;
Quatriéme Groupe (O.P.L.F.), Fourth group; Rank
(Rosenfeld), Otto; Schweizerische Arztegeselléchaft fiir
Psychoanalyse; Societé francaise de psychanalyse; Société
psychanalytique de Paris and Institut de psychanalyse de
Paris; Switzerland (German-speaking; Training analysis;
United States.
Bibliography
Jones, Ernest. (1953-1957). Sigmund Freud. Life and work
(Vols. 1-3). London: Hogarth.
Lacan, Jacques. (1990). Television: A challenge to the psychoanalytic
establishment. (Joan Copjec, Ed., and Denis Hollier,
et al., Trans.). New York: W. W. Norton. (Original
work published 1974)
Lockot, Regine. (1995). Mésusage, disqualification et division
au lieu d’expiation. Topique, 57, 245-256.
Mijolla, Alain de. (2001). Splits in the French Psychoanalytic
movement between 1953 and 1964. In R. Steiner and
J. Johns (Eds.), Within Time and Beyond Time (pp. 1-24).
London: Karnac.
Pines, Malcolm. (1995). La dissension dans son contexte:
schismes dans le mouvement psychanalytique. Topique, 57,
191-206.
Thompson, Nellie L. (1995). Les schismes dans le mouvement
psychanalytique aux Etats-Unis. Topique, 57, 257-270.
SPLITTING
Splitting is a form of dissociation that results from a
conflict that can affect the ego (splitting of the ego) or
its objects (splitting of the object). It is a very general
intrapsychic process to the extent that it also forms the
basis of the capacity in the psychic apparatus for dividing
itself into systems (cf. first topography: unconscious,
preconscious, conscious) and into agencies (cf.
second topography: id, ego, superego).
The term “splitting” has some long-established uses
in psychiatry and goes back to the general concept of a
capacity for psychic splitting in the human being.
These usages are precursors of the concept of splitting
as defined by Freud. They are found in the nineteenth
century in relation to hysteria and hypnosis (splitting
1645
SPLITTING
of the personality, multiple personalities, dissociation)
and in Pierre Janet’s work, in which the concept of a
deficiency of psychological synthesis plays an important
role. Freud and Breuer return to the concept of
splitting in relation to “splitting of consciousness” and
from 1894 (“The Psycho-Neuroses of Defence”),
Freud provides a causality for this process: “For these
patients whom I analysed had enjoyed good mental
health until the moment at which an occurrence of
incompatibility took place in their ideational life—that
is to say, until their ego was faced with such an experience,
an idea or a feeling which aroused such a distressing
affect that the subject decided to forget about it
because he had no confidence in his power to resolve
the contradiction between that incompatible idea and
his ego by means of thought-activity” (1894a, p. 47).
However, the splitting mentioned here goes back to
neurotic repression. Now, Freud, writes, “There is,
however, a much more energetic and successful kind
of defence. Here, the ego rejects the incompatible idea
together with its affect and behaves as if the idea had
never occurred to the ego at all” (1894a, p. 58). This
describes another form of splitting, that which Jacques
Lacan later translates as foreclosure (forclusion—Verwerfung),
which is characteristic of the psychoses and
results in the foreclosed element returning in the real
in the form of a hallucination. With the concept of
“denial of reality,’ Freud introduces another form of
splitting that demonstrates the proximity of the
mechanisms of perversion to psychotic mechanisms
without actually conflating them, as is evident from
the creation of a substitute for the absent reality (the
female penis) that occurs in the fetish, which differs
from a hallucination.
The concept of splitting does not only concern
this possibility of dissociation from reality or internal
rift in the ego, but also relates to the object of the
drive. Based on Freud’s hypotheses concerning the
life drive and the death drive, Melanie Klein demonstrated
the force with which the latter operates in
generating infantile anxiety when confronted with
frustration. The splitting between a “loved good
breast” and a “hated bad breast” therefore constitutes
a way of simultaneously preserving a good object and
constructing a bad object as the receptacle of the
destructive drives. This situation corresponds to what
the author terms the paranoid-schizoid phase. The
support that the ego draws from the good object and
the process of repairing the destroyed object subse-
1646
quently allow this splitting to be partly overcome.
However, the splitting of the object is inextricable
from a splitting of the ego into a “good” and a “bad”
ego, according to the introjection of the corresponding
split objects. Splitting can prove difficult to overcome
when it is established between a very bad object
and an idealized object. The entire pathology of idealization
opens up here with its multiple clinical
facets.
Melanie Klein’s successors, Wilfred Bion and
Donald Winnicott, amplified and deepened the
concept of splitting. For Bion, splitting in the form
of dissociation precedes the work of elaboration in
loss. For Winnicott, who takes up Helene Deutsch’s
concept of “false self,’ a distortion in the initial
relationship between the mother-environment and
the baby creates a false self that protects the true
self but also isolates it from contact with reality.
For Winnicott, splitting can also take the form of
dissociation or disintegration as responses to being
confronted with a psychotic fear of disintegration.
SOPHIE DE MyOLLA-MELLOR
See also: Alcoholism; Alterations of the ego; Amnesia;
Castration complex; Defense mechanisms; Ego; False self;
Fetishism; Negative, work of; Perversion; Projective identification;
“Some Psychical Consequences of the Anatomical
Distinction Between the Sexes”; Splitting of the
ego; Splitting of the object; “Splitting of the Ego in the
Process of Defence, The”; Splitting (vertical and horizontal);
Transsexualism.
Bibliography
Bion, Wilfred. (1962). Learning from experience. London:
Heinemann.
Klein, Melanie. (1935). A contribution to the psychogenesis
of manic-depressive states. International Journal of Psycho-
Analysis, 16, 145-174. Reprinted 1975 in The writings of
Melanie Klein, vol. 1, 262-289.
. (1952). The mutual influences in the development
of ego and id. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 7, 51-53.
Lacan, Jacques. (1966). Commentaires sur la Verwerfung. In
Ecrits. Paris: Le Seuil. (Original work published 1956)
Winnicott, Donald W. (1953 [1951]). Transitional objects
and transitional phenomena. A study of the first not-me
possession. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 34,
89-97. Additional material was added to the paper in Playing
and reality. London: Tavistock, 1971: 1-30.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
SPLITTING OF THE EGO
The term “splitting of the ego” refers to a division of
the ego into two coexisting parts, one of which satisfies
instinctual demands while the other heeds the objection,
in the shape of a symptom, which reality raises to
that satisfaction. This process, which Freud described
as a “ruse,” constitutes a temporary response to the
conflict, but the price paid is an inner rent in the ego
that can only get worse with time.
For Freud the most striking instance of the splitting
of the ego was to be observed in the perversion of
fetishism, but it was also at work in the psychoses, and
to a lesser degree in neurosis. It represents a position
with respect to reality more complex than denial (or
disavowal [Verleugnung]), for it implies the coexistence
of two contradictory attitudes. The notion of the
splitting of the ego was probably already present in
embryo in Freud’s mind well before his paper on
“Splitting of the Ego in the Process of Defence” (1940e
[1938]). Thus the idea of a “plurality of psychical persons,’
identifications, and in a more general sense the
institution of the ideal mental agencies (superego, ego
ideal) are so many forms of splitting of the ego—
although it should be noted that in the last case the
outcome is the formation of a new agency rather than
the maintenance of a split within the ego itself.
It was above all in the context of the psychoses that
Freud developed this idea, and especially with regard
to paranoia and delusions of reference. Viktor Tausk
also worked in this context in his discussion of the
genesis of the “influencing machine” in schizophrenia
(1919/1949). Similarly, Sandor Ferenczi (1933)
pointed out that traumas experienced by the child
might give rise to a dissociation of a kind that would
enable the adult, later, to present an appearance of perfect
adaptation concealing an ego in ruins. In Freud’s
view, psychosis implied a break with reality caused by
an irreconcilable idea: thanks to the mechanism of
delusional projection, what had been abolished within
the mind reappeared in the outside world in the shape
of a hallucination.
The full dynamic complexity of the splitting of the
ego emerged, however, only in the context of fetishism.
Unlike a hallucination, a fetish was created not by a
denial of reality but rather by a subtle avoidance of it,
thanks to the symbolic transfer of the absent penis
onto some other part of the body. This was the dividing-
line between perversion and psychosis. But the
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
“SPLITTING OF THE EGO IN THE Process oF DEFENCE”’
splitting of the ego also signaled the ego’s failure to
build constructively on reality-testing by interpolating,
between the instinctual demand and its gratification,
the consequences of the envisaged course of action,
whether the repression of the demand or the postponement
of its satisfaction.
SOPHIE DE MyOLLa-MELLOR
See also: Ego; Splitting.
Bibliography
Ferenczi, Sandor. (1949). Confusion of tongues between
adults and the child: The language of tenderness and of
passion. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 30, 225—
230. (Original work published 1932)
Freud, Sigmund. (1927e). Fetishism. SE, 21: 147-157.
. (1940a [1938]). An outline of psycho-analysis. SE,
23: 139-207.
. (1940e [1938]). Splitting of the ego in the process
of defence. SE, 23: 271-278.
. (1950a [1887—1902]). The origins of psycho-analysis.
Extracts from the Fliess papers. SE, 1: 173-280.
Tausk, Viktor. (1948). On the origin of the “influencing
machine” in schizophrenia. In Robert Fliess (Ed.), The
psycho-analytic reader. New York: International Universities
Press. (Original work published 1919)
Further Reading
Blum, Harold P. (1983). Splitting of the ego and its relation
to parent loss. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association,
31(S), 301-324.
Lichtenberg, Joseph D., and Slap, Joseph W. (1973). Concept
of splitting: Defense mechanisms; representations.
Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 21,
772-787.
Pruyser, P.W. (1975). What splits in “splitting”?: Scrutiny of
concept. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 39, 1-46.
“SPLITTING OF THE EGO IN THE PROCESS
OF DEFENCE”
This short essay, dating from January 1938, was published
after Freud’s death. In this work Freud returned
to an issue that he had previously discussed in “Fetishism”
(1927e) and that he was to take up again in An
Outline of Psychoanalysis (1940a [1938]).
1647
SPLITTING OF THE OBJECT
The subject of ego splitting surfaced also in other
much earlier texts, particularly those concerned with
psychosis, which is why Freud hesitated between
“whether what I have to say should be regarded as
something long familiar and obvious or as something
entirely new and puzzling” (1940e [1938], p. 275).
In the paper, Freud described as “cunning” (p.
277) the solution found by the child simultaneously
to satisfy his instincts and respect reality. (It is surprising
here that what Freud called a “real” danger
was just the fact that the child had been threatened
with castration.) Through the mechanism of splitting,
the child “takes over the fear of that danger as a
pathological symptom and tries subsequently to
divest himself of the fear” (p. 275). The displacement
of confrontation anxiety (onto a phobia, for example)
allows for a particular solution, namely the creation
of a fetish.
Freud goes on to describe how the “reality” of the
threat is confused with the reality of the absence of a
penis in the woman, falsely interpreted as a castration.
Displacing the absent penis onto an object chosen as a
fetish allows the child to disbelieve the threat of castration,
since a substitute for the penis exists. However,
this is only possible at the price of “a turning away
from reality” (p. 277), an erroneous conception of
female anatomy. Demarcating this mechanism from
psychotic functioning is the fact that the substitute is
not hallucinated but chosen in a regressive manner—
that is, from a pregenital perspective. “Success,” Freud
wrote, “is achieved at the price of a rift in the ego
which never heals but which increases as time goes on”
(p. 276).
This text has been much discussed, notably for its
innovation in seeing the splitting of the ego as a process
involved not only in fetishism and psychoses,
but also in neuroses. Freud further developed this
idea of ego splitting in An Outline of Psychoanalysis
(1940a [1938]), where he described the splitting of
the ego as “a universal characteristic of neuroses that
there are present in the subject’s mental life, as
regards some particular behaviour, two different attitudes,
contrary to each other and independent of
each other” (p. 204).
SOPHIE DE MijoLtaA-MELLOR
See also: Splitting.
1648
Source Citation
Freud, Sigmund. (1940e [1938]). Die Ichspaltung im
Abwehrvorgang. Internationaler Zeitschrift Psychoanaltischer
Imago, 25XXV, p. 241-244; GW, XVII, p. 57-62;
Splitting of the ego in the process of defence. SE, 23:271=
278.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1927e). Fetishism. SE, 21: 147-157.
. (1940a [1938]). An outline of psychoanalysis. SE,
23: 139-207.
SPLITTING OF THE OBJECT
The early ego relates to its objects in partial ways; that
is, it splits the object. This process creates objects characterized
by a particular function (feeding, holding,
and so on) or objects that frustrate or gratify (“bad” or
“good” objects). The notion of splitting of the object
appears for the first time in the article “Personification
in the play of children” (Klein, 1929).
Melanie Klein in her earliest observations noted the
wide discrepancies of children’s feelings toward objects
in their attention. She was most impressed, and
alarmed, by the strength of children’s aggressive and
- violent feelings toward objects they played with. Sometimes
the child’s mood changed to aggression, anger,
or fear very suddenly. In panics or tantrums this reaction
could reach a rapid crescendo. Klein interpreted
these hangovers from early infancy as the loss of the
reality of the object. The object was no longer a person
capable of mixed feelings of love and hate, and therefore
of mixed intentions, beneficent or harmful.
Instead, it became an object that was wholly loved or
wholly hated. She regarded the early ego as not fully
able to integrate the impressions of its first object. The
breast, for example, is a good feeding object, or it is a
frustrating one filled with hate and bad intent toward
the infant.
As the ego matures, it becomes capable of recognizing
that one and the same object can have good and
bad aspects, as well as multiple functions. This perceptual
development may, however, be distorted by emotional
factors, with the result that the child, in its ways
of relating, retains partial objects into childhood and
later. Many prejudicial attitudes of race, class, gender,
and so on, rely on distorted perceptions that enhance
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
one or another function, or the “good” or “bad”
intent, to the exclusion of others. The capacity to integrate
objects in accord with reality brings in powerful
new emotional problems for the infant, who must harbor
both hatred of a frustrating mother with love and
gratitude toward her as a feeding mother. This integration
leads to the depressive position and characteristic
experiences of insecurity, guilt, pining, and reparation
(Klein, 1935, 1940).
Melanie Klein derived her notion from Karl Abraham’s
concept of partial object-love (1924). A splitting
of the object is connected with a splitting of the ego;
Klein (1946) thought that both must occur together.
Freud’s last important theoretical contribution (1940e
[1938]) concerned a splitting of the ego in connection
with gross distortion of perceptions of the loved erotic
object.
Anna Freud (1927) and Edward Glover (1945) have
doubted that Klein could accurately describe the very
early stages of development prior to the infant’s
acquiring language. Klein, however, believed that her
extrapolation from the analysis of young children back
to infancy was no different from Freud’s extrapolation
from the analysis of adults back to childhood.
Another dispute concerned the nature of objects. In
classical psychoanalysis, objects are represented in the
minds of adults and infants alike. However, Melanie
Klein followed Karl Abraham in positing a level where
objects are related to as real entities in psychic reality,
be they concretely within the ego or outside.
Rosert D. HINSHELWOOD
See also: Envy and gratitude; Internal object; Linking,
attacks on; Orality; Paranoid-schizoid position.
Bibliography
Abraham, Karl. (1927). The process of introjection in melancholia:
two stages of the oral phase of the libido. In Douglas
Bryan and Alix Strachey (Trans.). Selected papers of
Karl Abraham, M.D. (pp. 442-452). London: Hogarth.
(Original work published 1924)
Freud, Anna. (1928). Introduction to the technic of child analysis
(L. Pierce Clark, Trans.). New York: Nervous and
Mental Disease Publishing Co. (Original work published
1927)
Freud, Sigmund. (1940e [1938]). Splitting of the ego in the
process of defence. SE, 23: 271-278.
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SPLITTING OF THE SUBJECT
Glover, Edward. (1945). Examination of the Klein system of
child psychology. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 1, 75—
118.
Klein, Melanie. (1929). Personification in the play of children.
International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 10, 171-182.
. (1935). A contribution to the psychogenesis of
manic-depressive states. International Journal of Psycho-
Analysis, 16, 145-174.
. (1936). Weaning. In John Rickman (Ed.), On the
bringing up of children. London: Kegan Paul.
. (1940). Mourning and its relation to manic-depressive
states. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 21,
125-153:
. (1946). Notes on some schizoid mechanisms. International
Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 27, 99-110.
SPLITTING OF THE SUBJECT
“Splitting” (in French, “refente”) is one of the translations
Jacques Lacan proposed for the German “Spaltung”
when he discussed how the subject is divided in
subordination to the signifier.
In 1958, at the end of Les formations de I'inconscient
(1998), book 5 of his seminar, Lacan introduced the
written symbol to refer to the effects of the signifier on
the subject. He proposed the French term “refente”
some time later to translate the English term “splitting,’
itself a translation of the term employed by
Freud, “Spaltung,” which, in Lacan’s view, indicated
this same dimension.
As early as 1953 Lacan emphasized an initial division
“that precludes ... any reference to totality in the
individual.” This division differentiates the ego from
the subject and consciousness from the unconscious.
A person does not speak about the subject; the id
speaks about it. A signifier represents the subject, but
before disappearing under this signifier, the subject is
nothing.
The signifier represents the subject for the signifier
that exists in the Other (the primary caregiver). This
operation alienates the subject, and through alienation
produces the subject. The second operation is separation.
It results in the splitting of the subject. There is
no answer in the Other to the question of the subject’s
being. Instead, the subject encounters the desire of the
Other, that is, its own lack, the juncture where the subject’s
fantasy will form.
1649
SPLITTING, VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL
The “division of the subject,” the term that Lacan
used most frequently to translate “Spaltung,” corresponds
to the written notation. Other words have also
been proposed for this notion: not only “refente,” but
also “coupure” (cut) and “évanouissement” (disappearance,
vanishing) in French, as well as “eclipse,”
“fading,” and “aphanisis” in English.
ALAIN VANIER
See also: Alcoholoism; Alteration of the ego; Amnesia;
Castration complex; Defense mechanisms; Ego; False self;
Fetishism; Perversion; Projective identification; “Some
Psychical Consequences of the Anatomical Distinction
between the Sexes”; Splitting of the ego; “Splitting of the
Ego in the Process of Defence”; Splitting of the object;
Splitting, vertical and horizontal; Transsexualism.
Bibliography
Lacan, Jacques. (1966). Du sujet enfin en question. Ecrits,
pp. 229-236. Paris: Seuil.
. (1998). Le séminaire. Book 5: Les formations de I inconscient.
Paris: Seuil. (Delivered in 1957-1958)
SPLITTING, VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL
The psyche is often depicted metaphorically as an
image, and this image can be further represented as
whole or split. A horizontal splitting is used to bring
out a division between upper and lower sectors. A vertical
splitting suggests a separation of sectors that lie
side by side. There is a psychoanalytic tradition that
suggests that the first splitting (horizontal) represents
repression, and the second (vertical) can be considered
as a representation of denial.
A horizontal splitting, the barrier of repression,
separates unconscious material from preconscious
contents, while a vertical splitting basically partitions
material that is more or less accessible to consciousness.
While many are familiar with Sigmund Freud’s
ideas about repression and the forces that maintain it,
the idea of vertical splitting is rather less well known.
According to Heinz Kohut (1971), it is characterized
by the existence, side by side, of attitudes operating on
different levels—different structures of goals, aims,
and moral and aesthetic values. Generally speaking,
one side of this parallel existence is judged to be more
in accord with reality, while the other can be judged
infantile or turned towards immediate gratification.
1650
One of the ways of considering these parallel
attitudes of the personality consists in saying that the
realist attitude is better structured and/or more
neutralized, while the infantile attitude is relatively
unstructured and/or not neutralized. This less structured
sector is sometimes involved in a fantasy, but
with even less structure it can issue in manifest action.
Such is the case with behavioral disturbances such as
addictions, delinquency, and perversions: With horizontal
splitting, the infantile and unstructured material
is kept at bay. With vertical splitting, it succeeds in
expressing itself. Pathological behavior is the manifestation
of this split vertical sector.
ARNOLD GOLDBERG
See also: Sexualization; Splits in psychoanalysis.
Bibliography
Goldberg, Arnold. (1995). The problem of perversion. New
Haven: Yale University Press.
Kohut, Heinz. (1971). The analysis of the self. New York:
International Universities Press.
SQUIGGLE
The squiggle was Donald Winnicott’s technique of
communicating with children through drawing, in
psychotherapeutic consultation. First he would make a
“squiggle,” a twisted or wriggly line spontaneously
drawn on a piece of paper. The child then adds elements
to the drawing, and the analyst and child comment
on its meaning. The analyst then transforms the
child’s drawing, and the analyst and child further comment
on the drawing. This interview diagnostic is
based on the idea of testing a therapeutic response.
Winnicott described the game first in 1958 and later
more fully, with a series of case studies, in 1971. During
his career as both pediatrician and psychoanalyst,
Winnicott developed techniques in his work with children
that were at once diagnostic and frequently therapeutic,
based on his view that creative communication
and play both occur in the “third area” or “area of
experiencin—gth”e space between persons where contributions
from each overlap.
Winnicott’s concept of the “third area,” “transitional
area,’ or “area of experiencing” derives from
his thinking about the infant’s.development from the
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
early illusory stage of omnipotence to the stage of
recognizing objective reality, and is linked to his ideas
about transitional objects and phenomena. An earlier
example of communicating with and observing an
infant is given in his description of the “spatula game”
(Winnicott, 1941).
In both games, Winnicott observed the responses of
all parties in the interaction: in the spatula game, the
responses of mother, baby, himself, and any observer;
in the squiggle game, his own and the child’s spontaneous
actions and comments.
His description of the squiggle game is exquisitely
detailed: how he met the child and introduced the
game, how he took pains to diminish possible anxiety,
and how he allowed the child, if the child wished, to
decline this invitation to play.
Winnicott discovered that this technique, in the setting
provided by him, provided reference to current
emotional difficulties and also to their roots in developmental
and structural reality. The clinical descriptions
given in his writings are detailed and give an
insight into the mind and work of this unique psychoanalyst
and pediatrician. Winnicott’s widow, Clare,
described Winnicott’s own enjoyment of his private
squiggles, which he would draw after work each day. A
collection of them is held in the Archives of the British
Psychoanalytical Society.
Winnicott’s description of his technique has
inspired other analysts, who have found it useful,
although some analysts have leveled the criticism that
his spontaneity and his own particular facility for
communicating with children were idiosyncratic and
are difficult to reproduce.
Melanie Klein also made use of play as a technique,
though she used her technique in ongoing psychoanalysis
rather than in diagnostic or therapeutic consultations.
Anna Freud as well made use of play with
children.
JENNIFER JOHNS
See also: Technique with children, psychoanalytic; Winnicott,
Donald Woods.
Bibliography
Winnicott, Donald. (1941). The observation of infants in a
set situation. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 22,
229-249.
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STAGE (oR PHASE)
. (1958). Symptom tolerance in paediatrics. In his
Collected papers: Through paediatrics to psycho-analysis
(pp. 101-117). London: Tavistock Publications. (Originally
published in 1953)
. (1968). The squiggle game. In Voices: The art and
science of psychotherapy, 4 (1).
. (1971). Therapeutic consultations in child psychiatry.
London: Hogarth Press and the Institute of Psycho-
Analysis.
STAGE (OR PHASE)
The term “stage” is used to designate a developmental
phase that, for Freud, is characterized by a specific organization
of the libido, linked to a particular erotogenic
zone, and dominated by a particular modality of object
relations. Some authors prefer to speak of “phases” or
“positions” rather than stages, because these alternatives
emphasize the fact that what are referred to here are
moments in psychosexual development that partake of
the dialectic of the Oedipus complex, rather than a precisely
stable stage in the evolution of the libido. Each
phase of sexual development corresponds in effect to a
distinct type of organization.
Thus the psychoanalytic notion of stage does not
refer to the structural study of the genesis of cognitive
processes, nor does it impinge on the field of developmental
psychology (for instance, the theory of Jean
Piaget). The Freudian approach concerns itself exclusively
with the child’s developing psychosexuality constructed
in “stages,” “phases,” or “organizing
moments” as the child proceeds through various steps
in its maturation.
This perspective attempts to account for the constitutive
effects, during childhood, of bodily and mental
experiences of pleasure and unpleasure, and hence for
the role played by the erotogenic zones at two levels:
object relationships and narcissism, or love and hate—
the basic modes of mental life, which the successive
versions of Freud’s theory of the instincts sought to
explicate. From this standpoint, the scheme of libidinal
stages provides a set of reference points, a grid
against which the specific traits of an individual’s mental
organization can be plotted and clearly profiled
(Brusset, 1992).
Both psychopathology and the psychology of the
ego have used a scheme of stages as a main axis of
reference. In psychopathology, this general model
1651
Stace (or PHASE)
makes it possible to relate pathological structures
(character types, disease entities) to various fixations
or regressions of the libido. One of the most remarkable
demonstrations of the consistency of the model is
the association between obsessional neurosis and the
anal character type. The essential role that anal eroticism
plays in obsessional neurosis led Freud to define
the anal-sadistic stage as a major moment in the organization
of the psyche. This account served as his
initial model for a general conception of “stages of
organization of the libido.” On the basis of his analysis
of the “Rat Man” (1909d), Freud was able to define the
dynamic organization and structure of obsessional
neurosis by drawing out the close connections between
sadomasochism and anal eroticism. Similarly, Freud’s
analysis of the autobiography of Daniel Paul Schreber
(1911c [1910]) served as the basis for Freud to relate
paranoia to a fixation at the narcissistic stage of development
and to relate dementia praecox (schizophrenia)
to a fixation at the autoerotic stage.
In the psychology of the ego (Anna Freud, Reneé
Spitz, Otto Fenichel) and ego psychology (Ernst Kris,
Heinz Hartmann, and Rudolph Loewenstein), sets of
problems are tackled in terms of developmental
stages—a development that brings the notions of
regression and fixation into their own. These two ideas
stand in contrast with those of evolution, process, and
change. From the genetic point of view, fixation, as a
factor in invariable and repetitious behavior, is a constraint
imposed by the instinctual unconscious. Regression
may be pathological (as when it becomes fixated,
for example), but it may also be purely functional and
part of normal development, notably when it occasions
narcissistic reinforcement as preparation for resuming
the dynamic process of object cathexis (Golse, 1992).
When Freud abandoned his theory of seduction, he
inevitably gave new weight to fantasy and emphasized
psychic over material reality. Fantasies, it should be
remembered, are scenarios of action first constructed
in an autoerotic period and tending to actualize mnemic
traces of the experience of satisfaction. This theoretical
step called for a metapsychology, rather than a
simple psychology of the lower, normal, and rational
forms of human mental activity that confines its scope
to conscious phenomena alone. Thus the system of
stages could remain a valid theory only if it was integrated
into a properly psychoanalytic framework, one
that took account, in particular, of the notions of
the unconscious and of repression. Early experience
1652
includes the body, but also the unconscious sexuality
of the mother (Perron-Borelli, 1997).
The object is both a constitutive element of the
instinct and a pole of cathexis within external reality.
The notion of object relations has tended to enhance
the general impact of the model of stages. In particular,
it has opened this model up to the diversity and complexity
of parent-child interaction, lessening the former
emphasis on pressure and source (that is, on the
erotogenic zones) and stressing instead the two other
defining aspects that make the libidinal instinct into a
complete structure, namely the aim and the object
(Brusset, 1992).
Psychoanalytically speaking, the genetic dimension
is necessarily related in a dialectical manner to the
structural dimension, that is, the oedipal organization
and its different triangulations. Jean Laplanche and
Jean-Bertrand Pontalis (1973) have pointed out that
the use of the terms “phase” or “position” instead of
“stage” underscores the fact that we are concerned
here with intersubjective moments within the oedipal
dialectic, rather than mere stages of libidinal development.
The concept of deferred action (apres coup) also
runs counter to a purely linear view of mental development
in which each stage is understood as unfolding
in simple opposition to the preceding one. For exam-
_ ple, deferred action, operating in conjunction with the
diphasic nature of human sexuality, results in a period
of latency.
In an even more radical sense, the fundamental
Freudian ideas of the timeless unconscious and of a
compulsion to repeat serve to explain how a past of
which the subject has no memory can return in the
shape of “a perpetual recurrence of the same thing”
(1920g, p. 22).
The Freudian model of libidinal development has
been vulnerable to simplifying uses that threaten, in
particular, to dissolve metapsychology into a naively
realistic psychology or else into a psychology of the
ego and of development that retains nothing of psychoanalysis.
All the same, quite apart from the explanatory
value of structural approaches, the practice of
psychoanalytic interpretation, founded on a reconstruction
of the past, continues to derive inspiration
from a genetic point of view: “The task is certainly to
account for structures in terms of the processes that
have constituted them, and for processes in terms of
the stages that make them intelligible” (Brusset, 1992).
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
A model based on stages, if it is to remain pertinent,
must therefore remain subordinate to the metapsychology
of mental processes, and by extension, it must
remain dialectically consonant with the structural
perspective.
JEAN-FRANCOIS RABAIN
See also: Abraham, Karl; Anaclisis/anaclitic; Anal-sadistic
stage; Catastrophic change; Cruelty; Disintegration products;
Fragmentation; Genital stage; Good-enough
mother; Group; Hallucinatory, the; Hatred; Infans; Libidinal
stage; Libido; Mirror stage; Organization; Oral
stage; “On the Origin of the ‘Influencing Machine’ in
Schizophrenia”; Partial drive; Phallic stage; Pregenital;
Primary identification; Psychosexual development; Psychotic/
neurotic; Quasi-independence/transitional stage;
Self (true/false); Sexuality; Squiggle; Symbiosis/symbiotic
relation; Tenderness; Transitional object, space; Violence
of Interpretation, The: From Pictogram to Statement.
Bibliography
Brusset, Bruno. (1992). Le développement libidinal. Paris:
Presses universitaires de France.
Freud, Sigmund. (1909d). Notes upon a case of obsessional
neurosis. SE, 10: 151-318.
. (1911c [1910]). Psycho-analytic notes on an autobiographical
account of a case of paranoia (dementia paranoides).
SE, 12: 1-82.
. (1920g). Beyond the pleasure principle. SE, 18: 1—-
64.
Golse, Bernard. (1992). Le Développement affectif et intellectuel
de l’enfant. Paris: Masson.
Laplanche, Jean, and Pontalis, Jean-Bertrand. (1973). The
language of psycho-analysis (Donald Nicholson-Smith,
Trans.). London: Hogarth Press and the Institute of Psycho-
Analysis. (Original work published 1967)
Perron, Roger, and Perron-Borelli, Michele. (1997). Fantasme,
action, pensée. Algiers, Algeria: Editions de la Société
algérienne de psychologie.
Perron-Borelli, Michéle. (1997). Dynamique du fantasme.
Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
STAMMERING
Stammering is a disorder in the rate of speech delivery.
It appears in the communication patterns of children
aged between two and five and is characterized by
repetitions or blockages that lead to ruptures in the
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
STAMMERING
rhythm and melody of speech. Three out of four children
are destined to overcome it before adolescence.
Stammering is a universal complaint and has been
documented in the most ancient cultures.
Sigmund Freud associated this type of disorder
with hysteria, but classified it separately as a fixation
neurosis (on an organ [of speech]). Otto Fenichel
located this functional speech disorder in the group of
pregenital conversion neuroses. The patient’s mental
structure was the same as that of an obsessive, whereas
the symptomatology was of the conversion type.
Speech had acquired an unconscious significance
related either to its verbal content or to the general
meaning of the function of “speaking” itself, as in
severe cases of stammering in which the speech act
represents a reprehensible drive.
Bernard Barrau draws attention to the frequent presence
of situations of oral violence in these cases, and
fantasies of “forcible introduction,’ whether in relation
to forced food or its metaphorical equivalents
(the voice and speech of the mother). Ivan Fonagy
stresses the fact that speech is capable of absorbing
narcissistic, oral, anal, or genital libido, and reports
observations of parallel strategies in the anal and glottal
sphincter (stammering when establishing sphincter
control), and upward transfers of anal libdinal cathexis
(one of Charlotte Balkany’s patients identified resonant
air with air emitted by the anal sphincter). René
Diatkine points to the absence of a psychic structure
specific to stammering subjects, whose symptom, as a
disorder in verbal communication, modifies their relational
system, particularly the balance between narcissistic-
and object-cathexes.
Annie Anzieu traces the elements in the neurotic
dynamics of stammering subjects. An anal-sadistic
relation is often established between the (grasping
and abusive) mother and the child, with the child fixating
on a dual, merging relation with the mother,
excluding all connections to a third object, unless it
takes part in the mother-child whole. Stammerers
thus have difficulty in engaging oedipal problems.
Supervisions must be redoubled in order to integrate
oedipal prohibtions into the ego, because what enters
the body or comes out of it assumes a new erotic
meaning. The speech act permanently alludes to castration
anxiety. This relational mode leads to the
persistence of what Melanie Klein calls the paranoidschizoid
position. Indeed the stammerer is persecuted
by a particularly demanding father and mother. All
1653
STANDARD EDITION OF THE COMPLETE PsyCHOLOGICAL WORKS...
verbal emissions are problematic. Like feces, words
are experienced as aggressive objects whose true
intentions may be to wound or kill. They become the
concrete symbols of interiorized aggressive objects.
These paranoid characteristics entail a considerable
obsessional element as well. Stammerers exhaust their
discourse to the point of fragmentation; they remain
haunted by the specific words they should be saying.
Obsessional cathexis of discourse can be understood
in the process of neurotic construction as a superegoic
symptom in relation to the hysterical symptom
stammering constitutes. The phonetic dysfunction
and suffering caused by verbal emission are a form of
hysterical conversion, a conversion that lends genital
significance to an originally anal-sadistic symptom.
The stammerer expresses the conflict he has always
experienced through his symptom; the subject hides
behind it. The act of speaking conceals what is said.
The psychotherapy or psychoanalysis of stammerers
always evinces these hysterical, obsessional, and paranoid
contents in a more or less typical fashion
depending on the moment in treatment and patient
in question. For Nicole Fabre, stammering is an
archaic difficulty shot through with oral aggressivity
and anal sadism, from which the subject has not yet
been able to break free in order to fully accede to
oedipal triangulation.
Although psychoanalytic treament is rarely indicated
initially, especially with children, this approach
does provide an understanding of the disorder that
does not exclude its meaning from the outset.
The etiology of stammering is unknown. Constitutional
factors interact with environmental ones in
addition to factors linked to the personal dynamics of
the child in varying proportions depending on the
subject in question, thus illustrating the uniqueness of
the trouble each stammerer faces.
CHRISTIAN PAYAN
See also: Tics.
Bibliography
Anzieu, Annie. (1989). De la chair au verbe. In Psychanalyse
et langage: Du corps a la parole (pp. 103-127). Paris:
Dunod. (Original work published 1977)
Barrau, Bernard. (1989). Begaiement et violence orale. In
Psychanalyse et langage: Du corps a la parole. Paris: Dunod.
(Original work published 1977)
1654
Fabre, Nicole. (1986). Des cailloux plein la bouche. Paris:
Fleurus.
Fenichel, Otto. (1953). Respiratory introjection. In The collected
papers, first series. New York, W.W. Norton.
Fonagy, Ivan. (1983). La Vive Voix: essais de psycho-phonetique.
Paris: Payot.
Freud, Sigmund, and Breuer, Josef. (1895d). Studies on hysteria.
SE, 2: 48-106. .
STANDARD EDITION OF THE COMPLETE
PSYCHOLOGICAL WORKS OF SIGMUND
FREUD
This was the title given by James Strachey in 1948, and
adopted by the British Psycho-Analytical Society
Memorial Appeal, to the English translation of all of
Freud’s psychoanalytic works. In accordance with
Freud’s wishes, the Standard Edition does not include
Freud’s prepsychoanalytic work as a neurologist.
The Standard Edition, which consists of twentyfour
volumes published between 1943 and 1974, was
prepared by James Strachey and his wife, Alix, with the
collaboration and supervision of Anna Freud and the
help of Alan Tyson. The twenty-fourth volume of
the Standard Edition, which includes the “General
indexes” and the “Addenda and corrections,” was edited
and published in 1974 by Angela Richards, a collaborator
of the late James Strachey. In addition to the
English translation, the Standard Edition also contains
“Notes on some technical terms whose translation
calls for comment,” edited by Strachey, who made use
of the old Glossary of Psychoanalytical Terms, published
in 1924 and edited by Ernest Jones, and of Alix
Strachey’s New German-English Psychoanalytical Vocabulary,
published in 1943. Furthermore, the Standard
Edition has a considerable editorial apparatus: the
introduction to each work of Freud’s establishes its
various dates of publication in German, English, or
other languages; the context in which the text has to be
read, in terms of the progression of Freud’s work; the
links that can be made with Freud’s earlier and later
work; and all the additions or deletions Freud made if
a specific text, such as The Interpretation of Dreams,
had more than one edition in German. In some
instances, Strachey and his coworkers tried to check
the various German editions of each text, and Strachey
also added explanatory and informative notes at the
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
end of each of the texts that he and his colleagues
translated.
One of the main organizational problems of the
Standard Edition concerned the rights of translation
into English, which Freud had given to his nephew
Edward Bernays and to Abraham Arden Brill in America.
For decades this made Strachey’s task of a systematic
translation of Freud’s work impossible. For
instance, only as late as 1949 was Strachey able to
retranslate The Interpretation of Dreams.
Ernest Jones first conceived of the project of preparing
a standard edition of Freud’s work in English
in the early 1920s (Steiner, 1989). Together with
Abraham A. Brill, he had already translated many of
Freud’s technical terms into English when he was in
America at the beginning of the twentieth century
(Steiner, 1987). He sent James Strachey and his wife
and then Joan Riviere and John Rickman to Vienna
to be analyzed by Freud, with the added intention of
creating a team of translators who could then systematically
translate Freud into English and take over the
leadership of Freud’s translations from Abraham
Brill. The result of those first systematic attempts
were the first four volumes of Freud’s Collected
Papers, which were translated by the Stracheys, Joan
Riviere, and others, often under the supervision of
Jones, and were published in the 1920s and 1930s in
London. It is important to remember this, since there
is a clear line of continuity between the translations
done by Jones and his group of translators in the
1920s and 1930s and the Standard Edition. Strachey
did not make many changes to the Glossary of Psychoanalytical
Terms, published in 1924 for translators
and edited by Ernest Jones, which already contained
translations for the most famous and questionable
technical terms: “ego” for “Ich, “superego” for
“Uber-Ich,’ “instinct” for “Trieb,” and so on. To Strachey
in particular are attributed the translations of
“cathexis” for “Besetzung” (a term, incidentally, also
accepted by Freud) and “anaclitic” for “Anlehnung.”
All four volumes of the Collected Papers were republished
in the Standard Edition, with corrections and
improvements; apart from the papers on metapsychology,
which had been badly translated, Strachey
did not make many alterations to the translations
done in the 1920s.
The Standard Edition reflects not only the personal
idiosyncrasies of the Stracheys but also Jones’s project
to create in English a scientific Freud acceptable to
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STANDARD EDITION OF THE COMPLETE PSYCHOLOGICAL WORKS...
the medical and scientific psychiatric establishment.
Although Jones and the Stracheys in the 1920s disagreed
on many aspects of how to translate Freud
(Meizel, 1986) Jones and James Strachey consulted
each other constantly on technical and interpretative
matters even during the 1950s, when they were working
on the biography of Freud and on the Standard
Edition. The supervision of the translation was also
important, particularly by Anna Freud. Like any
other translation, the Standard Edition bears the
marks of the cultural context in which it was conceived;
the complex political, institutional, and financial
pressures that surrounded this colossal enterprise;
and the personalities and ageing of the translators,
James and Alix Strachey. Among the shortcomings of
the Standard Edition were that Freud’s polysemous,
elegant, and expressive literary vocabulary and style
were at times excessively stifled and rendered scientific,
and that its editorial apparatus was inevitably
restricted by the information, documents, personal
letters, and notes of Freud’s life and work available at
that time. Yet there is no doubt that the Standard
Edition constitutes a unique and irreplaceable instrument
for the study of Freud. Perhaps one of the most
amazing achievements of the Standard Edition is that
other translations and editions of Freud’s work
depended on the Standard Edition rather than on the
original German texts.
RICCARDO STEINER
See also: British Psycho-Analytical Society; Great Britain;
Second World War: The effect on the development of
psychoanalysis; Hogarth Press; Jones, Ernest; Ego; Scoptophilia/
scopophilia; Strachey, James Beaumont; Strachey-
Sargent, Alix; Studienausgabe.
Bibliography
Bettelheim, Bruno. (1983). Freud and man’s soul. New York:
Alfred A. Knopf.
Freud, Sigmund. (1924-1950). Collected papers (5 vols.).
London: International Psycho-Analytical Press.
Jones, Ernest (Ed.). (1924). Glossary of psychoanalytical
terms.
Mahony, Patrick. (1980). Toward the understanding of
translation in psychoanalysis. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic
Association, 28, 461-473.
. (1982). Freud as a writer. New York: International
Universities Press.
1655
STATE OF BEING IN LOVE
Ornston, Darius Gray. (1992). Improving Strachey’s Freud.
In Darius Gray Ornston (Ed.), Translating Freud. New
Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Steiner, Riccardo. (1987). A world-wide international trademark
of genuineness? International Review of Psychoanalysis,
14, 33-102.
. (1989). On narcissism: The Kleinian approach. In
Otto E. Kernberg (Ed.), Narcissistic personality disorder (pp.
741-770). Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders.
. (1991). To explain our point of view to English
readers in English words. International Review of Psychoanalysis,
18, 351-392.
Strachey, Alix. (1943). New German-English psychoanalytical
vocabulary.
Strachey, James. (1966). General preface. In Standard edition
of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (Vol.
1, pp. 13-26). London: Hogarth.
STATE OF BEING IN LOVE
The concept of “being in love” was investigated by
Christian David in L’Etat amoureux, published in
1971, at a time when his ideas about psychosomatics
were changing. David continued to believe in the
importance of questioning the fluctuations to which
mental processes were exposed, but he now stressed
those generated through the encounter with the other
rather than those implied by a physical presence.
Overall, his study attempts to point out the internal
behavior of the subject confronted, through this
encounter, with the state of “being in love.” For David
this state is characterized by a form of subjectification
that has two components: the subjectification of the
drive in the face of the specific trauma caused by love,
and the ability to integrate the narcissistic release
implied by the encounter with the loved one. With
respect to the subjectification of the love trauma, Sigmund
Freud, who is quoted by David, sees it as similar
to the work of mourning or dreaming. The analogy
enables him to emphasize the singular quality of this
type of activity, where the drive is immobilized at the
crossroads of destiny and constantly re-released
through the encounter with the other. Through this
encounter the subject is constantly forced to confront
the necessary death of the ego. “Where love is awakened,
ego, that somber despot dies,” writes David,
repeating Freud’s quote of Jalal el Din (1911c).
One of the basic premises of David’s book is to
explain love as a narcissistic disturbance. The conco-
1656
mitant risk of forcing the subject to confront the most
primitive dimensions of the drive is one that may
restore the condition of narcissism. These aspects are
at work in the tragedy of Penthesilea by Heinrich von
Kleist, a text for which David provides a psychoanalytic
reading. In the myth Penthesilea, queen of the
Amazons, is in love with Achilles and loved by him. In
the end she kills her lover and devours him with the
help of her dogs. However, the violence of the drama
underscores the necessity of a two-sided abandonment:
abandonment of proximity to the being onto
whom the subject projects his ideal, and abandonment
of preserving intact the contours and limits of the ego.
While the work of mourning flattens the contours of
experience, the mental work required by the love
trauma restores to it the variety and truth of its nuances.
But to do this requires subjectification. At the
extreme, this subjectification can assume the aspect of
an “affective perversion,” like that expressed by Nathaniel
in Gide’s The Fruits of the Earth, when he exclaims,
“My desires have given me more than the possession
of the object of those desires.” In a sense the work
implied by being in love, including “affective perversion”
mirrors the effort therapy demands of the
patient caught up in transference love.
LAURENT DANON-BOILEAU
See also: Empathy; Friendship; Racker, Heinrich.
Bibliography
David, Christian. (1971). L Etat amoureux. Paris: Payot.
. (1980). Metapsychological reflections on the state
of being in love. In Lebovici, Serge, and Widlocher, Daniel.
Psychoanalysis in France. (p. 87-100) New York: International
Universities Press.
. (1996). Post-scriptum a l’etat amoureux. Revue
francaise de psychanalyse, 60, 3, 633-642.
Freud, Sigmund. (1911). Psycho-analytic notes on an autobiographical
account of a case of paranoia (dementia paranoides).
SE 12: 1-82.
. (1921). Group psychology and the analysis of the
ego. SE 18: 65-143.
STEKEL, WILHELM (1868-1940)
An Austrian physician and psychoanalyst, Wilhelm
Stekel was born on March 18, 1868, at Boyan, Buko-
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
vina. He died on June 25, 1940, in London. After
matriculating from a German secondary school in
Czernowitz, Stekel studied medicine in Vienna. He
worked in Richard von Krafft-Ebing’s clinic for a while
before defending his thesis in 1893.
A certain mystery surrounds the date of Stekel’s
first meeting with Freud, as well as that of the analysis
(or analyses) that he undertook with him. In his
paper “The Aetiology of Hysteria” (1896c), Freud
cites Stekel’s “Uber Coitus im Kindesalter” (On
infantile sexuality; 1895), and in another article
written in 1896 but published in the following year,
Stekel mentioned Freud’s report on Paul Julius
Mobius’s book on migraine. It was probably Freud
who, in 1901, recommended Stekel for a position as
medical journalist at the well-known newspaper
Neues Wiener Tagblatt, in whose pages, in January
1902, Stekel published a complimentary article on
Freud’s Interpretation of Dreams (1900a).
In October 1902, Stekel initiated setting up the
Wednesday Psychological Society, which in 1908
transformed itself into the Vienna Psychoanalytic
Society. Judging by the minutes (Nunberg and Federn),
Stekel was its most active member during the
first ten years. Stekel strongly challenged Freud on
such subjects as the harmfulness of masturbation and
the existence of the actual neuroses. In 1910 Stekel
proposed setting up Zentralblatt fiir Psychoanalyse, of
which he was soon sole editor. A dispute about his
rights in this office led to Stekel’s resignation from
the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society in 1912. The
underlying reason, however, was almost certainly Stekel’s
refusal to accept Freud’s ideas on the actual neuroses.
After World War I, Stekel set up his own
school of “active analysis” and founded the Organisation
of Independent Medically Qualified Analysts. He
also launched and edited a number of psychotherapeutic
journals.
Stekel was a prolific writer, producing fifty books
(many of them for a general readership), hundreds of
newspaper articles, and numerous scientific papers.
The most important part of Stekel’s psychoanalytical
work is contained in his ten-volume Storungen des
Trieb- und Affektlebens (Disturbances of the impulses
and the emotions). The first volume was Conditions of
Nervous Anxiety and Their Treatment (1923). It was
followed by volumes on masturbation and homosexuality,
frigidity in women, impotence in men, psychosexual
infantilism, peculiarities of behavior, fetishism,
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STEKEL, WILHELM (1868-1940)
sadism and masochism, and finally two volumes on
compulsion and doubt. Other academic books of his
deserving special mention are Die Sprache des Traumes
(The language of dreams; 1911), Die Traume der Dichter
(The Dreams of Poets; 1912), The Interpretation of
Dreams (1943), and Technique of Analytical Psychotherapy
(1939). The most well-known of his popular
books was his Primer for Mothers (1931).
Stekel was a popularizer of psychoanalytic ideas,
both through his journalistic output and through his
books, yet he was also an innovator in technique and
theory. He devised a form of short-term therapy called
active analysis, which has much in common with some
modern forms of counseling and therapy. He argued
strongly for the view that all neuroses are psychoneuroses.
FRANCIS CLARK- LOWES
See also: Wiener psychoanalytische Vereinigung; Zentralblatt
fiir Psychoanalyse.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1896c). The aetiology of hysteria. SE, 3:
186-221.
Nunberg, Hermann, and Federn, Ernst. (1962-1975). Minutes
of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society. New York: International
Universities Press.
Stekel, Wilhelm. (1895). Uber coitus im kindesalter: eine
hygienische studie. Wiener medizinische Blatter, 16, 247-
249.
. (1911). Die sprache des traumes. Wiesbaden, Germany:
J. F. Bergmann.
. (1912). Die traume der dichter. Wiesbaden, Germany:
Bergmann.
. (1923). Conditions of nervous anxiety and their
treatment (Rosalie Gabler, Trans.). London: K. Paul,
Trench, Trubner and Co.
. (1926). Zur geschichte der analytischen Bewegung.
Fortschritte der Sexualwissenschaft und Psychoanalyse, 2,
539-575.
. (1931). A primer for mothers (Frida Ilmer, Trans.).
New York: Macaulay Co.
. (1939). Technique of analytical psychotherapy (Eden
and Cedar Paul, Trans.). London: John Lane.
. (1943). The interpretation of dreams: New developments
and technique (Eden and Cedar Paul, Trans.).
New York: Liveright Publishing Corp.
1657
STERBA-RADANOWICZ-HARTMANN, EDITHA (1895-1986)
. (1950). The autobiography of Wilhelm Stekel: The
life story of a pioneer psychoanalyst. New York: Liveright.
STERBA-RADANOWICZ-HARTMANN,
EDITHA (1895-1986)
Psychoanalyst Editha Sterba was born on May 8, 1895,
in Budapest, and died December 2, 1986, in Detroit,
Michigan.
From a Catholic family, Editha was the daughter of
Colonel Heinrich von Radanowicz-Hartmann, a commander
in the Austrian army. After secondary education
at a humanistic gymnasium ordinarily restricted
to boys, she attended the University of Vienna, where
she initially studied German language and literature
and classical philology before turning, in 1916, to
musicology. She graduated in 1921 with a thesis on
“Viennese Song from 1789 to 1915.”
As secretary to Otto Rank at the Internationaler
Psychoanalytischer Verlag (the official psychoanalytic
publishing house) and secretary at the training institute,
she became familiar with analysis, and by the end
of 1925 she was an associate member of the Vienna
Psychoanalytic Society. A year later, divorced from her
first husband, she married the Viennese physician and
analyst, Richard Sterba. In June 1927, she gave a lecture
“Blasphemy and the Punishment of Heaven” and
in 1930 she became a full member of the Vienna
Society.
Editha Sterba’s major focus was the emerging field
of child psychoanalysis. In 1928, she was placed in
charge of the educational services center of the Vienna
Psychoanalytic Society and, in 1932, of a larger center
with August Aichhorn, Anna Freud, and Willi Hotter.
With Aichhorn she also served as an adviser and consultant
to educational institutions in Vienna and, in
October 1934, she directed the introductory seminar
on child psychoanalysis. From 1927, she regularly published
her works in Zeitschrift fiir psychoanalytische
Péidagogik.
The Sterbas left Vienna in 1938, first for Switzerland.
On Ernest Jones’s advice, they applied for a visa
for South Africa with the intention of helping to found
a psychoanalytic society there. However, they failed to
obtain the necessary visas and instead emigrated to the
United States in 1939. Editha became a member of the
Detroit Psychoanalytic Society, the American Psychoanalytic
Association, the Association for Child Psycho-
1658
analysis and, in 1955, of the Michigan Association for
Psychoanalysis. In 1953, she was asked to join the
newly opened department of psychiatry at Wayne
State University. Her study Beethoven and His Nephew,
written in collaboration with her husband, appeared
in 1954. With Alexander Grinstein she wrote Understanding
Your Family, published in 1957.
Editha Sterba played a variety of roles in organizational
and research projects over the course of three
decades in the United States. She worked at the Children’s
Service of the McGregor Center at Wayne State
University and the Northeast Guidance Clinic; she also
helped found the Roeper City and Country School, a
training institution for nurses. She was associated with
the University of Michigan, practiced at the Children’s
Hospital of Michigan, and for the Jewish Family Service
she developed methods for treating young survivors
of the Holocaust.
Etxe MUHLEITNER
See also: Lehrinstitut der Wiener Psychoanalytischen Vereinigung;
Sterba, Richard F.
Bibliography
Miihlleitner, Elke. (1992). Biographisches lexikon der psychoanalyse
(die mitglieder der psychologischen Mittwoch-
Gesellschaft und der Wiener Psychoanalytischen Vereinigung
1902—1938). Tubingen: Diskord.
Sterba, Editha. (1929). Nacktheit und scham. (Nudity and
shame). Zeitschriffiti rp sychoanalytische Padagogik, 3.
. (1941). The school and child guidance. Psychoanalytic
Quarterly, 10, 445-467.
. (1945). Interpretation and education. Psychoanalytic
Study of the Child, 1, 309-318.
Sterba, Editha, and Grinstein, Alexander. (1957). Undertstanding
your family. New York: Random House.
Sterba, Editha, and Sterba, Richard FE (1954). Beethoven and
his nephew; a psychoanalytic study of their relationship. New
York: Pantheon.
STERBA, RICHARD F. (1898-1989)
Richard Sterba, physician and psychoanalyst, was born
in Vienna on May 6, 1898, and died on October 24,
1989, in Grosse Pointe, Michigan. His father, Josef
Sterba, taught mathematics and physics at the high
school level. Conscripted shortly before graduating
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
from the gymnasium in 1916, Richard entered the
army and was eventually promoted to lieutenant.
While in the military, he became interested psychoanalysis
and, after the war, began medical studies at the
University of Vienna, graduating in 1923. The next
year he started a training analysis with Eduard Hitschmann;
without sufficient funds, he paid no fee, on the
understanding that in the future he too would analyze
some patients for free. His first supervising analyst was
the neurologist Robert Hans Jokl, and he began treating
patients after six months of analysis.
In 1926 Sterba married Editha von Radanowicz—
Hartmann, and the couple were among the first students
to attend the training institute of the Vienna
Psychoanalytic Society, which opened at the end of
1924. Sterba became an associate member of the
society in 1925 and a full member in 1928 (Sterba,
1982, p. 43). Shortly after presenting his 1926 paper,
“Uber latent, negative Ubertragung” (On latent negative
transference), Wilhelm Reich offered him a residency
at a psychoanalytic outpatient clinic (Sterba,
1982, p. 40). Leaving his hospital position, he worked
at the clinic with Grete Bibring and Eduard Kronengold.
By 1929 Sterba was a training analyst, and in
1931 Adolf Josef Storfer, director of a psychoanalytic
publishing house, suggested that he compile a psychoanalytic
dictionary. Five fascicles of the lexicon were
published (1936) before the coming of the Second
World War put an end to the project.
Sterba was still in Austria in 1938, when the Nazi
takeover of the country immediately disrupted psychoanalysis
there. As a member of the board of directors
of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society, Sterba
announced his intention to leave the country, to the
relief of Freud and his daughter Anna, who themselves
would soon migrate to England. As an “Aryan,” Sterba
was welcomed by the Nazis, but he declined a post at
the neuropsychiatric clinic of the University of Vienna
and also rejected an offer to head the Vienna Psychoanalytic
Society under fascist auspices.
The Sterbas left Austria on March 16, 1938, first for
Switzerland then, in 1939, for the United States. Ernest
Jones and Anna Freud suggested that they immigrate
to Johannesburg and help found a psychoanalytic
society there, but the South African government
thwarted these plans by denying them visas. They
settled in Detroit, where Richard Sterba founded the
Detroit Psychoanalytic Society in 1940 and served as
its president from 1946 to 1952. He was appointed
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
SToLvter, RoBertJ . (1925-1991)
Professor of Psychiatry at the medical college of Wayne
State University in Detroit in 1945.
Sterba specialized in psychoanalytic profiles of
artists and published a study of Michelangelo and, in
collaboration with his wife, a biography of Beethoven.
In clinical matters, his hypothesis of “a therapeutic
split of the ego” was controversial (Sterba, 1982, p.
91). In 1931 he published in German a treatise on the
theory of the libido based on a course he taught at the
Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute. In 1942 an English
translation appeared under the title Introduction to the
Psychoanalytic Theory of the Libido. In 1982 he published
his memoir, Reminiscences of a Viennese Psychoanalyst.
He was the author of about one hundred articles,
a number of which appear in Richard Sterba: The
Collected Papers (1987).
ELKE MUHLLEITNER
See also: Sterba-Radanowicz-Hartmann, Editha.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1936b [1932]). Preface to Richard Sterba’s
Handworterbuch der psycho-analyse. SE, 22: 253.
Sterba, Edith, and Sterba, Richard. (1954). Beethoven and his
nephew: A psychoanalytic study of their relationship. New
York: Pantheon.
Sterba, Richard F. (1936). Handworterbuch der psychoanalyse.
Vienna: Internationaler psychoanalytischer Verlag.
. (1942). Introduction to the psychoanalytic theory of
the libido. New York: Nervous and Mental Disease Monographs.
(Original work published 1931)
. (1982). Reminiscences of a Viennese psychoanalyst.
Detroit: Wayne State University Press.
. (1987). Richard Sterba: The collected papers. New
York: North River Press.
STOLLER, ROBERT J. (1925-1991)
American psychoanalyst, professor of psychiatry,
UCLA Medical School, was born December 15, 1925,
in Crestwood, New York and died on September 6,
1991, in Los Angeles.
He was born and raised in suburban New York to
Russian-Jewish immigrant parents, attended Columbia
University and Stanford Medical School, was married
for 43 years, and had four sons. Stoller underwent
1659
Stone, Leo (1904-1997)
psychoanalytic training at the Los Angeles Psychoanalytic
Society and Institute from 1953 to 1961 with analysis
by Hanna Fenichel. He was the author of nine
books, co-author of three others, and publisher of over
one hundred and fifteen articles. Stoller’s writing is
unique in its clarity and accessibility as well as its critical
perspective on psychoanalytic methodology.
Stoller is known for his theories and research concerning
the development of gender and the dynamics
of sexual excitement. In Sex and Gender (1968), Stoller
articulates a challenge to Freud’s belief in biological
bisexuality. Drawing on his extensive research with
transsexuals at UCLA’s Gender Identity Clinic and
new advances in the science of sex, Stoller, in “Primary
Femininity,” advances his belief in the initial orientation
of both biological tissue and psychological identification
toward feminine development. This early,
non-conflictual phase contributes to a feminine core
gender identity in both boys and girls unless a masculine
force is present to interrupt the symbiotic relationship
with mother. Stoller identifies three components
in the formation of core gender identity, an
innate and immutable sense of maleness or femaleness,
usually consolidated by the second year of life: 1) Biological
and hormonal influences; 2) Sex assignment at
birth; and 3) Environmental and psychological influences
with effects similar to imprinting. Stoller asserts
that threats to core gender identity are like threats to.
the sense of self and result in the defenses known as
perversions.
In his most notable contribution, Perversion (1975),
Stoller attempts to illuminate the dynamics of sexual
perversion which he fights valiantly to normalize. Stoller
suggests that perversion inevitably entails an expression
of unconscious aggression in the form of revenge
against a person who, in early years, made some form
of threat to the child’s core gender identity, either in
the form of overt trauma or through the frustrations of
the oedipal conflict.
In Sexual Excitement (1979), Stoller finds the same
perverse dynamics at work in all sexual excitement on a
continuum from overt aggression to subtle fantasy. In
focusing on the unconscious fantasy, and not the behavior,
Stoller provides a way of analyzing the mental
dynamics of sexuality, which he terms “erotics,” while
simultaneously de-emphasizing the pathology of any
particular form of behavior. Stoller does not consider
homosexuality as a monolithic behavior but rather as a
range of sexual styles as diverse as heterosexuality.
1660
Less well known is Stoller’s contribution toward
making psychoanalysis a legitimate research tool
through the publication of the analyst’s data—verbatim
notes and transcripts of interviews. Stoller melds
the work of the ethnographer and the analyst as a
means of producing scientifically valid psychological
data. Many of Stoller’s books, like Splitting (1973),
are devoted to the documentation of the interviews
on which he based his research.
CHRISTOPHER GELBER
Notion developed: Sexual identity.
See also: Homosexuality; Perversion; Principle of identity;
Transsexualism; Voyeurism.
Bibliography
Stoller, Robert J. (1968). Sex and gender: On the development
of masculinity and feminity. New York: Science House.
. (1973). Splitting: A case of female masculinity. New
York: Quadrangle Books.
_ (1975). Perversion: The erotic form of hatred. New
York: Pantheon.
_ (1979). Sexual excitement: dynamics of erotic life.
New York: Pantheon.
. (1985). Observing the erotic imagination. New
Haven, London: Yale University Press.
(1985). Presentations of gender. New Haven,
London: Yale University Press.
STONE, LEO (1904-1997)
Leo Stone, American psychoanalyst and teacher, was
born on August 11, 1904, in Brooklyn, New York,
where he died on July 27, 1997. He was the third of
four children born to Ruben and Marcia Stone. His
father, a man “with a good heart,” was an avid reader
and owned a large library, through which Leo read
systematically. His mother was a kind woman with a
fine singing voice—a factor in Leo’s love of music.
During his childhood the family moved to a farm
north of New York City. Seven years later they moved
back to Brooklyn. Later in life, Leo purchased from
Brooklyn College a tract of land across the state line
in New Jersey, an act reflecting his early attachment
to nature. He was married twice and was the father of
three daughters.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Leo Stone graduated from Erasmus High School in
Brooklyn in 1916, from Dartmouth College in 1924,
and from Michigan University Medical School in
1928. After a year on call, he studied pathology in
Vienna and Berlin in 1930 and then completed a residency
in neurology at Montefiore Hospital. He trained
in psychiatry at the Menninger Clinic until 1936, after
which he started a private practice in New York City,
which he continued until his death.
He graduated from the New York Psychoanalytic
Institute in 1941, having been analyzed by Clara
Thompson, an analysand of Sandor Ferenczi. Then he
joined the faculty of the institute and was active for
many years until late in his life. He was Brill Memorial
lecturer and received many honors and awards. He
served as president of the New York Psychoanalytic
Institute and as president of the New York Psychoanalytic
Society. From 1951 to 1957, he also served as medical
director of the New York Psychoanalytic Society.
Stone first achieved prominence after Anna Freud
approvingly discussed his paper “The widening scope
of indications for psychoanalysis” (1954), a plea for
humanely expanding the use of psychoanalysis to treat
a broad range of illnesses. This paper became the basis
of his best known book, The Psychoanalytic Situation:
An Examination of Its Development and Essential Nature
(1961). He also published The Therapeutic Expertience
and Its Setting: A Clinical Dialogue with Robert
Langs (1980) and Transference and Its Context: Selected
Papers in Psychoanalysis (1984).
A key participant in the historic 1971 International
Psychoanalytic Congress in Vienna, where he spoke on
aggression as a reaction to frustrating reality rather
than an inborn drive—a view with which Anna Freud
concurred. He was an early proponent of a flexible
approach. His view was that an analyst who remained
too rigid risked damaging his patient and undoing any
treatment—a view that was radical at a time when analysts
favored giving the silent treatment or acting as a
reflecting mirror.
Stone was widely respected in the United States for
being gentlemanly and courteous, kind and modest,
and lucid and thorough in presenting psychoanalytic
ideas and concepts.
Zv1 LOTHANE
See also: Abstinence/rule of abstinence.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Storrer, Avotr Joser (1888-1944)
Bibliography
Stone, Leo. (1938). Concerning the psychogenesis of somatic
illness: Physiological and neurological correlates with the
psychological theory. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis,
19, 63-76.
. (1947). Transference sleep in a neurosis with duodenal
ulcer. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 28,
86-118. '
. (1954). The widening scope of indications for psychoanalysis.
Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association,
2, 567-594.
. (1961). The psychoanalytic situation: An examination
of its development and essential nature. New York:
International Universities Press.
. (1980). The therapeutic experience and its setting: A
clinical dialogue with Robert Langs. New York: Jason
Aronson.
. (1984). Transference and its context: Selected papers
on psychoanalysis. New York: Jason Aronson.
STORFER, ADOLF JOSEF (1888-1944)
Adolf Josef Storfer, journalist and publisher, was born
in Botoschani, Siebenbiirgen (now in Romania) on
January 11, 1888, and died in Melbourne, Australia,
on December 2, 1944.
He was of Jewish origin and his father was a well-todo
wood merchant. He grew up at Klausenburg (Cluj),
where he completed his secondary education and began
to study law and political science. In 1908 he went to
Zurich to continue his studies and became a journalist
for the Frankfurter Zeitung and other publications.
In 1910 he contacted Sigmund Freud and sent him
his manuscript “Zur Sonderstellung des Vatermordes”
(“On the Primordial Role of Father Murder”), which
Freud published that same year in Schriften zur angewandten
Seelenkunde (“Writings of Applied Psychology”).
In 1913 Storfer settled in Vienna and attended
the meetings of the Wednesday Society.
He was mobilized during World War I and in 1919
became a member of the Hungarian Psychoanalytic
Society, before moving back to Vienna. From 1921
onward he collaborated with the Internationaler Psychoanalytischer
Verlag, becoming director in 1925.
Until 1932 Storfer left his print on the content and editorial
policy of this powerful instrument for the dissemination
of psychoanalysis. His solid humanistic
1661
STRACHEY, JAMES BEAUMONT (1887-1967)
education and his vast general culture particularly suited
him to this task, as did his experience as a journalist.
The Internationaler Psychoanalytischer Verlag had
its most productive period between 1925 and 1932:
three new periodicals were founded and the publication
of Freud’s Gesammelte Schriften was completed
under Storfer’s directorship, along with his personal
contributions to the content.
His contacts with the members of the Vienna Psychoanalytic
Society were somewhat half-hearted, as he
never practiced psychoanalysis. His role was essentially
to be the intellectual indicator of Sigmund Freud’s editorial
policy. As editor of publications and as a result
of internal financial crises, Storfer often had to deal
with the competing interests of the psychoanalysts, as
well as the consequences of the economic crisis.
As a leftist liberal intellectual, he frequented one of
the most fashionable cafes in Vienna, the Cafe Herrenhof.
In 1932 he left the Verlag after bitter disputes,
thereafter working as a self-employed journalist,
and publishing two works on etymology: Worter und
ihre Schicksale (“Words and their Destiny”) and Im
Dickicht der Sprache (“In the Thicket of Language’).
In 1938 he succeeded in fleeing to Shanghai at the
last minute and worked there as an editor for the last
time. From 1939 to 1941 he published one of the best
German-language newspapers for exiles, the Gelbe
Post. As the Japanese advanced, in 1941, he managed
to flee to Australia with the help of the British intelligence
services. As a result of pneumonia he died in
Melbourne in 1944 in extreme poverty.
INGRID SCHOLZ-STRASSER
See also: Almanach der Psychoanalyse, Gesammelte Schriften;
Internationaler Psychoanalytischer Verlag; Mysteries
of a Soul; Sterba, Richard F.
Bibliography
Mihlleitner, Elke. (1992). Biographisches Lexikon der Psychoanalyse
(Die Mitglieder der Psychologischen Mittwoch-
Gesellschaft und der Wiener Psychoanalytischen Vereinigung
1902-1938). Tibingen: Diskord.
Leupold Lowenthal, Harald, Lobner, Hans, and Scholz Strasser,
Inge (Eds.). (1995). Sigmund Freud Museum: Berggasse
19, Vienna (Thomas Roberts, Trans.). Corte Madera, CA:
Gingko Press.
Scholz Strasser, Inge. Newsletter. Sigmund Freud House bulletin
1991, 15 (1), 40-48.
1662
STRACHEY, JAMES BEAUMONT —
(1887-1967)
James Strachey, British psychoanalyst, was born in
London on September 26, 1887, and died there on July
3, 1967. He belonged to a very distinguished uppermiddle-
class family. He studied at St. Paul’s School in
London, achieving good academic results, and in 1904
went to Trinity College, Cambridge, to study classics.
Owing to personal difficulties, he ended up not with a
degree in classics but with an unclassified degree in
moral sciences (1909). Like many other pioneers of the
British Psycho-Analytical Society at Cambridge, Strachey
discovered the Society for Psychical Research,
where he read Freud’s paper “A Note on the Unconscious
in Psycho-Analysis,” published in the society’s
journal in 1912. It was this paper that stimulated Strachey’s
interest in psychoanalysis.
He had a brief career as a journalist working in London
for The Spectator and The Athenaeum, during
which time he also became part of the Bloomsbury
Group, led by his brother Lytton. In 1919 he
approached Ernest Jones about becoming a psychoanalyst.
He married Alix in 1920. In the same year
Jones, having perceived Strachey’s literary talents and
wanting to use him to begin the systematic translation
of Freud’s work into English, sent him to Vienna to be
analyzed by Freud. While in analysis with Freud, who
chose him officially as his translator, James, together
with Alix, began to translate several of Freud’s works,
such as “A Child is Being Beaten” (1919e) and “Group
Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego” (1921c). This
was done under Freud’s supervision and with the help
of Anna Freud, who then became his collaborator and
counselor in translating Freud’s works.
Strachey returned to London in 1922 and, while
practicing as a psychoanalyst, nevertheless dedicated
most of his time to translating Freud’s work. Particularly
important was the Stracheys’ translation of five of
Freud’s case histories, published in 1925 as the third
volume of Freud’s Collected Papers. James became an
associate member of the British Psycho-Analytical
Society in 1922, a full member in 1922, and a training
analyst in 1928.
As a training analyst, Strachey took an active part in
the life of the British Psycho-Analytical Society, then
under the rule of Ernest Jones, who as early as the
1920s had already planned what was to become, after
the Second World War, the Standard Edition of the
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud. Strachey
helped Melanie Klein to come to London and
played an important mediating role in the controversial
discussions between Anna Freud and Melanie
Klein in the 1940s. In 1948 Strachey became the general
editor of the Standard Edition translation of all the
psychological works of Freud into English, and after
retiring to the country at Marlow with his wife, he
dedicated the rest of his life to accomplishing this task,
using and revising the translations made in the 1920s
by him, Joan Riviere, and others that had appeared in
the first four volumes of Freud’s Collected Papers and
retranslating other works such as The Interpretation of
Dreams and the metapsychological papers. One of the
greatest contributions of his work was the editorial
apparatus that he added to the translations of the
Standard Edition, which has become invaluable in
understanding and contextualizing Freud’s work.
Strachey was well aware that his translations and
editorial apparatus were not definitive and that they
would need further revisions and corrections. Particularly
important was the glossary of psychoanalytic
terms, which he prepared reusing old material and
most of the terminology already established in the
1920s and published in 1924 in The Glossary of Psychoanalytical
Terms, edited by Ernest Jones. To Strachey
we Owe, among other translations, the terms “cathexis”
to translate the German “Besetzung” and “anaclitic”
to translate “Anlehnung.” Both terms were derived
from ancient Greek. Indicating the importance of its
translations and editorial apparatus is the fact that the
Standard Edition has become the text used by the
International Psychoanalytical Association and that it
is also the point of reference for other translations of
Freud’s works into such major languages as German,
Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and French. In 1967 Strachey
was awarded the Tieck Prize for his translation of
the Standard Edition.
Strachey also significantly contributed to clinical
psychoanalysis on his own. One paper particularly
deserving to be remembered is “The Nature of the
Therapeutic Action of Psycho-Analysis” (1934). This
paper is considered a landmark for its discussion of
problems related to the interpretation and mutative
effects of transference.
RICCARDO STEINER
Notion developed: Transmuting internalization.
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STRACHEY-SARGENT, ALIX (1892-1973)
See also: British Psycho-Analytical Society; Controversial
Discussions; Empathy; Great Britain; Hogarth Press;
International Journal of Psychoanalysis, The; Libido;
Maturation; Neutrality/benevolent neutrality; Primary
identification; “Project for a Scientific Psychology, A”;
Psychoanalytic semiology; Resolution of the transference;
Scoptophilia/scopophilia; Standard Edition of the Complete
Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud; Strachey-Sargant,
Alix; Studienausgabe; Time. .
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1912g). A note on the unconscious in psycho-
analysis. SE, 12: 255-266.
Holroyd, Michael. (1973). Lytton Strachey: A critical biography.
London: Heinemann.
Ornston, Darius Gray. (1992). Improving Strachey’s Freud.
In Darius Gray Ornston (Ed.), Translating Freud (pp. 1-
23). New Haven: Yale University Press.
Meisel, Perry, and Kendrick, Walter. (1986). Bloomsbury-
Freud: The letters of James and Alix Strachey, 1924-1925.
London: Chatto and Windus.
Steiner, Riccardo. (1987). A world-wide international trademark
of genuineness? International Review of Psychoanalysis,
14, 33-102.
. (1991). To explain our point of view to English
readers in English words. International Review of Psychoanalysis,
18, 351-392.
Strachey, James. (1934). The nature of the therapeutic action
of psycho-analysis. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis,
15, 127-159.
STRACHEY-SARGENT, ALIX (1892-1973)
Alix Strachey, British psychoanalyst was born on June
4, 1892, in Nutley, New Jersey, and died in London on
April 28, 1973.
She came form a rather complex but highly intellectual
family background and her childhood was quite
erratic due to family problems. Educated at Bedales
School and then at the Slade School of Art in London,
she went up to Cambridge in 1911, where she graduated
with a degree in modern languages in 1914.
Through her brother Philip and other friends she met
at Cambridge, Alix took part in the life of the Bloomsbury
Group where she met James Strachey, whom she
married in 1920. She became an associate member of
the British Psycho-Analytical Society in 1922 and a full
member in 1923.
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STRANGER
She had a personal analysis in Vienna with Freud
for two years from 1920 to 1922, as did her husband. It
was during this period that she began helping her husband
to translate Freud’s work into English. She then
went to Berlin for further analysis with Karl Abraham
in 1924. In Berlin, she continued her translation work
and met Melanie Klein. Alix was instrumental in
arranging Klein’s first visit to London in 1925 and
translated some of her papers into English. Together
with her husband, she published the translation of
Freud’s Five Case Histories, which were assembled in
the third volume of his Collected Papers (1925). She
finally returned to England after Abraham’s death in
December 1925.
She undertook other personal analyses: with
Edward Glover in 1926 and later with Sylvia Payne.
She took part in the administrative life of the British
Psycho-Analytical Society but her main contributions
were in the field of translation, helping to translate
Freud’s and others’ papers into English. For instance,
in collaboration with Douglas Bryan, she translated
The Selected Papers of Karl Abraham (1927) and Klein’s
Psychoanalyse der Kindes—The Psychoanalysis of Children
in 1932. She also translated Freud’s Inhibitions,
Symptoms and Anxiety in 1936. In 1943 she published
A New German-English Psychoanalytical Vocabulary, a
complete index of psychoanalytic terms in English
which was instrumental for the Standard Edition. The
rest of her time, from the late forties until the late sixties,
she was dedicated to helping James publish the
Standard Edition. It is sometimes difficult to evaluate
Alix’s contribution, which has, nevertheless, been
invaluable as far as the Standard Edition is concerned.
When the Standard Edition was well advanced, Alix
was able to dedicate herself to some more personal
work, going back to the interests of her youth: social
issues, war, and pacifism. She published The Unconscious
Motives of War in 1957 and The Psychology of
Nationhood in 1960.
RICCARDO STEINER
See also: British Psycho-Analytical Society; Great Britain;
Hogarth Press; Inhibitions, Symptoms, and Anxiety;
Klein-Reizes, Melanie; Strachey, James Beaumont.
Bibliography
Holroyd, Michael. (1973). Lytton Strachey: A critical biography.
London: Heinemann.
1664
Meisel, Perry, and Kendrick, Walter. (1986). Bloomsbury-
Freud. The letters of James and Alix Strachey 1924-1925.
London: Chatto and Windus.
STRANGER
Fear of strangers (or stranger anxiety) is a normal
emotional response that occurs in the second half of
the first year of life; the concept was introduced and
developed by René Spitz, who called it “eight-month
anxiety.”
This construction was the result of direct observation
from a developmental psychoanalytic perspective.
The fear of strangers reaction signals a point where
development has encountered a difficulty or even gone
off track. According to Spitz’s conceptual framework, as
outlined in “Anxiety and Infancy” (1950), eight-month
anxiety marks a decisive phase in object relations: the
infant’s mental accession to object permanence. This is
in contrast to the social smiling of the preceding period,
which is addressed indifferently to both unknown and
familiar faces, and comes after archaic pre-objectal fears
and anxieties. It is referred to as the “first genuine manifestation
of anxiety” (Spitz and Cobliner, 1965; Spitz
1968), and thus figures in interpretations and differences
of opinion relating to separation anxiety and theories
of anxiety in general.
Spitz’s principle of “organizers” of mental life places
eight-month anxiety as the second organizer. However
the embryological metaphor implied by the term
“organizer” has been contradicted by demonstrations
of early interactive capacities in babies, while fear of
strangers has been marginalized within metapsychology
by attachment theory, which has attracted many
adherents. John Bowlby argues that intrusions upon
the primary need for attachment cause the infant to
reject the traumatizing face. Serge Lebovici developed
the concept of eight-month anxiety into a primary
phobia with the proposed name “Stranger’s-Face Phobia.”
This is a proto-phobia that unfolds via displacement
onto the stranger of the infant’s aggressive
impulses against the mother. Thus it both protects her
imago and appeals to her return. From the viewpoint
of current psychosomatic theories of mental development
in France (Pierre Marty), stranger anxiety
evinces the emergence of various psychic functions.
The absence of stranger anxiety is a symptom of mental
deficiencies and is a remarkable indicator of the
silence of the mechanisms of inter-relational and
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
intra-psychical defense, which may be discerned from
six to twelve months in disorders such as eczema
(already observed by Spitz), asthma, anorexia nervosa,
and the severe disorders caused by deficiencies in
maternal care which are categorized under the name
“empty behavior syndrome” (Léon Kreisler).
The distinction between separation anxiety and
stranger anxiety has been clinically proven by the fact
that they appear independently of one another. When
it is not experiencing acute sensitivity to separation,
the separated child (le petit allergique) is all smiles to
whomever it sees, stranger and familiar alike, like the
baby described in the first of Spitz’s organizers. As
pure affect deprived of representation that repeats the
baby’s distress at being separated from the mother,
anxiety separation affords a view onto the future
development of eight-month anxiety, which is itself a
prototype of object-anxieties, and hence the original
prototype for mental development itself.
LEON KREISLER
See also: Infant development.
Bibliography
Spitz, René A. (1950). Anxiety in infancy. International Journal
of Psycho-Analysis, 31.
STRATA/STRATIFICATION
In psychoanalysis, the term “stratification” refers to
the layers of ideation constructed by the psyche. In
Studies on Hysteria (1895d), Freud noted, “Thus it
came about that in this, the first full-length analysis of
a hysteria undertaken by me, I arrived at a procedure
which I later developed into a regular method and
employed deliberately. This procedure was one of
clearing away the pathogenic psychical material layer
by layer, and we liked to compare it with the technique
of excavating a buried city” (p. 139).
Exploring the theme in greater detail in the chapter
entitled “The Psychotherapy of Hysteria,” he stated
that his aim was a “dynamics of ideation” (p. 287).
“The psychical material,” he explained, “presents itself
as a structure in several dimensions which is stratified
in at least three different ways” (p. 288). First is a
reverse linear chronology, “as though we were examining
a dossier that had been kept in good order”
(p. 288). Second is a concentric stratification around
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STRATA/STRATIFICATION
the pathogenic nucleus, where resistance increases as
one gets closer to the nucleus. Here the strata represent
zones of “an equal degree of modification of consciousness”
(p, 289). Finally, there is dynamic stratification,
which follows thought contents. Dynamic stratification
is revealed by trajectories that zigzag from
the surface down into the deep strata and back up
again, passing through all levels and convergent
nexuses of communication. The overdetermination of
symptoms results from this type of stratification.
The problem of the stratification of the psyche, and
thus of a “dynamics of ideation,” remained a constant
preoccupation for Freud from then on. Indeed, psychoanalysis
itself can be characterized as a psychology
of depths. To explore these depths of the psyche, Freud
developed topographies in writings spanning from
The Interpretation of Dreams (1900a) through “Splitting
of the Ego in the Process of Defence” (1940e
[1938]). But the topographies were not enough. Freud
also posited different temporalities within the psyche,
such as the atemporality of the unconscious. Also playing
a part in Freud’s elaboration of the structure of the
psyche were phylogenetic traces of an archaic heritage,
fixation, regression, and the life and death instincts.
Described in “The Ego and the Id” (1923b) as the
“precipitate of abandoned object cathexes” (p. 29), the
ego too exhibits considerable stratification. What happens
at the boundaries between the various strata and
among the agencies of the mind can also be characterized
as strata dynamics.
In mathematics, a stratified set is made by stitching
together varieties of different dimensions. Catastrophe
theory sheds light on the dynamics capable of generating
these stratifications and on modes of passage from
one stratum to another. This could be an outstanding
tool for linking together the questions raised by Freud.
MICHELE PORTE
See also: Analyzability; Archaic; Archaeology, metaphor
of; Biological bedrock; Fusion/defusion of instincts; History
and psychoanalysis; Id; Instinctual impulse; Libidinal
stage; Mnemic trace/memory trace; Proton-pseudos;
Psychic revision; Studies on Hysteria.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1900a). The interpretation of dreams. SE,
4: 1-338; 5: 339-625.
. (1923b). The ego and the id. SE, 19: 1-66.
1665
STRUCTURAL THEORIES
_ (1925a [1924]). A note upon the “mystic writing
pad.” SE, 19: 225-232.
. (1930a [1929]). Civilization and its discontents. SE,
21: 57-145.
. (1940e [1938]). Splitting of the ego in the process
of defence. SE, 23: 271-278.
Freud, Sigmund, and Breuer, Josef. (1895d). Studies on hysteria.
SE, 2: 48-106.
Teissier, Bernard. (1988). Stratifications, finitude et intuition.
In Jean Petitot-Cocorda (Ed.), Logos et théorie des catastrophes:
a partir de Pceuvre de René Thom; Actes du colloque
international de 1982 (pp. 59-65). Geneva: Patino.
STRUCTURAL THEORIES
A structural theory may be defined as one which tends
to organize a set of propositions—and, in the realm of
the natural sciences, a set of observations to which they
refer—as a whole made up of interdependent parts. A
structure may be defined as a functional whole presiding
over a system of transformations and governed by
self-regulating mechanisms.
Such a definition applies equally well to inanimate
material systems (self-regulating machines), to constructions
of the mind (logico-mathematical wholes,
as for instance set theory), to living organisms, or to
subsystems of living organisms. This last category
would include the psychical apparatus in Freud’s
sense, and that apparatus can thus be deemed the
object of a structural theory in psychoanalysis.
From its earliest formulations, Freudian metapsychology
may indeed be looked upon as a structural
theory according to the above definition, for it was
meant to describe the functioning of a system made
up of interdependent elements, namely the psychical
apparatus as a whole. This was clear in Freud’s work as
early as the “Project for a Scientific Psychology”
(1950c [1895]) and his reformulation of the ideas of
the “Project” five years later in The Interpretation of
Dreams (1900a). During this first period in the development
of psychoanalysis, Freud was already specifying
local aspects of an overall functioning. After
describing how ideas are linked together, for instance,
he observed that their concatenations crossed at
“nodal points” which it was the task of analysis to
locate: “The logical chain corresponds not only to a
zigzag, twisted line, but rather to a ramifying system of
lines and more particularly to a converging one. It
1666
contains nodal points at which two or more threads
meet” (1895d, p. 290). Sometimes, even, several interconnected
nodes were observable, like those constituting
what Freud called a “pathogenic organization.”
The whole of Freud’s subsequent work strove for an
ever more refined and better articulated description of
the operation of the psychical apparatus as a structure,
and this at a number of levels. It is thus possible to distinguish
those writings in which Freud described
partial, local aspects of that operation in terms of a
network—as, for example, the breast-feces-penismoney
interplay of symbolic equivalents—and indeed
the term complex itself denotes such a local organization;
those writings concerned with modalities of overall
mental functioning characteristic of particular
groups of individuals (for example, the obsessional
structure); and those writings whose subject was the
general laws of mental functioning. Two major stages
in Freud’s approach to these laws were represented by
the metapsychological papers of 1915 and by his introduction
in the 1920-1923 period of a second topography
and a second theory of the instincts.
The structural view was always paralleled in Freud
by a developmental approach to the same issues. If
one accepts the idea that any structure may be apprehended
in terms of its genesis (the successive stages
of its establishment), and that any genetic process
presents its own diachronic structure, it would seem
that the two perspectives must be inextricably linked.
The structural and the developmental have nevertheless
often been opposed to each other by psychoanalysts,
who have privileged one to the detriment of
the other.
This separation has been spurred by two currents
of thought. The first, within psychoanalysis itself,
accompanied the advent of child psychoanalysis and
of theoretical options that stressed development. The
chief figures here were Anna Freud, Melanie Klein,
and their more or less direct heirs, among them Margaret
Mahler, Frances Tustin, Donald Meltzer, Donald
W. Winnicott, and Serge Lebovici. In the wider general
cultural framework, a second contributing factor
was the “structure-versus-history” debate that stirred
up so many disciplines during the nineteen-seventies
(Green, 1963). The origins of that debate may be
traced back to linguistics, to the moment around
1910 when Ferdinand de Saussure introduced an
avenue of research which treated language as a system
of signs each of which derived its meaning from its
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
relationship with the others: in other words, a structural
approach to language sharply opposed to the
hitherto dominant diachronic one. This orientation
was further refined later by many linguists, notably
by Roman Jakobsen, who inspired Jacques Lacan. In
another area, Claude Levi-Strauss revolutionized traditional
cultural anthropology by asserting that the
kinship relationships observable in any given society
were structures, and added that in all societies the
taboo on incest was “the rule of rules.”
It is important to note that two major schools of
thought, though radically at odds with one another,
considered themselves, or were considered by others,
to be “structural” psychoanalysis. The first was “ego
psychology,” developed above all in the United States
under the influence of Heinz Hartmann. The qualifier
“structural” refers in this instance to ego psychologys
embrace of the second Freudian topography, in
which the id-ego-superego system—a set of polarities
and complementarities—unquestionably implies a
structural conception of psychoanalysis, as envisaged
in the latter part of Freud’s work. Inasmuch, however,
as the developmental axis was dominant for the
ego psychologists, French-speaking authors have
tended to characterize their doctrine as “genetic psychoanalysis,’
and in many cases expressed strong
reservations about what they deemed an “objectivist
realism” which by overvaluing “direct observation” of
children’s behavior was liable to water psychoanalysis
down into a mere developmental psychology.
In any event, Jacques Lacan is thought to stand in
diametrical opposition to ego psychology, referring
directly as it does to Saussure, Jakobsen, and Lévi-
Strauss. For Lacan language constituted the paradigmatic
structure of the psyche, and more especially of
the unconscious, which he therefore described as
“structured like a language.” Language was a system of
signs none of which signified anything in itself, for
meaning arose solely from the place and function of a
given sign within the system as whole. In his later
work, however, Lacan distanced himself somewhat
from this linguistic orientation and called upon
logico-mathematical models borrowed from topology,
notably metaphorical uses of the Mobius strip and the
Borromean chain. He was led eventually to distinguish
three main types of structures in the sense of modalities
of the functioning of a whole: the structures of
neurosis, marked by repression, the structures of per-
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STRUCTURAL THEORIES
version, characterized by disavowal, and the structures
of psychosis, produced by foreclosure.
ROGER PERRON
See also: Actual neurosis/defense neurosis; Anti-Oedipus:
Capitalism and Schizophrenia, Autism; Autoeroticism;
Beyond the Pleasure Principle; Blank/nondelusional neuroses;
Brain and psychoanalysis, the; Change; Partial
drive; Consciousness; Danger; Determinism; Addiction;
Dualism; Ego boundaries; Fear; Group analysis; Group
Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego; Ideology; Infantile,
the; Mentalization; Narcissism; Object; Object-relations
theory; Operational thinking; Perversion; Phobic neurosis;
Primary process/secondary process; Processes of
development; Psychanalyse, La; Psychic causality; Psychoses,
chronic and delusional; Psychosexual development;
Psychosomatic limit/boundary; Representation;
Schizophrenia; Symbol; Totem and Taboo; Transference
neurosis; United States.
Bibliography
Beres, David. (1965). Structure and function in psychoanalysis.
International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 46,
53-63.
Blum, Harold P. (1971). Transference and structure. In
Mark Kanzer (Ed.), The unconscious today: Essays in
honor of Max Schur. New York: International Universities
Press.
Fédida, Pierre. (1964). Le structuralisme en psychopathologie:
histoire, langage et relation. Evolution Pychiatrique, 29,
1, 85-129.
Freud, Sigmund. (1900a). The interpretation of dreams. SE,
4-5.
. (1950c [1895]). Project for a scientific psychology.
SE, 1: 281-387.
Freud, Sigmund, and Breuer, Josef. (1895d). Studies on hysteria.
SE, 2.
Green, André. (1963). La psychanalyse devant l’opposition
de l’histoire et de la structure. Critique, 194, 649-662.
Perron, Roger. (1981). Note sur la notion de structure.
Revue frangaise de psychanalyse, 45, 4, 1059-65.
Further Reading
Brenner, Charles. (2002). Conflict, compromise formation,
and structural theory. Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 71, 397—
418.
Gillett, Eric. (1997). Revising Freud’s structural theory. Psychoanalysis
and Contemporary Thought, 20, 471-500.
1667
STRUCTURALISM AND PSYCHOANALYSIS
Van den Daele, L. (1994). Revision of the topographic and
structural theories. Psychoanalysis and Contemporary
Thought, 17, 407-446.
STRUCTURALISM AND PSYCHOANALYSIS
Structuralism, a major current of thought in the second
half of the twentieth century, developed in France
from the 1960s onward in reaction to existentialism
and humanism. From a methodological point of view,
in the analysis and understanding of “objects” (especially
those in the social sciences), it tended to see
“structures” as pre-eminent and to see the given and
its directly observable features as mere “effects.” [Ed:
Quotes indicate jargon terms in structuralism. ]
Arising from the linguistics of Ferdinand de Saussure
and in particular from the Prague and Moscow
schools, structuralism counts many representatives in
various fields. There are the linguist Roman Jakobson,
the socioethnologist Claude Lévi-Strauss, the
philosopher and archeologist of knowledge Michel
Foucault, the reinterpreter of Marxism Louis Althusser,
the writers for the periodical Tel Quel, the literary
critic Roland Barthes, and the psychoanalyst
Jacques Lacan.
Gilles Deleuze, in his article “A quoi reconnait-on le
structuralisme?” (How to recognize structuralism;
1973), tried to enumerate “formal criteria” for recognizing
what is structuralist, in particular, as they apply to
the field of psychoanalysis. The criteria are the following:
d) The symbolic, which proceeds from a rejection
of the mere interplay of opposition and complementarity
between the real and the imaginary
(Lacan, 1974-1975). In Deleuze’s view, Freud
can be interpreted on the basis of two principles:
“the reality principle, with its force of disappointment,
and the pleasure principle, with its
power of hallucinatory satisfaction,’ he writes.
Carl Gustav Jung and Gaston Bachelard take the
perspective of the “transcendent unity and borderline
tension” of the two principles. The symbolic,
a structure that has nothing to do with
perceptible forms (gestalts and figures of the
imagination) or with any intelligible essence,
must be understood in Louis Althusser’s fashion,
“as the production of an original and specific
theoretical object.”
1668
e) Localization and positioning. Any element of a
structure has neither extrinsic designation nor
intrinsic meaning, and thus has only one sort of
meaning, positional meaning (with no real
extent nor imaginary extension). Thus, in
genetic biology, “genes are part of a structure
insofar as they are inseparable from ‘loci, ’ places
capable of changing their relations within the
chromosome.” The real subjects or objects are
thus not what “occupy the places,” since they are
determined in a topological and relational way.
In his Ecrits (1966), Jacques Lacan defines intersubjectivity
as a symbolic structural space, that
of the signifier.
f) The differential and the singular, which bring
into play the positional units that are the symbolic
elements of a structure. The phoneme
shows this in an exemplary fashion, since it is a
relationship that is neither a thing nor an imaginary,
but a component of an elementary differentiation
of two words with different meanings
(“robbing” and “bobbing” differ by the phonemic
relation of “r” and “b”). Singularities are
assigned by the differential and produce structural
particularities (as do names and attitudes
for Lévi-Strauss). Lévi-Strauss uncovered “parentemes,”
‘positional units that do not exist
outside differential relations (brother/sister, husband/
wife, father/mother, maternal uncle/sister’s
son). Serge Leclaire showed in “Counting with
Psychoanalysis” that the “libidinal movements”
of the body are linked to symbolic elements of
the unconscious, “incarnating the singularities
of structure in this place or that.”
g) The differentiating element, the act of differentiation.
“The structure is not actualized unless it
differentiates itself in time and space,’ and it
does so by its actualization. “The two notions of
multiple internal temporality and static ordinal
genesis are, in this sense, inseparable from the
interplay of structures,” Deleuze wrote.
& The serial, in other words, the necessary organization
of symbolic elements in their differential relations
by means of which a structure arranges itself
into different developments that play on and
through one another. For instance, a social structure
is organized into series: economic, political,
juridical, etc. An operative structure has at least
two series; for instance, phonemes require the
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
second series of morphemes. In Lacan (1966), the
unconscious “implies a development in two [variable]
series,” as his commentaries on Edgar Allan
Poe’s “The Purloined Letter” or Freud’s case of
the Rat Man (1955a [1907—1908]) show.
i) Finally, the empty square, which is the paradoxical
element of structure. It can never be filled without
being disabled. This singular object x “is the point
of convergence of the divergent series as such.” It is
the “handkerchief” referred to by André Green
(an associate of Lacan) in his essay “Othello”
(1969), which runs through all the series in the
play. The empty square is the guarantor and representative
of the third party, “which intervenes
essentially in the symbolic system.” The object is
always displaced in relation to itself, “missing
from its own place” according to Lacan, without
being distinguished from that place, adds Deleuze.
From Deleuze’s article, it is thus clear that structuralism
claims that the determinants of reality and
those of the imaginary are essentially unconscious
structures, because they are in every place and at
every time “covered over by their products and their
effects.” From this viewpoint, one can regard the second
Freudian topography of the psychic apparatus as
already a structuralist representation of the psyche,
since even consciousness, on the plane of the ego, is
an effect of the interplay of different agencies: the id,
the ego itself in its different characters, and the superego.
By way of contrast, Jean Piaget, in his article “La
psychologie” (Psychology; 1972), characterizes psychoanalysis
as a “complete reductionism” insofar as
it seeks, in his view, to reach mental processes by
means of “the direct study of the contents of representations
and affects” and does not recognize any
autonomy of the ego (Heinz Hartmann) “free of sexual
conflicts.”
It was Jacques Lacan who radically located psychoanalysis
within the domain of structuralism. At the
beginning of the twenty-first century we are witnessing
a return of the subject, which existentialism, for one,
refused to abandon. But because it is difficult to see
how an autonomous subject, independent of structure,
can again be affirmed without returning to ego
psychology or existential psychoanalysis (the most traditional
rationalism), there does not seem as yet to be
any alternative to structuralism.
DOMINIQUE AUFFRET
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STUDIENAUSGABE
See also: Formations of the unconscious; Four discourses;
France; Model; Monism; Name-of-the-Father; Object a;
Nonverbal communication; Parade of signifiers; Signifier;
Signifier/signified; Structural theories; Symbolic, the
(Lacan).
Bibliography
Deleuze, Gilles. (1973). A quoi reconnait-on le structuralisme?
In Francois Chatelet (Ed.), Histoire de la philosophie,
idées, doctrines, le XXe siécle. (pp. 299-335) Paris:
Hachette.
Foucault, Michel. (1973). The order of things: An archaeology
of the human sciences. New York: Vintage Books. (Original
work published 1966)
Green, Andre. (1969). Othello, une tragédie de la conversion:
Magie noire et magie blanche. In his Un oeil en trop:
le complexe d Oedipe dans la tragédie. (pp. 109-164) Paris:
Editions de Minuit.
Jakobson, Roman. (1963). Essais de linguistique générale.
Paris: Minuit.
Lacan, Jacques. (1966). Ecrits. Paris: Seuil.
. (1974-1975). Le seminaire: Livre XXII, R.S.I. Ornicar?,
2—5.
Lévi-Strauss, Claude. (1963). Structural anthropology (Claire
Jacobson and Brooke Grundfest Schoepf, Trans.). New
York: Basic Books. (Original work published 1949)
Piaget, Jean. (1972). La psychologie. In his Epistémologie des
sciences de [homme (pp. 133-250). Paris: Gallimard.
STUDIENAUSGABE
The Studienausgabe, a critical edition of Freud’s work
comprised of ten numbered volumes and a supplementary
volume (Ergdnzungsband), is the sole German-
language edition offering a broad selection of the
writings accompanied by an impressive scholarly
apparatus.
Edited by Alexander Mitscherlich, Angela Richards,
and James Strachey, Volumes 1-10 were published by
S. Fischer Verlag between 1969 and 1975. The supplement
(Schriften zur Behandlungstechnik), co-edited by
Ilse Grubrich-Simitis, which added Freud’s writings on
psychoanalytic technique, appeared in 1975. On the fiftieth
anniversary of Freud’s death, in 1989, the Studienausgabe
were reissued in an updated and revised version.
Simultaneously, the Sigmund Freud—Konkordanz
und Gesamtbibliographie, originally compiled by Ingeborg
Meyer-Palmedo and already associated with the
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Srubies ON HYSTERIA
Studienausgabe in 1975, was radically reworked, with
the assistance of Gerhard Fichtner, and published
under the title Freud-Bibliographie mit Werkonkordanz
as a companion to the revised Studienausgabe. (A new,
corrected edition of the Freud-Bibliographie appeared
in 1999.)
The ten volumes of the Studienausgabe are arranged
thematically. Some contain a single work, as in the
case of Volume 1, the Introductory Lectures on Psycho-
Analysis, or Volume 2, The Interpretation of Dreams,
while those which collect several texts on a single subject
are arranged chronologically. The editorial commentary
consists essentially, with a few additions, of a
translation of James Strachey’s critical apparatus for
the Standard Edition. Strachey, who had participated
actively in the planning of the Studienausgabe, died in
1967, so it fell to his collaborator Angela Richards to
undertake the better part of the editing, with constant
assistance from Ilse Grubrich-Simitis and Ingeborg
Meyer-Palmedo.
All volumes of the Studienausgabe are supplied with
substantial bibliographies and detailed indexes to help
researchers, teachers, and students. Freud’s numerous
revisions in successive editions of his writings, especially
in such major works as The Interpretation of
Dreams or the Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality,
are clearly identified and dated. More than two-thirds
of the Freudian texts assembled in the Standard Edition
are to be found in the Studienausgabe.
When Freud went into exile in London in 1938, his
projects with respect to publishing his work went with
him. James Strachey and his group of collaborators
then proceeded to build up an editorial culture around
their projected Standard Edition which had no equivalent
in Austria or in the Federal Republic of Germany
of the 1960s. The paradoxical result is that the first,
and up to now the only critical edition of Freud’s work
in German relies for the most part on the work of English-
speaking editors.
In conclusion, it may be fairly said that after the
brutal stop put by the Nazis to the influence of Freud’s
work in the German-speaking countries, the Studienausgabe
have effectively promoted it, not only among
specialists but also among general readers.
ILSE GRUBRICH-SIMITIS
See also: Gesammelte Werke; Standard Edition of the Complete
Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud.
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Bibliography
Grubrich-Simitis, Ise. (1996 [1993]). Back to Freud s texts.
Making silent documents speak. New Haven and London:
Yale University Press.
. (1989). Nachtrag 1989 zu den “erlauterungen zur
edition.” Studienausgabe (Vol. 1, p. 32). Frankfurtam-
Main: Fischer.
Richards, Angela. (1969). Erlauterungen zur edition. Studienausgabe
(Vol. 1, pp. 27-32). Frankfurt-am-Main: Fischer.
STUDIES ON HYSTERIA
Beginning in 1892, Sigmund Freud gradually abandoned
the technique of hypnosis and began using the
“method of cathartic abreaction” that had been
described to him by his older colleague, Josef Breuer,
ten years earlier. He became increasingly convinced of
the sexual origin of neurotic disturbances in his
patients and, uneasy over the work Pierre Janet had
begun to publish (L’Etat mental des hystériques, 1892—
1894), convinced Breuer to join him in writing a book
that, by situating the origin of their research in 1881,
would assure them of priority in the world of scientific
research.
A letter to Wilhelm Fliess on June 28, 1892, referred
to Breuer’s agreement. The two authors were going to
contribute jointly to the volume. In the autumn of
that year Freud began testing his new techniques of
concentration on the symptom and placement of his
hands on the forehead in an attempt to draw out Elisabeth
von R.’s forgotten pathogenic memories, and by
December he and Breuer had signed a “Preliminary
Communication” that appeared in January 1893
(1893a). They attributed the cause of hysterical symptoms
to the forgotten memory of a trigger incident
that had not been “abreacted” and acted on the psyche
as if it were a foreign body. The symptoms disappeared
whenever the memory and its affect were awakened by
providing them with a verbal outlet, which led to the
famous maxim that “hysterics suffer primarily from
reminiscences” (1895d, p. 7). For his part, Breuer
insisted on the “tendency to a dissociation of consciousness”
(1892—93a, p. 122) caused by daydreams.
The “Preliminary Communication” aroused considerable
interest in the international scientific community,
as shown by a reference from Frederick W. H. Myers in
Great Britain, only three months after its appearance.
However, the theory of sexual etiology began to
appear increasingly convincing to Freud, which
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created a rift with the reticent Breuer. An 1894 article
on the “Psychoneuroses of Defense” (1894a) enabled
Freud to distinguish his theory from that of Pierre
Janet and describe the concept of “conversion.” At the
same time he began to take an interest in dreams and,
having written down his observations, in the spring of
1895 he wrote the preface and final chapter of Studies
on Hysterta—during a period when he was still experiencing
the disastrous consequences of Wilhelm Fliess’s
operation on Emma Eckstein.
The book appeared in May. The first chapter incorporated
the “Preliminary Communication.” The second
was devoted to the case studies: Anna O., who was
Breuer’s patient, followed by “observations that read
like novels and do not bear the stamp of seriousness
typical of scientific writings.” These were written by
Freud and described his treatment of Emmy von N.,
Lucy R., Katharina, and Elisabeth von R. (and Frau
Cacille M., to whom reference is made throughout the
book).
A third chapter by Breuer is devoted to theoretical
issues. Here he describes the ideogenous nature of hysterical
disturbances, the “unconscious or subconscious
representations” of a primitive trauma that is primarily
associated with sexual matters, and the recognition
of mental hyperactivity in hysterics—the same individuals
in whom Janet had found a “weakness,” if not a
constitutional mental inadequacy. He insisted on the
presence of “hypnoidia” and the constancy of hypnoid
states.
Freud wrote the last chapter, “The Psychotherapy of
Hysteria.” In it he describes the overdetermination of
symptoms and the value of the cathartic method. The
preliminary structure of what will become psychoanalysis
is laid out: the patient on the couch, free association,
the consideration of “false connections,” and the
disjunction mésalliance, which is the transference to
the doctor of “the distressing ideas which arise from
the content of the analysis” (1895d, p. 302). For Freud
the psychic materials of hysteria appear to be arranged
in strata, starting from a kernel of traumatic memories.
This arrangement can be chronological—in
which case, Freud writes, “it [is] as though we were
examining a dossier that had been kept in good
order”(p. 288)—or thematic, such themes being “stratified
concentrically round the pathogenic nucleus” (p.
289). The goal of the analysis is to “penetrate ... to the
nucleus of the pathogenic organization” (p. 295), an
operation that requires considerable effort on the part
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STUDIES ON HYSTERIA
of the therapist, who must overcome the patient’s
resistance in order to unearth the buried memory that
is the source of the problem. The means used to overcome
this were still rudimentary, gentle, physical pressure
applied to the points of the forehead, and an
increasing barrage of questions intended to “extort” a
patient’s secrets. Even though the method was claimed
to be successful, Freud concluded, “No doubt fate
would find it easier than I do to relieve you of your illness.
But you will be able to convince yourself that
much will be gained if we succeed in transforming
your hysterical misery into common unhappiness.
With a mental life that has been restored to health you
will be better armed against that unhappiness” (p.
305).
By the following October, Freud would publicly
abandon Breuer’s theory of hypnoid states and affirm
that hysteria arises from seduction early in life, a “presexual
sexual fright” (letter to Fliess, October 15,
1895).
But the book went out into the world and Freud,
already known for his neurological work, became
recognized as a “psychologist.” Although Adolf Triimpell
sharply criticized the book (letter to Fliess, February
6, 1896), an event that deeply affected Breuer,
Havelock Ellis praised it, as did Theodore Flournoy
and a number of French authors. Eugen Bleuler
himself wrote, in 1896, that it was “one of the most
important recent additions to the field of normal and
pathological psychology.” The success of the Studies on
Hysteria did come at a price, however. For a number of
years the book was considered, by those who did not
have access to Freud’s later writings, to contain the
essence of his theory and practice. Even Pierre Janet, in
his critiques of psychoanalysis in 1907 and 1913, did
not appear to look any deeper for an understanding of
Freudian theory.
Although Sandor Ferenczi, in a letter to Freud on
March 2, 1909, described it as the “germ of everything
we now know,” Freud had mixed feelings about the
book and struggled against the ongoing references to
theories he believed to be outdated. As early as 1901 he
wrote, “Ever since we wrote the Studies, psychoanalytic
technique has undergone a fundamental transformation.
The work had symptoms as its point of departure
and their successive resolution as its goal. Since then I
have abandoned this technique, for I found it unsuited
to the delicate structure of the neurosis.” Freud even
minimized his contribution to the book in his On the
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SUBCONSCIOUS
History of the Pyscho-Analytic Movement (1914d) and
especially in An Autobiographical Study: “As regards
the theory put forward in the book, I was partly
responsible, but to an extent which it is to-day no
longer possible to determine. That theory was in any
case unpretentious and hardly went beyond the direct
description of the observations. It did not seek to
establish the nature of hysteria but merely to throw
light upon the origin of its symptoms. ... The theory
of catharsis had not much to say on the subject of
sexuality. In the case histories which I contributed to
the Studies sexual factors played a certain part, but
scarcely more attention was paid to them than to other
emotional excitations.... It would have been difficult
to guess from the Studies on Hysteria what an importance
sexuality has in the aetiology of the neuroses”
(1925d, p. 22). Freud did not include the book in the
first edition of his collected works, the Gesammelte
Schriften.
In 1925 Freud added, “The practical results of the
cathartic procedure were excellent. Its defects, which
became evident later, were those of all forms of hypnotic
treatment. There are still a number of psychotherapists
who have not gone beyond catharsis as Breuer
understood it and who still speak in its favor” (p. 22).
At a time when psychoanalytic practice, for reasons
of pseudo-efficiency, risks incorporating psychotherapeutic
techniques dating from before the Studies on
Hysteria, the study of this key work is more relevant
than ever. This is undeniably important, if only to situate
its ideas as a historical step, simple but important,
in the trajectory that would lead Freud, over the next
ten years, to modify his theory and practice, thereby
defining the framework of psychoanalytic therapy as it
has come to be known.
ALAIN DE MYOLLA
See also: Cathartic method.
Source Citation
Freud, Sigmund, and Breuer, Josef. (1895d). Studien iiber
hysteria. Vienna; GW, 1, 75-312; Studies on hysteria. SE, 2.
Bibliography
Ellenberger, Henri F. (1970). The discovery of the unconscious:
The history and evolution of dynamic psychiatry.
New York: Basic Books.
1672
Freud, Sigmund. (1893a). On the psychical mechanism of
hysterical phenomena: preliminary communication. SE, 2:
1-17.
_ (1914d). On the history of the psycho-analytic
movement. SE, 14: 1-66.
_ (1925d). An autobiographical study. SE, 20: 1-74.
Freud, Sigmund, and Breuer, Josef. (1950a [1887-1902]).
Extracts from the Fliess papers. SE, 1: 173-280.
Ellenberger, Henri F. (1970). The discovery of the unconscious:
The history and evolution of dynamic psychiatry.
New York: Basic Books.
Grubrich-Simitis, Ilse. (1995). Urbuch der psychoanalyse.
Hundert jahre studien iiber hysterie von Josef Breuer und Sigmund
Freud. Frankfurt am Main: S. Fischer.
SUBCONSCIOUS.
A term that appears rather frequently in the psychological
literature of the late 19th century, especially in
France, the “subconscious” was used to designate a
mental state that is subliminal, diminished, or weak
and obscure; in terms of conscious thought it implied
a difference a degree not of kind. “Judgment and reasoning,
whether conscious, subconscious, or unconscious,
remain the same, except for a difference in the
degree of clarity of the representation,” wrote Théo-
. dule Ribot in La Logique des sentiments (1905, p. 80).
The subconscious was most clearly delineated in the
work of Pierre Janet. In Automatisme psychologique
(1889), he posited two contrasting forms of mental
activity, automatism and synthesis. The former corresponded
to the primal and archaic; the latter, to creativity
and higher levels of consciousness. On the basis
of experimental work with hysterics, Janet demonstrated
that in morbid states, due to a diminished field
of consciousness, automatism took precedence over
the activity of synthesis.
Janet essentially identified the subconscious with
psychic automatism and, in hysteria, he hypothesized
profound dissociation and splitting of the personality.
He was influenced by the work of Frederick
Myers, the British psychical researcher, and the work
of American physician Morton Prince on dual and
multiple personalities; he also took into account earlier
investigations by Jean-Jacques Moreau de Tours
on hashish intoxication.
In his early writings, including Studies on Hysteria
(1895d), Sigmund Freud used “subconscious” as moxe
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or less equivalent to “unconscious” but he soon abandoned
the former and disapproved of usage that conflated
the two terms. He characterized the unconscious
as actively associated with intrapsychic conflict while
viewing Janet’s subconscious as passive and associated
with psychological and physiological weakness. To
Janet's “dissociation” he opposed the concept of repression
and the psychological duality of separate domains
of conscious and unconscious mental functioning.
ANNICK OHAYON
See also: Flournoy, Théodore; France; Great Britain;
Janet, Pierre.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund, and Breuer, Josef. (1895d). Studies on hysteria.
SE, 2.
Janet, Pierre. (1889). L’Automatisme psychologique: essai de
psychologie expérimentale sur les formes inférieures de la vie
mentale (thesis). Paris: Felix Alcan.
. (1937). Les troubles de la personnalité sociale.
Annales médico-psychologiques.
Ribot, Théodule. (1905). La logique des sentiments. Paris:
Alcan.
SUBJECT
Unable to separate the term subject from the notion of
consciousness, Freud placed it in opposition to the
external world or the object, or in their reciprocal
reversal (1915e). In “New Introductory Lectures on
Psycho-Analysis” (1933a [1932]) Freud said the ego
was “in its proper sense a subject” (p. 58)—not as an
essence, but a function to be filled.
Jacques Lacan (1966) changed this by referring to
the subject as “the subject of the unconscious” in its
“unwitting” dimension, its ex-centricity in relation to
itself. The subject is the “it” that the “I” speaks of
when the I wishes to refer to itself as unconscious. Or
rather, the subject is this very split between the “I” and
the “it.” The ego, for its part, is not the “I”: a precipitate
of identifications, it becomes the locus of misapprehension.
How, then, is it possible for “the subject
to recognize and name his desire”? The answer is that
the truth speaks, even if the words spoken convey both
the lie of desire and its truth, and even if “the I that
speaks is not the same as the I that is spoken.”
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SUBJECT
The Other gives language its sense and the subject is
an effect of that sense. The subject of the unconscious
is “the subject represented by a signifier for another
signifier,’ and the only important thing is the degree
of difference between the two signifiers. The Imaginary
also enters into its determination through that which
is imagined about the object a, the only object that can
be transferred for transference into the place-occupied
by phallic lack. Thus, “the truth that the I of
the unconscious tells us is that only this nothingness
sustains it.”
Accordingly, for Lacan, the aim of treatment was
not to fill this gaping nothingness, but to manifest it
and potentially to express it through sublimation ...
or by training psychoanalysts. He emphasized that the
kind of listening that took place in analysis often took
wrong turns, and thus attempted, in his last years, to
reequilibrate his system, notably by using the topological
figure of the Borromean knot, to give “consistency”
to the Real, the Symbolic, and the Imaginary: “The
subject is what is determined by the figure in question:
Not that he is in any sense its double, the subject is
conditioned by the points at which the knot catches
and tightens in these points.”
The Lacanian subject is thus very different from the
one based on Freudian metapsychology. Lacan’s
approach upends the theory of subjectivity by making
the subject the subject of the drives, who sometimes
directs them and at times is directed by them.
This subject is alien to itself, split between the Self
and itself, though there is a constant reciprocity of
relations between the mind’s agencies, and reversibility
of the economic and dynamic transformations within
the personality as a whole. Among the various modalities
of representance, representation appears as the
bridge or articulation between the economic dimension
and that of meaning, the product of work whose
conscious or unconscious quality constitutes modalities
that are more or less contingent or necessary,
depending on the case, within the figure of tension
that is desire.
If, for Freud, the lifting of repression produced conscious
awareness, today the emphasis has shifted onto
whether or not a new, “subjectivable” meaning can
possibly emerge, be assumed by the subject, and
through the effects of deferred action [apres coup] that
constitute psychic reality, itself become a function of
both internal constraints and effects of the psychic
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SUBJECT OF THE DRIVE
reality of the object. Piera Aulagnier’s “I,” the study of
the originating conditions of the process of subjectification
(Cahn), and the related Aufhebung (sublation,
supersession) illuminated by the notion of transitionality
(Roussillon) are new approaches centered on the
internal and external elements at stake in the splittings
and exclusions that oppose this subjective appropriation.
Here, in contrast to the problematics of neurosis,
where the work of analysand naturally predominates,
it is the work of the analyst that is revealed to be determinant,
to contain that work, absorb it, and connect
its productions.
RAYMOND CAHN
See also: Alienation; Ego; Ego (analytical psychology);
Ego (ego psychology);I; Identity; Imaginary identification/
symbolic identification; Individual; Individuation
(analytical psychology); Object; Object a; Other, the;
Phenomenology and psychoanalysis; Philosophy and
psychoanalysis; Self; Self-consciousness; Subject of the
unconscious; Want of being/lack of being.
Bibliography
Aulagnier, Piera. (2001). The violence of interpretation: From
pictogram to statement (Alan Sheridan, Trans.). Hove, East
Sussex, and Philadelphia: Brunner Routledg. (Original
work published 1975)
Cahn, Raymond. (1991). Du sujet. Revue francaise de psychanalySE,
55, 5—6, 1371-1490.
Freud, Sigmund. (1915e). The unconscious. SE, 14: 159—
204.
. (1933a [1932]). New introductory lectures on psycho-
analysis. SE, 22: 1-182.
. (1940a). An outline of psycho-analysis. SE, 23:
139-207.
Lacan, Jacques. (1977). Ecrits: A selection Alan Sheridan,
Trans.). New York: Norton. (Original work published
1966).
Roussillon, René. (1995). La metapsychologie des processus
et la transitionnalité. Revue francaise de psychanalyse, LIX.
Further Reading
Ogden, Thomas. (1994). Subjects of analysis. Northvale, NJ:
Aronson, Inc.
Renik, Owen. (1998). The analyst’s subjectivity and the analyst’s
objectivity. International Journal of Psychoanalysis,
79, 487-498.
1674
Smith, Henry. (1999). Subjectivity and objectivity in analytic
listening. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association,
47, 465-484.
SUBJECT OF THE DRIVE
In his seminar on The Four Fundamental Concepts of
Psychoanalysis (1964), Jacques Lacan reread Freud’s
essay “Drives and their Vicissitudes” (1915c) in order
to emphasize that the four components of the drive—
pressure, object, aim, and source—are not natural
phenomena: the drive is a montage.
The constancy of the drive’s pressure differentiates
it from vital needs, which vary according to their own
rhythms (Lacan, p. 171). Thus hunger is not the same
as the oral drive. Satisfaction does not consist in fulfilling
a need, but in completing a circuit of three stages.
The “mouth that is involved in the drive,” Lacan stated,
“is not satisfied by food” (p. 167). The drive
begins at an erogenous zone, and then makes a circuit
around the object cause of desire, the object a. Thus
Lacan saw drives as distinct from vital needs.
Lacan reserved the term “drive” for the sexual
drives. Instincts of self-preservation—the Ichtriebe,
Freud’s ego-drives—were a function of narcissism.
The subject of the drive emerged once the three stages
of the drive’s circuit were completed. Along with the
active and reflexive stages, Lacan emphasized the
importance of a third stage, in which, as Freud had
said, a new subject would appear. This new subject is
an other. When the “I” is, like an object, subjected to
this other, it may experience pain and become a subject
itself. It will seek to attach itself to the enjoyment
of this other, which from then on plays the role of real
Other. Only by completing the circuit of the drive does
the subject come into contact with the dimension of
the Other as the treasure trove of the signifiers. For
Lacan, the concept of the drive is the pivot between the
body, enjoyment, and language.
Clinical work allows us to see infantile autism as the
result of a failure at the third stage in the circuit of the
drive.
Marig-CHRISTINE LAZNIK
See also: Castration of the subject; Demand; Drive; Erotogenicity;
Fantasy, formula of; Jouissance (Lacan); Perceptual
identity; Real, the (Lacan); Subject; Topology.
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Bibliography
Lacan, Jacques. (1978). The four fundamental concepts of psychoanalysis
(Alan Sheridan, Trans.). New York: W. W.
Norton. (Original work published 1964)
Laznik, Marie-Christine. (1993).Pour une théorie lacanienne
des pulsions. Le Discours psychanalytique, revue de
[Association freudienne, 10
Penot, Bernard. (1998). La passion du sujet entre pulsion
et signifiance. Bulletin de la Société de psychanalyse de
Paris, 51.
Further Reading
Kernberg, Otto. (2001). Object relations, affects, and
drives: Toward a new synthesis. Psychoanalytical Inquiry,
21, 604-619.
SUBJECT OF THE UNCONSCIOUS
It has often been remarked that Freud hardly ever
made use of the term “subject.” The only exception
(which is surprising, because it was never noticed) was
his respected use of the term in “Instincts and Their
Vicissitudes” (1915c). While describing the normal
instinctual “vicissitude,” where the drives turn back on
the subject’s body and where the mode of satisfaction
is reversed from active to passive, Freud wrote of “a
new subject,” which he situated outside of the person
proper. This subject wants to be watched (or violated)
to satisfy the infantile need to be looked at (or treated
sadistically). Freud thought that this instinctual subject-
agent had been created at the stage where goals
became passive—an idea that he took up again four
years later with regard to the origin of the fantasy of “A
Child is Being Beaten” (1919e). There he declared that
the fantasy acquired its full subjective power only
when it was being lived through passively: “I am beaten
by the father.”
Subsequently, when Freud considered the love-hate
dyad, he did not think of it as in the same category
as instinctual dyads like the sadomasochistic and
voyeur-exhibitionistic dyads. Instead, he conceived of
it as being determined by narcissism. Then he
returned to his former conception of an “ego-subject”
after seeming to introduce the notion of an unconscious
instinctual object in the first part of his study
(Freud, 1915c).
Jacques Lacan took up the challenge of developing
this concept of the subject of the unconscious in his
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SUBJECT OF THE UNCONSCIOUS
teaching. From 1945 on, he worked on defining the
different meanings of the term “subject.” He wrote of
the Cartesian subject of certainty, the negated subject
of science, the personal subject of self-affirmation, and
of course the two subjects of a sentence: the grammatical
subject and the intentional subject. This duplication
is at the basis of his conception of the intrinsically
divided subject, $ (barred S), which accounts for his
famous definition of the subject as being whatever a
signifier represents for another signifier (Lacan, 1966/
2002).
But Lacan was always led back to the “subject of
unconscious desire”: the subject of the desires of The
Interpretation of Dreams, the subject of the witticism
and other expressions of the unconscious, which he
saw as structured like a “language.” However, having
reduced the subject of human desire to an effect of language
(“the speaking being”), he didn’t reduce it any
further to a grammatical subject. His subject was
either instinctual or empty (like the word).
This drive-based vision of the subject prompted
Lacan, in his first seminars (1975, 1978), to differentiate
it categorically from the ego. On this point he
broke openly with Freud’s notion of the global ego. In
effect, he saw the ego as an imaginary function whose
purpose is to provide the person with a sense of corporeal
unity and continuity. Lacan emphasized that
the ego was necessarily involved in a struggle against
the instinctual registers, and this stance caused him to
view the ego, as it reflects the image of the Other, as
opposed to the subject (S), which emerges as the id.
His interpretation of Freud’s famous statement “Wo
Es war, soll Ich werden” (“Where the id was, there I
should come to be”) led him to play on the homophony
of “S” and “Es.”
Lacan viewed the newborn subject, because it was
always born prematurely, as implicated in the
“demands” through which it makes known its needs.
It borrows these demands from the maternal signifying
code. In so doing, the subject makes a first effort to
attach itself (instinctively) to a desiring maternal
Other, thus confirming the incompleteness of the latter.
When the young subject observes the lack in the
Other, it will disengage from its mother. Lacan said
that the signifier of the Other’s lack showed how “all
the other signifiers represent the subject,’ but on the
other hand he conjectured that “when this signifier is
missing, all the other signifiers represent nothing” and
no one (1977, p. 316).
1675
Sussect's CASTRATION
The subject, in its fantasies, is able to represent itself
as maintaining a desire through the partial (real)
objects that Lacan called “little a’s.” These little a’s are
residues of the operation through which the first
Other recognizes itself as being subject to the rules of
symbolic exchange.
The neurotic in analysis obstinately refuses to imagine
the Other as a subject, “the subject who is supposed
to know,” and refuses to accept that the Other is
animated by a desire toward him. This is what sparks
the transference in the cure.
BERNARD PENOT
See also: Fantasy, formula of; Linguistics and psychoanalysis;
Signifier; Signifying chain; Topology; Unary trait.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1915c). Instincts and their vicissitudes.
SE, 14: 109-140.
Lacan, Jacques. (1988). The seminar of Jacques Lacan. Book 1:
Freud’s papers on technique (1953-1954) (John Forrester,
Trans.). (Original work published 1975)
. (1988). The seminar of Jacques Lacan. Book 2: The
ego in Freud’s theory and in the technique of psychoanalysis
(1954-1955) (Sylvana Tomaselli, Trans.). (Original work
published 1978)
. (2002). The subversion of the subject and dialectic
of desire in the Freudian unconscious. In his Ecrits: A selection
(Bruce Fink, Trans.). New York: W. W. Norton. (Original
work published 1960)
SUBJECT’S CASTRATION
Lacanian notions of castration are linked to frustration
and deprivation, lacking and giving, and ultimately to
object relations. These represent a certain culmination
of the history of psychoanalytic thought on the subject.
To better define their importance, let us examine
their history.
Starting in 1905, Freud posited a theory of object
relations that would be linked to the stages of libidinal
development (Freud, 1905d). He later proposed that
the loss of feces should be considered as the precursor
of the castration complex (Freud, 1916-1917e). Thus
the Freudian concept is “absolutely realist.”
It fell to August Starke, in a long and important
article published in 1921, to expand this theory by
1676
proposing that the breast no longer be considered the
first lost object and the model for castration anxiety.
Instead he recommended that masochistic pleasure
also be connected with castration anxiety, which is
expressed as a desire to receive the penis.
In 1928, building on theories advanced by Karl
Abraham in 1924 and on thoughts that Freud
expressed in 1926 about the peculiarities of the castration
complex in the woman (Freud, 1926d), Melanie
Klein differentiated between early anxiety in boys and
girls. A boy’s anxiety involves castration and a girl’s
the good internal functioning of her body.
Thus there is a continuous strand of Freudian
thought that considers the object as tangible and castration
as a reality. Even an author like Bion did not
depart from this line (Bion, 1959). For him, links and
attacks, the breast and the penis, are always quite
real—even if their reality is only fantasmatic.
Jacques Lacan revolutionized this tradition. For
him, castration fundamentally pertains to the subjectivity
of the subject. It derives from a symbolic debt,
linked to the prohibition against incest and murder. In
the real, the subject observes that a woman lacks a
penis. Thus the relation to an object is just as much a
relation to the lack of an object, the object existing just
as much by its absence as by its presence.
Lacan claimed that the necessity of this revolution
was justified by what had become the “heteroclite nature
of the castration complex” (Lacan, 2002, p. 306).
He suggested this in the complete form of his graph of
desire, where we find the unconscious and the Other
on the one hand and the barred subject on the other.
Then, successively, there are the signifier and the voice
and then jouissance and castration related to “the
drive as the treasure trove of signifiers” (p. 302). Castration
means, “that jouissance has to be refused in
order to be attained on the inverse scale of the law of
desire” (p. 311).
For both sexes, the phallus is “the signifier destined
to designate meaning effects as a whole” (p. 275) and
“the signifier of the Other’s desire” (p. 279). As such,
castration is not directly related to the reality of the
penis. In fact, this relation is problematic and requires
several operations: “It is thus that the erectile organ—
not as itself, or even as an image, but as a part that is
missing in the desired image—comes to symbolize
the place of jouissance,” that is, as “the function of
a missing signifier: (—1)” (p. 307). “The shift of (—/)
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
(lowercase phi) as phallic image from one side to the
other of the equation between the imaginary and the
symbolic renders it positive in any case, even if it fills a
lack. Although it props up (—1) it becomes ® (capital
phi) there, the symbolic phallus that cannot be
negated, the signifier of jouissance” (p. 308). The castration
complex is “incited” by the object (—/) that
designates it in its imaginary function.
The Lacanian revolution corresponds to a complete
separation of dialectic from intersubjectivity, the very
kernel of Freudian thought. This dialectic is expressed
in the schema RSI, which represents the real, the
symbolic, and the imaginary. Castration is inscribed
therein as related to frustration and deprivation, as
Lacan showed in his seminar on object relations
(Lacan, 1956-57).
Luiz EDUARDO PRADO DE OLIVEIRA
See also: Castration complex; Disavowal; Fantasy, formula
of; Graph of Desire; Object a; Other, the; Phallus;
Real, the (Lacan); Real, imaginary, and symbolic father;
Sexuation, formulas of; Topology; Want of being/lack of
being.
Bibliography
Bion, Wilfred R. (1959). Attacks on linking. International
Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 40, 5-6, 308-315.
Lacan, Jacques. (1994). Le séminaire-livre IV, (1956-57), La
relation d objet. Paris: Le Seuil.
. (2002). Ecrits: A selection. (Bruce Fink, Trans.) New
York: W. W. Norton.
Siboni, Jacques. (1996). Les mathemes de Lacan: anthologie
des assertions entierement transmissibles et de leurs relations
dans les écrits de Jacques Lacan. Paris: Lysimaque.
Starcke, August. (1921). The castration complex. International
Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 2, 2, 179-201.
Further Reading
Rangell, Leo. (1991). Castration. Journal of the American
Psychoanalytic Association, 39, 3-24.
SUBJECT’S DESIRE
Although it was introduced into French by Ignace
Meyerson’s inaccurate translation of the Freudian
term Wunsch (wish), desire went on to become a
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Sussect’s DESIRE
major Lacanian concept. For Lacan as well as for
Freud, desire is the subject’s yearning for a fundamentally
lost object. Thus for Freud, any search for an
object is, in fact, an attempt to refind it. For Lacan,
however, the object of desire is located prior to desire
and functions as its cause.
Lacan subverted the Freudian aphorism that «“ “a
dream is the fulfillment of a wish” (Freud, 1900a, p.
121): “If Freud accepts, as the reason for a dream that
seems to run counter to his thesis, the very desire to
contradict him on the part of a subject whom he had
tried to convince of his theory, how could he fail to
accept the same reason for himself when the law he
arrived at is supposed to have come to him from other
people?” (Lacan, Ecrits, p. 58). Moreover, in what
Freud called the rebus-like structure of the dream,
Lacan found support for assimilating condensation
( Verdichtung) and displacement ( Verschiebung) to the
tropes of metaphor and metonymy. Thus he was able
to conclude that “the unconscious is structured like a
language.”
Freud used dreams to derive both his first topography
and a model of the psychic apparatus that defined
desire as the “cathexis” of a mnemic image linked to
the satisfaction of need. Thus for Freud desire is satisfied
just once, and any subsequent manifestation of
desire is only an impulse (Regung) that aims to reestablish,
sometimes to the point of (psychotic) hallucination,
the image of an irretrievably lost object. This is
the “empirical” failure of hallucinatory satisfaction
that leads to thought—which, Freud says, “is nothing
but a substitute for a hallucinatory wish” (p. 567)—
and thus to voluntary activity that aims at the satisfaction
of need, not desire.
Dreams, which realize desires in the quick, “backward”
way, serve as an example of the psychical apparatus’s
primary mode of functioning, abandoned
because of its inefficacy. Censorship, the guarantor of
our mental health, prevents the impulses of unconscious
desire from being manifested during the day.
Symptoms must be considered as the realization of
wholly unconscious desires. Dreams, on the other
hand, express the attainment of these desires with the
consent and control of the preconscious, which tilts in
the end toward the desire to sleep.
On the basis of the “burning child dream” (Freud,
pp. 509-511), which expressed this desire to sleep,
Lacan constructed his graph of desire (Lacan, 1958-59,
1677
SUBLIMATION
session of December 10, 1958). The sentence of the
dreamer, “His father was dead,” is situated at the lower
level, that of the statement. At the upper level, that of
the enunciation, Lacan placed the sentence, “He did
not know it.” And finally, it is between the statement
and the enunciation that Lacan inserted Freud’s interpretation,
that is, the desire of the dreamer: “according
to his wish.” The sentence “He did not know it” showed
the way in which the dreamer protected the paternal
function, which he was deprived of by the death of the
real father, and that was the origin of the dream. The
desire of the dream was to throw a veil of perpetual
ignorance over oedipal desire.
At the intersection of the imaginary and the symbolic,
human desire is established by a loss that can be
symbolized by the separation from the placenta at
birth. This primal castration gives birth to the subject
of an impossible enjoyment sustained by the object a.
Later losses, which constitute the possible objects of
human desire (the nipple, feces, the phallus), are
always manifested more or less by the anxiety that
indicates the reappearance of this lost primal enjoyment,
that is, the lack of lack. That is why the speaking
being can only “symbolize” this lack by the minus phi
(—/), which is the image of the capital phi, ®. Likewise,
this lack can only be “imagined” in the articulation
of the fantasy, $ a, in which the barred S is the
subject and the symbol means “desire of.” This is
the form that is best suited to defending against the
desire of the Other.
This desire “is neither the appetite for satisfaction
[Need] nor the demand for love [Demand], but the
difference that results from the subtraction of the first
from the second” (Lacan, Ecrits, p 276). It protects the
subject from the enjoyment of the Other by means of
the forms that its object takes. In phobia the object is
prohibited; in hysteria it is unsatisfying; and in obsession
it is merely defended against. In any case, desire
remains marked by—and serves as a reminder of—a
lost enjoyment. The object of this enjoyment, the phallus,
becomes the signifier of the very lack of a signifier,
and thus the signifier of castration as imposed by language.
And so the object of desire is always a metonymic
object, always a desire for “something else.”
This Lacanian rereading remains oddly in agreement
with Freud on the basis of the analogy that
Lacan establishes between desire and dream, and it
raises the question of the place of language in their
theory. If language for Freud is a kind of superstruc-
1678
ture linked to the life instinct, and thus an ideal to be
attained, for Lacan it is also the insurmountable limit
and metaphor of being.
PATRICK DELAROCHE
See also: Fantasy; Formations of the unconscious; Graph
of Desire; Wish-fulfillment; Wish/yearning.
Bibliography
Dor, Joél. (1997). Introduction to the reading of Lacan: The
unconscious structured like a language. (Judith Feher Gurewich,
Ed., in collaboration with Susan Fairfield). Northvale,
NJ: J. Aronson. (Original work published 1985-1992)
Freud, Sigmund. (1900a). The interpretation of dreams. SE,
4-5.
Lacan, Jacques. (2002). Ecrits: A selection. (Bruce Fink,
Trans.) New York: W. W. Norton.
. (1958-59). Le séminaire-livre VI, le desir et son
interpretation, unpublished.
Sédat, Jacques (Ed). (1980). Retour a Lacan? Paris: Fayard.
SUBLIMATION
Sublimation is a process that diverts the flow of
instinctual energy from its immediate sexual aim and
subordinates it to cultural endeavors.
The idea of sublimation leads back at once to the
alchemical metaphor of the transmutation of base
metal into gold, and to aesthetics, which from the
ancient world (Longinus) to Romanticism (Goethe)
saw the sublime as the transcendence of the individual’s
limitations. The concept evolved in Freud’s
work from the idea of the ennoblement or embellishment
of a fantasy (Draft L [1950a (1895)]) to that of a
genuine intra-instinctual process, the transformation
of object libido into ego libido before it could assume
new aims (1923b).
The unresolved complexity of the notion of sublimation
means, however, that the term designates a set
of questions rather than a well-circumscribed concept
(Laplanche, 1980).
Sublimation would appear to be a very special vicissitude
of the instinct, for its diversion of libidinal
energy harnesses instinctual impulses in a way congenial
to the superego and its society. Retransformation
is possible, however, and therein the original instinc-
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
tual force may regain the upper hand (resexualization
of sublimated homosexual impulses (1911c [1910])).
Desexualization alone cannot define the process of
sublimation, which is not to be confused with inhibition
or reaction formations, even if it plays a fundamental
role because of its ability to exchange an originally
sexual aim for another, which is its “psychical
parent” (1908d).
As for the effect of sublimation on the object it
valorizes in the eyes of society, Freud took great care to
discourage any risk of confusion between sublimation
and idealization, the latter implying an overestimation
of the supposedly “sublime” object (1914c).
The development of the ability to sublimate
(“Fahigkeit zur Sublimierung’) was related for Freud
both to the individual's constitutional disposition (the
initial strength of the sexual instinct) and to the events
of childhood (the link between trauma and the intensity
of infantile curiosity; cf., the case of Leonardo da
Vinci being a good example). Sublimation occurred at
the expense of the polymorphously perverse drives of
childhood (especially bisexuality), which were diverted
and applied to other aims, as witness the sublimation
of anal eroticism into an interest in money, or the link
between urethral eroticism and ambition. This process
contributed to the formation of character traits. The
component instincts were of particular significance
here: the instinct to see could be sublimated into artistic
contemplation and into the instinct to know
(1910c), while sublimated aggression could manifest
itselfa sc reative and innovative activity.
But Freud always emphasized the risks associated
with sublimation of the instincts when it takes place
at the expense of the sexual and deprives the subject
of immediate satisfaction. Although sublimation
appears as the guarantor of the social bond and promoter
of culture, it is, nonetheless, a dangerous
demand, a “ruse of civilization” (Mellor-Picaut,
1979) when it presents individual sublimations as
ideal models. For Freud, sublimation is not the core
of an axiological approach to psychoanalysis, and the
introduction of narcissism represented an important
turning point in his theory. Sublimation took place
“through the mediation of the ego, which begins by
changing sexual object-libido into narcissistic libido,
and then perhaps goes on to give it a different aim”
(1923b, p. 30). Sublimation no longer occurs at the
expense of the object-libido but offers the narcissistic
libido a needed extension. However, it does not pro-
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Sugiiwation
tect the individual, who is left at the mercy of the
death instinct.
Freud was against making sublimation a privileged
goal of the treatment, one that could even be advocated
by the analyst (1915a [1914]). In this, he disagreed
with Carl G. Jung (1914d), as well as Lou
Andreas-Salomé, whom he had also accused of “blabbering
about the ideal” in his letters to Jung (January
10, 1912), James J. Putnam (May 4, 1911), and Oskar
Pfister (October 9, 1918). In all these cases he was
struggling against the temptation of an anagogic
approach to psychoanalysis. It may be assumed that
this threat of having such a complex concept corrupted
contributed to the fact that it has never been thoroughly
developed. One thinks in particular of an
unpublished draft on sublimation written for Freud's
projected book on metapsychology.
The concept of sublimation has been discussed by
many of Freud’s followers, though without any significant
contributions being made to metapsychology.
In later years Melanie Klein became one of the most
important commentators on sublimation, primarily
in connection with epistemophilia. In France, Daniel
Lagache (1962) and Jean Laplanche (1980) have both
written essays on sublimation.
Sublimation, which is often mentioned in the literature,
by emphasizing the desexualization of goals and
the social valorization of the object, remains both an
essential concept and an unresolved question for
psychoanalysis.
SOPHIE DE Myoris-Mziloz
See also: Anality; Analytic psychology; Anthropology and
psychoanalysis; Applied psychoanalysis and the imteractions
of psychoanalysis; Character; Civilization (Kultur);
Defense; Depressive position; Desexualization; Drive,
Ego; Ego autonomy; Ego and the Id, The, Ego and the
Mechanisms of Defense, The, Eroticism, anal; Eroticism,
urethral; Friendship; Group psychology; Healing: Idealization;
Identification with the aggressor; Ideology; Intellectualization;
Knowledge (instinct for); Latency period;
Law of the Father; Leonardo da Vinci and a Memory of his
Childhood; Pleasure ego/reality ego; Pleasure of thinking;
Psychic apparatus; Reaction formation; Reciprocal paths
of influence (libidinal coexcitation); Reparation; Repetition;
Rite and ritual; Science and psychoanalysis; Sexuality;
Superego; Symbol; Symbolization, process of,
Thought; Work (as a psychoanalytic concept); Workingoff
mechanisms.
1679
Susstitute/SupstitTutive FORMATION
Bibliography
Freud. Sigmund. (1908d). “Civilized” sexual morality and
modern nervous illness. SE, 9: 177—204.
. (1910c). Leonardo da Vinci and a memory of his
childhood. SE, 11: 57-137.
. (1915a [1914]). Observations on transference love.
(Further recommendations on the technique of psychoanalysis
III). SE, 12: 157-171.
. (1914d). On the history of the psycho-analytic movement.
SE, 14: 1-66.
. (1930a [1929]). Civilization and its discontents. SE,
21: 57-145.
. (1923b). The ego and the id. SE, 19: 1-66.
Lagache, Daniel. (1984). La sublimation et les valeurs. In
Oeuvres completes 5. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
(Original work published 1962)
Laplanche, Jean. (1980). Problematiques III, la sublimation.
Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
Mellor-Picaut, Sophie. (1979). La sublimation ruse de la
civilisation. Psychanalyse a [ Universite, 4.
Further Reading
Arlow, Jacob, rep. (1955). Panel: Sublimation. Journal of the
American Psychoanalytic Association, 3, 515-527.
Kris, Ernst. (1955). Neutralization and sublimation. Psychoanalytic
Study of the Child, 10, 30-46. .
Loewald, Hans W. (1988). Sublimation: Inquiries into theoretical
psychoanalysis. New Haven: Yale University Press.
SUBSTITUTE/SUBSTITUTIVE FORMATION
“Substitute” or “substitutive formation” refers to the
psyche’s replacement of a fact or mental object
through unconscious chains of association. In the substitution,
an idea, thought, or object perceived as
incompatible with the ego is repressed and exchanged
for another. A number of synonyms are found in Sigmund
Freud's writings: “ersatz,” “substitutive formation,’
“equivalent,” “stand-in,” and “replacement.”
In “The Neuro-Psychoses of Defence” (1894a),
Freud described the formation of an obsessional idea
as a substitute for an incompatible sexual idea. The
ego wishes to deal with the sexual idea as though it
had never arisen, and so affect is detached from it.
However, since that affect remains “unaltered and
1680
undiminished” (p. 54) in the core of the psyche, it
attaches itself to a compatible idea, making it obsessional.
Initially limited to obsessional ideas, the notion
of substitution was eventually generalized and conceptually
modified. For instance, in “Obsessions and Phobias:
Their Psychical Mechanism and Their Aetiology”
(1895c [1894]), Freud described symptoms as substitutes
for ideas of coitus. In “Obsessions and Phobias,”
he posited premature sexual climax as the source of
reproaches, for which the psyche substitutes ideas,
actions, or impulses providing relief and protection. In
“Burther Remarks on the Neuro-Psychoses of
Defence” (1896b), the object of the substitution is no
longer mnemic contents, but rather the reproach associated
with them, which is transformed into another
unpleasurable substitutive affect that can become conscious
(shame; social, religious, or hypochondriacal
anxiety; etc.).
In later works, the substitute was associated with
different metapsychological objects. It was associated
with object relations, with maternal and paternal substitutes
being associated through family romances and
the totem. It was associated with anxiety contents in
the case history of Little Hans (1909b), where the
paired terms bitten/castrated correspond to the paired
objects horse/father. It was associated with dreams in
“Some General Remarks on Hysterical Attacks” (1909a
~ [1908]), where the dream is a substitute for the hysterical
attack, itself a substitute for an autoerotic satisfaction
from childhood. Dreams there became more
extensively recognized as substitutive formations.
Finally, Inhibitions, Symptoms, and Anxiety (1926d
[1925]) brought the substitute back to the level of the
symptom, in that the substitute represents a return of
the repressed. In this sense, symptom formation and
substitutive formation have the same upshot: replacing
the forbidden satisfaction of instincts and making
such satisfaction unrecognizable.
Even though the terms are synonymous, the expression
“substitutive formation” is preferable to “substitute”
because it attests to the dynamic process that
forms the substitute: the transformation of gratification
in the defensive conflict.
MarHiev ZANNOTTI
See also: Abstinence/rule of abstinence; Addiction; Adolescence;
Alcoholism; Anorexia nervosa; Breastfeeding;
Bulimia; Conflict; Displacement; Ego ideal; Erotogenic
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
zone; Fetishism; Maternal; Metaphor; Metonymy; Phallic
woman; Signifier/signified; Splitting; “Splitting of the
Ego in the Process of Defence”; Substitutive formation;
Symbol; Symbolization, process of; Symptom-formation;
Thought; Totem/totemism; Word-presentation.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1894a). The neuro-psychoses of defence.
SE, 3: 41-61.
. (1895c [1894]). Obsessions and phobias: their psychical
mechanism and their aetiology. SE, 3: 69-82.
. (1896b). Further remarks on the neuro-psychoses
of defence. SE, 3: 157-185.
. (1909a [1908]). Some general remarks on hysterical
attacks. SE, 9: 227-234.
. (1909b). Analysis of a phobia in a five-year-old boy.
SE, 10: 1-149.
. (1924c). The economic problem of masochism. SE,
19: 155-170.
. (1926d [1925]). Inhibitions, symptoms, and anxiety.
SE, 20: 75-172.
SUBSTITUTIVE FORMATION
The name “substitute formation” has been applied to
the defensive process by which a symptom—but also,
more generally, a failed act, slip of the tongue, or
drea—is produced. The result of this process—for
example, the act or manifest text of a dream—is that
desire can find a way out, and its economic charge find
an outlet.
The notion of substitute formation appeared in
Freud in 1895, in his article on anxiety neurosis
(1895b), but it was anticipated in the previous year in
his work on “The Neuro-Psychoses of Defense”
(1894a). In this, her described a “transposition,” a
“displacement” connected with an economic charge
(for example, anxiety or sexual excitement) and with a
“complex of representations” (in a process of symbolic
transposition), these two processes being able to function
separately.
Freud resorted frequently to this idea in the following
years: this was, in fact, a key notion in the metapsychology
he was drafting, since he was describing the
mechanism by which the repressed element could
succeed in returning to conscious life and to behavior.
At first, he limited the application of this mechanism
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
SucKING/THUMBSUCKING
to obsessional neurosis. But the dual function attributed
to it (economic discharge and symbolic transposition),
the unification of the field of the return of the
repressed (including neurotic symptoms, dreams,
slips of the tongue, failed actions, and some “normal”
behavior), its contiguity with related notions (like
those of compromise formation or reactive formation),
and the deepening of Freud’s thoughts on
mechanisms of defense, all led him to the expression
of much wider views on the subject in 1915 (notably
in “Repression” [1915d] and “The Unconscious”
[1915e]). He revised it even further in Inhibitions,
Symptoms and Anxiety (1926d), as part of his overall
views on symptom formation and his second theory
of anxiety.
ROGER PERRON
See also: Compromise formation; Formations of the
unconscious; Psychogenic blindness; Reaction-formation;
Repressed, derivative of the, derivative of the
unconscious; “Repression,” Substitute/substitutive
formation.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1894a). The neuro-psychoses of defence.
SE, 3: 41-61.
. (1895b [1894]). On the grounds for detaching a
particular syndrome from neurasthenia under the description
“anxiety neurosis.” SE, 3: 85-115.
. (1915d). Repression. SE, 14: 141-158.
. (1915e). The unconscious. SE, 14: 159-204.
. (1926d). Inhibitions, symptoms and anxiety. SE,
20: 75-172.
SUCKING/THUMBSUCKING
In Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality (1905d), Sigmund
Freud describes thumb-sucking as “rhythmic
repetition of a sucking contact by the mouth (or lips).
There is no question of the purpose of this procedure
being the taking of nourishment” (pp. 178-180).
Sucking itself is defined as a sexual autoerotic pleasure,
“as a sample of the sexual manifestations of childhood”
(p. 179).
From this point on, the infant’s sucking activity
served for Freud as an exemplary case, enabling him to
demonstrate how the sexual instinct seeks satisfaction
1681
SuckinG/THUMBSUCKING
through a separate, vital, self-preservative function; it
subsequently becomes autonomous and seeks satisfaction
through auto-erotism. At the end of his life, in An
Outline of Psycho-Analysis (1940e [1938]), Freud reaffirmed
its significance: “The baby’s obstinate persistence
in sucking gives evidence at an early stage of a
need for satisfaction which, though it originates from
and is instigated by the taking of nourishment, nevertheless
strives to obtain pleasure independently of
nourishment and for that reason may and should be
termed sexual” (p. 154). Beginning in 1915, Freud
described an aggressive “cannibalistic” oral stage that
aims at incorporation, with emphasis not only upon
the erotogenic zone but also upon the object to be
incorporated.
A number of analysts have investigated the broader
issues surrounding the activity of sucking and the oral
stage. Freud suggested that an infant would “pronounce
the act of sucking at his mother’s breast by far
the most important in his life” (1916—17a [1915-17],
p. 314); in fact, the act of sucking can be recognized
from the twelfth to the thirteenth week of intrauterine
life, as the fetus opens and closes its mouth in a more
or less rhythmic manner. From the twenty-second
week, the fetus is able to taste amniotic fluid and can
suck its thumb.
Karl Abraham distinguished the passive sucking of
the first stage of oral activity from the sadistic pleasure
in the second, after teething, and he developed the
concept of a cannibalistic oral stage that Freud discussed
after 1915. René Spitz accorded sucking a principal
role, which he integrated into his global approach
of the genesis of the object. The “primal cavity” (Spitz,
1955) serves as a juncture for activities occurring
around the mouth, tongue, and hand; sucking thus
occurs at the juncture of inside and outside.
Michael Balint, after objectively recording the
breast-feeding of about one hundred infants, maintained
that rhythmic sucking is one of the most archaic
qualities of human life and that each infant has an
individual rhythm that adumbrates character traits.
John Bowlby (1969) challenged Freud’s concept of
“anaclitic” object choice as well as the primacy of sucking,
suggesting instead that an innate need for social
contact is at the root of attachment-seeking behavior.
Sucking is only one of several instinctive behaviors at
the child’s disposal; others include grabbing, following
with the eyes, crying, smiling, and rooting behavior.
Bowlby, while questioning the primacy of the oral
1682
stage and sucking, did not take into consideration
intrapsychic processes; new approaches to understanding
these issues developed out of work on autism.
Frances Tustin, in Autism and Childhood Psychosis
(1973), has suggested that the pain endured by autistic
children in their experiences of bodily separateness as
“amputation” would include an unbearable disjunction
of the mouth and nipple. Sucking prevents the
intolerable pain of this disjunction and thereby protects
infants from anxieties of catastrophic separation.
Donald Meltzer believed that the infant may experience
the nipple, while sucking at the breast, as an eyebreast,
or primitive, archaic superego.
Genevieve Haag has suggested that the thumb-inthe-
mouth forms part of what she calls the “corporeal
identification” with “assembly along the median.” This
“self-junction” which infants create via the thumbin-
mouth represents a kind of clinging to self that
precedes auto-erotic activity. According to her, the
eye-to-eye visual exchanges that accompany breastfeeding
go on to form the early feeling of being enveloped,
the internal center of early attachment.
Whether conceived as auto-sensual or autoerotic
behavior, bodily symbolization, intracorporal identification,
or incorporation, sucking is an activity that
the understanding of which, ever since Freud, has
been central to attempts at understanding normal
and pathological development in the human infant.
ANNE-MARIE MAIRESSE
See also: Ambivalence; Anaclisis/anaclictic; Autoeroticism;
Breastfeeding;Cruelty; Eroticism, oral; Erotogenic
zone; Libidinal development; Oral stage; Orality; Organ
Pleasure; Psychosexual development; Self-preservation.
Bibliography
Bowlby, John. (1971). Attachment and loss. London:
Hogarth; Penguin Books. (Original work published 1969)
Freud, Sigmund. (1905d). Three essays on the theory of
sexuality. SE, 7: 123-243.
. (1916-17a [1915-17). Introductory lectures on
psycho-analysis. Part I, SE, 15; Part II, SE, 16.
. (1940a [1938]). An outline of psycho-analysis. SE,
23: 139-207.
Haag, Genevieve. (1991). Nature de quelques identifications
dans l'image du corps. Hypotheses. Journal de la psychanalyse
de enfant, 10: 73-92.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Spitz, René. (1955). The primal cavity: A contribution to the
genesis of perception. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 10,
215-40.
Tustin, Frances. (1973). Autism and childhood psychosis. New
York: Jason Aronson.
SUDDEN INVOLUNTARY IDEA
Sudden involuntary ideas (Finfiille) appear at the borderline
between images and words; they come to mind
without apparent relation to what preceded them and
have a quality of certainty linked to their immediacy.
This notion appears several times in Sigmund
Freud’s writings. It refers to preconscious thought
activity as it is found in free association, jokes, or poetic
creation that escapes critical reason, allowing the
outcome of an earlier development to emerge into
consciousness.
In The Interpretation of Dreams (1900a), Freud gave
Einfalle a status analogous to that of “involuntary
ideas” (p. 102) that are transformed into visual or
auditory images. Divided diffuse attention is responsible
for these representations, as they are found in a
semi-sleeping state or under hypnosis. In this work
Freud discussed the associationist hypotheses of
Eduard von Hartmann, saying that although Einfalle
appear when there has been a renunciation of purposive
ideas, this does not mean that they are arbitrary;
rather, there are other, unconscious purposive ideas
that take over and determine the course of involuntary
ideas. The work of analysis thus relies on Einfalle, but
attempts to guide them back into the realm of the
interpretable and eliminate their “sudden” and “involuntary”
quality, which is a result of repression.
Einfalle are particularly important in creative
thought in general, whether in the discovery of unconscious
contents in psychoanalysis, the punch line in a
joke, poetic creation, or invention in theoretical or
abstract thinking (cf. Archimedes’s “Eureka!”). Nevertheless,
their origin, unknown because it is repressed,
has something troubling about it—hence Freud’s
inclusion, in The Interpretation of Dreams, of the following
quotation by Friedrich von Schiller: “‘[W here
there is a creative mind, Reason—or so it seems to
me—relaxes its watch upon the gates, and the ideas
rush in pell-mell, and only then does it look them
through and examine them in a mass.—You critics, or
whatever else you may call yourselves, are ashamed or
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SUFFERING
frightened of the momentary and transient extravagances
which are to be found in all truly creative
minds and whose longer or shorter duration distinguishes
the artist from the dreamer. You complain of
your unfruitfulness because you reject too soon and
discriminate too severely” (p. 103).
SOPHIE DE MijOLLA-MELLOR
See also: Free association; Interpretation of Dreams, The;
Jokes.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1900a). The interpretation of dreams. SE,
4—5: 1-625.
Mijolla-Mellor, Sophie de. Le Plaisir de pensée. Paris: Presses
Universitaires de France, 1992.
Further Reading
Epstein, A. (1995). Dreaming and other involuntary mentation.
An essay in neuropsychiatry. Madison, CT: International
Universities Press.
SUFFERING
Suffering is the result of a feeling of alienation and
insurmountable ambivalence; being a defensive attitude,
its aim is the reduction of anxiety.
When Sigmund Freud asserts in Civilization and Its
Discontents (1930a) that “the three sources from which
our suffering comes” are “our own body... the external
world... and our relations to other men” (pp. 86,
87), he could not make it clearer that human suffering
opens up the entire field of psychopathology. The classical
medical tradition has always sought to name the
condition that causes the patient to suffer, thus to
satisfy the patient’s wish for their suffering to be less
mysterious. Psychoanalysis escapes this preoccupation
with diagnosis in that it demonstrates the ubiquity of a
suffering that is at once undergone and created by the
subject.
If suffering marks the entry into the treatment, the
orientation of the treatment itself is towards a demonstration
of how this suffering is provoked by the individual
subject, in the name of a particular search for
pleasure “in a different place” (Laplanche, Jean, 1976
[1970], p. 104). Suffering is thus not only the source of
1683
SUGGESTION
the complaint, but also the necessary lever of its own
mobilization and even its own transcendence by the
treatment.
In the tradition of Freud’s work on “Mourning and
Melancholia” (1916-17g [1915]), Melanie Nein
(1935) treated accession to the depressive position as a
fecund moment in the development of the child’s
object-relationships and the harbinger of the processes
of symbolization. The same intimate connection
between suffering and thought-processes informs
Christian David's notion that man is in a sense “destined
to suffer”: “We cannot avoid being permanently
confronted by separation and loss, by absence, by
intersubjective and intrapsychic splits whether fantasied
or actual.... If the psyche drew no strength from
its own division, it would no doubt be unable to tolerate
this state of affairs for long and would be liable to
disintegrate at the first jolt” (1983).
Interpretation during the treatment depends largely
on the effectiveness of a process of working-through,
toward the relief of suffering. As arduous as this work
may be for those who embark on it, they feel motivated
to do so by a wish to live better, even to be
“cured.” It is by no means certain that insight leads to
cure. Analysts are only too well aware of the effects of
the repetition compulsion and of primary masochism,
only too familiar with clinical pictures that lie beyond |
the reach of the regulatory mechanism of the pleasureunpleasure
principle. The “work of the negative” may
even become indistinguishable from what is irreducibleo
r radically unthinkable due to the opacity of suffering—
merging, in effect, with what Jean-Bertrand
Pontalis (1981) calls the principle of pain, jouissance,
or agony (in the sense of Donald Winnicott’s “primitive
agonies” [1974]): “The logic of unpleasure/pleasure
seems to give way to, or even to be completely
overwhelmed by a logic of despair that reduces our
logic, that of the primary as much as that of the secondary
processes, to despair.”
Drina CANDILIS-HUISMAN
See also: Autism; Breakdown; “Confusion of Tongues
between Adults and the Child”; Cure; Failure neurosis;
Guilt, feeling of; Helplessness; Hypochondria; Masochism;
Need for punishment; Negative, work of; Negative
therapeutic reaction; Pain; Passion; Pleasure in thinking;
Primitive agony; Psychoanalytic treatment; Psychotic
potential; Self-mutilation in children; Sadism; Selfpunishment;
Traumatic neurosis.
1684
Bibliography
David, Christian. (1983). Souffrance, plaisir et pensée, un
mixte indissociable. In Souffrance, plaisir et pensee. Paris:
Les Belles Lettres.
Freud, Sigmund. (1916-17g [1915]). Mourning and melancholia.
SE, 14: 237-258.
. (1930a). Civilization and its discontents. SEi2e
57-145.
Klein, Melanie. (1975). Contribution to the psychogenesis
of manic-depressive states. In Love, guilt and reparation
and other works, 1921-1945 (The writings of Melanie
Klein, vol. 1), London: Hogarth/Institute of Psycho-Analysis;
New York: Delacorte/Seymour Lawrence. (Original
work published 1935)
Laplanche, Jean. (1976 [1970]). Life and death in psychoanalysis.
(Jeffrey Mehlman, Trans.) Baltimore: Johns Hopkins
University Press.
Pontalis, Jean-Bertrand. (1981). Non, deux fois non. Nouvelle
Revue de PsychanalySE, 24.
Winnicott, Donald W. (1974). Fear of breakdown. International
Review of Psycho-Analysis, 1, 103-7.
SUGGESTION
James Braid, the British doctor who popularized hypnotism,
was the first to use the term “suggestion” to
describe experiments in which the hypnotist, using a
gesture or word, triggers the subject’s automatic obedience.
Around 1860 Ambroise Liebeault decided to
make use of suggestion for therapeutic purposes:
orders, formulated in an authoritarian or well-meaning
manner, would help trigger hypnosis and the therapeutic
process. Hippolyte Bernheim extended this by
claiming that suggestion had explanatory powers. In
1891 he defined suggestion as “the act through which
an idea is introduced into the brain and accepted by
it.” According to Bernheim, an idea suggested verbally
by the operator triggered a representation-adherence
on the part of a subject endowed with “crédivité”
Unless inhibited, this idea tended to be translated into
actions (“ideo-dynamism”).
Bernheim noted that some subjects were more susceptible
than others and used the term “suggestibility”
to describe the ability to respond to suggestion. Contrary
to Jean Martin Charcot, he did not see this as
pathological, but as a very general psychological phenomenon,
present to a varying degree in everyone.
Thus, suggestion helps to explain hypnosis as well as
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
the mechanism or process of education, the adherence
to a belief, and so on.
Gabriel de Tarde in Les Lois de limitation (1890),
and Gustav Le Bon, in La Psychologie des foules (1895),
used suggestion to describe the connection between
two or more people that serves as the basis for a society
or a crowd. For Bernheim, however, hypnosis only
facilitated therapeutic suggestibility, and suggestive
psychotherapies could be practiced in a waking state.
This identification of hypnosis with suggestion
resulted in criticism from Liebeault, and especially
from Charcot and his followers.
Originating in the School of Nancy, for which Bernheim
was the spokesman, all of Europe took an interest
in experiments, therapies, and models of suggestion.
Experiments were conducted on “suggested” crimes,
which triggered theoretical, ethical, and juridical
polemics. Although experiments with suggestion were
met with trepidation, its therapeutic use generated tremendous
hope. It was believed it would be able to
eliminate certain symptoms, like pain, associated with
organic illnesses and heal “nervous disorders” such as
hysteria, as well as sexual inversion and alcoholism.
Suggestion, as a therapy and as a concept, raised
questions and criticisms from many of its practitioners.
Bernheim remarked that some subjects can
present resistance to “direct suggestion.” In such cases
it is better not to give a direct order, but rather to tell
the patient nothing can be done, and the problem will
heal itself. In this context Bernheim also spoke of
“indirect suggestion,” an expression used in a similar
sense by Charcot and his school. The Belgian Joseph
Delboeuf emphasized self-suggestion, the ability to
resist, and the will of the patient. The Dutch practitioner
Frederik Van Eeden, who was, like Delboeuf,
part of the Nancy School, pointed out that suggestive
psychotherapy must involve collaboration between the
doctor and his patient, respecting the patient’s autonomy
to as great an extent as possible. Pierre Janet criticized
the overly broad extension given to the concept
of suggestion and proposed, in 1889, in L’Automatisme
psychologique, a more limited definition: “The influence
of one person on another, who carries it out without
the intermediary of voluntary consent.” At the
same time he reactivated the older notion, associated
with animal magnetism, of “rapport.” Auguste Forel, a
Swiss practitioner, noted the ambiguity of the word
suggestion, which designates both a therapeutic procedure
associated with an order from the practitioner
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SUGGESTION
and a psychic process that leads the subject to respond
to someone else’s influence.
The articles Freud wrote in 1895 on hypnosis and
suggestion situate him within the critical movement
outlined above. He subsequently abandoned suggestion
both as a therapeutic practice and as a psychological
explanation. Nonetheless, he claimed in the Introductory
Lectures on Psychoanalysis (1916—17a) that “in our
technique we have abandoned hypnosis only to rediscover
suggestion in the shape of transference” (p. 446).
Although we can do away with suggestion, the problems
associated with the process remain and have been
shifted toward the transference. In 1921 Freud returned
to the question of hypnosis and suggestion, and of suggestion
as a model of the social bond.
Looking at contemporary techniques of hypnosis,
we find that the therapies inspired by Milton Erickson
have reactivated the identification of hypnosis with
suggestion. The procedures used (the proposal of
metaphors, paradoxical orders, or prohibitions) seem
less authoritarian than those employed at the end of
the nineteenth century, but may still be compared to
the “indirect suggestion” used in the past.
JACQUELINE CARROY
See also: Anticipatory ideas; Autosuggestion; Bernheim,
Hippolyte; Cathartic method; Cognitivism and _ psychoanalysis;
Congrés international de lhypnotisme
expérimental et scientifique, Premier; “Constructions in
Analysis;” First World War: The effect on the development
of psychoanalysis; Fundamental rule; Group Psychology
and the Analysis of the Ego; Hypnosis; Janet,
Pierre; Lie; Liebeault, Ambroise Auguste; “Lines of
Advance in Psycho-Analytic Therapy”; Qu’est-ce que la
suggestion? (What is suggestion?); Self-consciousness;
Transference; Unconscious, the.
Bibliography
Carroy, Jacqueline. (1991). Hypnose, suggestion et psychologie:
[invention de sujets. Paris: Presses Universitaires de
France.
Chertok, Léon, and Stengers, Isabelle. (1992). A critique of
psychoanalytic reason. Hypnosis as a scientific problem from
Lavoisier to Lacan (Martha Noel Evans, Trans.) Stanford,
CA: Stanford University Press. (Original work published
1989)
Ellenberger, Henri. F. (1970). The discovery of the unconscious:
The history and evolution of dynamic psychiatry.
New York: Basic Books.
1685
SuiciDAL BEHAVIOR
Freud, Sigmund. (1921c). Group psychology and the analysis
of the ego. SE, 18: 65-143.
Gauld, Alan. (1992). A history of hypnotism. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
SUICIDAL BEHAVIOR
The term suicidal behavior is understood to mean both
suicidal equivalents not recognized as such (accidents,
repeated risk-taking) and repeated suicide attempts
whose chronic and unsuccessful nature certainly constitutes
a real risk, but which are also acts of essentially
relational significance.
The idea that accidents can be interpreted as unconscious
suicide attempts appeared in Sigmund Freud's
The Psychopathology of Everyday Life (1901b): “[I]n
addition to consciously intentional suicide there is
such a thing as a half-intention self-destruction [sic]
(self-destruction with an unconscious intention), capable
of making skillful use of a threat to life and of disguising
it as a chance mishap. There is no need to
think such self-destruction rare. For the trend to selfdestruction
is present to a certain degree in very many
more human beings than those in whom it is carried
out” (pp. 180-181). This essentially involves the person
waiting for the occasion that will divert the forces
of personal preservation, and there is thus a “meeting”
between the event and the unconscious intention.
Involuntary mutilations, which constitute a compromise
between the self-destructive tendency and selfpreservation,
are also included within the framework
of accidental suicidal behaviors.
Similarly, with regard to accidents that happen to
babies, Melanie Klein spoke of suicide attempts with
inadequate means, as if the infant did not yet have the
ability to fantasize and premeditate its own death, and
that it could only realize by unconsciously putting
itself in danger.
In a letter to Freud dated 1 June 1911, Ernest Jones
proposed a comparison between accidental suicide
and “with the way in which the unconscious seizes on
unassociated indifferent material in dream making”
(1993 [1908-39], p. 105).
Systematic risk-taking requires a different psychic
disposition. The idea of the possibility of death is present
and even hypercathected, but at the same time
denied in a megalomaniacal narcissistic affirmation.
Death is thus “provoked” in the sense of a challenge
1686
that is also a relational challenge to those whose fantasized
omnipotence cannot effectively protect the subject,
the idealized parents. These situations are very
common, especially during adolescence, and can
involve the risk of accidents, but also toxic risks or
even anorexia. Such risk-taking has a function similar
to that of the ordalia, or trial by ordeal, in the sense
that the subject expects to get from it an affirmation, if
not of their own innocence, at least of their invulnerability.
In the face of this excessiveness, the accident
imposes a limit and brings the person into contact
with reality, including that of the body’s fragility.
Authors such as Philippe Jeammet and Elisabeth
Birot who have studied suicide attempts in adolescents
have emphasized the fact that the idea of death has an
organizing function during adolescence. It can be
noted that the idea of death is unavoidable at this age
in conjunction with the obligation to renounce childhood,
to which there is no possible return. The idea of
death is linked to a sense of the ephemeral—hence the
ease during this period of identifying with romantic
heroes (as seen in Freud’s Manuscript N., 31 May
1897, regarding Goethe’s hero Werther).
Beyond gambling with the idea of death, a suicide
attempt can represent a way of trying to restore a lost
identity (the prepubescent body of the anorexic) or a
_ delusional identity. Similarly, the integration of the
drives during adolescence, notably with respect to
homosexuality, is a factor that can be conducive to
suicidal behavior. Such behavior then appears in its
relational significance, whether in the form of a
threat, or even blackmail against those close to the
subject, or a call for help when communication has
broken down. Chronic suicidal behavior can have
various etiologies; it remains the case that it cannot
be dissociated from suicide proper, the potential for
which is inherent in it.
SOPHIE DE MYyOLLA-MELLOR
See also: Suicide.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1901b). The psychopathology of everyday
life. SE, 6.
Freud, Sigmund, and Jones, Ernest. (1993 [1908-1939]).
The complete correspondence of Sigmund Freud and Ernest
Jones, 1908-1939 (R.A. Paskauskas Ed.). London: The Belknap
Press of Harvard University Press.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Garfinkel, Barry D.; Froese, A.; and Hood, J. (1982). Suicide
attempts in children and adolescents. American Journal of
Psychiatry, 139, 10, 1257-1261.
Jeammet, Philippe, and Birot, Elisabeth (Eds.). (1994) Etude
psychopathologique des tentatives de suicide chez l adolescent
et le jeune adulte. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
Further Reading
Hartmann, H. P., and Milch, W. (2000). Efficacy treatment
of suicidal patients: Transference and countertransference.
Progress in Self Psychology, 16, 87-102.
SUICIDE
Suicide is a symptomatic act connected most frequently
to the framework of depression and melancholy.
Its etiology is varied and complex, since it is
characterized by the collapse of the ego, along with
self-reproach and a diminution or a loss of selfesteem—
and, at the same time, by a magic omnipotence
which allows the annihilation of internal
persecutors, as well as a manic feeling based on the
denial of death itself. While suicide may appear to be
a response to persecutory guilt, it is also a projection
of this guilt onto objects as well as a liberation from
their control through the death the subject has chosen
for himself.
Suicide was discussed in the psychoanalytic literature
as early as 1907, as recorded in the Minutes of the
Vienna Psychoanalytic Society (Nunberg, Hermann,
and Federn, Ernst, 1962-75), but it was a rather
superficial discussion, centered on the fact that the
differing choice of means by men and women reveals
a primal sexual symbolism. From this came the formula
that “suicide is the climax of negative autoeroticism”
(Minutes, Vol. 1, February 13, 1907, p. 114).
This should be understood in the context of the opposition
between the ego instincts and sexual instincts in
Freud’s earliest theorization: “In suicide the life
instinct is overwhelmed by the libido” (Vol. 2, April
20, 1910, p. 494).
In this approach, suicide, interpreted as a substitute
for psychosis, seems linked both to an inability to tolerate
reality and to autoerotic regression: “Suicide is
an act of defense of the normal ego against psychosis”
(June 6, 1907). Drive regression is equally central to
Freud’s ideas on the subject of the suicide of high
school students; at school “Teachers. .. .must exercise a
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SUICIDE
life-maintaining influence. [The function of] school is
to give the child, in this stage of his detachment from
his parents, a new footing within a larger relationship”
(Vol. 2, April 20, 1910, p. 495). This should extend as
far as not to “deny them the right to linger even in
those phases of their development that seem vexing.”
There might well have been some evolution in Freud’s
thought here, especially if it is considered that, at the
very beginning he insisted on the connection between
neurasthenia, masturbation, and the risk of suicide.
However, Freud also stressed that “in many cases it is
the fear of incest itself that drives [children] to suicide”
(p. 494), because of the enormous augmentation of
their need for love at puberty; Freud went so far as to
suggest, this being the case, that homosexuals make
the best teachers, the worst being those whom the
repression of their homosexuality has turned into
sadists, pushing their students to suicide.
Later psychoanalytic thought on suicide followed
the main ideas of Freud on the subject. First of all, in
the depressive context, suicide was considered selfpunishment
for the desire to kill, primally directed
toward another, as Freud himself stated in Totem and
Taboo: “The law of talion, which is so deeply rooted in
human feelings, lays it down that a murder can only
be expiated by the sacrifice of another life: self-sacrifice
points back to blood-guilt” (1912-13a, p. 154).
Since then, the risk of self-mutilation or suicide with
infantile or borderline personalities has been much
emphasized (Kernberg, Otto, 1984); this risk is especially
a factor during fits of rage following disappointments
which are blamed on others; or else there is a
risk of suicide because of failure to achieve success
(guilt), or, even the failure of the cure (negative therapeutic
reaction).
In fact, the idea that suicide is self-punishment for
the desire to kill someone else cannot be understood
completely apart from the process of melancholia,
whereby the loved/hated object has been introjected
within the ego and has become the target of the attack.
More even than “self-punishment,” suicide would be
murder of the other within oneself. “Probably no one
finds the mental energy required to kill himself unless,
in the first place, in doing so he is at the same time killing
an object with whom he has identified himself,
and, in the second place, is turning against himself a
death-wish which had been directed against someone
else” (1920a, p. 162). Freud explained that “the ego is
destroyed by the object.”
1687
Succivan, Harry Stack (1892-1949)
The enigma constituted by suicide in relation to the
selfpreservative or ego instincts has also been
approached in another way, through considering that
it is accompanied paradoxically by a tentative intent to
reappropriate vital energy, or, indeed, is even
prompted by the fantasy of beginning a new lite (Grinberg,
Leon, 1983). Accordingly, suicide would result
from a state of crisis dominated by the feeling that
something must change. The person committing suicide
“convokes death imaginally to assure himself
paradoxically that life exists” (Triandafillidis, Alexandra,
1991). Ideal images of oneself and others can then
survive, at the price of the death of the bad objects
cluttering the ego.
The vital stakes involved in this symptomatic conduct
have inclined authors not only to attempt to
understand the suicidal mechanism, but also to
describe its advance symptoms, evaluating the risk of
suicide in order to decide on a therapeutic approach,
especially in a care-giving institutional setting. Leon
Grinberg (1983) emphasized suicidal premeditation
and the fact that a suicidal plan follows the idea of suicide,
which was at first only a way of dealing with anxiety.
Continuing to the act of suicide depends on an
“encounter,” which might favor tipping the fantasy
into reality. This author also examined factors of present
or past vulnerability (feeling of culpability, narcissistic
wound, loss of loved object, and so forth), Otto
Kernberg (1984) emphasized the need for the therapist
not to be fooled by an accentuation of the manic element;
he stressed the seriousness of cases where
“aggressiveness has infiltrated the grandiose Self.”
joined to an inability to enter into interpersonal relations
and feel emotions. These pair os however,
concern psychotherapeutic strategie
the etiology of suicide.
rather than
SOPHIE DE MiOLLA-MELLOR
See also: Bettelheim, Bruno: Bjerre, Poul; Great Britain;
Morgenstern-Kabatschnik, Sophie: Rosenthal, Tatiana;
Secret; Silberer, Herbert; Sokolnicka-Kutner, Eugenie;
Stekel, Wilhelm; Tausk, Victor.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1912—13a).
1-161.
Totem and taboo. SE 13:
Grinberg, Leon. (1983)
Belles Lettres.
. Culpabilite et depression, Paris: Les
1688
Kernberg, Otto. (1984). Les trouble graves de la personnalite.
Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
Nuberg, Hermann, and Federn, Ernst. (1962-1975). Minutes
of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society. New York: International
Universities Press.
Triandafillidis, Alexandra. (1991). La dépression et son
inquiétante familiarite. Paris: Edition’ Universitaires.
.
Further Reading
Laufer, M. (Ed.). (1995). The suicidal adolescent. Madison,
CT: International Universities Press.
SULLIVAN, HARRY STACK (1892-1949)
American psychiatrist and psychoanalyst, born on
February, 21, 1892, in Norwich, New York, and died
on January 14, 1949, in Paris.
The only son of a farming couple in rural upstate
New York, Sullivan had a very lonely childhood and
went through a deep psychological crisis upon entering
Cornell University. He graduated from medical school
in Chicago in 1917, but only in 1921 did he start working
in psychiatry, under William Alanson White
(1870-1937) at St. Elisabeth’s Hospital, Washington,
D.C. Between 1923 and 1930 he worked at Sheppard-
Pratt Hospital, Maryland, where he devised a very successful
combination of milieu and individual therapy
aimed at young schizophrenic patients. A good friend
of Abraham Brill and a charter member of the
Washington Psychoanalytic Society (1930), Sullivan
progressively withdrew from Freudian psychoanalysis
in order to concentrate on initiatives like the Washington
School of Psychiatry (1936), the journal Psychiatry
(1938), and on the development of his own interpersonal
theory. In the early 1940s, on the invitation of
Dexter Bullard, he worked as teacher and supervisor at
Chestnut Lodge Hospital, where he influenced a whole
series of colleagues, among them Frieda Fromm-Reichmann
(1889-1957).
In New York City in 1943, Sullivan, together with
Clara Thompson, Erich Fromm, Frieda Fromm-Reichmann,
and Janet and David Rioch founded the
William Alanson White Institute, which became the
major institution committed to the teaching and
development of interpersonal psychoanalysis.
With the exception of Conceptions of Modern
Psychiatry (1940), six of his seven books available in
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
English were published posthumously. The Psychiatric
Interview is considered a classic and is still widely read.
Marco Conci
See also: Dismantling; Object relations theory; Schizophrenia;
Second World War: The effect on the development
of psychoanalysis.
Bibliography
Perry, Helen Swick. (1982). Psychiatrist in America. The life
of Harry Stack Sullivan. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap
Press of Harvard University.
Sullivan, Harry Stack. (1940). Conceptions of modern psychiatry.
Washington, DC: W.A. White Psychiatric
Foundation.
. (1953). Interpersonal theory of psychiatry. New York:
W.W. Norton.
. (1954). The psychiatric interview. New York: W.W.
Norton.
. (1962). Schizophrenia as a human process. New
York: W.W. Norton.
SUM OF EXCITATION
In his earliest psychological investigations Freud
explored the interface between the psychological and
the physical, a context in which a “sum of excitation”
had the following connotations: (1) a quantity of
energy present in the nervous system and its psychical
manifestations: the greater or lesser strength and vividness
of ideas and memories and of the affects bound to
them; (2) a regulatory dynamic governing that energy:
the tendency to establish constancy through abreaction
and the failures of this tendency in neurosis; (3)
the aggregate of excitations and their limits, in accordance
with neurophysiology, in the emergence and
overdetermination of symptoms; and (4) the idea that
the energetic processes involved here are quantifiable
and measurable.
As he worked on a proposed joint publication with
Josef Breuer in 1892, Freud spoke of “the constancy of
the sum of excitation” and “displacements ... of sums
of excitation” (1941a, pp. 147, 148; see also 1940a, p.
153-54). In his lecture “On the Psychical Mechanism
of Hysterical Phenomena” (1893h), he introduced the
notion as follows: “If a person experiences a psychical
impression, something in his nervous system which we
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Sum oF EXciTATION
will for the moment call the sum of excitation is
increased. Now in every individual there exists a tendency
to diminish this sum of excitation once more, in
order to preserve his health. ... and when someone
cannot get rid of the increase in stimulation by
‘abreacting’ it, we have the possibility of the event in
question remaining a psychical trauma” (pp. 36, 37).
Freud continued to use this expression until 1897.
In its initial context, it was synonymous with “affect”
or “amount of affect”; the fate of the sum of excitation
in the event of repression was somatic innervation in
the shape of hysterical conversion, and in the case of
compulsive neurosis it underlay the creation of substitute
ideas. But the notion that a principle of constancy
affected the sum of excitation led Freud into overarching
issues of dynamic and economic neuropsychology;
this emerging set of problems was already present in
the “quantities” Q and Qg of the “Project for a Scientific
Psychology” (1950c [1895]).
An intuition in the early days, the idea of the sum
of excitation and its attendant problems were bound
to evolve. The notion of “cathexis” was soon added to
those of affect and amount or quota of affect. The
instincts and instinctual impulses refined the energetic
model of the psyche, while the tendency toward constancy
was broken down into principles of inertia,
constancy, pleasure, reality, and eventually even into
the death instinct. The vividness of repressed memories
led to the notions of the timelessness of the
unconscious and of repetition. And, lastly, the economic
standpoint became the tool with which to study
the centrality of the quantitative factor in the etiology
of mental disturbances.
This idea was thus a rich theoretical seed, but it
remained neurophysiological in character, and ultimately
embodied too many other notions to survive in
its original form.
MICHELE PORTE
See also: Conversion; Decathexis; Excitation; Hypercathexis;
Principle of constancy; Psychosomatic limit/
boundary; Quantitative/qualitative.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1941a [1892]). Letter to Josef Breuer.
SES It
. (1950c [1895]). Project for a scientific psychology.
SE, 1: 281—387.
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SUPEREGO
Freud, Sigmund, and Breuer, Josef. (1893a). On the psychical
mechanism of hysterical phenomena: Preliminary communication.
SE, 2: 1-17.
_ (1940d [1892]). On the theory of hysterical attacks.
SE, 1: 11-154.
SUPEREGO
The superego is one of the three agencies making up
the psychic apparatus in Freud’s second topography,
the structural theory (1923b). It results essentially
from the internalization of parental authority. From
the outset, as psychoanalysis uncovered the defensive
conflict that arose from a repressed unconscious
(childhood sexuality), it encountered the need to posit
a repressing agency, a censor associated with selfesteem.
In contrast with hypnosis, which put the censor
to sleep, psychoanalysis is essentially aimed at
acknowledging and working out of the ego’s
resistances.
As early as “On Narcissism: An Introduction”
(1914c), Freud already deemed the ego ideal to be
autonomous. Two works of Freud’s dating from the
early 1920s firmly differentiated between the ego and
the superego (ego ideal) and integrated this distinction
into the whole set of Freud’s metapsychological
reworkings of the period. In Group Psychology and the
Analysis of the Ego (1921c), to describe the functioning
of groups, Freud developed a generalized conception of
identification in which individuals identified their egos
by creating a common ideal, incarnated in a leader. The
Ego‘and the Id (1923b) went on to link the superego as
a mental agency to the recognized fact that the greater
portion of the ego was unconscious. Within the psychic
apparatus, the superego makes permanent the effects of
the infant’s dependence on primary objects, and it is
just as insusceptible of complete integration into the
ego as the id and its instinctual impulses. The term
“superego” itself indicates that the superego dominates
the ego; the tension between the two agencies take the
form of moral anxiety.
Freud did not detach the superego from the ideal
(one of its functions). The superego is responsible for
transmitting the constraints that culture exercises over
the individual, and for imposing the necessary and
ultimately excessive sacrifices of instinct demanded by
civilization. It is also the carrier of a cultural past that
each subject must appropriate and master (the reference
being to Goethe’s Faust) through processes of
1690
object idealization and sublimation of the instincts.
The main dynamic remains the conflict-laden work of
differentiation between the ego and the superego. How
the superego is transmitted (it is formed in the image
of the parents’ own superegos), establishes itself, and
develops entails in the final reckoning that the Freudian
superego is an intersubjective and even intergenerational
agency.
When, in Civilization and Its Discontents (1930a),
Freud raised the issue of a (collective) cultural superego,
he was revisiting his earlier reflections on the origins
of civilization in Totem and Taboo (1912-1913a).
There, evoking the myth of the primal horde, he had
associated the killing of the primal father with the prohibition
on incest. After investigating the genesis of
guilt in Civilization and Its Discontents, he attempted,
in Moses and Monotheism (1939a), to account for the
strength of tradition. With the concept of the superego,
Freud tackled the thorny subject of what humankind
elevates and makes sublime. Strictly opposed to
any kind of spiritual approach, which the theme of the
conscience readily encouraged, he focused on the concrete
development and instinctual aspects of agency.
In seeking to expose the structural dimension of the
split between the ego and the superego, Freud based
his findings on two pathological phenomena: delusions
of observation and manic-depressive psychosis.
> In delusions of observation, the monitoring and judging
internal agency (the superego) is reprojected outward.
Manic-depressive psychosis illustrates the cyclic
operation of the moral conscience and the changes
that occur in the relationship between the ego and the
superego: in melancholic self-reproach, the superego
persecutes the ego, and in manic euphoria, the ego and
its ideal coincide (as in the ritual festivity of a
carnival).
From the ontogenetic viewpoint, the superego is
“heir to the Oedipus complex.” This means that the
advent of the superego prolongs the core affective relationships
of childhood by rendering permanent
the conditions that brought about its establishment.
The identifications that constitute the superego are the
bearers at once of parental prohibitions and of instinctual
cathexes relating to the parents as objects, cathexes
that these identifications replace according to a regressive
logic in which the wish to be like dislodges the
wish to have (Freud, 1933a, p. 63). Broadly speaking,
the identifications of the superego owe their autonomy,
their constraining role vis-a-vis the ego, to the
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
child’s crucial dependence on its objects. “At the
beginning ... what is bad is whatever causes one to be
threatened with loss of love” (Freud, 1930a, p. 124). If
establishing the superego through identifications has
far-reaching consequences, this is because the relationship
of the ego to the superego reproduces the relationship
of the child to the all-powerful parents. Real
anxiety related to the parents is transformed into
moral anxiety arising from the tension between the
ego and a superego that draws no distinction between
the wish and the act. The superego first appears, therefore,
as the upshot of a regressive defensive process
that tends to lend permanence in mental reality to a
world determined above all by parental desire and parental
protection. Freud conceived of religious belief as
underpinned by a projection outward of the child’s
superego, motivated by a nostalgia for the father. This
helps explain why the task of the ego during adolescence
is to escape from the authority of the superego.
In Freud’s detailed metapsychological description
of the genesis and development of the superego, the
superego begins to form very early on, and this formation
involves permanent rearrangements of identifications
and changes in their very nature as they become
less narcissistic and more symbolic.
There is thus a clear dividing line between a primitive
realm of the superego (as described by Melanie
Klein) and a distinctly postoedipal realm. The primitive
realm is founded on archaic mechanisms (identification
with the aggressor and the law of talion [an eye for an
eye]). In the postoedipal realm of the superego, a bisexual
superego “consisting of these two [paternal and
maternal] identifications in some way united with each
other” (1923b, p. 34) bears the mark of the subtle mental
developments that for Freud are specific to the phallic
phase and the “complete” Oedipus complex (love
and hate for each parent, identification with both).
Under this later configuration, the structuring effects of
the castration complex and the integration of the fantasy
of the primal scene make it possible for the superego
to resolve and protect the ego from what are now
incestuous wishes. Successful development of the superego
is indicated by the individual’s acquisitions of culture
during the latency phase and by an ability of the
individual to traverse the reactivation of instinctive
desires that occurs in adolescence and to achieve autonomy.
Progression along these lines correlates with a
reduction of the superego’s demands to essential social
rules alone, with its gradual detachment. Such progres-
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
SUPEREGO
sion tends to turn the superego into a more purely symbolic
agency. The profoundly paternal character of
Freud’s superego has been further developed by Jacques
Lacan’s concept of the Name of the Father. A consequence
is the possibility of a more personal ego ideal.
All these modifications of the superego depend on the
desexualization inherent to the identification process,
for desexualization allows a secondary narcissism in
which the ability to idealize and sublimate buttress the
cathexis of new objects and social bonds.
At the clinical level, making the superego into a
mental agency was one of Freud’s theoretical responses
to the difficult practical problems posed by certain
kinds of resistance—needs for punishment, negative
therapeutic reactions, moral masochism—that represent
diverse expressions of unconscious guilt. Freud
observed how the superego had a general propensity
for cruelty, for a severity out of all proportion to that
of the child’s actual upbringing. This was a crucial
insight, for it led him to recognize the endogenous,
instinctual origin of cruelty and hence to form the
hypothesis of the destructive death instincts.
Unconscious guilt was thus seen in essence as turning
such destructiveness back against oneself. This
explains the paradoxical fact that the superego is made
stronger by the renunciations it imposes, and that
anxiety is increased even by misdeeds never performed
(as witness crimes committed out of a sense of guilt).
The narcissistic desexualization involved in the process
of identification, upon which the superego is founded,
permits a diffusion of instincts whereby the superego
tends to become the focus of a liberated death instinct
(the “pure culture of the death instinct” seen in
melancholia).
By contrast, the proper functioning of the postoedipal
superego, which results in a dynamic of conflict
between the ego and the superego, presupposes that
the environment allows a balanced apportionment of
love and discipline that result in a fusion of instinct.
The coherent superego that results makes for a tempered
guilt capable of underpinning a sense of responsibility
in the subject.
JEAN-Luc DONNET
See also: Activity/passivity; Agency; Alcoholism; Altruism;
Antilibidinal ego/internal saboteur; Anxiety; Castration
complex; Censorship; Character; Civilization
(Kultur); Cruelty; Defense; Depression; Ethics; Fusion/
1691
SUPERVISED ANALYSIS (CONTROL Case)
defusion; Graph of Desire; Guilt, unconscious sense of;
Heroic identification; Humor; Id; Ideal Ego; Identification;
Imago; Inhibitions, Symptoms, and Anxiety; Latency
period; Law and psychoanalysis; Libidinal development;
Linking, attacks on; Melancholic depression ; Oedipus
complex, early; “Outline of Psychoanalysis, An”; Prohibition;
Psychic apparatus; Psychic causality; Self-hatred;
Self-punishment; Unconscious, the.
Bibliography
Amar, Nicole; Le Goues, Gérard; and Pragier, Georges
(Eds.). (1995). Surmoi II: les développements post-Freudiens.
Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
Donnet, Jean-Luc. (1995). Surmoi I: le concept Freudien et la
regle fondamentale. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
Freud, Sigmund. (1912-1913a). Totem and taboo. SE, 13: 1-
161.
. (1914c). On narcissism: an introduction. SE, 14:
67-102.
. (1921c). Group psychology and the analysis of the
ego. SE, 18: 65-143.
. (1923b). The ego and the id. SE, 19: 1-66.
. (1930a). Civilization and its discontents. SE 2k
57-145.
. (1933a). New introductory lectures on psycho-analysis.
SE, 22: 1-182.
. (1939a). Moses and monotheism: Three essays. SE,
23: 1-137.
Further Reading
Arlow, Jacob. (1982). Problems of the superego concept.
Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 37, 229-244.
Blum, Hans. (1985). Superego formation, adolescent transformation,
and adult neurosis. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic
Association. 33, 887-910.
Brenner, Charles. (1982). Concept of the superego: A reformulation.
Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 51, 501-525.
Gray, Paul. (1987). On the technique of analysis of the
superego: An introduction. Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 56,
130-154.
Hartmann, Heinz, and Loewenstein, Rudolph. (1962).
Notes on the superego. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child,
17, 42-81.
Hoffman, Leon, rep. (1998). Panel: The clinical value of the
superego concept. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic
Association, 46, 885-896.
1692
Loewald, Hans W. (1973). Some instinctual manifestations
of superego formation. Annual of Psychoanalysis, 1, 104—
116.
Milrod, David. (2002). The superego: Its formation, structure,
and functioning. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child,
57, 131-150.
O’Shaughnessy, Edna. (1999). Relating to the superego.
International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 80, 861-870.
Spitz, Rene. (1958). On the genesis of superego components.
Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 13, 375-404.
SUPERVISED ANALYSIS (CONTROL CASE)
Control analysis (also known as “supervised analysis”
or “analysis under supervision”) is a cure during
which the analyst reports back the “material” and progress
to an experienced colleague for discussion.
Although supervised analysis is a mandatory stage for
trainee analysts, it is not exceptional for an analyst to
feel the need to discuss a difficult case with an experienced
colleague even after the end of the supervised
analysis.
The practice dates from the origins of psychoanalysis
and we may even consider that it was present when
psychoanalysis came into being, because Freud laid
down the bases for it in his correspondence with Wilhelm
Fleiss and in the course of their periodic “congresses.”
He then went on to institute the practice of
open discussion with the analysts he trained, enabling
them to discuss their cases during the Wednesday
meetings of the Psychological Society, later the Vienna
Psycho-Analytical Society (cf. The Minutes of the
Vienna Psycho-Analytical Society 1962, 1967, 1975),
and in the course of private conversations. These new
analysts themselves continued this practice with their
own students.
However, it was quite frequent in those early days
for the same person to act as analyst and supervisor
within a limited circle. The obvious drawbacks of such
a confusion of roles precipitated a call for better regulation
of the process. A first directive was adopted during
the congress of the International Psychoanalytic
Association (IPA) in Bad Homburg, Germany, in
1925. It was agreed that the training process, regulated
and supervised by the societies comprising the IPA, or
their training institutes, should include at least two
supervised analyses, the supervisor being distinct from
the analyst. (An earlier congress in 1918 had already
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
established the necessity of personal analysis for
candidates.)
These principles still apply. The IPA rules stipulate
that only the body of training analysts of a regional
society can authorize supervised analyses; that two
adult analyses must be conducted, and that at least
one child analysis is desirable in addition; that the
supervisors must themselves be accredited by their
society; that the supervision must be weekly; and that
each of these supervisions must last at least two years
(the analysis itself may obviously extend beyond this
period).
Those are the general rules. They are compatible
with differing approaches depending on the country
or psychoanalytic group. In practice, admission to
supervised treatment generally coincides with admission
to training as a psychoanalyst (including, in addition,
lectures, attending work groups, and seminars).
Candidates may be admitted following personal interviews
with several training analysts whose mission is
to assess the state of progress of their personal analysis
(whether applicable), as well as their potential as
future analysts, and who report back to a commission
in charge of making the actual decision. Several IPA
societies exclude the candidate’s analyst from this procedure
(the Paris Psychoanalytic Society preferring to
extend this exclusion to all stages of the training process,
including final certification).
Supervision can have two formats: the weekly meeting
may be personal, limited to the candidate and the
supervisor; or a “group meeting,” comprising several
candidates (but never more than five or six) who may
meet with a shared supervisor. Both systems have
advantages and drawbacks. It is often stressed that
group supervision has the great advantage of enabling
candidates to compare their experiences and thus to
avoid a too closely dyadic relationship with their
supervisor. Individual meetings, on the other hand,
facilitate more open discussion, free from the reserve
and self-conscious attitudes to be expected in groups;
also they facilitate discussion of counter-transference
issues, more difficult in a group setting. There is a risk
here, however, of reviving and importing transference
effects from the candidate’s personal analysis (which is
often ongoing during supervision).
Generally speaking, the idea in supervisions is not
to dictate to trainee analysts what they should do and
say, even less to equip them with theoretical precepts
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
SUPPRESSION
or technical recipes. The aim is to help them detect the
meaning of the material that is presented to them, its
instinctual and affective charges, as well as the patient’s
defenses, all this with reference to the transference and
counter-transference. This consideration is especially
vital to the training of analysts. The supervisor’s task is
therefore a difficult one, because he or she must draw
the attention of the supervised analysts to their own
counter-transference without ever transforming the
supervision into an analytic session.
The procedure raises many delicate questions, calling
for continual work on the part of psychoanalytic
institutions (Lebovici, Solnit, 1982). This has led certain
groups to work out original formulas, such as the
“fourth analysis,” proposed by the Quatriéme Groupe
OPLF (France) as its foundation.
ROGER PERRON
See also: “Analysis of a Phobia in a Five-Year-Old Boy”
(Little Hans ); Association psychanalytique de France;
Berliner Psychoanalytisches Institut; Fourth analysis;
Hungarian School; Pass, the; Psychoanalytic filiations;
Societé psychanalytique de Paris and Institut de psychanalyse
de Paris; Training of the psychoanalyst.
Bibliography
Fleming, Joan, and Benedek, Terese F. (1983). Psychoanalytic
supervision: A method of clinical teaching. New York : Basic
Books.
Lebovici, Serge, and Solnit, Albert J. (Eds.). (1982). La formation
du psychanalyste. Paris: Presses Universitaires de
France. Monographies de l’Association psychanalytique
internationale.
Nunberg, Hermann, and Federn, Ernst. (1962-1975). Minutes
of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society. New York: International
Universities Press.
SUPPRESSION
Suppression is a defense mechanism aimed specifically
at affect, which intends to abolish it from consciousness
without allowing its re-entry into the unconscious.
The term “suppression” in its broadest sense was
used by Sigmund Freud (1900a) to describe a conscious
mechanism intended to eliminate undesirable
psychical content from consciousness. The difference
between suppression and repression (1915d) lies in the
1693
SUPPRESSION
fact that this latter defense mechanism is unconscious
and under its influence repressed content becomes or
remains unconscious. Repression is concerned essentially
with the “ideational representatives” of the
drive/instinct, which are distinct in that they may
remain unconscious. In Freud’s early theorizing of
affects, though, affects are suppressed and do not pass
into the unconscious.
Throughout the metapsychology, however, this distinction
between suppression and repression is not quite
50 clear-cut: “We know, too, that to suppress the development
of affect is the true aim of repression and that
its work is incomplete if this aim is not achieved”
(1915e, p. 178). In this passage from “The Unconscious,”
the suppression of affect appears as a specific mode of
repression destined to eradicate affect from consciousness.
Moreover, in the same essay, Freud devotes a chapter
to “unconscious feelings” in which affects begin to
find a definite position within the unconscious.
This notion of “unconscious feelings” was progressively
elaborated on, and in “The Ego and The Id”
(1923b), Freud wrote: where feelings are concerned
“the Pcs, here drops out—and feelings are either conscious
or unconscious” (1923b, p. 23). With the introduction
of the second topography the affects described
by Freud typically become complexes. An unconscious
sense of guilt, anxiety as signal, grief, sorrow, etc., are
all affects that are articulated through various fantasies,
notably around the loss of the object. The signal
of anxiety that the threat of the loss of the mother
represents for the child is the paradigmatic example of
this new conception of affects associated intimately
with fantasies (from Freud’s second theory of anxiety).
Since affect and representation are thus considered to
be closely imbricated with fantasies, the defense
mechanisms relating to affects are not differentiated in
any specific way, and as a result the affects themselves
are also likely to become unconscious.
Melanie Klein, who had adopted Freud’s second
theory of anxiety from the outset, considered affects
subject to the same defensive vicissitudes as fantasies.
Anxiety, however, very quickly became central to her
technique; thus interpretation, for example, inevitably
has a bearing on the fantasies of the subject in analysis,
when anxiety is at its height. As her theoretical system
developed, affects would progressively come to occupy
a crucial site in the functioning of mental life (1948).
In a conception bound up with the “positions” of the
two general modes of organization of psychic life, the
1694
type of anxiety, either paranoid or depressive, constitutes
a key concept beside the modality of the object,
whether partial or total, and alongside mechanisms of
defense, whether psychotic or neurotic.
The type of defense mechanism to which the ego
might have recourse is dependent on the intensity of
depressive anxieties, revealed through the fantasies
that manifest them. When they are too intense—in
sorrow, but in guilt above all—they are expressed in
fantasies involving the catastrophic destruction of
objects. The ego will have to mobilize extreme and
even psychotic defense mechanisms. Between these,
massive disavowal will attack, very specifically, these
depressive affects in order to annihilate and erase
them; however, other psychotic defense mechanisms
such as splitting, projective identification, or projection
also contribute to their eradication. Furthermore,
their action will give rise to other affects, notably persecution
anxiety. Where depressive anxieties are not
too extreme, and in instances where considerable fantasies
of injury, of death (and thus of the loss of
objects) prevail, more or less intense disavowal permits
the alleviation or even the transformation of these
anxieties, with the help of obsessive defenses, into
their opposite—euphoria. Where depressive anxieties
are limited and where fantasies of the loss of the love
object and exclusion predominate, the depressive conflictual
situation opens up the way to the neurotic problematic
and the conflictual affects are repressed.
When the repression of affects, the neurotic defense
mechanism par excellence, becomes more extensive, its
effect seems closer to that of disavowal. The analysis
of severe neurotic disorders with serious depressive
conflicts reveals the interchange between these two
defensive modes in the treatment of the conflictual
affects: repression and disavowal. When the repression
of conflictual affects is too forceful, the intense pressure
on the repressed content towards the internal
world of the individual seems to transform those
aspects of the external world that arouse or recall
these affects into denial.
ALAIN DE MiOLLA
See also: Repression.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1915e). The unconscious. SE, 14: 159-204.
. (1923b). The ego and the id. SE, 19: 1-66.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Further Reading
Werman, D.S. (1983). Suppression as a defense. Journal of
the American Psychoanalytic Association, 31 (S), 405-415.
SURREALISM AND PSYCHOANALYSIS
Begun as an investigation of poetic images and language,
their sources, their nature, and specific features,
surrealism is a movement of ideas, of artistic creation
and action based explicitly on Freudian discoveries,
which were used to develop an original theory of language
and creativity. In later years it adopted Hegelian
dialectics and Marxist-Leninist historical materialism.
The “social and martial cataclysm” (Breton, 1934)
provoked a revolt by an entire generation.
The movement was founded in Paris in 1924 by
French poet André Breton, with the support of a
group of poets and painters. The presence of Max
Ernst, from Germany, Man Ray, from the United
States, and Joan Miro, a Catalan, gave the group its
international flavor. Surrealism’s goal was to “change
life” (Arthur Rimbaud) by freeing humanity from the
constraints of mental or social censorship as well as
economic oppression: “Poetry is made by everyone.
Not by one” (Lautréamont).
The project made little sense to Freud, who refused
his patronage (Freud to Breton, 1933e [1932]; to
Zweig, July 20, 1938 (1960a [1873—1939])). Breton visited
Freud in Vienna in 1921 and corresponded with
him in 1932 about The Interpretation of Dreams. In
1937 he asked him to contribute to a planned anthology
( Trajectoire du réve, 1938). Freud answered: “A collection
of dreams without their associations, without
understanding the circumstances in which someone
dreamed, doesn’t mean anything to me, and I have a
hard time understanding what it might mean to
others” (Breton, 1938, I).
These associations were generally omitted by the
surrealists when they narrated their dreams. They
appear in André Breton’s The Communicating Vases
(1932), but there the author, denying the “dream
navel” for the sake of Marxist-Leninist materialism,
felt he could use them to bring into focus all his
dream thoughts. He claimed, contrary to Freud,
that the dream was a creator, an instigator to action,
and capable of dialectically resolving the contradiction
between desire and reality. Surrealism ignored
therapy.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
SURREALISM AND PSYCHOANALYSIS
There are several periods to the history of surrealism.
Its “prehistory” dates from 1916 (Breton discovers
Freud) to 1924. This was the period of the
review Litterature (1919). Together with Breton, a
group of young artists invented surrealist techniques
intended to liberate the unconscious: automatic writing
and drawing, hypnotic sleep, hypnagogic visions,
dream narratives, group creation, oral and written
games, collage, rubbings, decals, experimental photography
and theater. The publication of the first Surrealist
Manifesto (Breton, 1924) ushered in Surrealism’s
formative period. The group had a journal of its own,
La Revolution surréaliste. “We must be thankful for
Freud’s discoveries,” wrote Breton, “the imagination
may be on the point of winning back its rights.”
In 1927 André Breton, Louis Aragon, Paul Eluard,
and Benjamin Peret joined the Communist Party. Breton
did not, however, abandon Freud: “The Surrealism
that, as we have seen, has adopted Marxist beliefs does
not intend to treat lightly the Freudian critique of
ideas” (Breton, 1930). Breton soon quit the Communist
Party, which reproached him for his Freudianism.
Surrealism embraced cinema (Luis Bunuel), the construction
of objects (“Situation surrealiste de lobjet,’
Breton, 1935), and produced important works of art
in every field.
But in 1930, in his Second Manifesto of Surrealism,
Breton acknowledged the existence of a profound crisis.
The third period of Surrealism was about to begin.
A new review was introduced, Le Surréalisme au service
de la Révolution. In 1930 the review published two articles
by the French-American psychoanalyst Jean Frois-
Wittmann, in 1933 the Breton-Freud correspondence
of 1932, a favorable critique of Jacques Lacan’s doctoral
dissertation by René Crevel, and, also by Crevel,
an attack on an article in the Revue francaise de psychanalyse.
The review also published the first texts by
Salvador Dali, where he developed the idea of “critical-
paranoia,” the use of the interpretative processes of
paranoia for creative ends, and the exploration of the
unconscious.
In 1933 Minotaure appeared. Although it was not
the official voice of the group, it was strongly influenced
by it. The first issue included articles on the
“contributions of psychoanalysis.” Lacan and Dali
explained their conceptions of paranoia as an active
psychic phenomenon, which Dali compared with the
passivity he associated with dreams and automatic
writing. Several large-scale international exhibitions
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SURREALISM AND PSYCHOANALYSIS
confirmed the growth of surrealism around the world,
a phenomenon that accelerated during the Second
World War following the exile of Breton, André Masson,
and Max Ernst in the United States, and Benjamin
Péret in Mexico, and continued after the war.
Breton, the principal theorist of the group, maintained
a close association with Freudian thought
throughout his career. He was most interested in
the logic of the unconscious, in conflicts between the
ego, the id, and the superego, relating them to the
process of artistic creation, to Freudian ideas of sexuality,
fantasy, desire, repression, the death instinct,
whose opposition to Eros he assumed to be dialectical
(Breton, 1930), and especially to ideas about
representation and perception (Breton, 1933). Beginning
with his concept of “pure mental representation,”
situated “beyond true perception,” he examined,
in the context of the Essais de psychanalyse
(1927), how the transition from the unconscious to
the perception-consciousness system takes place in
the creative individual. For Breton, as a reader of
Freud, it was at the preconscious level that language
and the traces of acoustic and visual perceptions were
united and charged with affect. But Breton went
further: he saw in these preconscious elements the
raw material of creation, obtained by the removal of
repression with the help of automatic writing and
drawing. In creating a work of art, the artist would »
make the individual universal (Breton, 1935).
In a letter to Stefan Zweig, Freud, who had met
Salvador Dali in London, also associated the fundamental
elements of the work of the artist with the
preconscious, but he added a principle of economy:
“From the critical point of view it could still be
maintained that the notion of art defies expansion as
long as the quantitative proportion of unconscious
material and preconscious treatment does not remain
within definite limits” (July 20, 1938). The specific
task of the creative individual, the result of his
“initiative” (Breton) is to manipulate the relation
between unconscious and preconscious elements, and
objectify them in a work of art. Repression would
have to be removed using “surrealist techniques”
(Breton). Freud’s meeting with Dali seems to be the
only time when Freud made an effort to understand
the surrealist use of psychoanalysis and compare it
with his own beliefs.
There were other points of contact between surrealism
and psychoanalysis: Adrien Borel discussed his
1696
surrealist experiences (1925); Salvador Dali and Rene
Crevel interviewed Jacques Lacan; Crevel, Antonin
Artaud, and Robert Desnos were analyzed by René
Allendy, which they later wrote about. André Embiricos,
a surrealist poet and theoretician as well as a psychoanalyst,
founded, together with Marie Bonaparte,
the Greek Psychoanalytic Society. ©
Lacanian thought developed throughout the
nineteen-sixties, and, although it has a number of
affinities with surrealism, it has always remained
distinct. In 1971 the surrealist painter and philosopher
René Passeron, with his research team at the
C.N.R.S., founded Etudes poiétiques, which analyzed
the creative process and made use of Freudian theory.
A number of psychoanalysts (Andre Berge,
Jean-Bertrand Pontalis, Guy Rosolato) were interested
in the surrealists. As Breton found in 1934, the
scope of surrealism, through the upheaval of sensibility
it entails, “is socially incalculable.” As a
movement it has frequently helped the spread of
psychoanalysis.
NICOLE GEBLESCO
See also: Breton, André; Choisy, Maryse; Held, René;
Lacan, Jacques-Marie Emile; Literature and
psychoanalysis.
Bibliography
Biro, Adam, Passeron, René. (1982). Dictionnaire général du
surréalisme et de ses environs. Freiberg, Switzerland: Office
du Livre.
Breton, André. (1988). GEuvres completes. Edition établie par
Marguerite Bonnet. Paris: Gallimard, La Pleiade.
Freud, Sigmund. (1927). Essais de psychanalys (Samuel Jankelevitch,
Trans.). Paris: Payot.
. (1960a [1873-1939]). Letters of Sigmund Freud,
1873-1939 (Ernst L. Freud, Ed.; Tania and James Stern,
Trans.). London, Hogarth Press, 1970.
Hulak, Fabienne, and Bonnet, Marguerite. (1992). Folie et
psychanalyse dans [ experience surreéaliste. Nice: Z’Editions.
Meélusine. (1992). Cahiers du Centre de recherches sur le surrealisme,
XIII, Le surréaliste et son psy. Paris.
Revues surréalistes (1919-1939); Littérature (1919-1921,
1922-1924); La Revolution surréaliste (1924-1929); Le Surrealisme
au service de la. Révolution (1930-1933); Minotaure
(1930-1933, 1933-1939). Paris: Jean-Michel Place,
1975, 1976, 1981.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
SWEDEN
Toward the end of the nineteenth century, the Swedish
writer August Strindberg, wrote several plays,
novels, and short stories dealing in a pertinent fashion
with religion and doubt, the relations between
men and women, the father and his position in the
family. He described the hypocrisy and the destructive
forces, the unconscious motivations, the representations
and specific conflicts of man at the turn of
the century. In 1893 the name of his contemporary,
Sigmund Freud, was mentioned in Sweden for the
first time in a medical review, along with those of
Josef Breuer, Pierre Janet, and Jean Martin Charcot.
The article, dealing with traumatic neuroses, was
written by Frithiof Lennmalm, a professor of nervous
pathology.
Freud wrote On the History of the Psychoanalytic
Movement in 1914. Nine years later, in 1923, he felt
obliged to specify in a note: “At the present time the
Scandinavian countries are still the least receptive.”
Psychoanalysis was introduced to Sweden in a
manner that was at least unique. The two pioneers,
Emanuel af Geijerstam, installed in Goteborg from
1898 to 1928, and Poul Bjerre, who worked in Stockholm
and its surroundings for almost half a century,
shared a similar attitude: they were both interested in
psychoanalysis but were keenly critical of it. Geijerstam,
a researcher and psychotherapist, approved of
the theses of Alfred Adler and Carl Gustav Jung, without
however being hostile to psychoanalysis. He
wrote about Freud in 1902 but, from 1916 until his
death, he persistently stressed that “anagogic analysis”
constituted a progression on Freudian psychoanalysis.
And when Geijerstam went on a study trip it
was not to Vienna but to Zurich.
Poul Bjerre met Freud in December 1910. At a conference
of the Swedish medical association the following
year he introduced a part of Freudian theory. He
went on to translate and in 1924 to publish some articles
by Freud. From the time of his first encounter
with the founder of psychoanalysis, and particularly
after 1912, he was convinced that his own work was
more important. For Bjerre, Freud had become
bogged down in a mechanistic science that specifically
prevented him from understanding the scope of
psychosynthesis. Thus, for thirty years Freud was
represented in Sweden by two physicians specializing
in nervous diseases, having different points of view,
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
SWEDEN
but who shared their refusal to take on board the
totality of Freud’s theory.
In the bulletins of the Swedish medical association
we find criticism of Freud as early as 1910. The tone
was set by two eminent physicians, Bror Gadelius
(1862-1938) and Olof Kinberg (1873-1960). Gadelius,
a psychiatrist, adopted the following stance:
“Freud has overestimated the importance of sexuality;
this is because of the nature of his clientele who,
in a cosmopolitan city like Vienna, have a particular
propensity for exaggeration. We cannot never overstress
the fact that alongside the sexual complexes—
whose role in the appearance of hysteria I in no way
wish to underestimate—there exist other complexes
charged with affect that can give birth to neuroses
and hysteria, and how much these complexes go hand
in hand with the “Ich Triebe [ego-instincts].” However,
this point of view did not prevent Gadelius from
acknowledging the merits of Freud’s theory. In his
important work on psychiatry, Det manskliga Sjalsivet
(The Human Soul), he specifically wrote that “in
recent years, largely thanks to Freud and his school,
much more attention has been accorded than previously
to the importance of the sexual instinct in
psychic life.” To sum up, Giejerstam and Bjerre, who
are generally considered to have introduced psychoanalysis
to Sweden, and Gadelius, the greatest critic
and opponent of the discipline, adopted a similar
position.
Simultaneous with the growing interest in psychoanalysis
in Sweden at the end of the 1920s, we find
the increasing hostility of several influential physicians
and academics. This resistance had already
made its appearance in 1911 when Poul Bjerre tried
to publish his conference, “The Psychoanalytic
Method,” in which he gave the most positive presentation
of psychoanalysis and met with what he considered
to be unjustified criticism. Presentations
delivered within the framework of the Swedish medical
association were normally published in the review
Hygiea. Bjerre’s was refused on the pretext that it was
too long. In addition, Gadelius indulged in a methodical
criticism of psychoanalysis in his work Tro och
helbragdagorelse. Jamte en kritisk studie av psykoanalysen
(Faith and Healing. A Critical Study of Psychoanalysis),
published in 1934.
The review Clarté, which had socialist leanings, was
a branch of the international Clarte movement and
acted as a platform for psychoanalysis. In the latter
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SWEDEN
half of the twenties it published the texts of the
Swedish pioneers of Freudianism. A few intellectuals
believed that psychoanalysis could perhaps be used to
formulate a radical theory of society. Interest in psychoanalysis
was essentially linked to this aspect and
was marked by its pragmatism. In the thirties literary
circles little by little began to take an interest in psychoanalysis.
This interest took many forms, including
the creation of the review Spektrum, which published
modernist poetry and translations of psychoanalysts
like Anna Freud, Erich Fromm, and Wilhelm Reich.
One of the Swedish pioneers, Per Henrik Torngren,
who went into analysis with Ludwig Jekels a few years
later, was part of the editing committee and published
his own texts in the review. During this same period
Sweden saw the publication of considerable extracts
from The Interpretation of Dreams, as well as, in their
entirety, The Future of an Illusion and Civilization and
Its Discontents.
In August 1931 the pioneers of psychoanalysis in
the Scandinavian countries met to discuss for the first
time the formation of a psychoanalytic society. Among
the participants were Sigurd Naesgaard, a Dane; Harald
Schjelderup, a Norwegian; Vrid Kulovesi, a Finn,
and Alfhild Tamm, a Swede. Tamm, who organized the
meeting, had international experience and had been a
member since 1926 of the Vienna Psychoanalytic
Society. The Scandinavian group then split into two
societies, a Danish-Norwegian society and a Finnish-
Swedish society, for which she became the spokesperson.
Tamm was the first woman psychiatrist in
Sweden. Her theoretical work was of minimal importance.
She invoked the tradition of the Enlightenment
to combat prejudice with regard to masturbation and
sought to understand the mechanisms of aphasia.
Tamm was too much on her own for the first ten years
to enable the society to become influential and the
activities of the pioneers of psychoanalysis were somewhat
limited.
The early thirties saw the arrival in Scandinavian
countries of psychoanalysts who had been trained in
Central Europe, particularly Vienna and Berlin. The
Viennese Ludwig Jekels, a student of Freud’s, settled in
Sweden from 1934 to 1937. He saw his work as a training
analyst in Stockholm as a difficult and thankless
task and he finally left Sweden with the feeling that he
had failed in his mission. As was common at the time,
some Nordic pioneers made the journey to Vienna,
Berlin, or Zurich to be analyzed by August Aichhorn,
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Helene Deutsch, Paul Federn, Eduard Hitschmann,
Oskar Pfister, or Harald Schultz-Hencke.
The Nordic psychoanalysts were looking for more
competent colleagues than themselves who would be
capable of training them, and from 1926 onward they
began to organize themselves along the lines of the
model fixed by the International Psychoanalytic Association
(IPA). Scandinavian countries simultaneously
witnessed the creation of new psychotherapy societies
based on an eclectic concept of psychotherapy and the
exclusion of some of the bases of psychoanalysis, such
as the theory of infantile sexuality and dream theory.
In 1932 Norway saw the formation of the Nordisk
Psykoanalytisk Samfund (Nordic Psychoanalytic
Society) under the presidency of Alfhild Tamm with,
among its most notable members, Poul Bjerre and
Sugurd Naesgaard. In Denmark the Psykoanalytisk
Samfund was founded in December 1933, with Swedish
Poul Bjerre, Danish Sigurd Naesgaard, and Norwegian
Irgens Stromme playing the leading roles.
During World War II the Dutch psychoanalyst
René de Moncy, a personal friend of Freud, went to
live in Sweden as a result of his encounter in Vienna
with the Jewish Swedish psychoanalyst Vera Palmstierna,
who had been in analysis with Freud. The
couple settled in Stockholm. René de Moncy had
played a major role in the Dutch Society and was to
play an equally important role in Sweden during the
eight years that he lived there. He was psychoanalyst
to Ola Andersson (1919-1990) and the Hungarian
psychologist Lajos Székely (1904-1995) who was
practicing in Sweden. Székely was a Jewish émigré
who had arrived in 1944 with his wife Edith, a physician
and psychoanalyst. He had trained as an analyst
firstly in Hungary, then in Germany and Holland
during the 1930s, and finally in Sweden. He was to
play a major role in the 1950s by providing analytic
training for Swedish physicians and psychologists. He
wrote on a variety of subjects, among them the links
between the unconscious and creativity. Szekely
spoke several languages and published articles in
English, French, Swedish, German, and Hungarian.
Stefi Pedersen (1908-1980) began her analytic
training in the Berlin Psychoanalytic Institute. She was
first analyzed by Otto Fenichel in Berlin and later
joined him in Oslo. In Sweden—where she arrived
with a group of Jewish children after a stay in Norway—
she worked in the Swedish Psychoanalytic
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Society (Svenska Psykoanalytiska Féreringen). She did
a second analysis, this time as trainee, with René de
Monchy. Her status as a member of the Society did not
prevent her from adopting an independent and critical
position. She was rather radical in her thinking and
was attracted by Alexander Mitscherlich’s theses. She
wrote articles on vulnerability and the effects of the
Nazi terror on psychoanalysts and clinical work. She
published texts in English, German, Norwegian, and
Swedish.
In August 1943, Tore Ekman (1887-1971) returned
to Sweden after practicing for nearly twenty years in
Berlin and Leipzig, as well as working as “Lektor” in
Leipzig University. He trained under Therese Benedek,
a close friend of Alfhild Tamm, and went on to play a
role of capital importance in the Swedish Psychoanalytic
Society, although he published very little. The
psychoanalyst and theorist of science, Carl Lesche
(1920-1993), a Finnish émigré in Sweden in the early
1950s, was also to occupy an important position in the
Swedish Society between the 1960s and the 1980s.
Among his influences were philosophers Wilhelm
Dilthey, Edmund Husserl, and Karl-Otto Apel. The
question of the classification of psychoanalysis was to
take on a new dimension with him. He claimed that it
was essential to define what made psychoanalysis
more of a hermeneutic discipline than a natural
science and to point out where it differed from psychotherapy.
However, the influence of Lesche has not
extended beyond the borders of Sweden.
Swedish psychoanalysts have done little research
work and have made few important contributions to
the history and theory of psychoanalysis. Ola Andersson’s
thesis, “Freud before Freud. The Prehistory of
Psychoanalysis” (1962) constitutes a remarkable exception,
as does academic Gunnar Brandell’s more substantial
essay, “Freud a Child of his Century” (1961).
Ola Andersson wrote an in-depth study of the context
in the history of ideas that saw the birth and evolution
of Freud’s thinking up to 1896, the time when he formulated
the concept of psychoanalysis. Andersson
stressed the importance of the influence of Herbart on
Freud and conducted original research into the true
identity of Emmy von N. Andersson and Brandell.
Both took part in Uppsala University seminars conducted
by Wilhelm Sjéstrand, a pedagogue and history
enthusiast who organized seminars at the end of the
1950s, during the time Michel Foucault was teaching at
this university.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
SWEDEN
Few psychoanalysts in Sweden have taken an interest
in philosophy, the theory of science, or the history
of ideas, just as few Swedish philosophers and academics
have studied Freudian theory, with one exception:
researchers in the psychology department of
Lund University have taken an interest in psychoanalysis
since the 1940s.
The Swedish Psychoanalytic Society now numbers
more than one hundred and ninety members and
there is ever growing interest in its training program.
Toward the middle of the 1960s, voices were nevertheless
raised in criticism of this training. In 1963 one of
the society’s psychoanalysts, Margit Norell, secretary
to the training group, founded a work group with
some of the analysands. This work resulted in 1968 in
the formal creation of the Swedish Society for Holistic
Psychotherapy and Psychoanalysis (SSHPP), which
joined the International Federation of Psychoanalytic
Societies (IFPS) in 1972. The SSHPP was initially supported
by neo-Freudians, Erich Fromm, Frieda
Fromm-Reichmann, and Harry Stack Sullivan. Harold
Kelman, an American closely allied with Karen
Horney, greatly contributed to its development. He
organized seminars and was thesis director for many
teachers. Toward the end of the 1970s, the SSHPP took
an increasing interest in the theory of object relations,
particularly in the work of theoreticians like Melanie
Klein, Ronald Fairbairn, Donald Winnicott, and even
Wilfred Bion. This same period saw intensified relations
between the Swedish Psychoanalytic Society and
the Swedish Society for Holistic Psychotherapy and
Psychoanalysis, which began to study Freud more than
ever. In May 1992 it was decided in agreement with the
majority of the members to request affiliation with the
IPA. Since then the IPA has never ceased to grow and
it now numbers about seventy-five members.
In the 1970s, Swedes began to take an interest in Jacques
Lacan and French psychoanalysis. This interest
coincided with the publication in Swedish of the works
of the French structuralists. A first translation of Lacan’s
work appeared, entitled Ecrits, but containing less than
15 percent of the French edition of Ecrits, and was followed
by pirate publications of other translations of
texts by Lacan. Inspired by Lacan’s work, a few rare
researchers in human sciences were seduced by the idea
of establishing links between psychoanalysis and modern
linguistics. For a short period during the 1970s and
1980s, psychoanalysts from South America and the
United States trained psychologists and physicians at
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Swiss PSYCHOANALYTIC SOCIETY
Goteborg. In 1974 the Géteborg Institute for Psychotherapy
(Goteborg Psykoterapi Institut) was
founded, its founders, the Argentinean psychoanalysts
Angel and Dora Fiasché, having been trained in their
own country by the IPA. Dora Fiasché is a philosopher
and still a member of the IPA. Angel Fiascheé is a physician
and has since left the IPA. The Fiaschés, who consider
themselves to be socialists, are close to Kleinian
psychoanalysis in terms of theory. They have worked
with, among others, Len Grinberg, Maria Langer, and
Enrique Pichon-Riviére. They regularly return to Goteborg
and several members of the Institute have been to
Buenos Aires for professional reasons. In terms of its
orientation the Géteborg Institute for Psychotherapy is
eclectic and pragmatic and adopts a radical position on
social questions. It now has more than forty members.
Just as in Goteborg, the interest in the theoretical works
of Melanie Klein has also increased elsewhere.
In Sweden the dawn of the twenty-first century has
seen renewed criticism of psychoanalysis, coming in
equal parts from academic psychology and biological
psychiatry. This has not prevented psychoanalysts
and researchers from all quarters from taking part in
a joint project: the publication in Swedish by a major
publishing house of the complete works of Sigmund
Freud. In 2002, the review Psykoanalytisk tid/Skrifr
began publication in Géteborg; it is mainly orientated
toward French psychoanalysis and thought.
PER MAGNUS JOHANSSON, Davip TITELMAN
Bibliography
Gadelius, Bror. (1934). Tro och helbragdagorelse jamte en kritisk
studie av psykoanalysen. Stockholm: Hugo Gebers.
Johansson, Per Magnus. (1999). Freuds psykoanalys, utgangspunkter/
arvtagare i Sverige. Goteborg: Daidalos.
(2003). Freuds psykoanalys, arvtagare i Sverige. Goteborg:
Daidalos.
Luttenberger, Franz. (1989). Freud i Sverige. Stockholm:
Carlsson Bokforlag.
Torngren, Pehr Henrik. (1936). Striden om Freud. Stockholm:
Albert Bonniers Forlag.
SWISS PSYCHOANALYTIC SOCIETY
See Schweizerische Arztegesellschaft fiir psychoanalyse
1700
SWITZERLAND (FRENCH-SPEAKING)
Freud’s ideas found their first echo in Geneva, a psychological
milieu infused with scientific tradition and thus
offering a more favorable reception in French-speaking
Switzerland than in France. As early as 1900 Théodore
Flournoy and his student and successor Edouard Claparéde,
professors of psychology in the science faculty of
the University of Geneva, enthusiastically welcomed
these new ideas and contributed to spreading them.
The psychoanalytic movement began in Frenchspeaking
Switzerland in the 1920s when the first
French-speaking psychoanalysts joined the Société
suisse de psychanalyse (Swiss Psychoanalytic Society),
founded in Zurich on March 24, 1919, by Emil and
Mira Oberholzer and Oskar Pfister. At approximately
the same time, in September 1920, physician and nonphysician
psychoanalysts created the Geneva Psychoanalytic
Society. This short-lived society, which was
never enrolled with the International Psychoanalytical
Association, disappeared at the end of the 1920s.
During the first period (1919-1952), the first psychoanalysts,
for example, Charles Odier and Raymond
de Saussure, worked to make Freud’s ideas known not
only in French-speaking Switzerland but also in Paris,
. where they helped found the Sociéte psychanalytique
de Paris (Paris Psychoanalytic Society), the Revue
francaise de psychanalyse, and the Conference des psychanalystes
de langue francaise (Conference of French-
Speaking Psychoanalysts). During the 1920s contacts
with Swiss German psychoanlaysts were rare, but came
to be strengthened after the departure of the Oberholzer
group in 1928 and under the presidency of Philipp
Sarasin, who instituted the Swiss society’s teaching
commission. Psychoanalytic life in Geneva was initially
dominated by Henri Flournoy, Charles Odier, and
Raymond de Saussure, along with Charles Baudouin,
who later founded his own school of psychoanalysis.
Henri Flournoy (1886-1955), physician and psychoanalyst
and son of Theodore Flournoy, trained with
Johan H. W. Van Ophuijsen in Holland, then with
Freud and Hermann Nunberg in Vienna. His teaching
played an important role, and along with Odier,
he introduced training analysis to French-speaking
Switzerland. Odier set up in Paris in 1922, and Saussure
followed suit in 1937. Marguerite A. Sechehaye
(1887-1964) developed symbolic realization, a
method of psychoanalytic therapy for schizophrenics.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Prior to the Second World War, psychoanalysis
began to spread through French-speaking Switzerland
outside of Geneva. In the Valais canton its development
was linked to Dr. André Repond (1886-1973), director
of the Hopital de Malévoz psychiatric clinic, as well as
Dr. Norbert Benoziglio and Germaine Guex, who
helped create the first psychoanalytically informed
medical-psychological consultations. The outbreak of
World War II saw the return of Odier to Switzerland to
settle in Lausanne, whereas Saussure left for the United
States in 1940, where he remained until 1952.
As soon as he returned to Geneva in 1952, Saussure
gave a distinct impetus to psychoanalysis in Frenchspeaking
Switzerland by organizing training. In Geneva
he was assisted by Michel Gressot, physician and
psychoanalyst, then in 1956 by Marcelle Spira, a Swiss
psychoanalyst trained in the Melanie Klein school in
Argentina, and in Lausanne he was assisted by Germaine
Guex, Marcel Roth (1911-1992), Etiennette
Roch-Meyerhof (1914-1989), and Madeleine Rambert
(1900-1973), child psychoanalyst. These psychoanalysts
had a lasting influence by virtue of their scientific
accomplishments and the training they provided for
many psychoanalysts from various parts of the world.
They were later joined in Geneva by Olivier Flournoy,
son of Henri, who trained in Paris and the United
States, and in Lausanne by René Henny, child and
adult psychoanalyst and professor of child psychiatry,
and by Christian Miiller and Pierre-Bernard Schneider,
who were psychoanalysts and directors of psychiatric
institutions. René A. Spitz stayed in Geneva for six
years during the 1960s and contributed to training
there. Julian de Ajuriaguerra, director of the psychiatric
institutions at the University of Geneva from 1959
to 1973, and René Diatkine, on regular visits from
Paris, also stimulated the development of child and
adult psychoanalysis. In the Tessin canton, the Swiss
Italian region under the authority of the teaching commission
of French-speaking Switzerland, Pier Mario
Masciangelo organized psychoanalytic training from
1959 onward.
The Centre Raymond de Saussure (Raymond de
Saussure Center) was inaugurated in Geneva in 1973.
This equipped French-speaking Switzerland with
premises specifically for psychoanalytic seminars,
conferences, and a library. Prior to that, meetings
were organized in university psychiatric institutions.
From this point onward psychoanalysis developed
considerably, particularly in Geneva, around Janice
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SWITZERLAND (FRENCH-SPEAKING)
de Saussure, Raymond’s wife, an active member and
vice president of the International Psychoanalytical
Association, as well as around Marcelle Spira, Olivier
Flournoy, and Claire Degoumois. In Lausanne psychoanalysis
developed around Marcel Roch, Etiennette
Roch, and René Henny. In the 1990s there were
too many French-speaking Swiss training analysts to
mantion them all, yet it may be helpful to cite those
who have made names for themselves through their
psychoanalytic publications. Some of them practice
as psychoanalysts while occupying positions in university
psychiatric institutions for adults, like André
Haynal and Antonio Andreoli; in institutions for
children, like Bertrand Cramer, Juan Manzano, and
Paco Palacio; and in institutions for adolescents, like
Francois Ladame. Others engage mainly in private
psychoanalytic practice, like Georges Abraham, Graziella
Nicolaidis, Nicos Nicolaidis, Daniele Quinidoz,
and Jean-Michel Quinodoz, all based in Geneva.
Pyschoanalysis in Switzerland is characterized by
pluralism, a fact reflected in the variety of schools
of thought, French-speaking psychoanalysts being
influenced by French psychoanalysis, as well as British,
mainly Kleinian, psychoanalysis, and Germanspeaking
analysts being influenced mainly by ego
psychology.
Psychoanalytic institutions have adopted a federalist
structure that reflects Swiss trilingualism (German,
French, and Italian) and its cultural diversity. For this
reason the activities of psychoanalysts in Frenchspeaking
Switzerland are centered around institutions
that are both national (monthly meetings of the
Société suisse de psychanalyse with simultaneous
translations, generally held in Berne) and regional
(meetings in the Centre Raymond de Saussure in Geneva).
Daisy de Saugy, historian and psychoanalyst, is
responsible for keeping the archives.
The entirely bilingual German-French Bulletin de la
Société suisse de psychanalyse appeared from 1965 to
1969 and then appeared regularly twice a year from
1979 onward.
In French-speaking Switzerland other trends now
claim to represent psychoanalysis, but their practice
and technique is closer to psychotherapy than to the
psychoanalysis instituted by Freud. Geneva has a
Charles Baudouin center for psychoanalysis and psychotherapy,
as well as a Jungian group, and a Freudian
study group unites Lacanians around Mario and Mireille
Cifali in Geneva and around Francois Ansermet
1701
SwitzeRLand (GERMAN-SPEAKING)
in Lausanne. This group has published the journal Le
Bloc—Notes de la psychanalyse since 1980.
JEAN-MICHEL QuUINODOZ
Bibliography
Ellenberger, Henri F. (1952). La psychiatrie suisse. Evolution
psychiatrique, 17, 139-158, 719-723.
Meerwein, Fritz. (1979). Reflexionen zur geschichte der
Schweizerischen gesellschaft fiir psychoanalyse in der
deutschen Schweiz. Bulletin de la Société suisse de psychanalySE,
9, 25-40. (With French translation: Reflexions sur
Vhistoire de la Société suisse de psychanalyse en Suisse
alemanique.)
Roch, Marcel. (1980). A propos de histoire de la psychanalyse
en Suisse romande. Bulletin de la Société suisse de psychanalySE,
10, 17-30.
Saussure, Raymond de. (1967-1968). L*histoire de la psychanalyse
en Suisse romande. Bulletin de la Société suisse de
psychanalySE, 6, 1-4.
SWITZERLAND (GERMAN-SPEAKING)
Switzerland was the first country, and Zurich and Geneva
the first cities outside of Vienna, where psychoanalysis
found a corresponding echo. From Zurich it went
on to find its way into academic psychiatry, which
developed modern psychodynamic psychiatry. As elsewhere,
German-speaking Switzerland had its rifts and
defections. Some particularities of the country helped
contribute to this evolution: Switzerland is a federation
of small states (cantons) professing different religions,
speaking different languages, and asserting their
own autonomy. Individualism and _ particularities,
alongside tendencies toward pragmatic egalitarianism,
are part of the national tradition. There are also great
class differences.
The two psychiatrists from Freud’s generation who
paved the way for the introduction of psychoanalysis
in Switzerland represent this tradition in a particular
manner: Auguste Forel (1848-1931), a French-speaking
Swiss who directed the Burgh6lzli university asylum in
Zurich, and his successor from 1898, Eugen Bleuler
(1857-1939). They were both close to the patients
through daily contact and were socially very committed.
Forel devoted a lot of time to hypnosis and
sexual education, but kept his distance from
psychoanalysis, while Bleuler greeted Freud’s book on
1702
aphasia (1891b) with enthusiasm and recognized the
global significance of Studies on Hysteria (1895d). “My
personal experience with schizophrenics confirmed
Freud is right, much to my surprise,” he wrote in 1910,
when successfully defending psychoanalysis against
attacks from every quarter. His book on schizophrenia
(1911) is influenced by psychoanalysis and in 1901 he
encouraged his new assistant, Carl Gustav Jung (1875-
1961), to study The Interpretation of Dreams (1900a),
which had just been published, and to apply the “test
of free association” to patients suffering from dementia
praecox. Psychoanalysis thus acquired new certainties
and Jung met Freud in 1907. Led by Jung, a group
of his young colleagues, among them Franz Riklin,
Alphonse Maeder, Johann Jakob Honegger, and Ludwig
Binswanger, were fired with enthusiasm for psychoanalysis.
“The nucleus of the small band who were
fighting for the recognition of analysis,” as Freud
described it (1914d), consisted of foreigners who were
attracted by the worldwide reputation of Bleuler’s
clinic and who came there to train. This was the case
of Karl Abraham, Max Eitingon, Hermann Nunberg,
Johan H. W. Van Ophuijsen, Abraham A. Brill, Sabina
Spielrein, and many more. The essential contribution
of the Zurich group consisted of its in-depth research
into the psychoses. In Jung, Freud found an expert
partner who was gifted with a creative imagination
and interested in the history of cultures and religions.
The publication of the five volumes of the Jahrbuch
between 1909 and 1913, the creation of a psychoanalytic
association in Zurich in 1907 and its transformation
into a regional group of the International
Psychoanalytic Association (IPA), founded in 1910,
were very largely due to Jung’s exuberant activity.
In 1908 the Zurich pastor Oskar Pfister discovered
the extent to which psychoanalysis could contribute
to spiritual directorship and teaching. He became a
zealous propagator, especially in teaching circles, for
example with Ernst Schneider, director of a seminary,
and his student Hans Zulliger in Bern, whereas
theologian Paul Haberlin, a pedagogue and an influential
professor of philosophy, came into contact
with psychoanalysis through Ludwig Binswanger.
This whole flowering was quickly swept away by
the split between Jung and Freud in 1913, when the
majority of the Swiss followed Jung. The theoretical
differences centered around Jung's “dilution” of the
theory of the libido, but the difficulty of the Swiss in
separating themselves from the outside world through
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principles also had a role to play in it. “Jung was
Freud’s great disciple who tried by diplomatic means
to reconcile the world to psychoanalysis,” as L. Marcuse
wrote with much insight (1956).
The Swiss Psychoanalytic Society (SGPsa) was
founded in Zurich on March 21, 1919, and still exists
to this day. Pioneering member Oskar Pfister worked
there with younger colleagues such as Emil Oberholzer
and his wife Mira Gincburg, Hermann Rorschach,
Hans Zulliger, and many more. What changed was the
growing professionalism; candidates were progressively
required to have really experienced analysis.
Eminent members like Ernst Blum (Bern), Philipp
Sarasin (Basel), Henri Flournoy, Charles Odier, Raymond
de Saussure (Geneva), and the two Oberholzers
(Zurich) had been analyzed by Freud himself. This fact
had a stabilizing and unifying influence until the middle
of the twentieth century. But conflict grew rapidly;
it was triggered by technical questions, such as short
analyses without elaboration of the transference and
resistance, a technique introduced by Oskar Pfister in
the heroic period.
Emil Oberholzer, the president, hit on a summary
solution in 1928 by founding a new society, the
Schweizerische Arztegesellschaft fiir Psychoanalyse
(Swiss Medical Society for Psychoanalysis), from
which “lay” members, like Oskar Pfister, were automatically
excluded, but also Zulliger. The IPA did not
recognize his group and after a few years it had no
more than a token existence.
With fewer members (forty members in 1927, five
of them residents of French-speaking Switzerland,
thirty-three members in 1929) the SGPsa enjoyed a
peaceful existence until 1961 under the judicious presidency
of Philipp Sarasin. Training requirements and
conditions of membership had become stricter. The
SGPsa did not have many representation activities, but
some of its members were known for their publications
and local actions that helped spread psychoanalysis.
Basel became particularly important when
Heinrich Meng moved there from Frankfurt and was
appointed professor of “psychic hygiene” at the university.
In a collection devoted to this subject he published
not only his own works, but also important
works by members of the SGPsa, for example, Rudolf
Brun’s General Treatise on the Neuroses in 1942 and, in
1944, Trieb und Kultur (Instinct and Culture) by Hans
Christoffel, a native of Basel. This collection enabled
the representatives of the different trends in the intense
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SWITZERLAND (GERMAN-SPEAKING)
intellectual life of Basel to familiarize themselves with
the treasures of psychoanalytic thought. The first edition
of Oskar Pfister’s work, Das Christentum und die
Angst (Christianity and Fear) appeared in 1944.
A new split appeared after World War II with the
creation of “Daseinsanalyse” (“existential analysis”;
Ludwig Binswanger and Maeder Boss), an attempt to
base psychoanalysis on the philosophy of Husserl and
Heidegger. A few analysts, who generally remained
true to Freud, found elements there, for example, Gustav
Bally and Ernst Blum. Rudolf Brun, of Zurich, violently
opposed his strictly biological approach to this
trend. But the real split took place in Germany with
Alexander Mitscherlich in relation to a clinical case
(1950).
In the meantime, the next generation, the “descendants
of Freud,” were actively engaged with two of
Brun’s students: Paul Parin (born in 1916) and Fritz
Morgenthaler (1919-1984). Parin (1949) appealed for
greater consideration for the social criticism function
of psychoanalysis, and Morgenthaler (1951) illustrated
by means of a case history his virtuosity at picking up
on unconscious intentions. Both of them represented
a renewal of analytic thinking with the same unusual
intensity and radicalism that we can also detect in
their work in ethnopsychoanalysis (1963, 1971). For
two decades they represented the center of gravity of
psychoanalysis in German-speaking Switzerland. They
were relentless guardians of the SGPsa training institute
until, in the wake of May 1968, they demanded
greater participation for candidates at the Zurich
seminat of the SGPsa. As a result of the activism of
extreme-left candidates this led, after long discussions
in 1977, to the secession of the Zurich Psychoanalytic
Seminar (PSZ), which declared itself autonomous and
in which members became psychoanalysts upon their
own authorization. For this reason, and also because
an eminent group of analysts, primarily Parin and
Morgenthaler, declared themselves in sympathy with
the PSZ, there was a massive influx of analysts (about
eight hundred participants in the eighties with a delegation
at Bern and branches in Germany [cf. Luzifer-
Amor, 1993]).
The SGPsa had to be reconstituted in 1977 as the
Freud-Institut Ziirich. The situation stabilized again,
and the Basel and Bern groups, which were growing in
importance, played a major role in this. One consequence
of the crisis, however, is that psychoanalysis in
Switzerland is, as of 2004, mainly concentrated in the
1703
Swosopa, HERMANN (1873-1963)
French-speaking part of the country. As of 2003 lists
members in the SGPsa. In 2004 there were 45 training
analysts who bore the main responsibility for passing
psychoanalysis along to Swiss students. Twenty-seven
of them worked in Francophone Switzerland (including
a few in the Italian-speaking parts); 18 worked in
the German-speaking areas.
KASPAR WEBER
Bibliography
Bleuler, Eugen (1910). Die psychoanalyse Freuds. Verteidigung
und kritische Bemerkungen. Jahrbuch fiir psychoanalytische
und psychopathologische Forschungen, 2, 623—730.
Meerwein, Fritz (1979). Reflexionen zur geschichte der
Schweizerischen gesellschaft fiir psychoanalyse in der
deutschen Schweiz. (With French translation: Reéflexions
sur histoire de la Société suisse de psychanalyse en Suisse
alémanique). Bulletin de la Société suisse de psychanalySE,
9, 25-40.
Moser, Alexander (1992). Psychoanalysis in Switzerland. In
Paul Kutter (Ed.), Psychoanalysis international, a guide to
psychoanalysis throughout the world (Vol. 1, Europe). Stuttgart-
Bad Cannstatt: Frommann-Holzboog.
Walser, Hans H. (1976). Psychoanalyse in der Schweiz. In D.
Eicke (Ed.): Die psychologie des 20. jahrhunderts (Vol. 2, pp.
1192-1218) Ziirich: Kindler.
SWOBODA, HERMANN (1873-1963)
Hermann Swoboda, professor of law and philosophy,
was born on November 23, 1873, in Vienna, where he
died on June 18, 1963. The son of a pharmacist, he
attended the University of Vienna, where he also
spent his career. After receiving a doctorate in law
in 1897 and in philosophy in 1901, Swoboda was
appointed privatdocent in psychology four years
later. He was named professor extraordinarius (full
professor without chair) in 1925. By his wife, Marie
Felgel von Farmholz, he had three children. Passionate
about music, Swoboda became intrigued with
studies of the periodic rhythms in human life. He
seems to have experienced financial difficulties
during the course of his career. His last publication
dates to 1940.
Swoboda’s encounter with psychoanalysis was short
but explosive. In correspondence with Otto Weininger
1704
from 1899 to 1902, he exchanged numerous ideas that
helped Weininger to develop his monograph Sex and
character (1906), published in German in 1903. Several
years after Weininger’s suicide in 1903, Swoboda wrote
a book about his friend, Otto Weiningers Tod (The
death of Otto Weininger), published in 1911. Meanwhile,
in 1900 Swoboda began an analysis with Freud
that lasted only a few months. During one of their
sessions, Swoboda remarked on contrasting fantasies
of “overcoming” and “succumbing,” as he later explained,
“now incubus, now succubus toward the
events.” Freud explained the contrast by reference to
the “bisexual disposition of each human” (Swoboda
1906, p. 7; quoted in Schroter, p. 151). Swoboda
immediately conveyed this information to Weininger,
who incorporated it into Sex and Character.
This chain of events would become one of the
arguments by which, in 1906, Wilhelm Fliess accused
Freud of having transmitted ideas to those he characterized
as plagiarists of his work: Weininger (on
bisexuality) and Swoboda (on periodicity). In addition,
in August 1901 Swoboda advised Weininger to
visit Freud to seek his help in finding a publisher for
his manuscript. In 1904 Swoboda published Die
Perioden des menschlichen Organismus (Periodicity in
the life of the,human organism) and sent a copy to
Fliess, who at the time received it with pleasure.
(Extracts can be found in Porge, 1994.) Only after
reading Sex and Character and learning from Freud
that Swoboda was his pupil did Fliess initiate accusations
of plagiarism. Swoboda reacted by suing for
defamation and lost; he also published the pamphlet
Die gemeinniitzige Forschung und der eigenniitzige
Forscher (Research of interest to the public and the
researcher’s own self-interest; 1906). (Again, extracts
can be found in Porge, 1994.)
In Die Perioden Swoboda presents his psychological
experiments on the spontaneous recurrence of
memory representations after 18-hour, 23-hour, and
23-day periods. He included an adulatory chapter on
Fliess’s work but did not mention Freud’s Interpretation
of Dreams (1900a). These works stand against
Wundt’s associative psychology. In 1917, in Siebenjahr
(Septenary periods), Swoboda suggested that
there are seven-year rhythms. Freud discusses Swoboda’s
theses in the revised editions of The Interpretation
of Dreams.
Erk PORGE
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
See also: Fliess, Wilhelm; Sex and Character; Weininger,
Otto.
Bibliography
Le Rider, Jacques. (1982). L’affaire Otto Weininger. Paris:
Presses Universitaires de France.
Porge, Erik. (1994). Vol didées? Paris: Denoél.
Rodlauer, Hannelore. (1990), Otto Weiningers Eros und Psyche.
Vienna: Osterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
Schroter, Michael. (2003). Fliess versus Weininger, Swoboda,
and Freud: the plagiarism conflict of 1906 assessed in the
light of the documents. Psychoanalysis and History, 5, 2,
147-173.
Swoboda, Hermann. (1904). Die perioden des menschlichen
organismus in threr psychologischen und biologischen Bedeutung.
Leipzig: Deuticke.
. (1906). Die gemeinniitzige Forschung und der eigenniitzige
Forscher: Antworten auf die von Wilhelm Flief erhobenen
Beschuldigungen. Vienna: Braiimiller.
. (1911). Otto Weiningers Tod. Vienna: F. Deuticke.
. (1917). Das Siebenjahr. Leipzig: Orion.
Weininger, Otto. (1906). Sex and character. London: W. Heinemann.
(Original work published 1903)
SYMBIOSIS/SYMBIOTIC RELATION
In Margaret Mahler’s theory of the mother/child relationship,
the symbiotic relation is a very early phase of
development that follows the phase of normal primary
autism and precedes the separation/individualization
phase. The symbiotic relation is characterized by an
omnipotent sense of the total enmeshing of mother
and child, who thus form a “unity of two.”
The concept of symbiosis and symbiotic relation
came out of Margaret Mahler’s observations of the
mother-baby relationship, and was later applied to
clinical practice. Although a psychological concept, it
is also part of the phenomenology of object relations.
Its origins can be found in the description of the
“purified ego-pleasure” (1915c) and the “oceanic
feeling” of Freud (1930a [1929]), what Margaret
Mahler considered as the experience of a baby who
has not yet differentiated its identity from that of its
object.
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SymsBiosis/SymBiotic RELATION
The specific features of symbiosis can best be seen
against the description of the phase that precedes it as
well as those that follow it: as Margaret Mahler points
out, symbiosis overlaps the other phases. In the very
first phase of life, that of normal primary autism, narcissism
is absolutely primary and under the sway of
physiological rather than psychological processes.
There is a prolongation of the fetal state as Freud
described it in 1911; its aim is the homeostatic equilibrium
of the organism with the environment (1911b).
The shell surrounding this egg forms a protective barrier
that is not positively cathected.
With symptoms, the shell begins to crack and—an
essential point for Mahler—cathexis passes from the
center to the periphery. This marks the beginning of a
displacement from the self to the object that is still
only obscurely perceived. The object exists in a partial
state: that is, it is only apprehended through parts of
the body that are experienced as having an object nature.
The fully external character of the object is not yet
constituted.
From the point of view of energy, while the primary
autistic phase is characterized by the existence
of an “undifferentiated” energy, differences start to
appear in the symbiotic phase between the “good”
or “bad” qualities of experience, making of this
phase a “quasi-ontogenetic basis for splitting,’ long
before the separation between the ego and the object
occurs. This phase starts around the second month
of life, and reaches its peak at around four or five
months, just at the time when the phase of separation-
individuation is filtering into the symbiotic
relation. The relation between the inside and the
outside of the body emerges progressively from
what Margaret Mahler calls a “hallucination” or a
“somato-psychic fusion.”
Although Margaret Mahler is here describing a
state rather than a defense enabling one to reach that
state, she thinks that projective mechanisms play a
role in maintaining, thanks to a displacement outwards
of anything that disrupts or disturbs the symbiotic
relation. In her view, failure in the development
of the processes of individuation makes the
child regress to the stage of symbiotic relation with
the mother, thus running the risk of shutting it off in
a psychotic disorganization, a “symbiotic psychosis”
characterized by a delirious state of undifferentation
between the ego and the object. Leaving the symbiotic
phase entails the risk of depression.
1705
SYMBOL
Even if Margaret Mahler sees it as closer to secondary
narcissism (Freud), the concept of symbiosis can
constitute a bridge between primary and secondary
narcissism. It corresponds to what René Spitz calls the
“pre-objectal stage” (1965), which in his view partly
covers that of the symbiotic phase. But René Spitz
links these processes to those of primary identification
with the mother. Donald Winnicott also comes close
to the description of the mother-baby symbiosis with
his concept of “primary maternal preoccupation,” in
which the state of maternal hypersensitivity leads the
primitive mother-baby couple to live in a particular
environment, a prolongation of the uterine environment
in which communication between mother and
child is immediate and not subject to the vagaries of
separation. Wilfred Bion (1970), in his work on bonding,
takes up the idea of a so-called “symbiotic” relation
being set up between the leader of a group and the
group in question. In this case, the encounter is beneficial
for both parties, as opposed to the indifference of
the commensal bond and the destructivity of the parasitic
bond.
Margaret Mahler did not sufficiently develop the
link with psychoanalytical clinical practice and in consequence,
left to one side the active role played by the
processes of identification. Unlike Melanie Klein, who
considers the role of anxiety right from the start of life,
in the act of introjection-projection on the basis of
narcissistic and secondary identifications, Mahler
wants to separate the early infantile problematic from
the necessary perception of separation—whatever
form it might take—between the ego and the object.
We can say that the idea of a fundamental “transitionality,’
as developed by Winnicott, leading from the
fetal state to the individuation of the human being, is
very influential in Mahler’s thinking on the concept of
symbiosis.
In spite of the deep truth that it contains, insofar as
it presides over all psychological development, in Margaret
Mahler and those who place it at the center of
their theorizing, this idea tends to evade the question
of the suffering of mourning, which presides over any
passage towards individuation, or towards “psychological
birth,” as Mahler calls it.
CLBOPATRE ATHANASSIOU-POPESCO
See also: Framework of the psychoanalytical treatment;
Gender identity; Individual; Individuation (analytical
1706
psychology); Infantile psychosis; Mahler-Schénberger,
Margaret; Maternal; Primary identification; Principle of
identity preservation; Purified-pleasure-ego; Relations
(commensalism, symbiosis, parasitism); Self (true/false);
Self-mutilation in children.
Bibliography
Bion, Wilfred R. (1970). Attention and interpretation. London:
Tavistock. ;
Freud, Sigmund. (1911b). Formulations on the two principles
of mental functioning. SE, 12: 213-226.
. (1915c). Instincts and their vicissitudes. SE, 14:
109-140.
. (1930a [1929]). Civilization and its discontents. SE,
21: 57-145.
Mahler, Margaret S.; Pine, Fred; and Bergman, Anni. (1975).
The psychological birth of the human infant. New York,
Basic Books.
Spitz, René A., and Coblinger, W. G. (1965). The first year of
life. A psychoanalytic study of normal and deviant development
of object relations. New York: International Universities
Press.
Winnicott, Donald W. (1958). Through paediatrics to psycho-
analysis. London: Tavistock.
Further Reading
Gergely, Gyorgy. (2000). Reapproching Mahler: New perspectives
on normal autism, symbiosis, splitting and libidinal
object constancy from cognitive developmental theory.
Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 48,
1197-1228.
SYMBOL
From a psychoanalytic perspective, the symbol refers
to all indirect and figurative representations of unconscious
desire (symptoms, dreams, slips of the tongue,
parapraxes, etc.). This conception of the unconscious
symbol depends on a relation of general substitution
where one thing takes the place of another; but unlike
the term’s conventional meaning, defined by the conjunction
between the symbol and what is symbolized,
the unconscious symbol is defined by a disjunction
between symbol and symbolized.
Freud clarified this conception of the symbol following
the “Project for a Scientific Psychology” (1950c
[1895]), describing it as a mnemic symbol subsequent
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
to his research into hysterical symptoms. In the case of
a “standard” symbol, the connection between the symbol
and what is symbolized remains, as in the example
that Freud gives of the knight who fights for his lady’s
glove but who knows full well that the glove owes its
importance to her. In this synecdoche of part for
whole the conjunction of meaning is clear. With hysteria
however, it is the loss of the connection between
the symbol and what is symbolized that is noteworthy:
“The hysteric, who weeps at A,.is quite unaware that
he is doing so on account of the association A-B, and B
itself plays no part at all in his psychical life. The symbol
has in this case taken the place of the thing
entirely” (1950c, p. 349).
As a result of this disjunction of meaning, the affect
that was bound to what is symbolized attaches itself to
the symbol. In both instances the substitution assumes
a similarity between the symbol and what is symbolized
(A/B), and thus emerges the tension at the very
heart of symbolic substitution between a nonsensical
literal interpretation and a symbolic interpretation
that supports a surplus of meaning because of the very
denial or negation [négation] precluding the pure and
simple assimilation of the two terms in question. In
the case of the hysterica! symbol, it is the impossibility
of invoking denial that would explain the symptom’s
apparent absurdity.
What might appear here as a simple relation of substitution
between two terms —the symbol and what is
symbolized—allows, in fact, for an interpretation
where meaning might attributed according to context.
The symbol’s abundance derives from its polysemy,
but only reference to a regulated system of interpretation
can lend precision to the symbol, hence the
requirement to define the system and determine what
it is that permits this regulation.
Freud hesitated between two rules of interpretation.
Either it depends on individual context—specifically, a
person’s individual associations, which permit them to
discover hidden meaning, as in the hysterical symptom
or in dreams—or on collective context—specifically, a
work of transindividual culture that clarifies meaning,
as in “symbolic dream-interpreting” (1900a, p. 97). On
the subject of the dream, he depicted sexual symbols
that did not arouse associations for the dreamer but
that the analysis would supply by referring to the symbolism
of collective compositions (myths, tales, proverbs,
songs, etc.); this enabled him to rediscover the
correlation between the manifest and latent symbol.
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SYMBOL
This obscure and concealed comparability appeared to
be based on a relationship of equivalence (a tree for the
male sex organs, a cave for the female sex organs), but
also occasionally on a relationship of proximity (nudity
symbolized by clothes and uniforms).
If symbols are multiple, the field of what is symbolized
is highly limited, relating ultimately to the
domain of sexual instinct. The theory of a predetermined
and stereotyped sexual symbolic, in the service
of an oneiric representability, corresponds with
Freud’s wish to contest Jung’s theory of symbolism,
whose conception of the “libido-symbol” ends up
denying the importance of the sexual instinct in psychic
behavior. Ernest Jones’s key paper, “The Theory
of Symbolism” (1916), seeks moreover to reinforce the
Freudian theory of “symbolic dream-interpretation”;
for Jones all true symbolism is the substitute
for repressed drives/instincts: “Only that which is
repressed is symbolized and only that which is
repressed requires symbolization.”
It is a question then of finding a rule of interpretation
that can substantiate the discovery of the unconscious.
To back up his theory Freud adopted the linguist
Hans Sperber’s theory of a primitive language
[langue] parallel to the primitive language system [langage]
of sexuality in which all symbolic connections
would appear as traces and relics: “That which today is
linked symbolically was in all probability formerly
linked conceptually and linguistically.” Freud is thus
compelled to set out from a real anteriority, in a proximate
association, or identity even, that belongs,
through a similar association, to language and to a
process of symbolization that is inseparable from the
work of instinct.
Thus, the theory of the symbolic designates more
of a structural demand than a clinical truth. In clinical
terms, Freud always mistrusted instant symbolic
interpretations and preferred to rely on individual
associations that allowed him to uncover a linguistic
usage that would justify the use of a symbolic representation.
Freud’s theory of the symbol cannot therefore be
separated from a conception of symbolization, which
bears out the fact that the psychoanalytic approach is
more a tripartite theory of interpretation, where it is
necessary to consider the subject who symbolizes, than
a theory of translation seeking to proceed via the
simple substitution of one term for another. Freud’s
1707
SymBoLic EQUATION
uncertainty demonstrates the difficulty of constructing
a theory of the symbol while making allowances for
the symbol both as a motivated sign (the symbol for
Ferdinand de Saussure, corresponding to a natural
analogy between symbol and symbolized) and as an
arbitrary sign (the symbol for Charles Sanders Pierce,
corresponding to the standard rule governing the signifier
and signified, in other words to the arbitrary linguistic
sign).
What is problematic with this theory of the symbolic
is the conception of symbolization as a failure of
sublimation rather than as its accomplishment. This
opposition marks a return in too radical a fashion to
the opposition between a symbolism of the unconscious
and a symbolism of language. Post-Freudian
theorists have sought to reconcile these different
aspects of the symbol, whether through a semantic
perspective associated with the image, as in the case of
Melanie Klein and post-Kleinian theorists, or through
a syntactic approach associated with language, as in
the case of Jacques Lacan. It is a question in both cases
of reviving the Freudian intuition of the symbol as the
result of a process of symbolization. To Klein’s interpretation
of the imaginary, which retains a certain psychological
realism, Lacan opposed reference to the
symbolic order that represents an intellectualization
of the unconscious.
The approach to symbolization as a process presupposes
the preservation of that which Freud,
rather awkwardly, wished always to have prevail:
namely, the necessity for a dualism, for the articulation
of a viable distinction between the symbolism
of the image and the symbolism of language. The
truth of Freudian empiricism in the theory of primitive
language, like the original proximity of the
symbol, is no doubt to mark the importance of this
fundamental proximity of the psyche with the body
as the juncture between representation and affect,
between meaning and primitive animism, characteristic
of the hallucinatory satisfaction of desire.
ALAIN GIBEAULT
See also: Anagogical interpretation; Archetype (analytical
psychology); “Claims of Psycho-Analysis to Scientific
Interest”; Compensation (analytical psychology); Complex
(analytical psychology); Dream symbolism; Idea/
representation; Infantile psychosis; Negation; Psychology
of the Unconscious, The; “Project for a Scientific Psychology,
A”; Self (analytical psychology); Symptom-
1708
formation; Mnemic symbol; Symbolic, the (Lacan); Symbolism;
Thought-thinking apparatus; Visual arts and
psychoanalysis.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1900a). The interpretation of dreams.
Part I, SE, 4: 1-338; Part II, SE, 5, 339-625.
_ (1950c [1895]). Project for a scientific psychology.
SE, 1: 281-387.
Jones, Ernest. (1916). The theory of symbolism. Papers on
psychoanalysis. Boston: Beacon.
Further Reading
Segal, Hanna. (1978). On symbolism. International Journal
of Psychoanalysis, 59, 315-320.
SYMBOLIC EQUATION
The concept of symbolic equation appears for the first
time in Hanna Segal’s first paper, “Some Aspects of the
Analysis of a Schizophrenic” (1950), in connection
with her schizophrenic patient’s difficulty with symbolizing.
The patient made no distinction between symbols
and the objects they symbolized. For him, being
like something and being something were the same.
Symbols were equivalent to the things symbolized.
There was an unconscious equation between the two.
In her second paper, “A Psycho-Analytic Contribution
to Aesthetics” (1952), Segal describes symbol formation
as a precipitate of mourning.
In “Notes on Symbol Formation” (1957), Segal formulates
a theory of the dynamics of symbol formation
and the role played by projective identification. Symbolism
as a tripartite relation among self, object, and
symbol. When projective identification is excessive,
part of the ego becomes identified with the object, and
the symbol, a creation and function of the ego,
becomes identified with the object symbolized. In the
depressive position, the object is given up, and a symbolic
representation of the object is formed in the ego
in the process of mourning. Segal offers the differentiations
in Figure 1.
In normal repression, there is communication
between the unconscious and the conscious through
symbols. In the kind of repression that Freud called
excessive, the unconscious is -split off from the con-
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
FIGURE 1
Symbolic Equations
Arise in the paranoid-schizoid position through projective identification.
The symbol's own characteristics are not recognized. They are treated as
though they were the original object.
The symbolic equation is used to deny the loss of the object.
It is the basis of acting out and symptoms.
SYMBOLIC REALIZATION
Symbols
Symbols are formed when projective identification is withdrawn in the
depressive position, and they are the precipitate of mourning.
The symbol is not felt to be the object, but represents the object. Its own
characteristics are recognized and respected.
The symbol is used, not to deny, but to overcome the loss.
Symbolism is at the basis of sublimation and it governs communication
both external and internal.
scious, and in the return of the repressed, consciousness
is invaded by concrete symbols, as in hallucinations.
Under stress, there may be a regression from symbolic
functioning to symbolic equation. For instance, in the
schizophrenic patient described in Segal’s first paper,
thoughts and words formed in the depressive position
became concretized, so that the patient could not, for
instance, use names, because he experienced a name as
biting into the person named. In “Depression in the
Schizophrenic” (1956), Segal cites the example of a girl
who wrote a story about Lancashire witches and in a
breakdown felt herself persecuted by Lancashire witches.
In her later papers, Segal, following Wilfred Bion,
views pathological projective identification, not excessive
projective identification, as responsible for disturbances
in symbol formation. She made connections
between her work on symbol formation and Bion’s
alpha- and beta-elements.
HANNA SEGAL
See also: Neurosis; Infantile psychosis; Schizophrenia;
Symbolism; Symbolization, process of.
Bibliography
Segal, Hanna. (1950). Some aspects of the analysis of a schizophrenic.
International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 31,
268-278.
. (1952). A psycho-analytic contribution to aesthetics.
International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 33, 196-207.
. (1956). Depression in the schizophrenic. International
Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 37, 339-343.
. (1957). Notes on symbol formation. International
Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 38, 391-397.
. (1978). On symbolism. International Journal of
Psycho-Analysis, 59, 303-314.
(1991). Dream, phantasy, and art. London:
Routledge.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
SYMBOLIC REALIZATION
Symbolic realization is a psychoanalytically-inspired
technique that is used in psychotherapy with schizophrenic
patients.
In 1947, in a supplement to the Revue Suisse de psychologie
et de psychologie appliqué, Marguerite A.
Sechehaye (1887-1964), a psychoanalyst in Geneva,
described the technique in the article: “La realization
symbolique: Nouvelle méthode de psychothérapie
appliquée a un cas de schizophrénie (Symbolic realization:
A new method of psychotherapy applied to a case
of schizophrenia). In 1950 the patient’s own account
of her illness and treatment was published, as she
described them to her therapist. It was accompanied
by a psychoanalytic interpretation of how the therapy
developed (Sechehaye, Journal dune schizophrene
[Autobiography of a Schizophrenic Girl]).
Symbolic realization is a psychotherapeutic technique
that combines the active support of the psychotherapist
for the psychotic patient (this implies
adjusting the frame) with interpretations of the
patient’s unconscious fantasies in terms of libidinal
development. This approach is based on the importance
Sechehaye accords to real frustration in the disintegration
of the ego, which lies at the root of schizophrenic
psychosis. It follows from this perspective that the role
of the therapist is to seek to satisfy the fundamental
needs of the patient and repair the initial frustrations
not only by interpreting the patient’s fantasies but also
by establishing a real, even a physical, contact with the
patient. This attitude is considered to help the patient
to regress in order to be able to progress, resume the
interrupted course of infantile development, and thus
recover the sense of reality.
This notion, which is akin to that of therapeutic
regression (Donald W. Winnicott, Michael Balint),
represents a pioneering and original approach to psychotic
disorders. However, the active intervention of
1709
SymBoLic, THE (LACAN)
the therapist in the patient’s life in order to satisfy her
needs constituted an acting out that was not interpreted
as such in a transference the importance of
which was underestimated.
JEAN-MICHEL QUINODOZ
See also: Sechehaye-Burdet, Marguerite; Switzerland
(French-speaking).
Bibliography
Laplanche, Jean, and Pontalis, Jean-Bertrand. (1967). Vocabulaire
de la psychanalyse. Paris: Presses Universitaires de
France.
Sechehaye, Marguerite A. (1951). Autobiography of a schizophrenic
girl; with analytic interpretation by Marguerite
Sechehaye (Grace Rubin-Rabson, Trans.). New York: Grune
and Stratton.
. (1954). Introduction a la psychothérapie des schizophrenes.
Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
. (1957). La réalisation symbolique, un catalyseur de
la structuration du moi schizophrene. In Acta psychotherapeutica,
psychosomatica et orthopedagologica. Basel.
. (1970). Symbolic realization; a new method of psychotherapy
applied to a case of schizophrenia (Barbro Wiirsten
and Helmut Wiirsten, Trans.). New York: International
Universities Press. (Original work published 1947)
SYMBOLIC, THE (LACAN)
For Jacques Lacan, the symbolic, or the symbolic order,
is a universal structure encompassing the entire field
of human action and existence. It involves the function
of speech and language, and more precisely that of the
signifier. It appears as an essentially unconscious,
latent apparatus.
The idea of the symbolic is contemporaneous with
the birth of psychoanalysis since the traces linked to
repressed infantile sexual experiences are symbolically
reactualized in adulthood as defensive symptoms. The
fact that Freud emphasized memory and reminiscence
in his earliest theoretical work is enough to indicate
the primacy of symbolic traces in psychopathology.
The Oedipus complex, the avatars of the primal relationship
with the mother, and the function of the dead
father all take on their importance because they function
on the same axis where the signifier emerges as
1710
the mainspring of the symbolic. As Lacan wrote in the
“Function and Field” essay, “Freud’s discovery was
that of the field of effects, in man’s nature, of his relations
to the symbolic order” (2002, p. 63). Further,
Lacan’s entire body of work testifies to the fact that he
was trying to restore the symbolic to its full status in
psychoanalysis. .
The impact of the symbolic is felt on several levels:
first in limits placed on social alliances and relationships
by a certain number of mechanisms, for which
the traditional model is the pact. At another level, the
symbolic intervenes in the form of discrete elements,
namely signifiers, that are overdetermined as the prevalent
forms of the imaginary, affective relations, and
the choice of sexual objects.
Lacan repeatedly referred to the canonical example
of the “child with the reel” from Beyond the Pleasure
Principle (Freud, 1920g) in order to emphasize that the
mark of the absence of the beloved object is realized by
the fort-da game of phonetic opposition that represented
the appearance and disappearance of the
mother. This correlation between the missing object
and a symbolic signifying mark inscribed in language
removes the object’s concrete features and grants it a
level of conceptual force.
The emergence of the signifier in the symbolic is best
shown by the infant’s initiation into the dialectical field
of demand and desire, for it is in the experience of vital
distress and the appeal to a caretaker that a split occurs.
Even if this caretaker satisfies a vital need, there is still a
gaping lack of being. This equivocal division is brought
about by the signifier of the first demand. It brings with
it consequences beyond the frontiers of infancy and perpetuates
a radical division in subjectivity. It also grants
to the unconscious Other its symbolic place because the
ultimate meaning of this signifier is assumed by the
subject to reside in this other scene.
In the demand, the inexpressible, originally repressed
part of the signifier becomes the cause of
desire by the process of repetition. Later, the Oedipus
complex normalizes the structure by assigning a definitive
meaning to a lack previously put in place—
namely that the mother, as primordial Other, is
assumed to possess the phallus, and the father, by prohibiting
incest, reinforces the fact that the phallus is
absent by conferring on it a symbolic function. Thus
the father’s prohibition makes the phallic signifier
cause desire in the very place where repression had left
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
a hole. From that point on, this operation links the
lack (symbolic castration) to the law of language, in
order to make it reappear as symbolic debt. The symbolic
order is thus constituted as an autonomous system
of signifiers, a system that is governed from the
Other and to which the subject is subjugated. The primary
character of the symbolic led Lacan to conceive
of it as one of the dimensions constituting the Borromean
knot, a formalized structural schema that also
includes the imaginary and the real.
JEAN-PauL HItTENBRAND
See also: Blank/nondelusional psychosis; Castration of the
subject; Child analysis; Death instinct (Thanatos);
Demand; Ethics; Fantasy, formula of; Female sexuality;
Feminism and psychoanalysis; Foreclosure; Fort-Da; Ego
ideal/ideal ego; Imaginary identification/symbolic identification;
Imaginary, the; Imago; Knot; L and R schemas;
Matheme; Mirror stage; Name-of-the-Father; Neurosis;
Object; Object a; Optical schema; Phallus; Privation; Psychoses,
chronic and delusional; Real, the; Real, Imaginary,
and Symbolic father; Sexuation, formulas of; Signifier;
Structuralism and psychoanalysis; Subject; Subject’s
desire; Symbol; Symbolization, process of; Symptom/
sinthome; Thalassa: A Theory of Genitality,; Topology;
Unary trait; Want of being/lack of being.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1920g). Beyond the pleasure principle. SE,
18: 1-64.
Lacan, Jacques. (2002). The function and field of speech and
language in psychoanalysis. In his Ecrits: A selection (Bruce
Fink, Trans.). New York: W. W. Norton (Original work
published 1953)
SYMBOLISM
The evolution of representational capacities and symbolic
expression has contributed essentially to human
thought, language, and culture. There are different
symbolic processes, and the symbolism particularly
described and interpreted in psychoanalysis differs, in
many respects, from what is designated by the same
term in other disciplines. While psychoanalysis is
interested in language and other forms of symbolism,
psychoanalytic or unconscious symbols were early
recognized as universal and ubiquitous expressions of
the dynamic unconscious mind. In ordinary linguistic
usage, a flag may represent a country, and a cross may
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
SYMBOLISM
represent a Christian religious reference. In the case of
the flag and the cross and other emblems or pictorial
metaphors, the relationship between the signifier and
its referent is both within conscious awareness and in
accord with social and cultural convention. In contrast
to psychoanalytic symbols, these symbols are consciously
understood by the individuals within a society
in which they are used. They are not disguised, and
they serve conscious communication.
In contrast, psychoanalytic symbols are usually disguised
by and from the individual who uses them and
may not serve any conscious or intended internal or
external communication. The meanings of psychoanalysis
symbols are relatively independent of social, cultural,
and historical settings and are neither taught nor
learned. Psychoanalytic symbolism is not a product of
education and evolves spontaneously in human development.
Given the fact that these symbols are universal
in individuals as well as cross-cultural, the capacity
for such symbols is innate, though their development
depends upon human development and experience.
Psychoanalytic symbols emerge as a result of the
interaction of the instinctual drives, defenses, and other
ego functions with the developmental experience of the
infant and child. Although psychoanalytic symbols may
take on additional meanings in later phases of development
and may become linked to metaphor, they are
essentially products of archaic, infantile processes.
These symbols emerge in conjunction with the development
of the body ego and object relations, so that there
are symbols of both body parts and of the parents and
siblings. Spontaneous in origin and typically sensorial,
the symbols create a concrete bridge between the body
and the primary object world. In a “symbolic equation”
(Segal, 1978), the person cannot distinguish between
the symbol and the thing symbolized. The symbolic
equation denies separateness between self and object,
whereas symbolic representation bridges prior loss.
Psychoanalytic symbols are typically linked to
external, perceptual reality, manifest in the closesness
of the symbol perceptually toward what is signified.
Thus, sticks, swords, and wands resemble the phallus;
tunnels, caves, houses, boxes have a perceptual similarity
to the female genitalia. The body image and body
surface are the locus of initial, symbolic representation
of self and object, which are then extended or projected
to other surfaces. Symbols thus arise in the
potential to other surfaces. Symbols thus arise in the
potential space between the “I” and the “non-I,” more
1711
SYMBOLIZATION, PROCESS OF
closely related to the primary process rather than to
verbal language and rational thought.
As Freud (1900a) noted, psychoanalytic symbolism
is ubiquitous in myths, legends, art, literature, slang,
jokes, obscenities, etc. Psychoanalytic symbols unconsciously
represent, in addition to aspects of the self
and childhood objects, coitus, pregnancy, birth,
rebirth, castration, and death. Symbolism is utilized in
symptom-formation, for example, a paralyzed limb
representing impotence or castration. The name
Oedipus or “swollen foot,’ unconsciously represents
erection and mutilation-castration.
Ernest Jones (1916) summarized that only what is
repressed is symbolized and needs symbolic expression
as a psychoanalytic or unconscious symbol. The symbol
condenses unconscious wish and defense, a compromise
formation permitting disguised “symbolic
gratification.” The most frequent symbols are probably
those of the male and female genitals, and these symbols
more commonly appear in regressive states such
as daydreams and dreams. Psychoanalytic symbols,
however, may be found in association with all developmental
phases. There are symbols referring to the
breast as well as to the mouth, tongue, and teeth; similarly,
feces may represent money, gifts, and denigrated
aspects of the self or object. Psychoanalytic symbols
are often overdetermined as in the bisexual and biparental
symbolism of animals, exemplified in the many
meanings of rats for the “Rat Man” (Freud, 1909d).
The rat was interpreted to mean penis, feces, money
(rates), baby, as well as despised greed, rate, etc.
Psychoanalytic symbols may have multiple stratified
meanings and, in contemporary analysis, there is
appreciation of overdetermination and _ possible
change of function. For example, the “pit and the pendulum”
may symbolically represent the vagina and the
penis but also castration and the threat of castration.
In oral terms, the pit may represent the mouth, and
the pendulum the tongue.
That symbols may acquire cultural and religious
significance and take on other metaphorical meanings
does not alter the original and primary meaning of the
symbol (Blum, 1978). A cave may represent a grave
without losing its earlier meaning of a womb or female
genital, with the earth having acquired the meaning of
mother.
Clinically, symbols are not pursued as an end in
itself and are not the primary locus of psychoanalytic
1712
interpretation. There are no rigid formulas for symbolic
decoding or interpretation, and patients may not
directly associate to symbolic expressions. Symbols are
interpreted in the context of the psychoanalytic
process.
Comparable to an ancient language, symbolism
may be adaptively appropriated in linguistic communication
inside and outside psychoanalysis (Blum,
1995).
Haro p P. BLUM
See also: Cinema criticism; “Dreams and myths”; Disque
vert, Le; Functional phenomenon; Group Psychology and
the Analysis of the Ego; Obsessional neurosis; Psychoanalysis
of Children, The; Psychoanalyse des nevroses et des
psychoses; Symbol.
Bibliography
Blum, Harold P. (1978). Symbolic process and symbol formation.
International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 59, 455—
471.
. (1995). Symbolism. In B. Moore and B. Fine (Eds.),
Psychoanalysis. The Major Concepts. (pp. 149-154). New
Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Freud, Sigmund. (1900a). The interpretation of dreams. SE,
4-5.
Jones, Ernest. (1916). The theory of symbolism. In Papers on
Psychoanalysis. Boston: Beacon Press.
Segal, Hanna. (1978). On symbolism. International Journal
of Psycho-Analysis, 59, 303-314.
SYMBOLIZATION, PROCESS OF
The term symbolization is hardly discussed by Freud,
although the process is fundamental to mental activity.
We can define symbolization as the operation by
which something comes to represent something else
for someone. While it may appear as the substitution
of one object for another, it is primarily the result of a
process that assumes both the ability to represent an
absent object and a subject capable of knowing that
the symbol is not the symbolized object.
In this sense it promotes the ability to fantasize and
the organization of mental space. From this point of
view it is primarily a mechanism enabling the subject
to fight against the depression associated with object
loss and to limit the flow of affects.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Aside from allowing one term to substitute for
another, symbolization designates back and forth flow
of meaning between subject and object, between mental
reality and external reality, between past and present.
This is the effect of the symbolization process, which
makes possible a system of intra- and intersubjective exchanges.
This can be verified in analytic therapy, which,
in the standard model, assumes a relation between two
centers of meaning, the analyst and the patient, whose
work is possible only on condition that it is referred to
an outside agency, which is the “frame” of analysis. The
analytic situation thereby appears as both symbolic and
symbolizing, in that its mode of operation is based on a
structure with three points of reference.
The experience of satisfaction—that of the infant at
the breast, as described by Freud in terms of images
and memory traces—is a prototypical model that delimits
the scope of the symbolization process in the
transition from need to drive. Freud defined the drive
as a borderline concept between the psychic and the
somatic, formed by reworking the hallucination of
satisfaction at the breast, and whose constant thrust
(as distinct from the momentary or periodic nature of
the satisfaction of organic need) relates to the permanence
of the object during perception of the total
object.
It is, as we know, a postulate also found in the
experience of the dream and unverifiable by experience,
according to which hallucination is a form of
satisfaction. Into this Freud introduced a temporal
dimension by distinguishing the period during which
the sexual drives are attached to functions of selfpreservation
(corresponding to the hallucination of
satisfaction and the increase in automatic traumatic
anxiety) from the period of object-formation, and hallucination
of the object, when the mother is perceived
as a total object. The structure so described occurs in
two stages, which the anaclisis or propping of the
drive on organic self-preservation enables us to comprehend
as a retroactive reorganization. The symbolization
process thus emerges during the split between
the framework of need (ingesting milk) and the framework
of the drive (incorporating the breast). It is
this difference that Jean Laplanche (1980) described in
great detail, noting that the displacement from need
to drive was simultaneously metonymic with respect
to the object (from milk to breast) and metaphoric
with respect to the aim (from ingesting to incorporating).
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
SYMBOLIZATION, PROCESS OF
Between narcissistic cathexis (I am the breast) and
object cathexis (I have it, that is, I am not it) the
dimensions of a psychic space—a topological space—
and time are organized. Psychic time evolves through
acceptance of a delay, a waiting period, the succession
from the time of being to, as Freud himself said, only
after the fact, the time of having. Beneath these
abstractions, at a more concrete level, we find: analyses
of symbolic assimilation (Melanie Klein), symbolic
equation (Hanna Segal), and pathological projective
identification.
From this viewpoint the hallucinatory experience of
satisfaction designates the dialectic between the nonoptative
(I am) and the optative (I want, I am not),
which is articulated only on condition that enough
time is allocated to the non-optative dimension. This
is probably one of the major contributions of Donald
Winnicott (1951), namely, to have insisted on the
importance of duration during this period of nonoptative
illusion so that the optative period, the period
of disillusion, might become possible.
Thus the experience of object loss results in different
outcomes for symbolization given the possibility
of forming a dialectic between the time of being and
the time of having. This essential difference and the
dialectic it involves can be terminated by the illusory
wish to unite, at the “same time,’ subject and object,
memory and perception, in the effort to exclude the
object as well as the effort intended to include it.
In this way different modalities of symbolization
are designated. The symbolic assimilation controlled
by the search for sameness seeks to implicate projection,
leaving nothing but the search for immediate
satisfaction through action and degrading the symbol,
which represents the object, to the status of a signal.
Symbolic assimilation can, on the contrary, seek to
include the object in the act of projection, which,
although it dehumanizes the world by transforming it
into abstract entities, nevertheless maintains a link to a
universe of indexical signs, where the categories of certainty,
foreseeability, and univocity prevail. There are,
therefore, two different economies which, depending
on the use of the object, can lead in one case to a
repression of affects and a splitting of the body
through the exclusion of all symbolization (this is the
register of non-delusional psychoses and psychosomatic
disorganization); and in the other to the preservation
of those affects in the psyche through symbolic
efflorescence, which, although it seeks to eliminate
1713
Symptom
difference and distance, nonetheless indicates an
attempt at a solution through representation (as
shown by delusional psychoses). As Wilfred Bion
noted (1970), we cannot say that the psychotic patient
is incapable of symbol formation, but that he symbolizes
excessively and prevents himself from learning
through knowledge of the world.
From this point of view the interiorization of psychic
bisexuality becomes the source of unfettered symbolization
and creativity. The essential point is to be
able to confront maternal invisibility and the terror of
the unlimited or the infinite. This assumes the organization
of the dialectic of conservation and loss inherent
in anal eroticism, which contributes to the differentiation
of the inside and outside of the body and ensures
that the control of mental activity and sphincter control
are cathected in the same way.
The fort-da game (Freud, 1920g) is often considered
to be the key experience revealing the formation
of symbolization. However, this activity of symbolic
substitution through gestures and speech that bear
witness to the development of object loss, assumes the
manipulation of a simultaneously preserved and
expelled internal object, which defines anal eroticism.
The experience of mastery demonstrates that the anxiety
of destruction by the object associated with orality
(to consume or be consumed) is here contained within
limits through a third possibility, the external object.
The fault lines in this mediatory function of the
third object determine the recourse to variant techniques
(face-to-face psychotherapy, psychoanalytic
psychodrama) compared to the usual therapeutic
situation on the couch. From this viewpoint the analytic
framework can be considered a genuine “intermediate
region of experience,’ to use Winnicott’s
phrase, the crucible or matrix of all symbolization,
which triggers the operation of the intermediary
intrapsychic region known as the preconscious. The
movement is of course asymptotic.
Accordingly, the semantic function of the symbol as
content is inseparable from its mediatory function,
intra- and intersubjective, providing we realize it is less
a universal and univocal function (the archetype for
Carl G. Jung or the symbolic order for Jacques Lacan)
than a personal and polysemic one, making possible
processes of sublimation and creation. Rather than
being enclosed in a private dimension, true symbolization
reveals, on the contrary, as Bion (1970) suggested,
1714
its essentially social dimension. This assumes symbolization
is capable of being instructed by the body and
the world so it is able to produce other figures, while
leaving room for the indeterminate, the uncertain, and
the unexpected.
ALAIN GIBEAULT
See also: Act, action; Alcoholism; Asthma; Cacilie M.,
case of; Dream symbolism; Disavowal; Displacement;
Ethology and psychoanalysis; Hysteria; Object; Representation;
Somatic compliance; Suffering; Symbol; Symptom
formation; Working through.
Bibliography
Bion, Wilfred R. (1970). Attention and interpretation. London:
Tavistock Publications.
Freud, Sigmund. (1920g). Beyond the pleasure principle. SE,
18: 1-64.
Laplanche, Jean. (1980). Problématiques III, la sublimation.
Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
Further Reading
Blum, Harold P. (1978). Symbolic processes and symbol formation.
International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 59, 455—
472.
Bucci, Wilma. (1997). Symptoms and symbols: A multiple
code theory of somatization. Psychoanalytic Inquiry, 17,
151-172.
Coen, Stanley. (2000). Affect, somatisation and symbolisation.
International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 81, 159-161.
Kubie, Lawrence S. (1978). Distortion of the symbolic
process in neurosis and psychosis. Psychological Issues, 44,
87-114.
Slade, Arietta. (1999). Representation, symbolization, affect
regulation, mother and child. Psychoanalytic Inquiry, 19,
797-830.
SYMPTOM
Freud created psychoanalysis by giving meaning to
symptoms. In his writings following Studies on
Hysteria (1895d), he continued to investigate the
symptom. At that time, psychiatry reduced the symptom
to an opaque and incongruous phenomenon of
psychic life. Freud focused on the salient and unusual
features of the symptom to understand the dynamics
of the unconscious and the development of conflicts.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
The symptom cannot be considered equivalent to a
defense, since the mechanism of defense is more general
and its role less obvious. Moreover, defenses function
effectively when repression is successful, when
projection is obvious, and when the effects of projection
are natural. Similarly, insofar as neurotic behavior
and parapraxes prove useful to the subject, their
unconscious causes are not apparent and are ignored.
The symptom is also distinct from anxiety. Anxiety is
far noisier than the symptom, though it is also closely
related. Anxiety sounds the alarm that leads from a sense
of urgency to the symptom. In fact, the symptom
appears to be extinguishing the fires of anxiety, but it
does not possess the means to accomplish this. More precisely,
the symptom puts an end to anxiety by organizing
a new situation different from the one that triggered the
anxiety. Thus the symptom corrects the inadequate internal
discharge of anxiety by offering the psyche other
possibilities for linking and representation. The new
situation defines the nature of the symptom and indicates
its scope. In the end, it is the drive that constitutes
the symptom, and this is why Freud distinguished
between symptom and inhibition (1926d [1925]).
When repression fails, the drive can break through,
but repression has sufficient power to divert it. Thus,
the symptom is formed as a compromise. At one level,
the compromise concerns the censorship between the
unconscious or preconscious and consciousness. At
another level, there is a conflict between the different
agencies, with the superego taking the organizing role.
Later Freud argued that the conflict between the ego
and the id defines neurosis, while that between the ego
and reality characterizes psychosis (1924b [1923]).
Thus the course that the symptom takes always
depends on the unconscious. Eventually, the play of
affect and representation get the better of repression.
This happens with the conversion hysteric, who suffers
from quasi innervation because she marks her own
body with an affect that has regressed to its original
state as action. Thereafter, every fantasy is converted
into a symptom that is incapacitating, but comfortable.
Soon this same process is projected by a phobia
and frozen in a representation, which leaves a gap in
affect that is filled by anxiety (Freud, 1915d, 1915e).
Because of the ambivalence of desire and defense,
the symptom that the ego has established in a state
of “extraterritoriality” (1926d [1925], p. 97) gains
ground bit by bit, just like a foreign army, by extending
its surveillance beyond the phobic object to any fantas-
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Symptom
matic object that can resonate with it. The defensive
rituals of the obsessional become similarly eroticized
by invading thought.
Finally, beyond the borders of the ego, the symptom
may bring a relative gain, and the individual and other
people may derive from it what Freud called a “secondary
gain” (1926d [1925], pp. 99-100). For instance, the
symptom may establish an internal equilibrium in the
structural field from which it arises or that it organizes.
Such is the diversity of pathology that it may also perform
a preventive or reparative function outside of
itself, as when an obsession precedes or follows a
depressive episode or a hallucination makes real what
mental life can no longer accept.
AUGUSTIN JEANNEAU
See also: Amnesia; Anorexia nervosa; Autosuggestion;
Bulimia; Cathartic method; Change; Claustrophobia; Cure;
Dipsomania; “Dostoyevsky and Parricide”; Doubt; Encopresis;
Enuresis (bedwetting); Five Lectures on Psycho-
Analysis, Flight into illness; Forgetting; Hypochondria;
Hysteria; Hysterical paralysis; Indications and contraindications
for psychoanalysis for an adult; Infantile neurosis;
Inhibition; Inhibitions, Symptoms, and Anxiety, Interpretation;
Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis, Mythomania;
Narcissistic neurosis; Obsession; Omnipotence of thought;
Pain; Persecution; Psychic reality; Psychoanalytical nosography;
Psychoanalytic semiology; Psychotherapy; Reactionformation;
Resolution of the transference; Schizophrenia;
Self-mutilation in children; Slips of the tongue; Stammering;
Studies on Hysteria; Substitutive formation; Symbol;
Symbolic equation; Symptom-formation; Tics; Ulcerative
colitis; War neurosis.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1915d). Repression. SE, 14: 141-158.
. (1915e). The unconscious. SE, 14: 159-204.
. (1924b [1923]). Neurosis and psychosis. SE, 19:
147-153.
. (1926d [1925]). Inhibitions, symptoms, and anxiety.
aSH, 20: 75-172.
Freud, Sigmund, and Breuer, Josef. (1895d). Studies on hysteria.
SE, 2.
Further Reading
Luborsky, Lester. (1996). The symptom-context method:
Symptoms as opportunities in psychotherapy. Washington
DC: American Psychological Association.
1715
SYMPTOM-FORMATION
SYMPTOM-FORMATION
Symptom-formation is the process leading to the production
of a symptom—the production, that is to say,
ofa “sign” or “indication” of a functional disturbance,
The word symptom was borrowed by psychoanalysis
from medical language. Even its etymology (Greek,
“that which is held together”) suggests a link between
the symptom and what it indicates (and it is worth
noting, too, that syndrome, a set of symptoms, is likewise
derived from Greek elements, meaning, in this
case, “that which proceeds together”). That having
been said, it is important to bear in mind that there is
a broad difference between a sign (implying
an intentional designation) and a mere indication
(implying merely coincidence, without intentionality).
As early as his first psychoanalytical writings, Freud
plumbed for the former sense, arguing that to produce
a symptom was to produce a sign, that a symptom
always had a meaning, even if that meaning were lost
on the patient himself. Studies on Hysteria (1895d), or
at any rate Freud's contribution to it, is largely dedicated
to the illustration of this thesis: “I have examples
at my disposal,” he wrote, “which seem to prove the
genesis of hysterical symptoms through symbolization
alone” (p. 179).
Indeed, for Freud, the symptom, like the dream,
was a compromise-formation via which a. wish
struggled to achieve fulfillment, albeit merely a partial
one: “A symptom arises,” he wrote to Wilhelm Fliess
on February 19, 1899, “where the repressed and the
repressing thought can come together in the wishfulfillment”
(SE, 1, p. 278). Like dream-images, the
symptom was overdetermined, and its formation
relied on the processes of condensation and displacement.
Unlike the dream-work, however, which led to
the creation of images, symptom-formation resulted
in the kind of bodily expression of which hysterical
conversion was the paradigm; in the emergence of
obsessive ideas as in obsessional neurosis (in which
case secondary symptoms might arise also as defenses
against the primary ones); in phobic avoidances; and
so on.
More generally, the work of symptom-formation
gave rise to mental processes and types of behavior
that were repetitive and relatively “isolated”—that
were not, in other words, integrated into other aspects
of the patient's personality. The patient would usually
recognize these as pathological in nature, and seek
1716
treatment, a fact which distinguished such symptoms
from fixed “character traits.”
The fact is that Freud’s entire work, in its attempt
to elucidate the neuroses, continually strove for a better
understanding of the processes of symptomformation.
Thus in ‘a letter to Jung dated June 15,
1911, distancing himself from his first theory of the
trauma, he made the following essential correction:
“symptoms spring not directly from the memories but
from the fantasies built on them” (1970a, p. 260). He
would later review the whole problem once more in
the light of his second topography (structural theory)
and his second theory of the instincts, in Inhibitions,
Symptoms and Anxiety (1926d).
To summarize, Freud's theory viewed the formation
of symptoms from the standpoint of “semiology” in
both the medical and the linguistic senses of the term
(a fact pointed up notably by Jacques Lacan, whose
position is famously encapsulated in the claim that
“the unconscious is structured like a language”). This
view did not hold good, however, beyond the sphere of
neurosis proper: in the “actual neuroses,” the manifest
symptoms had no psychic meaning (Freud, 1916-
17a). Absent the mentalization of fantasies, libidinal
energy flowed directly into somatic processes—a
mechanism that has been studied in more recent times
by the Paris school of psychosomatic medicine (Marty,
1976, 1980).
Inasmuch as the symptom expressed a compromise
between instinctual satisfaction and defense, its motor
was a dynamic that in all cases sought to reestablish an
equilibrium, but that also determined the form of
individual symptoms as well as the place each would
occupy within a specific clinical entity.
It was unpleasure, first and foremost, that triggered
the mechanism of symptom-formation—an unpleasure
that derived from pleasure and that could not be
accounted for save in terms of the confrontation
between the internal pressure exerted by fantasy and
the idea of the external danger that depended directly
upon it. Hitherto, this calculus of pleasure has been
the responsibility of repression, along with the other
defenses that either collaborated with repression or
ensured mastery over the instincts by their own efforts.
The formation of a symptom was invariably necessitated
by a strengthening of the instinct, whether this
increased pressure was attributable to biology, to fantasy,
to reality, or to external events. The failure of
detense in all cases resulted inthe first instance in the
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
emergence of anxiety. Whereas in the actual neuroses
anxiety was nothing more than an almost reflexive
return to the pathways of discharge of the first great
traumas, the situation here made it into a signal of
_ danger and a call for the symptom to arise.
The interplay between affects and ideas—the components
of the instinct, whose reciprocal links and
independence from each other constituted the
dynamic of mental life—was thus the crucible of the
symptom (Freud, 1894a). Repression functioned by
dissociating the two, working on the idea in order to
contain the affect and the action that the affect prefigured.
The symptom, for its part, was effective because
it operated in the interstice, restoring the rights of the
instincts by creating new links, more acceptable to the
ego, between affect and idea. The simplest instance of
this in the context of neurotic repression was doubtless
displacement, which was a function of the instinctual
shift with respect to the symbol and the resulting
decline in the symbol’s significance, but other more
complex defensive ploys were the locus of the same
dynamic: thus the “Wolf Man” used displacement to
transform his homosexual desire into a phobic fear of
wolves (1918b [1914]), while Schreber was well able to
handle fantasy by means of a similarly discrete action
of the component instincts, but one which relied not
on repression or displacement, but rather on the projection
of the idea and the turning of the affect into its
opposite, so producing the symptom of feelings of persecution
(1911c).
This amounted to an introduction of differences
with respect to the formation and the form of the
symptom. Both clearly depended on the nature of the
conflict: the threat of castration, the loss of the object,
narcissism at risk, or alienation; neurosis, depression,
borderline state, or psychosis. It has rightly been
pointed out that in this account no symptom can exist
independently of a corresponding clinical entity.
Two caveats apply in this connection. The first concerns
the specificity of defensive modes to given
pathological structuzes, so that each mode is perforce
related to a corresponding symptomatic form
of decompensation: whether object-dependency is
defended against external reality by disavowal, idealization,
projection, or some other means, will serve to
explain why breakdown occurs in a particular subject,
delusion in another, and so on. Within a single neurosis,
to take the case of the obsessional, the oedipal
situation is the starting-point of a regression to the
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Syurtow-Foewation
anal level of fixation which will determine the compulsiveness
and mental retentiveness characterizing
the symptoms (Freud, 1926d). Apropos of phobia,
however, Freud describes three different phases of
symptom-formation: preconscious decathexis, anticathexis
of the substitutive idea, and an expansion of
this idea’s associations and of the vigilance it cota
(1915e, pp. 181ff).
The second difficulty is related to the strength of
the symptom with respect to the point reached in a
particular clinical development. Thus in schizophrenics
phobia may rapidly be overwhelmed by the haziness
of the dividing-line between inside and outside,
so that all projection becomes ineffective. Projection is
scarcely more functional in agoraphobics, whose narcissistic
inadequacy precludes the establishment of any
external protective focus. Cancerophobics, on the
other hand, being mentally more obsessional and
more objective in their verification procedures, can
keep the conflict out of the clutches of depression for
some time before it eventually succeeds in bringing the
struggle back within the ego. It should be noted,
though, that while the neurotic conflict between the
ego and the id confines phobia, in its exclusiveness, to
a single line of defense, it nevertheless confers on the
symptom, not efficacity, for that remains limited, but
durability and solidity.
AUGUSTIN JEANNEAU AND ROGER PERRON
See also: Actual neurosis/neurosis of defense; Allergy;
“Analysis of a Phobia in a Five-year-Old Boy”; Choice of
neurosis; Compromise-formation; Conflict; Constitution;
Conversion; Daydream; Defense; Displacement;
Ego; Eros; Event; Fantasy; Fixation; Hypnoid states; Identification;
Identification fantasies; Instinctual impulse;
Need for punishment; Overdetermination; Paranoid
position; Phobias in children; Principle of constancy;
Psychosomatic; Regression; Repression; “Repression”;
Reversal into the opposite; Self-punishment; Somatic
compliance; Splitting of the ego; Symptom; Unpleasure;
Wish fulfillment.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1894a). The neuro-psychoses of defense.
SE, 3: 41-61.
. (1911c). Psycho-analytic notes on an autobiographical
account of a case of paranoia (dementia paranoides).
SE, 12: 1-82.
. (1915e). The unconscious. SE, 14: 159-204.
1717
Symptom/SINTHOME
. (1916-17a). Introductory lectures on psychoanalysis.
SE, 15-16.
. (1918b [1914]). From the history of an infantile
neurosis. SE, 17: 1-122.
. (1926d). Inhibitions, symptoms and anxiety. SE,
20: 75-172.
Freud, Sigmund, and Josef Breuer. (1895d). Studies on hysteria.
SE, 2: 48-106.
Freud, Sigmund, and C. G. Jung. (1970a). The Freud/Jung
letters: The correspondence between Sigmund Freud and
C. G. Jung (Ralph Manheim and R. F. C. Hull, Trans.).
Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Marty, Pierre. (1976). Les mouvements individuels de vie et
de mort I: Essai d économie psychosomatique. Paris: Payot.
. (1980). Les mouvements individuels de vie et de mort
II: L ordre psychosomatique. Paris: Payot.
Further Reading
Arlow, Jacob A. (1964). Symptom formation and character
formation. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 45,
167-170.
Loewenstein, Rudolph M. (1964). Symptom formation and
character formation. International Journal of Psychoanalysis,
45, 155-157.
SYMPTOM/SINTHOME
Lacan defined the symptom in several ways: as a metaphor,
as “that which comes from the real,’ as “that
which doesn’t work,” and at the end of his teaching, as
a structural fact, whose necessity must be questioned.
In 1953 (2002a) Lacan emphasized that the analytic
symptom—a neurotic, perverse, or even psychotic
symptom; a dream; a slip; and so on—was sustained
by a linguistic structure, by signifiers, and by the letters
that serve as their material element.
In contrast to medical symptoms, the meaning of
which is determined in relation to a referent, the neurotic
symptom is blocked speech wanting to be heard
and deciphered. Lacan saw the mechanism of metaphor
at work in the symptom: when a traumainducing
signifier is substituted for an element of the
current signifying chain, it fixes the symptom and produces
its meaning (2002b, p. 158). But interpreting its
meaning is not enough. Interpretation works only by
focusing on the articulation of the signifiers connected
to the symptom; signifiers in themselves are meaningless
(1995, p. 270).
1718
FIGURE 1
symptom
The flattening of the knot.
La troisiéme (Oct. 31, 1974)
Still, these signifiers must be addressed to an analyst.
Because the symptom is a self-sufficient source of jouissance
(enjoyment), the subject must be made to feel
that behind the symptom is unknown knowledge and a
related cause, and that the analyst has become the one
who maintains it. The analyst has the responsibility for
half of the symptom, Lacan said. He added that analytic
training shows how the symptom completes itself.
Starting in 1974 with the Borromean knot with
three rings, Lacan envisioned the relationship of the
symptom with the real (R), the symbolic (S), and the
imaginary (I). The symptom became “that which
comes from the real” (1975, p. 185). It is marginally
imaginary, while it unfolds in the symbolic (Figure 1).
The symptom, what is going wrong, uses speech to
search for meaning. If we respond to it in this register,
we can cause it to develop in the imaginary. Equivocal
symbolic intervention can undo the certainties of the
symptom and cause it to recede.
Lacan makes the function of the symptom specific
by starting with a knot with four rings. Freud showed
that the formation of symptoms is determined by psychic
reality, which is organized by the Oedipus complex.
Lacan called this reality “religious,” because it is
founded on the belief that the father castrates, even
though the laws of language require a renunciation of
reality and an assumption of the phallus. Thus the
symptom seems to maintain a link with the father,
which sustains identification and sexual jouissance. In
this knot, the symptom ring knots the real, the symbolic,
and the imaginary together (Figure 2).
An unresolved case is that of a subject unsustained
by his symptom. This case is represented by a Borromean
knot with three rings (Figure 3).
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
FIGURE 2
»
Rs symptom S
Borromean knot with four rings
(S goes over R at two points),
from the seminar R.S./. (1974-1975).
FIGURE 3
ey
Borromean knot with three rings
(R goes over S at two points).
Lacan also asked what would happen if there were
an error in the knotting of the three rings. Such an
error would be fixed in a non-Borromean fashion by a
fourth ring, that of the sinthome. In his study of James
Joyce (2001), he used Joyce as his example of such a
case (Figure 4).
For Lacan, the symptom is the fixed manner in
which subjects enjoy their unconscious. Thus, the path
that leads to oedipal normalization, even if it is neurotic,
is also clearly marked. Treatment aims not at such
a normalization but rather at learning “what to do
with the symptom” instead of enjoying it.
VALENTIN NUSINOVICI
See also: Aimée, case of; Formations of the unconscious;
Four discourses; Imaginary identification/symbolic identification;
Metaphor; Real, the (Lacan); Signifier/signified;
Subject’s desire; Topology.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
SYNCHRONICITY (ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY)
FIGURE 4
symptom
Fag ee Se
R $
A pseudo-Borromean knot with four rings.
The symptom fixes the error in the knotting
of R, S, and | (R goes over S at one point).
From the seminar, The Sinthome (1975-1976).
Bibliography
Lacan, Jacques. (1974-1975). Le séminaire. Book 22: R.S.I.
Ornicar?, 2-5.
(1975) sala troisieme, intervention de J. Lacan le 31
octobre 1974. Lettres de [ Ecole Freudienne, 16, 178-203.
. (1975-1976). Le séminaire. Book 23: Le sinthome.
Ornicar?, 6-11.
. (1995). The position of the unconscious (Bruce
Fink, Trans.). In Richard Feldstein, Bruce Fink, and Maire
Jaanus (Eds.), Reading “Seminar XI”: Lacan’s four fundamental
concepts of psychoanalysis. New York: W. W. Norton.
(Original work published 1960)
. (2001). Joyce: Le symptome. In his Autres écrits.
Paris: Seuil.
. (2002a). The function and field of speech and language
in psychoanalysis. In his Ecrits: A selection (Bruce
Fink, Trans.). New York: W. W. Norton. (Original work
published 1953)
. (2002b). The instance of the letter in the unconscious,
or reason since Freud. In his Ecrits: A selection
(Bruce Fink, Trans.). New York: W. W. Norton. (Original
work published 1957)
SYNCHRONICITY (ANALYTICAL
PSYCHOLOGY)
Carl Jung offered synchronicity as an acausal “principle
of explanation” to account for “certain remarkable
manifestations of the unconscious.” He saw the principle
of synchronicity as an addition to the principle of
psychic causality, which Freud had emphasized so
strongly.
T7193
SystemM/SYSTEMIC
Jung “found that there are psychic parallelisms which
simply cannot be related to each other causally,” such as
“the simultaneous occurrence of identical thoughts,
symbolism or psychic states” in analyst and analysand.
In cultural history, one can also observe uncanny parallels,
such as the coincidence of Chinese and European
periods of style pointed out by Jung’s friend Richard
Wilhelm, the German translator of the Confucian classic
I Ching (Book of changes; also romanized as Yijing).
This ancient book of wisdom has been used throughout
its history as an oracle. Jung tested Wilhelm’s translation
by counting out yarrow stalks and tossing coins—the
traditional chance operations of Chinese divination—to
locate specific chapters and verses in the I Ching, which
he found would speak, like well-timed analytic interpretations,
to his psychological situation at the time.
In his memorial to Wilhelm in 1930, Jung enunciated
the synchronistic principle as an explanation.
But it was not until the 1951 Eranos Conference that
he fully described the “meaningful coincidence” and
other sorts of facts that the concept “is intended to
cover.” “Synchronicity: An Acausal connecting principle”
Jung’s full-blown development of the notion,
appeared, together with an article by Nobel Prize—
winning physicist Wolfgang Pauli, in German in 1952.
There Jung offers synchronicity as a law of nature as
important as the laws of causality and chance, which it
supplements in governing the connections of events. -
Jung quotes Schopenhauer (2000): “All the events in a
man’s life would accordingly stand in two fundamentally
different kinds of connection: firstly, in the
objective, causal connection of the natural process;
secondly, in a subjective connection which exists only
in relation to the individual who experiences it, and
which is thus as subjective as his own dreams.” Jung
understood this “subjective connection” to be the significance
a subject finds in the linkage of events, but he
located this meaning beyond the subject experiencing
it in the psychoid nature of the archetypes themselves.
An archetype, for Jung, is a field of meaning in the
unconscious that may be registered simultaneously as
a psychic event in the mind and as a physical reality in
the outer world. As Robert Aziz (1990) has noted,
such “simultaneity” need not mean occurring at the
exact same moment of time; it is enough that events
having a common meaning be linked without a plausible
causal sequence. One of Jung’s favorite examples of
such a meaningful coincidence occurred while he was
analyzing a young woman patient. She was telling a
dream in which she was given a golden scarab. Jung
1720
heard a flying insect knocking against the windowpane,
opened the window, and caught the creature—a
scarabaeid beetle. This unexpected concretization of
her fantasy helped his patient give up an intellectual
defense against psychic reality that had kept her analysis
from becoming a transformative experience, the
scarab being, in Egyptian mythology, a classic symbol
of rebirth. For a synchronicity to enhance consciousness
rather than merely build up superstitiousness, it
is important that the individual grasp its compensatory
meaning.
JOHN BEEBE
See also: Archetype (analytical psychology); Need for
causality; Psychic causality.
Bibliography
Aziz, Robert. (1990). C. G. Jung’s psychology of religion and
synchronicity. Albany: State University of New York Press.
Jung, Carl Gustav. (1930). Richard Wilhelm: In memoriam.
In his Collected works (Vol. 15). London: Routledge and
Kegan Paul.
. (1950). Foreword to the I Ching. In his Collected
works (Vol. 11). London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
. (1952b). Synchronicity: An acausal connecting
principle. In his Collected works (Vol. 8). London: Routledge
and Kegan Paul.
Schopenhauer, Arthur. (2000). Die Transzendentale Spekulation
iiber die anscheinende Absichtlichkeit im Schicksal
des Einzelnen In Parerga and paralipomena: Short philosophical
essays (E. F. J. Payne, Trans.). New York: Oxford
University Press. (Original work published 1851)
SYSTEM/SYSTEMIC
A system is a self-regulating complex of interactive elements.
It is a general model. Applied to the group or
family as a unit, this notion is the basis for the systemic
perspective.
In the United States the Palo Alto researchers (Gregory
Bateson, Paul Watzlawick), using cybernetic and
systems theory, studied the modalities of communications
in the families of schizophrenics. They created
notions such as the double bind, the paradox, and the
existence of the “identified patient” (IP; the family
member in whom the family’s symptom has emerged
or is most apparent) necessary to the maintenance of
family homeostasis. These new concepts have been
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
used in treating dysfunctional families using various
“systemic family therapies.”
The first-generation systems theorists who used
and developed the ideas of the Palo Alto group challenged
psychoanalytic theories. Implementing a logic
that is circular rather than linear, sessions relied
on positive connotations, counter-paradoxes, and
behavioral prescriptions. In this treatment option,
intrapsychic phenomena were not denied but were
deliberately disregarded. The emphasis was placed on
information seen as “input” to and “output” from the
“black box,” whose contents and workings were intentionally
ignored. Further developments in theory and
practice in this area have led to a taking into account
of the effects produced by the presence and personality
of the practitioner.
FRANCOISE DIOT AND JOSEPH VILLIER
See also: Science and psychoanalysis.
Bibliography
Bertalanffy, Ludwig von. (1973). General system theory:
Foundations, development, applications. New York: G. Braziller.
(Original work published 1947)
Le Moigne, Jean-Louis. (1977). La théorie du systeme general:
Théorie de la modélisation. Paris: Presses Universitaires de
France.
Miermont, Jacques. (1985). Mythes et modeles scientifiques
en psychothérapie individuelle et en thérapie familiale.
Actualités psychiatriques, 9.
Selvini-Palazzoli, Mara, Boscolo, Luigi, Cecchin, Gianfranco,
et al. (1975). Paradox and counterparadox: A new model in
the therapy of the family in schizophrenic transaction (Elisabeth
V. Burt, Trans.). New York: J. Aronson.
Wiener, Norbert. (1950). The human use of human beings:
Cybernetics and society. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
SZONDI, LEOPOLD (1893-1986)
The Hungarian physician, psychopathologist, and psychoanalyst
Leopold (or Lipot) Szondi was born in the
Slovakian city of Nitra (then in Hungary) on March
11, 1893, and died on January 24, 1986 in Kiisnacht,
near Zurich.
In 1898, Szondi’s family moved to Budapest, where
Leopold was an excellent student, first in Greek and
Latin and subsequently in medical school at the Uni-
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Szonbd!, Leopoto (1893-1986)
versity of Budapest. He was fascinated by Dostoevsky
and Freud, and The Interpretation of Dreams became
his vade mecum at the front during World War I. In
1919, as neuropsychiatrist and assistant to Paul
Ranschburg, he published a series of analyses of personality
based on constitutional and genetic factors;
from 1921, he worked in private practice.
In charge of the state orthopedagogy program for
secondary education from 1924 to 1927, Szondi served
as professor of psychopathology at Pazmany-Peter
University Medical School and also served as director
of the Royal Hungarian Institute for Psychopathology
and Psychotherapy. A decade of research followed
together with self-analysis in which Szondi developed
his method as an extension of psychoanalysis. That
and regular contact with Imre Hermann moved
Szondi beyond his earlier work on the constitutional
and genetic bases of personality and destiny to psychoanalysis
and the concept of the “familial unconscious.”
Shortly after publication of an investigation of marriage
in 1937, which won Freud’s stamp of approval,
anti-Semitic legislation enacted by the pro-Nazi Hungarian
government doomed Szondi’s laboratory.
Dismissed from his state appointments in 1941,
Szondi was eventually banned from practicing privately;
in 1944 he was deported with his wife and two
children to Bergen-Belsen; eventually released, he
found refuge in Switzerland. He spent some months as
a psychotherapist at the Forel Clinic in Prangins before
settling in Zurich in 1946. Excluded from academic
psychiatry, he continued his practice, wrote, and
trained students from Switzerland and abroad through
analysis and supervision.
An international research association was created,
today known as the Szondi Society; beginning in Zurich
in 1957, it organized triennial symposiums. Funding
enabled foundation of the Szondi Institute in
1969. The recipient of honorary degrees from the University
of Louvain in 1970 and the University of Paris
in 1979, Szondi continued to work as long as his health
permitted, dying in 1986 in a nursing home near
Zurich.
Although remembered as inventor of a simple and
controversial projective test, Szondi always conceived
of his technique as an adjuvant to Shicksalanalyse (Fate
Analysis) which was inspired by depth analysis. Five
large volumes formed the discipline’s basic program.
Shicksalanalyse (1944) presented results of laboratory
1721
Sronot, Leororo (1893-1986)
research that aimed to reveal how people are motivated
to make the “choices in love, friendship, professions,
illness and death” that determine personal
destiny. The test that was developed from this work
was published in 1947, and translated into English in
1952 as Experimental Diagnostics of Drives.
Freud’s influence, already present in Szondi’s thinking,
would be further manifest in subsequent work in
Zurich, Triebpathologie (Drive pathology; 1952),
aimed to move classical descriptive psychiatry in a psychoanalytic
direction. Triebpathologie II appeared in
1956, dedicated to Freud on the occasion of the centenary
of his birth, fulfilling his wish that one day successors
would carry on an analysis much as he had
done with sexuality. Finally, Schickalanalytische Therapie
(Rate Analysis Therapy), published in 1963, used a
Freudian cast to investigate problems associated with
active techniques (such as Ferenczi had employed) and
the application of analysis to psychosis and mood disorders.
Szondi’s work in later years included articles in
various reviews and Szondiana, and, most memorably,
the complementary volumes in which he reprised his
theme of paroxysmality as clarified by the contrasting
figures of the murderer Kain (Cain; 1969) and the lawgiver
Mose (Moses; 1973).
For a variety of reasons, Szondian analysis has
remained fairly obscure. To the effects of war and relocation
in Switzerland, which occurred just as his —
research was moving him toward a radical shift in perspective,
must be added the occultation of the work
due to reception of the test and some difficulty on
Szondi’s part in clearly describing that change,
together with its new foundation. Finally, Szondi’s
1722
clinical genius and the effective range of his work were
obvious only to patients and disciples with whom he
had a close relationship in Zurich. Some followers
took it upon themselves to lay a new foundation for
his work; with a presence at university centers in Louvain
and Liége, Szondian analysis at last found indispensable
ground for further development and the
opportunity to better explain and propagate the core
of his teaching—paradoxically, primarily in francophone
and Latin countries. Szondi, by moving beyond
his own test, brings us to a broad view of his work as
constituting the most significant attempt yet to create
a global psychiatry undergirded by the spirit of psychoanalytic
thought.
JACQUES SCHOTTE
See also: Psychological tests.
Bibliography
Lekeuche, Philippe, and Mélon, Jean. (1990). Dialectique des
pulsions. Bruxelles: De Boeck-Universite.
Schotte, Jacques. (1990). Szondi avec Freud: Sur la voie d’une
psychiatrie pulsionnelle. Bruxelles: De Boeck-Universite.
Szondi, Leopold. (1965). Schicksanalyse. Basel and Stuttgart:
Benno Schwabe, five volumes, 1965; Bern: Hans Hubert,
1952, 1956, 1960, 1963.
. (1969). Kain. Gestalten des Bésen. Bern: Hans
Huber.
—. (1973). Moses: Antwort auf Kain. Bern: Hans Huber.
Szondi, Lipot. (1952). Experimental diagnostics of drives.
New York: Grune and Stratton.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
one: Poster for film Psychoanalyse. The subtitle
"Ratsel des Unbewussten" translates to
“Riddle of the Unconscious.” Mary Evans
Picture Library. Reproduced by permission.
two: Oskar Pfister (1873-1956), Swiss
pastor, teacher, and psychoanalyst. Pfister
was one of the first lay analysts, and his
impact on the field has been recognized by
the American Psychiatric Society, which
awards the Oskar Pfister Prize for outstanding
contributions to the psychology of religion.
Public Domain. Courtesy of New York
Psychoanalytic Institute and Society. three:
James Putnam (1846-1918), American
neurologist. Putnam, at Freud's insistence,
initiated the establishment of both the
American Psychoanalytic Association and
the Boston Psychoanalytic Society. Courtesy
of the New York Psychoanalytic Institute
and Society. Reproduced by permission.
four: Otto Rank (1884-1939), Austrian
psychologist and psychoanalyst. Second
only to Freud in the number of published
works on psychoanalysis, Rank was the
author of The Trauma of Birth, and the first
person to be awarded a PhD based on a psychoanalytic
thesis. Photo by Hulton
Archive/Getty Images. Reproduced by permission.
five: Wilhelm Reich (1897-1957),
Austrian physician and psychoanalyst.
Reich discovered “orgone energy,” which he
considered life energy, closely related to the
function of orgasm. Reich also authored
The Mass Psychology of Fascism and
Character Analysis—his most important
works. Courtesy of the New York
Psychoanalytic Institute and Society.
Reproduced by permission. six: Theodor
Reik (1888-1969), Austrian psychologist
and lay psychoanalyst, founder of the
National Psychological Association for
Psychoanalysis. Public Domain. Courtesy of
the New York Psychoanalytic Institute and
Society. seven: Hermann’ Rorschach
(1884-1922), Swiss psychoanalyst and
creator of the Rorschach inkblot projective
test. Public Domain. Courtesy of the New
York Psychoanalytic Institute and Society.
eight: Hanns Sachs (1881-1947), Austrian
lawyer and psychoanalyst. Sachs was a loyal
disciple of Freud as well as co-founder of
Imago. He chose the name for the journal.
Sachs invested much effort in trying to popularize
psychoanalysis. Public Domain.
Courtesy of the New York Psychoanalytic
Institute and Society. nine: The "Secret
Committee." Back row from left: Otto Rank,
Karl Abraham, Max Eitingon, and Ernest
Jones. Front row from left: Freud, Sandor
Ferenczi, and Hanns Sachs. © Bettmann/
Corbis. Reproduced by permission.
ten: Freud's office, complete with couch, as
it has been preserved in the Sigmund Freud
Museum, which was the Freud family's
home at Berggasse 19 in Vienna. © Peter
Aprahamian/Corbis. Reproduced by permission.
eleven: Leo Stone (1904-1997),
American psychoanalyst and teacher. Stone
advocated using psychoanalysis to treat a
wide variety of illnesses and was a proponent
of the "flexible approach" by analysts,
an idea that was, at one time, considered a
radical concept. Courtesy of the New York
Psychoanalytic Institute and Society.
Reproduced by permission.
twelve: Alix Strachey (1892-1973), British
psychoanalyst. Strachey assisted her husband
James in the translation of Freud's
works. She also translated the work of other
psychoanalytic pioneers such as Karl
Abraham and Melanie Klein. Photo by
Frances Partridge/Getty Images. thirteen:
James Strachey (1887-1967), British psychoanalyst
and translator and editor of The
Standard Edition of the Complete Works of
Sigmund Freud. Photograph of James
Strachey, Int. J. Psycho-Anal. (1969), 50:
132. © Institute of Psychoanalysis, London,
UK. Reproduced by permission.
fourteen: Harry Stack Sullivan (1892-
1949), American psychiatrist. Sullivan was a
charter member of the Washington
Psychoanalytic Society who later left psychoanalysis
to establish the Washington School
of Psychiatry and the journal Psychiatry. The
Library of Congress. Reproduced by permission.
fifteen: Leopold Szondi (1893-1986),
Hungarian psychoanalyst and inventor of
Shicksanalyse and the Szondi projective
test. Photo by Yale Joel/Time Life Pictures/
Getty Images. Reproduced by permission.
sixteen: Julius Wagner-Jauregg (1857-
1940), front row center, Austrian psychiatry
professor and 1927 Nobel Laureate in physiology
and medicine with his staff in 1927.
Public Domain. Courtesy of the New York
Psychoanalytic Institute and Society. S€Venteen:
Fritz Wittels (1880-1950),
Austrian physician and psychoanalyst.
Wittels spent a good part of his psychoanalytic
career in the United States where he
taught at the New School, became a member
of the American Psychoanalytic
Association, and was associated with
Bellevue Hospital and Columbia University
in New York City. Public Domain. Courtesy
of the New York Psychoanalytic Institute
and Society. eighteen: Donald Woods
Winnicott (1896-1971), British pediatrician
and psychoanalyst. Winnicott was a cofounder
of the "British Object Relations
School." Courtesy of the International
Association for the History of
Psychoanalysis. Reproduced by permission.
TABOO
The word taboo was borrowed by Captain Cook, in
1769, from the Polynesian language spoken in the
Hawaiian Islands. A report of his voyage was published
in 1884 but the word appeared earlier in Europe in the
narratives of expeditions by Adam J. von Krusenstern,
1802, and by Otto von Kotzebue, 1817. They reported
on the number and variety of prohibitions the word
taboo refers to. Cook further specified that taboo
was applied to anything forbidden to the touch. British
anthropology took over the term, subsequently reworked
by the German schools on the psychologies of
various peoples, and the French schools of sociology.
Freud later made use of this work to define taboo as an
adjective with opposite meanings—simultaneously
sacred and consecrated, as well as dangerous, forbidden,
impure. Taboo was the name for prohibitions
that were self-imposed along with their sanctions in
the event of transgression, and which lacked meaning
or any obvious referent. Anyone who violated a taboo
was also taboo, which illustrates the taboo’s power of
contagion.
The term taboo appears in a short text of Freud’s
entitled “The Significance of Sequences of Vowels”
(1911d), which discusses the names of God in Hebrew.
“Taboo and Emotional Ambivalence,” the second chapter
of Totem and Taboo (1912-13a), was published in
1912. This work continues an earlier investigation into
obsessional neurosis, the analogy between its symptoms
and religious rites, and the psychology of religion
(“Obsessive Actions and Religious Rites,” 1907b). Freud
also published “The Antithetical Meaning of Primal
Words” (1910e), with taboo being one such example.
Thus Freud’s studies on taboo are limited in scope,
inserted into a broader investigation that was to be
further elaborated in Freud’s larger works on collecitve
psychology, especially The Future of an Illusion (1927c),
Civilization and Its Discontents (1930a [1929]), and
Moses and Monotheism (1939a [1934—38]).
Freud associated taboo with ambivalence from the
start. As early as the preface to Totem and Taboo, he
writes that “the analysis of taboos is put forward as an
assured and exhaustive attempt at the solution of the
problem” (1912-13a, p. xiv) (as opposed to the
totem), whose differences with taboo he goes on to
point out. “The difference is related to the fact that
taboos still exist among us.... They do not differ in
their psychological nature from Kant’s ‘categorical
imperative, which operates in a compulsive fashion
and rejects any conscious motives” (p. xiv). However
Freud introduces fresh complications into this idea by
postulating for the first time, in the chapter “Taboo
and Emotional Ambivalence,” the existence of a primal
ambivalence of emotions which the taboo’s prohibitions
express. Freud then relates their existence to totemism:
“The most ancient and important taboo
prohibitions are the two basic laws of totemism: not to
kill the totem animal and to avoid sexual intercourse
with members of the totem clan of the opposite sex”
(p. 31-32). Still this ambivalence becomes apparent as
totemism only after the murder of the primal father, in
the first acts of mourning and the transition to the
totemic clan. The hypothesis of life and death drives
could be used to make the taboo autonomous, which
Freud does not do. Therefore, the taboo’s existence is
secondary, and follows upon that of the totem: given
the thesis of totemism and the persistence of unconscious
wishes, the “must not” is really a form of “must
no longer.” “The basis of taboo is a prohibited action,
1723
“TaB00 OF VIRGINITY, THE’
the performing of which a strong inclination exists in
the unconscious.... There is no need to prohibit what
no one desires to do” (p. 32). The analogy with obsessional
neurosis enabled Freud to clarify the dynamics of
conflict and the topographical structure that gives rise to
the existence of taboos: “I will now sum up the respects
in which light has been thrown on the nature of taboo
by comparing it with the obsessional prohibitions of
neurotics. Taboo is a primaeval prohibition forcibly
imposed (by some authority) from outside, and directed
against the most powerful longings to which human
beings are subject. The desire to violate it persists in
their unconscious; those who obey the taboo have an
ambivalent attitude to what the taboo prohibits. The
magical power that is attributed to taboo is based on the
capacity for arousing temptation; and it acts like a contagion
because examples are contagious and because the
prohibited desire in the unconscious shifts from one
thing to another. The fact that the violation of a taboo
can be atoned for by a renunciation shows that renunciation
lies at the basis of obedience to taboo” (pp. 34—
35). Therefore, “taboo conscience is probably the earliest
form in which the phenomenon of conscience is met
with” (p. 67).
The analysis of taboos touches on a number of
themes. As psychic formations actualizing a dynamic
of unconscious conflict amongst drive-impulses, they
make use of primary processes; the propagation of this
dynamism based on representations of contiguity and
similarity—touch for the Unconscious—is clear and
further elucidates the contagion, the “mana” of taboo
as well as “delusions of touching.” At the same time
these psychic formations attribute hatred and dangerousness
to taboo objects and enable us to analyze projection.
Moreover the conviction the taboo entails,
owing to its dependence on the Unconscious, points
toward animism, magic, and the omnipotence of
thought—in short, to a study of narcissism. And the
analogy, almost the identity, between the forms and
dynamics of individual rites and rituals and those associated
with taboos makes them a key element in the
connection Freud creates between individual and collective
psychology. The primal conflict of ambivalence
that taboo allows us to postulate relates it to the
hypothesis of the life and death drives, and the troubles
encountered by moral conscience: anxiety, guilt, the
superego, as well as their genesis via the primal murder.
Even if Totem and Taboo “exhausts the problem” of
taboo, Freud’s later work modified our viewpoint of it.
Freud’s proposed analysis of the feminine in “The
1724
Taboo of Virginity” (1918a) transforms the concept of
taboo. Whereas the ambivalence of those subject to the
taboo was in general the cause for prohibitions and
prescriptions; in the case of the young girl to be deflowered,
it is the real danger she represents (penis envy,
revenge) that makes her taboo for others.
When anthropologists rejected the universalist perspective
Freud invoked, the concept of taboo became
subject to criticism. The structuralist viewpoint interpreted
all taboos for each society as a single global
symbolic system of classification, organization, and
interpretation of the real, independently of any possibility
for dynamic change—a claim taken up by the
structuralist movement in psychoanalysis. The renewal
of studies into dynamic change in the exact sciences
may renew interest in Freud’s works on this subject.
MICHELE PORTE
See also: Abel, Carl; Animistic thought; Anthropology
and psychoanalysis; Childhood; Isolation (defense
mechanism); Narcissism of minor differences; Obsessional
neurosis; Rite and ritual; Smell, sense of; Structural
theories; “Taboo of Virginity, The”; Totem/totemism;
Totem and Taboo; Transgression.
Bibliography
Frazer, James G. (1951). The golden bough; a study in comparative
religion. London: Macmillan. (Original work published
1890-1915)
Freud, Sigmund. (1907b). Obsessive actions and religious
practices. SE, 9: 115-127.
. (1910e). The antithetical meaning of primal words.
SE, 11: 153-161.
. (1911d). The significance of sequences of vowels.
SE, 122341:
—. (1912—13a). Totem and taboo. SE, 13: 1-161.
. (1918a [1917]). The taboo of virginity. SE, 11:
191-208.
“TABOO OF VIRGINITY, THE”
Freud presented “The Taboo of Virginity” to the
Vienna Psychoanalytical Society on December 12,
1917. He published it in 1918 as the third of three
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
essays entitled “Contributions to the Psychology of
Love” (Beitrage zur Psychologie des Liebeslebens), the
first two of which were revisions of his earlier papers,
“A Special Type of Choice of Object Made by Men”
(1910h) and “On the Universal Tendency to Debasement
in the Sphere of Love” (1912d).
By regrouping these papers under a common title,
Freud wanted to express the continuity of his thought
concerning love, including sexual attitudes and conduct.
The 1910 article, appearing about the same time
as his first explicit formulation of the Oedipus complex,
is concerned principally with male conquest and
rivalry with other men; two years later, the second
essay addresses the problem of male impotence, with
specific reference to the psychological dissociation of
tender from sexual feelings. “The Taboo of Virginity”
in certain respects complements the first two.
Freud begins by asking why a young women’s virginity
is so highly valued in so many societies. He turns
to anthropology to show that, in some groups, defloration
is carried out just before the wedding ceremony
by a third party officially charged with that duty. Such
practices form part of the constraints that continue to
regulate sexual life of all civilizations. In fact, “it cannot
be disputed that a generalized dread of women is
expressed in all these rules of avoidance.... The man
is afraid of being weakened by the woman, infected
with her femininity and of then showing himself
incapable” (pp. 198-199). This fear is due to castration
anxiety, from which arises the idea that women are “a
source of such dangers, and the first act of sexual intercourse
with a woman stands out as a danger of particular
intensity” (p. 200). Women contribute to such
dread by the persistence of their own oedipal and castration
complexes, from which arise the burdens of
sexual prohibition, penis envy, and “hostile embitterment”
towards men, together with the fact that their
desire remains fixated on the father, for which “[t]he
husband is almost always so to speak only a substitute,
never the right man” (p. 203). Defloration by a third
party serves such conflicts in women as much as it
wards off men’s fears. When such conflicts are particularly
severe, they can help explain frigidity in women.
“The Taboo of Virginity” is thus an integral part of
Freud’s work on the Oedipus complex and castration.
As a text particularly concerned with the psychoanalytic
view of female sexuality, it has occasioned much
critical discussion (for example, Laplanche).
ROGER PERRON
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
TACT
See also: Castration complex; “Contributions to the Psychology
of Love”; Fascination.
Source Citation
Freud, Sigmund. (1918a [1917]). Das Tabu der Virginitat
(Beitrage zur Psychologie des Liebeslebens, III.). In Sammlung
kleiner Schriften zur Neurosenlehre (Vol. IV, p. 229-
251). Leipzig and Vienna: F. Deuticke; The taboo of virginity.
SE, 11: 191-208.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1908d). “Civilized” sexual morality and
modern nervous illness. SE, 9: 177-204.
. (1910h). A special type of choice of object made by
men. SE, 11: 163-175.
. (1912d). On the universal tendency to debasement
in the sphere of love. SE, 11: 177-190.
Laplanche, Jean. (1980). Problématiques III, La Sublimation.
Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
TACT
The notion of tact is basic to psychoanalytic knowhow,
implicit in the work of Sigmund Freud, and
explicit in that of Sandor Ferenczi. In France, for
example, it was developed by Sacha Nacht under the
category of “presence of the psychoanalyst.”
This deceptively simple notion, to which Ferenczi
returned a number of times in articles he wrote near the
end of his life, deserves to be discussed, as he himself did
in his article of 1928, “The Elasticity of Psychoanalytic
Technique”: When and how should something be communicated
to the analysand? “It is above all a question
of psychological tact,” he replied. “But what is ‘tact’?
The answer is not very difficult. It is the capacity for
empathy. If, with the aid of knowledge we have obtained
from the dissection of many minds, but above all from
the dissection of our own, we have succeeded in forming
a picture of possible or probable associations of the
patient’s of which he is still completely unaware, we, not
having the patient’s resistances to contend with, are able
to conjecture, not only his withheld thoughts, but trends
of his of which he is unconscious” (p. 89).
Ferenczi supplemented the general import of this
formulation, making it more widely applicable, because
he had been treating patients, who, as a consequence
1725
Tausk, Viktor (1879-1919)
of early traumatism, were affected by a narcissistic
split of the self. He postulated the parent-child interactions
as the elements “which make the trauma pathogenic,”
speaking particularly of parental disavowal:
“Probably the worst way of dealing with such situations
is to deny their existence, to assert that nothing
has happened and that nothing is hurting the child.
Sometimes he is actually beaten or scolded when he
manifests traumatic paralysis of thought and movement.
These are the kinds of treatment which make
the trauma pathogenic” (1931, p. 138).
In 1932 Ferenczi wrote a corrosive little article
whose title alone expressed clearly his insistence on
not harming his patients who were in a state of regression:
“Repetition in Analysis Worse than Original
Trauma.” In such patients there is “self-sacrifice of
one’s own mind’s integrity in order to save the parents!”
(p. 268); the whole problematic of the idealization
and sacrificial function of the mistreated and
sexually abused child was again presented; but he
insisted: “much encouragement is needed” (p. 138),
much tact.
PIERRE SABOURIN
See also: Elasticity; Nacht, Sacha Emanoel; Technique
with adults, psychoanalytic; Tenderness; ““Wild’ Psycho-
Analysis.”
Bibliography
Ferenczi, Sandor. (1928). The elasticity of psycho-analytic
‘technique. In The selected papers of Sandor Ferenczi, Vol. 3.
(pp. 87-101) (Michael Balint, Ed.; Eric Mosbacher, et al,
Trans.). New York: Basic Books.
. (1931). Child analysis in the analysis of adults. In
The selected papers of Sandor Ferenczi, Vol. 3 (pp. 126-42).
(Michael Balint, Ed.; Eric Mosbacher, et al, Trans.). New
York: Basic Books.
. (1932). Repetition in analysis worse than original
trauma. In The selected papers of Sandor Ferenczi, Vol. 3.
(Michael Balint, Ed.; Eric Mosbacher, et al, Trans.). New
York: Basic Books, 268.
TAUSK, VIKTOR (1879-1919)
Psychiatrist and psychoanalyst Viktor Tausk was born
on March 12, 1879, in Zsilina, Slovakia, and committed
suicide on July 3, 1919, in Vienna.
1726
The eldest of nine children, Tausk came from a
German-speaking, non-religious Jewish family that,
soon after his birth, moved to Croatia. His parents had
an unsuccessful marriage. His father, Hermann, was a
bright, ambitious, and popular newspaperman, who at
one point managed the press office of the government
of Bosnia-Herzegovina. Tausk would oppose his
father’s attachment to the Austro-Hungarian Empire
by supporting the Yugoslavian nationalist movement
and by becoming fluent in Serbo-Croatian.
Tausk, in fact, grew up hating his father while maintaining
strong affection for his mother, Emilie. Brilliant
in school and multilingual, he initially chose to
study law rather than costly medical studies. At Mostar,
where he practiced for a time as a lawyer's assistant,
he preferred to defend impoverished clients, not
excepting accused murderers.
Tausk visited Vienna for the first time in 1897, and
there in 1898 met Martha Frisch, a distant relation of
Martin Buber, the theologian-philosopher and social
activist. Jewish by birth and Marxist by persuasion, she
was also a Christian, and Tausk was baptized in order
to marry her in 1900. Their first child was stillborn,
but a son, Marius, was born in 1902; a second son,
Victor-Hugo, followed in 1904. They returned to
Yugoslavia, where they separated in 1905 and divorced
three years later.
Resettled in Berlin by 1906, Tausk began working as
a journalist while writing poetry and plays and immersing
himself in artistic endeavors. In 1907 his health,
already precarious while a student, worsened with
both physical illness (including weak lungs) and
depression. He entered a sanatorium and during his
stay was apparently impressed by an article by Freud,
wrote to him, and received an invitation to study psychoanalysis
in Vienna. There he moved in 1908 and
began analytic training. He became interested in the
psychoses just about the time of Carl Jung’s rupture
with Freud; the former had published The Psychology
of Dementia Praecox in 1907.
At the same time, Tausk began medical studies,
due to financial help he received from Freud and
other Viennese analysts. He worked both at the outpatient
neurological department directed by Frankl von
Hochwart and at the psychiatric clinic at the University
of Vienna, presided over by Wagner von Jauregg, the
psychiatrist and neurologist who would later win a
Nobel Prize. Tausk obtained his medical degree in 1913.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Lou Andreas-Salomé, highly reputed among intellectuals,
met Tausk in 1912; she admired his brilliance
while perceiving the extent of his psychological conflicts.
(Kurt R. Eissler suggested a retrospective diagnosis
of manic-depressive illness.) Analysts at the time
were not required to undergo a personal psychoanalysis,
which in any event was more often didactic than
therapeutic. The facts concerning the presumed affair
between Tausk and Andrea-Salomé are controversial.
In 1915 Tausk was mobilized and served as a psychiatrist
in Lublin. Although he continued to attend
psychoanalytic meetings, the dreadful economic conditions
in Europe at the end of World War I found
Tausk living like an impoverished student. He had
opportunities for work in Belgrade and Zagreb but did
not want to leave Vienna. Freud declined to accept
Tausk as an analysand and referred him to Helene
Deutsch. But Deutsch found that treating Tausk contaminated
her own sessions with Freud, who
instructed her to choose between himself and Tausk
(Roazen, Paul, 1972, p 31). Three months later, in
1918, she terminated Tausk’s analysis.
On the question of Tausk’s suicide, Paul Roazen has
stressed the impact of his conflicts with Freud, which
he viewed as based on deep-seated rivalries, including
issues of plagiarism and intellectual priority of ideas.
Eissler by contrast emphasized Tausk‘s “severe” psychopathology,
qualifying him as “talented” but no
“genius.” However disturbed he may have been, he
impressed Melanie Klein when she met him at the
Budapest Congress in 1918.
Tausk, in any event, ended his own life by shooting
himself in the head after wrapping a curtain cord
around his neck, so that he strangled himself as he fell.
He had been drinking, but a rumor of his prior emasculation
was unfounded. Though attractive to women,
Tausk’s affairs had often ended in failure and abandonment.
Before his death he had become engaged to
Hilde Loewi, a young concert pianist whom he
seduced while his patient. She may have been pregnant
with his child when he committed suicide.
Tausk’s fourteen published articles are remarkable
for adumbrating certain psychoanalytic concepts. The
best known is “On the Origin of the ‘Influencing
Machine’ in Schizophrenia” (1919), the last of his writings
to be published during his lifetime. Indeed, after
his death Tausk curiously disappeared from the psychoanalytic
horizon, only to return in the 1970s.
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TAvistock CLINIC
Tausk’s actual influence has been indirect and often
gone unattributed, consonant with his posthumous
occultation in the history of psychoanalysis.
Marie- THERESE NEYRAUT-SUTTERMAN
See also: Hungary; Suicide.
Bibliography
Eissler, Kurt R. (1971). Talent and genius. New York: Quadrangle
Books.
Kanzer, Mark. (1972). Victor Tausk—The creativity and suicide
of a psychoanalyst. Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 41,
556-584.
Roazen, Paul. (1969). Brother animal. The story of Freud and
Tausk. New York: Alfred Knopf.
. (1969). Victor Tausk’s contribution to psychoanalysis.
Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 38, 349-353.
Tausk, Marius. (1973). Viktor Tausk as seen by his son.
American Imago, 30 (4), 323-335.
Tausk, Viktor. (1991), Sexuality, war, and schizophrenia: Collected
psychoanalytic papers. New Brunswick, NJ:
Transaction.
TAVISTOCK CLINIC
The Tavistock Clinic, also called the “Tavi,” is the premier
psycho-dynamic psychiatric out-patient clinic in
the British Isles, with Health Service departments for
adults, adolescents, and children and families. It provides
consultations to other institutions. The Academic
Services Directorate provides post-graduate trainings.
Human development, inter-personal relationships
within families and social structures are researched. The
chief executive in 2005 was Nicholas Temple.
The Tavistock Clinic was opened in 1920 at No. 51,
Tavistock Square, Bloomsbury, London, by Hugh
Crichton-Miller, who had used Freud’s theory of neurosis
in the treatment of soldiers suffering “shell
shock” from the First World War.
Crichton-Miller was a Christian influenced by Jung
and Freud. The clinic embraced a wide range of psychological
approaches, and applied psychoanalysis and
eclectic training, which resulted in a mutual antipathy
with Ernest Jones, who officially banned psychoanalysts
from staffing the clinic.
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TECHNIQUE WITH ADULTS, PSYCHOANALYTIC
Staff and trainees undertaking psychoanalytic training
later were Wilfred Bion, Margaret Little, Clara
Thompson, C. Phillip Wilson, and Eric Wittkower.
Michael Fordham trained with the Jungians. A few
psychoanalysts, including Susan Isaacs and Karin Stephen,
took part in the clinic’s training.
During the World War Two, several staff members
served in the Armed Forces; J. R. Rees becoming chief
of Army psychiatric services, G. R. Hargreaves Assistant
Director of Army Psychiatry. They brought
together Bion, John Bowlby, Bridger, Dicks, Foulkes,
Kelnar, MacKeith, Main, Morris, Phillipson, Rickman,
Rodger, Trist, Wilson, and Wittkower, forming an
“invisible college” working on officer selection, training,
morale, civil resettlement, therapeutic communities,
and group therapy. In 1946 some of these
formed the Tavistock Institute of Human Relations
(TIHR), an interdisciplinary group interested in the
problems of organizational and societal change. This
group established a journal, Human Relations, and
Tavistock Publications Ltd. With the Family Welfare
Association (Enid Eicholz, later Balint) they created
the Family Discussion Bureau (Tavistock Marital Studies
Institute). In the clinic they established a unit for
adolescents, developed the School of Family Psychiatry
and Community Mental Health (Academic Services
Directorate) and the joint Library.
The relationship between the clinic and psychoanalysis
improved after the war, due to the work of John
Rickman and Sylvia Payne. Bowlby headed the children’s
department and John Sutherland became medical
director. Michael Balint joined in 1949. Many staff
and trainees were in psychoanalytic training. The
adult department focused on group-analytic therapy
and the children’s department on the total family.
Bion wrote on groups, Dicks on marital difficulties,
Malan on short-term psychotherapy, Sandler on the
psychodynamic personality inventory, Parkes on
bereavement, Laing on pathological family processes,
Ainsworth on attachment, Bowlby on attachment and
loss, and the Robertsons made films on separation.
Training for lay child-psychotherapists was set up by
Bowlby with Esther Bick and Martha Harris.
The clinic, with TIHR, moved to new premises in
1967, also housing the Child Guidance Training
Center. The adolescent unit incorporated the Young
People’s Consultation Service headed by Walter
Joffe.
1728
The present-day clinic provides service, training,
and research, complementary to psychoanalysis, and
attracts visitors and trainees from afar.
Marcus JOHNS
See also: Balint group; Bick, Esther; Bion, Wilfred
Ruprecht; Bowlby, Edward John Mostyn; British Psycho-
Analytical Society; Great Britain; Infant. observation
(therapeutic); Laing, Ronald David; Rees, John Rawlings;
Rickman, John; Robertson, James; Technique with children,
psychoanalytic; Tustin, Frances.
Bibliography
King, Pearl H. M. (1989). British analysts during World
War II. Inter-disciplinary collaboration. International
Review of Psychoanalysis, 16, 15-34.
Trist, Eric; et al. (1982). The Tavistock Institute: origin and
early years. Personal communication (pp. 1-30). New York:
Pearl King, Academy of Management.
TECHNIQUE WITH ADULTS,
PSYCHOANALYTIC
The difficulties Freud experienced in writing the General
Method of Psychoanalysis (“Allgemeine Methodik
der Psychoanalyse”), which he had announced in 1908
to Carl G. Jung, Sandor Ferenczi, Karl Abraham, and
Ernest Jones, are well known. The need for such a
manual had become more urgent by 1906, as more
students and colleagues showed interest in being
initiated into the new method of treatment. Scattered
in cities across the world—Zurich, Budapest, London,
New York, and Toronto—these followers were busy
with their professional responsibilities, and so were
unable to complete an apprenticeship under the personal
tutelage of the sole master of psychoanalysis.
Freud did not get much past page 36, and it was
only after 1910 that he decided to publish the few articles
that, until 1915, were generally grouped under his
“technical writings.” These involved merely a few
recommendations, generally of the nature of what
should not be done during treatment, lessons learned
from years of slow and progressive elaboration of the
psychoanalytic method.
The history of Freud’s method was marked by some
important turning points, especially the progressive
abandonment of hypnosis, the substitution of free
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
association for the technique of concentration
(1898a), the stress on the interpretation of dreams
(1900a), and the emphasis on the analysis of resistance
rather than the forced search for “primal scenes,” in
addition to the primordial role eventually accorded to
transference neurosis.
Although the framework of the treatment was in
place from 1903, at least in its formal aspect (1904a
[1903], 1905a [1904]), it was only in October 1907,
with the treatment of the “Rat Man” (1909d) that the
last great technical recommendation was announced:
“The technique of analysis has changed to the extent
that the psychoanalyst no longer seeks to elicit material
in which he is interested, but permits the patient
to follow his natural and spontaneous trains of
thought” (Nunberg and Federn, p. 227).
While questions were raised concerning possible
modifications of technique to include psychotic
patients, the First World War and its social implications
led Freud to anticipate the need to mix the
practical aspects of psychotherapy with the ideals of
classical psychoanalysis (1919a [1918]), paving the
way for multiple modifications in technique, which
appeared one after another in the years to come.
Salient among the first modifications were Ferenczi’s
experiments with “active technique,’ which, following
Freud’s example, he pushed at first to an
extreme, in opposition to what he denounced as the
“fanaticism of interpretation.” The work which he
published in 1924 with Otto Rank, Perspectives de la
psychanalyse (Perspectives on psychoanalysis), was less
shocking for the public than the theory that Rank
espoused shortly afterwards in The Trauma of Birth,
but both Rank and Ferenczi aimed at reducing the
length of treatments, and bringing to greater prominence
the maternal role of the analyst in the transference.
In April, 1926, Rank distanced himself even
further from Freud with his book Technik der Psychoanalyse
(Technique of psychoanalysis), and in the
1930s, Ferenczi did likewise, especially with his
emphasis on [sexually] gratifying behavior, and his
experiments with “reciprocal analysis.”
On the other hand, Abraham, Ernst Simmel, and
Max Eitingon, at the Berlin Polyclinic and Institute,
which they created in 1920, codified the technical rules
that were to be taught to candidates in psychoanalytic
training, based on a “didactic analysis” and supervision.
These continue to constitute the basis of teaching
at most psychoanalytic institutes.
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TECHNIQUE WITH AbuLts, PSYCHOANALYTIC
Among the significant technical “innovations” was
doubtless “character analysis,” which Wilhelm Reich
developed in 1933, and which marked the last great
discussions contemporaneous with Freud, apart from
the debates concerning analytical technique with children
that took place between the disciples of Anna
Freud and Melanie Klein. After the war, Jacques
Lacan’s suggestion to permit sessions varying in length
was severely censured by the members of the International
Psychoanalytic Association, without discussion,
its originator not having supplied sufficient supporting
materials for such a proposal.
In the area of classic analytic treatment, modifications
multiplied, along with the creation of new techniques
loosely connected with psychoanalysis: “psychoanalytically
oriented psychotherapy,’ psychodrama, group
psychoanalysis, and so forth.
Freud himself never established rules that were
fixed and absolute, commenting even, in introducing
his “Recommendations”: “The technical rules that I
am putting forward here have been arrived at from my
own experience in the course of many years, after
unfortunate results had led me to abandon other
methods.... I must however make it clear that what I
am asserting is that this technique is the only one suited
to my individuality; I do not venture to deny that a
physician quite differently constituted might find himself
driven to adopt a different attitude to his patients
and to the task before him” (1912e, p. 111).
A reading of the memoirs of his analysands well
illustrates the liberties he constantly allowed himself in
the analysis of his daughter and that of Ferenczi,
whom he advised, on June, 1, 1916: “As you’ve wanted,
if your fates allow, I'll save two sessions for you every
day. I hope to see you a lot otherwise, and would like
you to dine with us at least once a day. Technical rules
demand, however, that, outside of the sessions nothing
personal be mentioned.”
In 1928, at the Hague Conference, Ferenczi, in his
presentation on tact, mentioned that “Freud had said
‘negative’ and ‘positive’ things about ‘tact’; with the
result that obedient subjects did not understand how
elastic the conventions were, submitting to them as if
they were written in stone.”
In fact, the technical rules that Freud initially
wanted to make more flexible gradually became rigid;
his early flexibility was shown by his remark recorded
in the Minutes of February 8, 1910: “It is inconsistent
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TECHNIQUE WITH ADULTS, PSYCHOANALYTIC
to say: I must not impart this or that. This simply cannot
be said in such a general way. It is evident that the
technique can be practiced with understanding and
tact, or otherwise” (Nunberg and Federn, p. 417). Smiley
Blanton, his patient, recalls that Freud said, in
March 1930: “Now in the matter of papers on technique,
I feel that they are entirely inadequate. I do not
believe that one can give the methods of technique
through papers. It must be done by personal teaching.
Of course, beginners probably need something to start
with. Otherwise they would have nothing to go on.
But if they follow the directions conscientiously, they
will soon find themselves in trouble. Then they must
learn to develop their own technique” (p. 48).
All the same, freedom is not license, and Freud was
clear about this in a letter to René Laforgue, dated July
2, 1928: “If you want to give the beginner the feeling of
being a free man, of not being obliged to stick submissively
to the rule, to trust his intuition and give free
rein to his humanity, I fear that the results will be quite
disappointing. His intuition will lead him, unfailingly,
in the wrong direction, and as far as his humanity is
concerned, any position is closer to this than the analytic
position” (1977h [1923-33]).
Since then, hundreds of articles and many books
have been published on this subject; among them
Edward Glover’s (1955) and Ralph Greenson’s (1967).
The variety and the diversity of their positions show
the need to distinguish, in psychoanalytic practice,
between a simple “procedure,” whether on a trial basis
or in an emergency, and a “method” that qualifies as
properly psychoanalytic, within which such a procedure
will find a place, or not (Mijolla). Processes
recognized as effective, along with the theoretical goals
that structured them when they were initiated, as well
as the definitions of the goals and means of psychoanalysis,
all changed as Freud continued to discover
things, and were subject to further modification after
his death. There is no “method,” except one based on a
theory of analysis. Method and theory enrich each
other in a permanent process of evolution, one that
absorbs the lessons of experiments with sometimes
ephemeral procedures, together with particular attention
to their favorable or unfavorable consequences.
ALAIN DE MYoOLLa
See also: Action-language; Analyzability; Analysand;
Fourth analysis; “Analysis Terminable and Interminable”;
1730
Analytic psychodrama; Anticipatory ideas; Attention;
Balint, Michael (Balint [Bergsmann], Mihaly); Bion,
Wilfred Ruprecht; Character Analysis, Construction/
reconstruction; “Constructions in Analysis”; Cryptomnesia;
Evenly-suspended attention; Face-to-face situation;
Five Lectures on Psycho-Analysis, Free association; Fundamental
rule; Glover, Edward; Interpretation; “Lines of
Advance in Psycho-Analytic Therapy”; Money in the psychoanalytic
treatment; Narcissistic injury; Neutrality/
benevolent neutrality; Psychoanalyst; Psychotherapy;
Racker, Heinrich; “Recommendations to Physicians Practicing
Psychoanalysis”; Reich, Wilhelm; “Remembering,
Repeating and Working-Through”; Supervised analysis
(control case); Termination of treatment; Therapeutic alliance;
Tomasi di Palma di Lampedusa-Wolff Somersee,
Alessandra; Training analysis; Training of the psychoanalyst;
“Wild ’ Psycho-Analysis”; Word association.
Bibliography
Blanton, Smiley. (1971). Diary of my analysis with Freud.
New York: Hawthorn.
Ferenczi, Sandor. (1955). The elasticity of psycho-analytic
technique. In Final contributions to the problems and methods
of psycho-analysis. London: Hogarth and the Institute
of Psycho-Analysis. (Original work published 1928)
Freud, Sigmund. (1898a). Sexuality in the aetiology of the
neuroses. SE, 3: 259-285.
. (1900a). The interpretation of dreams. Parts I and
II. SE, 4-5.
. (1904a [1903]). Freud’s psycho-analytic procedure.
SE, 7: 247-254.
. (1905a [1904]). On psychotherapy. SE, 7: 255-268.
. (1909d). Notes upon a case of obsessional neurosis.
SE, 10: 151-318.
. (1912e). Recommendations to physicians practising
psycho-analysis. SE, 12: 109-120.
. (1919a [1918]). Lines of advance in psycho-analytic
therapy. SE, 17: 157-168.
Freud, Sigmund, and Laforgue, René. (1977h [1923-33]).
Correspondance Freud-Laforgue, préface d’Andre Bourguignon.
Nouvelle Revue de psychanalyse, 15, 235-314.
Glover, Edward. (1955). The technique of psycho-analysis.
London: Bailliere, Tindall & Cox.
Greenson, Ralph. (1967). The technique and practice of psychoanalysis.
New York: International Universities Press.
Mijolla, Alain de. (1987). Unconscious identification fantasies
and family prehistory. International Journal of Psychoanalysis,
68, 397-403.
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Nunberg, Hermann, and Federn, Ernst. (1962-1975). Minutes
of the Vienna Psych. Society (Vol. 1: 1906-1908). New
York: International Universities Press.
TECHNIQUE WITH CHILDREN,
PSYCHOANALYTIC
The psychoanalysis of children represents an area of
research and practice whose definition and progressive
formation, through the twentieth century, were not
established without clashes, conflict, and polemics.
There have been successive waves of interest, with
competing views, sometimes resulting in fixed oppositional
positions, depending on the period.
The psychoanalysis of children is perceived by some
as heretical, difficult to practice, even fundamentally
utopian or impossible; by others, it is seen as an informative
and reflexive paradigm, capable of enriching the
theory and the technique of adult psychoanalysis. On
one hand, it has been presented as intrinsically impure,
on the other, much more rarely, it has seemed to be a
kind of unrealizable ideal, fecund but somewhat vague.
These debates relate of course to the status accorded
the mind of the child viewed on its own terms, and not
only insofar as it is evolving into the mind of an adult,
but also involve inevitable modifications in technique,
since it is obvious that the framework defined by
Sigmund Freud for the adult (with the couch, the
basic rule of free association, absolute priority
accorded to language and so forth) cannot be applied
as such to children, especially to very young ones.
In this connection, two remarks should be made:
first of all, one must be very careful to distinguish
the psychoanalysis of the child from various applications
of psychoanalysis to the domain of childhood
(psychoanalytically inspired psychotherapies,
combined parent-child therapies, analytic observation
of newborns, so-called psychoanalytic family
therapies, psychodrama, group therapies—with analytical
overtones—or even the application of psychoanalytic
concepts in education, pedagogy, and
social fields). Of concern here will be only the psychoanalysis
of the child, in its strictest sense, and
not any of its looser applications.
Furthermore, any science—and psychoanalysis has
a legitimate claim to this status, scientific pretensions,
even if that is not its only possible definition—defines
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TECHNIQUE WITH CHILDREN, PSYCHOANALYTIC
itself at once by the presence of a framework, and also
by its epistemological field. For psychoanalysis, there
is a strict framework, and not only the formal appearance
of one. In other words, as important as it is,
merely having a framework is not enough to entitle
something to be named a science; and the definition
of psychoanalysis cannot be reduced to this feature.
The essence of psychoanalysis is centered, at the minimum,
on the dynamics of transference and countertransference,
on the concept of resistance and the
function of interpretation, and it is reasonable to
judge that there is no effective analysis possible, without
real work on these different planes.
All the same it is quite possible to imagine that this
work can be conducted in different settings and, notably,
in settings adapted to the various ages of the children.
The whole purpose of the psychoanalysis of
children is to succeed in developing these different
aspects; for so long as these are not addressed fully, the
risk of conflict and misunderstanding between those
who treat adults and those who treat children will
remain, a risk that René Diatkine evidently was trying
to parry when he said: “I am not a psychoanalyst of
children, I am a psychoanalyst who treats children.”
Regarded historically, the evolution of ideas concerning
the technique of analysis of children has been
marked by a some significant turning-points, linked to
the work of the pioneers in this domain. Concurrently
with the recommendations of Freud, who, from 1905,
advised psychoanalysts to observe the psychosexual
development of their own children, in an attempt to
verify the reconstructed findings of the first adult
treatments (Freud following his own advice, Karl
Abraham observing his daughter Hilda, and Melanie
Klein her youngest son), Herminie von Hug-Hellmuth
was doubtless the first to undertake an authentic analysis
of a child, in Berlin, during the First World War,
recognizing the existence of transference and already
utilizing, although in an unsystematic manner, games
and drawings. Next was Eugenia Sokolnicka, in Warsaw,
in 1919. In 1921, Klein settled in Berlin to practice
the psychoanalysis of children, and Didier Houzel and
Gilles Catoire remarked that “what can be considered
as the prehistory of the psychoanalysis of children
ended at the beginning oft he 1920’s” (1986).
Subsequently, one of the great debates in the history
of psychoanalysis occurred between Anna Freud and
Klein, precisely on technical aspects that were due to a
basic theoretical-clinical divergence. Donald W.
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TECHNIQUE WITH CHILDREN, PSYCHOANALYTIC
Winnicott eventually assumed an intermediary position
in this debate, fairly close to the positions of Klein, especially
on the question of the place of games in technique,
but reproaching her, nevertheless, for what he saw
as her insufficient attention, to the child’s environment
and particularly to the role of the real mother.
In France, a number of names should be mentioned,
dividing, during the second half of the twentieth century,
along the line of scission between Lacanian psychoanalysts
and the non-Lacanian: Serge Lebovici, René
Diatkine, Michel Soulé, among the latter; Frangoise
Dolto, Jenny Aubry, Rosine and Robert Lefort, among
the former. These differences concerned theoretical
references that were also reflected on the level of technique
(the importance accorded to the child’s wishes, and
to the place of language, in particular), In the early
twenty-first century the influence of the post-Kleinian
movement is dominant in many countries in the conception
and technical choices of child psychoanalysis
(importance of counter-transference, exploration of
archaic or primal levels of mental functioning, work on
psychic boundaries, and so forth).
In 1926, in four lectures she gave at the Psychoanalytic
Institute of Vienna, Anna Freud described an
intermediary technique between the analytical and
educational approaches. The limits she placed on the
analysis of children were calculated on the basis of the
following arguments: no transference neurosis is possible
with the child (too great dependence on real
parents); modification of the framework is required,
having nothing in common with the free association
technique of adults (absence of symbolic associations
with games and drawings); there is need for a so-called
preparatory phase during which the analyst “induces”
the child by way of a certain charm to become involved
in the treatment, by establishing a positive transference
with the child, an educative role that is necessary if the
analyst is to avoid the consequence of the lifting of
repression and liberation of the drives.
In 1927, at a colloquium of the British Society,
Klein refuted the propositions of Anna Freud, point by
point. For her, analysis was incompatible with any
educative attitude; the preparatory phase was in no
way justified, because it was the interpretation of the
anxieties in the transference which allowed the child to
enter into the analytical process, the child being quite
capable of developing an authentic transference
neurosis.
1732
Progressively, Anna Freud drew closer to the
Kleinian positions, but for a long time there remained
serious differences between the two schools as a legacy
of this early opposition. It wasn’t until 1990 that the
first joint colloquium took place, between the Anna-
Freudian Hampstead Clinic and the Kleinian Tavistock
Clinic (this colloquium was to havé been presided over
by John Bowlby, who, in fact, died a few months before
the event). These two institutions have remained,
through 2005, very important centers for reflection on
the subject of child psychoanalysis, certain names
deserving mention, among many others: Anne-Marie
and Joseph Sandler, Peter Fonagy, Hansi Kennedy,
_Géorge Morane, of the Hampstead Clinic; Hanna
. Segal, Esther Bick, Martha Harris, Donald Meltzer,
and Juliet Hopkins, of the Tavistock Clinic.
Given that there is no such thing as a purely technical
problem, but that technical problems always refer
to underlying theoretical-clinical issues (hence, the
historical survey, above), it can be said that the question
of psychoanalytic technique with children is
based on four main elements: the place of parents in
the process, the framework, the transference—countertransference
dynamic, and the function of
interpretation.
Working with parents should be distinguished from
the treatment, properly speaking, but it conditions it,
in great part. Depending on the age of the child and
the technique of each practitioner, positions vary as to
the analyst’s role in the family. In most cases, the work
is effectuated by a consultant, not by the child’s analyst,
so that the child’s “mental space” is better
respected, but some technical variations are possible in
this respect.
As far as the framework is concerned, a point in
common with adult analysis concerns the number of
sessions per week, which should be enough for a veritable
analytical process to be begun (all the more so
with psychotic, as opposed to neurotic children).
Three visits a week seems to be the generally accepted
frequency, alas not very often realized in practice. The
question of payment has been also the source of much
reflection, the notion of “symbolic payment” having
been particularly developed by Francoise Dolto, in
France, and by other authors influenced by her.
In addition, the place of the body and of preverbal
communication, have attracted much attention, and
have caused some changes in the way children are
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
treated, compared to adults. In the early twenty-first
century, means such as games, drawings, or modeling
clay are in very wide use, and usually considered as analogous
to the adult’s words, and as a basis for the practice
of free association.
The counter-transference and corporal involvement
of the child analyst is often more intense than that of
the analyst of adults, which is why, unfortunately, analysts
rarely continue until an advanced age to treat children,
as Donald W. Winnicott was able to do. The
difficulty of the task should not, however, be reduced to
rationalizations as to its basic impossibility. The child,
just like the adult, is living in “deferred action” from the
very beginning, even if current developments in psychoanalysis
of the very young might cause some modifications
in the Freudian theory of deferred action; for
example, by diffraction over a number of generations.
The major difficulty connected to the framework of
analysis of children has to do with the role of the analyst
himself, who has to find a balance between the
freedom children are given to express themselves and
the limits one must at the same time impose on them
to avoid colliding with infantile omnipotence.
As to transference, particular attention deserves to
be paid to the therapeutic alliance, already mentioned,
which lies at the very heart of the controversy between
Anna Freud and Klein. This is a particularly difficult
notion when it comes to children: some authors see it
as a precondition for the later development of the
transference dynamic; others as a preliminary but conscious
and ego-like version of the transference, properly
speaking. It is clear, in any case, that with the
child, in most cases, the therapeutic alliance depends
in large measure on what kind of bond has or has not
been established with the parents.
Interpretations can be metonymical, metaphorical,
historical, or flatly transferential, as with adults, but
should have, over time, a containing effect, which
gives them their therapeutic value, and this because
the children treated are, mostly, those whose capacity
for containing is defective, and whose psychic boundaries
are still in the process of being formed. The kernel
of this problem is knowing how to create for such
children, while their internal framework is still in formation,
an external structuring framework, one specifically
derived and internalized from the framework of
the treatment. The analysis of children’s resistance has
proven to be wholly indissociable from the analysis of
the fantasy-contents and of the transference.
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TECHNIQUE WITH CHILDREN, PSYCHOANALYTIC
As with adults, many positions, often quite opposed
to each other, have been taken regarding the conclusion
of the child’s analysis, it being understood that
ideally the child should be the one to decide, even
beyond the eventual disappearance of the symptoms
that motivated the analysis—which would make sense,
obviously, only in relation to the existence of suffering
and intrapsychic conflicts obstructing the development
of the child.
Following authors such as Hanna Segal and Donald
Meltzer, the post-Kleinian movement has contributed
much to the discussion of the technique of analyzing
children. Meltzer (1967) even suggested describing the
therapeutic process in five successive phases: gathering
the elements of transference, sorting through confusions
of place, sorting through confusions of bodily
zones and modalities, [passing] the threshold of the
depressive position, and, finally, the process of separation.
Such a description, of course, risks being overly
schematic, but it has had the virtue of being able to
account for the dynamic of the process, as well as to
allow the articulation of a certain number of technical
approaches.
At the end of this introduction, it is fitting to recall,
with Antonino Ferro (1997), that psychoanalysis is
basically a single entity; and that there is really nothing
to be gained by dividing the psychoanalysis of the
child from that of the adult. Each is in a position to
enrich the other, notably by way of a calm, comparative
meditation on the various technical problems that
are posed in the two fields.
BERNARD GOLSE
See also: Child analysis; Children’s play; Controversial
discussions; Flower Doll: Essays in Child Psychotherapy;
Psychoanalytical Treatment of Children; Richard, case of;
Squiggle; Transference in children; Transitional
phenomena.
Bibliography
Freud, Anna. (1946). The psychoanalytical treatment of children.
Technical lectures and essays. London: Imago.
Houzel, Didier, and Catoire, Gilles. (1986). La psychanalyse
des enfants. Encyclopédie médico-chirurgicale. Psychiatrie.
Paris: E.M.-C.
King, Pearl H. M., and Steiner, Riccardo. (1991). The
Freud-Klein controversies, 1941—45. London and New York:
Tavistock-Routledge.
1733
Teer (ScHLoss TEGEL)
Meltzer, Donald. (1967). The psychoanalytic process. London:
Heinemann Medical.
Sandler, Joseph, Kennedy, Hansi, and Tyson. Robert L.
(1980). The technique of child analysis. Discussions with Anna
Freud. London: Hogarth and the Institute of Psychoanalysis.
TEGEL (SCHLOSS TEGEL)
The Schloss Tegel was the first establishment in the
world to provide psychoanalytic treatment in an institutional
framework. It was inaugurated on April 10,
1927 at Berlin-Tegel by neurologist Ernst Simmel, who
directed it until its economic collapse in August 1931.
Convinced by his experience treating war neuroses
acquired in the course of World War I, Simmel first
sought the financial support of the state for his project
to open a clinic. Having failed to obtain this support
in spite of his efforts and pleading, he founded, with
the help of three administrators (Dr. Nussbrecher,
director of the Phénix insurance company; Dr. Ludwig
Jekels; and Prof. Julius Hirsch, state minister) a SARL
(private limited company), the Sanatorium Schloss
Tegel, as a psychoanalytic clinic. On November 6, 1926
a lease was signed with the owner of the castle, state
councilor Reinhold von Heinz, concerning a “treatment
center with accommodation for physicians, a
pleasure garden and a park ... for use as a sanatorium,
authorizing the reception and treatment of patients
suffering from various illnesses with the exception of
physical deformities, sexually transmissible diseases,
and mental patients.” (Schultz-Venrath, 1995).
Unfortunately, the clinic was never free of financial
difficulties and had to be permanently supported by
Sigmund Freud, who instituted a help fund for it, to
which Marie Bonaparte, Dorothy Burlingham, René
Spitz, Franz Alexander, Max Eitingon, Raymond de
Saussure, and Hugo Staub contributed. In spite of this
the closure of the clinic in August 1931 became inevitable
in the economic crisis of the declining Weimar
Republic, because patients could no longer afford to
pay the hospitalization costs.
The clientele that Ernst Simmel treated in his
seventy-four-bed clinic consisted of seriously ill neurotics;
addicts of various kinds, including inveterate
gamblers; children and adolescents presenting deficits
in character development (kleptomania, for example);
patients in acute life crises; and chronic patients with
complications. The Schloss Tegel Sanatorium was destined
to become a center for systematic psychotherapy
1734
for patients suffering from organic illnesses. Among
the collaborators having received analytic training we
find Rudolf Bilz, Ludwig Fries, Alfred Gross, Irene
Haenel-Guttmann, Karl Maria Herold, Hellmuth Kaiser,
Eva-Maria Rosenfeld, Francis Deri, Ilja Schalit,
Edith Weigert-Vowinkel and Moshe Wulff.
In order to deal with multiple transference situations
in a therapeutic fashion, the nursing personnel, who
had received analytic training, had to function as an
extension of the psychoanalysts. Simmel was the first to
introduce the concept of psychoanalytic treatment for
patients suffering from organic illnesses, a concept with
a dyadic orientation. There were as yet no examples of
group psychoanalysis. The therapeutic technique
stressed the importance of avoiding regression by, on
the one hand, taking social reality into account and, on
the other, by offering timely analytic interpretations.
Three case histories were published from this clinic,
two of them being posthumous: the spectacular treatment
of a case of heart failure with pulmonary edema
(Simmel, 1931b), a feminine perversion (Simmel, 1990)
and a young pyromaniac (Simmel, 1949). With the
exception of two patients who were paid for by a charitable
organization, all the others were private patients.
LUuDGER M. HERMANNS AND ULRICH SCHULTZ- VENRATH
See also: Freud, Ernst; Germany; Simmel, Ernst; Thomas
Woodrow Wilson, Twenty-eighth President of the United
States. A Psychological Study.
Bibliography
Simmel, Ernst. (1931b). Uber die Psychogenese von Organstérungen
und ihre psychoanalytische Behandlung. In E.
Kretschmer and W. Cimbal (Eds.), Bericht iiber den VI. Allgemeinen
arztlichen Kongress fiir Psychotherapie in Dresden,
14-17 Mai 1931 (pp. 56-65). Leipzig: Hirzel.
. (1949). Incendiarism. In K. R. Eissler (Ed.), Searchlights
on Delinquency. New Psychoanalytic Studies Dedicated
to Prof. Aichhorn on the Occasion of His 70th Birthday July
1948. New York: International Universities Press, 90-101.
. (1990). Neurotische Kriminalitat und Lustmord.
Eingeleitet und kommentiert von Schultz U., Hermanns
L.M., Kiitemeyer M.: die psychoanalytische Behandlung
einer Lustmorderin im Jahre 1930. Psyche, 44, 71-99.
Schultz-Venrath, Ulrich. (1995). Ernst Simmels psychoanalytische
Klinik Sanatorium Schloss Tegel GmbH (1927-1931).
Frankfurt am Main-Washington: Deutsche Hochschulschriften
2081, Mikroedition.
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
TELEPATHY
“The process of telepathy is said to occur when a psychic
act by one person results in the same psychic act
in another person” (1933a [1932]). Sigmund Freud
developed several hypotheses about the direct transmission
of thought, or telepathy, seeing it as an archaic
mode of communication between individuals and
possibly a physical process that had become mental at
the two ends of the communications sequence.
Carl Jung and, later, Sandor Ferenczi, were, along
with Freud, interested in the question of telepathy.
Freud’s attitude toward it was simultaneously one of
openness, because of its proximity to the unconscious,
and reserve, fearing that psychoanalysis might find
itself compared to occultism. His interest was essentially
personal and longstanding, since he believed that
he was able to communicate remotely with his fiancée
Martha by thought alone when he was in Paris (Jones,
1957, vol. 3). Later, he attempted to conduct experiments
of this kind, which is reflected in his correspondence
with Ferenczi in 1910 and with his daughter
Anna in 1925. But Freud maintained that the notion
of telepathy was outside psychoanalysis, which was
only interested in using a scientific, not a mystical,
approach in the investigation of psychic activity.
In fact, in discussing the telepathy performed by
mediums, he recommended that we investigate their
psychology, as well as that of their customers. Nonetheless,
he felt that the phenomenon in question,
namely the transmission of thought, was at least probable
even if it was not demonstrable.
Freud advised Jung, and especially Ferenczi, to be
cautious about revealing their attitudes about telepathy,
which might have risked jeopardizing the status of psychoanalysis.
He expressed this sentiment publicly on
several occasions, the first time in 1921, in a short text
entitled “Psychoanalysis and Telepathy,” which was read
during a scientific meeting with his followers (1941d
[1921]), the second time in an essay, “Dreams and
Telepathy” (1922a), and then in 1925 in a note on “The
Occult Meaning of Dreams” (19251), published in the
New Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis (1933a).
In fact Freud couched his own interest in the occult,
in the form of a critique of a skeptical and limited
rationalism, in rather sharp terms: “Not for the first
time would [psychoanalysis] be offering its help to the
obscure but indestructible surmises of the common
people against the obscurantism of educated opinion”
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
TENDERNESS
(1941d [1921], p. 178). However, this interest did not
lead him to accept telepathy as such, but to examine
with greater attention the examples of premonitions
or of premonitory dreams, which led him to question
the after-the-fact reconstruction of narratives of partially
falsified acts.
The value of Freud’s investigation, therefore,
extends well beyond telepathy, touching upon the epistemological
justification of the interpretative process
used for dreams and analytic constructions. At the
same time, as a question, telepathy is most certainly
related to that of the unconscious through the hypothesis
of telepathic communication in primitives and
animals. Animism, the occult, and the uncanny, therefore,
form a field that is neither inside nor outside psychoanalysis,
but which psychoanalysis attempts to
approach using its own methods.
SOPHIE DE MijOLLA-MELLOR
See also: Latent; New Introductory Lectures on Psycho-
Analysis; Occultism; Omnipotence of thought; “Recommendations
to Physicians Practicing Psychoanalysis”;
“Uncanny’, The.”
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1922a). Dreams and telepathy. SE, 18:
195-220.
. (1933a [1932]). New introductory lectures on
psycho-analysis. SE, 22: 1-182.
. (1941d [1921]). Psycho-analysis and telepathy. SE,
18: 173-193.
Granoff, Wladimir, and Rey, Jean-Michel. (1983). L’Occulte,
objet de la pensée freudienne. Paris: Presses Universitaires
de France.
Jones, Ernest. (1953-1957). Sigmund Freud. Life and work,
London: Hogarth Press.
TENDERNESS
The term tenderness is derived from the Latin tener,
which expresses the idea of a young life filled with
freshness. By extension it can apply to a person who is
soft, easily wounded morally, and sensitive to altruistic
feelings.
Freud distinguished between “the affectionate and
the sensual current” (1912d, p. 180): the older of the
1735
TENDERNESS
two is tenderness, which corresponds to the choice of
the primary infantile object, which is based on the
drive for self-preservation and directed toward those
who care for the infant. “These affectionate fixations
of the child persist throught childhood, and continually
carry along with them erotism, which is consequently
diverted from its sexual aims” (p. 181). It is
only at puberty that the “powerful sensual current that
no longer fails to recognize its aims” (p. 181) is added.
The objects of the primary infantile choice are then
invested with powerful libidinal forces that conflict
with the prohibition against incest. It is by displacement
toward a new object with which sexual fulfillment
is possible that the current of tenderness and the
current of sensuality are reunited in the love
relationship.
Tenderness emits from an aim-inhibited sex drive
(libido). It is parental, and in particular maternal, tenderness
that “rous[es] her child’s sexual instinct and
prepar[es] for its later intensity” (1905d, p. 223). If it is
excessive, it will lead to “a precocious sensuality that will
spoil the child” and lead to a predisposition to neurosis.
Using this as his starting point, Sandor Ferenczi distinguished
a tenderness stage, or passive object love
stage, and a passion stage (1933). Michael Balint, his
student and follower, developed the concept of archaic
or primary object relation (Primary Love and Psychoanalytic
Technique, 1952). The most precocious phase
of psychic life “is not narcissistic in nature: it is directed
toward objects, but this precocious object relationship
is a passive relationship—I must be loved and
satisfied without having anything to give in return.”
“This form of object relation is not associated with any
erogenous zone’; mother and child do not have separate
identities, their reciprocal instinctual goals are
interdependent. This results in active infantile behaviors
where the impulse to cling plays a preponderant
role.
Paul-Claude Racamier summarized these issues and
developed them further. Primary love “is a relation that
unites by separating: uniting to the extent that it differentiates
and distinguishing to the extent that it reunites;
this is the primal paradox of narcissistic seduction”
(1995). Tenderness is used to convey this relation: “It
is both a mode of cathexis and an affective tone.” It is
not directly sexual but it is not without sensuality;
well-being—a developed form of self-preservation—is
sought instead of a push toward discharge. “Its special
feature is to envelop; its specific site, the skin.” Maternal
1736
gestures consist of gentle caresses, based on continuity
and tact within a climate of “temperate warmth.”
During the 1950s, John Bowlby, relying on the
direct observation of babies interacting with their
mothers and on ethological data, hypothesized the
existence of a primary and fundamental need for
attachment. This was manifest very early in the newborn’s
archaic behavior (crying, glances, holding) and
became more diversified as the infant grew. This work
had considerable impact and led to additional research
in the field of precocious interaction. These authors
identify the need for attachment as based on physical
contact, primarily through the skin. In 1968 Esther
Bick proposed the concept of a first psychic skin
whose aim was to keep the parts of the personality
together “as experienced by them passively.” In 1974
Didier Anzieu developed the concept of the “skin
ego,” “an original parchment that preserved the marks
of a ‘primal’ preverbal writing made of cutaneous
traces,” which culminated in the idea of the psychic
envelope. After birth the skin fulfills functions that
were formerly provided in utero by the maternal
envelope.
Julian de Ajuriaguerra studied the constitution of
the clinging-hugging gesture in children. Initially it is
an extension of the arm toward the selected person,
then the closing of the arm in an embrace. This gesture,
in its complexity, is only fully realized after the
age of nine months. Prior to this, one can observe,
early in the life of the child, the use of clinging (Moro)
and gripping reflexes. Then, around the age of two to
three months, the child attempts to open and extend
its arms. At around six months, the baby can coordinate
the gesture with speech intonation mimicry. At
around nine months, an organized pattern of clinging
is established, and will develop, around one year of
age, into more elaborate forms of related behavior.
Hugging, squeezing, caressing, kissing, and other gestures
of skin-to-skin contact are the most frequent
manifestations of tenderness in mother-child interactions.
This “tonic dialogue” forms a secure foundation
for emotional development.
REGINE PRAT
See also: Aggressiveness/aggression; Body image; “Confusion
of Tongues between Adults and the Child”; Friendship;
Latency period; Love; Maternal; Narcissism,
primary.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Bibliography
Ajuriaguerra, Julian de, and Casati, Iréne. (1985). Ontogenése
des comportements de tendresse: I. Etude de l’embrassement-
étreinte, a partir du pattern “tendre les bras.”
Psychiatrie de I enfant, 28 (2), 325-402.
Balint, Michael. (1952). Primary love, and psycho-analytic
technique. London: Hogarth.
Bowlby, John. (1969). Attachment and loss (Vol. 1). London:
Hogarth.
Ferenczi, Sandor. (1949). Confusion of tongues between
adults and the child. The language of tenderness and of
passion. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 30, 225—
230. (Original work published 1933 [1932])
Freud, Sigmund. (1905d). Three essays on the theory of
sexuality. SE, 7: 123-243.
. (1912d). On the universal tendency to debasement
in the sphere ofl ove. SE, 11: 177-190.
Racamier, Paul-Claude. (1995). L’Inceste et l’Incestuel. Paris:
Editions du College de psychanalyse groupale et familiale.
TERMINATION OF TREATMENT
Very early on Sigmund Freud determined what for
him was the sign of the end of a psychoanalytic treatment,
that is to say that it is complete with the “practical
recovery of the patient, the restoration of his ability
to lead an active life and of his capacity for enjoyment”
(1904a, p. 253), criteria that he repeated in the Lecture
28 of the Introduction to Psychoanalysis (1916—17a).
But almost as soon, noticing the unpredictability of
the resolution of the transference, he remarked: “In
the early years of my psycho-analytic practice I used to
have the greatest difficulty in prevailing on my patients
to continue their analysis. This difficulty has long
since been shifted, and I now have to take the greatest
pains to induce them to give it up (1913c, p. 130).
In “Analysis Terminable and Interminable” (1937c)
he specified the ideal conditions for termination of
treatment: “An analysis is ended when the analyst and
the patient cease to meet each other for the analytic
session. This happens when two conditions have been
approximately fulfilled: first, that the patient shall no
longer be suffering from his symptoms and shall have
overcome his anxieties and his inhibitions; and secondly,
that the analyst shall judge that so much
repressed material has been made conscious, so much
that was unintelligible has been explained, and so
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
TERMINATION OF TREATMENT
much internal resistance conquered, that there is no
need to fear a repetition of the pathological processes
concerned” (1937c, p. 219).
Eight years earlier Sandor Ferenczi suggested: “The
proper ending of an analysis is when neither the physician
nor the patient puts an end to it, but when it dies
of exhaustion, so to speak, though even when this
occurs the physician must be the more suspicious of
the two and must think of the possibility that behind
the patient’s wish to take his departure some neurotic
factor may still be concealed. A truly cured patient
frees himself from analysis slowly but surely; so long as
he wishes to come to analysis, he should continue to
do so” (“Termination of Analysis,” p. 85). He also indicated
the “ideal goal” to aim for: “The far sharper
severance between the world of fantasy and that of reality
which is the result of analysis gives them an almost
unlimited inner freedom and simultaneously a much
surer grip in acting and making decisions; in other
words it gives them more economic and more effective
control” (p. 81).
Extending the duration of treatment and the perennial
problem of the “interminable analysis” have
always been issues of concern to the psychoanalytical
community and have been ceaselessly discussed in
many articles, congresses, and seminars Multiple and
disparate criteria to judge when a treatment may be
considered ended have consequently been proposed,
in accordance with changing theory and practice.
On the analysand’s side the following has been
recommended: behavior adapted to reality, an ability
to handle suffering and depression, overcoming of
penis envy and castration anxiety, access to genitality
in psychosexual behavior, reinforcement of sublimations,
diminution of guilt, and the like. Sacha Nacht
(1965) recommended taking account of the “lessening
of the fear of suffering, the acceptance of the patient of
himself, his ability to satisfy his desires, compatible at
once with his ideals and his milieu, and the possibility
of his engaging in action, while avoiding submission
to the automatism of repetition” (Lebovici, 1980).
Attachment to a new external libidinal object was
regarded with suspicion by Wilhelm Reich (1949) and
especially by Annie Reich, who saw therein a defensive
acting-out, like the divorces that occur at the end of an
analysis.
On the analyst’s side there is an “intuition” by
unconscious perceptions that termination is necessary,
1737
THALASSA. A THEORY OF GENITALITY
that the transference neurosis is on the way to being
“liquidated.” Melitta Schmideberg (1938) has even
recommended that the analysis be systematically interrupted
after six years so that the bond with the analyst
won’t make separation impossible.
With the “Wolf Man” case (1918b), Freud used the
technique of fixing a date of termination to the analysis,
but the results led him to rarely ever repeat this,
nor to recommend it. Sandor Ferenczi, with the
“active technique,” like Otto Rank, with the application
to treatment of the principles of The Birth Trauma
(1924), both aimed at shortening the duration of the
treatment, but their attempts were criticized by most
of their contemporaries and by Freud himself. Franz
Alexander suggested experimental interruptions
(1963), while, in France, Sacha Nacht (1965) recommended
breaking “the closed world” of the transference
by making the analyst more “present,’ to
“demythify” him, so as to favor “integration, by
successive, nuanced phases into external, objective
reality’—suggestions that have since been severely
criticized. A process based on progressive severance,
consisting in diminishing gradually the frequency of
sessions is doubtless the easiest and the most often
employed.
Whatever the criteria utilized to recognize that an
analysis is in process of termination, they can only be
based on the evolving conception that the protagonists
of the situation have been maintaining of the goals of
the treatment, as their special relation proceeds, and as
they analyze the conscious and unconscious motivations
inciting them to conclude it. Freud’s realist positions
on the two “rocks,” which any psychoanalytic
pretension to omnipotence will come up against,
should not be forgotten either: the male “refusal of
femininity” and the “penis envy” of the female. The
end of the analysis is also a recognition of the unanalyzable,
even if every treatment should involve an
attempt to gain on a little bit of its territory.
Generally there has been agreement that the traditional
framework of the treatment should be
maintained until the very last session, while a few
face-to-face sessions have been recommended in
some cases where working through the separation
was particularly difficult.
ALAIN DE MIJOLLA
See also: Psychoanalytic treatment.
1738
Bibliography
Ferenczi, Sandor. (1955). The problem of the termination of
the analysis. In The selected papers of Sandor Ferenczi. Vol.
[lI (Final contributions to the problems and methods of psychoanalysis.
(Michael Balint, Ed.; Eric Mosbacher, et al,
Trans.). New York: Basic Books. (Original work published
1927) ;
Firestein,. Stephen K. (1974). Terminasion de lanalyse.
Revue frangaise de psychanalyse, 44, 2. ;
Freud, Sigmund. (1937c). Analysis terminable and interminable.
SE, 23: 209-253.
Lebovici, Serge. (1980). L’expérience du psychanalyste chez
enfant et chez l’adulte devant le modéle de la névrose
infantile et de la névrose de transfert (The experience of
the psychoanalyst of children and adults with the models
of infantile neurosis and transference neurosis). Revue
francaise de psychanalyse, 44, 5-6.
Nacht, Sacha. (1965). Le transfert (Transference). In Guerir
avec Freud. Paris: Payot, 1971.
THALASSA. A THEORY OF GENITALITY
Freud described Ferenczi’s Thalassa. A Theory of Genttality
as “the boldest application of psycho-analysis
that was ever attempted” (1933a, p. 228). It is worth
noting that the Hungarian edition of the work (Budapest,
1929) bore a different title: “Catastrophes in the
Development of the Genital Function: A Psychoanalytic
Study.”
Ferenczi takes as his first axis of reference the parallelism
between catastrophic moments in the development
of the embryo (or ontogenesis) on the one hand,
and in the evolution of the species (or phylogenesis)
on the other. Proposing a vast fresco, summarized in a
synoptic table of presumed parallels (p. 69) and based
on Lamarck’s evolutionary theories and on Haeckel’s
fundamental rule of recapitulation, which it rounds
out, he brings together two seemingly distinct temporal
perspectives: the time of the germ cell, when the
human was a mere monoblast destined by fertilization
to become an egg, then an embryo, and after birth to
continue living in an extended dependency on the
environment; and the time that begins with the emergence
of organic life on earth, and which can be
described by reference to the various ice ages of the
Quaternary era. How many tens of thousands of years
were thus recapitulated in the transformation of the
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
ovum into the newborn? As Nicolas Abraham (1962)
notes, this “cosmogonic epic seeks its meaning in the
automatism of repetition itself.”
The second yardstick introduced by Ferenczi in his
interpretation of the erotic meaning of reality, of coitus,
of sleep, or of sexual impotence is regression. For
the adult man, coitus embodies a striving on the part
of the ego toward a threefold identification: a symbolic
identification of the whole organism with the
phallic function; a hallucinatory (or specular) identification
with the feminine partner; and a real identification,
effected as “the genital secretion [does] in
very truth penetrate into the uterus” (p. 74), as the
biology of pleasure makes the regeneration of the
human being into a material reality. Ferenczi ascribes
a traumatolytic function to the orgasm. To buttress
these analogies, he takes as a model the fusion of sexual
cells familiar to embryology, extrapolating the
notion of “amphimixis” to account for the partial
erotisms of different organs. By analogy with disturbances
of language, he describes erectile dysfunction
as “a kind of genital stuttering” (p. 9). He dubs his
working method “utraquism,” meaning that a single
phenomenon may be viewed in two complementary
perspectives, so that technique and theory have a
recursive relationship.
The ramifications of this text of Ferenczi’s were
considerable. In Totem and Taboo (1912-13a), Freud
had constructed a myth of the origin of civilization on
the basis of an animal, human, and/or divine parricide,
reparation for which was due “out of love for the
father” and not just “in the name of the father” (fraternal
alliances, codification of the prohibition against
incest); in Thalassa, Ferenczi evokes a carnival of bodily
organs whose regressions serve to actualize symbolic
remnants (marriage bonds, the search for the
child within the adult after post-traumatic fragmentation,
and so on). With respect to later psychoanalysts,
it is clear that Thalassa is an anticipation of Jacques
Lacan’s thinking on the logic of the unconscious and
of his topography of the Imaginary, the Symbolic, and
the Real. The work also foreshadows future psychosomatic
studies (which Ferenczi calls bioanalysis). It is
worth noting that such authors as Pierre Teilhard de
Chardin, André Leroi-Gourhan, Konrad Lorenz, Yves
Coppens, and René Thom have arrived in this connection
at equally original hypotheses.
PIERRE SABOURIN
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
““THEME OF THE THREE CASKETS, THE”’
See also: Amphimixia/amphimixis; Archaic mother; Ferenczi,
Sandor; Psychic causality.
Source Citation
Ferenczi, Sandor. (1924). Thalassa. Versuch einer Genitaltheorie.
Leipzig and Vienna: Internationaler Psychoanalytischer
Verlag. Thalassa: A Theory of Genitality (Henry
Alden Bunker, Trans.). Albany, NY: Psychoanalytic Quarterly,
1938.
Bibliography
Abraham, Nicolas. (1962). Preface to Sandor Ferenczi, Thalassa.
Psychanalyse des origines de la vie sexuelle. (Translated
into French by J. Dupont and S. Samama). Paris: Payot.
Freud, Sigmund. (1912—13a). Totem and Taboo. SE, 13: 1-161.
. (1933c). Sandor Ferenczi. SE, 22: 225-229.
Pragier, Georges. (1955). Un Inédit de Ferenczi. In Sandor
Ferenczi. Monographies of the Revue Francaise de Psychanalyse.
Paris: PUF.
Sabourin, Pierre. (1985). Ferenczi. Paladin et grand vizir
secret. Paris: Editions Universitaires.
“THEME OF THE THREE CASKETS, THE”
In “The Theme of the Three Caskets,” Sigmund Freud
presents a wealth of extremely complex thoughts in just a
few short pages. At the beginning are two scenes from
Shakespeare, in which the number three plays an essential
role: First, the choice of three pretenders to Portia’s hand
between three metal caskets in The Merchant of Venice;
and second, in King Lear the dying King’s partition of his
kingdom between his three daughters, according to the
love they show for him. In both these two plots, the humblest
thing is shown to be the most precious: plain lead
on one side, the mute love of Cordelia on the other.
Although Freud initially draws on Shakespeare as his
source for the choice between caskets; he ends up relying
on myths that deal with the choice a woman must make
between three pretenders, but which is inverted (as in
the case of the choice between the three caskets and in
the logic of the dream) into the choice a man makes
between three caskets, that is, three women.
This leads Freud to evoke other scenes that turn on
the number three in myths, folklore and literature, for
instance constellations of three sisters where the choice
always fall upon the third one who is the most unique.
Freud identifies this uniqueness of the third as her
1739
THERAPEUTIC ALLIANCE
“muteness.” and then recalls how muteness in psychic
life is typically a representation of death. The third
daughter, seen from this perspective, may be viewed as
Death, the Goddess of Death. The sisters appear, consequently,
as the three daughters of Fate—according to
mythological tradition, the three Moirai, Parcae, or
Norns. Freud’s detour through mythology makes the
goddesses of fate represent the inexorable Law of Nature,
and thus of the passing of time and the ineluctability
of death as well.
Returning to the choice between three sisters, Freud
seeks to soften any resultant contradictions between
this detour through mythology and the specific choice
itself by reminding us that fantasy activity typically
inverts what is disagreeable into its contrary. Fatality,
the inexorability of death, is transformed into a free
choice. In King Lear the old man appears at the end
carrying the dead Cordelia in his arms. Freud refers
the powerful effect this produces to the latent message
transpiring behind the manifest representation of the
scene: in fact it is Cordelia, Goddess of Death, who carries
the dead king off the battlefield.
Although a minor work, this magisterial essay
demonstrates concretely, even in its use of free association,
the fecundity of the analytical method when
applied to literature, myths, and folklore; while at the
same time illustrating the laws of psychical functioning,
such as the inversion of a wish into its opposite.
In a letter to Sandor Ferenczi dated July 9, 1913,
Freud revealed that the “subjective condition” he was
in when writing this essay was occasioned by the fact
that his third child, Anna, was beginning to occupy a
very unique place in his life.
ILSE GRUBRICH-SIMITIS
See also: Literature and psychoanalysis; Mother goddess;
Silence.
Source Citation
Freud, Sigmund. (1913f). Das Motiv der Kastchenwahl.
Imago 2, 257-266; GW, 10, 24-37; The theme of the three
caskets. SE, 12: 291-301.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund, and Ferenczi, Sandor (1992-2000). The correspondence
of Sigmund Freud and Sandor Ferenczi. (Eva
Brabant, Ernst Falzeder, and Patrizia Giampieri-Deutsch,
1740
Eds.; Peter T. Hoffer, Trans.).; Cambridge, MA: Belknap
Press of Harvard University Press.
THERAPEUTIC ALLIANCE
Therapeutic alliance refers to the mutual collaboration
established between a psychoanalyst and a patient to
overcome the neurotic or psychotic resistance that
blocks change and the healing process. Freud provided
a clear description of this in his Outline of Psychoanalysis,
“The analytic physician and the patient's weakened
ego, basing themselves on the real external world, have
to band themselves together into a party against the
enemies, the instinctual demands of the id and the
conscientious demands of the super-ego. We form a
pact with each other. The sick ego promises us the
most complete candor—promises, that is, to put at
our disposal all the material which its self-perception
yields it; we assure the patient of the strictest discretion
and place at his service our experience in interpreting
material that has been influenced by the unconscious.
Our knowledge is to make up for his ignorance and to
give his ego back its mastery over lost provinces of his
mental life. This pact constitutes the analytic situation”
(1940a {1938]).
Following his theorization of “resistance, Freud
abandoned contemporary psychotherapeutic thinking
to begin developing “psychoanalysis.” The discovery
that his patients unconsciously refused to provide
themselves with the means for improvement, no matter
how much they asked for it, was to lead him to his
description of the “secondary benefit” of the illness
and his understanding of the need to support the work
of therapy through positive transference in order to
overcome the unconscious obstacles represented by
negative transference or the resistance to change.
“Healing is achieved through love,” he wrote on
December 6, 1906, in a letter to Carl Gustav Jung. This
belief was often repeated and led Freud, during his
therapeutic work—as exemplified in his work with the
“Rat Man” (1909d)—to encourage, through words or
signs, the confidence of his patients and their attachment
to him.
On several occasions Freud mentioned this “analytic
pact” concluded between the conscious ego of the
patient and the therapist. Freud did not fail to point
out the constant shortcomings, the most important of
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which has to do with the transference neurosis, which,
if it is not recognized and analyzed, risks blocking the
patient’s associative process. The patient then “behaves
as if he were not in treatment, as if he had not concluded
a pact with the doctor.” (1916-17)
Subsequently, a number of analysts have described
the modalities of an alliance that is essential to overcoming
the inherent difficulties associated with therapy.
Richard Sterba, in 1934, described the split in the
ego that would allow the analyst to appeal to his
patient’s powers of reasoning to fight against his
impulses and repression. But it was Edward Bibring
who first referred to the “therapeutic alliance” (1937)
between the analyst and the “healthy” part of the
patient’s ego. In this he was faithful to Freud, who
wrote that same year in Analysis Terminable and Interminable:
“The analytic situation consists, as we know,
in our alliance with the ego of the person-object to
conquer the unconquered parts of his id and therefore
to integrate them in the synthesis of the ego. The fact
that such a collaboration often fails in the psychotic
provides, in our judgment, an initial point of support.
The ego with which we are able to conclude such a
pact must be a normal ego” (1937c).
After the Second World War the concept of a therapeutic
alliance enjoyed considerable success in the
United States when Elisabeth Zetzel, in 1956, made it a
component of psychoanalytic technique, especially
during the initial stages of therapy. She compared the
therapist’s attitude to the mother’s intuition toward
her infant and made this alliance the condition for the
emergence and resolution of the transference neurosis
(1965).
This approach, felt to be too thoroughly infiltrated
with Kleinian thought, was criticized by Ralph Greenson,
who, the same year, proposed the notion of a
working alliance. The term was used for subjects capable
of object relations (thereby excluding overly narcissistic
personalities) and is described as “a relatively
rational, desexualized transference phenomenon,”
capable of controlling aggressive impulses (1965). But
Greenson also insisted on the fact that this working
alliance, based on the “mature and rational” ego, was
established outside the analysis of transference and
necessitated actions or comments by the psychoanalyst
on the reality of the relationship (for example, recognizing
that the patient’s criticism is justified rather
than interpreting the need to criticize the analyst). Several
authors judged Greenson’s concept to be outside
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THING-PRESENTATION
the framework of analytic neutrality and abstinence
(Jacob A. Arlow and Charles Brenner, 1964; Mark
Kanzer, 1975, for example).
The question arises of the limits of action for the
psychoanalyst, a question presented in terms of the
weight of his reality in the therapeutic relationship.
Just how far can the maintenance of positive transference,
or the appeal to the rational by a split part of
the ego—which in its theorization is very similar to
the concept of the “conflict free ego” integral to ego
psychology—get, before outside factors present the
emergence of, or submerge, the psychic reality that
the psychoanalytic situation is in fact supposed to
promote? It was Joseph Sandler (1973) who insisted
on this distinction when he emphasized the necessity
of a therapeutic alliance sustained by interpretation
alone.
ALAIN DE MIjOLLA
See also: Greenson, Ralph; “Outline of Psychoanalysis,
An”; Psychoanalytic treatment; Technique with adults,
psychoanalytic; Transference in children; Transference
relationship.
Bibliography
Bibring, Edward. (1937). Contribution to the symposium
on the theory of the therapeutic results of psycho-analysis.
International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 18, 170-189.
Greenson, Ralph R. (1965). The working alliance and the
transference neurosis. Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 34, 155-181.
Sandler, Joseph, Dare, Christopher, and Holder, Alex.
(1973). The Patient and the analyst: The basis of the psychoanalytic
process. New York: International Universities
Press.
Zetzel, Elisabeth R. (1956). Current concepts of transference.
International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 37, 369.
. (1965). The theory of therapy in relation to a developmental
model of the psychic apparatus. International
Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 46, 39.
THING-PRESENTATION
In many of Freud’s writings, “thing-presentation”
means solely what it means for empiricist psychology,
as his concept of the mnemic image or trace would
suggest. In his paper “The Unconscious” (1915e),
however, Freud defined “thing-presentation” as “the
1741
THING-PRESENTATION
cathexis, if not of the memory-images of the thing, at
least of remoter memory-traces derived from these”
(p. 201).
This definition refers to the theory that Freud had
worked out on the contrast between perception and
memory and on the sequence of mnemic systems. The
psychic apparatus, he had concluded, has a spatial
structure in which presentations are related to one
another as a function of different types of associations.
This means that a thing-presentation is significant
less by virtue of its individual character than by virtue
of its being coded as a link in a network. Rather
than being a direct duplication of an object, a thingpresentation
is an inscription in the systems of the
mind of certain aspects of the object relative to an
instinctual cathexis.
In his monograph on aphasia (1891b) Freud first
drew the distinction between the presentation of
a thing (which at that time he called an “objectpresentation”)
and the presentation of a word. In
this neurological work, he classified the different forms
of aphasia on the basis of a psychology of mental representations
independent of the nervous system, thus
parting company with his predecessors, who_ had
constructed associationist models based on the search
for cerebral localization. Freud defined the link between
a thing-presentation and a word-presentation as the
result of an association (which in terms of the theory of
signs might be called arbitrary) between a sound image
specifically representing the word and the visual image
that of all possible mnemic images is especially representative
of the thing.
There is an inescapable connection here with the
signifier/signified relationship that Ferdinand de Saussure
would later be the first to describe, for Freud explicitly
asserted in his work on aphasia that “a word ...
acquires its meaning by being linked to an ‘object-presentation,”
and not by reference to the thing itself (SE
14, p. 213). By embracing this account of meaning,
Freud preserved differences internal to language and
differences external to it, for thing-presentations, on
this view, still refer to things in the outside world.
The compounds “thing-presentation” and “wordpresentation”
thus acquired a double sense, depending
on how the relationship between the two component
terms was understood. On the one hand, one could
take the thing or word concerned to be represented by
the corresponding thing- or word-presentation, that
is, by mental visual images and sound images that can
1742
be assimilated to the linguistic concepts of the signified
and the signifier respectively. On the other hand,
one could understand thing-presentations and wordpresentations
as referential signs, in which case these
terms would denote representatives of things and
words in the outside world. As a mnemic image, a
presentation in a sense indicates the referential or
denotative function, and thus restores the sign-thing
relationship that the signifier/signified opposition,
immanent to the sign, excluded.
More than twenty years later, Freud, in his article
“The Unconscious” (1915e), called once more on the
distinction between thing- and word-presentations,
this time to help overcome the difficulties inherent in
topographical and economic hypotheses advanced to
explain the differences between actual experience and
what was heard during analysis. His aim was to relate
such differences, not to varied forms of aphasia, but
rather to distinct mental systems: “The conscious presentation
comprises the presentation of the thing plus
the presentation of the word belonging to it, while the
unconscious presentation is the presentation of the
thing alone” (p. 201).
This hypothesis once again raised the vexing question
of the relationship between thought and language.
It promoted the idea that a thought precedes language:
thought is initially unconscious and concerned with
the sense impressions left by objects; when it later
becomes conscious, it does so only by means of wordpresentations.
The question of thought thus led back
to a realm prior to language, a realm that Freud occasionally
compared to Kant’s noumenal realm, the
realm of the thing-in-itself.
On this view, thing-presentations correspond less
to images than to thoughts or ideas of things that
have lost all the sensory vividness of perception.
These thing-presentations are incorporated into an
associative process along with other presentations,
thus constituting a thought process that, by definition,
is devoid of quality or feel. Hence there is an
essential need for word-presentations, which reendow
thing-presentations with their former sensory
vividness. Freud did not exclude the possibility of
thing-presentations directly becoming conscious;
dream images and hallucinations were evidence of
such a process. But he stressed that nonverbal
thought is a very imperfect means of bringing items
into consciousness—witness how we picture topographical
relationships in dreams (1923b, p. 21).
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The specificity of the notion of thing-presentation
in psychoanalysis lies in the difference between
cathected external objects and internal objects resulting
from the processes of introjection and projection
directed at external objects. In the primitive splitting
of ego and object that occurs when the object relationship
is established, when the mother is first perceived
as a whole object, it is possible to discern the origin of
a topographical distinction between psychic systems,
and thus the origin of the unconscious. This moment,
which correlates with the defense mechanism of primal
repression, is the starting point of representation.
ALAIN GIBEAULT
See also: Action-(re)presentation; Ego; Fantasy, formula
of; Ideational representation; Infans; Multilingualism
and psychoanalysis; Preconscious, the; “Unconscious,
The”; Visual; Word-presentation.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1891b). On aphasia: A critical study (E.
Stengel, Trans.). New York: International Universities
Press, 1953. Extracts in Freud (1915e), SE 14.
. (1915e). The unconscious. SE, 14: 159-204.
. (1923b). The ego and the id. SE, 19: 1-66.
Gibeault, Alain. (1985). Travail de la pulsion et representations:
Représentation de chose et representation de mot.
Revue francaise de psychanalyse, 49 (3), 753-772.
Further Reading
Tesone, J. E. (1996). Multi-lingualism, word, thing presentations
and psychic reality. International Journal of Psychoanalysis,
77, 871-883.
THING, THE
In the apparatus of the psyche, the Thing represents
the secret center of human desire, the nucleus of
pleasure/unpleasure. This nucleus is opposed to the
reality principle, which it threatens to undermine. The
Thing, also called the “lost object,” acts as the cause of
desire and a sign of longing for an impossible reunion
with the object.
Sigmund Freud first referred to the Thing in 1895,
in “A Project for a Scientific Psychology” (1950a). He
used the term again in 1925 in his essay “Negation.
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THomAS WoopRow WILSON, TWENTY-EIGHTH PRESIDENT. . .
Jacques Lacan fully elaborated this Freudian notion in
his seminar The Ethics of Psychoanalysis (1992).
An instance of the Thing develops from a complex
set of cathected perceptions and memory images that
have given pleasure in the past. This set includes a
stable kernel, called the Thing, and a variable element,
or predicate. The Thing arises in the primordial relation
between the infant seeking fulfillment of its vital
needs and the primary caregiver, the “fellow being,”
who is also the first hostile object. The kernel or
nucleus is inaccessible to judgment, while the predicate
is the object of a judgment that must verify
whether the memory image corresponds to reality. In
Lacanian psychoanalysis, this process of judging forms
the basis for the ego.
The Thing is situated in the unconscious articulation
of desire. In its origin, it posits the Other as
unconscious, as the force withholding the signifier of
satisfaction, while reality is subverted by the symbolic
function of memory traces of the lost object, from
which the subject’s desire is alienated.
JEAN-PAUL HILTENBRAND
See also: “Negation”; Other, the; Subject’s desire; Unary
trait.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1925h). Negation. SE, 19: 233-239.
. (1950c [1895]). A project for a scientific psychology.
SE, 1: 281-387.
Lacan, Jacques. (1992). The seminar of Jacques Lacan. Book
7: The ethics of psychoanalysis, 1959-1960 (Dennis Porter,
Trans.). New York: W. W. Norton.
THOMAS WOODROW WILSON,
TWENTY-EIGHTH PRESIDENT OF THE
UNITED STATES: A PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY
The Freud bibliography by Ingeborg Meyer-Palmedo
and Gerhard Fichtner attributes to Freud the preface
of Thomas Woodrow Wilson, Twenty-Eighth President
of the United States: A Psychological Study—a hybrid
work; it has remained one of the most ignored of all
the works to which Freud has contributed. Peter Gay,
who scrupulously reconstructed the genesis of the text
(1988), noted, quoting William C. Bullitt, how
1743
THomas Wooprow WILSON, TWENTY-EIGHTH PRESIDENT...
Freud’s “eyes brightened” when, in May 1930, during
a visit to the clinic at Schloss Tegel in Berlin, Bullitt
spoke to him about a book he wanted to write on the
Treaty of Versailles (p. v). Haunted by death and having
just gone through another operation, Freud at
once suggested that he contribute a study of President
Wilson.
Although—or because—Wilson’s personality and
actions had been “from the beginning unsympathetic to
me” (p. xi), Freud immediately began writing. His steps
can be traced up to August 1931, when Ambassador
Bullitt informed Colonel House, a former adviser of
Wilson, who was growing impatient, that “the first version
of the book is almost complete,” then, at the end of
April 1932, that “the book is finally finished.” The only
thing remaining was for the text to be revised, so, at the
end of November, Freud told Max Eitingon he had
learned from “his collaborator ... when it would be possible
to publish the Wilson book.” It is important to
remember that the situation at the Internationaler
Psychoanalytischer Verlag was dire at this time and
Freud was counting on the success of the book, as he
did the New Introductory Lectures (1933a [1932]), then
being printed, to restore the firm to solvency.
Nothing happened however. There were disagreements;
Freud wanted to add new material that Bullitt
rejected. The day after his arrival in London in June
1938, which owed a great deal to the ambassador’s
intervention, Bullitt finally obtained from Freud the
authorization to publish the text. According to Max
Schur (1972), Freud’s notes and letters were supposedly
burned by an absent-minded butler during Bullitt’s
hurried departure from Paris in 1940. “Why did
my father agree, after a repeated (and quite understandable)
refusal?” asked Anna Freud when the book
finally made its appearance in 1966—“after the death
of Mrs. Wilson” noted Bullitt.
While it is easy to understand the extent to which
this text was part of Freud’s preoccupation with the
dangers of a personality impregnated with religious
illusions and the political and economic fallout caused
by the misinterpretation of external reality by the
“world’s leading idealist,” the final result is perplexing
and Freud’s style comes through only in short bursts.
The subtitle, “A Psychological Study,” is clear, and
Freud explains that it “expresses our conviction that
psychoanalysis is nothing but psychology, one of the
parts of psychology, and that one does not need to
apologize for employing analytic methods in a psycho-
1744
logical study which is concerned with the deeper
psychic facts” (p. xiv). This could not have been done
during Wilson’s lifetime, but “when ... an individual
whose life and works are of significance to the present
and future has died, he becomes by common consent a
proper subject for biography and previous limitations
no longer exist” (p. xiv). :
After an introduction written by Bullitt—“Digest of
Data on the Childhood and Youth of Thomas Woodrow
Wilson”—there follows the “Psychological
Study” signed by both authors. The book contains
thirty-five short chapters of commentary on the principal
episodes of Wilson’s life, from his rise to power
until his paralysis in September 1919 and death on
February 3, 1924. Like a pale caricature of certain
essays on “psychohistory,” the book is a heteroclite
patchwork of simplified psychoanalytic concepts for
an ignorant public, remarks that are not without
finesse, and reductive and repetitive interpretations. It
is easy to see why so many readers have refused to see
this as Freud’s work.
This can be explained by the connection between
Wilson’s masochistic submissiveness and his “overpowering
father” (p. 59), the Reverend J. R. Wilson. A
“paternal complex,” the repression of a hostility that
was impossible to bear, since the father was assimilated
to the supreme Being, the identification of the son
with Jesus Christ and his mission as Savior of the
world, the creation of an “tremendously powerful and
exalted Super-Ego”(p. 60), a libido that found release
in his speeches—the list of explanations is not all that
long and each chapter could be concluded with the
quod erat demonstrandum that Freud had grown fond
of using during his friendship with Fliess.
But there was a fundamental difference with the
cases he had discussed until then, something both
authors recognized, in fact: “We shall never be able to
achieve a full analysis of his character. About many
parts of his life and nature we know nothing. The facts
we know seem less important than those we do not
know. All the facts we should like to know could be
discovered only if he were alive and would submit to
psychoanalysis.... It is a psychological study based
upon such material as is now available, nothing more”
(pes5)s
In fact this work, unlike that on Leonardo da Vinci
and the Memoirs of Justice Schreber, cannot be considered
a truly “psychoanalytic” work because not only is
it not based on clinical experience but it makes no
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attempt to illustrate a theoretical premise based on
other examples taken from clinical practice. It is purely
descriptive in nature, journalistic in a sense, and, like
any work of this nature—although it bears Freud’s
signature—the book is not an example of applied but
of superficial psychoanalysis.
The concluding sentence of Freud’s preface is worth
repeating, however: “We cannot, however, deny that,
in this case as in all cases, a more intimate knowledge
of a man may lead to a more exact estimate of his
achievements” (p. xvii).
ALAIN DE MYOLLA
See also: Bullitt, William C.; Ego-libido/object-libido;
Group psychology; History and psychoanalysis; Politics
and psychoanalysis; Psychohistory; “Why War?”
Source Citation
Freud, Sigmund, and Bullitt, William C. (1966b [1939]).
Thomas Woodrow Wilson, Twenty-eighth president of the
United States: A psychological study. London and New York:
Weidenfeld and Nicholson.
Bibliography
Bolzinger, Andre. (1991). Portrait psychologique et psychanalyse
sauvage. A propos de “Le président T. W. Wilson.”
LEvolution psychiatrique, 56 (1), 189-200.
Gay, Peter. (1988). Freud: A life for our time. London and
Melbourne: Dent.
Miller, Gérard. (1990). Préface. In Bullitt, William C., and
Freud, Sigmund, Le président T. W. Wilson. Paris: Payot,
“Petite Bibliotheque.”
Schur, Max. (1972). Freud: Living and dying. New York:
International Universities Press.
THOMPSON, CLARA M. (1893-1958)
American physician and psychoanalyst Clara M.
Thompson was born in Providence, Rhode Island on
October 3, 1893, and died in New York City on
December 20, 1958.
Thompson grew up in a religious, middle class
family. She was closer to her father, while her brother
Frank, nine years her junior, was closer to her mother.
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THomPSON, CLARA M. (1893-1958)
Thompson was a serious student and a tomboy in elementary
and high school where her goal was to be a
medical missionary. In 1912 Thompson enrolled at the
Women’s College of Brown University. College was a
difficult time for her; she is described as quiet and
lonely. A formative experience occurred in her sophomore
year when she read George Eliot’s Mill on the
Floss. Thompson deeply identified with its rebellious
protagonist, Maggie. She stopped going to church and
decided not to be a missionary. This precipitated a
twenty-year rupture with her mother. In her senior
year Thompson was engaged to be married, but her
boyfriend insisted that she chose between him and
medical school. She chose medical school and never
married.
In 1916 Thompson began medical training at Johns
Hopkins University, where she also completed her
internship. She worked at St. Elizabeth Hospital under
Edward Kempf and William Alanson White, and had a
psychiatric residency at the Phipps Clinic where she
studied under Adolph Meyer.
In 1923 Harry Stack Sullivan heard Thompson give
her first scientific paper. He was very taken by her
work and thus began a friendship of twenty-five years.
Sullivan encouraged Thompson to go into treatment
with Sandor Ferenczi, whom she first met in the spring
of 1927, while he was lecturing at the New School. She
went to Budapest in the summers of 1928 and 1929
and then moved to Budapest in June of 1931 where she
stayed until Ferenczi’s death in 1933. Prior to moving
to Budapest, in 1930, she had become the first president
of the Washington-Baltimore Psychoanalytic
Society.
Thompson’s treatment deeply affected her. People
felt that she was deeply changed by this analysis. Ferenczi’s
ideas about the impact of the real relationship
between patient and analyst and the importance of
real events in childhood were compatible with Sullivan’s
Interpersonal Theory, but Thompson strongly
disagreed with Ferenczi’s ideas about regression.
After Ferenczi’s death Thompson moved to New
York where she, Sullivan, Karen Horney, William Silverberg,
and later Erich Fromm met to discuss their
work. Thompson taught at the New York Psychoanalytic
Institute from 1934 until 1941, when she left after
Horney was forced to resign. She joined with Horney,
Silverberg, Robbins, and Fromm in forming the Association
for the Advancement of Psychoanalysis, but
1745
THOUGHT
she left two years later after Horney insisted on only
including medical doctors, and excluded Fromm.
Thompson, Fromm, and Janet Rioch, with the help
of Sullivan and Frieda Fromm-Reichmann, then
started the New York Branch of the Washington
School of Psychiatry, later to become the William
Alanson White Institute. Thompson was co-founder
and director of the William Alanson White Institute,
from its creation as the New York branch of the
Washington School of Psychiatry in 1943, until her
death in 1958.
Thompson wrote over fifty articles, many of which
are reprinted by Maurice Green in Interpersonal Psychoanalysis.
The Selected Papers of Clara Thompson
(1964). These include: “Notes on the Psychoanalytic
Significance of the Choice of Analyst,” (1938) “The
Role of Women in This Culture,” (1941) “Some Effects
of the Derogatory Attitude toward Female Sexuality,”
(1950) “Transference as a Therapeutic Instrument,”
(1945) and “Counter-Transference” (1952).
Thompson was a central force in the creation of the
interpersonal school of psychiatry. Thompson analyzed
or supervised many of the most influential members
of the second generation of interpersonal analysts
who greatly expanded and extended her ideas on
transference and counter-transference. Her understanding
of the unique difficulties facing professional
women led her to be the analyst of choice for many
groundbreaking women. In addition, T hompson’s
dedication to training lay analysts set an important
precedent in the United States.
Sug A. SHAPIRO
See also: Counter-transference, Interpersonal analysis.
Bibliography
Moulton, Ruth. (1986). Clara Thompson: Unassuming leader.
In L. Dickstein and C. Nadelson (Eds.), Women physicians in
leadership roles. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
Shapiro, Sue A. (1993). Clara Thompson, Ferenczi’s messenger
with half a message. In L. Aron and A. Harris (Eds.),
Legacy of Sandor Ferenczi. Hillsdale, NJ, and London: Analytic
Press.
Thompson, Clara. (1950). Psychoanalysis: Evolution and
development. New York: Hermitage House.
. (1964). Interpersonal psychoanalysis. The selected
papers of Clara Thompson (Maurice Green, Ed.). New
York: Basic.
1746
THOUGHT
Thought may be defined in general as mental activity,
conscious or unconscious, based on the various modes
of representation, including the most archaic. More
narrowly, the meaning of thought may be confined to
ideational activity, dependent om the faculty of judgment
and on the faculty that brings into conjunction
images of things and images of words. The discussion
here will be restricted to the narrower conception of
thought as ideational activity, but always bear in mind
that the narrower meaning is deeply rooted in the
more general one.
Freud approached ideational thought from three
different angles, which did not necessarily overlap. The
first was the “psychological” approach, as outlined in
the “Project for a Scientific Psychology” (1950c
[1895]) and further developed in The Interpretation of
Dreams (1900a), “Formulations on the Two Principles
of Mental Functioning” (1911b), and “Negation”
(1925h). In this perspective, Freud analyzed the
thought process in relation to perception, language,
memory traces, and action, for which, in Freud’s view,
thought was a substitute. The second approach, a
“genetic” one, was a response, in essence, to the question
of the origins of thought as a search for knowledge.
This line of enquiry was concerned primarily
with the child’s urge to find things out and sought the
libidinal origins of this drive and the circumstances
that set it in motion. The four main Freudian works
pertinent here are Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality
(1905d), “On the Sexual Theories of Children”
(1908c), the case history of “little Hans” (1909b), and
the analysis of Leonardo da Vinci (1910c), which situate
thought activity relative to the instinctual realm
and describe the various fates for which thoughts may
be destined: inhibition, obsessive intellectualization,
or sublimation. Freud’s third approach to thought was
an original way of looking, not at the actual activity of
thought, but at what is expected of it. This was the
“anthropological” approach, to be found notably in
Totem and Taboo (1912-1913a), which developed the
concepts of magical thought and animistic thought in
relation to thought activity during childhood and in
pathology.
In the “Project for a Scientific Psychology” (1950c
[1895]), Freud argued that thought processes are provoked
by dissonance between a memory imprinted by
a wish and a cathexis that seems to belong to the wish.
When the two do not coincide, a biological signal trig-
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
gers thought; when they do, another signal terminates
such activity and precipitates a discharge (action). Sixteen
years later, in “Formulations on the Two Principles
of Mental Functioning” (1911b), Freud proposed
a similar account of the act of judgment, which “had
to decide whether a given idea was true or false—that
is, whether it was in agreement with reality or not—
the decision being determined by making a comparison
with the memory-traces of reality” (p. 221).
Already in the “Project for a Scientific Psychology,” he
had stressed that it was possible for judgment to have
no objective beyond itself, such as mnemonic activity,
which is self-sufficient, or the examination of new perceptual
elements. In Freud’s theory, the role of judgment
is in fact circumscribed both by recollection and
by investigation.
In “Formulations on the Two Principles of Mental
Functioning,” Freud defined thought as an activity
that enabled the psychic apparatus to postpone discharge
(action) when it would be inappropriate, and
that brought together the impressions left by objects
(“presentations”) and their linguistic designators
(words). Freud also set off a “species of thought-activity
... kept free from reality-testing and ... subordinated
to the pleasure principle alone,” namely fantasizing,
which began with children’s play and survived in daydreams
(1911b, p. 222). Here Freud was broadening
the concept of thought in a way also met with in The
Interpretation of Dreams (1900a), where Freud divided
the notion of “dream-thoughts” into “essential dreamthoughts”
(the dream itself, uncensored) and “latent
dream thoughts.” The latter comprise the much
broader set of thoughts originating in the multiple
channels linking the latent to the manifest and of associations
arising from contiguity and resemblance and
produced during the work of interpretation. Even
though an intellectual activity, such as calculation or
deduction, may appear in a dream, “an act of judgment
in a dream is only a repetition of some prototype
in the dream-thoughts,” a repetition that may be “so
neatly employed that to begin with it may give the
impression of independent intellectual activity in the
dream” (1900a, p. 459).
Whereas the psychological approach offered a
description of thought activity, the genetic approach
raised an entirely different question: What makes us
think? The question calls for identifying causes sufficient
to account for the large quantities of libidinal
energy devoted to thought activity. Freud posited an
“instinct for knowledge or research” (1905d, p. 194).
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
THOUGHT
This independent and atypical instinct was not bound
to any erogenous zone but drew pleasure from other socalled
component instincts, namely the instinct to see
and the instinct for mastery. Freud needed the difficult
concept of sublimation here to explain this diversion of
the instinct’s aim and the change of its object. As early
as the “Project for a Scientific Psychology” (1950c
[1895]), Freud had pointed up the importance ‘of the
visual function for understanding. He stressed it even
more in his essay on Leonardo da Vinci, who famously
observed that the eyes are “the window to the soul.”
Freud’s logical progression from the desire to look
(Schaulust) to the instinct for knowledge ( Wisstrieb)
was based primarily on the fact that the wish to see
was not satisfied with contemplating or even scrutinizing,
but strove to compare. The perception of difference
and the comparison of several variants of what is
recognized as the same thing are steps toward the
abstraction that enables us to think and classify.
According to Freud, the instinct for knowledge is
awakened when children become interested in birth—a
practical interest aimed at coping with the arrival of
younger siblings (1908c). This curiosity, not satisfied by
the parents’ answers, leads the child to engage in intense
theorizing and to devise answers, sometimes the classical
ones, sometimes not, to unanswered questions. This
theorizing is associated with masturbation and, like it,
remains unfulfilled. Freud considered this lack of fulfillment
as one of the sources of intellectual inhibition.
In his write-up of the case of “little Hans” (1909b), his
write-up of the case of the “Wolf Man” (1918b [1914]),
and his analysis of Leonardo da Vinci (1910c), Freud
explores the fate of this instinct for knowledge, which
may either fall prey to inhibition, in tandem with a violent
surge of sexual repression, or overcome inhibitory
forces and re-emerge from the depths of the unconscious
in the form of an obsessive thought. Or again, in the “rarest
and most perfect” cases, the instinct may escape both
fates: “The libido evades the fate of repression by being
sublimated from the very beginning into curiosity and
by becoming attached to the powerful instinct for
research as a reinforcement” (1910c, p. 80).
Melanie Klein continued this line of investigation by
developing the notion of an epistemophilic instinct, a
very early curiosity concerning the inside of the
mother’s body and the babies presumably found there.
Beginning with a consideration of the sadistic and
destructive dimension of this curiosity, she pointed out
that one of the sources of intellectual inhibition was the
1747
THOUGHT IDENTITY
inability to obtain clarity of thought because of anxiety
over what might be found (Klein, 1931).
After its fashion, Freud’s third approach to thought,
the anthropological approach, also addressed the question
of the origin of the human desire to know. Freud felt
that primitive thought was characterized by a belief in the
“omnipotence of thoughts,” a term that he had originally
used in connection with an obsessional neurotic, the
“Rat Man” (1909d, pp. 233-235), and that denoted an
overestimation of the power of thought, resulting in
things being erased by their representations. In such
cases, intellectual processes are strongly sexualized, and
this formed the basis of the belief in the omnipotence
of ideas, which led primitive man to attempt to control
the world with magic (1912—1913a, p. 89).
But if Freud believed that the question of the origin
of life sparked the instinct for knowledge in children,
by contrast, “the survivors’ position in relation to the
dead first caused primitive man to reflect” (1912—
1913a, p. 93). He added, however, that this was not a
purely intellectual problem, but rather an emotional
conflict that had to be resolved. For children, just as
for primitive humans, Freud thus rejected the notion
of a primary need for causality; practical ends always
predominate: “It is not to be supposed that men were
inspired to create their first system of the universe by
pure speculative curiosity. The practical need for controlling
the world around them must have played its
part” (1912—1913a, p. 78).
Whether Freud is concerned with the connection
between the thought of the obsessive neurotic and that
of primitive people, or with how the philosopher
resembles the schizophrenic in mistaking words for
things, his wide-ranging reflections on thought and its
origins raise a multitude of issues, including that of
psychoanalytic thought itself. For, as Freud himself
wrote, “When we think in abstractions, there is a danger
that we may neglect the relations of words to
unconscious thing-presentations, and it must be
confessed that the expression and content of our philosophizing
then begins to acquire an unwelcome
resemblance to the mode of operation of schizophrenics”
(1915e, p. 204).
SOPHIE DE MyoLLA-MELLOR
See also: Action-thought (H. Kohut); Alpha-elements;
Animistic (thought); Certainty; Civilization (Kultur);
“Claims of Psychoanalysis to Scientific Interest”; Con-
1748
cept; Contradiction; Doubt; Hermeneutics; Ideology;
Intellectualization; Jokes; Logic(s)5 Magical thinking;
Need for causality; Omnipotence of thought; Operational
thinking; Philosophy and psychoanalysis; Pleasure
in thinking; Psychic energy; Rationalization; Sense/
nonsense; Symbolism; Telepathy; Thought identity;
Thought-thinking apparatus; Unconscious concept;
Working-through.
Bibliography
Anzieu, Didier. (1994). Le penser: Du moi-peau au moipensant.
Paris: Dunod.
Freud, Sigmund. (1900a). The interpretation of dreams. SE,
4: 1-338; 5: 339-625.
_ (1905d). Three essays on the theory of sexuality. SE,
7: 123-243.
. (1908c). On the sexual theories of children. SE, 9:
205-226.
_ (1909b). Analysis of a phobia in a five-year-old boy.
SE, 10: 1-149.
_ (1909d). Notes upon a case of obsessional neurosis.
SE, 10: 151-318.
. (1910c). Leonardo da Vinci and a memory of his
childhood. SE, 11: 57-137.
. (1911b). Formulations on the two principles of
mental functioning. SE, 12: 213-226.
. (1912-1913a). Totem and taboo. SE, 13: 1-161.
. (1915e). The unconscious. SE, 14: 159-204.
. (1918b [1914]). From the history of an infantile
neurosis. SE, 17: 1-122.
. (1925h). Negation. SE, 19: 233-239.
. (1950c [1895]). Project for a scientific psychology.
SE, 1: 281-387.
Klein, Melanie. (1931). A contribution to the theory of intellectual
inhibition. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis,
12, 206-218.
Mijolla-Mellor, Sophie de. (1992). Le plaisir de pensée. Paris:
Presses Universitaires de France.
THOUGHT IDENTITY
Thought pursues identity in order to unify its causality;
the term thought identity designates the process of
cognitive determination that it forms with its object,
even if the latter is of an imaginary order.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
With Sigmund Freud’s work in The Interpretation of
Dreams (1900a), the problem of identity saw a radically
new approach in relation to the notion of perceptual
identity and the respective aims of the primary
and secondary processes.
Formal logic, a legacy from Aristotle, establishes
identity as the criterion of unity of the thinkable, as
the condition of possibility of thought itself, independent
of its “matter.” Practical thought makes
effectiveness—that is, the successful transformation of
the object—the criterion for appropriate, pragmatic
thought. Imaginary or fantasmatic thought seeks its
“thought identity” in independence—a direct source of
pleasure—relative to practical or theoretical ends.
Philosophy, especially speculative philosophy
(Hegel) sees the idea, the absolute determination of
the concept, as the attainment of the goal of thought,
in which an identity relation exists among the relative
and exclusive practical, theoretical, and imaginary
identities, as absolute knowledge. In this view, “ideological”
thought identity represents the alienated current
of the goal of identity pursued by a mode of thinking
whose method is always and everywhere the active
immobilization of thought, resulting in dogmatism,
exclusivism, negation of the thought of the other,
“group think,” and the like.
Freud’s distinction between the primary and secondary
processes makes it possible to differentiate between
thought identity, which is the aim pursued by thought by
means of the secondary process, and perceptual identity,
which is the aim pursued by hallucination by means of
the primary process. In Freud’s view, the aim is “practical”
in that it always involves passing from one situation
to another in accordance with desire. Hallucination
short-circuits the detour necessitated in the effort of
thinking, meaning that pleasure is not its condition even
though it may remain its aim, and it takes the route of the
death instinct rather than that of the life instinct; this
explains the connection between thought identity and
Eros. As Sophie de Mijolla-Mellor showed in Le Plaisir de
pensée (1992), Freud distinguished practical and fantasmatic
thought from thought in the form of true research
or critical thinking; the latter do not make pleasure and
its production the criteria for thought identity. For this
reason, critical thinking and pure research alone are
capable of producing a cogitative determination that is
independent of perceptual identity.
DOMINIQUE AUFFRET
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
THOUGHT- THINKING APPARATUS
See also: Experience of satisfaction; Perceptual identity.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1900a). The interpretation of dreams.
Parts I and II. SE, 4-5.
Lagache, Daniel. (1961). La psychanalyse et la structure de la
personnalite. Colloque de Royaumont, 1958. La Psychanalyse,
6.
Mijolla-Mellor, Sophie de. (1992). Le plaisir de pensée. Paris:
Presses Universitaires de France.
THOUGHT-THINKING APPARATUS
The term thought-thinking apparatus, used by Wilfred
R. Bion, emphasizes, from a psychoanalytic standpoint,
the distinction between representational aspects
(elements of thought such as conceptions and concepts)
and operational aspects (discharge and elaboration
of thoughts). It is to this latter aspect that Bion
refers when he speaks of the “thinking apparatus” (or
“thought-thinking apparatus”) that develops for
manipulating thoughts.
In his 1962 article “A Theory of Thinking,’ where
he first articulated the theory he was to further develop
in four volumes published from 1962 to 1967, Bion
draws a distinction between the creation of thoughts
and their use for reducing tensions and deferring
action (both functions that Freud had already attributed
to thought). Bion posits that thoughts are anterior
in origin to the work of thinking (produced by the
thought-thinking apparatus). This approach can be
contrasted to the truism of nineteenth-century materialist
and physiological psychology that held that the
brain secretes thoughts, just as the liver secretes bile.
According to Bion, the infant’s first sensory or
affective data correspond to a state of frustration, a
sensation of the absence of the breast, a sensation of a
“hole.” To get out of this state, the baby must eject or
modify this sensation, which corresponds to a primitive
thought or protothought. At this stage, according
to Bion, there is no clear distinction between mental
representation and emotional or sensory experience.
In a second stage the capacity for thinking appears,
dependent upon the infant’s ability to withstand frustration,
endure delay, and transform the emptiness left
by the absence of the breast into a thought. In Bion’s
1749
“THOUGHTS FOR THE TIMES ON WAR AND DEATH”
view, in the course of development the “non-thing” or
“non-object” becomes a thought. The breast that is
present is not a thought, but will finally become the
thing-in-itself (which is not “phenomenal” because it
is seemingly “known”).
This theory of the origins of thought is slightly different
from that of Sigmund Freud. Thought is no
longer considered as a “hallucinatory substitute for
desire” (SE 22, p. 221) It is not the absent breast that is
“thought” in order to appease hunger, but rather the
“non-breast,’ which is the first thought and which can
then be the object of “thinking.” In Bion’s theory,
thought is partly objectified instead of being deobjectified,
as in the theory of the autonomous ego.
Bion’s model is close to Freud’s model of the fortda
game involving the wooden reel: The experience of
frustration leads to the creation of other possibilities
(fantasies, symbols, actions) that provide a new
means to achieve satisfaction in reality. Once the earliest
thoughts relating to the “non-object” have been
established, the psyche must develop a thinking apparatus
to rid itself of thoughts linked to frustration.
This development necessarily occurs through contact
with the mother, by means of projective identification
mechanisms that take the form of a satisfying
container-contained relationship, and through a
dynamic interplay between paranoid-schizoid and
depressive positions.
In the earliest case of a container-contained relation
(symbolized 23), the mother’s repeated positive
experiences with the child, along with the points of
contact between the child’s projections and the “reverie”
of the mother, produce the model that the child
can then introject as part of the thinking apparatus.
The interplay between paranoid-schizoid and
depressive positions (symbolized PS D) develops the
thinking apparatus. The earliest splitting operations in
the structuring of the psyche, the necessary separation
between “good object” and “bad object,” and the
choices made in what Henri Poincaré conceptualized
as “selection of facts” (but which Bion prefers to call
“selected facts”) are dependent upon the paranoidschizoid
position. The depressive position plays a role
in the acceptance of the loss that is implicit in all
thought, and is also fundamental to progressive integration
at the level of thought; that integration process
is also dependent upon the container-contained
mechanism.
1750
One might also wonder: What can one do with
thoughts, besides thinking them? Bion describes several
types of thought disturbances linked to the difficulty
of maintaining disciplined and cohesive thought.
These disturbances are the result of a collapse either at
the level of the representational elements of thought
(in schizophrenia) or at the level of the activity of
thinking, or the thinking apparatus itself (in hysteria
or obsessional neurosis).
PEDRO LUZES
See also: Attention; Bion, Wilfred Ruprecht; Container-
Contained; Maternal reverie, capacity for; Protothoughts;
Thought.
Bibliography
Bion, Wilfred Ruprecht. (1962). Learning from experience.
London: Heinemann; New York: Basic Books.
. (1962). A theory of thinking. International Journal
of Psycho-Analysis, 43, 4-5; reprinted in Second thoughts.
London: Heinemann, 1967.
(1963). Elements of psycho-analysis. London:
Heinemann.
. (1965). Transformations: Change from learning to
growth. London: Heinemann.
————. (1970). Attention and interpretation. London: Tavistock
Publications.
“THOUGHTS FOR THE TIMES ON WAR
AND DEATH”
There are two essays in Sigmund Freud’s “Thoughts
for the Times on War and Death,” one on disillusionment
and the other on our relation to death as revealed
or modified by war. Freud wrote them in March and
April 1915, six months after war was declared.
Although he did not hide his nationalism, the tone is
that of a “European” of the Enlightenment more than
that of a partisan, especially in the first essay.
The theme of disillusionment is one Freud returns to
often. It features in The Future of an Illusion (1927c)
and in Civilization and Its Discontents (1930a). Here, it
is the ideals of the community of mankind, or at least of
Europeans, that are damaged and unsettled by war.
Freud emphasizes that psychoanalysis has always maintained
that behind the civilization we have struggled so
hard to create (“Civilized Sexual Morality and
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Modern Nervous Illness,” 1908d), there exist drives
that are neither good nor bad in themselves but are
classified as such because of their relation to the needs
and requirements of the human community. As a
result regression is always possible and the reshaping
of drives on which the inclination to civilization is
based can cause reversion to a previous stage, permanently
or temporarily, through various events, primarily
war. However, Freud concluded with a question:
“Why do individual peoples despise themselves, hate
themselves, abhor themselves and others, even during
times of peace, and why does every nation treat the
others in this way? This is certainly an enigma.”
Bernd Nitzschke discovered the text on which the
second essay is based. It appeared in a speech given at
the Jewish Masonic lodge of B’nai B’rith in Vienna on
February 15, 1915. It discusses our relationship to
death and, in reality, has little to say about war, even
though this was the pretext for the article. Freud
reminds us that individual death cannot be represented
unless it appears in a fantasy that negates its
terror because we appear in it as a spectator. “In the
unconscious each of us is convinced of our immortality.”
Consequently, the interpretation given of the
causes of death has always tended to treat death as an
unfortunate accident rather than a necessity.
However, having exposed the way thought distances
us from the inevitability of death, Freud then goes on
to show how it is eroticized in two areas: the taking of
risks in our active life and relating the death of others
with which we identify in literature. He goes on to say
that “in fiction we find this plurality of lives that we
need.” Civilized man therefore has a contradictory
attitude toward death since he denies it for himself
and considers it as something that makes life valuable.
The same is true of primitive man, who treats death as
real in murder and unreal as far as it affects him personally.
However, Freud shows that “it is not the intellectual
enigma or each particular instance of death but
the conflict of feelings experienced during the death of
people who are loved and at the same time strangers
and hated that has given rise to the spirit of research in
humankind.” He then adds that the moral commandments
also come into being at this time, the most
important of them being the interdiction of murder.
This leads him to conclude: “If we are judged according
to our impulses of unconscious desire, we are ourselves
like primitive men, a band of assassins.”
SOPHIE DE MyOLLA-MELLOR
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
THREE ESSAYS ON THE THEORY OF SEXUALITY
See also: Aggressiveness/aggression; Altruism; First World
War: The effect on the development of psychoanalysis;
“On Transience”; Reaction formation; “Why War?”
Source Citation
Freud, Sigmund. (1915b). Zeitgemasses tiber Krieg und Tod.
Imago, 4: 1-21; GW, 8, 324-355; Thoughts for the times on
war and death. SE, 14: 273-300.
Bibliography
Le Rider, Jacques. (1992). Un texte retrouvé: La premiere version
d*Actuelles sur la guerre et sur la mort’ (part 2). Revue
internationale @histoire de la psychanalyse, 5, 599-611.
Nitzschke, Bernd. (1991). Freuds vortrag vor dem israelitischen
humanitatsverein “wie” des Orden B’nai Brrith:
“Wir und der Tod” (1915). Ein wiedergefundenes document.
Psyche, 2, 97-131.
THREE ESSAYS ON THE THEORY
OF SEXUALITY
According to James Strachey, the Three Essays on the
Theory of Sexuality should be considered, after The
Interpretation of Dreams, to be Sigmund Freud’s “most
momentous and original contributions to human
knowledge” (Freud, 1905d, p. 126). In general, most
psychoanalysts would agree. The immediate influence
of the Three Essays was profound, and fostered change
in the way that people thought, behaved, and learned
about sexuality; this influence abides today.
Published soon after the turn of the twentieth century,
the book’s somewhat scandalous profile heightened
its impact. Its contentious reputation was not
due, in all likelihood, to the first of Freud’s three
essays, which concerned perversions. Havelock Ellis
had discussed sexual aberrations and Freud cited and
praised his work; Richard von Krafft-Ebing and others
had strived diligently to create a literature concerned
with sexual deviations. The medical context of these
publications justified their sexual content, and they
were received with approbation. Nor did the last of the
Three Essays, on “The Transformations of Puberty”
seem to provoke much controversy at a time when personal
needs, desires, and social practices only underscored
the omnipresence of sexuality.
Rather, the controversy (and enthusiasm) that
greeted Freud’s brief volume was primarily due to the
1751
Turee ESSAYS ON THE THEORY OF SEXUALITY
second essay, in which he discussed sexuality in infancy
and childhood. From a present-day perspective, it is
difficult to imagine the vehement reactions provoked
by suggesting the existence of infantile sexuality.
Indeed, sexuality in infancy and childhood is the
central theme of the book. Freud’s discussion of adult
sexual aberrations links them to unexpected or abnormal
events during childhood. He similarly understands
puberty as the sum of modifications acting
upon infantile sexuality. These ideas were clearly
spelled out in the first edition of the Three Essays in
1905:
The first essay concerns “The Sexual Aberrations.”
In his treatment of homosexuality (for which he used
the term inversion), Freud disputed and refuted common
wisdom that invoked theories of degeneracy or
offered innate or “constitutional” factors as explanatory.
He acknowledged that such factors may be at the
root of the perversions in some cases, but to those
must be added the decisive participation of accidental
causes—that is, childhood events that affected sexuality.
Such events comprise the only available material
for psychoanalytic work. In effect, the etiology of neurosis
that Freud had previously proposed, as early as
1896 with reference to hysteria, was here reasserted
and further developed.
Starting from two basic concepts, instinct and
object, Freud stated that “it seems probable that the
sexual instinct is in the first instance independent of
its object” (p. 148). He stressed that one must distinguish
between types of perversion, according to
whether the sexual anomaly is related to the object (as
with homosexuality or zoophilia) or to the aim, that
is, to the activities that lead to sexual gratification.
Freud discussed homosexuality in this general theoretical
context—that is, how, from a developmental
standpoint, a person would make either a homosexual
or heterosexual object choice, the latter representing as
much of a problem as the former. Either path might be
taken in consequence of the anatomo-physiologic and
psychic bisexuality that characterizes every human
being, a hypothesis that Freud explicitly attributed to
Wilhelm Fliess. Freud sustained his argument with the
concept of component instincts—several independent
impulses, each related to an erotogenic zone or
somatic source without being integrated with each
other. One can thus better understand why numerous
perversions are characterized by sexual behavior that
preferentially involves the oral, and especially the anal,
1752
erotogenic zones—they are, that is to say, the result of
psychic functions controlled by component instincts.
(Component instincts and normal gratifications of
childhood would be further discussed in the second
essay.) Whereas neurotics repress the desire for
instinctual gratification, the anomaly of perversion in
adults resides in the fact that théir sexual practices are
permanently and predominantly based on satisfying
component instincts. From this reasoning emerged
Freud’s concept that “neuroses are, so to say, the negative
of perversions” (p. 165, Freud’s italics), an idea
which he had previously taken up in a letter to Fliess
(January 24, 1897; 1950a).
Ideas developed in the first essay led logically to the
second, which focused on sexuality in infancy and
childhood. Freud pointed to the lack of knowledge on
this subject while noting, at the same time, that it
would be sufficient to carefully observe young children
without hastening to declare sexual manifestations as
abnormal. Every adult was once a child and should in
principle be able to recall childhood in more than a
fragmentary way, but most do not. Freud added two
important observations. First, infantile amnesia affects
everything concerning sexuality in childhood. Second,
the strong moral condemnation that impacts all manifestations
of sexuality leads to repression or gratification
through sublimation.
Freud went on to advance a highly audacious and
fertile idea that would lead to many further developments
in psychoanalysis, both theoretical and clinical,
and which would influence both his own later thought
and that of his successors. He stated, in effect, that
sucking activity observed in the infant should be considered
as the prototype for all future sexual gratification.
Thumb-sucking (or “sensual sucking”) “consists
in the rhythmic repetition of a sucking contact by the
mouth (or lips). There is no question of the purpose
of this procedure being the taking of nourishment”
(pp. 179-180). Thumb-sucking has no other aim but
pleasure and is separate from, but attached to or initially
dependent upon, the need for nourishment. “To
begin with, sexual activity attaches itself to functions
serving the purpose of self-preservation and does not
become independent of them until later” (p. 182).
Herewith emerges implicitly the notion of anaclisis,
which would later play a major role in developmental
theory. Freud explicitly states that oral gratification is
a prototype for every sexual gratification, is pleasurable
in itself, and is autoerotic inasmuch as it does not
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
require any other object than the infant itself. He
writes that the infant seems to be saying, “It’s a pity I
can’t kiss myself” (p. 182). Here we find one of the
major sources of discomfort provoked by the second
of the Three Essays.
Freud, like most psychoanalysts after him, would
view any controversy that emerged around the notion
of infantile sexuality to be the result of a misunderstanding.
If sucking is to be considered sexual and to
lie at the root of all later sexuality, this should be
understood in the context of an extended definition of
the concept of sexuality itself, not confounded with, or
reduced to, genital sexuality. However, objections to
the idea of infantile sexuality would grow still more
vehement with Freud’s further declaration that sensual
sucking is masturbatory in nature and serves as a prototype
for such gratification which, in addition, shifts
from the labial zone to the anal zone, and lastly to the
genital zone.
In addition, in a highly rational argument, Freud presented
a further fundamental concept. The infant, due
to the diverse and polyvalent character of erotogenic
zones as invested by instinct and by the various means
of gratification, may be characterized as possessing a
“polymorphously perverse disposition.” Obviously, this
is not to say that the child will become perverse as an
adult; quite the contrary, this is merely the foundation
of the normal trajectory of psychosexual development.
By contrast, adult perversion is characterized by the
abnormal persistence of infantile characteristics. In socalled
normal development, the genitals become the
dominant erotogenic zone, other erotogenic zones
become subordinate to it, and there follows integration
of the sources of sexual excitation and modes of sexual
satisfaction.
In the last of the three essays, Freud described the
“The Transformations of Puberty.” In the 1905 edition,
this essay might have seemed less original than the previous
section. Nevertheless, Freud examined three central
themes in psychoanalysis—the libidinal economy
of the onset of puberty, female and male sexuality, and
object relations.
Again, Freud raised the notion of the integration,
“ander the primacy of the genital zones” (p. 208), of
component instincts and erotogenic zones which serve
as gateways to preliminary gratification preceding
complete sexual intercourse through coitus and
orgasm. But then, Freud faced a problem, the solution
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THREE ESSAYS ON THE THEORY OF SEXUALITY
to which he found difficult to accept. He had long reasoned
that pleasure lowers tension while unpleasure
raises it, writing that “I must insist that a feeling of
tension necessarily involves unpleasure” (p. 209). But
if the very activity that seeks to decrease tension is perceived
as a pleasure, how then to understand the
search for sexual excitement, which commonly characterizes
every sexual act (including foreplay) before culminating
in orgasm and relaxation? Confronting the
issue, Freud pursued it in connection with sexual
chemistry, largely speculative at the time. In fact, the
problem remained without a solution in the 1905 edition;
it would only be much later, in such works as
“The Economic Problem of Masochism” (1924c), that
Freud returned to it in a more satisfactory way.
Freud discussed a second theme in the third essay
in a section titled “The Differentiation between Men
and Women,” in which he asserted rather baldly that
“The sexuality of little girls is of a wholly masculine
character” (p. 219), and that “it would even be possible
to maintain that libido is invariably and necessarily
of a masculine nature, whether it occurs in men or in
women” (p. 219). The clitoris, which Freud viewed as
the distaff equivalent of the penis, is the site of masturbatory
pleasure for little girls. In the woman, the clitoris
may be viewed as the organ of forepleasure that
transmits excitement to the “adjacent female parts,”
writes Freud, “just as—to use a simile—pine shavings
can be kindled in order to set a log of harder wood on
fire” (p. 221). Freud’s subsequent discussion of these
ideas, particularly in New Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis
(1933a [1932]), would eventually incite
considerable and lively controversy regarding the nature
of female sexuality.
Still another theme in the third essay concerned
“The Finding of an Object” during the transformations
of puberty and (as we would say today) adolescence.
In 1905, Freud still subscribed to an overly
simplistic theory that he would later modify in fundamental
ways. To infantile sexuality, which he supposed
to be essentially auto-erotic, he opposed object-directed
sexuality developed during puberty. The primal object,
the mother’s breast, has by then been long lost, so that
libidinal investment in the sexual partner after puberty
is in fact a “rediscovery,” Freud notes. He adds, “The
finding of an object is in fact a refinding ofi t” (p. 222).
This was a proposition that spawned fruitful and interesting
developments. In effect, from this point on,
Freud acknowledged the object-relations nature of
1753
THREE ESSAYS ON THE THEORY OF SEXUALITY
infantile sexuality. He went on to consider infantile
anxiety and the “barrier against incest” (p. 225) that
forbids sexual relations between child and parent.
Freud clearly established here what, beginning in 1910,
he would call the “Oedipus complex.” The Three Essays
ends with Freud’s summary of the major themes of the
book.
This in brief reprise is Freud’s rich and provocative
Three Essays as the book was published in 1905, But to
understand its place in terms of Freud’s later work, it
is important to realize that he revised the text with
each new edition, of which there were six in his lifetime.
He is not known to have considered publishing
an entirely new edition, such as might have seemed
necessary in light of all the developments in psychoanalytic
theory. In any event, from 1910 to 1924 Freud
made a host of emendations, some of which were quite
significant yet difficult to reconcile with the original
text to which they were attached. Freud himself
admitted that this could create difficulties for the
reader. In a later paper, “The Infantile Genital Organization”
(1923e), he wrote, “Readers of my Three Essays
on the Theory of Sexuality will be aware that I have
never undertaken any thorough remodeling of that
work in its later editions, but have retained the original
arrangement and have kept abreast of the advances
made in our knowledge by means of interpolations
and alterations in the text. In doing this, it may often
have happened that what was old and what was more
recent did not admit of being merged into an entirely
uncontradictory whole” (p. 141).
~ The Standard Edition accurately indicates all the modifications,
suppressions, and additions to the text as
Freud revised it in 1910, 1915, 1920, and also 1924; the
1915 emendations are particularly important, appearing
as they do during the period that he wrote his papers on
metapsychology; so too those of 1920, which came during
the transition to the second theory of instincts and
what is sometimes referred to as the “second topography”
or structural theory. All these emendations appear
either as notes at the bottom of the page, sometimes
numerous and often quite long, or are included as
extensions within the text itself. Three of these
extended interpolations are of particular importance.
In the second essay, a section added in 1915, on
“The Sexual Researches of Childhood” fundamentally
reprises the Freud’s work in “On the Sexual Theories
of Children” (1908c) and in “Analysis of a Phobia in a
Five-Year-Old Boy” (1909b).
1754
Another section, also added to the second essay in
1915, discusses “The Phases of Development of the
Sexual Organization” (p. 197ff). This represented a
major departure inasmuch as Freud introduced the
notion of pregenital organizations—oral and anal
stages—preceding the genital organization. In 1923, he
added a note to the emendation itself in which he
mentioned that he had advanced that same year
(1923e) the idea of an intermediary stage, called infantile
genital organization. “This phase, which already
deserves to be described as genital, presents a sexual
object and some degree of convergence of the sexual
impulses upon that object; but it is differentiated from
the final organization of sexual maturity in one essential
respect. For it knows only one kind of genital: the
male one. For this reason I have named it the ‘phallic’
stage of organization” (pp. 199-200). This idea
implies, importantly, that the development of object
choice arises in two periods separated by latency. First,
from the first stage of infantile genital organization,
then once again, after the final genital organization
that emerges at puberty.
In the third essay, a section added in 1920 concerning
libido theory largely summarizes Freud’s seminal
article on narcissism (1914c), in the context of the
economic problem (pleasure/unpleasure) of sexual
excitation and discharge.
In sum, the Three Essays is indeed one of Freud’s
major works. However, it would be a mistake to imagine
that, at first publication in 1905, it was entirely
novel in terms of Freud’s own thinking. So far as infantile
sexuality is concerned, the text represents a key
moment on a long path, pursued over the course of at
least a decade and marked by progress and reversal,
doubt and hesitation. In fact, the question of infantile
sexuality arose with Freud’s theoretical efforts to create
an etiology of neurosis, and can be traced to Studies on
Hysteria (1895d). In Freud’s early view, hysteria, and
neuroses more generally, are pathological conditions
triggered by a sexual “seduction” sustained in childhood.
But “sexual” for whom? The adult “seducer,”
clearly; but, for the child “seduced,” what do we mean
by “sexual”?
Freud wrote to Fliess on October 8, 1895, (letter 29)
that he suspected “that hysteria is conditioned by a primary
sexual experience (before puberty) accompanied
by revulsion and fright; and that obsessional neurosis
is conditioned by the same accompanied by pleasure”
(1950a, p. 126). Just a week later, on October 15, 1895,
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
(letter 30) Freud wrote Fliess with some excitement,
“Have I revealed the great clinical secret to you, either
in writing or by word of mouth? Hysteria is the consequence
of a presexual sexual shock. Obsessional neurosis
is the consequence of presexual sexual pleasure later
transformed into guilt (p. 127).
One can sense Freud’s dilemma. Is “presexual” sexual?
Does infantile sexuality exist? No, if the incident
only arises later as a memory. Yes, if it incites “pleasure”
in the child—but this occurs only in those who will
later develop obsessional neurosis, and these are, in fact,
boys. “In [cases of obsessional neurosis] the primary
experience has been accompanied by pleasure. It is
either an active one (in boys) or a passive one (in girls)”
(“Manuscript K” in Freud 1950a, p. 149). He adds that
hysteria “necessarily presupposes a primary unpleasurable
experience—that is, one of a passive kind. The natural
sexual passivity of women accounts for their being
more inclined to hysteria (p. 154). Thus, at this stage,
some ten years before the Three Essays, Freud was far
from seeing infantile sexuality as part of every child’s
experience; he believed it might only in boys, some of
whom, taking pleasure in being “seduced,” would later
suffer from obsessional neurosis.
This early state of affairs clearly did not satisfy
Freud. On one hand, he was tempted to assert the universality
of infantile sexuality, while on the other, he
hesitated before the audacity of it. Soon thereafter, in
“Further Remarks on the Neuro-Psychoses of
Defence” (1896b), he tried a kind of compromise, suggesting
that pathogenic trauma acts in two stages, that
“it is not the experiences themselves which act traumatically
but their revival as a memory after the subject
has entered on sexual maturity” (p. 164, Freud’s italics).
In other words, the childhood trauma (which is
traumatic, stressed Freud, because the child suffers a
frightening assault, the nature of which he or she does
not understand) will become sexual only in puberty.
By this view, there is no infantile sexuality strictly
speaking, And yet, one must admit “[E]ven the age of
childhood is not wanting in slight sexual excitations”
(“The Aetiology of Hysteria,” 1896c, p. 202). If infantile
sexuality were universal, however, does the trauma
theory collapse? Freud noted that, “It is true that if
infantile sexual activity were an almost universal
occurrence the demonstration of its presence in every
case would carry no weight” (pp. 209-210).
Facing these theoretical difficulties, with direct
implications for clinical practice, and also perhaps
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Tics
facing his own resistances, Freud would need another
ten years to develop a coherent theory of infantile
sexuality. Understanding the progression of his
thought can produce a better appreciation of the audacity
and novelty of the Three Essays.
ROGER PERRON
See also: Autoeroticism; Childhood; Libidinal stage; Perversion;
Psychosexual development; Puberty; Sexuality.
Source Citation
Freud, Sigmund. (1905d). Drei abhandlungen sur sexualtheorie,
GW, 5: 29-145; Three essays on the theory of sexuality.
SE, 7: 123-243.
Bibliography
Brusset, Bernard. (1992). Le developpement libidinal. Paris:
Presses Universitaires de France.
Freud, Sigmund. (1896b). Further remarks on the neuropsychoses
of defence. SE, 3: 157-185.
. (1896c). The aetiology of hysteria. SE, 3: 186-221.
. (1908c). On the sexual theories of children. SE, 9:
205-226.
. (1909b). Analysis of a phobia in a five-year-old boy.
SE, 10: 1-149.
. (1914c). On narcissism: An introduction. SE, 14:
67-102.
. (1923e). The infantile genital organization (An interpolation
into the theory of sexuality). SE, 19: 141-145.
. (1924c). The economic problem of masochism. SE,
19: 155-170.
. (1933a [1932]). New introductory lectures on
psycho-analysis. SE, 22: 1-182.
———., (1950a [1887-1902]) Extracts from the Fliess
papers. SE, 1: 173-280.
Freud, Sigmund, and Breuer, Josef. (1895d). Studies on hysteria.
SE 2.
Laplanche, Jean. (1990). Life and death in psychoanalysis.
Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
TICS
Tics can be described as abnormal movements characterized
by suddenness, inopportune occurrence,
1755
TIME
nonproductivity, and variability. They can affect the
muscles of the face, neck, or shoulders, and are sometimes
generalized. We distinguish between simple tics,
which are often transient, multiple tics, and the
chronic tics found in Gilles de la Tourette’s syndrome.
In Studies on Hysteria (1895), Sigmund Freud posited
that tics are a compromise between an idea and its
counter-idea (countercathexis) and constitute a particular
mode of expression of neurotic conflicts. In the
view of Sandor Ferenczi, subjects with tics, owing to
the very fact of their strong narcissism or a fixation at
this stage, have an increased tendency toward discharge
and a reduced capacity for psychic binding. A
traumatic memory that affects the body-ego spontaneously
comes to the fore each time it has the opportunity
to do so: Tics are thus the hysteria of the ego.
Noting that tics have a veritable muscular eroticism,
Ferenczi considered them the equivalent of repressed
masturbation. He also drew attention to the importance
of anal-sadistic components in tics and to the
connection between them and coprolalia.
According to Melanie Klein, tics are based on genital,
anal-sadistic, and oral tendencies directed against
the object; her uncovering of these original object relations
upon which tics are based led her to consider
them as a secondary narcissistic symptom. She confirmed
Ferenczi’s conclusion—equating tics with
masturbation—but added that masturbatory fantasies
are closely linked to them. Analysis of these masturbatory
fantasies appears as the key to understanding the
tic. Behind the homosexual content of these fantasies
can be discerned the child’s identification with the
father, that is, the heterosexual fantasy of sexual relations
with the mother. The sublimation of these fantasies in
other interests leads to the disappearance of the tic.
Margaret Mahler discussed “organ neurosis.” Subjects
with tics experience the drives as mechanical
events that are in a sense foreign to the ego. Otto Fenichel
viewed tics as a pregenital conversion comparable
to stuttering, which Karl Abraham had noted; for
Abraham, the tic was a symptom of conversion to the
anal-sadistic stage.
Serge Lebovici proposed a psychosomatic explanation:
Unrepresented excitation can lead to uncontrolled
psychomotor discharges. Tics have the weight
of an unelaborated discharge, but on the therapeutic
level, the latent meaning can be sought by means of
construction. He noted the fairly close relationship
between isolated or complex tics and the structured
1756
completedness of obsessional neuroses, but at the
same time mentioned that they are also found with
conversion hysteria or in psychotic organizations.
According to Bernard Golse, obsessive traits with fixation
on the aggressive tendencies of the anal-sadistic
stage are discernible in the subject with a tic; but
whereas with obsessional neurosis the aggressive content
is not apparent because it is repressed by the
visible ritual, with tics, the aggressiveness is directly
externalized in motricity, without prior mental working
over of the conflicts.
The etiology of tics is complex. The difficulties
described occur in children who show a neurobiological
predisposition, and are registered within an intersubjective
relational economy that contributes to their
persistence.
CHRISTINE PAYAN
See also: Emmy von N., case of; Mahler-Schénberger,
Margaret; Repetition.
Bibliography
Abraham, Karl. (1954). Contribution to a discussion on tic.
In Selected papers of Karl Abraham, M.D. (pp. 323-325;
Douglas Bryan and Alix Strachey, Trans.). London and
New York: Basic. (Original work published 1921)
Ferenczi, Sandor. (1926). Psycho-analytical observations on
tic. In The selected papers of Sandor Ferenczi, M.D., vol. 2:
Further contributions to the theory and technique of psychoanalysis
(John Rickman, Comp.; Jane Isabel Suttie
et al., Trans.). New York: Basic. (Original work published
1921)
Golse, Bernard. (1983). Pour une psychopathologie ou une
psychogenése des tics de l’enfant: Une revue de la littérature.
Actualités psychiatriques, 1, 51-56.
Klein, Melanie. (1948). Contributions to psychoanalysis
1921-1945. London: Hogarth Press.
Mahler, Margaret. (1949). A psychoanalytical evaluation of
tics in a psychopathology of children. Psychoanalytic Study
of the Child, 3 (4), 279-310.
TIME
The notion of time in psychoanalysis intersects several
other concepts such as repetition, regression, fixation,
and rhythm, though Freud also discussed the idea of
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
time directly. He began by emphasizing the atemporality
of unconscious processes: The unconscious ignores
time, and he suggested that the origin of the representation
of time could be found in the discontinuous
relation the preconscious-conscious system maintained
with the external world, the time dimension
then being associated with acts of consciousness. He
related the representation of time to the representation
of space, in that space could replace time in unconscious
processes. Finally, pathology shows how
temporal progression is ignored, a characteristic which
is also seen in fantasy, where past, present, and future
are united in one representation, and in the transference
neurosis, which is based on the anachrony of
affect.
The atemporality of unconscious processes is present
in Freud’s earliest writings. In Manuscript M
(1950a [1892-99]), James Strachey refers to a sentence
in which Freud points out that the chronological information
ignored in fantasy is dependent on the conscious
system. But it is in The Interpretation of Dreams
(1900a) that the indestructibility of unconscious processes
is proposed, along with its corollary—the
impossibility of recognizing the passage of time that
would bring about the end of something; its belonging
to the past; and eventually its forgetting. In a note
added in 1907 to The Psychopathology of Everyday Life
(1901b), concerning the indestructibility of memory
traces, Freud wrote that “the unconscious is completely
atemporal.”
Freud continued to repeat the same ideas, devoting
considerable space to it in his essay on the metapsychology
of the unconscious. “The processes of the
system Ucs. are timeless; i.e. they are not ordered temporally,
are not altered by the passage of time; they
have no reference to time at all. Reference to time is
bound up, once again, with the work of the system
Cs.” (1915e, p. 187). In the November 8, 1911, session
of the Minutes of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society
(Nunberg and Federn, 1962-75), Stekel and Meinhold
were rapporteurs for the topic under discussion,
“the supposed timelessness of the unconscious,”
(Vol. 3, pp. 299-310) and during the discussion there
arose a number of difficulties concerning the definition
of time. In his conclusion Freud pointed out five
arguments in favor of the atemporality of unconscious
processes: the incorrect temporal orientation of
dreams; the fact that condensation is possible; the lack
of effects of temporal transition; the attachment to
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
TIME
objects; the characteristic tendency of neuroses to
become fixed. He concludes: “If the philosophers
maintain that the concepts of time and space are the
necessary forms of our thinking, forethought tells us
that the individual masters the world by means of two
systems, one of which functions only in terms of time
and the other only in terms of space” (p. 308).
While the processes of the unconscious are atemporal,
Freud continued to remind us of the importance
of the temporal factor as an element of reality. This is
true of the process of maturation, which is the central
element of the theory of libidinal states, but which also
distinguishes normal from pathological mourning.
(Time appears to be inevitable, to the extent that it
seems endowed with intrinsic action while it is, in fact,
the duration necessary to establish a process, work of
some kind.) Conversely, time as experienced, the feeling
of time, is shown to be relatively independent of
the objective reality of the time shown on clocks and
watches. We see this in the painful acceleration of
duration constituted by the feeling of the ephemeral
(1916a [1915]), but also, and in reverse, in the interminable
extension of the boredom or impatience of
the child who wants to “grow up,” that is, who wants
to abolish the time that separates him from the age of
his parents. Passion and the illumination or rush of
the drug addict reduce duration to a point, the instant
when the alpha and the omega meet.
Freud believed that the temporal dimension is
accessible to us only as a function of acts of consciousness.
Because these acts are not continuous but, like
the “mystic writing pad,” depend on the innervation
of the cathexes directed from the interior by rapid,
periodic bursts into the preconscious-conscious system,
this perception of time is also discontinuous. “I
assumed,” Freud wrote, “I further had a suspicion that
this discontinuous method of functioning of the system
Pcpt.-Cs. lies at the bottom of the origin of the
concept of time” (1925a, p. 231). Although time is
ignored by unconscious processes, this does not mean
it can’t be represented in unconscious formations,
which translate it as they see fit. This corresponds to
what could be called “psychic temporality.”
After Freud other authors returned to the question
of time in analysis and in psychopathology. Piera
Aulagnier has shown the importance of anticipation in
the relation between mother and child and in the process
by which a subject identifies with it, a process
1757
Tomasi v1 PALMA D| LAMPEDUSA-WOLFF STOMERSEE, ALESSANDRA (1895-1982)
that, as it turns out, the psychotic is unable to complete
(1975), being condemned to repeat the same
thing over and over again.
SOPHIE DE MyoLLa~MELLOR
See also: Psychic temporality.
Bibliography
Aulagnier, Piera. (1975). La violence de l’interprétation. Du
pictogramme a Ténoncé. Paris: Presses Universitaires de
France.
Freud, Sigmund. (1900a). The interpretation of dreams. SE,
4-5: 1-625.
. (1915e). The unconscious. SE, 14: 159-204.
. (1925a). A note upon the “mystic writing pad.” SE,
19: 225-232.
Nunberg, Hermann, and Federn, Ernst. (1962-75). Minutes
of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society. New York: International
Universities Press.
Further Reading
Loewald, Hans W. (1962). Superego and time. International
Journal of Psychoanalysis, 43, 264-268.
TOMAS! DI PALMA DI LAMPEDUSA-WOLFF
STOMERSEE, ALESSANDRA (1895-1982)
Alessandra Tomasi, an Italian psychoanalyst, was born
in Nice in 1895 and died in Rome in 1982. She spent
the first twenty years of her life in St. Petersburg,
where her father, the Baltic Baron Wolff Stomersee,
was a high dignitary at the czar’s court. In 1917, at the
start of the Russian revolution, she moved to Riga,
then to Berlin. There, during the 1920s, she was analyzed
by Felix Boehm and attended courses and seminars
at the Berlin Institute; her supervised analysis was
monitored by Max Eitingon and H. Liebermann. In
1927, during a brief stay in Vienna, she had the opportunity
to “see” Freud. That same year she joined her
Italian-born mother in London, where she was about
to marry (this was her second marriage) the Italian
ambassador to the court of S. Giacomo.
At the home of her father-in-law, she met his
nephew, Giuseppe Tomasi, Duke of Palma and Prince
of Lampedusa, the future author of The Leopard, who
1758
became her husband in 1932. After their marriage she
settled in Sicily. In 1934 she met Edoardo Weiss in
Rome. They had corresponded with one another since
1929 and it was Weiss who sponsored her entry in the
Italian Psychoanalytic Society. Through the society she
became friends with Emilio Servadio, Nicola Perrotti,
and Cesare Musatti. ;
Once her value as a teacher and trainer became
recognized, she was asked, in 1946, to help with the
reorganization of the SPI and, that same year, helped
organize the historic First National Congress on Psychoanalysis,
which marked the official resumption of
psychoanalysis in Italy. At this time, and during the
next national congress (Rome, 1950), she presented
two important essays: Sviluppi della diagnostica e tecnica
psicoanalitica and L’Aggressivita nelle perversion.
She was president of the SPI from 1955 to 1959.
It was through her assistance, and hers alone, that
Freud and psychoanalysis penetrated Sicily, where she
initially encountered strong resistance from prejudice
arising from the region’s inherent conservatism. Of the
first core group of people that formed around her, it
was Francesco Corrao, following the departure of the
princess for Rome in 1957, who assumed the psychoanalytic
mantle and continued the work she had
begun in Sicily.
In Rome she lived in a state of partial isolation, but
was very active as a psychoanalyst, and increased her
efforts to popularize the work of her husband, who
became one of the most important writers on the Italian
landscape following the posthumous publication of The
Leopard in 1958. According to Michael David (1966),
the work of Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa contains
the traces of an awareness of Freudian theories—easily
understandable for a writer whose wife had devoted her
life to psychoanalysis. For David the fact that “the Lampedusa
apartment, and even their library, was filled
with neurotic patients—to the point that the author
preferred to take refuge among friends or in a café to
write—gave rise to the husband’s ambivalence concerning
psychoanalysis.”
Alessandra di Lampedusa’s most important articles
include the following, all of which appeared in the Rivista
di psicoanalisi: “Le componenti preedipicihe del-
Pisteria di angoscia” (1956), “Necrofilia e istinto di
morte” (1956), and “La spersonalizzazione” (1960). In
one of her last seminars, she analyzed a case of lycanthropy,
referring to the Kleinian notion of projective
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
identification, for which she coined the neologism,
identificatory introjection.
ANNA Maria ACCERBONI
See also: Italy.
Bibliography
David, Michael. (1966). La psicoanalisi nella cultura italiana.
Turin: Boringhieri.
Petacchi, Giancarlo. (1987). Vita di pionieri. In A. M. Accerboni
(Ed.), La cultura psicoanalitica (p. 168-173). Pordenone:
Studio Tesi.
Tomasi di Palma, Alessandra. (1960) La spersonalizzazione.
Rivista di psicoanalisi, 6 (1), 5-10.
TOPIQUE
A French Freudian review founded in 1969 by Piera
Aulagnier, who directed it until her death in 1990,
Topique is, as of 2005, co-directed by Sophie de
Mijolla-Mellor and Jean-Paul Valabrega, who continue
its work and pursue its objectives in the spirit that has
animated this review since its beginnings.
Topique was born in 1969, the same year that saw
the creation of the Quatrieme Groupe O.P.L.E, following
what was the third scission in the psychoanalytic
movement in France. The founder of Topique played a
central role in this scission as well as in establishing the
principles of the new group presenting itself both as an
alternative to the International Psychoanalytical Association
(IPA) as well as to the Lacanian group. However,
from the very beginning, the review emphasized
that Topique would belong to no particular school nor
be tied to any group. Its goal was exclusively to participate
in the advancement of psychoanalysis, with an
intention of being open, both towards psychoanalysis
itself and other disciplines too, notably psychiatry.
The review has been published successively by the
Presses Universitaires de France (from 1969 to 1974,
12 numbers), Desclée de Brouwer (L’Epi; from 1974 to
1987, 28 numbers), Dunod (from 1987 to 1996, 22
numbers) and by L’Esprit du Temps (since 1996),
three times a year.
Topique is independent, and is not the official organ
of the Quatriéme Groupe; however it is close to it,
because its founder belonged to it, as well as those who
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
TOPIQUE
continue to edit the review. The first numbers had published
the “Principles and Modalities of Functioning”
(of the Quatriéme Groupe), and the following issues
took cognizance of its organizational modifications, as
well as printing texts from its scientific conferences.
As Topique has been developing for more than
thirty years, a retrospective view seems in order, involving
at once a historical approach to the development
of psychoanalysis in France, as well as a consideration
of issues that were of special interest to the review.
Especially noteworthy is the attention Topique has
paid to the theory and technique of psychoanalysis in
many texts, particularly in its early years—when it
was anxious to construct an original perspective both
regarding Lacanism and the norms of the IPA. However,
Topique has always been a review of confrontation
between different theoretical currents and their
practitioners, publishing authors belonging to diverse
psychoanalytical societies. Additionally, works representing
psychoanalytical groups have always been
welcome; as well as research centered on the practice
of analysis, its clinical experiences and impasses; and
challenges that psychosis continues to pose for Freudian
metapsychology, in spite of the advances in current
research and the new conceptual tools available
because of it.
Finally, there have been special numbers involving
psychoanalytical perspectives on cultural and social
issues, with contributions from specialists from other
domains, as well as psychoanalysts, who were interested
in confronting psychoanalysis as a heuristic
method. This was the case with the juridical domain in
Number 52 (“To Have the Right” [Avoir droit], with
art in Number 53 (“Powers of the Image” [Pouvoirs de
lImage]), anthropology in Number 43 (“Birth” [La
naissance]), or Number 50 (“Twins and the Double”
[Les jumeaux et le double]).
This diversity does not constitute a diversion in
rapport to the central purpose, which remains linked
to clinical practice and the theoretical elaboration rising
out of it; it aims instead to restore to psychoanalysis
the place Freud provided for it from the beginning,
that is to say not that of a simple therapeutic process,
but also as an adventure in human thought.
SOPHIE DE MyOLLA-MELLOR
See also: Aulagnier-Spairani, Piera; Quatrieme Groupe
O. P. L. FE, Fourth group; France.
1759
TOPOGRAPHICAL POINT OF VIEW
Bibliography
Valabrega, Jean-Paul. (1999). Trente an apres...Entretien
avec Sophie de Mijolla-Mellor. Topique, 69.
TOPOGRAPHICAL POINT OF VIEW
Like the economic and the dynamic points of view, the
topographical point of view is one of the three main
dimensions of Freud’s metapsychology. It introduced
the idea that the mental apparatus was composed of
different areas of the mind, different “territories” governed
by different processes.
The idea of a mental topography was present in
Freud’s thought as early as the “Project for a Scientific
Psychology” of 1895 (1950c), where it arose as a direct
consequence of his conception of the history and successive
stages of construction of the psychical apparatus.
In Freud’s first topographical approach, three mental
regions were distinguished: the conscious, the location
of ideas that had direct access to consciousness;
the preconscious, the location of material susceptible
of becoming conscious fairly easily; and the unconscious,
the location of whatever had been repressed
from consciousness and was thus inaccessible to it.
This initial spatial organization of the mind, known as
the first topography, later proved inadequate for deal-'
ing with the clinical view of pathological narcissism,
for it failed to locate the ego or the internalization of
values and principles acquired in the course of the
individual’s development.
Beginning with Beyond the Pleasure Principle (1920g)
and especially in The Ego and the Id (1923b), Freud proposed
a new topography of the mental personality and
apparatus in terms of the id, the ego, and the superego.
The unconscious per se could no longer be treated as a
single location in the psyche, for there were in fact several
unconscious realms, and of different kinds. From
then on, the term unconscious was used only as a qualifier
applicable to mental processes, irrespective of their
topographical location. A portion of the ego and of the
superego were thus said to be unconscious, while components
of the id could not become conscious without
being transformed into representations, their original
forms remaining unconscious.
The second topography did not replace the first,
however. Rather, it remained in a dialectical relationship
with it, thus complicating the model as a whole.
1760
Some French psychoanalysts have taken the view that
the two topographies are not merely metapsychological
constructs but also correspond to specific organizational
modes of the psyche. Different ways of mental
functioning could thus be described in terms of the
first or second topography, and the metapsychological
account remained closely bound up with clinical
practice. -
RENE ROUSSILLON
See also: Agency; Censorship; Consciousness; Ego; Ego
and the Id, The; Excitation; Id; Metapsychology; Model;
New Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis, Perception-
Consciousness (Pcpt.-Cs.); Preconscious, the; Psychic
apparatus; Regression; Structural theories; Superego; The
Unconscious, Unconscious, the; Wish, hallucinatory satisfaction
of a.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1915d). Repression. SE, 14: 141-158.
. (1920g). Beyond the pleasure principle. SE, 18:
1-64.
. (1923b). The ego and the id. SE, 19: 1-66.
. (1950c [1895]). Project for a scientific psychology.
SE, 1: 281-387.
Roussillon, René. (1995). La metapsychologie des processus
et la transitionnalité. Revue francaise de psychanalyse, 59,
1351-1519.
Further Reading
Paniagua, Cecilio. (2001). The attraction of topographical
technique. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 82,
671-684.
TOPOLOGY
Topology refers primarily to the branch of mathematics
that rigorously treats questions of neighborhoods, limits,
and continuity. Psychoanalysts have applied it to
the study of unconscious structures.
In what have been called his two “topographies”
(the first dating from 1900 and the second from 1923),
Freud resorted to schemas to represent the various
parts of the psychic apparatus and their interrelations.
These schemas implicitly posited an equivalence
between psychic and Euclidean space.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
FIGURE 1
The Double Loop
Early on, Jacques Lacan noted that the limitations
of such a naive topology had restricted Freudian theory,
not only in the description of the psychic apparatus
(a description that in the end required an appeal to
the economic point of view), but also in the specificity
of clinical structures. The hypothesis that the unconscious
is structured like a language, that is, in two
dimensions, led Lacan to the topology of surfaces. The
concept of foreclosure, for example, which he constructed
on the basis of this topology, confirmed the
heuristic value of his approach.
In his seminar “Identification” (1961-1962), Lacan
unveiled a collection of topological objects—such as
the torus, the Mobius strip, and the cross-cap—that
served pedagogical aims. But already he saw them as
more than just models. With the Borromean knot,
introduced in 1973, he took the position that these
objects were a real presentation of the subject and not
just a representation. Below are several of Lacan’s
topological objects.
1. The Cut and the Signifier
Far from being given a priori, every space is organized
on the basis of cuts and can actually be considered as a
cut in the space of a higher dimension. We are familiar
with the subjective impact of this: The events of our
lives only become history through the castration complex,
which organizes our reality at the price of an imaginary
cutting off of the penis. According to Freud, by
introjecting a single trait of another, the subject identifies
with the other (at the price of losing this person as
a love object). In the single trait Lacan found the very
structure of the signifier: A cut allows the lost object to
fall away. He called this cut the “unary trait.”
The linguist Ferdinand de Saussure insisted on the
fundamentally negative, purely differential character
of the signifier. Lacan formalized this property in the
double loop, or “interior eight,’ in which the gap
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
TOPOLOGY
created by the cut is closed after a second trip around a
fictional axis. The difference of the signifier from itself
is indicated by the difference between the two trips
around the loop (Figure 1).
2. The Mobius Strip and Interpretation
If a signifier represents the subject for another signifier,
then the subject would be supported by a surface
whose edge would be a signifying cut. Note that the
plane—the usual screen for the subject’s images,
figures, and dreams, that is, plans—is a surface that
does not meet these conditions. The double loop cannot
be drawn on a plane without showing a cut. The
same is true of a sphere, a simple representation of the
universe.
The Mobius strip, on the other hand, can represent
this cut and symbolize the subject of the unconscious.
Since a Mobius strip only has one surface, it is possible
to pass from one side to the other without crossing
over any edge—an apt representation of the
return of the repressed. The Mobius strip also has certain
other peculiarities. A cut that runs one-third
from the edge and parallel to the edge divides the
strip into a two-sided strip linked to what remains of
the original Mobius strip. But if this cut is made in
the center, it does not divide the Mobius strip in two.
Instead, the entire strip is transformed into a strip
with two sides. This characteristic illustrates the
equivalence between the Mobius strip (the subject)
and the medial cut that transforms it, and also provides
a model of how interpretation functions. Interpretation
does not abolish the unconscious. On the
contrary, it makes the unconscious real for the subject
by its transformed appearance as another (an Other)
surface (figure 2).
FIGURE 2
ik
2nd cut
(interpretation)
1st cut
The Mobius Strip
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TOPOLOGY
FIGURE 3
Identity Intersection Non-identity
A#-A ANB AVB
Aand B either A or B
but not both
Venn Diagrams
FIGURE 5
D=demand
d=desire
FIGURE 6
Torus of the Other
Torus of the subject
Two complimentary toruses: The subject takes the
other’s demands as the object of his or her desire.
3. The Torus
Lacan made different uses of the torus. By drawing Venn
diagrams, traditionally used to illustrate basic logical
operations, on the surface of the torus, he demonstrated
the extent to which our thinking depends upon the
plane surface, and he also provided another possible
basis for the logic of the unconscious (Figure 3).
By inscribing the same circles on the surface of the
torus, Lacan revealed the logic of the unconscious discovered
by Freud (Figure 4).
1762
The trajectory of demand, D.
FIGURE 4
on at po ty D> q
MAIN
\ A
Intersection Symmetrical
AnB Difference
AVB#
-|AVB|
The same operations on the torus. Only symmetrical difference is
preserved.
The double loop on the torus.
On the torus, only symmetrical difference is consistent.
Thus we have a demonstration of how the
signifier can be different from all other signifiers and
also from itself.
Lacan also used the torus to represent the subject as
the subject of demand. In this sense, the torus can be
conceived as the surface created by the iteration of the
trajectory of the subject's demand. This trajectory
turns around two different empty spaces, one that is
“internal,” D, the lack created in the real by speech,
and one that is “central,” d, corresponding to the place
of the elusive object of desire that the drive goes
around before completing the loop (Figure 5).
For every torus, there is a complementary torus,
and the empty spaces of the two are the inverse of each
other. Lacan made this structure of complementary
toruses the support of the neurotic illusion that makes
the demand of the Other the object of subject’s desire
and, conversely, makes the desire of the Other the
object of subject’s demand. This structure also arises
from the fact that on a torus, the signifying cut (the
double loop) does not detach any fragment. Neurotic
subjects, insofar as they give in to neurosis, insofar as
they are “in the torus,” are not organized around their
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
FIGURE 7
On a cross-cap a cut with two openings
own castration, but instead excuse themselves by substituting
the Other’s demand for the object of their
fantasy (figure 6).
4. The Cross-Cap
The cross-cap, or more precisely, the projective plane,
can represent the subject of desire in relation to the
lost object. A double loop drawn on its surface in effect
divides this single-sided surface into two heterogeneous
parts: a Mobius strip representing the subject
and a disk representing object a, the cause of desire.
The disk is centered on a point that is related to the
irreducible singularity of this surface, which Lacan
identified with the phallus. Unlike the representation
of the subject produced on the torus, here a single cut,
which symbolizes castration, produces both the subject
and the object in its divisions (figure 7).
5. The Borromean Knot
Introduced by Lacan in 1973, the Borromean knot is
the solution to a problem perceivable only in Lacanian
theory but having extremely practical clinical applications.
The problem is: How are the three registers
posited as making up subjectivity—the real (R), the
symbolic (S), and the imaginary (I)—held together?
Indeed, the symbolic (the signifier) and the imaginary
(meaning) seem to have hardly anything in common—
a fact demonstrated by the abundance and
heterogeneity of languages. Moreover, the real, by definition,
escapes the symbolic and the imaginary, since
its resistance to them is precisely what makes it real.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
JO9 TOPOLOGY
produces a single-sided and a disk.
surface (=a Mobius strip)
FIGURE 8
(This is why Lacan identified the real with the impossible.)
In psychoanalysis, the real resists, and thus is distinct
from, the imaginary defenses that the ego uses
specifically to misrecognize the impossible and its
consequences.
If each of the three registers R, S, and I that make up
the Borromean knot is recognized to be toric in structure
and the knot is constructed in three-dimensional
space, it constitutes the perfect answer to the problem
above, because it realizes a three-way joining of all three
toruses, while none of them is actually linked to any
other: If any one of them is cut, the other two are set
free. Reciprocally, any knot that meets these conditions
is called Borromean. Note that the subject is now
defined by such a knot and not merely, as with the
cross-cap, as the effect of a cut (figure 8).
1763
Torok, Maria (1925-1998)
FIGURE 9
> = the fourth ring (the sinthome)
Unfortunately, this ideal solution, which could be
considered normal (without symptoms), seems to
lead to paranoia. Lacan considered this to be the
result of failure to distinguish among the three registers,
as if they were continuous, which indeed occurs
in clinical work. Being identical, R, S, and I are only
differentiated by means of a “complication,” a fourth
ring that Lacan called the “sinthome.” By making a
ring with the three others, the sinthome (symptom)
differentiates the three others by assuring their knotting
(figure 9).
In this arrangement, the sinthome has the function
of determining one of the rings. If it is attached to the
symbolic, it plays the role of the paternal metaphor
and its corollary, a neurotic symptom.
Lacan also drew upon non-Borromean knots, generated
by “slips,” or mistakes, in tying the knots. These
allowed him to represent the status of subjects who are
unattached to the imaginary or the real and who compensate
for this with supplements (Lacan, 2001). In
such cases the sinthome is maintained.
By using knots, Lacan was able to reveal his ongoing
research without hiding its uncertainties. The value of
the knots, which resist imaginary representation, is
that they advance research that is not mere speculation
and that they can grasp—at the cost of abandoning a
grand synthesis—a few “bits of the real” (Lacan,
1976-1977, session of March 16, 1976). Even though
he knew something about topology as practiced by
mathematicians, Lacan advised his students “to use it
stupidly” (Lacan, 1974-1975, session of December 17,
1974) as a remedy for our imaginary simpleminded-
1764
ness. He also recommended manually working with
the knots by cutting surfaces and tying knots. Finally,
for Lacan, topology had not only heuristic value but
also valuable implications for psychoanalytic practice.
BERNARD VANDERMERSCH
See also: Knot; L and R schemas; Seminar, Lacan’s; Signifier/
signified; Structural theories; Symptom/sinthome; Thalassa.
A Theory of Genitality; Unary trait.
Bibliography
Bourbaki, Nicolas. (1994). Elements of the history of mathematics
(John Meldrum, Trans.). Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
Darmon, Marc. (1990). Essais sur la topologie Lacanienne.
Paris: Editions de l’Association Freudienne Internationale.
Lacan, Jacques. (1975). La troisieme, intervention de J.
Lacan, le 31 octobre 1974. Lettres de l’Ecole Freudienne, 16,
178-203.
. (1974-1975). Le seminaire, livre XXII, R.S.I. Ornicar?
2—5.
. (1976-1977). Le séminaire XXIII, 1975-76: Le
sinthome. Ornicar? 6-11.
. (2001). Joyce: Le symptome. In his Autres écrits.
Paris: Seuil.
Pont, Jean-Claude. (1974). La topologie algébrique des origines
a Poincaré. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
TOROK, MARIA (1925-1998)
A French psychoanalyst of Hungarian birth, Maria
Torok was born on November 10, 1925, in Budapest
and died in New York on March 25, 1998.
She trained as a psychologist at the Sorbonne in
the early 1950s; there she met Nicolas Abraham, a
philosopher interested in the phenomenology of
Husserl and a psychoanalyst, and she became his companion.
She was initially a psychological counselor in
nursery schools when she went into analysis with Béla
Grunberger and later with Margaret Clark-Williams,
an American-born psychoanalyst. Torok went on
to become an analyst and a member of the Société
psychanalytique de Paris (Paris Psychoanalytic
Society).
In Torok’s work together with Abraham as well as
in their individual work, both were concerned with
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
differentiating the “shell” from the “kernel” of any
theory, a concern that is articulated in their book The
Shell and the Kernel: Renewals in Psychoanalysis (1978;
trans. 1994): “[I]f Freud’s theories form the protective
shell around his intuition, simultaneously concealing
and revealing it, what of the actual kernel? For it is the
kernel which, invisible but active, confers its meaning
upon the whole construction. This kernel, the active
principle of psychoanalytic theory, will not show
through unless all the apparent contradictions have
found their explanation of the unity I ascribe hypothetically
to Freud’s intuition” (p. 82).
In her 1968 article “The Illness of Mourning and
the Fantasy of the Exquisite Corpse,’ Torok reexamined
the problems of introjection and incorporation,
as presented from the works of Sandor Ferenczi
through those of Melanie Klein. She distinguished
introjection, as a process that allows the ego to be
enriched with the instinctual traits of the pleasureobject,
from incorporation, a fantasmatic mechanism
that positions the forbidden or prohibited object
within the self in secret. “Installed in place of the lost
object, the incorporated object continues to recall the
fact that something else was lost: the desires quelled
by repression” (p. 114). She developed a theory of
the crypt and the phantom that haunts the subject
and begins to speak in the subject’s place. The phenomenon
of the phantom results not from the return
of the repressed, but from the cryptic inclusion of an
Other, in the face of which the illness of mourning
and the work of mourning have not been able to
take effect.
Torok thus took on the work of a patient and critical
rereading of Freud, Ferenczi, and Klein, in an
attempt to identify all that remained unanalyzed and
“encrypted” in the systems of psychoanalysis. After
Nicolas Abraham’s death in 1985, she continued this
line of inquiry into psychoanalysis with Abraham’s
nephew, Nicholas Rand.
JACQUES SEDAT
See also: Abraham, Nicolas; Introjection.
Bibliography
Abraham, Nicolas, and Torok, Maria. (1986). The Wolf
Mazn’s magic word: A cryptonomy (Nicholas Rand, Trans.).
Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. (Original
work published 1976)
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
TOSQUELLES, FRANCcols (1912-1994)
. (1994). The shell and the kernel: Renewals of psychoanalysis
(Nicholas T. Rand, Ed. and Trans.). Chicago: University
of Chicago Press. (Original work published 1978)
. (1995). Questions for Freud: The secret history of
psychoanalysis. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Torok, Maria. (1968). Maladie du deuil et fantasme du
cadavre exquis. Revue francaise de psychanalyse, 32, 4.
(Reprinted in translation as “The illness of mourning and
the fantasy of the exquisite corpse,’ in Abraham and
Torok, The shell and the kernel: Renewals of psychoanalysis.)
TOSQUELLES, FRANCOIS (1912-1994)
Francois Tosquelles, a French physician, hospital psychiatrist,
psychoanalyst, and founder of the movement
for institutional psychotherapy, was born on August
12, 1912, in Reus (Catalonia, Spain) and died on September
24, 1994, in Granges-sur-Lot (France). He was
reared in Reus in a progressive and culture-loving
environment until he sat for his baccalaureate at the
age of fifteen. He then enrolled in the medical school
of Barcelona University, where he met Sandor Eiminder,
an Austrian refugee fleeing Nazism, who became
his psychoanalyst. As early as 1934 he was appointed
to work as a physician in the Instituto Pere Mata and
enjoyed the benefits of being psychoanalytically monitored
by Werner Wolf, a German refugee who had
settled in Barcelona.
In 1936 Spain elected the Popular Front and rapidly
found itself facing down fascism. Tosquelles was
appointed psychiatric head of the republican army. He
implemented group techniques derived directly from
psychoanalysis to treat psychological decompensation
in soldiers, as Wilfrid Bion and John Rickman were to
do in Great Britain during World War II.
Forced to flee Spain after the defeat of the republicans,
he arrived in France and settled in Saint-Albansur-
Limagnole (in the Lozere department) in 1940. As
a result of his work with Lucien Bonnafe, Andre
Chaurand, and many others during the period of
Resistance, the Saint-Alban-sur-Limagnole psychiatric
hospital became the crucible of a unique experiment
based on the discoveries of psychoanalysis and aimed
at treating the most seriously ill mental patients from a
psychodynamic perspective. He worked with a large
number of psychiatrists and psychoanalysts, the best
known among them being Jean Oury, Helene
1765
Totem AND TABOO
Chaigneau, Jean Ayme, Horace Torrubia, Roger
Gentis, Philippe Rappard, and Yves Racine. Georges
Daumézon and Philippe Koechlin later referred to this
system as “institutional psychotherapy.” It greatly contributed
to changing the face of French psychiatry by
developing the system of “sector psychiatry” set up in
the 1960s and 1970s. In this innovative practice of psychiatry,
ongoing treatment made it possible to take the
psychoanalytic concept of the transference relation
into account. We find echoes of this system in Tosquelles’s
book Education et psychothérapie institutionelle
(Education and institutional psychotherapy; 1984).
Tosquelles was very attached to a global conception
of the human being. In his psychoanalytic practice he
treated children and adults, individuals and groups,
using the techniques of classical treatment and psychodrama.
A polyglot possessing vast knowledge, he never
ceased to establish links between the world of psychiatry
and the discoveries of psychoanalysis, phenomenology,
and anthropology. The quality of his presence
for the other, his clinical intuition, his lively personality,
and his indefatigable search to improve conditions
for mental patients made him a unique figure in the
history of psychoanalysis.
In the domain of psychoanalysis he was mainly
responsible for introducing an in-depth approach to
the study of psychopathology and the psychoses.
Whether in the psychoanalytic study and comprehension
of delusional manifestations and other elements
in the behavior of schizophrenic and autistic patients
or in reflection on the transference relations that come
into play in their treatment, both for the patient and
the therapist Tosquelles had the capacity to render
complex psychoanalytic problems accessible and
crystal-clear, irrespective of the status of his listeners.
Tosquelles instituted a movement of institutional
psychotherapy that was furthered by Jean Oury, and
continued by many psychiatrists and psychoanalysts.
Moreover, he greatly contributed to demonstrating the
importance of the nursing team. These contributions
responded in part to the wish that Freud expressed at
the Budapest Congress in 1918: “When this happens,
institutions or out-patient clinics will be started,
to which analytically-trained physicians will be appointed,
so that men who would otherwise give way to
drink, women for whom there is no choice between
running wild or neurosis, may be made capable, by
analysis, of resistance and of efficient work” (1919a
[1918]).
1766
A collection of papers, Actualité de la psychothérapie
institutionelle (The current state of institutional
psychotherapy; 1994), includes Tosquelles’s last
publication.
PIERRE DELION
See also: Fanon, Frantz; France.
Bibliography
Delion, Pierre (Ed.). (1994). Actualité de la psychothérapie
institutionnelle. Vigneux, France: Editions Matrice.
Ellul, Jacques, Tosquelles, Frangois, Corbin, Jean-Francois,
et al. (1987). La Genése aujourd’ hui. Nantes, France: Arefpi.
Freud, Sigmund. (1919a [1918]). Lines of advance in
psycho-analytic therapy. SE, 17: 157-168.
Tosquelles, Francois. (1967). Structure et reéducation thérapeutique.
Paris: Editions Universitaires.
. (1984). Education et psychothérapie institutionelle.
Mantes, France: Hiatus.
. (1986). Le vécu de la fin du monde dans la folie.
Nantes, France: Arefpi.
. (1992). Denseignement de la folie. Toulouse, France:
Privat.
TOTEM AND TABOO
Totem and Taboo is Sigmund Freud’s first work on
group psychology. The foundation of the work’s ideas
first appears in 1911, in his correspondence with Sandor
Ferenczi, through which it is possible to trace the
development of Freud’s thought. Two topics appear in
the letters: “tragic guilt” and the “libidinal origin of
religion.” His competition with Carl Jung, who was
writing the Metamorphoses of the Soul and its Symbols
(1912), is mentioned, and their break in fact occurred
while the book was being written.
The work presents a classic and sweeping analogy
between two terms: on the one hand, savages, on the
other, neurotics and children—us, in other words.
The analogy unfolds in three parts, starting in the
first essay where the resemblance between the two is
related to the horror of incest that Freud identified
in savages by analyzing totemic systems as laws of
exogamy. The second essay interprets taboo as a
manifestation of the ambivalence of emotions. Freud
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
postulates the primal existence of emotional currents,
distinguishes between savages and the rest of
us based on the intensity of emotion, and provides
the first in-depth investigation of this conception of
emotion. The third essay, cutting across similarities
and differences, offers, among other things, the first
detailed investigation of narcissism (animism). But
there is more to the analogy, which Freud develops
at the end of the third essay and in the fourth. He
establishes the existence of the concepts he examines,
the dynamic that governs them, as well as their bearing
on his own work, on the following hypotheses:
the existence of a primitive horde whose father is
omnipotent; the murder of the father by the group
of brothers, leading to the growth of the totemic
clan, and the conditions for this possibility of
thought.
The work is made difficult because of its complex
construction, the manner in which Freud uses analogy,
the extreme interpretative power of his analysis, the conceptual
richness of the book—projection, ontogenesis
of moral conscience, the reality-ego and pleasure-ego—
and finally because of the “spiny hedge of literature and
reference” included (letter to Ferenczi, May 13, 1913).
This work also traces the Oedipus complex to a scientific
myth that is found, in modified form, in the work of the
majority of later psychoanalysts.
Although schematic and structural, Totem and
Taboo was the basis for Freud’s work on group psychology.
Like most of his work, it is more frequently
reduced to a simple formula (the murder of the father
by the horde) than studied or understood as a whole.
The only valid criticism concerns the hypothesis of the
phylogenetic transmission of precise memory traces.
But the forms assumed by the primal horde and the
totemic clan, as well as the foundational moment of
rupture that they share, remain pertinent. The libidinal
dynamics that constitute such groups were later
elaborated in Group Psychology and the Analysis of the
Ego (1921c), along with the status of the “poet” who
invents the myth of origin.
MICHELE PORTE
See also: Act/action; Ambivalence; Animistic thought;
Anthropology and psychoanalysis; Castration complex;
Cultural transmission; Darwin, Darwinism and psychoanalysis;
Ethics; Father complex; Gift; Group Psychology
and the Analysis of the Ego; Heredity of acquired char-
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
TOTEM AND TABOO
acters; Identification; Incest; Magical thinking; Myth of
origins; Mythology and psychoanalysis; Oedipus complex;
Omnipotence of thoughts; Organic repression;
Parricide/murder of the father; Phylogenesis; Phylogenetic
Fantasy, A: Overview of the Transference Neuroses;
Primitive; Primitive horde; Projection; Taboo; Thalassa:
A Theory of Genitality; Totem/totemism; “Uncanny,
The.”
,
Source Citation
Freud, Sigmund (1912-13a), Totem und Tabu. Einige Ubereinstimmungen
im Seelenleben der Wilden und der Neurotiker,
Leipzig-Vienna, Hugo Heller; GW, IX; appeared
with the title “Uber einige Ubereinstimmungen im Seelenleben
der Wilden und der Neurotiker” as a series of
four essays in Imago; first essay: “Die Inzestscheu,” I, 1,
Vienna, 1912, 17-33; second essay: “Das Tabu und die
Ambivalenz der Gefihlsregungen,” I, 3, Vienna, 1912,
213-227, I, 4, 301-333; third essay: “Animismus, Magie
und Allmacht der Gedanken,” II, 1, Vienna, 1913, 1-21;
fourth essay: “Die infantile Widerkehr des Totemismus,”
II, 4, Vienna, 1913, 357-408; Totem and taboo. SE, 13:
1-161.
Bibliography
Frazer, James G. (1910). Totemism and exogamy. New York.
Freud, Sigmund. (1921c). Group psychology and the analysis
of the ego. SE, 18: 65-143.
Freud, Sigmund, and Ferenczi, Sandor. (1993-2000). The
correspondence of Sigmund Freud and Sandor Ferenczi (Eds.
Eva Brabant, Ernst Falzeder, and Patrizia Giampieri-
Deutsch, Peter T. Hoffer, Trans.). Cambridge, MA: Belknap
Press of Harvard University Press.
Jung, Carl Gustav. (1911-12). Psychology of the unconscious:
A study of the transformation and symbolism of the libido: A
contribution to the history of the evolution of the thought.
Coll. Works, Vol. 5. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Smith, William Robertson. (1889). Lectures on the religion of
the Semites. New York: Schocken Books, 1972.
Further Reading
Mead, Margaret. (1963). Totem and taboo reconsidered
with respect. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 27, 185-199.
Muensterberger, Warren. (Ed.) (1969). Man and his culture:
Psychoanalytic anthropology after Totem and Taboo. London:
Rapp and Whiting.
Whiting, J. W. M. (1960). Totem and taboo—A reevaluation.
Science and Psychoanalysis, 3, 150-154.
1767
Totem/TOTEMISM
TOTEM/TOTEMISM
The word totem is derived from the Ojibwa language
of North America, where it refers to kinship relations
between siblings and the exogamous clan. In the nineteenth
century, British anthropologists suggested that
totemism, characterized by the existence of a fetish,
exogamy, and matrilineal descent, was the fundamental
institution of primitive societies and the essential
basis of their beliefs, as distinct from the religious and
scientific thought of western culture. This universalizing,
comparative, and evolutionist attitude reached its
apogee in James G. Frazer. It disappeared for methodological
reasons. Ethnologists abandoned universalism
to conduct local research, emphasizing the differences
between cultures.
In Freud’s work the word totem appears in a supplement
(1912a), prepared for the Weimar Congress, September
21 and 22, 1911, describing his analysis of Justice
Schreber’s book (1911). After working for four months
on Totem and Taboo (1912—13a), Freud announced his
intentions as follows: “The assumption underlying these
trials [proving the authenticity of childrens lineage from
a clan’s totem] leads us deep into the totemic habits of
thought of primitive peoples. The totem ... spares the
members of the tribe as being its own children, just as it
itself is honoured by them as being their ancestor and is
spared by them. We have here arrived at the considerations
of matters which, as it seems to me, may make it
possible to arrive at a psycho-analytic explanation of
the origins of religion” (1911c, p. 81).
Totem and Taboo advanced the thesis that Freud
developed in all his writing on group psychology,
through Moses and Monotheism (1939a [1934-38)]—
and he indicates that he is aware of the criticism of the
literature on totemism and undisturbed by it. Initially
there was agreement between the two taboo prohibitions
of totemism—killing the totem and marrying
within the clan—were found to coincide with the two
oedipal wishes—killing the father and marrying the
mother. Psychoanalysis provided two other findings:
childhood phobias showing the animal could function
as a paternal substitute, and Ferenczi’s observation of a
child who identified with a cock (1913), which Freud
associated with an “infantile return of totemism.” He
went on to describe the murder of the archaic father as
the nucleus of totemism and point of departure for the
formation of religion. The work of William Robertson
Smith (1889) analyzing the “totemic meal” confirmed
1768
the hypothesis: Once a year the totem animal was
sacrificed and consumed by the members of the tribe.
This was followed by a period of mourning and feasting.
By adding the Darwinian assumption of primitive
hordes, each under the domination of a single male
who was powerful, violent, and jealous, the following
scientific hypothesis or myth was set forth. The allpowerful
and “absolutely narcissistic” father of the primal
horde seized all the women and killed, subjugated,
or chased away the sons. “One day, however, the sons
came together and united to overwhelm, kill, and
devour their father, who had been their enemy but also
their ideal” (1925d [1924], p. 68). Afterward, none of
the sons could take the place of the father. “Under the
influence of failure and regret ... they banded themselves
into a clan of brothers by the help of the ordinances
of totemism, which aimed at preventing a
repetition of such a deed, and they jointly undertook
to forego the possession of the women on whose
account they had killed their father.... this was the
origin of the exogamy which is so closely bound up
with totemism. The totem-feast was the commemoration
of the fearful dead from which sprang man’s sense
of guilt (or ‘original sin’) and which was the beginning
at once of social organization, of religion, and of ethical
restrictions. Now whether we suppose that such a
possibility was a historical event or not, it brings the
formation of religion within the circle of the fathercomplex
and bases it upon the ambivalence which
dominates that complex” (p. 60).
By assigning a collective prehistory to the Oedipus
complex, while making an intrinsic connection
between individual and collective psychology via the
family, the totem hypothesis also bases the possibility
of human thought on the murder of the father of the
horde. The fulfillment of this act (i.e., murder of the
father), studied throughout Freud’s work on group
psychology, is what leads to the formation of distinct
psychic agencies—ego, ego ideal, and superego—
along with the development of ambivalence and the
appearance of the feeling of guilt, including unconscious
guilt. The concept of the taboo depends on the
thesis of totemism. Freud also attributed the susceptibility
to hypnotism to the phylogenetic memory
traces of the horde. Likewise, group psychology and
religion are based on the premise of totemism. From
this Freud deduced three paradigmatic forms and
dynamics of group existence: the horde, matriarchy,
and the totemic clan, and three paradigmatic forms of
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
religion that are related to them: the worship of
mother-goddesses, of the son-hero, and of the father.
The latter reveals the return of the repressed created by
the murder of the father.
Modern ethnology has challenged the universality
of Freud’s claim and that of the Oedipus complex. The
transmission of phylogenetic traces that are valid for
the entire human species is problematic, even if Freud
defends this idea with a form of Lamarckism. Nonetheless,
Freud’s arguments have.continued to generate
interest (Juillerat, 1991). In Totem and Taboo and
Moses and Monotheism, Freud explicitly analyzed the
libidinal forms and dynamics of western culture, with
its monotheistic religions, its customs, its morality, its
science, and its social and state institutions.
MICHELE PORTE
See also: Animistic thought; Double; Erotogenic masochism;
Ethics; Group Psychology and the Analysis of the
Ego; Group psychotherapies; Identification; Myth of origins;
Mythology and psychoanalysis; Oral eroticism;
Oral-sadistic stage; Orality; Parricide, murder of the
father; Primitive; Primitive horde; Rite and ritual;
Roheim, Géza; Substitute/substitutive formation; Taboo;
Totem and Taboo.
Bibliography
Ferenczi, Sandor. (1913). Arpad: Un petit homme-cogq [Ein
kleiner Hahnemann]. OC, Psychanalyse, 2, 1913-1918.
Paris: Payot.
Freud, Sigmund. (1912—13a). Totem and taboo. SE, 13: 1—
161.
. (1925d [1924]). An autobiographical study. SE, 20:
1-74.
Juillerat, Bernard. (1991). CEdipe chasseur: Une mythologie
du sujet en Nouvelle-Guinée. Paris: Presses Universitaires de
France.
Lévi-Strauss, Claude. (1964). Totemism. (Rodney Needham,
Trans.) London: Merlin. (Original work published 1962)
TRAINING ANALYSIS
The training analysis is the personal course of psychoanalytical
treatment that every psychoanalyst must
undergo with a certified analyst prior to, or in parallel
with, his or her theoretical training, and before beginning
to practice.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
TRAINING ANALYSIS
As late as 1909, Freud’s answer to the hypothetical
question “How can one become a psycho-analyst?” was
still: “by studying one’s own dreams” (1910a, p. 33).
This was a shibboleth that he mentioned several times,
but by the following year he widened the requirements:
“no psycho-analyst goes further than his own complexes
and internal resistances permit; and we consequently
require that he shall begin his activity with a
self-analysis and continually carry it deeper while he is
making his observations on his patients. Anyone who
fails to produce results in a self-analysis of this kind
may at once give up any idea of being able to treat
patients by analysis” (1910d, p. 145). Freud continued
to use the term Selbstanalyse (self-analysis, or analysis
of oneself) to include the procedure of being analyzed
by a senior and more experienced person; Max
Eitingon’s analysis with Freud (1909-1909), conducted
during evening strolls on the Ring, was the first
instance of a training analysis. Freud later considered
it “one of the many merits of the Zurich school of analysis
that they have laid increased emphasis on this
requirement, and have embodied it in the demand
that everyone who wishes to carry out analyses on
other people shall first himself undergo an analysis by
someone with expert knowledge” (1912e, p. 116).
In 1918, with Freud’s agreement, Hermann Nunberg
proposed at the Fifth Congress of the International
Psycho-Analytical Association that training
analysis be made obligatory. Otto Rank and Viktor
Tausk were opposed. The rule became official only in
1926. Rank and Sandor Ferenczi (1923/1925) made it
clear, however, that “the correct didactic analysis is
one that does not in the least differ from the curative
treatment”; nor, in their view, should it be confined to
physicians.
Ferenczi described the necessity for training analysis
as “the second fundamental rule of psycho-analysis”
(1928/1955, pp. 88-89). The adoption of the principle
by the International Psychoanalytical Association
(IPA) was the result, chiefly, of the efforts of Eitingon
and of the initiative of the Berlin Institute, which had
set up a training protocol as early as 1920. The training
analysis was a cornerstone of that protocol, and Hanns
Sachs was one of the first official training analysts.
Writing to Franz Alexander on May 13, 1928, Freud
once again raised the bar: “One ought to demand guarantees
from the candidates which are not necessary
with patients, since regular analytic work has deleterious
effects on one’s psyche just as work with Roentgen
1769
TRAINING ANALYSIS
rays has on one’s tissues; it needs to be countered by
steady hard work” (Jones, p. 478). A few years later, at
a time when the received wisdom was to extend analysis
to the limit, Freud even suggested that “Every analyst
should periodically—at intervals of five years or
so—submit himself to analysis once more, without
feeling ashamed of taking this step” (1937c, p. 249).
During the years when psychoanalysis was expanding,
thanks both to the dispersal of émigrés in flight
from Nazism and to the strengthening of the movement’s
institutions, training analysis became the subject
of innumerable papers, reports, and debates, and the
rules governing it were continually changing. A letter
from Rudolph Loewenstein to Marie Bonaparte dated
February 22, 1953, is eloquent on the prevailing norms:
“Here [in New York], as in the American Association,
there is a rule requiring training analysis to be conducted
on the basis of at least four sessions per week, of
between three-quarters of an hour and fifty-five minutes
in length. Even the people in Chicago support
this. The worst, though, are the Washington lot.”
Regulations of this sort were at the root and core of
a good many splits in the psychoanalytic movement,
notably in France in 1953 and 1963, where Jacques
Lacan’s short sessions and his relationship with his
analysands were challenged by the IPA authorities,
who eventually barred him as a training analyst. Lacan
retaliated by decreeing in the founding statement of
his Ecole freudienne de Paris that training analysis was
the purest form of analysis, and by proposing (October
9, 1967) the institution of the system of induction of
analysts that he called “Ja passe.”
Critics of required training analyses variously
underscore the antithesis between a professional project
and the request for a personal analysis, the possibility
of external rivalries corrupting the transference
and/or counter-transference in such analyses, the hierarchical
medical model implied by the title of training
analyst, and even the danger of creating a “restricted
transference zone” (Stein). There has been a tendency
for the term training analysis to fade from use in
training programs: the Paris Psychoanalytical Society,
for example, under the influence of Sacha Nacht, prohibited
any participation of a candidate’s analyst in his
or her training. The function of the training analyst,
however, has shown remarkable staying power, and
the international guidelines that the IPA’s member
societies are bound by in this connection are still the
object of much debate and negotiation. Each group
1770
strives by its own lights to settle on what Freud called
“the training most suitable for an analyst” (1926e,
p. 252), but the necessity of a preparatory personal
analysis is universally acknowledged. Under what conditions,
and with whom, are still open questions.
ALAIN DE MYOLLA
See also: Association psychanalytique de France; Berliner
Psychoanalytisches Institut; Berliner Psychoanalytische
Poliklinik; Cure; Development of Psycho-Analysis; Ecole
freudienne de Paris; Eitingon, Max; Fourth analysis;
France; International Psychoanalytic Association; Lay
analysis; Psychoanalytic filiations; Pass, the; Psychoanalyst;
Quatriéme groupe (O.P.L.F.), Fourth group; Real,
the (Lacan); “Recommendations to Physicians Practicing
Psychoanalysis”; Société francaise de psychanalyse; Société
psychanalytique de Paris and Institut de psychanalyse
de Paris; Training of the psychoanalyst; United States.
Bibliography
Donnet, Jean-Luc. (1973). Le divan bien tempéreé. Nouvelle
Revue de psychanalyse, 8 (Autumn), 23-49.
Ferenczi, Sandor. (1955). The elasticity of psycho-analytic
technique. In Final contributions to the problems and methods
of psycho-analysis. London: Hogarth and the Institute
of Psycho-Analysis. (Original work published 1928)
Ferenczi, Sandor, and Rank, Otto. (1925). The development
of psycho-analysis (Caroline Weston, Trans.). New York
and Washington: Nervous and Mental Disease Publishing.
(Original work published 1923)
Freud, Sigmund. (1910a [1909]). Five lectures on psychoanalysis.
SE, 11: 7-55.
. (1910d). The future prospects of psycho-analytic
therapy. SE, 11: 139-151.
. (1912e). Recommendations to physicians practising
psycho-analysis. SE, 12: 109-120.
. (1926e). The question of lay analysis. SE, 20: 177-
250.
. (1937c). Analysis terminable and interminable. SE,
23: 209-253.
Girard, Claude. (1984). La part transmise. XLIIIe Congres
des psychanalystes de langues romanes. Revue francaise de
psychanalyse, 48, 1.
Jones, Ernest. (1957). Sigmund Freud: Life and work.
London: Hogarth.
Mannoni, Maud. (1970). Le psychiatrie, son fou et la psychanalyse.
Paris: Seuil.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Stein, Conrad. (1972). Notes relatives au statut scientifique
et au statut social de la psychanalyse. Etudes freudiennes,
5—6. (Original work published 1968)
TRAINING OF THE PSYCHOANALYST
Psychoanalytic training is the process that enables a
student to be recognized as a psychoanalyst by the psychoanalytic
community and serves as a prelude to psychoanalytic
practice. Many attempts have been made
to define the optimum conditions for training since
the early years of psychoanalysis. Following the creation
of the Berlin Institute for Psychoanalysis in 1920,
there came into being a number of organizations
designed to provide training based initially on individual
psychoanalysis.
At present there is no official degree or certification
for psychoanalysts. Because of the excesses and pretenses
that have inevitably accompanied the success of
psychoanalysis, the issue often arises of the need to
protect not only patients but also properly trained
psychoanalysts, and ultimately psychoanalysis itself.
However, the private institutions that represent psychoanalysis
do not want the certification they provide
to be part of any official legislation. There is a fundamental
reason for this. Psychoanalytic training involves,
first and foremost, personal experience of the
analytic situation, and this experience is valid only if it
is a subjective adventure freely undertaken. How could
analysts in training reveal the most intimate aspects of
their beings if the experience served as a means of
obtaining a state-authorized degree or certificate?
Freud himself was aware of the problem early in his
career. In a 1926 article (1926e), Freud argued against
the idea of restricting analytic practice to medical doctors
alone and pointed out the near impossibility of
defining criteria for the “illegal practice” of psychoanalysis.
His wish was that psychoanalysis be “neither
permitted nor forbidden,” and thereby be free of government
regulation. At the same time, he felt that
organizations like the association he had created could
regulate psychoanalysis and thereby resolve, to the
extent possible, the problem of integrating psychoanalysis
into society. Such an institution could establish
methods of training and procedures for certification.
In spite of various crises and criticisms, this model and
its variants appears to have remained the most
pertinent.
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TRAINING OF THE PSYCHOANALYST
It is easier to describe the tripartite model that is
generally a part of an analyst’s training than to summarize
the contradictions that have arisen with the
question of accreditation. There are three components
to training, all of which are necessary. In the United
States the analyst in training undertakes the three
parts of training concomitantly. It is considered essential
that a candidate undergo analytic treatment while
conducting a supervised analysis so that problems that
arise through the counter-transference can be
analyzed.
The first component of training is the analysis of
the candidate. In France, this requires a commitment
to analysis prior to training and ensures that the analysis,
when it occurs, calls into question the unconscious
sources of the desire to be an analyst. If the candidate
is not committed, or is incompletely committed, the
candidate should draw the appropriate conclusion and
withdraw from the field. Experience shows that this
does not always happen, and in such cases the position
assumed by the analyst is rarely compatible with the
analyst’s performance. It is appropriate to refer such
cases to a third party—an organization, for example—
for adjudication. The personal experience of analysis is
so important that it has been referred to as the second
fundamental rule. This requirement follows from the
demands made on the analyst in practice: evenly suspended
attention, benevolent neutrality, the ability to
analyze one’s own mental responses to the patient,
identification and de-identification with the patient,
and so on.
The conclusion of analysis and the criteria for success
have been the subject of much spirited debate
within the psychoanalytic community. Originally, the
analysand was involved in only an aspect of the full
potential of psychoanalysis: acknowledging the existence
of the unconscious, which provides the subject
with greater understanding and conviction. But with
advances in the technique of analysis and the emergence
of the concept of counter-transference, training
analysis moved in the direction of the most complete
analysis possible, with each of the major theoretical
trends proposing a definition of a satisfactory conclusion
in terms of its own criteria. The paradox is that
defined criteria of a satisfactory conclusion engenders
a normative reference that contradicts the very spirit
of the analytic process. It is important to stress, therefore,
that the analysis of the candidate has a greater
chance of success if its didactic dimension is ignored,
1771
TRAINING OF THE PSYCHOANALYST
if the ever-present real or imaginary requirements of
the collective ideal are abandoned, and if the analysis
finds its own modus operandi. The process requires
only—but this is already asking quite a bit—that candidates,
starting from an adequate intellectual base,
engage in self-analysis and be able to identify and
make use of the effects of counter-transference on
themselves. As can be imagined, such a process of analysis
exceeds the scope of training. Because of the risks
associated with practice of the profession, the analyst
should be prepared to undertake additional therapy
when needed: one’s own analysis being, by definition,
open-ended.
The second component of training involves supervised
analysis. The novice analyst speaks to a more
experienced colleague on a regular basis about a current
patient in analysis. This report can assume various
forms and involve different kinds of comments and
exchanges. What is essential is that the junior analyst
talk about what takes place between his patient and himself
in terms of transference and counter-transference.
When he does so, he will necessarily reveal the unconscious
counter-transference, which then can be pointed
out and elaborated. One of the goals of supervision is to
enable the beginning analyst to transcend identification
with his own analyst and develop his own style.
The supervisory situation, typically involving two
people, can also be conducted in small groups, in
which case it resembles a seminar for clinical discussion.
The controlled environment that supervision
affords is so vital that all analysts should make use of it
whenever problems occur in their practices. Supervision
must therefore be considered a separate form of
analysis, a process that occurs alongside therapy and
serves as the basis for analyzing oneself while analyzing
the patient.
The third component involves training in analytic
knowledge and metapsychology. Naturally, it is desirable
that the analyst be familiar with the key texts in
psychoanalysis and be as well educated as possible.
Study groups and seminars requiring the trainee’s
active participation and interaction with older colleagues
will contribute to the trainee’s education. Below
are some additional points about education:
¢ Possessing knowledge is of limited value for practical
competence. For the analyst, knowledge
assumes value when a given concept, author, or
clinical description arouses his interest, mobilizes
his defenses, and encourages his identifications,
1772
allowing him to access the truth at a given
moment. And this process is entirely subjective.
A theoretical overview intersects with the insights
of self-analysis. Because psychoanalysis seeks
knowledge of the unconscious, everyone must
follow the road of Freudian discovery for himself.
Studying Freud is a central part of training. This
study is justified not only because Freud originated
modern psychoanalysis and his depth and
scope form an intellectual matrix for the discipline,
but also because identification with the
inventor of psychoanalysis shifts over time as a
result of rejections and contradictions and multiple
models. Critical study can weed out defensive
adherence to a dogmatic and closed theoretical
model. Finally, in view of the pluralism of post-
Freudian thought, shared knowledge of Freud’s
work can be used to identify areas where differences,
divisions, and revision occur. A century
after Freud’s discovery, an analyst’s metapsychological
grounding must involve some historical
awareness, which is indispensable for orienting
oneself within the immense body of psychoanalytic
writing.
Training in psychoanalysis also involves initiation
into a range of fields opened up by the extension
of psychoanalysis (child, psychosomatic, family,
group psychoanalysis) and its application (care
institutions, education). In all of these fields,
what is important is that psychotherapeutic practices
more or less follow the analytic model.
In the ideal program of a psychoanalytic institute,
Freud included the teaching of fields that he
felt were essential for analytic thinking: anthropology,
prehistory, mythology, history of religion,
biology, linguistics, as well as others that
have been added since, such as the arts. For the
well-trained analyst, nothing human is foreign.
In pursuit of this ideal the well-trained analyst
will undergo continuous education.
In a more immediately practical sense, the question
of appropriate prior training has often been
discussed. It is advisable that the analyst have at
least a college education, have adequate experience
of living and working, and have seen something of
human suffering. In the early twenty-first century,
the great majority of analysts came from the fields
of medicine, especially psychiatry, and psychology,
and indeed, knowledge of serious psychopathol-
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
ogy is indispensable in modern psychoanalytic
practice. For these professionals, the encounter
with their unconscious and access to metapsychological
ways of thinking will still call their training
into question, but it is not a bad thing if analytic
training is primarily conceived as a form of
undoing.
To ensure that a psychoanalytic body is responsible
in certifying its members, it must explicitly define the
principles on which training is based and the regulatory
procedures to which trainers and trainees are
subject. The most difficult aspect of this process is
ensuring quality analysis of the psychoanalytic candidate
while respecting the candidate’s extrainstitutional
space and time. For this reason and for purposes of
maintaining confidentiality, every institutional discussion
or decision concerning a candidate must explicitly
exclude any interference by his analyst.
Interactions between applicants and _ institutions
(such as offers of employment) reflect the options
available and the views held by the various parties
regarding the ethics of training and certification. Models
range from selection prior to any commitment to
analysis (as in the United States), a model that requires
a highly organized course of study at an institution, all
the way to certification after the fact, which makes
candidate analysts fully responsible for the various
aspects of their training. In intermediate models,
supervised analysis serves as an introduction to the
institution and thus as a preliminary form of certification.
Logically, candidates’ requests to move from
couch to chair should coincide with affirmation of
their desire to make the move. However, this connection
cannot be made a requirement even though the
institution requires it, because the affirmation ultimately
lies with the subject.
In France, evaluation of a request for admission to a
society generally takes place over the course of three
meetings with three analysts assigned by the institution.
In these meetings the candidate speaks about
himself and his analysis. This is an awkward situation,
for the candidate needs to transpose, in a conversation
with an analyst who is also an examiner, what has until
then been his intimate and private experience of the
analytic situation. What the examining analysts seek in
the candidate is not greater benefits from the analytic
work but a display of the necessary distance that
reflects the self-analytic ability required of an analyst.
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TRAINING OF THE PSYCHOANALYST
In successful interviews, the candidate clarifies the
truth of the dialogue of the meetings, and the examining
analysts can consider whether the candidate is
qualified for the work of analysis. From the personal
nature of these meetings, it is easy to see that they
require absolute confidentiality. The outcome of the
meetings should be a collective response made on
behalf of the institution. Ultimately, the most difficult
problem is that of rejecting the candidate.
Further training and certification can assume very
different forms. New analysts can be further evaluated
in supervised analysis and seminars. Since an institution
is defined as much by those it accepts as those it
rejects, the problem of rejecting candidates remains.
Flexible and controlled modulation of where to draw
the line between admission and rejection makes for
internal dynamism in scientific exchange, fertile tension
between the individual and the group, as well as
conflict between generations. Institutional certification
acquires meaning only in relation to the duration
of training, when supported by older colleagues, and
in seeking the transmission of knowledge from one
generation to the next.
JEAN-Luc DONNET
See also: American Psychoanalytic Association; Fourth
Analysis Berliner Psychoanalytisches Institut; Berliner
Psychoanalytische Poliklinik; Development of Psycho-
Analysis; Lehrinstitut der Wiener psychoanalytischen
Vereinigung; New York Psychoanalytic Institute; Pass,
the; Real, the (Lacan); “Recommendations to Physicians
Practicing Psychoanalysis”; Splits in psychoanalysis;
Supervised analysis (control case); Technique with adults,
psychoanalytic; Technique with children, psychoanalytic;
Training analysis.
Bibliography
Arfouilloux, Jean-Claude. (1989). La formation dans la
S.EP. et dans I’A.P.E: Mlaise dans la culture analytique.
Revue internationale d’histoire de la psychanalyse, 2, 343—
368.
Freud, Sigmund. (1926e). The question of lay analysis. SE,
20: 177-250.
Further Reading
Balint, Michael. (1954). Analytic training and training analysis.
International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 35, 157-162.
1773
TRANCE
Fenichel, Otto. (1982). Reflections on training and theory
(1942). International Review of Psychoanalysis, 9, 155-162.
Freud, Anna. (1976). Remarks on problems of psychoanalytic
training. Writings (of Anna Freud), 8, 186-192.
Greenacre, Phyllis. (1966). Problems of training analysis.
Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 35, 540-567.
Kernberg, Otto. (1996). Thirty methods to destroy the creativity
of psychoanalytic candidates. International Journal of
Psychoanalysis, 77, 1031-1040.
Knight, Robert P. (1945). Training in psychotherapy and
psychoanalysis. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 9, 54-59.
Wallerstein, Robert. (1998). Lay analysis: Life inside the controversy.
Hillsdale, NJ: Analytic Press.
TRANCE
According to Gilbert Rouget (1980), a trance is a “temporary
state of altered consciousness that obeys a cultural
model.” In the Middle Ages this term was applied
to the agonies of death and the Passion of Christ. The
word trance appeared in connection with the fakirs in a
supplement to the first edition of the book Neurhypnologie
by James Braid, the British doctor who popularized
hypnotism. It was also used at the end of the
nineteenth century to refer to the state of depersonalized
mediums embodying the spirits of other people.
From the perspective of physicians and psychologists of
that era, exotic, spiritualistic, or Catholic trances could
be explained in terms of provoked somnambulism,
hypnosis, hysteria, or neurosis, notions that seemed to
give a scientific explanation for these phenomena. Sigmund
Freud associated himself with this tradition to
some degree when he entitled one of his articles “A
Seventeenth-Century Demonological Neurosis” (1923).
This perspective was reversed when ethnologists
such as Alfred Métraux, Michel Leiris, or Roger Bastide
began to use this term, which in their view was less ethnocentric,
less psychologizing, or less psychiatric in
tone than the words hypnosis or hysteria. Trance
became the general term for experiences, rites, and
beliefs relating to possession, shamanism, ecstasy, or
divination observed in other cultures. From then on,
magnetic somnambulism, hypnosis, and even psychoanalysis
were seen as coming out of an Occidental
trance culture. Thus, in The Elementary Structures of
Kinship (1949/1969), Claude Lévi-Strauss described
psychoanalysis as a “modern form of shamanism.”
1774
While the question of a psychology or a psychoanalysis
of the trance continues to be raised, it has been given
away, in many contemporary studies, to that of the relationship
between the individual and the cultural realms.
JACQUELINE CARROY
See also: Animal magnetism; Benign/malignant regression;
Hypnosis; Jouissance (Lacan); Relaxation principle
and neocatharsis.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1923d [1922]). A seventeenth-century
demonological neurosis. SE, 19: 67-105.
Lapassade, Georges. (1990). La Transe. Paris: Presses Universitaires
de France.
Lévi-Strauss, Claude. (1969). The elementary structures of
kinship (James Harle Bell, John Richard von Sturmer, and
Rodney Needham, Trans.) Boston: Beacon Press. (Original
work published 1949)
Michaux, Didier (Ed.). (1995). La transe et lhypnose. Paris:
Imago.
Rouget, Gilbert. (1980). La musique et la transe. Paris:
Gallimard.
TRANSCULTURAL
For a long time the question of alterity (Julia Kristeva),
and in particular cultural alterity, has been raised by
psychoanalysis (Sigmund Freud, Sandor Ferenczi,
Géza Roheim): psychic alterity and its avatars, working
within the analytic framework, and the transformation
of this alterity, which can be painful or difficult to
come to terms with, into human creative potential.
New ways of shedding light on this question are being
found in the areas of both epistemology (Isabelle Stengers)
and clinical work (adaptation of the analytic framework
to non-Western populations, migrants, and
so forth).
There are several modalities of integration of cultural
representations into our clinical systems.
Advances in anthropology have required practitioners
to consider the two-way interactions between outside
(culture) and inside (the individual’s psychic functioning).
Two different currents of thinking have emerged:
those that hold that the therapeutic relationship is
constituted from the outset by elements inferred to be
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universal, and those that hold that the detour through
the particular with its own specific coding, including
cultural coding, is necessary. And yet, even among
those who accept the presence of cultural presuppositions
in the therapeutic relationship, two different
epistemological positions can be noted, and regrettably,
these have led to heated debates, more ideological
than clinical, in many Western countries.
Some thinkers have adopted an essentially comparatist
perspective: What are the invariant features that are
found in our patients’ culture and our own? This view
leads to the construction of equivalencies and parallelisms
between cultural elements of different worlds, but
also between the cultural elements of one group and
pathological behaviors of individuals belonging to other
groups. This option was present in some of Freud’s
texts, such as Totem and Taboo (1912-1913a). On the
clinical level, this choice leads to inserting the patient’s
language into certain mechanisms, and even becoming
familiar with his or her cultural representations. But all
of these elements are posited as a particular coloration
of the clinical relationship, its nucleus (the effective
part) being the same as what would be established in
an intracultural situation. The approach here can be
psychological (in France, Hélene Stork or Blandine
Bril), psychiatric (this is especially the case in Englishspeaking
countries, such as in the United States, with
Arthur Kleinman), or, more rarely, psychoanalytic
(the field called psychoanalytic anthropology).
Others, following Georges Devereux, have adopted a
perspective based on complementarity and make requisite
but not simultaneous use of psychoanalysis and
anthropology. This complementary approach differs
from the comparatist one in that cultural logics are
explored as such and are used to support associations.
The tool of anthropology makes it possible to establish
and explore the framework of the relationship and to
co-construct cultural meanings with the patient, to
which individual meanings will be linked. This perspective,
ethnopsychoanalysis, is the most developed one in
France. It is represented by the works of Tobie Nathan
(1986), for the first generation, and those of Marie-
Rose Moro (1994) for the second. In “L’Ethnopsychiatrie’
(1978; Ethnopsychiatry), Devereux proposed a
classification that recognizes three types of therapies
that take into account the cultural dimension of mental
disorders: “1. Intracultural, where the therapist and
the patient belong to the same culture, but the therapist
takes sociocultural dimensions into account....
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TRANSCULTURAL
2. Intercultural (or transcultural, as it was first defined),
where although the patient and the therapist do not
belong to the same culture, the therapist is well
acquainted with the culture of the patient’s ethnic
group and uses this knowledge as a therapeutic tool...
3. Metacultural: the therapist and the patient belong to
two different cultures. The therapist is not familiar with
the culture of the patient’s ethnic group, but nevertheless
has a thorough understanding of the concept of
culture and uses it in establishing the diagnosis and
carrying out the treatment.”
In English-speaking countries, working from Devereux’s
Classification, a distinction is made between crosscultural
psychiatry or psychology (intercultural) and
transcultural psychiatry or psychology (transcultural or
metacultural).
The term transcultural is used in an imprecise way
to refer in the broadest sense to the inter-, intra-, and
metacultural perspectives. In a more restricted and
precise sense, it refers to the metacultural form, which
presupposes a perfect understanding of the concept of
culture. Thus, in clinical practice the issue of the transcultural
takes on very different forms depending on
country and on theories relating to intellectual history,
and psychoanalysis in a given context.
Marie-Rose Moro
See also: Anthropology and psychoanalysis; Basic Problems
of Ethnopsychiatry; Devereux, Georges; Ethnopsychoanalysis;
Totem and Taboo.
Bibliography
Devereux, Georges. (1978). L’Ethnopsychiatrie. Ethnopsychiatrica,
1 (1), 7-13.
Freud, Sigmund. (1912—13a). Totem and taboo. SE, 13:
1-161.
Kleinman, Arthur. (1988). Rethinking psychiatry: From cultural
category to personal experience. New York: Free Press.
Moro, Marie-Rose. (1994). Parents en exil. Psychopathologie
et migration. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
Further Reading
Chrzanowski, G. (1979). Editorial: Cultural and transcultural
dimensions of Psychoanalysis. Journal of the Amertcan
Academy of Psychoanalysis, 7, 331-334.
1775
TRANSFERENCE
Davidson, L. (1980). Ethnic roots, transcultural methodology
and psychoanalysis. Journal of the American Academy
of Psychoanalysis, 8, 273-278.
Okano, K.-I. (1994). Shame and social phobia: A transcultural
viewpoint. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 58, 323—
338.
Taketomo, Y. (1986). Toward the discovery of self: A transcultural
perspective. Journal of the American Academy of
Psychoanalysis, 14, 69-84.
TRANSFERENCE
The term transference denotes a shift onto another
person—usually the psychoanalyst—of _ feelings,
desires, and modes of relating formerly organized or
experienced in connection with persons in the subject’s
past whom the subject was highly invested in.
Transference (Ubertragung; literally, “carrying over”)
was first used in Studies on Hysteria (Freud and
Breuer, 1895d), and it gradually developed a more precise
meaning over time with progress in the understanding
of psychoanalytic treatment in its different
dimensions. As of 2005, the term covers all the transference
phenomena met with in analytic practice,
more specifically, transference love, the transference
relationship, transference neurosis, narcissistic transference,
negative transference, and so on.
Transference involves transferring libidinal cathexis
from one person to the form, personality, or characteristics
of another. The quantity of libidinal energy
deployed in such transfers varies and may be considerable,
comparable in strength even to the original
cathexes. There are two important points to note in
this connection. First, what is mobilized here is libido;
the other forms of instinctual energy evoked by Freud
are not involved. Self-preservation, for example, plays
no part in transference. Second, the withdrawal of
libido from one object and the cathexis of another
with it, as in states of mourning, is not a transference
phenomenon. Transference implies maintenance of a
particular relational form and fidelity to a past relationship
that have been preserved in the unconscious.
The experience of psychoanalysis supports the conclusion
that transference phenomena occur naturally
in the course of ordinary life, especially with love relationships.
Such “wild” transferences usually structure
new relationships with outcomes very different from
what happens during psychoanalytic treatment. As
1776
Freud put it, “Psycho-analysis does not create [transference],
but merely reveals it to consciousness and
gains control of it in order to guide psychical processes
towards the desired goal” (1910a [1909], p. 51). In its
full meaning, transference is what is observed in the
course of the treatment and what constitutes an essential
precondition of the effectiveness of treatment. A
subject incapable of any kind of transference is unsusceptible
to treatment by analysis.
At first, in Studies on Hysteria, Freud viewed transference
in terms of the hypnotic analyst-patient
relationship, that is to say, solely in its relational,
emotional, and amorous aspects. Freud considered
establishing such a relationship to be a prerequisite of
success with the cathartic method, just as establishing
a hypnotic state is a prerequisite for hypnotic suggestion.
For patients who put their trust in the analyst,
Freud wrote, it is “almost inevitable that their personal
relation to him will force itself, at least for a time,
unduly into the foreground. It seems, indeed, as
though an influence of this kind on the part of the
doctor is a sine qua non to a solution of the problem”
(1895d, p. 266). On several subsequent occasions
Freud again related transference and suggestion, reiterating
that transference was a precondition of suggestion.
At the same time, he connected the intensity of
the patient’s relationship with the analyst with what he
called a meésalliance (false connection) between a
memory from the subject’s past and the therapeutic
situation: The content of a past wish arises “in the
patient’s consciousness unaccompanied by any memories
of the surrounding circumstances which would
have assigned it to a past time.” The wish is then linked
to the analyst, with whom the patient is already legitimately
connected. “As the result of this mesalliance—
which I describe as a ‘false connection-—the same
affect is produced which had forced the patient long
before to repudiate this forbidden wish. Since I have
discovered this, I have been able, whenever I have been
similarly involved personally, to presume that a transference
and a false connection have once more taken
place” (p. 303).
Thus a transference is not only the patient's love of
the analyst but also the transposition of an old relation
onto him. Once Freud had reached this conclusion, he
perceived that this second aspect of the transference
took the form of a new illness, and that it could derive
from very ancient relationships indeed. In “Fragment
of an Analysis of a Case of Hysteria” (1905e [1901]),
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for instance, he writes, “But the productive powers of
the neurosis are by no means extinguished; they are
occupied in the creation of a special class of mental
structures, for the most part unconscious, to which
the name of “transferences’ may be given” (p. 116).
Gradually the notion of transference neurosis
came into relief for Freud: “Provided only that the
patient shows compliance enough to respect the necessary
conditions of the analysis, we regularly succeed in
giving all the symptoms of the illness a new transference
meaning and in replacing his ordinary neurosis
by a ‘transference-neurosis’ of which he can be cured
by the therapeutic work. The transference thus creates
an intermediate region between illness and real life
through which the transition from the one to the other
is made. The new condition has taken over all the features
of the illness; but it represents an artificial illness
which is at every point accessible to our intervention”
(1914g, p. 154). Repetition in the transference
becomes the means whereby the patient remembers
forgotten, unconscious mental attitudes: “The part of
the patent’s emotional life which he can no longer
recall to memory is re-experienced by him in his relation
to the physician” (1910a [1909], p. 51).
Thus transference is the motor of the psychoanalytic
cure, in more than one sense. For one, the transference
introduces a new element into the patient’s
mental situation, a “piece of real experience” (1914g,
p. 154). For another, the transference is a necessary
precondition of the patient’s acceptance of interpretations:
“When is the moment for disclosing to [the
patient] the hidden meaning of the ideas that occur to
him? ... Not until an effective transference has been
established in [him], a proper rapport with him. It
remains the first aim of the treatment to attach him to
it and to the person of the doctor. To ensure this, nothing
need be done but to give him time” (1913c,
p. 139). Lastly, it is the energy of the transferred affects
that supplies the force needed to remove resistances.
At the same time, transference is also responsible
for resistance: “In analysis transference emerges as the
most powerful resistance to the treatment, whereas outside
analysis it must be regarded as the vehicle of cure
and the condition of success” (1912b, p. 101). A kind
of collusion may be struck up between resistance and
transference if transference serves the aims of resistance
or if a “distortion through transference” (p. 104)
is used to mask a conflict. Thus analysis of the transference
takes center stage, becoming the very heart, and a
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TRANSFERENCE
defining part, of the treatment. “The decisive part of
the work is achieved by creating in the patient’s relation
to the doctor—in the ‘transference’-—new editions
of the old conflicts; in these the patient would
like to behave in the same way as he did in the past,
while we, by summoning every available mental force
[in the patient], compel him to come to a fresh decision.
Thus the transference becomes the battlefield on
which all the mutually struggling forces should meet
one another” (1916-1917a [1915-1917], p. 454).
Freud described two forms of transference, negative
and positive. Positive transference covers all aspects of
attachment to, and confidence in, the analyst; it is essential
to successful treatment. Negative transference denotes
hostile cathexes or excess cathexis, which may lead the
patient to break off the therapeutic relationship.
The treatment, as it progresses, may be accompanied
by such ancillary transference phenomena as lJateral
transferences. Lateral transferences are cathexes,
parallel with the cathexis of the analyst, of some figure
capable of focusing that portion of the subject’s libido
and wishes that cannot be directly expressed to the
analyst. Such transferences escape the sphere of transference
proper, which is intermediate between the
inner world and outside reality, and thus are inaccessible
to analysis. But the relations they create may in reality
be of great value in other ways to the patient.
The erotic dimension of the transference can constitute
an obstacle to psychoanalytic cure in patients in
whom disparate arguments connected by a nebulous
logic prevents any shift in mental processes of the
amorous cathexis of the analyst (1915a, pp. 166-167).
Concerned by Ferenczi’s experimentation in this
regard, Freud warned against offering any direct satisfaction
to the patient; the danger was, he felt, that the
analyst would find himself in the position of the pastor
who attempted the death-bed conversion of an insurance
salesman, only to leave with an insurance policy
but no convert (p. 165).
PauL DENIS
See also: Counter-transference; Displacement of the
transference; Idealizing transference; Identification; Narcissistic
transference; Negative therapeutic reaction;
Negative transference; Psychotic transference; Resistance;
Resolution of the transference; Therapeutic alliance;
Transference/counter-transference (analytical psychology);
Transference depression; Transference hatred;
1777
TRANSFERENCE AND COUNTERTRANSFERENCE
Transference in children; Transference love; Transference
neurosis; Transference relationship; Twinship
transference/alter ego transference; Working-through.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1905e [1901]). Fragment of an analysis of
a case of hysteria. SE, 7: 1-122.
—_——.. (1910a [1909]). Five lectures on psycho-analysis.
SE, 11: 5-55.
——. (1912b). The dynamics of transference, SE, 12:
97-108.
—_——.. (1913c). On beginning the treatment (further
recommendations on the technique of psycho-analysis I).
SE, 12: 121-144.
. (1914g). Remembering, repeating, and workingthrough
(further recommendations on the technique of
psycho-analysis IT), SE, 12: 145-156.
. (1915a). Observations on transference love (further
recommendations on the technique of psycho-analysis
Ill). SE, 12: 157-171.
——. (1916-1917a [1915-1917]). Introductory lectures
on psycho-analysis. SE, 15-16.
Freud, Sigmund, and Breuer, Josef. (1895d). Studies on hysteria.
SE, 2: 48-106.
Further Reading
Esman, Aaron H. (1990). Essential papers on transference.
New York/London: New York University Press.
Frank, George. (2000). Transference revisited/transference
revisioned. Psychoanalysis and Contemporary Thought, 23,
459-478.
TRANSFERENCE AND
COUNTERTRANSFERENCE
Heinrich Racker (1910-1961) became a member of
the Asociacion Psicoanalitica Argentina (Psychoanalytic
Association of Argentina) in 1947. The appearance
of his book Transference and Countertransference,
whose central theme is counter-transference, had considerable
impact in Latin America, and also aroused
interest and confirmation in other psychoanalytic centers
of North America and Europe.
Racker argued that transference and countertransference
are the two components of a unity that
1778
reciprocally give life to one another and create the
interpersonal relationship in the analytic setting. The
counter-transference encompasses the analyst’s total
response to the transferences of the patient and to his
or her own transferential reactions to the person of the
analysand. It is a decisive factor for the understanding
and interpretation of the patient's psychological
processes.
In the establishment of the counter-transference,
Racker distinguished between a “concordant identification,”
which results from the analyst's identification
with the analysand’s ego, superego, and id, and a
“complementary identification,” produced by the analyst’s
identification with the analysand’s internal
objects.
These identifications configure transference-countertransference
neurosis. There thus exists a bipathy.
Within this bipathy, while negative or sexual transference
disrupts the patient’s collaboration in the analysis,
the analyst's negative or sexual countertransference
interferes with his or her comprehension of the analysand,
and, consequently, his or her interpretive abilities.
To successfully dissolve these resistances, the
therapist must undertake constant _ self-analysis
throughout the treatment of his or her patients. Paradoxically,
counter-transference neurosis can play a
positive role when the therapist uses it to understand
the patient’s neurosis. Racker showed how the analyst's
affective position—dependent upon his or her archaic
objects—appears as a response to that of the analysand,
signaling psychological facts about it. From
another viewpoint, the analyst also unconsciously
communicates his or her affective contents to the
patient. Racker particularly emphasized positive countertransference,
love, as a basic force for understanding
that makes possible the development of a positive analytic
process. He assigned three meanings to countertransference,
viewing it manifestations as a “danger,”
an “instrument” for understanding and interpretation,
and a “reliving that is simultaneously a new slice of
life.”
Fipias CEsIo
See also: Argentina; Empathy; Racker, Heinrich.
Source Citation
Racker, Heinrich. (1960). Estudios sobre tecnica psicoanalitica,
Buenos Aires: Editorial Paidos; (1968). Transference
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and countertransference. New York: International Universities
Press.
Bibliography
Cesio, Fidias. (1985). Heinrich Racker. Revista de psicoanalisis
de la Asociacion psicoanalitica argentina, 42, 2.
TRANSFERENCE/COUNTER-TRANSFERENCE
(ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY)
Transference is the projection of unconscious contents.
Jung’s Studies in Word Association (1906) provided evidence
for and referred to Freud’s concept of transference,
published the previous year. In 1912 Jung noted
that the analysand’s perception of the analyst’s more
mature personality forms an empathic bridge between
his infantile relationship to reality and adult adaptation.
He insisted that an analyst undergo analysis himself,
and also saw the importance of analyzing the
transference, which both hinders and facilitates psychological
growth. By 1913 Jung had extended Freud’s
definition, saying transference was also the basis for
normal human relatedness. After breaking with Freud,
he analyzed his own projections, resolved them to
achieve emotional, intellectual, and spiritual/moral
autonomy, and concurrently set forth the elements of
his opus. A survey of early work shows recognition of
counter-transference, the reciprocal arousal of unconscious
content in the analyst in response to patient
projections. In 1929 he stated his view that the personality
of the analyst contributes to analytic process, and
that transformation is mutual. He also observed
instances of unconscious identity between doctor and
patient, giving it the anthropological term participation
mystique; later it was recognized by psychoanalysts
and called projective identification. So convinced was
Jung that this unconscious reciprocal influence distorted
all analytic discourse that he drew upon another
projective system, alchemy, in Psychology of the Transference
(1946) to demonstrate the ubiquity of transference
and to identify stages in its evolution and
resolution.
For some students this represents an incomprehensible
departure from rational scientific method. To
appreciate its logic one must first accept the role of
metaphor in psychological theory building and,
second, understand Jung’s theory of archetypes and
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TRANSFERENCE/COUNTER- TRANSFERENCE (ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY)
his model of the psyche, which includes a personal and
a collective unconscious. Although the concept of
archetype has not been accepted by psychoanalysts,
the idea has arisen independently in the fields of
anthropology, linguistics, behavioral biology, and evolutional
psychiatry. Briefly, the capacity to perceive
certain forms and processes is inherent, and these
ancient, typical potentials are released, to acquire specific
psychological content when, in the course of
development, the individual encounters external reality.
The collective unconscious contains all realizable
human potential.
The analytic process itself is unconsciously directed
by the archetype of individuation, the impulse to grow
in psychological depth and complexity, and is an
inherent property of the self, the archetype that
embraces and comprises all other archetypes. Transference
thereby acquires a teleological dimension, the
symbolic intent and meaning of which is revealed and
experienced as analysis unfolds; this is its prospective
aspect, in contrast to the regressive projection of
unconscious material from infantile or other past
experience.
Jung recognized two universal, diametric archetypal
urges in the individual psyche: to be separate, complete,
and autonomous; and to be intimately bonded
to the other, both coupled and enfolded in a group.
These longings are primary motivating forces at the
root of transference and resistance, constituting a fundamental
paradox to be apprehended and resolved in
individuation and analysis. Having this profound
insight, he sought a metaphor to convey its universal,
timeless, and impersonal meaning, to point analysands
away from the average dependent/omnipotent transference
fantasy. The mythology of medieval alchemy
provided an unconscious projective system congenial
enough to Western mentality to be accessible, but
distant enough to reflect projections made in an analytic
process that structures imaginative associations for
the purpose of self examination. He chose a sixteenthcentury
treatise, the Rosarium Philosophorum, to
reflect evolving transference/counter-transference fantasies
in the analytic process.
All analytical psychologists view transference as a
multileveled web of transecting relationships, interpersonal
and intrapsychic, conscious and unconscious,
occurring simultaneously within and between analyst
and patient. Since the spiritual urge was regarded by
Jung as an archetypal force equal to sexuality, his con-
THTS
TRANSFERENCE DEPRESSION
cept of transference extends into transpersonal realms.
For some analytical psychologists this is the major thrust
of Jungian theory, whereas others seek to correct theoretical
and methodological gaps, (for example, in the areas
of child development and transference) through links to
the work of psychoanalysts whose constructions are
compatible with Jung’s basic concepts (Kirsch, 1995).
Modern psychoanalytic theories of self, projective identification,
mutuality, and intersubjectivity all have antecedents
in work Jung completed before 1946.
JEAN KirscH
See also: Alchemy (analytical psychology); Amplification
(analytical psychology); Analytical psychology; Complex
(analytical psychology); Counter-transference; Negative
therapeutic reaction; Projection and “participation mystique”
(analytical psychology); Transference.
Bibliography
Jung, Carl Gustav. (1914a). On the importance of the
unconscious in psychopathology, in Coll. Works, Tl. London:
Routledge and Kegan Paul.
. (1916). The structure of the unconscious, Coll.
Works, VIL. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
. (1946). The psychology of the transference, Coll.
Works, XVI. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Kirsch, Jean (1995). Transference. In M. Stein (Ed.), Jungian .
Analysis (pp. 170-209). Chicago-La Salle: Open Court.
Further Reading
Abend, Sander. (1989). Countertransference and psychoanalytic
technique. Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 58, 374-395.
Gabbard, Glen. (1995). Countertransference: The emerging
common ground. International Journal of Psychoanalysis,
76, 475-486.
Jacobs, Theodore. (1991). The use of the self: Countertransference
and communication in the analytic situation. Madison,
CT: International Universities Press.
. (1999). Countertransference past and present: A
review of the concept. International Journal of Psychoanalysis,
80, 575-594.
Loewald, Hans W. (1986). Transference-countertransference.
Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 34,
Ss 7c FO. 275-288.
Poland, Warren S. (1984). The analyst’s words: Empathy and
countertransference. Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 53, 421-
424.
1780
Searles, Harold. (1979). Countertransference and related subjects.
New York: International Universities Press.
TRANSFERENCE DEPRESSION |
Transference itself reveals transference depression.
Transference depression, which is a repetition of an
infantile depression marked by narcissistic elements
that is expressed within the transference relationship,
usually after several years of analysis. Its symptoms are
atypical of the depressive series. The difficulties raised
by narcissism, on the other hand, concern the considerable
demands made by the ideal ego, in addition to
feelings of powerlessness and dissatisfaction.
Basing himself on Winnicott’s work, André Green
describes some of the more striking causes of this
infantile depression in “The Dead Mother” (1983/
1999). It is often a consequence of the mother brutally
withdrawing emotional investment in the child
because of a state of mourning before or after the
child’s birth, often caused by the death of another
child or a close relative, or some other major narcissistic
wound.
The most serious case involves the death of a very
young child. This produces a profound alteration in the
maternal imago. The latter, which is constituted in the
child’s psyche, “brutally transforms the internal object, a
source of vitality, into a distant, atonal quasi-inanimate
figure that profoundly impregnates the cathexes of its
subjects and weighs upon the fate of their object-libidinal
and narcissistic development.” (Green, 1983) This
narcissistic trauma, which the child experiences as a catastrophe,
brings with it not only the loss of love but also
the loss of meaning, since the child has no explanation
or understanding of what has taken place.
The consequences of this catastrophe are decathexis
from the maternal object and the constitution within
the psyche of a “dead” zone full of “holes” and, in
addition, identification in the mirror with the “dead
mother,” which can lead the child to organize a pathology
that aims to bring the mother back to life fantasmatically.
Finally, the loss of meaning experienced by
the child structures the early development of the ego’s
fantasmatic and intellectual capabilities; a development
which does not take place in the context of
freedom to imagine and create, but as compulsive
thinking instead.
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Sandor Ferenczi’s ambivalent relationship to Sigmund
Freud provides a particularly apt illustration of
this notion. The “insatiable need for support” Ferenczi
felt during his analysis with Freud can be considered as
a manifestation of transference depression—the repetition
of a childhood depression that has not been psychically
worked through.
Transference depression, expressed through the
emergence of an eroticized appeal addressed to the
analyst, reveals a deprived child in a state of helpless
distress, marked by a primary depression that has not
been psychically worked through (Bokanowski,
1994). Behind the exacerbated demand for love and
reparation deficienciesevident in cases transferencelove,
there are often developmental deficiencies and
failures in the primary environment. The transference
is thus eroticized as a defense against the fear of collapse,
linked to the primary depression experienced
by these patients in the very earliest stages of their
development. In their interactions with the analyst
they relive their despair and distress, as well as their
deficiencies in primary symbolization. The erotic
demand is thus an attempt to reconnect in the face of
the anguish of the void and a deficit in the function
of symbolizing.
JEAN-FRANCOIS RABAIN
See also: Dead mother complex; Basic depression; Transference
hatred.
Bibliography
Bokanowski, Thierry. (1994). Ensuite survient un trouble.
In Collectif: Ferenczi, patient et psychanalyste. Paris:
L’Harmattan.
Green, André. (2001). The dead mother. In Life narcissism,
death narcissism (Andrew Weller, Trans.). London: Free
Association Books. (Original work published 1983)
TRANSFERENCE HATRED
Transference hatred represents the negative pole of the
transference relationship determined by the analytic
situation. Negative affects are expressed by means of
ambivalent impulses within the transference neurosis
(negative transference) and destructive impulses more
characteristic of borderline states and transference psychoses,
notably in passionate psychoses.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
TRANSFERENCE HATRED
In “The Dynamics of Transference” (1912b), Sigmund
Freud proposed “to distinguish a ‘positive’
transference from a ‘negative’ one, the transference
of affectionate feelings from that of hostile ones”
(p. 105), the object in both cases being one and the
same person, the doctor. Reminding readers that
Eugen Bleuler was to be credited for the notion of
“ambivalence” that characterizes these impulses, he
gave the example of obsessional neurotics, in whom
“an early separation of the ‘pairs of opposites’ seems to
be characteristic of ... instinctual life” (p. 107).
While positive transference is classically used “in
order to” interpret, throughout treatment (distinguishing
it from transference “to be interpreted,” in
the case of resistance; Jean-Luc Donnet), the idea, by
contrast, is to “defuse” negative transference before it
is possible subsequently to analyze it.
In fact, it is in borderline structures and transference
psychoses that hateful and destructive impulses
are the strongest, though they are sometimes masked
by the apparent features of love. This is especially true
with passionate transference. Feelings of love and psychic
flooding can invade the transference situation and
be expressed in ways that undermine the analytic framework.
They attest to mnemic traces that have not
been successfully integrated into the psyche.
Passionate transferences express the violence of the
unfulfilled need for love and of the need for reparation.
Eroticization of the transference masks the
impulses of hate linked to profound developmental
deficiencies and failings in the early environment.
These patients then make their analyst relive their despair
and helplessness. They want to make the analyst
feel the powerlessness and despair that they were
unable to symbolize in infancy—that is, their deprivation
of primary symbolization.
Sandor Ferenczi’s ambivalent hatred toward Freud,
his analyst, is an example of this phenomenon. Ferenczi’s
insatiable need for support during his analysis can
be considered as the expression of a transference
depression, itself linked to a childhood depression that
had not been worked over, either by Ferenczi himself
or by Freud; Ferenczi’s Clinical Diary can be read as
his eroticized complaint, the culmination of a negative
and idealizing transference. According to Thierry
Bokanowski’s interpretation (1994), Ferenczi, through
his innovations in technique, was demanding reparation,
maternal in origin, from his analyst, for he had
1781
TRANSFERENCE IN CHILDREN
managed to “freeze” in Freud the mother he was
incapable of being. This is what borderline analysands
sometimes do with their analyst: they “feed” him or
her with the analysis in order to prolong it into an
endless process.
After the second topography, in describing the
negative therapeutic reaction, Freud emphasized the
need for self-punishment, the severity of the superego,
and the masochism of the ego. All the self-hatred in
these subjects inhabited by what Andre Green
described as a logic of despair (1990) reflects a compromise
between the inextinguishable desire for
revenge and concern for protecting the object from the
hostile desires directed against it. Here, the conflict
between love and hate is dominant. The desire for
revenge is liked to the wounded narcissism of these
subjects, who can no longer differentiate between the
harm they want to inflict upon themselves and the
harm they want to inflict on their object. From this
perspective, “love is always uncertain, hate is always
sure,” wrote Green. Thus these subjects arrange to perpetuate
their chosen form of sadomasochistic relationship
as long as possible.
However, it is possible for the intolerable nature of
negative transference not to appear, remaining unconscious
for both the patient and the analyst. The only
symptoms: a quality of “gloominess” in the treatment
(Cournut), disconnected thinking, decathexis or noncathexis—
that is, the “aphanisis” of the transference.
Other patients seek to “weld” their fragile narcissistic
position back together again around an opposition to
the object (Couvreur). In the transference and their
complaints, they repeat early environmental deprivations.
In them there is a fundamental hostility against
the object, and the latter is thus loved in hate. Negative
transference becomes a particular modality of the bond.
In “Hate in the Counter-Transference” (1949)
Donald Winnicott showed the importance of the
effects of this transference hatred. In the neurotic
structures, the patient will tend to project his or her
ambivalence onto the analyst and will believe that the
analyst needs to negotiate his or her own ambivalence.
By contrast, psychotic patients project their confusion
onto the analyst. For them, love and hate coincide,
and “should the analyst show love, he will surely at the
same moment kill the patient” (p. 70). In certain cases,
the patient seeks the analyst’s hatred. In Winnicott’s
view, this hatred must be reached and experienced
1782
bilaterally in treatment, “or else the patient cannot feel
he can reach objective love” (p. 72).
JEAN-FRANCOIS RABAIN
See also: Counter-transference; Negative therapeutic reaction;
Transference.
Bibliography
Bokanowski, Thierry. (1994). Ensuite survient un trouble. ..
Sandor Ferenczi, le transfert négatif et la depression de
transfertin. In Michéle Bertrand, et al., Ferenczi, patient
et psychanalyste (pp. 9-52). Paris: LHarmattan.
Cournut, Jean. (2000). Le transfert negatif. Acceptions
diverses plus ou moins pessimistes. Revue francaise de psychanalyse,
64, 2, 361-365.
Couvreur, Catherine. (2000). Un mouvement qui est toujours
le méme, négatif. Revue francaise de psychanalyse,
64, 2, 367-381.
Ferenczi, Sandor. (1988). The clinical diary of Sandor Ferenczi.
January—October 1932 (Judith Dupont, Ed.; Michael
Balint and Nicola Zarday Jackson, Trans.). Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press. (Original work published
1985 [1932])
Freud, Sigmund. (1912b). The dynamics of transference. SE,
12: 97-108.
Roussillon, René.,(1991). Paradoxes et Situations limites de la
psychanalyse. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
Winnicott, Donald. (1949). Hate in the counter-transference.
International Journal of Psycho-Analyisis, 30, 69-74.
Further Reading
Gabbard, Glen O. (1991). Technical approaches to transference
hate: Borderline patients. International Journal of Psychoanalysis,
72, 625-638.
TRANSFERENCE IN CHILDREN
After about a century of psychoanalysis, there is no
longer any doubt that children are capable of transference.
On the other hand, the characteristics of
transference and its themes of love and idealization
are the very elements that can cause parents to have
reservations about their child undergoing analysis,
particularly—but not only—if they have not been
sufficiently informed about this type of phenomena.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Moreover, this is what led Anna Freud to believe
that the psychoanalysis of children was only possible
in families that had already been genuinely won over
by the ideas of psychoanalysis. Be this as it may,
Donald Meltzer, in The Psycho-Analytical Process, went
so far as to present child analysis as a much more pure
situation than that of adult analysis, describing it in
terms of a process divided into five successive phases,
the first of which he called, precisely, “bringing
together the elements of transference.”
From a historical point of view, it is interesting to
note that the first analysis of a child was that of “Little
Hans”—related in “Analysis of a Phobia in a Five-
Year-Old Boy” (1909) and involving the child’s phobia
to horses—and that Sigmund Freud conducted this
analysis indirectly, based on the reports and notes of the
boy’s father, himself one of Freud’s students. In other
words, this analysis poses complex problems from the
point of view of transference because it involved analysis
of the child’s transference onto the image of his
father, against the background of the more or less idealizing
transference of the boy’s father himself onto
Freud. This is something that is found, more or less,
throughout the history of ideas relating to transference
in children, particularly with regard to the question of
whether or not children can form a joint transference
onto their parents and onto their therapist.
It is thought that the child analyst’s main difficulty
is not the absence of transference but instead the very
opposite: seeing the development of a transference of
unusual intensity, with archaic components that are
sometimes so massive and so violent that they become
difficult for the analyst to tolerate. This massive,
archaic transference, mainly linked to the mechanism
of projective identification described by Melanie Klein,
is a splitting transference that often corresponds to a
type of part-object relationship.
The controversy between Anna Freud and Klein
must be recalled here, in those aspects that touch upon
the issue of transference. One of the arguments that
Anna Freud initially made against the possibility of
transference in children was the fact of the child’s
dependency in relation to his or her real objects, the
parents. Klein countered this by arguing that the psychic
structures were organized very early on, from the
second semester of the child’s life, that the problems
for which the child needed analysis were already linked
to repetitions of earlier organizations, and that because
of this, the child’s relationship with his or her real
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TRANSFERENCE IN CHILDREN
objects was already, in itself, a mixture of real and imaginary
objects, or, to put things differently, of objective
and subjective elements. Whether or not the parents
were alive, and whether or not they intervene in the
child’s external reality, does not prevent the child from
transferring onto the analyst the fantasmatic dimension
of the relation to his or her internal parental
objects.
The second, Kleinian point of view gradually
became the dominant one and as of 2005 is commonly
accepted among child analysts. Moreover, after 1926
Anna Freud herself moved perceptibly closer to Klein’s
positions on this point. As Didier Houzel and Gilles
Catoire wrote in an encyclopedia article on child analysis:
“Repetition, in the relationship with the analyst,
of these early psychic structures, that is, the relation of
the self to its internal objects, is what constitutes the
transference.”
This transference must be thought, understood,
interpreted, and worked over with the child, but often,
initially, it must only be tolerated and contained by the
analyst, all the more so in that transference in children
is often split—for example, between outside of treatment
(the relationship with the parents) and inside
treatment (the relationship with the analyst). If the
analyst does not accept the extratransferential roles
that the child wishes to make him or her play, and if,
on the contrary, the analyst is willing to contain in
him- or herself all the aspects of the transference
(including its negative and destructive aspects), this
splitting can then gradually be reduced.
By means of “bringing together the elements of
the transference” and analysis of these transferential
repetitions, the child’s ego is reinforced, anxieties are
modified, and the major psychic functions are differentiated.
This process is nevertheless long, often difficult,
punctuated by the child’s attempts at avoidance,
and lastly, capable of triggering a whole series of different
counter-transferential impulses in the analyst.
It can be noted that with children, even more so than
with adults, the establishment of the transference can
produce changes in symptoms that may make it
seem, superficially, that the child has been cured.
Care should be taken to warn parents about this, to
prevent them from falling into the trap of interrupting
their child’s analysis prematurely.
This attests to the importance of the therapeutic
alliance with the parents, which is an integral part of
1783
TRANSFERENCE IN CHILDREN
psychoanalytic technique with children, as a vouchsafe
for the possibility of continuity in the therapeutic process.
As with adults, the idea of the therapeutic alliance
benefits from being differentiated from transference
properly speaking, although this concept of therapeutic
alliance, even in 2005, remains controversial.
But there is no transference without countertransference,
with children as with adults. The idea of
counter-transference encompasses both unconscious
elements of the analyst’s psychic functioning that pose
an obstacle to the course of the treatment, which must
be kept from the patient, and alterations of the analyst’s
psyche under the influence of the child’s projections,
which, as is well known, are the basis of a certain
very primitive, preverbal level of his or her communication.
Only by means of working at self-analysis can
the analyst become aware of these different phenomena
and sort out these two very different aspects of his
counter-transference.
At this cost, the counter-transference is an irreplaceable
tool in child analysis (in fact, in analysis in general),
and the entire Kleinian and post-Neinian movement
has strongly emphasized it. Indeed, with mute or psychotic
children, or with very young children prior to
language acquisition (infans), analysis of the countertransference
is sometimes the only means of giving
meaning to the infraverbal material provided by the
child, on the understanding that the dynamics of .
transference and countertransference are in fact indissociable
and that in a way, they are one and the same.
The management of the counter-transference as a
means of perceiving a part of the child’s communication
in fact requires some delicacy, owing, in part, to
the closely interwoven relationship between what the
child’s projections induce in the analyst and what in
turn is reactivated in the child by the analyst’s countertransference
(which can be caught in the trap of a neutralizing
projective counter-identification), all the more
so in that it is possible that the child’s projections may
correspond to real aspects of the analyst’s personality. In
such cases, the analysis can only progress if the analyst
truly gives herself the means to become aware of these
aspects of her own personality and at the same time preserve
herself from the child’s projections, or rather, contain
them and work them over.
Antonino Ferro, in L’Enfant et le Psychanalyste: La
question de la technique dans la psychanalyse des enfants
(1997; The child and the psychoanalyst: the question of
1784
technique in child analysis), distinguishes among the
three levels of listening among which the analyst must
oscillate—the level of events, the level of fantasies, and
the level inherent in the two-person field deployed
within the analyst/analysand pair—and clearly shows
how transference in children is an eminently dynamic
process that “speaks”. just as much about the present,
against the background of the past, as it does about the
past against the background of the present.
Finally, with regard to babies, their ability (or lack
thereof) to transfer has for several years been at the
center of a certain number of debates (Serge Lebovici,
Bertrand Cramer, and others) about what has come to
be known as joint parent/infant therapies, generally
conducted by analysts. What has come out of this is
that babies appear to be able to incite in their new relational
partners interactive modalities that they have
had the occasion to try out with their first objects of
attachment, but whether or not it is possible, within
this framework, really to talk about transference
remains an entirely open question, even though these
interactive repetitions can occur without significant
intervals of time passing between the different experiences
in question.
BERNARD GOLSE
See also: Child analysis; Counter-transference; Negative
therapeutic reaction; Psychoanalytical Treatment of Children;
Technique with children, — psychoanalytic;
Transference.
Bibliography
Ferro, Antonino. (1997). L’Enfant et le Psychanalyste: La
question de la technique dans la psychanalyse des enfants.
Ramonville-Saint-Agne, France: Erés.
Freud, Sigmund. (1909). Analysis of a Phobia in a Five-Year-
Old Boy. SE, 10: 1-149.
Houzel, Didier, and Catoire, Gilles. (1986). La psychanalyse
des enfants. Encyclopédie meédico-chirurgicale, Psychiatrie.
Paris: Encyclopédie médicale-chirurgicale. Fasc. 37-812-A-
10.
Meltzer, Donald. (1967). The psycho-analytical process. London:
Heinemann Medical.
Further Reading
Furman, Erna. (2002). Transference and countertransference
in child analysis. Child Analysis, 13, 113-188.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
TRANSFERENCE LOVE
The term transference love designates an emotional
relationship, determined by the analytic situation, of
which the manifest object is the analyst; the task of the
analyst in this circumstance is to trace the relationship
back, without either satisfying or smothering it, to its
infantile roots.
Transference love is a defining feature of the psychoanalytic
method. Psychoanalysis does not cure by
love, but love and the analyst play a mediating role
therein (Oppenheimer, Agnés, 1996). The set of inner
problems generated by transference love, inasmuch as
no direct satisfaction is forthcoming, eventually frees
love from repression: The truly intermediary role of
transference love thus makes love possible.
The transference follows the vicissitudes of love.
When it is negative, hostile, or governed by repressed
erotic impulses it constitutes resistance. According to
Sigmund Freud, the “transference of friendly or affectionate
feelings” which are “unobjectionable and
admissible to consciousness” can contribute to a successful
cure (1912b, p.105). Transference love allows
the patient to become attached to the aims of the treatment
as well as to the person of the analyst.
Even as resistance, transference love is thus a prerequisite
to cure: it “represents an artificial illness which
is at every point accessible to our intervention. It is a
piece of real experience, but one which has been made
possible by especially favorable conditions” (1914¢,
p. 154). One of the difficulties, or impossibilities, confronting
the treatment is that some patients refuse to
resign themselves to the fact that the material fulfillment
of this surrogate love is not an option; such
patients are “accessible only to ‘the logic of soup, with
dumplings for arguments” (1915a, p. 167). But can
this still be considered love? It is clear that the manifest
demand for love covers up latent considerations of
another kind. The patient’s explicit demand for recognition
also reflects a both demand for reparation, and
shortcomings in their symbolizing capacity.
Where affectionate feelings are transformed into an
erotic demand, Freud compares what happens to an
outbreak of fire during a theatrical performance. The
analyst’s interpretation is what then allows the patient
to grasp that they are mistaken as to time and object.
In “Observations on Transference-Love” (1915a),
Freud promoted an attitude with respect to the com-
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
TRANSFERENCE Love
plex phenomenon of transference love that would later
be characterized by Michael Balint as “prudent.” Discussing
the analyst’s difficulties when faced by transference
love, and confining his remarks to the situation
of a male analyst and a female patient, he called for
prudence on the part of the doctor and warned, apropos
of manifestations of transference love, “against
any tendency to a counter-transference which may be
present in his own mind” (p. 160).
A patient’s passionate attachment to the analyst
should indeed never be treated as evidence of the physician’s
personal irresistibility, but rather as an effect of
the analytic situation itself. For Freud, transference
was a mesalliance, a “false connection” (1895d,
p- 303), and although the conduct of the cure required
the analyst to maintain the transference love, they
should nevertheless look upon it as “something unreal,
as a situation which has to be gone through in the
treatment and traced back to its unconscious origins”
(1915a, p. 166). At the same time, despite this “unreality,”
despite his emphasis on the inauthenticity, as it
were, of the transference, Freud acknowledged that
“We have no right to dispute that the state of being in
love which makes its appearance in the course of analytic
treatment has the character of a ‘genuine’ love.”
In fact transference love was no different from any
other kind of love, for “There is no such state [of being
in love] which does not reproduce infantile prototypes”
(p. 168). For Freud, it was this infantile aspect
which gave love in general, and transference love in
particular, “its compulsive character, verging as it does
on the pathological” (p. 168).
What is repeated in transference love is frustration,
a demand not heard, never answered, which leads the
patient to reassume the position of a child with respect
to the analyst. A love transference is usually capable of
being analyzed and pressed into the service of the
treatment, especially when it is moderate, as is most
often the case, and when it is first manifested as defensive
maneuvers.
Sometimes, however, the demand for love takes on a
querulous character in passionate transferences: the
patient’s grievance concerning this frustration becomes
aggressive and exacting. An insistence on reparation
emerges, stressful for the analytic setting and challenging
to the analyst’s control over the counter-transference.
The handling of the treatment is particularly difficult
with patients who come close to erotomania or indeed
sink into it. In such cases, as described by Freud, the
1785
TRANSFERENCE NEUROSIS
situation may have an incendiary character. Behind
the exacerbated demand for love and reparation that is
seen in passionate transferences lie developmental deficits
and failures of the primary environment that have
distorted the patient's self. The eroticization of the
transference serves as a defense against a fear of disintegration,
which in turn derives from the primary
depression that such a patient will have experienced in
the earliest stages of their development.
The analyst's primary position in the face of transference
love is that of the interpreter. As Freud wrote,
transference love must be traced back to its unconscious
roots. For this reason abstinence must be the
rule during the treatment. Considerations both technical
and ethical prohibit the analyst from gratifying the
solicitations of transference love. Like the physician
bound by the Hippocratic oath, they must not draw
personal profit from the analytic situation. But they
must also never lose sight of the fact that the patient is
suffering from a limited capacity to love for which
infantile fixations are responsible. The analytic cure
should make possible the restoration of a function that
is of “inestimable importance” to the patient, one that
they should not “dissipate in the treatment, but
keep ... ready for the time when, after [his or] her
treatment, the demands of real life make themselves
felt” (1915a, p. 169). Likewise, “If the patient's
advances were returned it would be a great triumph
for her’—and for the resistance—“but a complete
defeat for the treatment. She would have succeeded...
in acting out, in repeating in real life, what she ought
only to have remembered, to have reproduced as psychical
material.” This “distressing episode would end
in remorse and a great strengthening of her propensity
to repression” (p. 166).
Clearly, the analysis of the counter-transference is
necessary so as to prevent the analyst’s personal feelings,
complexes or inner resistances from hindering
the progress of the treatment. The excitation provoked
in the analyst by the patient’s demands and transferential
projections, and notably the erotization of the
transference, certainly put the analyst's superego to the
test, but at a more fundamental level they challenge
their relational skills and capacity for symbolization as
well as mastery over their own desire for reparation.
Typically, acting-out by the practitioner, in response
to the patient’s transference love, signals a lack of
professional maturity in dealing with the countertransferential
anxiety aroused by the interpersonal
1786
situation, as well as a failure to deal with personal narcissistic
shortcomings or masochistic tendencies.
JEAN-FRANCOIS RABAIN
See also: Abstinence/rule of abstinence; Counter-transference;
Negative therapeutic reaction; Transference.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund, (1912b). The dynamics of transference. SE,
12: 97-108.
——. (1914g). Remembering, repeating and workingthrough
(Further recommendations on the technique of
psycho-analysis IT). SE, 12: 145-156.
—_ . (1915a [1914]). Observations on transference love
(Further recommendations on the technique of psychoanalysis
III). SE, 12: 157-171.
Freud, Sigmund, and Breuer, Josef. (1895d). Studies on hysteria.
SE, 2.
Oppenheimer, Agnés (1996). Kohut et la psychologie du self.
Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
TRANSFERENCE NEUROSIS
Transference neurosis is a phenomenon of the analytic
_ process in certain patients with adequately integrated
egos and superegos in which the analysand’s perception
of the analyst becomes more and more recognizably
entwined with core, organizing unconscious fantasy/
memory complexes from childhood. These bear
the stamp of oedipal conflict, its precursors and
latency and adolescent sequelae. Freud first elaborated
the concept in “Remembering, Repeating and Working
Through,” in 1914. There he stressed the analyst’s
aggressive pursuit of disease.
Three years later, he emphasized the insidious disease
process itself, then elaborated on the power that
the positive transference afforded the analyst to
“divest” the patient’s symptoms of libido. In Beyond
the Pleasure Principle (1920a), he added that what was
repeated in the transference neurosis was “some portion
of infantile sexual life—of the Oedipus complex
and its derivatives” (p. 18). That is, the transference
neurosis was then seen to recapitulate an infantile neurosis.
As he began to concern himself with impediments
to cure, however, the concept dropped from his
writings.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
The concept appears in Freud in conjunction with
the concepts of analysability and cure. Freud considered
that only patients with transference neuroses were
treatable by analysis. He designated the transference
neurosis as an artificial symptomatic illness that
expanded in the “playground” of the transference
while the patient’s other symptoms and external difficulties
disappeared. The transference neurosis constituted
an “intermediate region between illness and real
life” (1914g, p. 154). Cure then involved the annihilation
by interpretation of the artificial illness.
Freud did not use the term after 1926. This silence,
the increasing interest in character pathology on the
part of contemporary analysts, and the greater reliance
in some quarters on the structural theory have led to
confusion, equivocation, and controversy. Manifest
criteria that have been mistakenly offered as definitions
such as the patient’s conscious focusing on his or
her relationship to the analyst, or the cessation of all
extra-transference difficulties, have either not been
borne out by clinical data or raise other valid objections.
Severed from its role as exclusive means to cure,
however, in its modern definition, the transference
neurosis continues to capture the essence of clinical
psychoanalytic experience. The broader and more
modern definition is the following: During the analytic
process of certain patients with adequately integrated
egos and superegos, a distillation occurs in
which the analysand’s perception of the analyst
becomes more and more recognizably entwined with
core, organizing unconscious fantasy/memory complexes
from childhood. These bear the stamp of oedipal
conflict, its precursors and latency and adolescent
sequelae. The analytic work takes on an intimacy prepared
by the working through of narcissistic versions
of these core conflicts so that the patient is able to
experience a greater degree of libidinal involvement
with the analyst. The autonomous willingness of the
patient to reveal, explore, and work with the analyst
also increases. The discovery of this crystallizing organization
occurs simultaneously with the gradual disengagement
of the object representation of the analyst
from these same core fantasies.
Galt S. REED
See also: Change; Counter-transference; Framework of
the psychoanalytic treatment; Infantile, the; Negative
therapeutic reaction; Negative, work of the; Psychoanalytical
nosography; Time; Transference.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
TRANSFERENCE OF CREATIVITY
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1914g) Remembering, repeating and
working-through (Further recommendations on the technique
of psycho-analysis II). SE, 12, 145-156.
. (1916-17a [1915-17]) Introductory lectures on
psycho-analysis. Parts I and II. SE, 15-16.
. (1920g). Beyond the pleasure principle. SE, 18:
1-64. ,
. (1926e) The question of lay analysis. SE, 20:
177-250.
Reed, Gail S. (1994) Transference neurosis and psychoanalytic
experience: Perspectives on contemporary clinical practice.
London and New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Further Reading
Blum, Harold P. (1971). On the conception and development
of the transference neurosis. Journal of the American
Psychoanalytic Association, 19, 41-53.
Jacobs, Theodore J. (1987). Analytic secrets and the transference
neurosis. Psychoanalytical Inquiry, 7, 485-510.
Loewald, Hans W. (1971). The transference neurosis: Comments
on the concept, phenomenon. Journal of the American
Psychoanalytic Association, 19, 54-66.
Reed, Gail S. (1994). Transference neurosis and psychoanalytic
experience: Perspectives on contemporary clinical practice.
New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Renik, Owen. (1990). Concept of transference neurosis and
psychoanalytic methodology. International Journal of Psychoanalysis,
71, 197-204.
TRANSFERENCE OF CREATIVITY
The transference of creativity, whose defining example
is Sigmund Freud’s transference onto Wilhelm Fliess,
is a form of transference whose role is to accompany
the fluctuations of creativity in the creator.
Initially implicit in Heinz Kohut’s work, this notion
was explicitly mentioned by him from 1966 on. The
correlative of the importance given to creativity, and
a therapeutic factor or the effect of treatment that
is not interpreted, it indicates a transformation of
narcissism.
Starting with Freud’s self-analysis, Kohut stipulated
in “Selected Problems of Self Psychological Theory”
(1980) that Freud’s relationship with Fliess was not
1787
TRANSFERENCE RELATIONSHIP
transference in the classical sense—there was no dissolution
through insight—but rather a transference of
creativity that disappeared at the same time as the narcissistic
need. Fliess was a function that filled a void
and facilitated Freud’s creativity. During certain creative
periods, creators need self-objects in one sector of
the self or another, without this necessarily indicating
weaknesses in the self. The creator’s narcissistic contigurations
are more fluid at certain times, and the other
person makes possible regulation of self-esteem and
confidence possible.
Transference of creativity, a form of narcissistic
transference outside of treatment, brings into play all
the notions that come out of Kohut’s theory.
AGNES OPPENHEIMER
See also: Fliess, Wilhelm; Kohut, Heinz.
Bibliography
Kohut, Heinz. (1955). Review of Beethoven and His Nephew.
Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 24, 453-455.
. (1955). Review of The Haunting Melody. Psychoanalytic
Experiences in Life and Music. Psychoanalytic Quarterly,
24, 134-137.
. (1957). Death in Venice by Mann: Disintegration of
artistic sublimation. Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 26, 206-228.
. (1957). Observations on the psychological functions
of music. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic
Association, 5, 389-407.
. (1957). Review of The Arrow and the Lyre. A Study
of the Role of Love in the Works of Thomas Mann. Psychoanalytic
Quarterly, 26, 273-275.
. (1966). Forms and Transformations of Narcissism.
Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 14,
243-272.
. (1971) The Analysis of the Self. New York: International
Universities Press.
. (1980). Selected problems of self psychological theory.
The Search for the Self (Vol. 4; pp. 489-523). New
York: International Universities Press.
TRANSFERENCE RELATIONSHIP
The term transference relationship designates those
aspects of the patient-analyst relationship involving
the patient’s previous object-relationships transposed
1788
onto the analyst (that is, the transference). The transference
relationship thus constitutes the heart of the
analytic situation, encompassing all aspects of the relationship
between the patient and the analyst: the
analytic contract, the setting of the analysis, countertransference,
and so on.
This notion was implicitly present as soon as transference
was discovered, as early as Freud and Josef
Breuer’s Studies on Hysteria (1895d). Anna ‘O., plagued
by the fantasy of giving birth to a child of Dr. Breuer’s,
was entangled in a perfect instance of the transference
relationship. The term itself, however, appeared very
late in Freud’s work, in “Constructions in Analysis”
(1937d): “Our experience has shown that the relation
of transference, which becomes established towards
the analyst, is particularly calculated to favor the
return of these emotional connections” (p. 258).
This remark demonstrates that for Freud the transference
was a melting pot into which the analysand’s
earlier affective relations were drawn prior to being
recast. Seen in this light, the transference relationship,
determined first and foremost by transference love,
has two aspects: first, a “piece of real experience”
(1914g, p. 154), whose novelty is most important; and
second, an element of repetition, for the transference
also embodies the replaying of infantile sexual and
affective relations. Sandor Ferenczi (1916) emphasized
- the link between the transference relationship and
introjection: in the transference, the analyst is introjected
by the patient as a new internal object.
The newness of the transference relationship is a
significant factor in effecting change. The transference
involves more than the patient’s reliving an earlier
relationship. The analyst's attitude and interpretations
modify the patient's attempts exactly to repeat the past
in the transference, thus allowing something else to
take place. In some respects, the analyst plays the part
of a new object, an object anchored in reality. The gulf
between this “real relationship” and the “false connection
of the transference” helps the patient to perceive
his own mental impulses.
What many authors have described as a “real relationship”
with the analyst thus stands opposed to the
transference relationship. Ralph Greenson, for example,
wrote, “I intend to use the term ‘real’ to refer to
the realistic and genuine relationship between analyst
and patient—as opposed, that is, to unrealistic and
inappropriate, albeit genuine, transference reactions”
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
(p. 217). “In adults,” Greenson added, “all relationships
to people consist of a varying mixture of transference
and reality. There is no transference reaction,
no matter how fantastic, without a germ of truth, and
there is no realistic relationship without some trace of
a transference fantasy” (p. 219). So the real and transference
relationships are somewhat interdependent.
Similar considerations apply to the “therapeutic alliance”
described by many authors, to Otto Fenichel’s
“rational transference,” and to the “basic transference”
evoked by Catherine Parat.
Elizabeth Zetzel’s notion of the “therapeutic alliance,’
like Greenson’s “working alliance,’ denotes a
component of the analytic relationship, yet properly
conceived, it should not be brought under the heading
of the transference relationship, even though for many
authors such an alliance is a necessary precondition of
the development of the transference relationship. The
transference relationship is predicated on the patient’s
ego being reasonable. The patient must be capable of
working with the analyst to conquer the neurosis and
the negative aspects of the transference. From a different
perspective, Richard Sterba (1940) based the therapeutic
alliance on the patient’s identification with the
analyst, thus giving it a fully transferential sense.
For Fenichel (1941), the transference relationship
implies what he called a “rational,” positive transference,
which brings inhibited drives into play with the aim of
the transference relationship. Fenichel’s approach has
much in common with Parat’s conception of basic
transference. The transference relationship, for Parat,
“corresponds to the patient’s cathexis of the person of
the analyst, and is colored by feelings of trust. ... This
cathexis is founded on subjective elements which I have
elsewhere described as projective, using the term “basic
transference’ to designate a spontaneous, interhuman
link with positive overtones which derives from the earliest
attachments, as subsequently enriched by secondary
experiences, as well as from objective elements perceived
by the patient beginning with his first contacts
with the analyst, be they gross or subtle.... The basic
positive transference has a narcissistic libidinal origin”
(1995). Parat stressed the kinship between such a
transference cathexis and Freud’s “narcissistic objectchoice,”
thus more closely assimilating it to narcissistic
transferences properly so called.
The capacity of the transference relationship to
evolve is what makes it analyzable. In contrast to what
occurs in everyday interpersonal relationships, where
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TRANSFERENCE RELATIONSHIP
transferences tend to jell into more or less stable compromises,
in the transference relationship the attitude
of the analyst, who does not respond in kind to the
patient’s erotic solicitations but instead relates them to
their oedipal prototypes, separately exposes the various
avatars of the transference—paternal, maternal,
fraternal, and so on, corresponding to different periods
of the patient’s life. The analyst does not allow
himself to be locked into one specific relational mode:
he behaves at once as an object, drawing the patient’s
cathexis toward him, and as an antiobject, by interpreting
the patient’s transference onto him so that the
transference image may unfold (Denis, 1988). To paraphrase
Freud’s metaphor (1915a, p. 169), the practitioner
comports himself like the mechanical rabbit in
a greyhound coursing: it is continually moving out of
reach, thus ensuring the continuation of the race; were
a real rabbit thrown amid the dogs, it would immediately
be devoured, and the race abandoned.
Paut Denis
See also: Counter-transference; Negative therapeutic reaction;
Object relations theory; Relaxation psychotherapy;
Transference; Transgression.
Bibliography
Denis, Paul. (1988). L’avenir d’une désillusion: Le contretransfert,
destin du transfert. Revue francaise de psychanalyse,
52 (4), 829-842.
Fenichel, Otto. (1941). Problems of psychoanalytic technique
(David Brunswick, Trans.). New York: Psychoanalytic
Quarterly.
Ferenczi, Sandor. (1916). Introjection and transference. In
his Contributions to Psycho-Analysis (Ernest Jones, Trans.).
Boston: Richard Badger. (Later U.S. editions titled Sex in
psychoanalysis)
Freud, Sigmund. (1914g). Remembering, repeating, and
working-through (further recommendations on the technique
of psycho-analysis, I). SE, 12: 145-156.
. (1915a [1914]). Observations on transference love
(further recommendations on the technique of psychoanalysis,
III). SE, 12: 157-171.
. (1937d). Constructions in analysis. SE, 23: 255—
269.
Freud, Sigmund, and Breuer, Josef. (1895d). Studies on hysteria.
SE, 2: 48-106.
Greenson, Ralph R. (1967). The technique and practice of
psychoanalysis. New York: International Universities Press.
1789
TRANSFORMATIONS
Parat, Catherine. (1995). L’affect partagé. Paris: Presses Universitaires
de France.
Sterba, Richard F. (1940). Dynamics of dissolution of the
transference resistance. Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 9, 363—
380.
Zetzel, Elizabeth R. (1956). Current concepts of transference.
International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 37, 369-376.
Further Reading
Ogden, Thomas H. (1991). Analysing the matrix of transference.
International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 72, 593-606.
Poland, Warren S. (1992). Transference: “An original creation.”
Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 61, 185-205.
TRANSFORMATIONS
Wilfred R. Bion conceived of transformations as the
changes that the analysand’s sense impressions of
emotional experience undergo to become a progressive
series of mental realizations. They are akin to the
transformations that food undergoes in the digestive
system to become protoplasm. The concept also
belongs to the mathematical concepts that Bion
employed to bring more rigor to psychoanalytic
understanding. In this way, he was attempting to make
psychoanalysis more scientific. This period in his work
overlaps with the next period in his work, developing
psychoanalysis as an “intuitionistic science.”
Briefly put, Bion envisions psychoanalytic transformations
as the psychoanalyst’s attempt to help the
analysand transform that part of an emotional experience
of which he is unconscious into an emotional
experience of which he is conscious. Transforming
here would be changing the form but not the fundamental
nature or invariant aspect of the emotional
experience. In this way the analyst helps the analysand
achieve private or personal knowledge about his
emotional life. Bion states his theory in a rigorous
mathematical notation in which his symbols have the
following meanings: O = the symptom or analytic
object; T = transformation; t = the representation of
the transformation; K = knowledge link; B = beta elements,
sense impressions of emotional experience; a
= alpha elements, elements suitable for further mental
processing; p = patient; a = analyst. Bion states,
“T shall regard only those aspects of the patient’s beha-
1790
vior which are significant as representing his view of
O; I shall understand what he says or does as if it were
an artist’s painting. In the session the facts of his behavior
are like facts of a painting and from them I must
find the nature of his representations (or, in terms of
my notation, the nature of that which I denote by the
sign T(patient)B). From the analytic treatment as a
whole I hope to discover from the invariants in this
material what O is, what he does to transform O (that
is to say, the nature of T(patient)a) and, consequently,
the nature of T(patient). This last point is the set of
transformations in the group of transformations, to
which his particular transformation (T(patient)) is to
be assigned. As I am concerned with the nature (or...
meaning) of these phenomena, my problem is to
determine the relationship between the unknowns:
T(patient), T(patient)a, and T(patient)B. Only in the
last of these have I any facts on which to work. ... I
shall make three assumptions: (i) that the patient is
talking about something (O); (ii) that something, O,
has impressed him and that he has transformed the
impression by the process represented by Tpa and (iii)
that his representation tpB is comprehensible” (Bion,
1965).
Bion considers the emotional experience of the
analysand and of the analyst to be O (the symptom or
analytic object) but each has his distinct experience
of O: Op (patient), and Oa (analyst). The analyst
must, with his alpha function, deduce the transformation
O +Tpa —Tpf, which is then translated by
the analyst as O > Taa Taf.
Bion considers there to be four kinds of transformations
in clinical practice: (a) “rigid-motion transformations,’
which involve little alteration and which
correspond directly to past events that may now be
relived in the (classical) transference; (b) “projective
transformations,” which correspond to Melanie Klein’s
concept of projective identification; (c) “transformations
in hallucinosis,” which occur only in psychosis,
and (d) “transformation in O,” by which Bion seems
to mean a transformation both from the ineffable nature
of the analytic object, the analysand’s symptom,
and through K (the knowledge link), to yet another
state, that of Absolute Truth or Ultimate Reality, the
Godhead.
Bion states, “The bearing on psycho-analysis and
interpretation of what I have said may seem obscure;
it is this: The beginning of a session has the configuration
already formulated in the concept of the God-
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
head. From this there evolves a pattern and at the
same time the analyst seeks to establish contact with
the evolving pattern. This is subject to his Transformation
and culminates in his interpretation Taf. I am
aware of the problems I have left without attempting
an approach to their solution. ... In this book I draw
attention to a few of the problems which present
themselves in analytic material and offer suggestions
for clarifying, first observation and then, assessment
of what has been observed” (1965).
Transformations (1965) seems to represent Bion’s
last venture in employing mathematical notation to
bring scientific rigor to clinical psychoanalytic phenomena.
Transformations in O constitute “a bridge to
a new science,” the intuitionistic, to which he thereafter
bent his efforts. Though mathematical, Transformations
was the third in a series of foundational works
that was gradually to alter how analysts regarded clinical
material and their personal (T(analyst)) relationship
to it. Having already defined the mind that had to
develop in order to think “the thoughts without a
thinker” (beta elements, emotional experiences in
themselves), he then undertook to define how these
thoughts evolve from sense impressions of emotional
experience (beta elements) to alpha elements suitable
for further mental processing. From there he defined
the steps of “mentally digestive transformation” that
these beta, and then alpha, elements must undergo in
the analysand and in the analyst in order to qualify for
status in a scientific deductive system or fall by the
wayside because of invidious K. O is the beginning and
the end of the transformational cycle. Bion’s epistemological
transformation of psychoanalytic metapsychology
was then in place.
JAMES S. GROTSTEIN
See also: Catastrophic change; Dream-like memory; Grid;
Hallucinosis; Invariant; Love-Hate-Knowledge (L/H/K
links); Vertex.
Bibliography
Bion, Wilfred R. (1965). Transformations: Change from
learning to growth. London: Heinemann.
TRANSGENERATIONAL. Sec Intergenerational
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TRANSGRESSION
TRANSGRESSION
The notion of transgression entered psychoanalysis
only gradually. In fact, the word already had a wellestablished
meaning in ethnology, a science from
which Sigmund Freud drew inspiration. Its definition
was to some extent a negative one, in opposition to
taboo (a term that was itself borrowed from the Polynesian
language), prohibition, and law.
Transgression is anything that involves the contravention
of explicit or implicit rules, both in the course
of the treatment and in conflictual unconscious functioning,
not to mention within the psychoanalytic process
itself.
Thus, real and fantasized transgression is at the
heart of all psychological mechanisms, as the result, or
source, of a conflict. We also encounter it, during a
psychoanalytic treatment, in everything that goes
against the framework imposed by the fundamental
rule. But it is also found, and this time positively, in
the wish of Freud and other psychoanalysts to get to
the bottom of secrets that seem to be self-evident. This
is what drives all scientific research—the longing to
understand and master the laws of human functioning,
especially when they are obscure.
Thus it is difficult to date the first appearance of the
notion, because only a posteriori can its implicit presence
can be discerned in Freud’s first writings and in
his wish to become an extraordinary hero. As early as
The Interpretation of Dreams (1900a, ch. 3), the idea of
transgression is contrasted with that of an unsatisfied
desire able to reach satisfaction in spite of everything
that might restrain and prohibit it, via the detour of
the dream. Like sociologists, psychoanalysts find that
every law is accompanied by criminal infractions of
that law—infractions which the law highlights and
describes. Like ethnologists, psychoanalysts also find
that the strictest laws are always accompanied by
rituals.
It was perfectly natural that, in a dialectical movement,
the interest shown in everything that can prevent
a desire from being fulfilled—and in particular
the formalized, absolute, and non-negotiable limits
represented by laws and taboos—should shift to what
can corrupt them, deviate them, or violate them, in
other words, to the mechanisms of transgression. It is
obvious that, given our need for an order in which
ethics would have its proper place, transgression
1791
TRANSGRESSION
should at first have been experienced and presented in
its negative or pathological aspects—even though
Freud insisted right from the start on the inescapable
complementarity of desire and law, of law and transgression.
Clinical discussions of perversion, as a pathological
manifestation or as a neurotic outlet, all turn
on the moral status of transgression, just as the current
socio-cultural malaise gets to be played out in various
disciplines, including within the psychoanalytical
community, with the focus on ethical debates.
The conflictual model that lies at the basis of psychoanalytical
thought can be observed from different
points of view. One can focus on the place, whether
this be the unconscious scene, the framework of the
psychoanalytical session, or the huge wealth of psychoanalytical
theory. One can focus on the model of
representation chosen, essentially the oedipal model or
that of the father’s murder. Or one can focus on a
given level—on the oscillation between the individual
intrapsychic level and the more or less specific collective
level that makes the performance of forbidden
actions possible within certain defined areas, of which
carnivel is one example. Myths have the same role as
dreams with regard to internal prohibitive laws. “The
legend of Oedipus sprang from some _ primaeval
dream-material” (1900a, p. 263). Finally, we can focus
on the model of functioning chosen: pleasure principle
against reality principle, life instinct against death
drive, or the relative potency of the superego.
Transgression can be found everywhere in the milieu
of the unconscious. Psychological functioning is based
on the way conflicts between different agencies are dealt
with. One's character is formed by rules of behavior that
are based on authorizations and prohibitions.
Over the course of each individual's evolution, certain
critical moments or moments of transition favor
the temptation of transgression. These are the critical
periods of one’s development; at these times, evolution
is rapid, and behavior is particularly active. During
early childhood, the anal period, the “age of no,” is a
stage at which the child is forever defying parental law.
During adolescence, or more precisely at certain
moments during the slow evolution of adolescence,
the sense of expansion, of new power, and the desire
for discovery, can lead to provocative behavior and the
deliberate violation of moral and social rules.
During every session of psychoanalysis, a conflict is
set up and staged between the law of repression on one
1792
hand, armed with the patient’s resistances and
defenses and the law of silence which they entail, and
on the other the desire shared by the psychoanalyst
and the patient to break through that law. Thus the
internal conflict is projected and embodied in the
transferential relation.
It can be said that all psychoanalytical thinking is
built on a transgressive epistemological curiosity. Psychoanalysis
as a scientific corpus comes up against the
laws of inner repression, but also against the universal
or western ethic of sexual repression, the rejection of
aggressive desires and, finally, the norms of a rudimentary
and reductive scientific logic.
The oedipal model is the summit of psychoanalytic
construction. The child’s violent desire for the parent
of the opposite sex implies the aggressive wish to take
the place of the parent of the same sex. This wish is in
its turn strongly repressed, due to the love and fear felt
by the child for this same parent. To get beyond this
conflict requires a means of transgressing the dual prohibition
of incest and rejection. The aggressive violence
repressed at the time of the oedipal conflict
doubtless has an earlier and more archaic origin: it
comes from the wish for the father’s murder by the
horde of brothers, a wish that aims at possessing, interiorizing,
and questioning authoritarian paternal
powers, however vague and imaginary they may be.
It goes without saying that the manifestations of
transgression in the psychoanalytical sense essentially lie
on the individual and intrapsychic level. But Freud saw
how important this sector of the structural conflict of
human thought is for collective phenomena. From
Totem and Taboo (1912-13a) to The Future of an Illusion
(1927c) or Civilization and Its Discontents (1930a
[1929]), he shows that there is a constant oscillation
between repressive cultural forces and “the dangerous
attribute [...] the quality of exciting men’s ambivalence
and tempting them to transgress the prohibition”
(1912—13a, p. 32). The more authoritarian society is,
the more organized repression impels one to interiorize
transgressive yearnings—and Freud remarks that socalled
primitive societies make more room for transgressive
possibilities, even when these might affect an
apparently immutable order, if necessary by organizing
festivals at which people can shed their inhibitions.
If the pleasure principle leads to the (potentially
repeated) satisfaction of desires, the reality principle
opposes it as an obstacle on the path to these
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
satisfactions. From this conflict between the two structures
is born a sense of unease: unsatisfied desires seek
an outlet. This may be found in dreams, of course, and
transgression is there a sort of compromise; these
desires may also try to realize themselves to a greater
or lesser degree in criminal and perverse acts—at the
cost of incurring guilt. In one way, there is transgression
whenever there is a refusal to compromise. The
idea of conquering reality is a dream of omnipotence
which can degenerate into delirium, this in turn
explains both the fanatical dedication of scientists and
the fascination for taboos.
The same duality (the same intrapsychic duality) is
found in the opposition proposed by some theorists
between the life instincts and the death drive. Conflict
shifts from the need to fulfill desires when faced with
obstacles to the need to fulfill contradictory objectives.
Ambivalence rules. These two approaches, however,
are still dualistic, and they describe a conflict against
an authority such that, whatever the result, a sense of
guilt is generated. “Thus we know of two origins of the
sense of guilt: one arising from fear of an authority,
and the other, later on, arising from fear of the superego”
(1930a, p. 127), wrote Freud.
In fact, it is with the advent of the superego that the
problem of transgression reaches its apogee, even if it
was perceptible beforehand. As Freud put it, “Conscience
is the internal perception of the rejection of
a particular wish operating within us” (1912-13a,
p. 68). Forbidden desires are at the center of neurotic
patterns of behavior, and the prohibitions against
these are all the stronger as they are more powerfully
interiorized, inter alia under the influence of culture,
and bolstered by family habits and rules.
Whether limits to the emergence of desires impose
themselves subtly (as taboos) or whether they are
explicit and socially recognized, transgression or the
temptation to transgress are part and parcel of the
same trend, against which the superego takes shape as
an inner law. To see the truth of this, one needs only to
recall that the rules of taboos always anticipate a punishment
for transgression, and thus anticipate the
transgression itself.
Much has been said about the revolution in thought
which led to, or accompanied, psychoanalysis. Psychoanalysis
has also been associated—either to support it
or to denigrate it—with the so-called sexual revolution,
which enabled people to think and say things
that, until that period, had been kept in silence or
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TRANSITIONAL OBJECT
suppressed. Another revolution, less spectacular but
just as important, lay in accepting and even giving a
positive evaluation to drives that had hitherto been
considered as sins, pathological symptoms, or antisocial
types of behavior: violence, aggression, and the
whole list of transgressions that go with them.
This revolution questions, through the unconscious
forces it reveals, the ethical norms of the majority in
any given society. Transgression is no longer a residue
or a deplorable side effect of psychological functioning.
It is an inescapable part of it and, what is more, by
favoring inventiveness and complexity of thought, it
becomes something positive.
SIMON- DANIEL KIPMAN
See also: Megalomania; Moral masochism; Neurosis; Parricide/
murder of the father; Primitive horde; Taboo;
“Uncanny, The”.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1900a). The interpretation of dreams.
Part I, SE, 4: 1-338; Part II, SE, 5: 339-625.
. (1912—13a). Totem and taboo. SE, 13: 1-161.
. (1927c). The future of an illusion. SE, 21: 1-56.
. (1930a [1929]). Civilization and its discontents. SE,
21: 57-145.
TRANSITIONAL OBJECT
The term transitional object was coined in 1951 by
Donald Winnicott as a designation for any material
object (typically something soft—a piece of cloth, say,
or part of a plush toy) to which an infant attributes a
special value and by means of which the child is able
to make the necessary shift from the earliest oral relationship
with the mother to genuine objectrelationships.
Winnicott first spoke of the transitional object on
May 30, 1951, in a paper read before the British Psycho-
Analytical Society and published in 1953 under the title
“Transitional Objects and Transitional Phenomena. A
Study of the First Not-Me Possession.” This article was
recast twenty years later and incorporated into Winnicott’s
Playing and Reality, a book concerned entirely
with transitional phenomena.
1793
TRANSITIONAL OBJECT
In his observation of infants, Winnicott noted that
between the ages of four and twelve months children
would often become attached to a particular object
that they invested with a primordial significance. This
object would be manipulated, sucked, or stroked, and
often became an indispensable aid for falling asleep.
Parents recognized its value, taking it along everywhere
and allowing it to get dirty in the realization
that washing would introduce a break in continuity in
the infant’s experience and destroy the object’s meaning
and special worth. Such objects in fact constituted
a defense against depressive anxiety.
As early as 1951 Winnicott warned against the risk of
his thinking being reified. What interested him was this
“first not-me possession” and the zone it occupied
between the sucked thumb and the teddy bear, between
early oral erotism and a true object-relationship, between
subjectivity and objectivity, between primary creativity
and the projection outwards of what had been introjected.
In 1971, in his introduction to Playing and Reality,
Winnicott wrote that “what I am referring to ... is
not so much the object used as the use of the object”
(1971, p. xii).
To explain the origin of the transitional object,
Winnicott went back to the first connection with the
mother’s breast. The mother, he argued, puts the
actual breast in a place where the infant is ready to create
it and experience an illusory omnipotence in consequence.
Later on, the establishment of the reality
principle and the inevitable disillusion associated with
this will be tolerated by virtue of the transitional
object, which allows the child to exercise its feelings of
omnipotence in a playful manner. The child arrogates
rights over this object, which, though loved passionately,
is also expected to resist and triumph over hate.
In libidinal terms, the activity involved here is of an
oral kind. The object is just as highly cathected with
narcissistic libido as with object-libido. It is not recognized
as part of either external or inner reality. There is
thus an essential paradox at the heart of this conceptual
framework: the baby creates the object, yet the
object was already there, waiting to be created and
cathected. This paradox will never be resolved: in the
course of normal development, the object is destined
to be gradually decathected, losing its significance as
diffuse transitional phenomena spread over the entire
intermediate realm between subjective inner reality
and common external reality, until the whole sphere of
1794
culture is included (art, religion, imaginative life,
scientific invention, and so on).
The transitional object and transitional phenomena
may be conceived of in three ways: as typifying a phase
in the child’s normal emotional development; as a
defense against separation anxiety; and, lastly, as a
neutral sphere in which experience is not challenged—
an area of play and illusion.
For Winnicott the transitional object could sometimes
be part of abnormal development and become
associated with some types of pathology. The child
could not make use of such an object unless “the internal
object is alive and real and good enough” (1917,
p. 11), and this depended on the quality of the maternal
care received. Should the external object be bad or
absent, the internal object could take on a persecutory
character. And should the failure of the external object
persist, the internal object would be meaningless and
the transitional object would likewise lose all significance
and possibly take on a fetishistic character. Winnicott
also mentioned drug addiction, lying, and theft
as ultimately linked in some cases to a pathology of
transitional phenomena.
Several authors have criticized Winnicott’s view of
the transitional object. Melitta Sperling feels that such
objects are pathological manifestations of a specific
disturbance of object-relationships. Esther Bick (as
cited by Michel Haag) evokes an adhesive clinging that
results from a defective introjection of the mother’s
containing function. And in Francoise Dolto’s view,
children with “enough words of love and opportunities
for play of a motor kind” available have no need
of transitional objects, which should therefore be treated
from the outset as fetishistic.
Nora SCHEIMBERG
See also: Object; Transitional object; Transitional object,
space.
Bibliography
Dolto, Frangoise. (1984). L’Image inconsciente du corps.
Paris: Seuil.
Haag, Michel. (1984). A propos des premiéres applications
frangaises de l’observation réguliére et prolongée d’un bébé
dans sa famille selon la méthode de Mrs. Esther Bick: Des
surprises profitables. Privately published.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Sperling, Melitta. (1963). Fetishism in children, Psychoanalytic
Quarterly, 32, 374-92.
Winnicott, Donald W. (1953 [1951]). Transitional objects
and transitional phenomena. A study of the first not-me
possession. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 34,
89-97.
. (1971). Playing and reality. London: Tavistock.
Further Reading
Brody, Sylvia. (1980). Transitional objects: Idealization of a
phenomenon. Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 49, 561-605.
Giovacchini, Peter L. (1984). The psychoanalytic paradox:
The self as a transitional object. Psychoanalytic Review, 71,
81-104.
Greenacre, Phyllis. (1969). The fetish and the transitional
object. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 24, 144-164.
TRANSITIONAL OBJECT, SPACE
Transitional objects (Donald Winnicott) originate in
that phase of an infant’s development when inner and
outer reality begin to become apparent. They are at
once “me” and “not-me,” and are transitional in that
they facilitate the transition from the omnipotence of
the tiny baby for whom external objects have not yet
separated out, to the capacity to relate to “objectively
perceived” objects.
Transitional space (intermediate area, third area)
is that space of experiencing, between the inner and
outer worlds, and contributed to by both, in which
primary creativity (illusion) exists and can develop
(“Transitional Objects and Transitional Phenomena,’
Winnicott, 1951; further developed in Winnicott,
1971). From as early as 1945, Winnicott, from within
his own concepts of object-relations, approached the
infant’s developing capacity to discover and adapt to
reality. He described first the common patterns of
infancy in which a very young baby first finds a thumb,
or a fist, to suck, and may stroke his own face, gather a
piece of material and suck or stroke it, or make
babbling noises; Winnicott assumed accompanying
fantasy and used the term transitional for these
phenomena.
Later in infancy it may happen that both the activity
and the object become necessary when the baby is going
to sleep, or anxious. Babies may discover a particular
object, perhaps a soft toy or a blanket, or a sound, or
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TRANSITIONAL OBJECT, SPACE
piece of behavior, that fulfils the purpose, and this, the
transitional object, becomes important and is recognized
to be so by the parents, who unconsciously know
that it represents a continuity of experience that the
baby needs. For this reason parents know that it is not
to be changed, or even washed, but must accompany
the infant, to be loved or attacked as the baby fancies.
This “transitional object” becomes the first “not-me”
possession, and while it is symbolic of a part-object, is
important in that it is neither the baby nor that object.
Winnicott listed the special qualities of the relationship
with the object, which must survive; must, from the
baby’s point of view, come from neither without nor
within; will become decathected—lose its significance,
not forgotten, not mourned, but losing meaning, at
that stage when a wider cultural field has come into
being. In early infancy the “good-enough mother” provides
a near-perfect environment, allowing the baby the
illusion of unity and omnipotence—Winnicott stated
that the infant “creates” the breast—“primary creativity,’
which is known as a “subjective object.” The disillusion
necessary to permit awareness of outside reality
must be dosed to the infant in such a way that the
infant’s creativity survives the passage to the recognition
of objective reality.
Winnicott used the term transitional to describe the
“intermediate” or “third area,’ “between the thumb
and the teddy bear, between the oral erotism and the
true object-relationship, between primary creative
activity and projection of what has already been introduced,
between primary unawareness of indebtedness
and the acknowledgment of indebtedness (‘Say ta’)”
(Winnicott, 1951). It is in this area, where fantasy and
reality overlap, that creativity, including the basis for
adult cultural life, and play originate (Winnicott,
1971). Winnicott compared this with the therapeutic
situation, where the worlds of the patient and analyst
overlap, echoing Freud’s concept of the analytic
playground.
Related subjects include:
¢ Fetishistic objects—one possible fate of the transitional
object, according to Winnicott.
e Illusion of unity within a framework—Milner.
e Autistic object—Tustin.
¢ Self-object—Kohut.
e Transformational object—Bollas.
* Transitional stage/quasi-independence—Fairbairn.
1795
TRANSITIONAL PHENOMENA
Possibly the most widely known of Winnicott’s contributions,
especially in the worlds of paediatrics and
child care, the concepts of transitional phenomena
and the thinking about illusion are firmly rooted in his
object-related developmental viewpoint and underlie
Winnicott’s ideas about creativity, which according to
him is a primary human element. The popular acceptance
of the idea should not be allowed to disguise the
importance of this line of Winnicott’s thinking, which,
despite the incorporation of his concept of paradox
into his style of writing, eventually provides the foundation
for his theories of play with its relationship to
creative analytic work, and also his late, subtle, and
important paper “The Use of an Object and Relating
Through Identifications” (1971), in which he charts a
further stage of change from that of “object-relating,”
when the object, while separate, is felt to be still under
the omnipotent control of the infant, to that of
“object-usage,” when the object is allowed reality and
autonomy.
JENNIFER JOHNS
See also: Transitional object; Transitional phenomena.
Bibliography
Winnicott, Donald. (1953). Transitional objects and transitional
phenomena. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis,
34, 89-97; and in Collected papers, through paediatrics to psychoanalysis
(p. 229-242). London: Tavistock, 1958. Additional
material was added to the paper in his Playing and
reality. (pp. 1-30) London: Tavistock, 1971.
. (1958). Primitive emotional development. In Collected
papers, through paediatrics to psychoanalysis (pp.
145-156). London: Tavistock. (Original work published
1945)
. (1971). The use of an object and relating through
identifications. In his Playing and reality (pp. 101-121).
London: Tavistock.
Further Reading
Brody, Sylvia. (1980). Transitional objects: Idealization of a
phenomenon. Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 49, 561-605.
Giovacchini, Peter L. (1984). The psychoanalytic paradox:
The self as a transitional object. Psychoanalytic Review, 71,
81-104.
Greenacre, Phyllis. (1969). The fetish and the transitional
object. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 24, 144-164.
1796
TRANSITIONALPHENOMENA ts
The original concept of transitional phenomena was
used by Donald Winnicott to describe the intermediate
area of human experience between inner reality
and the outside world. The prototypical example is
that of the transitional object, the first not-me possession
of the baby. Thus a real, usually soft object is
found by the baby and used as a defense against anxiety.
The transitional object represents a real paradox in
that it is not an internal object; it is a possession yet it
is not an external object either. It grows out of the
baby’s relationship with the breast (which represents
the whole technique of mothering) and his own body.
For example, while sucking on his thumb he weaves
not-me objects into his own autoerotic experience and
personal pattern. Thus the transitional object allows
for the illusion of infantile omnipotence at the same
time as it forms a bridge to the outside world and the
process of disillusion and the development of a shared
reality. The ordinary care of the mother closely adapting
to and meeting her infant’s immediate needs fosters
in the infant the illusion that what he desires he
actually creates.
Transitional phenomena as a class of experiences
also represent the use of illusion in allowing the creative
co-existence of primary creativity and objective
perception based on reality.
Winnicott presented his formulation of transitional
phenomena to the British Psycho-Analytic Society in
1951, and this was published in 1952 in a paper, “Transitional
Objects and Transitional Phenomena’—
subtitled “A study of the first not-me possession.” The
paper was republished in his collected works, Through
Paediatrics to Psychoanalysis (1958), and is the key
paper in his influential and popular book Playing and
Reality (1971).
The notion of transitional phenomena is central to
the framework of ideas which Winnicott uses to chart
the course of the development of self, locating the self
firmly and inextricably in the context of maternal care,
the family and the wider world. Winnicott used his
thousands of observations of infants and parents
together to build up his idea of the baby’s inner world
of fantasy, illusion, and omnipotence. The mother, by
intuitively anticipating and adapting to the baby’s
immediate physical needs, allows the infant to build
up the illusion that he creates that which his mother
provides. Between the age of four to eighteen months
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there may then emerge some thing or phenomenon
(which may be a sound, mannerism, or the mother
herself) which the baby uses to defend himself against
anxiety, especially when falling asleep.
Winnicott says the transitional object has specific
properties: the infant creates it himself, he can be both
affectionate and aggressive to it; it must not change,
unless changed by the infant; it must survive loving,
hating, and aggression; it must seem to have vitality or
reality of its own; it is neither a hallucination nor
comes from within the baby; it is gradually decathected,
but not lost and forms the basis of play, culture,
and dreaming.
The patient’s use of transitional phenomena can
help in understanding psychopathological conditions
such as fetishism, lying, stealing, and drug addiction.
Winnicott (1971) describes a case of a boy with anxiety
and obsessional symptoms where the boy’s use of
string is central to understanding both these inner and
outer experiences. By providing the illusion of omnipotence
and gradual disillusionment, parents set up a
transitional space within which develop the child’s
creativity and capacity to play: “on the basis of play
is built the whole of man’s experiential existence”
(1971). Play is a serious and necessary component of
psychic life which forms part of adult life and culture.
Playfulness and the use of transitional space and transitional
phenomena form the foundation of much of
Winnicott’s psychoanalytic technique.
The transitional object is a concept that has entered
the popular culture as the apparently ubiquitous security
blanket or the teddy bear. There can be a misapprehension
that such physical objects are necessary for
healthy psychological development. Winnicott did not
imply this but, like many of his concepts, transitional
phenomena remain enigmatic and hard to define. This
elusive sense seems to be just what he seeks to describe
in the child’s approach to the “relationship between
what is objectively perceived and what is subjectively
conceived of.” This is indicative of Winnicott’s imaginative
and at times idiosyncratic metapsychology.
PauL CAMPBELL AND ANN MORGAN
See also: Addiction; Child’s play (the); Negative, work
of; Object; Omnipotence, infantile; Primary object; Psychosomatic
limit/boundary; Representation; Squiggle;
Transitional object; Transitional object, space; Wish, hallucinatory
satisfaction of a.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
TRANSLATION
Bibliography
Hamilton, Victoria. (1982). Narcissus and Oedipus—The
children of psychoanalysis. London: Routledge and Kegan
Paul Ltd.
Winnicott, Donald. (1975). Transitional objects and transitional
phenomena. In: Through paediatrics to psycho-analysis
(p. 229-242). London: Hogarth Press. (Original work published
1953)
. (1980). Playing and reality. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
(Original work published 1971)
TRANSLATION
There are a large number of occurrences of the verb
iibersetzen (“to translate”) and the noun Ubersetzung
(“translation”) in Freud’s work, indicative of his interest
in translation, although the terms had no specific
conceptual value for him within the field of psychoanalysis.
However, non-German readers should bear in
mind the proximity in German of Ubersetzung and
Ubertragung (“transference”). What psychoanalysts
refer to as “transference” is, in German, also a translation,
a carrying over.
Freud’s interest in translation was manifest early in
his career: while doing his military service he translated
an essay by John Stuart Mill and, on his return
from his stay at the Salpétriére, impressed by Charcot’s
clinical method, he translated two of the Charcot’s
main works, as well as two works by Bernheim, which
he felt were essential for a scientific understanding of
hysteria and the use of therapeutic methods in hypnosis.
For Freud the experience of translation was contemporary
with his discovery of psychoanalysis as a
therapeutic practice. Ernest Jones emphasized Freud’s
gifts as a translator (Pollak Cornillot, 1990), It should
come as no surprise, therefore, to find that translation
infiltrated his thought as a metaphor for a large number
of psychic processes.
In his earliest writings and with the appearance of
the concept of repression, translation, in its primary
sense of “to bring over,’ became a way of picturing the
transformation of those psychic contents reaching
consciousness, repression being thus defined (Freud to
Fliess, December 6, 1896) as a “defect of translation,”
an absence of conscious expression. The work of
dream interpretation likewise resembles a translation
of the language of the unconscious into the language
1797
TRANSMUTING INTERNALIZATION
of consciousness, of the remembered dream content
into its hidden sense: “Interpreting a dream consists in
translating the manifest content of the dream into the
latent dream-thoughts, in undoing the distortion
which the dream-thoughts have had to submit to from
the censorship of the resistance” (1907a, p. 59). But at
the same time Freud cautioned against the tendency to
overestimate the importance of symbols and reduce
the work of dream translation to the mere decoding of
symbols, and to ignore the ideas that present themselves
to the mind of the dreamer during analysis.
Finding the hidden meaning was more complex than
the simple transliteration of the signs of the unconscious
system into the signs of the conscious one.
Elsewhere (1918b [1914]), Freud uses the term translation
more generically, to designate the psychoanalyst’s
interpretation of a psychic phenomenon: for
example, the fear of being eaten by the wolf “is translated”
into the fear of being raped by the father. More
recently André Green (1997/2000) has rediscovered
the richness of the “hypothesis of translation” present
throughout Freud’s work.
MICHELE POLLAK CORNILLOT
See also: Biblioteca Nueva de Madrid (Freud, S., Obras
completas); France; Interpretation; Opere (writings of Sigmund
Freud); Standard Edition of the Complete a
gical Works of Sigmund Freud; Symbol.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1907a). Delusions and dreams in Jensen’s
“Gradiva.” SE, 9: 1-95.
. (1918b [1914]). From the history of an infantile
neurosis. SE, 17: 1-122.
Green, André. (2000). The chains of eros: The sexual in psychoanalysis
(Luke Thurston, Trans.). London: Rebus. (Original
work published 1997)
Mahony, Patrick. (1980). Toward the understanding of
translation in psychoanalysis. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic
Association, 28, 461-473.
Mijolla, Alain de. (1991). Lédition en francais des “CEuvres”
de Freud avant 1940. Autour de quelques documents
nouveaux. Revue internationale d histoire de la psychanalyse,
4, 209-270.
Pollak Cornillot, Michéle. (1990). Freud traducteur. Introduction
a la traduction des ceuvres de Freud. Doctoral dissertation,
Université René-Descartes, Paris.
1798
Further Reading
Amati-Mehler, Jacqueline, et al. (1993). The babel of the
unconscious. Mother tongue and foreign languages in the
psychoanalytic dimension. Madison, CT: International Universities
Press.
TRANSMUTING INTERNALIZATION |
Transmuting internalization is a process that participates
in the formation of psychic structure, as postulated
by Heinz Kohut. It is an extension of Freud’s concept of
mourning. For Freud, the loss of an object causes
mourning to establish a presence within the psyche. If
this model is seen as the basis of all losses, including
nontraumatic and phase-specific losses, then it follows
that any failure or absence of a sustaining object can lead
to the establishment in the psyche of whatever function
that object has served. Minute losses or absences lead,
not to wholesale identification with the object, but to
internal structures that need bear no resemblance to the
lost object but merely capture the function served by the
object. Nontraumatic loss and internalization, called
optimal frustration, is an essential feature of normal
development. Parental absences, disappointments, failures,
and age-appropriate responsibilities help children
gradually develop psychological structure. Psychological
structure refers to an enduring function, a function that
results from the progressive neutralization occupying
the area of the psyche not represented by repression.
Psychoanalytic treatment parallels normal development
when the analyst causes transmuting internalizations by
initiating similar phase-specific failures.
ARNOLD GOLDBERG
See also: Action-thought
neutralization.
(H. Kohut); Progressive
Bibliography
Kohut, Heinz. (1971). The analysis of the self. New York:
International Universities Press.
. (1977). The restoration of the self. New York: International
Universities Press.
TRANSSEXUALISM
Transsexualism is characterized by the desire to belong
to the sex opposite one’s assigned, biological sex, and by
the demand for a reassignment of one’s sex with the
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
help of hormones and surgery—all this in the absence
of any biological anomaly that is detectable with current
means of investigation. This distinguishes transsexualism
from intersex states and pseudo-hermaphrodites.
With transexualism, people speak of an unshakeable
conviction of belonging to the other sex. It would be
more appropriate to speak of an indomitable desire to
live as a member of the other sex, as well as the desire to
bear a corporal sign of this belonging, which is what
makes transsexualism historically unique.
In 1953 the endocrinologist and sexologist Harry
Benjamin was the first to name the syndrome that had
previously been confused with transvestism. Perhaps
he had retained the expression “Psychopathia transsexualis”
used by D. O. Cauldwell in 1949, although he
claimed he had no conscious memory of it, or “seelischer
Transsexualismus” the expression used by Magnus
Hirschfeld in 1923, although he makes no mention
of it. It took more than ten years for the term transsexualism
to become accepted.
In the same year, 1953, the Journal of the American
Medical Association (JAMA) published the observations
of C. Hamburger, G. K. Stiirup, and E. Dahl-
Iversen concerning the case of George, operated on in
Denmark, who became Christine Jorgensen. Benjamin
declared that psychotherapy was powerless to treat
transsexualism and that the only possible treatment
was sex conversion surgery along with hormone replacement
therapy for life. A large number of specialized
centers opened in the United States for treating the
sexual identity disorders that Norman Fisk called
“gender dysphoria” in 1973. However, some of those
subsequently closed down.
Hormono-surgical sex reassignment hardly
deserves to be called a treatment. A palliative at best, it
consists in transforming a healthy, hormonally wellbalanced,
and functioning organism into an artificial
intersex, a mutilated organism that requires hormone
replacement therapy. In order to justify such an
unusual treatment it would be necessary to prove that
although they may be compromising their physical
health, patients derive benefits from it in terms of their
mental health. However, existing follow-up studies are
incomplete and insufficient. Not all subjects continue
to be seen. Those who are seen are generally satisfied.
With few exceptions they do not regret their operation
but they end up realizing that that their dearest wish,
to really be changed into a human being of the opposite
sex, has remained unrealizable.
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TRANSSEXUALISM
Compared to female transsexuals becoming male,
male transsexuals becoming female constitute a larger
group (three biological males for every biological
female demanding reassignment) that is more heterogeneous,
suffers from more serious pathologies, and
is characterized by very mediocre social integration
(prostitution, public assistance). Many patients
request sex reassignment after a period of their lives
spent as transvestites or homosexuals. The most cautious
physicians defending hormono-surgical sex
reassignment make a point of identifying patients
who essentially suffer from identity disorders, whom
they refer to as true or primary transsexuals, which
they consider to be the only indication for hormonosurgical
sex reassignment.
An effort has been made to present primary transsexuals
(male to female) as normal subjects who, by
reversing their identity, inform their mothers of the
truth of their primary identification (Robert Stoller). It
is difficult to consider that transsexuals do not suffer
from serious psychic disorders at the narcissistic level.
Psychoanalysis has extended its field of application
from the neuroses to borderline cases, and in this
respect it may be possible to try to treat transsexuals.
The difficulty is great because denial and splitting dominate
the mental organization. They put everything on
the corporal level and nothing on the psychic. The availability
of medical hormono-surgical sex reassignment
makes it more difficult to reach them through psychoanalytic
psychotherapy. Interesting attempts have
nevertheless been made, often by psychoanalysts from
the school of self-psychology (particularly Lothstein).
Treatment of children suffering from sexual identity
disorders shows promise if the parents are treated at
the same time, and in this way observing how the children
respond to their parents’ problems by thinking
that they should belong to the opposite sex in order to
be loved by them.
COLETTE CHILAND
See also: Gender identity; Masculine protest (individual
psychology); Self-representation.
Bibliography
Benjamin, Harry. (1953). Transvestism and transsexualism
international. Journal of Sexology, 7 (1), 12-14.
Chiland, Colette. (1997). Changer de sexe? Paris: Odile
Jacob.
1799
TRATTATO DI PSICOANALISI
Stoller, Robert J. (1968). Sex and gender: On the development
of masculinity and feminity. New York: Science House.
. (1985). Observing the erotic imagination. New
Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Zucker, Kenneth J., and Bradley, Susan J. (1995). Gender
identity disorder and psychosexual problems in children and
adolescents. New York: Guilford Press.
TRATTATO DI PSICOANALISI
Cesare Musatti’s Trattato di psicoanalisi (Treatise on
psychoanalysis) was written in the 1930s, when the
first generation of Italian psychoanalysts were active
and when psychoanalysis was first beginning to reach
the public. Unfortunately, its publication was hampered
by an idealist, fascist culture that resisted the
challenges of psychoanalysis.
The treatise was based on lectures in experimental
psychology that Musatti gave from 1933 to 1935 at the
University of Padua. He attempted to provide a solid
foundation for young physicians who were interested
in the new methods of psychotherapy and were considering
using them professionally. At the same time he
wanted to offer the Italian public a solid popular work
about psychoanalysis that would sweep away the prejudices
and falsehoods then prevalent about the field.
Although the book was completed in 1938, the pollitical
and cultural situation in Italy presented an obstacle
to its publication for over a decade. At the time
Nazi racism, which existed in Italy in diluted form,
considered psychoanalysis a Jewish science and sought
to destroy the work of Freud and his followers—
physically and in spirit. For years the manuscript
remained in Musatti’s desk. It was finally published in
1949 by Boringhieri. The work was subsequently reprinted
several times, first by Einaudi.
Musatti’s Trattato consists of six parts. He retraced
the origins of Freud’s discovery, from dreams to free
association, from fantasy to the arts, being careful to
define mental pathology as well as the structure of
human personality. His goal was to introduce psychoanalysis
to scientists and academicians, and thereby
win their support. Ironically, errors like the “doctrine
of instincts,” the name given by Musatti to a section of
his book, could have been the source of a certain resistance
to his work. This turned out not to be the case,
and the confusion remained between drive and
instinct—a key Freudian distinction that is ignored in
1800
the Standard Edition of Freud’s works. Notwithstanding
its limitations, the Trattato, known as the “freudino”
(the little Freud) by students, has the merit of
having been the first essay to describe Freud’s work
systematically without excessive distortion, at least in
comparison with earlier Italian-language summaries.
GIANCARLO GRAMAGLIA
See also: Musatti, Cesare.
Source Citation
Musatti, Cesare. (1949). Trattato di psicoanalisi. Turin, Italy:
Boringhieri-Einaudi.
Bibliography
Gramaglia, Giancarlo. (1995). Discorsi/scritti di psicoanalisi.
Turin, Italy: Il Laboratorio.
TRAUMA
In its psychoanalytical sense, trauma denotes an
event of such violence and suddenness that it occasions
an inflow of excitation sufficiently strong to
defeat normally successful defense mechanisms; as a
general rule trauma stuns the subject and, sooner or
later, brings about a disorganization of the psychic
economy.
Trauma (a wound), a term borrowed from ancient
Greek, was at first used in surgery to denote a violent
injury from an external cause that breached the body’s
integrity. (Traumatism is used occasionally as a synonym,
and occasionally to refer to any condition resulting
from trauma.) The term eventually made its way
into common usage, its psychological sense coming to
the fore as its employment spread from medicine to
psychoanalysis.
In the context of late-nineteenth-century causation,
the notion of trauma was inseparably linked to the
ideas of shock and physical breach, and it was regularly
invoked to explain a variety of syndromes, among
them traumatic neurosis. Freud was part of this current
of thought, and, following Charcot, assigned
trauma a determining role in the etiology of hysteria;
then, along with Breuer (1893a), he moved from the
idea of real, physical trauma to that of a “psychical
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trauma” (pp. 5-6), with the stress laid no longer on
the reality of the event but rather on its mental representation,
experienced as an internal “foreign body,”
which is the source of the excitation. This was a radical
shift relative to the theories of the time, and an epistemological
leap of great import, for it was the foundation
stone of psychoanalysis.
What made an experience traumatic for Freud was
indeed the incapacity of the psychical apparatus to discharge
the excessive excitation in accordance with the
principle of constancy, whether that excitation arose
from the pathogenic action of a single brutal event or
of a series of incidents having a cumulative effect. This
economic view of things was part of psychoanalysis
from the beginning, and it is crucial to the understanding
of the psychoanalytical notion of trauma.
Even at this early period, Freud distinguished two
models: the first, evidenced by hysteria, involved the
absence of discharge, whereas in the second, operative
in the actual neuroses, discharge took place but did so
at the wrong time and place, and independently of the
object. The economic perspective provided the connection
and continuity between the successive theories
proposed by Freud as he considered trauma in terms
of a causal relationship: the first of these theories was
modeled on Charcot’s hystero-trauma, but this traumatic
theory was very soon replaced by the theory of
seduction. Founded on clinical observation, this theory
led Freud to assert that the trauma was always of a
sexual nature and that it had two moments: the first,
the moment of fright, confronted the child prematurely
with the sexual conduct of an adult seducer; this
the child experienced uncomprehendingly, and _ its
meaning and traumatic effect came into play only after
puberty, on the occasion of a second scene that served
to reactualize the repressed memory of the earlier one.
When the frequency with which his patients produced
accounts of such early events obliged Freud to question
their reality and treat them instead as products of
fantasy, the theory of seduction lost a good deal of its
interest; at the same time, its temporal aspect—the
process of “deferred action” (apres coup) of which the
case of Emma provided the archetypal instance—
remained essential to Freud’s explanation of the
trauma, whose importance in the triggering of neuroses,
however, he now qualified by taking into
account such factors as individual predisposition, the
trauma’s place in the subject’s history and mental
organization, and the circumstances of the event.
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TRAUMA
The thinking sparked by the war neuroses gave the
notion of trauma a new lease on life, while so reinforcing
the energetic point of view that in 1916 Freud did
not hesitate to say that “the term ‘traumatic’ has no
other sense than an economic one” (1916-17a [1915—
17], p. 275). Thus a trauma, by its simple intensity,
could produce an instinctual hypercathexis capable of
breaching the protective shield against stimuli. In
order to stem this influx, which the ego, not having
been prepared by anxiety to confront the danger, was
all the more incapable of neutralizing, the psychical
apparatus would mobilize all available energy and
establish countervailing charges. Should these defensive
strategies be insufficient, the apparatus would
have to bind the excitation compulsively, “beyond the
pleasure principle,” so as to lower it gradually to a tolerable
threshold (1920g, p. 31).
In Beyond the Pleasure Principle, where the importance
assigned to the compulsion to repeat led Freud
into speculation about the death instinct, the question
arose of what principle governed repetition. Was it
Thanatos, striving for absolute discharge, as in certain
behaviors analogous to the traumatophilia described
by Karl Abraham in 1907? Or Eros, aiming to attain
mastery through the gradual resolution of tension and
thence accede to the power of symbolization, as well
illustrated by repetitive dreams recounted in the analytic
session and by reproductions in the transference?
In fact, where the work of analysis made it possible for
the subject to recover and work through repressed
material, the binding function could triumph over
death-oriented repetition. In that case, deferred effects,
by making reorganizations possible, would have been
the motor of change.
Finally, in the context of Freud’s revised theory of
anxiety (1926d), the stress fell on the state of helplessness:
what the baby experiences, subjected without recourse to
a state of tension in the absence of its mother, was taken
as the prototype of all traumatic situations. In this
instance with the signal function of anxiety as yet not
developed, the ego is overwhelmed by an eruption of
instinctual forces it is powerless to contain.
Freud’s reflections of 1926 have given rise to the
present-day notion of narcissistic trauma, which refers
to the ego’s inability to bind excitation resulting from
a loss, whether the loss of an object or a loss of a narcissistic
kind. This classification is justified in terms of
the symptomatology often presented by patients
(rumination, repetitive dreams), who may thus be
1801
TRAUMA OF BirtH, THE
thought to be expressing a pathological mourning
under the influence of deferred effects (aprés coup).
This category has led to a questionable broadening
of the concept, for it tends to water down the specificity
assigned to trauma in Freud’s early works: Systematically
treating all and every physical or psychic injury
as a trauma runs counter to the psychoanalytic view,
for which a trauma cannot be reduced to the level of
events alone; at the same time, this level should always
be taken into account, precisely because not to do so is
to court the danger of further pathological development
in a traumatic mode.
FRANCOISE BRETTE
See also: Activity/Passivity; Actual; Amnesia; Annihilation
anxiety; Anxiety dream; Arpad the Little Chanticleer (case
of); Beyond the Pleasure Principle, Breakdown; Choice of
neurosis; Complementary series; Deferred action; Deprivation;
Disorganization; Dream of the Wise Baby; Fixation;
Fright; Helplessness; Incompleteness; Memory; Mnemic
symbol; Narcissistic injury; Negative therapeutic reaction;
Nightmare; Pain; Phylogenesis; Pleasure in thinking; Protective
shield, breach of; Proton-Pseudos; Psychic causality;
Psychic reality; Real trauma; Real, the; Reminiscence;
Repetition compulsion; Sexual trauma; Tact; Trauma of
Birth, The; Traumatic neurosis; War neurosis.
Bibliography
Abraham, Karl. (1979). The experiencing of sexual traumas
as a form of sexual activity. In Selected papers on psychoanalysis.
New York: Brunner/Mazel. (Original work published
1907)
Brette, Francoise. (1988). Le traumatisme et ses theories.
Revue francaise de psychanalyse, 52 (6), 1259-84.
Freud, Sigmund. (1916—17a [1915-17]). Introductory lectures
on psycho-analysis. SE, 15-16.
. (1920g). Beyond the pleasure principle. SE, 18: 1-64.
. (1926d). Inhibitions, symptoms and anxiety. SE,
20: 87-172.
Freud, Sigmund, and Breuer, Josef. (1893a). On the psychical
mechanism ofh ysterical phenomena: Preliminary communication.
SE, 2: 1-17.
——.. (1895d). Studies on hysteria. SE, 2.
Further Reading
Levine, Howard (Ed.). (1990). Adult analysis and childhood
sexual abuse. Hillsdale, NJ: Analytic Press.
1802
Sandler, Joseph, et al. (1991). Conceptual research in psychoanalysis:
Psychic trauma. International Review of Psychoanalysis,
18, 133-142.
Terr, Lenore. (1990). Too scared to cry: Psychic trauma in
childhood. New York: Harper and Row.
Van Der Kolk, Bessel, et al. (1996). Traumatic stress: The
effects of overwhelming experience on mind, body, and
society. New York: Guilford.
TRAUMA OF BIRTH, THE
First published in 1924, Otto Rank’s The Trauma of
Birth took as its starting point a note that Freud added
to his The Interpretation of Dreams in 1909: “Moreover,
the act of birth is the first experience of anxiety,
and thus the source and prototype of the affect of anxiety”
(1900a, pp. 400—-401n).
Rank set out to identify “the ultimate biological
basis of the psychical,” the very “nucleus of the unconscious”
(p. xxiii). For him this was the physical event
of birth, whereby the infant passes from a state of perfectly
contented union with the mother to a state of
parlous separation via an oppressive experience of
asphyxiation, constriction, confinement in the vaginal
canal, and so on—all feelings recognizable in anxiety
states of every kind. It was the struggle against this
' traumatic experience of birth, in Rank’s account, that
structured the fantasy life of the child, including the
disavowal of the difference between the sexes, infantile
sexual theories, and oedipal scenarios. Castration anxiety
was a defensive derivative of the anxiety associated
with the birth trauma.
Rank supported his thesis with case notes, notably
concerned with terminations which according to him
always brought up fantasies of a “second birth.” But
for the most part he relied on data derived from social
myths and rites exemplifying what he called “heroic
compensation,” religious sublimation, artistic idealization,
or philosophical speculation. The very abundance
of the material thus adduced, and the author’s
stated aim of accounting for all processes of hominization
and all cultural evolution in terms solely of the
trauma of birth, were bound to leave the reader perplexed.
Rank’s evidence nevertheless warrants more
attention than contemporary psychoanalysts were
willing to accord it. Indeed a multitude of themes—
falling, constriction within a narrow space, feelings of
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
being lost in limitless space, the importance of very
early relations with the mother, or primitive anxieties
foreshadowing castration anxiety—were distinctly
novel in the psychoanalytic literature as of 1924.
The clumsy presentation of these ideas, however,
along with the author’s overreaching ambition, the
lack of method in his argument, and the failure to buttress
his thesis with analytical clinical material, all contributed
to the rejection not only of his work but also
of Rank himself, who broke with the psychoanalytic
movement in 1926 after Freud’s condemnation of his
ideas in Inhibitions, Symptoms and Anxiety (1926d).
Beyond the question of the weaknesses of Rank’s
book, it is reasonable to consider what psychoanalytic
reasons might have occasioned this rejection of his ideas
in favor of the primacy of oedipal conflict as crucial to
the organization of neurotic pathology, or of castration
anxiety as the prototype under which all other forms of
anxiety were subsumed. In a postscript to the French
edition of The Trauma of Birth, Claude Girard points
out that the position defended by Freud and his followers
tended to exclude non-neurotic pathologies as
legitimate objects of psychoanalytic exploration, whereas
Rank’s propositions encouraged the investigation of
very early forms of pathology, along with that of the
baby’s earliest relations with its mother.
Both these avenues of inquiry were further explored
subsequently by American psychoanalysts (Greenacre,
1945; Fodor, 1949; Alexander and French, 1946). More
recently, Rank’s main theme has been picked up with
renewed vigor in the wake of object-relations theory,
albeit without Rank’s reductionism. Thus Wilfred
R. Bion (1977) has used the term caesura in theorizing
about the experience of a discontinuity in objectrelations
of which birth is the paradigm case. And
Frances Tustin (1981) has described a premature psychological
birth in autistic children corresponding to a
consciousness of the bodily separation from the object
that arises at a stage when the psyche is still unable to
form symbols.
DipieR HOouZzeEL
See also: Anaclisis; Anxiety as signal; Asthma; Birth; Castration
complex; Cinema and psychoanalysis; Dream of
birth; Inhibitions, Symptoms and Anxiety; Lines of
Advance in Psycho-Analytic Therapy; Psychic causality;
Psychoanalytic splits; Psychoanalytic technique (adults);
Termination of psychoanalytic treatment; Trauma.
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TRAUMATIC NEUROSIS
Source Citation
Rank, Otto. (1924) Das Trauma der Geburt und seine Bedeutung
fiir die Psychoanalyse. Leipzig/Vienna/Zurich: Internat.
psychoanal. Verlag. English translation: The Trauma of
Birth. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1929; reprinted,
with an introduction by E. James Lieberman, New
York: Dover, 1993.
Bibliography
Alexander, Franz, and French, Thomas M. (1946). Psychogenic
factors in bronchial asthma. Washington, DC:
National Research Council.
Bion, Wilfred R. (1977). Two papers: The grid and caesura. Rio
de Janeiro: Imago Editora; reprint, London: Karnac, 1989.
Fodor, N. (1949). The search for the beloved: A clinical investigation
of the trauma of birth and prenatal conditioning.
New York: Hermitage.
Freud, Sigmund. (1900a). The interpretation of dreams. SE,
4—5.
. (1926d [1925]). Inhibitions, symptoms and anxiety.
SE, 20: 75-172.
Greenacre, Phyllis. (1952). The biological economy of birth.
In Greenacre, Trauma, growth and personality. New York:
Norton. (Original work published 1945)
Tustin, Frances. (1981) Autistic states in children. London:
Routledge.
Further Reading
Mintz, I. L. (1975). Evolution of Otto Rank’s theory of the birth
trauma. International Review of Psychoanalysis, 2, 245-246.
TRAUMATIC NEUROSIS
The term traumatic neurosis designates a psychopathological
state characterized by various disturbances
arising soon or long after an intense emotional
shock. In the second half of the nineteenth century, a
number of observations corresponding to a clinical
picture of this kind were reported, typically in the
wake of military action or railroad disasters, and
related either to hysteria or to neurasthenia. Yet it was
Hermann Oppenheimer who, in 1889, introduced the
term itself into the lexicon of psychiatry.
Freud was to construct his theory of the neuroses
on the model of traumatic neurosis. However, by stres-
1803
TRUTH
sing the sexual character of the precipitating factor
and the possibility that the action of traumatic neurosis
could be deferred, rather than the fright occasioned
by an accident’s actual threat to life, he jettisoned what
had hitherto constituted the specificity of the category.
Furthermore, by taking into account predisposition
for and tolerance of trauma, as well as the trauma’s significance
in the subject’s history and mental organization,
Freud relativized and reduced the notion of
shock and its etiological import. The whole issue was
destined to achieve its full immediacy only when historical
events brought the war neuroses to the fore,
prompting Freud to reconsider traumatic neurosis,
first in 1916 in his Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis
and once again in the context of his great theoretical
revision of 1920.
For Freud, the economic point of view then became
predominant. He accentuated the character of the
trauma as at once somatic (the “disturbance” freed up
the flow of excitations) and psychic (“fright”). In
Freud’s words, “The symptomatic picture presented
by traumatic neurosis approaches that of hysteria in
the wealth of its similar motor symptoms, but surpasses
it as a rule in its strongly marked signs of subjective
ailment ... , as well as in the evidence it gives of
a far more general enfeeblement and disturbance of
the mental capacities” (1920g, p. 12).
Traumatic neurosis does not have the same meaning
for psychoanalysts as it does for psychiatric clinical
practice. The psychoanalytic characterization
includes repetition: The patient relives the initial
trauma, and this manifests itself in every situation,
whether transference-related or not. The function of
nightmares is to express the anxiety that was absent
at the time of the original incident. Such repetitive
manifestations reveal a fixation on the trauma as well
as an attempt to discharge excessive tension in incremental
fashion (that is, to work through it).
Clinically and theoretically, it is important to
eschew the mistaken application of the term traumatic
neurosis to the posttraumatic state (or syndrome),
since posttraumatic syndrome refers to a physical
(usually cranial) trauma and to disorders related to an
emotional shock. Such states cannot in fact be brought
under the heading of neurosis in a psychoanalytic
sense. Here Freud himself ran into perplexities that led
him to assign traumatic neuroses first to the class of
the actual neuroses and then to that of the narcissistic
neuroses. Traditional psychiatry, as reflected in the
1804
third edition of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders (DSM-III), has renamed traumatic
neurosis as “posttraumatic stress disorder,” and while
one might question its objectivizing use of stress, this
approach does have the merits of avoiding the nosological
trap of the neurosis/psychosis dichotomy and
of viewing the issue from an_ interdisciplinary
standpoint.
FRANCOISE BRETTE
See also: Trauma.
Bibliography
Barrois, Claude. (1988). Les névroses traumatiques. Paris:
Dunod.
Ferenczi, Sandor, et al. (1921). Psycho-analysis and the war
neuroses. Vienna: International Psycho-Analytical Press.
Freud, Sigmund. (1916-1917a [1915-1917]). Introductory
lectures on psycho-analysis. SE, 15-16.
. (1920g). Beyond the pleasure principle. SE, 18: 1—
64.
Oppenheim, Hermann. (1889). Die traumatischen Neurosen.
Berlin: A. Hirschwald.
Further Reading
Casoni, D. (2002). ‘Never twice without thrice’: Outline for
traumatic neurosis. International Journal of Psychoanalysis,
83, 137-160.
TRUTH
Sigmund Freud’s notion of truth evolved from a factual
conception into a relativistic method where the
true and the false are defined both in relation to a
conventional and bounded space (that of the cure)
and the dynamic effects that “plausible” constructions
might have on the psyche. Truth as an objective
no longer remains “the fundamental rule of
psychoanalysis” (1914g, pp. 147, 150). It inclines
towards the notion of reality testing that demands
that the subject partially abandon their illusions.
Truth as an ideal is inseparable from psychoanalytic
inquiry and is unattainable, except partially in the
“nuclei” of truth present within individual and collective
distortions.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
The search for factors that cause psychic suffering
can be confused with the search for truth inasmuch as
they are both repressed, misrepresented, displaced,
represented by their opposite, and the like. Initially
Freud imagined rediscovering the traumatic events in
the histories of his patients themselves, but promptly
noticing “that there are no indications of reality in the
unconscious, so that one cannot distinguish between
the truth and fiction that is cathected with affect” (letter
to Wilhelm Fleiss, 21 September 1897), he ended
up privileging the psychical reality of the subject,
wherein a dynamic verisimilitude was elaborated
which would take on the value of truth. This relativization
of truth seems to coincide with a Pirandellian
conception of it (Each in His Own Way). In fact, truth
as a value has not disappeared from the Freudian purview
but it has become subtler. Thus interpretation is
not about the exhumation of truth but rather construction
through the adoption of a coherent paradigm
(Viderman, 1970), originating from the unperceived
formulations of the subject’s free associations
or dreams.
Thus for Jacques Lacan, truth extricates itself from
reality: “In psychoanalytic anamnesis, it is not a question
of reality, but of truth, because the effect of full
speech is to reorder past contingencies by conferring
on them the sense of necessities to come” (1956, p.
48). Truth is not precisely being true to reality, rather
it speaks and stutters through its symptomatic
distortions.
The analyst has to engage with these “nuclei” of
truth, then; Freud, for instance, defined them in relation
to the sexual theories of children, which despite
being untrue nonetheless each contain “a fragment of
real truth” (1908c, p. 215). This is an adult, intellectual
mode of investigation whose results, because they are
limited to the possibilities of human understanding,
would have been false in relation to a broader perspective,
but which include nevertheless “inspired” partial
but significant interpretations.
The quest for truth proceeds from a “truth fantasy”
(Mijolla-Mellor, 1985), which relates to an image of
lost harmony (transparency, luminosity) within the J,
the others, and one’s self. Truth, in terms of the
demand for truthfulness, is central to the fundamental
rule that requires the abandonment of secrecy; however,
it also guides the behavior of the analyst in their
relationship with the patient, in their vision of the
world, and in their research, requiring them to relin-
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TRUTH
quish personal illusions for the construction of a
coherent schema. Challenging illusion and narcissistic
comfort, truth, according to Freud, is a force in its
own right: “The hardest truths are heard and recognized
at last, after the interests they have injured and
the emotions they have roused have exhausted their
fury” (1910d, p. 215).
Piera Aulagnier gives truth a central place in relation
to the identity of the subject. It is the object of a
“battle never definitively won nor lost to which periodically
the I must surrender in order to modify and
defend its positions, failing which it would be unable
to turn towards or invest in its own identificatory
space” (1984, p. 147).
The notion of truth in psychoanalysis is tied to the
history the subject, in the same way as it is to humanity,
because it is not simply a case of a balance between
understanding and the thing, but of a narrative that is
reconstructed using the residues left behind by legend.
ALAIN DE MIOLLA
See also: History and psychoanalysis.
Bibliography
Aulagnier, Piera. (1984). L’Apprenti-historien et le maitresorcier.
Du discours identifiant au discours délirant. Paris:
Presses Universitaires de France.
. (1914g). Remembering, repeating and workingthrough
(Further recommendations on the technique of
psycho-analysis II). SE, 12: 145-156.
Freud, Sigmund. (1908c). On the sexual theories of children.
SE, 9: 205-226.
. 1910d). The future prospects of psycho-analytic
therapy. SE,.11:139-151-.
. (1950a [1887—-1902]). Extracts from the Fliess
papers. SE, 1: 173-280.
Lacan, Jacques. (1989). Ecrits: A Selection. (Alan Sheridan,
Trans.) 5th ed. London: Tavistock/Routledge.
Further Reading
Reed, Gail S. (1995). Clinical truth and contemporary relativism:
Meaning, narration. Journal of the American Psycho-
Analytic Association, 43, 713-740.
Sass, L. A., and Woolfolk, R. L. (1988). Psychoanalysis and
the hermeneutic turn: On “Narrative truth.” Journal of the
American Psychoanalytic Association, 36, 429-454.
1805
TusBe-Eco
Schafer, Roy. (1992). Retelling a life. In Narration and dialogue
in psychoanalysis. New York: Basic Books.
Spence, Donald. (1982). Narrative truth and historical truth.
Meaning and interpretation in psychoanalysis. New York:
W. W. Norton and Co.
Spezzano, Charles. (1993). A relational model of inquiry and
truth: Conversation. Psychoanalytic Dialogues, 3, 177-208.
TUBE-EGO
David Rosenfeld, the Argentinean psychoanalyst,
introduced the notion of the “tube-ego” in an article
written in 1981. Frances Tustin makes several references
to it, particularly in chapter 10 of Autistic Barriers
in Neurotic Patients (1986).
Based on convincing clinical material coming from
adult patients, David Rosenfeld shows that in very
regressive states they experienced their body image as
a system of tubes controlling their bodily fluids. He
suggests that this image of the body as a system of
tubes seeming to contain the bodily fluids is more elementary
than the image described in Esther Bick’s
1968 account of the skin as container.
Frances Tustin seems to agree when she says: “My own
clinical work confirms that the body image as a system of
pipes is more elementary than the image of the whole
body being contained by the skin. However, the ‘system
of pipes’ body image implies awareness of ‘insides,’ and
also awareness of outside situations and identifications
with them. It isa movement away from undifferentiated
autism to a transitional awareness of ‘me’ and ‘not-me’”
(1986, p. 228). She uses this concept not only to describe
infantile autism but also to describe ancient levels of
representation of the image of the body in relation to
certain anorexic pathologies during adolescence.
Like Frances Tustin, Genevieve Haag in France also
relies heavily on this concept in her work with autistic
children.
BERNARD GOLSE
See also: Autism; Body image; Ego.
Bibliography
Bick, Esther. (1968). The experience of the skin in early
object relations. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis,
49, 558-566.
1806
Rosenfeld, David D. (1981). The notion of a psychotic body
image in neurotic and psychotic patients. Finland: Congres
psychanalytique international.
Tustin, Frances. (1986). Autistic barriers in neurotic patients.
London: Karnac Books.
TURNING AROUND
Turning around is a process that affects the vicissitudes
of the instinct in terms of its affective expression (for
example, love turning into hate), its aim (for example,
active turning into passive), or its object (in particular,
the shift from being directed toward another person to
being turned back onto the self). These three types of
processes are closely related.
Freud gave his essential description of this dynamic
in “Instincts and Their Vicissitudes” (1915c). He
defined four vicissitudes of the instincts: repression,
sublimation, reversal into the opposite, and turning
around upon the subject’s own self.
Freud also used the term reversal in this article in a
different sense involving the transformation of psychic
“contents,” that is, an idea, a representation, a dream
image, a symptom, or the like, into its opposite. With
regard to the instinct itself, or rather its expression as
an affect, this dynamic “is found in the single instance
of the tranformation of love into hate”(1915c, p. 127);
moreover, these two affects can coexist, which is the
definition of ambivalence. However, it is appropriate
to nuance Freud’s statement here, because reversal in
the opposite direction, from hate into love, can also
occur through reaction formation.
In the same article, Freud discusses two types of
turning around onto the self: sadism turning into
masochism and voyeurism turning into exhibitionism.
The former involves the transformation of sadism (the
pleasure of violence being directed toward another
person) into masochism (the subject derives pleasure
from violence being directed against himself or herself
and solicits it from someone else). In this 1915 article,
Freud posited sadism as being primary and masochism
as being secondary, that is, resulting from turning
around, which necessarily implies a reversal inversion
of agent and object positions (the relationship in
which the subject directs aggression against another
person turns into one where the other person directs
aggression against the subject) and a reversal inversion
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
of the aim (the active aim, to direct aggression against
the other, becomes passive, to be the object of the
other’s aggression). Previously, in “Formulations on
the Two Principles of Mental Functioning” (1911b),
Freud had upheld that at the beginning of life only the
pleasure principle holds sway; the instinct knows only
autoerotic satisfaction. During the narcissistic phase,
the nascent ego, once it begins to distinguish between
inside and outside, takes into itself from the outside
that which is pleasurable and expels that which is painful,
thus constituting itself as “purified pleasure-ego”
(1915c, p. 136). As a result, “the external world, objects
and what is hated are identical” (p. 136); the object is
born in hatred. As we know, this was to become the
basis for the theories of Melanie Klein. However, this
thesis, which lacks clarity, seemed somewhat forced
even to Freud himself. In “The Economic Problem of
Masochism” (1924c), he reconsidered this trajectory
and proposed to reverse it, by positing masochism as
being primary and sadism as being secondarily produced
through turning around and projection onto
the external object. (These issues have been discussed,
in particular, by Benno Rosenberg in Masochisme mortifere
et Masochisme gardien de la vie (1991; Destructive
masochism and masochism as preserver of life.)
Whatever the case may be, the dynamic of suppressing
aggressive impulses and turning them against
the self and a transformation with regard to the aim of
the instinct, which changes from active to passive (the
instinct itself, we must recall, is always active) is routinely
encountered in clinical practice.
The same is true of the reversal of voyeurism into
exhibitionism. Here Freud distinguished three “stages”
corresponding to the successive modes of the search
for pleasure: looking at the body of another person,
looking at one’s own body, and displaying one’s body
so that it will be looked at. Here again, the change
from active aim to passive aim and turning around
onto the self are closely linked, and the narcissistic
phase plays an essential role in this developmental
process.
In clinical terms “the turning round upon the
subject’s self and the transformation from activity to
passivity converge or coincide”(1915c, p. 127 pri
nevertheless remains useful, on a theoretical level, to
distinguish these modalities which is what Andre
Green does, notably, in Life Narcissism, Death Narcissism
(1983/2001) has proposed with the idea of “a
double return.”
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TURNING AROUND UPON THE SuBJecT’s Own SELF
To these two types of turning around analyzed
by Freud (sadism-masochism and _ voyeurismexhibitionism),
it would be possible to add the opposition
he defined during the same period between ego
libido and object libido, or, in terms of cathexis,
between the ego’s cathexis of the object or of itself.
This opposition, described in “On Narcissism: An
Introduction” (1914c), is within the context of the
first theory of the instincts (opposition between the
sexual instincts and the self-preservation or ego
instincts). Freud later revisited this opposition in light
of his topographical and economic theories of the
1920s, in particular within the framework of his thinking
on the psychoses. However, throughout these successive
versions, these same figures of turning around
appear, with regard to affect (love-hate), the instinctual
aim (active-passive), and the object (self-other).
ROGER PERRON
See also: Reversal.
Bibliography
Freud, Anna. (1936). The ego and the mechanisms of defence.
London: Hogarth.
Freud, Sigmund. (1911b). Formulations on the two principles
of mental functioning. SE, 12: 213-26.
. (1915c). Instincts and their vicissitudes. SE, 14:
109—40.
Green, André. (2001). Life narcissism, death narcissism
(Andrew Weller, Trans.). London and New York: Free
Association Books. (Original work published 1983)
Rosenberg, Benno. (1991). Masochisme mortifére, Masochisme
gardien de la vie. Paris: Presses Universitaires de
France.
TURNING AROUND UPON THE SUBJECT’S
OWN SELF
The notion of turning around upon the subject’s own
self refers to the process that substitutes the subject’s
own self in place of the external object of an instinct.
This term appeared in Sigmund Freud’s writings in
“Instincts and Their Vicissitudes” (1915c), where it is
discussed as one of the four vicissitudes of the
instincts: repression, sublimation, reversal into the
opposite, or “turning round upon the subject’s own
self” (p. 126). Freud described this latter process as
1807
Tustin, Frances (1913-1994)
being closely linked to reversal into the opposite and
used the study of two clinical models to understand its
effects: sadism-masochism and voyeurism-exhibitionism.
In sadism there is a manifestation of aggression
toward another person, who is treated as an object. If
the object of the instinct becomes the subject’s own self,
the initial instinctual aim simultaneously changes from
active to passive, because the sadism is then directed
against the subject. Turning against the self is demonstrably
at work even though the subject has not yet subjugated
himself to another person. Obsessional neurosis
is representative of this intermediary stage, which Freud
described as self-punitive rather than masochistic. A
final stage consists in the search for another person to
play the active role that the subject renounces, thereby
submitting to masochistic control. One can see how,
over the entire trajectory from sadism to masochism,
turning around upon the subject’s own self occurs
alongside the transformation of activity into passivity,
in this inversion of roles between the person who exercises
sadism and the person subjected to it.
Another pair of opposites, voyeurism-exhibitionism,
provides a clear example of the same mechanisms. The
three successive stages played out in the previous example
can be found again here. Thus, there is initially
“looking” as an activity that the subject directs against
an unknown object, followed by the subject’s submission
to a turning around of the scopic drive onto a part >
of his or her own body. Finally, the introduction of a
third element allows the subject to become the object of
another person’s gaze.
Freud emphasized that these operations as a whole
do not exhaust all the energy of the instinct and that
once again, the psyche prefers to work upon small
quantities of energy. Moreover, it seems that the three
stages previously described as unfolding in a linear
fashion are in fact all present in varying degrees and
that they develop in conjunction with one another.
Anna Freud included turning against the self in the
list of defense mechanisms enlisted by the ego in its
struggle against guilt-inducing instinctual impulses. In
The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defense (1936), she
cited this process as one of the most primitive ones,
“as old as the conflict between the instinctual impulses
and whatever obstacle may be erected against them.”
However, she revised her attempt to chronologically
situate this defense mechanism, as well as others, for
lack of confirmation during her clinical work. Thus, in
1808
terms of the mechanism in question, she acknowledged
the rarity, in very young children, of true masochistic
manifestations resulting from a turning around
of the instinct back onto the self.
In the psychoanalytic literature, this notion is at the
crossroads of numerous avenues of thought. Freud, for
example, let it be understood that the manifestation of
the instinctual vicissitude described here depended on
the subject’s narcissistic organization.
JeEAN-BapTIsTE DETHIEUX
See also: Drive/instinct; Identification with the aggressor;
“Instincts and their Vicissitudes”; Reversal into the
opposite; Self-hatred; Turning around.
Bibliography
Freud, Anna. (1936). The ego and the mechanisms of defence.
London: Hogarth; New York: International Universities
Press.
Freud, Sigmund. (1915c). Instincts and their vicissitudes.
SE, 14: 109-140.
Further Reading
Davison, W., Bristol, C., and Pray, M. (1986). Turning
aggression on the self: Study of psychoanalytic process.
Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 55, 273-295.
Levin, Fred M. rep. (1990). Panel: Sadism and masochism in
neurosis and symptom formation. Journal of the American
Psychoanalytic Association, 38, 789-804.
TUSTIN, FRANCES (1913-1994)
Child analyst Frances Tustin was born on October 15,
1913, in Darlington, northern England, and died on
November 11, 1994, outside of London. She was the
only child of parents who separated in 1926. Traumatic
memories of this separation remained with her, especially
because she had been very close to her father and
would not see him again for some fifteen years. Married
for the first time in 1938, she divorced in 1946,
and two years later she married Professor Arnold Tustin,
an eminent physician who took a close interest in
her work and greatly encouraged her in her research.
She at first focused on the teaching profession and
worked in that field for several years.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
In 1943 she had the opportunity to attend courses
in child development taught by the Kleinian psychoanalyst
Susan Isaacs at the University of London. She
was fascinated by this approach to children, which was
entirely new to her. Six years later, in 1949, after the
death of her first baby, she felt a calling to become a
child psychotherapist. She learned of a nascent training
program at the Tavistock Clinic and enrolled. As a
part of her training, she had to enter into analysis with
Wilfred Bion. She decided to end her analysis after
fourteen years (with two interriptions, once for an
internship in the United States and once for her second
pregnancy, which ended, yet again, in the death of
the baby at birth). After stopping treatment, she was
beset with terrors, which she later understood as an
expression of autistic anxieties. Because Bion had
returned to the United States, she had to call upon
another analyst, Stanley Leigh.
At the Tavistock Clinic, Tustin first heard about
autistic children by way of a lecture given by Marion
Putnam at the invitation of the clinic’s then director
John Bowlby. She was fascinated by what she heard.
In 1953, her husband having accepted a one-year
appointment as visiting associate professor in the
United States, she had the opportunity of doing an
internship at the James Putnam Center in Boston, one
of the first treatment centers for autistic children. Back
in London she wanted to apply the Kleinian method
of analysis to autistic children. She soon realized that
Melanie Klein’s theories had to be expanded to
account for this new pathology.
Her treatment of her first autistic patient revealed
to her the anxiety that is at the heart of this disorder
and that is due to the trauma associated with the emerging
awareness of bodily separation from the object at
a stage when the ego cannot yet form symbols. The
child feels as if it were experiencing not just loss of the
object but also the sensation of being bodily uprooted.
She showed that this uprooted feeling is usually localized
in the mouth. It is as if the autistic child felt brutally
exposed to a series of discontinuities along the
mouth-tongue-nipple-breast axis. These discontinuities
not only lead to loss of the illusion of controlling
the object of instinctual satisfaction, but also give the
child the intolerable anxiety of feeling amputated,
emptied, and annihilated, and of feeling that the object
too is amputated and emptied. The child then erects
defense mechanisms against the anxiety of this traumatic
experience. These defense mechanisms consist
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Tustin, Frances (1913-1994)
of autistic forms (impressions that the autistic subject
procures for itself with its own bodily secretions,
stereotyped movements, or interoceptive sensations),
autistic objects (concrete objects that the child manipulates
not for their conventional uses or their symbolic
values, but rather for the sensations that they cause
against the skin or the mucous membranes, and that
procure autistic forms), and the autistic shell (a world
of pure sensations made of up autistic forms and
objects, without otherness; a two-dimensional world
in which the only possible relationship is an adhesive
one of “sticking”).
Tustin’s work broadened and updated the understanding
of childhood autism and made possible an
effective therapeutic approach to it, but her influence
went beyond the realm of autism itself. In effect, she
described autistic pockets or barriers present in personalities
affected by various disorders: phobias, melancholia,
mental anorexia, psychopathy, psychosomatic
pathologies, and severe childhood functional disorders
(enuresis, encopresia). These autistic pockets are parts
of a personality caught in a system of autistic defenses,
and they must be analyzed to avoid interminable analyses
and negative therapeutic reactions.
An honorary member of the British Psychoanalytical
Society, Tustin taught at the Tavistock Clinic,
where she trained many students. In addition, many
child psychotherapists and psychoanalysts from
around the world went to London, and later to Amersham,
in the greater London suburbs, where she lived
at the end of her life, to benefit from her supervision.
She was invited to deliver lectures in numerous European
countries and in the United States. She published
some thirty articles and four books. In addition,
there are videos recordings of three interviews with
Tustin. Nearly all of her publications and research
focused on childhood autism. From her first contact
with children afflicted with this disorder at the beginning
of the 1950s until her death, she continuously
strove to promote deeper understanding and better
treatment of this condition.
Diprer Houzet
Notions developed: Autistic capsule/nucleus; Black hole.
See also: Autism; Autistic defenses; Breakdown; Dismantling;
Infantile psychosis; Lack of differentiation; Psychic
envelopes; Self-mutilation in children; Sucking/thumbsucking;
Trauma of Birth, The; Tube-ego.
1809
TWINSHIP TRANSFERENCE/ALTER EGO TRANSFERENCE
Bibliography
Spensley, Sheila. (1995). Frances Tustin. London: Routledge.
Tustin, Frances. (1972). Autism and childhood psychosis.
London: Hogarth.
(1981). Autistic states in children. London:
Routledge.
. (1986). Autistic barriers in neurotic patients. London:
Karnac Books.
. (1990). The protective shell in children and adults.
London: Karnac Books.
TWINSHIP TRANSFERENCE/ALTER
EGO TRANSFERENCE
Twinship or alter ego transference is a form of narcissistic
transference defined by Heinz Kohut as expressing
the analysand’s need to rely on the analyst as a
narcissistic function possessing characteristics like
herself.
Kohut first defined the concept in The Analysis of
the Self (1971) as one of the possible forms of mirror
transference. In How Does Analysis Cure? (1984) he
made alter ego transference a type of transference unto
itself, corresponding to the existence of an autonomous
narcissistic need, the alter ego.
It is often in relation to the analyst being experienced
as identical or similar that narcissistic tendencies
are pinpointed. Kohut believed that oedipal interpretations
are often understood by patients as being a repetition
of the parents’ negation of narcissistic needs,
which means that such interpretations are premature.
Interpretation of the narcissistic needs of the alter ego,
when it is appropriate, causes memories to emerge
that can be worked through.
Alter ego transference relates to mirroring and
idealizing narcissistic transference, to the grandiose
self, and to the idealized parental imago. This conceptualization
has been criticized both in terms of narcissistic
transferences and the priority given to narcissism
over instinctual conflicts, and as an attempt to
replace Freudian metapyschology with a metapsychology
of the self, understood as being made up of
sectors.
AGNES OPPENHEIMER
1810
See also: Alter ego.
Bibliography
Kohut, Heinz. (1971). The analysis of the self. New York:
International Univwversity Press.
. (1984). How does analysis cure? Chicago: University
of Chicago Press. .
Further Reading
Burlingham, Dorothy T. (1946). Twins. Psychoanalytic Study
of the Child, 2, 61-74.
Gorney, J. (1998). Twinship, vitality, pleasure. Progress in
Self Psychology, 14, 85-106.
Simon, Bennett. (1988). The imaginary twins: The case of
Beckett and Bion. International Review of Psychoanalysis,
15, 331-352.
TYPICAL DREAMS
A typical dream is a dream that, in its content and
form, is very much alike for a great many people.
Freud devoted a long section to typical dreams in The
Interpretation of Dreams (1900a): these are “dreams
which almost everyone has dreamt alike and which we
are accustomed to assume must have the same meaning
for everyone” (p. 241).
These dreams could be considered to be an exception
to the rule that the meaning of a dream can only
be deciphered through the dreamer’s own interpretation;
furthermore, Freud added, associations connected
with such dreams are in general weak and
vague. He was interested primarily in four kinds of
typical dream.
e dreams of nudity, gratifying an exhibitionist
desire dating from childhood;
e dreams of the death of loved ones, of which there
are two varieties: death of a brother or a sister, an
expression of infantile jealousy, and death of a
parent, the direct expression of oedipal hatred for
a parent of the same sex (it was in this passage
that Freud gave for the first time a closely reasoned
description of that which he later was to
call the Oedipus complex). Any dream of the
death of a loved person would therefore be an
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
expression of a death wish, Freud commenting
that in this case, contrary to what has been
observed in most dreams, the result of the wish—
disguised as a fear—is represented without displacement:
it really is the death of the loved person
that is represented. Freud specified that in
these dreams of infantile satisfaction, death does
not have the meaning it has for the adult; it is
simply absence, which is why the dream is often
not very painful;
e dreams of flying. A note added in 1925 suggested
that this could be a representation of the primal
scene (sexual rapports between parents);
e dreams of being obliged to retake an examination,
as an adult, that has been taken and passed
successfully at a younger age. The meaning of
this is frequently reassurance before a difficult
moment (“you have passed this examination
before, therefore you will succeed again ...”).
Freud returned to this subject later in the same
book, where he maintained that typical dreams
deploy symbolic representations rooted in the culture
and found in tales, folklore, and myths: “the
question is bound to arise of whether many of these
symbols do not occur with a permanently fixed
meaning, like the ‘grammalogues’ in shorthand”
(p. 351). Yet, in most cases, something personal to the
dreamer is added to the “universal” symbol. Freud illustrated
this proposition with a great number. of examples
of dreams of stairways, tooth extractions, theft,
birth, etc., where, however, this distinction seems to be
a little vague.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
TYPICAL DREAMS
Thereafter, the subject of typical dreams did not
come up much in Freud’s work. It has been discussed
by Denise Braunschweig and Michel Fain (1975)
from the perspective of castration, these kinds of
dreams appearing to them to bear witness to a “hysterical
kernel,” which they describe as “a capacity to
turn something into its opposite, so creating a double
meaning susceptible of satisfying the demands of
bisexuality.” |
ROGER PERRON
See also: Death (representation of) in psychoanalysis;
Dream; Dream of birth; Dream of mourning; Dream of
nakedness; “Dream of the wise baby, The”; Dream symbolism;
Examination dreams; Myth of the Birth of the
Hero, The; Silence.
Bibliography
Braunschweig, Denise and Michel Fain. (1975). La nuit, le
jour. Essai psychanalytique sur le functionnement mental
[Night and day: psychoanalytical essay on mental functioning].
Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
Freud, Sigmund. (1900a). The interpretation of dreams. SE,
4—5.
Further Reading
Myers, Wayne A. (1989). The traumatic element in the typical
dream of feeling embarrassed at being naked. Journal of
the American Psychoanalytic Association, 37, 117-130.
Renik, Owen. (1981). Typical examination dreams, “superego
dreams” and traumatic dreams. Psychoanalytic Quarterly,
50, 159-189.
1811
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ULCERATIVE COLITIS
Organic in its etiology, ulcerative colitis remains an
enigmatic disease, although current understanding
puts it in the group of autoimmune disorders, thus
increasing its interest for those involved in psychosomatic
medicine.
It involves continuous damage to the mucous lining
of the colon but can also affect the rectal mucosa. The
latter are eroded, sometimes abscessed, and can rupture,
making this a serious condition. It progresses
through a series of attacks of varying degrees of severity
and can occasionally necessitate a colectomy with a
colostomy.
Its main symptom, bleeding (the mucosa “weep”
blood), the psychological profile often associated with
it (depression, regression), and its evolution, which is
variable and unpredictable but is often correlated with
a psychoaffective trauma, have put this disease under
the spotlight among psychoanalysts specializing in
psychosomatic disorders.
The circumstances that trigger the onset of the disease
or attacks have been identified by the majority of
authors. These appear to be fortuitous during the early
stages of investigation but may become more defined
in the course of psychotherapy with the gradual emergence
of latent content. Often, although not always,
the following are found: experiences of object-loss,
experiences of wounded narcissism with feelings of
worthlessness, self-depreciation, and a sense of the
impossibility of taking on new responsibilities. These
experiences may result from new real-life situations
(with a traumatic valence) or situations that are fantasized
and retroactively reconstructed. In “Etude psychosomatique
de dix-huit cas de recto-colite hémorragique”
(Psychoanalytic study of eighteen cases of
ulcerative colitis; 1958), Michel de M’Uzan and his
collaborators wrote: “The common element in these
factors is their ability to provoke in the patient a loss
of self-esteem, along with the belief that he is unloved
or incapable of overcoming a difficulty.”
Thus, to a greater degree than with other organic
pathologies, these causes point toward a narcissistic
destabilization along with a certain degree of melancholia.
Inspired by the bleeding mucosa, certain authors
have speculated a “melancholia of the organ”—a theoretical
fantasy on the part of the analyst or a structural
reality?
The fact remains that a somewhat mechanistic
approach would posit the existence of: an affective
block or immaturity; strong ambivalence (the depressive
pole of which is deeply repressed) toward persons
close to the patient as well as toward the therapist; and
a depressive tendency different from the reactive
depression of the disorder. This depression, sometimes
carried along on the tide of a massive regression, has
even led to indications for treatment with antidepressants
(see Guy Besancon’s article “Le corps présent,
reflexions sur une série de recto-colites hemorragiques”
[The body as presence; reflections on a series of
cases of ulcerative colitis]; 1977).
This correlation between ulcerative colitis and a narcissistic
axis of depression remains a pivotal element
in attempts at a psychoanalytic interpretation. Some
authors have thus invoked the idea of a somatic dramatization
of melancholia and have sought its source in
the mother-child relationship, thereby suggesting that
this disorder may be part of a psychogenetic given.
1813
Unary TRAIT
Kleinians see this disease in terms of incorporation of a
bad maternal imago: According to Melitta Sperling
(1946), “As the object is incorporated sadistically, it is a
hostile inner danger and has to be eliminated immediately.
The faeces and blood (in severe attacks, only
blood and mucus) represent the devaluated and dangerous
objects.... The severe form of ulcerative colitis
shows a great resemblance in behavior, personality
structure and dynamics to melancholia, and seems to
represent the somatic dramatization of the same conflict,
with relatively little mental pain, that in depression
is expressed psychologically” (p. 326).
There is no consensus on this approach. However, it
seems probable that these patients have been unable to
constitute and develop a mental space wherein they
could find themselves by finding objects other than the
primary object to which they felt and feel extremely
bound, in an inexorable and often conflicted way.
See also: Psychosomatics.
Bibliography
Besancon, Guy. (1977). Le corps présent, reflexions sur une
série de recto-colites hémorragiques. Revue frangaise de
psychosomatique, 19 (2).
Cain, Jacques, R. Sarles, and F. Berretti. (1984). Aspects psychosomatiques
de la recto-colite hemorrhagique. Encéphale, 44.
Fine, Alain. (1984). Quelques reflexions et interrogations
autour de la recto-colite hemorragique. In M. Fain and
C. Dejours (Eds.), Corps malade et Corps érotique
(pp. 59-76). Paris: Masson.
Sperling, Melitta. (1946). Psychoanalytic study of ulcerative
colitis in children. Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 15 (3), 302-329.
M’Uzan, Michel de, S. Bonfils, and A. Lambling. Etude psychosomatique
de dix-huit cas de recto-colite hémorragique.
Semaine des Hopitaux de Paris, 34 (15), 1-7.
Further Reading
Cushing, M. (1953). Psychoanalytic treatment of man with
ulcerative colitis. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic
Association, 1, 510-518.
Lefebvre, P. (1988). The psychoanalysis of a patient with
ulcerative colitis. International Journal of Psychoanalysis,
69, 43-54.
Sperling, Melitta. (1957). The psychoanalytic treatment of
ulcerative colitis. International Journal of Psychoanalysis,
38, 341-349.
1814
UNARY TRAIT
According to Jacques Lacan, the unary trait is the elementary
form of the signifier as pure difference that
supports symbolic identification.
In the second of the three forms of identification
described by Freud, the subject identifies regressively
with a love object or rival by adopting a “single trait” of
the other person (einziger Zug) (1921c, p. 107). Dora's
cough, for example, was an imitation of her father’s.
Lacan recognized this single trait as a signifier. Or
more precisely, insofar as this signifier is isolated and
is not part of a chain of signifiers, it is first a sign or an
“insignia of the Other” (cf. Lacan, 1957-58, p. 304;
2002, p. 253). This insignia of the Other constitutes
the nucleus of the ego-ideal.
In his seminar on Identification (1961-62), Lacan
used Saussure’s linguistics, to compare the einziger Zug
with the signifier as a distinct element. Thus he translated
it as “unary trait” to emphasize its mathematical
sense, comparing it with a binary number.
Ferdinand de Saussure defined the signifier negatively.
It is not the same, but is different from the other signifiers
in a given structure. This implies that a signifier is
also different from itself. This pure difference characterizes
the unary trait. As an example of the first primitive
indication of the existence of the signifier, Lacan
referred to a prehistoric hunter carving notches into a
piece of bone. One notch signifies each kill, with no reference
to the different types of prey or the particular events
of each hunt. Each animal killed counts as one, and that
is the only aspect of the hunt marked by the trait.
Of course, the traits in a series need not resemble
each other. They do not need to be identical in order to
be the same. In fact, the contrary is true. Because no simple
trait is recognizable as a thing itself, once it becomes
part of a series you cannot tell which was the first mark.
When the thing is erased, the unary trait remains as
symbolic of its absence. Thus the trait transforms the
absent thing into an object of desire. A second mark,
indistinguishable from the first, creates a hole in which
this object is lost. Thus the unary trait merges with the
phallic mark and the castration threat, insofar as it forever
prohibits access to the incestuous Thing. The existence
of the subject of the enunciation is suspended by
the trait that names it, but this subject immediately
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
disappears in the trait that fixes it, such that the subject
only exists between two traits.
To formalize the unary trait, Lacan relied on the
topology of the torus, insofar as the unary trait is the
mark of a double loss, the loss of an object, which corresponds
to the central hole of the torus, and the absence
of the subject of the unconscious, which is the uncounted
turn of the repeated demand. A single cut that makes a
Mobius strip, where the two surfaces are one, corresponds
to the structure of the unary trait, identical
neither to itself nor to the structure of the subject.
Marc DaRMON
See also: Identification; Imaginary identification/symbolic
identification; Infans; Topology.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1921c). Group psychology and the analysis
of the ego. SE, 18: 65-143.
Lacan, Jacques. (1958). The direction of the treatment and
the principles of its power. In Bruce Fink (Trans.), Ecrits: A
selection. New York: W. W. Norton, 2002.
. (1964). The four fundamental concepts of psychoanalysis
(Alan Sheridan, Trans.). New York: W. W. Norton,
1978.
. (1957-58). Le Séminaire-Livre V, Les Formations de
l'Inconscient. Paris: Seuil, 1998.
. (1961-62). Le Séminaire-Livre IX, Lidentification
(unpublished seminar).
“UNCANNY,” THE”
When Sigmund Freud’s essay “The Uncanny”
appeared in 1919, he had already made a reference to
the Unheimliche, in Totem and Taboo (1912~1913a), as
well as bringing up the “omnipotence of thought.”
This shows that the question had interested Freud for
some time. Here there are passages on repetition compulsion
as well that foreshadow Beyond the Pleasure
Principle, which was published a year later (1920g). A
forum for intersecting propositions, the essay is also a
compendium of references (Ernst Jentsch, Friedrich
von Schiller, Ernst Theodor Amadeus Hoffmann) and
yet, Freud does not reference the psychoanalytic literature
on related topics, such as Pierre Janet’s deja-vu, or
Joseph Capgras’s illusion of the double.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
“UNCANNY, THE’’
To establish his evasive concept, Freud follows two
approaches at the same time: etymology and linguistic
variants, and observations or fantasies that appear in
novels. The French, English, and Spanish translations
of unheimlich all fail to recapitulate the principal reference
to the familiar, or family (heim, or home), which
defines and limits the notion of the uncanny.
Das Unheimliche is defined as “that particular variety
of terror that relates to what has been known for a
long time, has been familiar for a long time.” We are
presented at once with a paradox that Freud does
nothing to alleviate since the familiar should not be
disquieting. This proposition is at the heart of Freud’s
ideas about the original pleasure-ego that coincides
with the good and rejects the bad. In “Instincts and
their Vicissitudes” (1915c), we find the same opposition
between ego/non-ego, just as we do in “Negation”
(1925h). Still, it is not clear why the familiar should be
threatening and therefore, a second element is needed,
namely, the secret, the hidden, which gives rise to the
notion of hostility and danger. For danger is associated
with penetrating what is sealed off, and strangeness—
based on an idea Freud borrowed from von Schilling—
with the revelation of what should by rights remain
hidden because it is the bearer of transgression.
To these linguistic and fantasy associations, Freud,
in the second part of the essay, introduces a number of
literary examples (many from Hoffmann), centered
primarily on the intellectual uncertainty over whether
something is living or not (from Jentsch). There it is
shown how the repetition compulsion manifests itself
through the return of the repressed. This is true even
in situations where we expect the new and with it the
return of the dead to life.
The theme of the double, developed by Otto Rank,
whom Freud quotes, is a source of ambivalence: the
assurance of survival and a harbinger of death. Consequently,
the Unheimliche is connected with the anxiety
associated with the return of the repressed and with
this the concept receives considerable scope: “With
animism, magic, sorcery, the omnipotence of thought,
unintentional repetition, and the castration complex,
we have for the most part examined all the factors that
transform anxiety into the uncanny.”
This essay is certainly one of the most fecund, if not
one of the most confused, written by Freud. It represents
an exemplary effort at combining literature and psychoanalysis,
for Freud helps establish his thesis on the basis
1815
Unconscious As INFINITE SETS: AN Essay In Bi-Loaic, THE
of the study of works of literature. The concepts of anxiety
associated with the foreign (René Spitz) and the
secret (Piera Aulagnier) have been the subject of research
that does not directly extend Freud’s work. However,
examination of the supernatural (telepathy, for example)
and the analysis of literature based on the “anxiety of fiction”
(Mijolla-Mellor) are directly related to Freud’s
study of the uncanny.
SOPHIE DE MijoLLA-MELLOR
See also: Double, the; Fear.
Source Citation
Freud, Sigmund. (1919h). Das Unheimliche. Imago, 5: 297—
324; GW, 12: 229-268; The “uncanny,” SE, 17: 217-256.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1912-1913a). Totem and taboo. SE, 13:
1-161.
Rank, Otto. (1914). The double: A psychoanalytic study. Chapel
Hill: University of North Carolina, 1971.
UNCONSCIOUS AS INFINITE SETS: AN
ESSAY IN BI-LOGIC, THE
In The Unconscious as Infinite Sets: An Essay in Bi-
Logic, a major work published in 1975, Ignacio Matte-
Blanco introduced an important modification of
Freud’s notion of the unconscious. His purpose was to
save the notion from being progressively forgotten in
contemporary psychoanalytic developments. The
author refused to consider the unconscious as chaotic
(Freud, 1933a [1932]). Ifa characteristic form of functioning,
like the primary process (the processes of the
id), may be described as belonging to the unconscious
system, then, he thought, one can discover a different
organization for it than the one ruling the conscious
system. Grounded in this idea, Matte-Blanco studied
the logical principles that would allow systematic
unconscious violations of classical, asymmetric logic,
the basis of consciousness.
Unconscious logic rises from two principles: the
principle of generalization and the principle of symmetry.
The principle of generalization, also present in
classical logic, postulates that in the unconscious each
1816
entity is treated as part of a set with other elements,
this set being treated in turn as a subset of a greater set,
and so forth. Entities are distinguished one from the
other and grouped together again through abstraction
of their similarities. The second principle is that in the
unconscious, asymmetrical relations are selectively
treated as if they were symmetrical (Rayner, 1995),
with the result that relations of succession and contiguity,
like time and three-dimensional space, disappear.
A part can equal the whole, and similarities can
be transformed into identities.
The unconscious is conceptualized as an aggregate
of infinite sets. According to the definition of the
mathematician Richard Dedekind (1831-1916), infinite
sets are those in which a specific subset, for example,
the even numbers, can be placed in a one-to-one
correspondence with the whole set—for example, the
set of natural numbers. The part is equal to the whole.
Symmetrical logic is the expression of a symmetrical
system, according to which reality is a homogenous
and indivisible whole. Asymmetrical logic is the manifestation
of an asymmetrical system, where reality
divides into parts. In states of intense emotion, the
experience and logic of the symmetrical system are
dominant, so for the mind, the emotional object is
infinite and isa lso part of an infinite set.
Matte-Blanco succeeded in formalizing (or mathematizing)
the study of the unconscious. He discovered
a startling isomorphism among the emotional, the
unconscious, and infinite logic (Bria and Durst, 1992).
JUAN FRANCISCO JORDAN Moore
See also: 1d; Logic(s); Matte-Blanco, Ignacio.
Source Citation
Matte-Blanco, Ignacio. (1975). The unconscious as infinite
sets: An essay in bi-logic. London: Duckworth.
Bibliography
Bria, Pietro, and Durst, Margarete. (1992). Ignacio Matte
Blanco (Portrait). In A. Negri (Ed.), Novecento filosofico e
scientifico. Protagonisti (Vol. 3, pp. 409-443). Marzorati:
Milano.
Freud, Sigmund. (1933a [1932]). New introductory lectures
on psycho-analysis. SE, 22: 1-182.
Rayner, Eric. (1995). Unconscious logic: An introduction to
Matte Blanco’s bi-logic and its uses. London: Routledge.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
UNCONSCIOUS CONCEPT
Freud defined the term unconscious concept in “From
the History of an Infantile Neurosis”: “Feces, ‘baby’
and ‘penis’ thus form a unity, an unconscious concept
(sit venia verbo)—the concept, namely, of ‘a little one’
[une petite choses] that can be separated from one’s
body” (1918b [1914], p. 84).
In philosophy, a concept is an idea that is abstract
and susceptible to generalization and that allows for
the apprehension of content a priori (Kant). It also
refers to the grouping of objects of experience into
classes. It is this latter, empirical aspect that Freud
retains, since it is the equivalence of objects within a
certain relationship that allows him to speak of a concept.
The notion presented by Freud is complicated by
the fact that the concepts under discussion are
“unconscious.” In other words, they are not the result
of a process of judgment.
Unconscious concepts as defined by Freud come
very close to the notion of symbolic equivalence,
which is fundamental to the symptom. They also illustrate
the unconscious origin of thought in its connections
with (anal) sensation and the related fantasy
elaboration that arises from it.
SOPHIE DE MiyJOLLA-MELLOR
See also: Demand; Feces; Infantile psychosis; Phallus;
Phallic stage; Symbolic equation; Symbolism; Symbolization,
process of.
Bibliography
Sigmund, Freud. (1918b [1914]). From the history of an
infantile neurosis. SE, 17: 1-122.
Mijolla-Mellor, Sophie de. (1992). Le plaisir de pensée. Paris:
Presses Universitaires de France.
Neyraut, Michel. (1978). Les logiques de l’inconscient. Paris:
Hachette.
UNCONSCIOUS FANTASY
Kleinian psychoanalysts regard the unconscious as
made up of fantasies of relations with objects. These
fantasies are the mental representation of instincts,
and hence are thought of as primary (Isaacs, 1948).
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
UNCONSCIOUS FANTASY
When Freud (1900a) stressed the psychological
meaning of childhood trauma, rather than its reality, he
moved from a physiological way of thinking to a psychological
one, thereby giving priority to the internal world.
His paradigm of the psychological world was the unconscious
fantasy of the three-person constellation that he
named the Oedipus complex. Freud contrasted such
internal libidinal fantasizing (the Oedipus complex)
with the desexualized fantasy that serves as the basis for
launching new sorts of sublimated activity in a wide
domain. The role of fantasy in sublimating libido in
such activities as daydreaming and aesthetic creation is
quite different from the primary unconscious fantasies
that provoke the conflicts of the early Oedipus complex.
Suzan Isaacs (1948) defined unconscious fantasy as
the mental representation of instinct. In other words,
the libido, from the outset, is an activity of mind, despite
its physiological origins and functions. It takes the form
of a fantasy of performing an (oral, anal, or genital)
activity with an object. On the basis of such fantasies as
the raw expression of instinct, the primitive mind of the
infant can start to reorder itself through further primitive
fantasies of projection, introjection, splitting, and
denial, and in this way it may relieve itself of the experiences
and terrors of primitive conflicts.
One developmental sequence starts with the unconscious
fantasies of the Oedipus complex in its early
stages and evolves, through fear (for example, castration
anxiety), into a desexualized form: daydreaming
(Freud, 1919e). Daydreaming, expressed by children in
their relentless playing (Freud, 1908c), is an important
activity. Classical psychoanalysis emphasizes daydreaming
and its sublimatory opportunities, while
Kleinian psychoanalysis emphasizes the roots of fantasy
life in the unconscious.
Child analysis as developed by Melanie Klein (1955)
demonstrated the workings of the unconscious in the
fantasies of play. Klein developed her technique on the
basis of how figures are repositioned in play. This led
to a theory of how objects are positioned in relation to
each other and to the child’s self. Klein recognized in
the details of play the child’s defensiveness as well as the
child’s primary and conflicting impulses. The unconscious
roots of impulses and defenses are expressed in
relations with objects.
The nature of the very early primary fantasies was
hotly debated. Anna Freud disputed Melanie Klein’s
claim that the infant has coherent fantasies from such
an early age. She regarded the unconscious fantasies
1817
Unconscious, THE
that Klein and her colleagues reported as secondary
elaboration at later stages of development. For Anna
Freud, the infant develops cognitively by establishing
representations of reality and the objects in it, but
these representations do not cohere into meaningful,
motivating fantasies until after phases of autoeroticism
and primary narcissism. Jean Piaget (1954) and Margaret
Mahler et al. (1975) have plotted the emergence
of representations of reality from these early objectless
phases. Other infant psychologists, such as Daniel
Stern (1985), tend to see the infant as possessing a
sophisticated mind early on, as Klein described.
Rosert D. HINSHELWOOD
See also: Archetype (analytical psychology); Controversial
discussions; Isaacs-Sutherland, Susan; Imago; Logic(s);
Primal, the.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1900a). The interpretation of dreams. SE,
4: 1-338; 5: 339-625.
. (1908c). On the sexual theories of children. SE, 9:
205-226.
. (1919). ‘A child is being beaten’: A contribution to the
study of the origin of sexual perversions. SE, 17: 175-204.
Isaacs, Suzan. (1948). On the nature and function of phantasy.
International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 29, 73-97.
Klein, Melanie. (1955). The psycho-analytic play technique:
Its history and significance. In Klein, Melanie, Heimann,
Paula, and Money-Kyrle, Roger E. (Eds.), New directions in
psycho-analysis. London: Tavistock Publications.
Mahler, Margaret S., Pine, Fred, and Bergman, Anni. (1975).
The psychological birth of the human infant. New York:
Basic Books.
Piaget, Jean. (1954). The construction of reality in the child
(Margaret Cook, Trans.). New York: Basic Books. (Original
work published 1937)
Segal, Hanna. (1991). Dreams, Phantasy, and Art. London:
Institute of Psycho-Analysis/Routledge.
Stern, Daniel N. (1985). The interpersonal world of the infant:
A view from psychoanalysis and developmental psychology.
New York: Basic Books.
UNCONSCIOUS, THE
“The division of the psychical into what is conscious
and what is unconscious is the fundamental premise of
1818
psychoanalysis” (1923b, _p. 19). The unconscious
emerged from practical treatments, from the theory of
repression, and from the theory of sexuality. The adjective
qualifies localized formations in a state of repression,
various processes, and later on, agencies as well.
The noun describes the “locality” that, according to the
first. topography, is set against the preconsciousconscious
system. Both the adjective and the noun
imply that psychical life is in conflict (the dynamic point
of view); that memory exists without interest, that the
energetics, indeed, the structure of psychic processes is
determined, on the whole, beyond consciousness (the
economic point of view); and that finally inaccessibility
to consciousness is undeniable (the descriptive point of
view). Freud transformed philosophical and psychiatric
tradition with these ideas and his refinement of the
terms (Hartmann, 1931; Whithe, 1961).
When he advanced the theory of repression and the
psychoneurosis of defense in 1894, Freud managed
without the word unconscious. Thus ideas (or representations)
that intolerable, irreconcilable,
repressed, durable, and pathogenic were beyond association,
forgotten, outside of consciousness. Freud
then made use of the term unconscious three times
in Studies on Hysteria and called for research: “The
ideas which are derived from the greatest depth and
which form the nucleus of the pathogenic organization
are also those which are acknowledged as memories by
the patient with greatest difficulty. Even when [...] the
patients themselves accept the fact that they thought
this or that, they often add: “But I can’t remember having
thought it’ It is easy to come to terms with them by
telling them that the thoughts were unconscious. But
how is this state of affairs to be fitted into our own psychological
views? [...] It is clearly impossible to say
anything about this [...] until we have arrived at a
thorough clarification of our basic psychological
views” (1895d, p. 300). The advances made during
1895—childhood trauma, afterwardsness (deferred
action), the dream as wish-fulfilment, and finally the
“Project for a Scientific Psychology” (1950c [1895]),
where the “system of impermeable neurones [w]” figures
as a precursor to the unconscious—allow Freud to
describe as unconscious pre-sexual sexual childhood
traumas and the psychical work that they lead to,
which he further constructed through practice and via
theory from 1896 onwards (1896b). The discovery of
unconscious fantasies and their efficacy (letters to
Wilhelm Fleiss from September 21 and October 3
were
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
and 15, 1897) contributed to the creation of the unconscious
in 1899 in The Interpretation of Dreams (1900a).
The close and fundamental correlation between the
unconscious, the infantile, and the sexual was affirmed.
Freud defined psychoanalysis as the science of the
unconscious-soul (unbewusst-seelisch) and the psychology
of the unconscious (Ucs.), which evolved
according to the advances of psychoanalysis. Via the
local aetiology of neurotic symptoms, he discovered
that the dream was similarly constructed and that the
Ucs. becomes the generic psychic system. It contains
wishes—unconscious and indestructible—and the
repressed, cathected by the libido through free energy
and regulated by the pleasure principle. The primary
processes (displacement, condensation) preside over
the Ucs. The conflict between repressed instinctual
motion and censuring force creates the dream, the
paradigmatic compromise-formation. “If we look at
unconscious wishes reduced to their most fundamental
and truest shape, we shall have to conclude, no
doubt, that psychical reality is a particular form of existence
not to be confused with material reality” (1900a,
p. 620). The reality of the Ucs. reveals itself in other
localized processes such as joking, in the forgetting of
words, and other symptomatic activities.
Freud’s investigations into the “second step in the
theory of the instincts” are continued in “The Unconscious”
(1915e). The dependence of the Ucs. on the
instincts and repression is stressed. It is primal repression
that creates the Ucs. that above all “contains the
thing-cathexes of the objects, the first and true objectcathexes”
(p. 201) while “the nucleus of the Ucs. consists
of instinctual representatives which seek to discharge
their cathexis; that is to say, it consists of wishful
impulses” (1915e, p. 186). Freud notes, in 1917, that the
Ucs. is the missing link (“chainon manquant”) between
soma and psyche (in 1960a).
The life and death instincts, as well as the agencies
id, ego, and superego, the “third step in the theory of
the instincts” (1920g), do not destroy a single previous
experience. The id incorporates the Ucs. and inherits
its characteristics, while the assets of the adjective
“unconscious” accrue from the id and to a large extent
from the ego, hence its resistance to the sense of guilt,
to most of the processes of the superego, and to the
conflicts between agencies.
There is no psychoanalytic notion that does not have
some connection to the unconsciousness that the
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
UNCONSCIOUS, THE
dynamic point of view imposes universally. The more or
less localized ideas moving beyond the first topography
exist in relation to the Ucs. and are included in the id.
The “Mystic Writing Pad” delighted Freud (1925a)
because it represented the system Ucs./Pcs.-Cs. The
repository for memory traces, as well as a place of fixation,
the Ucs. is even assumed to retain an instinctual
foundation analogous to animal knowledge, as in inherited
psychic formations and the traces of human history.
Having often clarified his views, Freud was always
careful to separate the essentially dynamic unconscious
from the latent, which was susceptible to becoming conscious.
By arguing for posthypnotic suggestion, the
dream, and other experiences associated with the first
topography, he refuted the philosophers’ view of the
unconscious as paradoxical, and taking up this question
of the ambiguity of the “Unconscious,” he noted: “no
one has a right to complain because the actual phenomenon
expresses the dynamic factor ambiguously”
(1923b, p. 16) (an intuition verified through the qualitative
dynamic). In 1938 he criticized a presentation of the
ego and the id as follows: “What is unsatisfactory in this
picture—and I am aware of it as clearly as anyone—is
due to our complete ignorance of the dynamic nature of
the mental processes. We tell ourselves that what distinguishes
a conscious idea from a preconscious one, and
the latter from an unconscious one, can only be a modification,
or perhaps a different distribution, of psychical
energy. We talk of cathexes and hypercathexes, but
beyond this we are without any knowledge on the subject
or even any starting-point for a serviceable working
hypothesis” (1939a). The qualitative dynamic, which
endorses Freudian stylization, permits some working
hypotheses.
ALAIN DE MIJOLLA
See also: Psychic apparatus; Splitting; “Claims of Psycho-
Analysis to Scientific Interest”; Collective unconscious
(analytical psychology); Colloque sur linconscient; Consciousness;
Formations of the unconscious; Graph of
Desire; Idea/representation; Instance; Interpretation;
Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis; Jokes and Their
Relation to the Unconscious; Kantianism and psychoanalysis;
Knot; Letter, the; Linguistics and psychoanalysis;
Matheme; Metaphor; Metapsychology; Metonymy; Myth
of origins; Object a; Parade of the signifier; Subject’s
desire; Philosophy and psychoanalysis; Preconscious, the;
“Recommendations to Physicians Practicing Psychoanalysis”;
Science and psychoanalysis; Seminar, Lacan’s;
Signifier; Signifier/signified; Splitting of the subject;
Subconscious; Subject; Subject of the unconscious;
1819
“UNCONSCIOUS, THE”’
Symptom/sinthome; Topographical point of view; Topology;
Word-presentation.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1896b). Further remarks on the neuropsychoses
of defence. SE, 3: 157-185.
. (1900a). The interpretation of dreams. Parts I and
II. SE, 4-5.
. (1915e). The unconscious. SE, 14: 159-204.
. (1920g). Beyond the pleasure principle. SE, 18: 1-64.
. (1923b). The ego and the id. SE, 19: 1-66.
. (1925a [1924]). A note upon the “mystic writing
pad.” SE, 19: 225-232.
. (1939a [1934—38]). Moses and monotheism: Three
essays. SE, 23: 1-137.
. (1950a [1887—-1902]). Extracts from the Fliess
papers. SE, 1: 173-280.
. (1950c [1895]). Project for a scientific psychology.
SE, 1: 281-387.
. (1960a [1873-1939]). Letters of Sigmund Freud,
1873-1939 (Ernst L. Freud, Ed.; Tania and James Stern,
Trans.). London: Hogarth.
Freud, Sigmund, and Breuer, Josef. (1895d). Studies on hysteria.
SE, 2: 48-106.
Hartmann, Eduard von. (1931). Philosophy of the unconscious.
Speculative results according to the inductive method
of physical science (W. C. Coupland, Trans.). London:
Routledge. (Original work published 1869)
Whithe, Lancelot. (1961). LInconscient avant Freud. Paris:
Payot.
Further Reading
Opatow, Barry. (1997). The real unconscious: Psychoanalysis
as a theory of consciousness. Journal of the American
Psychoanalytic Association, 45, 865-890.
“UNCONSCIOUS, THE”
“The Unconscious,” a highly structured essay of 1915,
is the most important of Freud’s papers of that period
on metapsychology. Freud made the unconscious the
keystone of psychoanalysis. Written over a period of
three weeks in 1915, “The Unconscious” is the culmination
of his topographical theory (or “first topogra-
1820
phy”). Freud musters several arguments and points
discussed or established earlier, especially in The Interpretation
of Dreams (1900a).
The work is divided into seven parts, the last being
the most original. After reminding the reader that the
unconscious encompasses more than just repressed
material, which is only one element of it, Freud goes on
to justify the hypothesis of the unconscious—that is, to
show that it is necessary and legitimate since there are
multiple proofs of its existence. To do this he attempts
to show that the assimilation of psychic and conscious is
unacceptable: “It disrupts psychical continuities, plunges
us into the insoluble difficulties of psycho-physical parallelism”
(1915e, p. 168); most importantly, it closes off
any possibility of effective psychological research. Freud
then indicates that the unconscious is not a second, foreign
consciousness within us, but that there are “mental
processes [that] are in themselves unconscious” (p. 171),
an important distinction that emphasized acts rather
than reflexes. In this connection Freud did not hesitate
to invoke the Kantian view that perceptions are “identical
with what is perceived though unknowable” (p. 171).
In part 2, taking it that the hypothesis of the unconscious
has been accepted, Freud discusses different
meanings of the term unconscious, reprising previously
discussed material concerning the distinction between
the unconscious and the preconscious. He notes in
passing that these distinctions do not, “for the present,”
imply any claims concerning anatomical areas of
the brain; they refer only to “regions in the mental
apparatus, wherever they may be situated in the body”
(p. 175); the term regions should thus be taken in the
sense of a fiction (p. 175).
Part 3 refers in part to the second of Freud’s metapsychological
papers, “Repression” (1915d), which discusses
the instincts. Freud draws an important distinction here:
“ideas are cathexes—basically of memory-traces—while
affects and emotions correspond to processes of discharge,
the final manifestations of which are perceived as
feelings” (p. 178). “Affectivity,’ he adds in a note, “manifests
itself essentially in motor (secretory and vasomotor)
discharge resulting in an (internal) alteration of
the subject’s own body without reference to the external
world” (p. 179n). This clearly raises the issue of the
actual neuroses, though Freud does not address it here.
Part 4 deals with the topography and dynamics
of repression, and it is here that Freud provides his
well-known definition of metapsychology: “It will not be
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
unreasonable to give a special name to this whole way of
regarding our subject-matter, for it is the consummation
of psycho-analytic research. I propose that when we
have succeeded in describing a psychical process in
its dynamic, topographical and economic aspects, we
should speak of it as a metapsychological presentation”
(p. 181). As in “Repression” (1915d), Freud specifies
repression relative to anxiety hysteria, to phobia in conversion
hysteria, and to obsessional neurosis.
Part 5, which covers the specific properties of the
unconscious system, includes some very important
thoughts on time: “The processes of the system Ucs are
timeless—i.e., they are not ordered temporally, are not
altered by the passage of time; they have no reference
to time at all. Reference to time is bound up, once
again, with the work of the system Cs” (p. 187). But
this is only one aspect of the characteristics of the
unconscious system, which Freud lists as follows:
“exemption from mutual contradiction, primary process
(mobility of cathexes), timelessness, and replacement of
external by psychical reality” (p. 187).
After discussing the preconscious, Freud goes on in
part 6 to examine the relations between the two systems,
which are distinct but whose respective impulses
may cooperate if they happen to be tending in the same
direction. “The content of the Ucs,’ Freud concludes,
“may be compared with an aboriginal population in the
mind. If inherited mental formations exist in the
human being—something analogous to instinct in
animals—these constitute the nucleus of the Ucs. Later
there is added to them what is discarded during childhood
development as unserviceable; and this need not
differ in its nature from what is inherited. A sharp and
final division between the content of the two systems
does not, as a rule, take place till puberty” (p. 195).
The seventh and last part of Freud’s paper is the
most audacious; Freud asserts that only the analysis of
narcissistic psychoneuroses (what we would now call
psychoses), can “furnish us with conceptions through
which the enigmatic Ucs will be brought more within
our reach and, as it were, made tangible” (p. 196). He
cites Karl Abraham on dementia praecox and Victor
Tausk on schizophrenia, and he develops a number of
important themes about the speech of schizophrenics.
Using Tausk’s clinical observations, Freud notes that
“the schizophrenic utterance exhibits a hypochondriac
trait: it has become ‘organ-speech” (p. 198). Discussing
Eugen Bleuler and Carl Jung, he writes that “in schizophrenia
words are subjected to the same process as
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
UNDOING
that which makes the dream-images out of latent
dream-thoughts—to what we have called the primary
psychical process” (p. 199). The relationship to words
thus takes precedence over thing-presentations, and
substitutions are made based on verbal identity rather
than on similarity between the things designated,
which is what makes schizophrenic speech so disconcerting.
In this way Freud introduces a more, general
analysis of the thought process, evoking cathexes far
removed from perception which “attain their capacity
to become conscious only through being linked with
the residues of perceptions of words” (p. 202).
Freud concludes this most brilliant and profound
of his papers on metapsychology as follows: “When we
think in abstractions there is a danger that we may
neglect the relations of words to unconscious thingpresentations”
(p. 204).
SOPHIE DE MioLLA-MELLOR
See also: Metapsychology; Thing-presentation; Unconscious,
the; Word-presentation.
Source Citation
Freud, Sigmund. (1915e). Das Unbewusste. Internationale
Zeitschrift fiir arztliche Psychoanalyse, 3, 189-203, 257-269;
GW, 10: 264-303; SE, 14: 166-204.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1900a). The interpretation of dreams. SE,
4—5,
. (1915d). Repression. SE, 14: 141-158.
UNDOING
The mechanism of undoing is characteristic of obsessional
neurosis, along with isolation. It involves a process
of “negative magic” that, according to Freud,
tends to undo what has been done. When an action is
undone by a second action, it is as if neither had
occurred, whereas in reality both have taken place.
In a letter to Fliess written on December 22, 1897,
Freud already foresees what he defines at that time as the
ambiguity or imprecise meaning characteristic of obsessional
neurosis. He would Jater describe this as an action
that occurs in a second moment, and which seeks to
1821
UniteD STATES
undo an action that precedes it. “Obsessional ideas are
often clothed in a remarkable verbal vagueness in order
to permit of this multiple employment” (1950a, p. 273).
In the “Rat Man” (1909d), Freud describes compulsive
acts as unfolding in two moments, during which the first
is undone by the second. According to him in obsessional
thought “the patient’s consciousness naturally misunderstands
them [the compulsive acts] and puts forward a set
of secondary motives to account for them—rationalizes
them, in short” (p. 192). In reality there is an opposition
between love and hate. In Inhibitions, Symptoms and
Anxiety (1926d), he defines more specifically the “magical”
nature of this defense that “no longer [has] any
resemblance to the process of ‘repression” (p. 164). Thus
the obsessive ceremony strives not only to prevent the
appearance of an event but to undo it, which is irrational
and magical and most likely arises from an animist attitude
toward the environment. Anna Freud (1936)
included undoing in her repertory of ego defenses.
The concept of undoing has today acquired a certain
psychological connotation. It is often confused with the
concept of ambivalent behavior or attitude. It is probably
also necessary to distinguish it, because of the “magical”
character of the defense, from the series of mechanisms
discovered by Freud—repression, foreclosure, negation
(or denegation), disavowal (or denial)—a series that is
commonly referred to today as the work of negativization.
ELsa SCHMID-KITSIKIS
See also: Anxiety; Defense mechanisms; Inhibitions,
Symptoms, and Anxiety; Obsessional neurosis; Rite and
ritual; Ego and the Mechanisms of Defense, The.
Bibliography
Freud, Anna. (1909d). Notes upon a case of obsessional neurosis.
SE, 10: 155-249.
. (1936). The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defence.
London: Hogarth Press; New York: International Universities
Press, 1966.
. (1950a [1887—1902]). Extracts from the Fliess
papers. SE, 1: 173-280.
UNITED STATES
Psychoanalysis came to North America in two major
waves, the first one following Freud’s visit in 1909,
1822
and the second one following the Nazi takeover in
Germany and Austria. Each wave stimulated the exploration
of psychoanalysis’ scientific and curative
potentials while encouraging popularizations by the
American public. However, this dual, though separate,
reception engendered ambiguities and misunderstandings,
and built up unwarranted expectations that led
to inevitable disappointments.
American physicians had been seeking to cure neurasthenia,
which, already in 1869, George M. Beard
(1840-1883) had called “the American disease” arising
from so-called “civilized morality’—hidden conflicts
due to hypocrisy. According to Beard, upwardly mobile
citizens professing continence, religious purity, and even
married celibacy, were having illicit affairs with “loose”
women, which often created “mental problems.”
Around the turn of the century, American neurologists
such as Morton Prince (1854-1929), James Jackson
Putnam (1842-1918) and S. E. Jelliffe (1866-1945)
had been investigating the “French school” of Charcot,
Bernheim, and Janet, and were practicing suggestion
and (occasionally) hypnosis in order to cure these neuroses.
So were psychologists, among them Stanley Hall
(1844-1924), William James (1842-1910), and Boris
Sidis (1867-1933). When they read that Freud’s
patients by talking about previously repressed fantasies
had lost their hysterical symptoms, and that this had
happened by bringing forth unconscious memories,
they wanted to learn about his method, and about the
relation between his patients’ symptoms and sexual
repression.
Consequently, philosophers, psychologists, and the
educated public were as interested in what Freud had to
say as were American psychiatrists—who were caring
for psychotic patients in institutions and did not know
how to cure neuroses—and clergymen who were no
longer able to help people by instilling a fear of God.
For these reasons, Freud’s visit to Clark University
attracted diverse listeners: the psychologists William
James and Edward Bradford Titchener, the anthropologist
Franz Boas, the revolutionary anarchist Emma
Goldman, and many Protestant clergymen, psychiatrists,
and neurologists—among them Abraham Arden
Brill (1874-1948), Adolph Meyer (1866-1950), and
James Jackson Putnam. Freud’s lectures, which for the
first time synthesized his discoveries, turned out to be
tailor-made for this audience. He spoke extemporaneously.
He stressed his hopes for the scientific
exploration of the laws governing the unconscious; the
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liberating benefits psychoanalysis would bring to individuals
and humanity; the role of sublimation, of
trauma and catharsis; and the efficacy and benefits of
psychoanalytic intervention. The American press gave
him wide, even sensationalist, coverage, so that he was
met with an enthusiasm usually accorded entertainers
and charismatic heads of state. Then, general physicians
and neurologists wanted to understand more
about the influence of the unconscious on illness; feminists
and other radicals foresaw the end of sexual and
social repression; and mind healers perceived answers
to troubling questions. To them all, psychoanalysis
promised to resolve theoretical dilemmas, while offering
a method to help ailing, malingering patients: it
became a pivot for disparate intellectual endeavors
and disciplines, aims, and interests.
Since the analysis of dreams caught the imagination
of the larger American public, psychoanalysis started
being cast as the new road to happiness. Broad applications
ensued, not only by doctors and clergymen
but by social workers, experts in child rearing, and in
criminology. And zealous charlatans called themselves
psychoanalysts.
Freud was dismayed by these facile applications that
bypassed the laborious efforts required to reach the deepest
unconscious of patients. As he stated in “On the
Question of Lay Analysis” (1926a), “Americans came too
easily by truths others had struggled to discover ... and
were too easily satisfied with superficial appearances.”
However, Freud kept in touch with a number of
Americans. On November 9, 1909, for instance, Putnam
wrote: “Your visit to America was of deep significance
to me, and I now work and read with constantly
growing interest on your lines.” Less than a month
later, he informed Freud that “the real psychoanalysis
begins where the primary ‘confessional’ ends.” Freud
urged his American correspondents to organize and to
affiliate with the International Psychoanalytical Association
(IPA)—which had been launched to facilitate
communication among followers wanting to exchange
scientific information.
By 1911, twelve persons, mostly physicians, set up the
American Psychoanalytic Association (APA). In the
same year, fifteen physicians, under the leadership of A. A.
Brill, established the New York Psychoanalytic Society
(NYPS). By 1914, they founded the Boston Psychoanalytic
Society, appointing Putnam as president, and soon
formed groups in the Washington-Baltimore area and
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UNITED STATES
in Chicago. But despite these organizational setups, the
first wave of American Freudians was too geographically
and/or intellectually dispersed to make many scientific
contributions, and thus crested after a few years.
By then, psychoanalysis was expected to explain
nearly every individual and social phenomenon in the
culture at large: the American propensity to overgeneralize
was casting psychoanalysis as a cure-all. As
Nathan Hale summarized, “between 1915 and 1918
psychoanalysis received three-fifths as much attention
as birth control, more attention than divorce, and
nearly four times more than mental hygiene.... The
unconscious had become a Darwinian Titan and
dream analysis the road to its taming” (Hale, 1971,
p. 397). Proselytizing practitioners bragged to journalists
of miracle cures, and reporters wedded clichés to
exaggerations and heightened enthusiasm.
During these years, Freud wrote to Putnam about
the impending splits with Alfred Adler and Carl Jung.
But he did not yet realize that the American ambiance
would engender other sorts of splits. Since the American
groups, mostly, were started by self-selected and
self-trained doctors, they differentiated themselves—
professionally—from the growing numbers of social
workers, clergymen and charlatans who were also doing
“psychoanalysis.” This disjuncture between psychoanalysis’
public acclaim and its (flagging) clinical success
was unique to North America and, ultimately, created a
storm within the movement. By 1924, due to a mixture
of professional responsibility and self-interest, and to
desperation, the APA voted to keep out all lay analysts.
At the IPA meetings in Innsbruck, in 1927, twenty-eight
papers were presented on the question of lay analysis.
Wanting to distance themselves from “impostors,”
American Freudians remained adamant and insisted on
breaking IPA rules against lay analysts by restricting
access to physicians alone. They even referred to Freud
as the “Pope in Vienna.” Freud expressed his disagreement
with the Americans in “On the Question on Lay
Analysis” (1926a).
Nevertheless, American psychoanalysts realized that
they were not keeping up with scientific advances and
that they needed more training. Therefore they invited
a number of Europeans as training analysts (including
Freud, who refused for reasons of health). By 1930,
they formed the Chicago Institute under the aegis of
Franz Alexander (1891-1964), and in 1931, the New
York Psychoanalytic Institute under the aegis of Sandor
Rado (1890-1972). But the rift between European
1823
UNITED STATES
and American Freudians continued to widen over
training lay analysts. In 1936, the APA declared that it
would veto any resolution by the IPA addressing
American issues, and by 1938 had set up its own criteria
for “minimal training of physicians” at its
affiliated institutes, spelled out proper conduct of
members, and reaffirmed the ban against laymen.
They also put the IPA on notice not to train Americans
who had not already been “approved” by the APA.
In a way, Freud had described some of these dilemmas
as arising from the fact that psychoanalysis was a
social and intellectual movement, a clinical therapy,
and a theory of mind. He maintained that these major
thrusts were bound to come into conflict from time to
time. But he could not foresee that the Nazis would
come to power, that most of his disciples would move
to America, and that World War II would nearly abolish
psychoanalysis on the European continent.
America’s second major wave of psychoanalysis
arrived with the émigrés. From the start, Freud had
referred to his disciples as pioneers into the workings
of the unconscious. After the majority of these disciples
arrived in the country of pioneers they, literally,
were cast as pioneers for their cause.
At first, their reception was mixed. American psychoanalysts
had sent affidavits, and Lawrence Kubie
(1896-1973) had organized an extremely efficient
Emergency Committee to help them get into the country.
But members of the American Medical Association
were afraid that the Europeans would compete for their
jobs and patients. Legally, immigrants had to become
American citizens before practicing medicine in all but
five states; and they had to pass medical boards before
becoming psychoanalysts. They also had to prove that
they would be self-supporting within a year before they
entered the country, and they were branded as Jews.
They already had to adapt to their delegitimation as
psychoanalysts and human beings, to overcome the
shock of brutal ostracism. Now, they had to learn English
in order to establish themselves in their (still) struggling
profession. Many emigre Freudians worked in
hospitals. There, they could demonstrate the efficacy of
the “talking cure” to colleagues. By 1942, every medical
student learned about the unconscious factors that
might influence their patients’ behavior. Many of these
students later became psychoanalysts.
Under the circumstances, the organizational feuds
receded. The émigrés became a resource for American
1824
colleagues. They offered training analyses and held the
most prestigious positions in the new institutes that,
mostly under their leadership, were springing up
around the country. The former disagreements were
not settled, but Freud’s death in September 1939 and
the war overshadowed IPA concerns. What would have
happened to psychoanalysis had most of its proponents
not come to America after the Nazis took power
(a much smaller contingent went to South America
and England) is a moot question.
In North America, the organizational repercussions
of the split between medical and lay analysts at first
determined who among the émigrés would be allowed
into the APA and its affiliates, but later on this differentiation
led to the formation of “deviant” associations.
Still, some prominent psychologists who had
been close to Freud, such as Ernst Kris (1906-1957),
Siegfried Bernfeld (1892-1953), Erik Erikson (1902-
1994), Otto Fenichel (1897-1946), and Theodore Reik
(1888-1970), were accepted as “honorary members.”
But Reik, for instance, did not appreciate this distinction
and, by 1948, started his own society—to train
psychologists in psychoanalysis. His graduates, in
turn, taught others. Similar situations arose in cities
throughout the country, especially on the two coasts.
Already in 1941, Karen Horney (1895-1952) had left
the New York Psychoanalytic Institute (NYPI) after a
heated controversy over theoretical priorities which
would determine, also, what type of psychoanalysis
candidates were going to learn and then to practice.
Basically, she argued that her colleagues’ ego-oriented
psychoanalysis was culture-bound rather than universal,
and that they ought to address a patient’s present
circumstances in order to understand his or her past
rather than to begin by eliciting insights into this past.
By then, Karen Horney’s books, (1937, 1939), as
well as Erich Fromm’s (1942) were introducing psychoanalytic
concepts to a broad public—which was
not all that interested in the theoretical disputes
among psychoanalysts, but found their writings more
accessible than the works of the “classical Freudians.”
In fact, Horney and Fromm were addressing social
issues, and, though far from simplistic, were appealing
to the American habit of believing in quick fixes, and
to the native optimism about the malleability of
human nature. But they were only the forerunners of
what would become some of the “cultural” or
“applied” psychoanalyses and psychotherapies which
subsequently flooded the country. In other words,
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Freud’s influence on the culture—whether appreciated
or rejected—from then on became ubiquitous.
Still, the theories based on Freud’s postulates in The
Ego and the Id (1923b) would dominate the profession
for a long time. The division into id, ego, and superego
as structural components of psychic life converged
with the American scientific bent, and with the language
of medicine.
But other proliferations of psychoanalysis occurred
via the social sciences. For instance, anthropologists
such as Margaret Mead, Gregory Bateson, and Ruth
Benedict, and psychoanalysts such as Sandor Rad6
and Abram Kardiner, in the Columbia University
Institute for Psychoanalytic Training, were doing
research on tribal societies; the Harvard sociologist
Talcott Parsons postulated psychoanalysis as a mainstay
of his social system, to incorporate the unconscious
elements of human motivation into social
institutions; and the political scientist Harold Laswell
explored the behavior and ambitions of political figures
in terms of their psychic make-up.
Like Freud, the emigrés were steeped in the classics.
They were products of the Enlightenment, and they
foresaw that the future of civilization would be dominated
by discoveries science alone could further. But
they also kept reading classical and contemporary literature
in order to enrich their theories. And they
explained human psychology—the typical patterns of
mind being formed in response to early experiences
that later guide behavior—via literature. They continued
to attempt analyzing literary works in relation to
the personalities of their authors, and to be particularly
interested in having creative individuals on their
couches. Therefore, they cooperated with literary
scholars such as Lionel Trilling, and art critics such as
Ernst Hans Gombrich and Clement Greenberg who,
themselves, enriched the studies of literature, art, and
criticism by responding to the challenges posed by
psychoanalysis. They warmly welcomed psychoanalysts,
and arranged meetings and symposia with them,
thereby furthering the acceptance of psychoanalytic
insights by the intelligentsia.
Because Freud’s European disciples had come to
psychoanalysis not only from medicine but from art
(Erik Erikson and Ernst Kris), education (Anna Freud
[1895-1982]), philosophy (Robert Waelder [1900-
1967]), and literature (Henry Lowenfeld [1900-—
1985]), they were attuned to the preoccupations of
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Unitep States
American intellectuals. And the self-assurance they
had gained from their work with Freud, as well as their
range, helped propel them into the maelstrom of
American intellectual life.
Heinz Hartmann, for instance, a central figure among
the so-called “scientific ego psychologists,” already in
Vienna, had addressed questions of adaptation. Now, he
investigated individuals’ relations with and adaptation to
reality as indicators of mental health which, he held, was
emotional and biological. He maintained that “instinct”
has a double meaning: the genetic relations between animal
instinct and human drive, and between animal
instinct and human ego-function. This brought him back
to addressing cultural issues. Together with Ernst Kris
and Rudolph Loewenstein (1946), he wrote the definitive
paper summarizing the clinical theories Freudians had
derived from their (recent) America-based research.
These findings were syntheses on a highly abstract, theoretical
plane. The general and cultural questions they
were addressing, along with the clinical ones, would set
the Freudians’ extensive research agendas for the coming
years. This acceptance in America, at least in part, is what
made their work so appealing after the war, when they
reconvened on the European continent, and why their
theories were referred to as “American” psychoanalysis.
In 1947, David M. Levy, in New Fields of Psychoanalysis,
delineated the astounding influence psychoanalysis
had gained in every sphere. He noted that psychoanalytic
terminology in child guidance, such as maternal overprotection,
maternal rejection, etc., had become ubiquitous;
that psychoanalysis could predict criminals’ recidivism;
and he outlined collaborations among psychoanalysts,
social workers, educators, industrial and military psychiatrists.
Clearly, Freud’s disciples had become pillars of the
American establishment. Inevitably, prestige and research
moneys accrued to the profession.
Ego-psychology remained the leading theory well
into the 1970s. By then, however, the members of groups
outside the APA were increasingly discontent: they
resented being peripheral. Their own successes with
patients, and their work in hospitals, went nearly unrecognized
outside the country. At home, they were analyzing
psychologists and social workers who, sooner or
later, formed associations and networks—which gave
them a certain amount of clout. Belonging to the IPA
would allow them, too, to mix and exchange information
with European and Latin American colleagues, and
to set up collaborative research projects. In 1985, this
situation came to a head in a lawsuit by non-medical
1825
UNPLEASURE
American Freudians—some of whose institutes have
since then been accepted by the IPA and the APA.
Altogether, by the time Philip Reiff published The
Triumph of the Therapeutic (1966), America had
become the therapeutic society par excellence. But the
patients who expected psychoanalysts to cure their
neurotic symptoms, or their general malaise, were very
different from Freud’s repressed, hysterical ones. And
the analyses by his many descendants were initiating
more and more discussions about changing clinical
pictures and problems, and possible solutions to them.
Gradually, the clinical techniques based on the “structural
theory” (the division of the personality into id,
ego, and superego) were being questioned, and no
longer seemed to be as efficacious as they had been
before. And many people argued that psychoanalysis
took too long and was too expensive.
By 1971, Heinz Kohut (1913-1981), a member of
both the APA and the IPA, had been dissatisfied
enough to have explored, and then moved, Freud’s
theories of narcissism to the center. He had noted that
children tend to make up for the “unavoidable shortcomings”
of maternal care, and the concomitant primary
narcissism, either by evolving a grandiose and
exhibitionist self-image, or by creating an idealized parental
image. As the gleam in the mother’s eye mirrors
the child’s exhibitionist display, he found, the child’s
self-esteem and grandiosity became inflated. This
necessitated, he said, more empathic and demanding
interactions with patients, rather than the classical
analyst’s technique of abstinence. His so-called selfpsychology,
which focuses on the interactions between
mother and child, became more integrated into the
classical Freudians’ practices. Soon thereafter objectrelations
theory (based primarily on the relationship
between mother and infant), which originally had
been advanced by Melanie Nein (1882-1960), in
London, was being furthered by Otto Kernberg.
Whether or not these approaches were due to changing
symptomatology alone, or to the fact that the
acceptance of psychoanalysis itself had made promises
for cures it could not achieve, is a debatable issue. Certainly,
contact with psychoanalysts from Europe and
South America, and changing cultural trends, were
playing their part as well. (In academic circles, beginning
in departments of English and French, Lacanian
psychoanalysis made large inroads.) But psychoanalvsts,
themselves (Kurzweil, 1989, 1995) were both
products and shapers of their culture. In sum, in the
1826
United States psychoanalysis has evolved in line with
cultural prerogatives and advances in psychoanalytic
knowledge. What aspects of psychoanalysis are being
stressed or denied keeps changing, and its first and second
major waves undoubtedly will be followed by
others. On the one hand, Freudian ideas are permeating
American society, which, in turn, influences the
practice of psychoanalysis itself. On the other hand,
there has been a proliferation of therapies. But the
popularization has encouraged simplifications and
quick modes of treatment at the expense of analyzing
the unconscious. Thereby, what Freud called the “gold
of psychoanalysis,” that is, the mining of the unconscious,
has been lost. However, many of his contributions
live on in the culture at large, and are applied by
many social scientists, especially psychologists.
EpitH KuRZWEIL
Bibliography
Hale, Nathan G., Jr. (1971). Freud and the Americans: The
beginnings of psychoanalysis in the United States, 1976—
1917. New York: Oxford University Press. 4
Horney, Karen. (1939). New ways in psychoanalysis. New
York: W. W. Norton.
Kurzweil, Edith. (1989). The Freudians: A comparative perspective.
New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
. (1995). Freudians and feminists. Boulder, CO:
Westview.
UNPLEASURE
From the beginning of psychoanalysis, the term
unpleasure, in the ordinary sense of a disagreeable
impression, was chosen by Sigmund Freud for its
dynamic dimension in psychic functioning. He noted
the role of “feelings of unpleasure” in the speech of his
patients and their defenses against the painful contents
of their thoughts. In “On the Psychical Mechanism of
Hysterical Phenomena: Preliminary Communication”
(1893a) by Freud and Josef Breuer, these painful
affects—fear, anxiety, shame, physical pain—are
enumerated and their contribution to the formation
of hysterical symptoms is explained: The unpleasure
they elicit triggers forgetting, repression.
In Freud's position of the primitive psychic apparatus
in The Interpretation of Dreams (1900a), an economic
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perspective predominates: Unpleasure, engendered by the
increase in tensions due to excitation, sets in motion the
functioning of the psychic apparatus. “The psychical
apparatus is intolerant of unpleasure; it has to fend it off
at all costs, and if the perception of reality entails unpleasure,
that perception—that is, the truth—must be sacrificed”
(p. 237), he writes in “Analysis Terminable and
Interminable” (1937c). Unpleasure is a broader category
than anxiety, although anxiety is certainly unpleasurable.
Other affective states such as tension, pain, or grief are
also unpleasurable; so, too, is inhibition. Unpleasure is
thus not only an affective state, it is set up as a principle
that regulates psychic functioning.
MICHELE POLLAK CORNILLOT
See also: Automatism; Basic Neurosis (the)-Oral regression
and psychic masochism; Defense; Discharge; Dualism; Ego;
Excitation; Hatred; Historical reality; Hypochondria; Inhibitions,
Symptoms and Anxiety; “Instincts and Their Vicissitudes”;
Jouissance (Lacan); Metapsychology; Moral
masochism; Negative transference; Nirvana; Pain; Pleasure
ego/reality ego; Pleasure/unpleasure principle; Principle of
constancy; Principle of mental functioning; “Project for a
Scientific Psychology, A”; Protective Shield; Purifiedpleasure-
ego; Reality principle; “Repression”; Suffering;
Symptom-formation; Thing, The.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1900a). The interpretation of dreams.
Part I, SE, 4: 1-338; Part II, SE, 5: 339-625.
. (1937c). Analysis terminable and interminable. SE,
23: 209-253.
Freud, Sigmund, and Breuer, Josef. (1893a). On the psychical
mechanism of hysterical phenomena: Preliminary communication.
SE, 2: 1-17.
Further Reading
Villele, L. (1997). From the sway of the pleasure principle:
Ghost of a tiger. Psychoanalytic Review, 84, 281-294.
Wise, I. (2000). Pleasure in phantasy and reality. International
Journal of Psychoanalysis, 81, 156-158.
UNVALIDATED UNCONSCIOUS
The term unvalidated unconscious refers to childhood
experiences that could not be consciously articulated
because they never evoked sufficient validating responses
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URBANTSCHITSCH (URBAN), RUDOLF von (1879-1964)
from caregivers. The idea was introduced by Robert
Stolorow and George E. Atwood in 1989. In their theory
of intersubjectivity, the child’s conscious experience is
pictured as becoming progressively articulated through
the validating attunement of caregivers. Features of the
child’s experience may remain unconscious, not because
they have been repressed, but because, in the absence of
a validating intersubjective context, they were never
articulated in the first place.
The concept of the unvalidated unconscious sheds
light on certain psychosomatic conditions in which
affects fail to evolve from bodily states to symbolically
integrated feelings because, without validating symbolic
(verbal) responses from caregivers, they were never symbolically
articulated. These conditions can be distinguished
from other conditions that develop when
symbolic articulation of affect is defensively aborted.
The concept of the unvalidated unconscious has features
in common with Freud’s notion of a primal unconscious
and Bion’s discussion of undigested experience.
Analytic attention to the unvalidated unconscious
is especially important in the treatment of patients for
whom broad areas of early experience failed to evoke
validating attunement in caregivers and, consequently,
whose perceptions remain ill defined and precariously
held and whose affects tend to be felt as diffuse
bodily states. In such cases, analytic investigation
serves to articulate and crystallize the patient’s subjective
reality.
RoBERT D. STOLOROW
See also: Prereflective unconscious.
Bibliography
Stolorow, Robert D., and Atwood, George E. (1989). The
unconscious and unconscious fantasy: An intersubjectivedevelopmental
perspective. Psychoanalytical Inquiry, 9,
364-374.
(1992). Contexts of being: The intersubjective
foundations of psychological life. Hillsdale, NJ: Analytic
Press.
URBANTSCHITSCH (URBAN), RUDOLF VON
(1879-1964)
Rudolf von Urbantschitsch, an Austrian physician, was
born in Vienna on April 28, 1879, and died on December
18, 1964, in Carmel, California.
1827
URUGUAY
He was born into a Catholic and aristocratic family
that enjoyed a good reputation in the days of the Hapsburg
monarchy. His father, Victor Urbantschitsch, was
one of the founders of modern ENT medicine. Rudolf
was a student at the Vienna Theresianum, from which
he graduated in 1898. In 1914, having finished his medical
studies, he became the assistant of Karl von Noordens
and directed his clinic.
With the support of Noordens, of influential circles
in Vienna, and protected by Archduke Franz Ferdinand,
heir to the throne, he was able to realize his
project of creating a clinic for the Viennese aristocracy.
The Wiener Cottage Sanatorium was opened
under his directorship in 1908 and became one of the
most prestigious institutions in Europe. The Viennese
medical profession cared for its most well-to-do
patients there.
At the end of 1907, Fritz Wittels, who practiced as a
physician in the Cottage Sanatorium, introduced
Urbantschitsch to the group of Viennese psychoanalysts.
In January 1908 he presented a paper, “Meine
Entwicklungsjahre bis zur Ehe” (From my puberty to
my marriage), and went on to become a member of
the Wednesday psychology society. He remained a
member until 1914. Sigmund Freud hospitalized some
of his patients in the Cottage Sanatorium, Sergei
Pankejeff (the “Wolf Man”) for one.
In 1920, Urbantschitsch lost his position as sole
director of the Cottage Sanatorium and the institution
was sold in 1922. Following this loss and on Freud’s
recommendation he began to train as an analyst, first
with Paul Federn and then with Sandor Ferenczi in
Budapest. As a Catholic, an aristocrat, and a monarchist,
Urbantschitsch was an exception in the social
makeup of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society.
Through his intense lecturing activity both in Austria
and abroad he contributed to vulgarizing the discoveries
of psychoanalysis but ran up against the criticism
of his Viennese colleagues, particularly the younger
ones, for presenting psychoanalysis in a simplistic
fashion and according pride of place to his personal
publicity. This criticism, and also his love affairs, two
of which resulted in suicide, contributed to the Vienna
Psychoanalytic Society’s rejecting his request to renew
his membership and in 1924 he was even refused the
status of a guest.
At the end of 1936 Urbantschitsch left for the United
States and first settled in Los Angeles as a psy-
1828
chotherapist. He moved to San Francisco during the
summer of 1937 and to Carmel in 1941. These peregrinations
were not unconnected to the fact that he had
fallen foul of Ernst Simmel and the Los Angeles group
of psychoanalysts, who considered his therapeutic
work and his theoretical conceptions to be nonpsychoanalytical
in the Freudian sense of the term. In
1944 Urbantschitsch, who still insisted on considering
himself as a psychoanalyst and a disciple of Freud, was
accused of practicing medicine illegally.
Apart from his many vulgarizing publications,
Urbantschitsch also published plays and novels under
the pseudonym Georg Gorgone. His autobiography
appeared in 1958 entitled Myself Not Least: A Confessional
Autobiography of a Psychoanalyst and Some
Explanatory History Cases.
ELKE MUHLLEITNER
See also: Wittels, Fritz (Siegfried).
Bibliography
Mihlleitner, Elke. (1992). Biographisches lexikon der psychoanalyse
(die mitglieder der psychologischen Mittwoch-
Gesellschaft und der Wiener Psychoanalytischen Vereinigung
1902-1938). Tubingen: Diskord.
Reichmayr, Johannes. (1991). Rudolf von Urbantschitsch
(Rudolf von Urban), 1879-1964. Revue internationale
d histoire de la psychanalyse, 4, 647-658.
Urbantschitsch, Rudolf von. (1924). Psychoanalyse: Ihre
bedeutung und ihr einfluss auf jugenderziehung, kinderaufklarung,
berufs- und liebeswahl. Vienna-Leipzig: M. Perles.
. (1928). Psychoanalysis for all. London: C. S. Daniel.
. (1958). Myself not least; a confessional autobiography
of a psychoanalyst and some explanatory history cases.
London: Jarrolds.
URUGUAY
The early days of psychoanalysis in Uruguay date
back to the 1940s when Valentin Pérez Pastorini, a
psychiatrist, began traveling to Buenos Aires to be
analyzed by Pichon-Riviére. Pérez Pastorini trained
with the Argentinean Psychoanalytic Association.
Miguel Sesser then followed his example. Pérez Pastorini
analyzed Roberto Agorio and Gilberto Koolhaas,
and the group grew to include Jean Carlos Rey,
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Héctor Garbarino, Juan Pereira Anavitarte and professors
Laura Achard, Marta Lacava, and Mercedes
Freire de Garbarino. In 1950 it was proposed to form
an institute, a project that required the presence of a
training analyst.
In 1954 Willy and Madeleine Baranger, French teachers
who were members of the Argentinean Psychoanalytic
Association, set up in the country and began
to work as training analysts. Argentinean analysts traveled
each week for supervisions. The group began to
take shape, and from 1955 to 1956 it established bylaws
and acquired legal status. It was recognized as a study
group at the Twentieth Congress of the International
Psychoanalytical Association in Paris in 1957 and was
admitted as an affiliate association of the International
Psychoanalytical Association at the twenty-second
congress, held in Edinburgh in 1961.
This expansion of psychoanalysis initially met
with opposition from a group of physicians who
accused the psychoanalysts of illegally practicing
medicine. The Sindicato médico del Uruguay (Medical
Association of Uruguay) finally ruled on the
question in favor of the group of analysts. Psychoanalysis
then experienced a period of rapid growth. It
was taught at the graduate level as part of medical
and psychiatric studies, as well as in bachelor courses
in psychology in the faculty of arts and human
sciences. Luis E. Prego Silva introduced psychoanalytic
knowledge into pediatric departments in hospitals.
In 1965 the Barangers returned to Buenos Aires
after a ten-year stay in Montevideo, but by this time
the Uruguay Psychoanalytic Association already had
three training analysts: Héctor Garbarino, Laura
Achard, and Mercedes Freire de Garbarino. In 1966
the Twelfth Congress of Latin American Psychoanalysis
was held in Montevideo.
The psychoanalytic movement went into a noticeably
slow period during the “de facto government”
from 1973 to 1985, the period of military dictatorship
that forced eminent analysts to emigrate,
imposed rigorous controls on meetings of the Uruguay
Psychoanalytic Association, restricted the
appointment of its directors, and monitored publications.
All the ground that had been gained at the
level of universities, hospitals, and public health was
lost. In 1985, with the advent of democracy, the Uruguay
Psychoanalytic Association nevertheless rapidly
made up for lost time.
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URUGUAY
Among the founding members of psychoanalysis in
Uruguay the following stand out for their contributions
to the field in terms of theory and practice:
Rodolfo Agorio, Gilberto Koolhaas, Héctor Gabarino,
Mercedes Freire de Gabarino, Laura Achard, Juan Carlos
Rey, and Willy and Madeleine Baranger. Also
worthy of note for their contributions are Luis E.
Prego Silva, Vida Maberino de Prego, Marta Nieto,
Carlos Mendilaharsu, Sélika Acevedo de Mendilaharsu,
Gloria Mieres de Pizzolanti, Isabel Plosa,
Alberto Pereda, Myrta Casas de Peredo, Ricardo Bernardi,
Marcelo Vihar, Maren Ulriksen de Vifiar, Fanny
Schkolnik, and Marcos Lijtenstein.
The Uruguay Psychoanalytic Association is the only
organization in the country that is a member of the
International Psychoanalytical Association. It is also
affiliated with the Latin American Psychoanalytic Federation.
There have been no splits in the organization.
The Executive Committee is elected every two years at
a general assembly. The Training Commission is in
charge of the study program. The Scientific Commission
coordinates activities within and outside the association
and organizes meetings, roundtables, and
domestic and international conferences. The title
“training analyst” has been replaced by “analyst in
didactic function,” a title that includes training, supervision,
and teaching. Admission is by interview, since
one of the criteria governing training is that personal
analysis cannot be formally associated with the association
in any way. To apply, candidates must have
completed three and a half years of personal analysis.
Supervised practice consists of three analyses of two
years each, two of adults and one of a child. Various
laboratories operate under the aegis of the Uruguay
Psychoanalytic Association: laboratories that study
children, adolescents, psychosis, couples and families,
as well as laboratories that take research and group
psychoanalytic approaches. The Centro de intercambio
(Exchange Center) is responsible for spreading
psychoanalysis to neighboring domains of knowledge
and culture. It also provides psychoanalytic treatment
for low-income patients. The Publications Commission,
in addition to publishing books, has published
the Revista uruguaya de psicoandalisis since 1956 and
the journal Temas since 1983.
In July 2003 the president of the republic and the
minister of education and culture approved the reform
of the bylaws of the Uruguay Psychoanalytic Association
and the foundation of the University Postgraduate
1829
Uruguay
Institute of Psychoanalysis under the auspices of the
association. From then on, training by the association
led to a university-level master’s degree in psychoanalysis.
In the same year a commission was set up whose
goal it was to have the Uruguay Psychoanalytic Association
recognized by the Graduate School of the
Faculty of Medicine of the University of the Republic
as an institution entitled to organize adult training
programs.
SELIKA ACEVEDO DE MENDILAHARSU
1830
Bibliography
Freire de Garbarino, Mercedes. (1988). Breve historia de la
Asociacion psicoanalitica del Uruguay. Revista uruguaya de
psicoanalisis, 68, 3-10.
Freire de Garbarino, Mercedes, et al. (1995). Uruguay. In
Peter Kutter (Ed.), Psychoanalysis international: A guide to
psychoanalysis throughout the world, vol. 2 (pp. 174-185).
Stuttgart, Germany: Frommann-Holzboog.
Prego Silva, Luis E. (1996). Notas y comentarios sobre los
origenes del psicoandlisis de nifios en el Uruguay. In Psicoandlisis
de nifios y adolescentes en América latina (Vol. 2,
pp. 51-56). Lima, Peru: Fe.P.A.L.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
“VAGINA DENTATA,” FANTASY OF
The fantasy of “vagina dentata” (teeth in the vagina) is
a horrifying image of the female genitals that derives
from the sexual theories of children. It displaces from
the oral cavity to the vagina a threat that children
believe to come from women. The equation of mouth
and vagina was introduced by Freud (1899a, 1905d)
and was advanced by Karl Abraham (1916) as central
to the oral-sadistic or cannibalistic stage of the infantile
libido (devouring versus being devoured).
Fear of women and the great terror that they
inspire, which for men is linked to castration anxiety,
encompasses several other fears: a fearful representation
of the all-powerful mother, in which men project
outside of themselves an oral-aggressive component;
fear of punishment for a desire for fusion with the
archaic mother, for an incestuous bond with the
mother, or for a return to the mother’s womb at
the moment of coitus (Sandor Ferenczi); fear of a parent’s
sadistic redirection of the sexual aim of the primal
scene; a fearful infantile fantasy of incorporation
in coitus (Melanie Klein); a fear of a woman’s desire
for revenge for her own castration (René de Monchy).
This dread of a woman’s mysterious cavity transforms
it into a persecutory object that no longer inspires
envy (Hanna Segal). In its passive form, the fantasy of
being bitten or eaten by the genitals of a woman
includes an element of bisexual desire. More often
implied than stated, this fantasy turns up in various
forms in dreams, stories, legends, and films.
The fantasy of teeth in the vagina must be carefully
distinguished from a woman’s vaginismus (an involuntary
spasm of the muscles surrounding the vagina
that closes the vagina), from the fantasy of a penis with
teeth, from fear of incorporation linked to mourning,
and from any nonoccidental anthropological data.
See also: Fantasy.
Bibliography
Abraham, Karl. (1927). The first pregenital stage of the
libido. In Selected papers of Karl Abraham (Douglas Bryan
and Alix Strachey, Trans.). London: Hogarth. (Original
work published 1916)
Andre, Jacques. (1994). Sur la sexualité féminine. Paris:
Presses Universitaires de France.
Freud, Sigmund. (1899a). Screen memories. SE, 3: 299-322.
. (1905d). Three essays on the theory of sexuality. SE,
7: 123-243.
Gessain, Robert. (1957). “Vagina dentata” dans la clinique et
la mythologie. Psychanalyse, 3, 247-295.
Lewin, Bertram D. (1933). The body as phallus. Psychoanalytic
Quarterly, 2, 24-47.
VALDIZAN, HERMILIO (1885-1929)
Hermilio Valdizan, a Peruvian psychiatrist, was born
at Huanuco on November 20, 1885, and died in Lima
on December 25, 1929.
Valdizan’s childhood was a difficult time: at the age
of eight, following the death of his father, he went to
Lima where he entered a charitable institution. Having
enrolled for medical studies in the University of San
Marcos in 1901, he worked as a teacher and journalist
1831
VENEZUELA
while still a student. He graduated as a surgeon after
presenting his thesis on “Delinquency in Peru” (1910).
He went to Europe to study psychiatry and presented
his doctoral thesis on “Mental alienation in primitives
in Peru” (1915). Valdizan was the first Peruvian psychiatrist,
strictly speaking.
He began his European studies essentially in Rome,
where he encountered Sante De Sanctis, whose ideas
were close to psychoanalysis. De Sanctis was particularly
interested in the study of childhood and although
he taught experimental psychology before obtaining
the chair of neuropsychiatry, he integrated psychoanalytic
ideas into his vision of clinical psychiatry. Back in
Lima, Valdizan began to lecture on nervous and mental
illnesses in the University of San Marcos. Javier
Mariategui wrote that in his lectures, “the stamp of
psychoanalysis was everywhere manifest.” From 1918
he directed the Asilo-colonia de Magdalena—later
renamed the Victor-Larco-Herrera Hospital—where
he organized psychiatric treatment in accordance with
modern criteria. This hospital was long a pioneering
arena in terms of psychiatric therapeutics and
remained receptive to psychoanalytic ideas, particularly
under Honorio Delgado.
Although not a psychoanalytic practitioner in the
strict sense of the term, Valdizan deserves credit for
initially giving great scope to the official teaching of
psychiatry and for introducing into his courses on
medical psychology the theme of psychotherapy, “as
useful to today’s practitioner as any of the classic disciplines
in vocational training.”
His most noteworthy contribution to psychoanalysis
was the creation in 1918, with Honorio Delgado, of the
Revista de psiquiatria y disciplinas conexas (Review of
psychiatry and associated disciplines), which was the
virtual mouthpiece for psychoanalytic thinking in Peru
until 1924. Freud mentions it in “A Short Account of
Psychoanalysis” (1924f [1923]) and in a 1924 addition
to the note on chapter 2 of The Psychopathology of Everyday
Life (1901b) where he quotes from Paul Wilson’s
article “The Imperceptible Obvious” (1922).
Of Valdizan’s publications, those closest to psychoanalysis
are “Extrapsychiatric Psychotherapy” (1918)
and two articles written with Honorio Delgado: “Psychological
Factors in Dementia Praecox” and “The
Revolt of the Sexual Libido in Old Age.”
Valdizan’s main contribution to psychoanalysis is
that he contributed to spreading the discipline at a
1832
time and in a place where it gave rise to lively controversy.
In 1930, after his death at the age of forty-four,
the only chair of psychiatry in the country was taken
by Honorio Delgado, who had by then become a fierce
opponent of psychoanalysis. It is no idle speculation
that Valdizan’s open-mindedness and tolerance with
regard to psychoanalytic ideas would have favored
their greater development.
ALVARO REY DE CASTRO
See also: Peru; Revista de psiquiatria y disciplinas
conexas.
Bibliography
Mariategui, Javier. (1981). Hermilio Valdizan. El proyecto de
una psiquiatria peruana. Lima: Libreria Minerva.
Valdizan, Hermilio. (1918). La psicoterapia extrapsiquiatrica.
Anales, Facultad de medicina de Lima, 250-271.
. (1920). Ensayo de psicologia del enfermo. Revista
de psiquiatria y disciplinas conexas, 3, 1-2, 19-38.
. (1923). Factores psicologicos de la demencia precoz.
Revista de psiquiatria y disciplinas conexas, 4, 4, 263—
286.
. (1926). La rebelién de la libido sexual en la vejez.
Mercurio Peruano, 9, 338-355.
VENEZUELA
At the end of the 1950s there were two psychoanalysts
in Caracas: Hernan Quijada, trained in Paris, and
Guillermo Teruel, analyzed in London. The first reactions
of associated groups (psychiatrists, psychologists)
were varied, ranging from an attitude of refusal
for some to curiosity and affiliation for others. Quijada’s
important position in the Ministry for Health
made it easier to receive state support.
Quijada, Teruel, Manuel Kizer, Antonio Garcia, Fernando
Acuna, Cesar Augusto Ottalagano, Julio Aray,
Antonio Briceno, Nicolas Cupello, Hugo Dominguez,
Juan Antonio Olivares, Hans Voss, and W. Hobaica
formed a work group that was officially recognized by
the International Psychoanalytical Association (IPA)
at the Copenhagen congress in 1965. Between 1966
and 1969 an IPA committee comprising Leén Grinberg
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
and Maria Langer from Buenos Aires, Alfredo Nannum
from Mexico, Luiz Guimaraes Dalheim and Adelheid
Lucy Koch from Brazil, worked at improving the
group’s training by revising theory and conducting
group controls.
In 1969 the international committee appointed
Teruel as the first training analyst. That same year, at
the international Congress in Rome, the work group
was transformed into a definitive association (Asociacion
Venezolana de Psicoanilisis; ASOVEP), prior to
being affiliated to the International Psychoanalytical
Association in 1971, at the Vienna Congress. The first
group of candidates commenced training in 1969.
In May 1975 power struggles and exclusion anxiety
gave rise to conflicts within the association between the
oldest analysts and new arrivals. Two groups were formed
with their respective orientations, calling for the intervention
of the International Psychoanalytical Association at
the London Congress in the same year. In 1976 a committee
directed by Maxwell Gitelson and comprising Serge
Lebovici, Daniel Widlécher, Edward Joseph, and David
Zimmermann went to Caracas to visit the association.
Thanks to their intervention, the dissensions were
soothed and a joint agreement was signed in 1977.
In 1983 Manuel Kizer, one of the founding members,
left the ASOVEP to create a Lacanian group. In
May 1989, after more quarrels, fifteen other members
decided to constitute a separate group and received
recognition as a work group from the International
Psychoanalytical Association. This group went on to
be recognized at the San Francisco Congress of 1995 as
the Caracas Psychoanalytic Association.
The most noteworthy contributions from the
ASOVEP includes J. Aray’s work on the fetal psychism
and abortion; Hugo Dominguez’s study of the dynamics
of communication; Alfonso Gisbert’s work on the identity
of the psychoanalyst; Rafael E. Lopez-Corvo’s study
of femininity, addictions, and auto-envidia ( “self-envy’’);
and Guillermo Teruel’s work on the interaction between
couples and the death instinct. From the Caracas Psychoanalytic
Association, Addys Attias stands out for
work on adolescent pathology, and A. Torres for work
on feminine identification and neurosis.
There are therefore two associations in Caracas,
each equipped with a training institute. In terms of
publications, the ASOVEP review Psicoanalisis appears
at irregular intervals, as well as a few monographs. The
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VERTEX
Caracas Association publishes a twice-yearly review,
Tropicos.
RAFAEL E. LOPEZ-Corvo
Bibliography
Olivares, Juan Antonio. (1984). Breve resena histérica de la
Asociacion venezolana de psicoanilisis. Psicoandlisis, 1,
117-124.
VERTEX
The term vertex, in Wilfred R. Bion’s terminology,
refers to the psychic place from which an emotional
experience can be represented with the support of data
from a sensory modality, which he called the “mental
counterpart” (1965, p. 90) of the sense involved.
In common English, vertex has the more general
meaning of “top.” Bion introduced it into his terminology
in 1965 in his book Transformations: Change
from Learning to Growth. He was seeking an abstract
definition of the “point of view” from which the mind,
through a system of transformations, can bring emotional
experiences linked to the absence of the object
together into a “constant conjunction” (p. 96) and
give them meaning. He thus used the geometric term
vertex, “clothing” the abstract geometric concept in
imaginary flesh. In so doing, he sought to avoid two
pitfalls: that of using a term with strong metaphoric
connotations such as point of view, which privileges
the sense of sight, and that of reducing the libidinal
objects and their processes of intrapsychic transformation
to purely formal entities. He nevertheless recognized
the primacy of the sense of sight in these
processes of transformation, notably, that it leads
more readily to verbal description than the other
senses. While he emphasized this primacy, he nonetheless
showed that a change of vertex, or the mental
equivalent of a sensory modality, can be necessary to
represent certain psychic experiences. He also described
the reversal of a vertex; for example, the reversal of the
visual vertex that leads to hallucinations.
Bion used the concept of the vertex to describe the
relationship between patient and analyst and to propose
a theory of interpretation. In the analytic rela-
1833
VipERMAN, Serce (1916-1991)
tionship, patient and analyst share the same experience,
but each has a different vertex. The patient’s vertex
is linked to his or her unconscious motivations and
their corresponding emotional bonds, the H (hatred)
bond or the L (love) bond. The analyst must strive to
adopt a vertex that is linked only to the K (knowledge)
bond, the emotional bond corresponding to the psychic
tension that must be tolerated until meaning
emerges. Interpretation for the analyst consists of formulating,
when the time comes, his or her experience
of the situation based on this vertex. The vertices of
the patient and the analyst must be neither too close
nor too far apart from one another. This produces a
“binocular vision” that enables the patient to take
a step back from his or her original vertex, bringing a
sort of perspective into the patient’s psyche.
DipigR HouzeL
See also: Bion, Wilfred Ruprecht; Invariant; Transformations.
Bibliography
Bion, Wilfred R. (1965). Transformations: Change from learning
to growth. London: Heinemann.
(1970). Attention and interpretation. London:
Tavistock.
Grinberg, Léon, Sor, Dario, and Tabak de Bianchedi, Elizabeth.
(1977). Introduction to the work of Bion: Groups,
knowledge, psychosis, thought, transformations, psychoanalytic
practice (Alberto Hahn, Trans.). Northvale, NJ: Jason
Aronson. (Original work publushed 1973)
VIDERMAN, SERGE (1916-1991)
The Romanian-born French physician, psychiatrist,
and psychoanalyst Serge Viderman was born on September
15, 1916 in Rimnic-Sarat, near Bucharest, and
died in Paris on November 3, 1991.
The third of four brothers, he was born into a relatively
affluent family; his father was a forestry agent.
After his secondary education, without prospects
owing to the numerus clausus against Jews, he decided
to go to France to join his eldest brother, who had
established himself as a doctor there. He arrived in
Rouen in 1934, at the age of eighteen, and entered
medical school, perhaps less out of any sense of vocation
than of lack of interest in the second career option
then available to gifted Jews: the legal profession.
1834
With the outbreak of the war, he finished his studies
and, after escaping imprisonment for resistance activities,
he took refuge in Grenoble, in the free zone,
where he rejoined his brother and his family and
enrolled in the bachelor’s program in philosophy at
the university. In 1943 he was forced to flee again, this
time to Paris, where he lived under a false identity
until the Liberation.
After the Liberation he became a naturalized French
citizen, but, in need of money, he accepted a job in
Fribourg (Switzerland) at the National Office of Immigration.
Based on the conclusions of his medical examination,
“displaced persons” were directed toward
either France or the United States. It was here that he
met his future wife, Michéle, who came from Burgundy;
the couple had three daughters.
As soon as he was able, Viderman returned to
France and settled near Poitiers, where the mayor of a
small administrative district was in need of a doctor
and was offering lodging. Unenthusiastic about being
a country doctor, he then moved to settle near Rouen
as a generalist in order to be closer to Paris and the
practice of psychiatry.
He came into renewed contact with his compatriot
Bela Grunberger, who recommended his own psychoanalyst,
Sacha Nacht; like both of the other men,
Nacht was a Romanian Jew. Viderman entered analysis
with Nacht in the spring of 1952, and after another
move, this time to the Paris suburbs, in 1955 he found
a job as a psychiatrist at Villa-des-Pages clinic, in Le
Vésinet, which was headed by two doctors named Leulier;
this enabled him to cut his first teeth as a practicing
psychiatrist.
His name did not appear on any of the lists of “students
in training” that were fought over by the two
rival factions of the schism of 1953, but his performance
in his degree course was brilliant enough for
him to be entrusted, in 1956, with writing, under
Nacht’s direction, an important article entitled
“Apercu sur Phistoire de la littérature psychanalytique”
(Outline of the history of the psychoanalytic literature)
for the second volume of La Psychanalyse
d’aujourd’hui (Psychoanalysis today), published by
the Presses Universitaires de France. In this article he
painted a broad historical picture that equally
embraced child analysis and psychosomatic theories,
and he showed no hesitation in approaching the contemporary
era, with Nacht (“Nacht’s work stands out
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
for its precision and clear organization”), Maurice
Bouvet (whose report on object relations he cited as
one of the “studies full of promise that have been published
in France in recently years”), Daniel Lagache,
whose “substantial report” on transference was noted,
and Jacques Lacan, “who has published works written
in a singular style, the obscurity and preciosity of
which are detrimental to his thinking” (Viderman also
rebuked Lacan for failing to cite Henri Wallon, in
whose works “he had nevertheless found the clearest
part of his inspiration”).
Esteem for Viderman was confirmed by his election
to membership in the Société psychanalytique de Paris
(SPP; Paris Psychoanalytical Society) in December
1957. After Bouvet’s death in 1960, Viderman was
immediately accredited to take over his training analyses;
unsurprisingly, he was elected to permanent
membership in the society on October 18, 1960. At
this time he left the clinic at Le Vésinet and settled definitively
in Paris as a psychoanalyst.
Viderman’s position within the institution was
always that of a “critic” in the true sense—a position,
moreover, that was congruent with the theoretical and
clinical views he elaborated over time. He felt close to
those who were attempting to open up the SPP to the
outside, particularly to the analysts of the Société
francaise de psychanalyse (French Society of Psychoanalysis),
which would become the Association psychanalytique
de France (Psychoanalytic Association of
France), but also, whatever reservations he may have
harbored about Lacan, with regard to what he perceived
to be lively elements within the Lacanian movement.
For example, in 1967 he wrote for L’Inconscient,
the revue founded by Piera Aulagnier, Jean Clavreul,
and Conrad Stein. Although he was one of the founders
and, from 1973, codirectors, along with Christian
David and Michel de M’Uzan, of the general section of
the collection “Le fil rouge” (The red thread) published
by the Presses Universitaires de France, he also
long maintained close ties with René Major and
Dominique Geahchan in the meetings organized by
their group, Confrontation, from 1974.
In 1978-1979 he tried, although in vain, to promote
a “second degree program,” known as Cursus B, alongside
the traditional curriculum for the training of analysts
within the Institut de psychanalyse de Paris (Paris
Institute of Psychoanalysis). In 1979 he cosigned the
summons issued to the institute by Robert Barande,
Dominique Geahchan, René Major, Michel Neyraut
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VIDERMAN, Serce (1916-1991)
and Conrad Stein to try to annul expulsion orders
judged to be illegal and voted for in June, against
members who refused to pay their membership fees in
protest. Finally, in 1980 he found himself alongside
Geahchan, Francois Roustang, Jacques Sédat, and
Stein, among the promoters of the foundation of the
College des psychanalystes (Collegium of psychoanalysts),
which aimed to situate itself “outside of the traditional
structures of psychoanalytic societies.”
These stands taken in relation to institutions were
not arbitrary, but rather closely linked to the ideas
Viderman promoted; these ideas first appeared in fully
developed form in his book, La Construction de l’espace
analytique (Construction of the analytic space; 1970),
which marked a real turning point in the thinking of
many analysts in the French psychoanalytic community.
His ideas incited lively discussions that for a time
seemed to take precedence over the usual administrative
quarrels. They were viewed as subversive by adherents
to a dogmatic psychoanalysis that was dependent
upon a certain Freudian scientistic ideal, and conducive
to the exercise of a will to codify, whose sterility
and absurdity Viderman underscored.
His description of the space in which an analytic
relationship (which is always an invention in partnership)
is born, flourishes, and fades away, is based on a
radical putting into doubt of the existence of any external
“truth” that could be found in its integrity and
could transcend the protagonists in the relationship.
The person of the analyst and the counter-transference
here have a dimension that renders practice less assured
and less reassuring. Interpretations do not “construct”
the subject’s history, but rather “construct” a probability
that cannot pretend to be an “objective historical
truth.” Needless to say, this calling into question of
pseudo-certainties was taken for what it was: a relativization
of the “power” of those who pretended to legislate
in their own name, a caution against the abuses of
force in producing meaning.
Book after book, Viderman deepened his explorations,
for example with Le Celeste et le Sublunaire (The
celestial and the sublunar; 1977), or Le Disseminaire
(The disseminary; 1987), where he pursued his task by
dismantling the illusions—extremely similar illusions,
in the last analysis, because they are linked to the same
sociocultural sources—that inspired the thinking of
Freud, Marx, and Einstein, all of whom believed in the
existence of a rigorous determinism, a law that orders
the tangible world and the psyche alike. For him, the
1835
VIENNA, FREUD'S SECONDARY SCHOOL IN
path was cleared in process, with the passage of the
person who walked it.
Viderman did not live to see the publication of his
last book, De l’argent en psychanalyse et au-dela
(Money in psychoanalysis and beyond). It could not
be fitted into the publication schedule at the Presses
Universitaires de France until shortly after his death,
on November 3, 1991, of a cancer that had gradually
distanced him from all activity other than writing. It is
an incomplete book, not revised with Viderman’s
characteristic meticulousness, for those close to him
had tried, in vain, to get it printed before time ran out,
as they knew it was fated to do. Death, moreover, is a
constant presence in this work, which gives the sense
of a testament, but in reality completed the approach
Viderman had begun twenty years earlier. His way of
emphasizing our fear of nothingness and the “illusory
conjuration” of it represented by money reveals the
contours of a meditation on human destiny as well as
on the psychoanalyst’s place in this process; the book
attests to the abiding presence of the philosophical
reflection that filled the first years of his training.
As Michel Neyraut wrote in his 1991 obituary for
Viderman, printed in Le Monde: “Out of the humanist,
the thinker, the linguist, the gourmet, the sage,
and finally, the psychoanalyst, which was dominant in
him? It depended on whether you were asking about a
passage from Homer, the bouquet of a Médoc, a translation
of Vialatte, or simply the meaning of a word—
he, who came from Romania and had learned his
French out of Anatole France!”
ALAIN DE MYOLLA
See also: Nacht, Sacha; Société psychanalytique de Paris et
Institut de psychanalyse de Paris.
Bibliography
Neyraut, Michel. (1991, November 7). Neécrologie de Serge
Viderman. Le Monde.
Viderman, Serge. (1970). La construction de l’espace analytique.
Paris: Denoél.
. (1977). Le céleste et le sublunaire. Paris: Presses Universitaires
de France.
. (1987). Le disséminaire. Paris: Presses Universitaires
de France.
. (1992). De l’argent in psychanalyse et au-dela. Paris:
Presses Universitaires de France.
1836
VIENNA, FREUD’S SECONDARY SCHOOL IN"
After home-schooling and studies at a private primary
school during his elementary school years, in 1865 Sigmund
Freud enrolled in the first class of the newly
constructed Leopoldstadter Kommunalrealgymnasium,
and later (1868-1869) at the Obergymnasium,
located at Taborstrasse 24 in the second district in
Vienna. He completed the degree course, earning high
praise, received the school prize in his third year, and
in 1873, in his eighth year, received the Matura (highschool
diploma) with honors after passing his qualifying
exams. These included: composition, in German,
on the theme “What considerations should guide us in
choosing a profession?”; Latin exam: Virgil, Book IX,
176-223; Oskar Seyffert, book XIII”; Greek exam:
Sophocles, Oedipus Rex, v. 14-573 and mathematics.
The ratio of Catholics to Jews in the second-year class
was thirty to twenty-eight; in the eighth-year class it was
six to five. As to anti-Semitism in the upper classes,
from Freud’s fifth year, the name “Sigmund” appears on
school documents instead of “Sigismund,” probably
because of ridicule; otherwise there are no traces of an
administrative change of his first name.
There are numerous allusions to Freud’s secondaryschool
years in his scientific works, particularly in The
Interpretation of Dreams (1900a), for example, the dream
of the botanical monograph. His esteem for his high
school teachers never diminished: Samuel Hammerschlag,
who taught religion and was also librarian to the Jewish
community and a friend of Freud’s father; Viktor Ritter
von Kraus, who taught German, history, and philosophy.
During his eighth year (university preparation),
Freud was at the head of his class. His friends included
Heinrich Braun, Wolf Knopfmacher, Salomon Lipiner,
Siegmund Lustgarten, Ignaz Rosanes, Eduard Silberstein,
Julius Wagner, and Richard Wahle.
Freud contributed to the school’s fiftieth anniversary
celebration, in 1914, with an article, “Some Reflections
on Schoolboy Psychology,” that appeared in the commemorative
brochure. For the fiftieth anniversary of
Freud’s death in 1989, the Erzherzog Rainer Realgymnasium
was renamed the Sigmund Freud Gymnasium.
Eva LAIBLE
See also: Adolescence; Darwin, Darwinism, and psychoanalysis;
Psychology and psychoanalysis; Silberstein,
Eduard; Suicide.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1900a). The interpretation of dreams. SE,
4—5.
. (1914f). Some reflections on schoolboy psychology.
SE, 13, 239-244.
Laible, Eva. (1989). Uber Sigmund Freuds Gymnasialzeit,
125 Jahre Bg./ B.R.G. Wien II. Festschrift Sigmund Freud,
dem beriihmtesten Schiiler unseres Gymnasiums zur 50.
Wiederkehr seines Todestages gewidmet (pp. 19-30).
Vienna: Festschrift Sigmund Freud.
Pokorny, Alois. (1865). Jarhesberichte des Leopoldstéidter
Kommunal-Real- und Obergymnasiums in Wien. Wien
1865-1874. Vienna: Verlag des Leopoldstadter Real- und
Obergymnasiums.
VIENNA GENERAL HOSPITAL
Originally a hospice for the poor, Vienna General Hospital
(Allemeines Krankenhaus) was dedicated by
Emperor Joseph II in 1784. With about two thousand
beds and a design with courtyards and open spaces,
the hospital by the 1870s had become one of Europe’s
leading teaching hospitals. with new and expanding
departments and clinics.
After receiving his medical degree in March 1881,
Freud was able for a time to continue his research in
Ernst Briicke’s physiology laboratory, where he also
worked as a demonstrator for several semesters. But
because Freud had limited financial resources, his
hopes of building a career in research were misplaced,
and Briicke’s attempts to obtain a research position for
him in laboratories in Graz and Prague proved fruitless.
After becoming engaged to Martha Bernays in
June 1882, Freud accepted Briicke’s advice to give up
research in favor of a more remunerative career as a
physician. A month later Freud began his clinical
training at the Vienna General Hospital.
Freud spent three years at the hospital and trained in
many of its different departments. He worked in surgery
(July to September 1882) and studied internal medicine
under Hermann Nothnagel (October 1882 to March
1883). His early training in psychiatry was under Theodor
Meynert (April to October 1883). Freud subsequently
trained in the dermatology clinic and was
assigned to the ward for syphilitic patients. At first an
unpaid trainee, Freud was appointed assistant physician
(Sekundararzt) while under Meynert, and in early 1885
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
VIENNA, UNIVERSITY OF
he temporarily replaced Franz Scholz as head of the
department of nervous diseases and the liver. At the
same time, he continued his researches in brain anatomy
and pathology in Meynert’s laboratory. He published
numerous articles in clinical neurology, on brain pathologies,
and on cocaine, and for extra income he wrote
abstracts of articles in international medical journals.
Freud specialized in nervous diseases on the advice
of Josef Breuer, and in June 1885 he was appointed privatdozent
in neuropathology. About the same time,
with Briicke’s support, he obtained a postgraduate travel
grant to study in Paris at Salpétriere Hospital with
Jean Martin Charcot. He subsequently concluded his
clinical training in Berlin at Adolf Baginsky’s pediatric
clinic. After his return to Vienna, he established a private
practice as a neurologist in April 1886 and married
in September of the same year.
EvA LAIBLE
See also: “Autobiographical Study, An’; Breuer, Josef;
Briicke, Ernst Wilhelm von; Meynert, Theodor; Vienna,
University of.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1960). Letters. New York: McGraw-Hill.
. (1960b [1885]). Curriculum vitae. In Josef Gicklhorn
and René Gicklhorn, Sigmund Freuds akademische
laufbahn im lichte der dokumente. Vienna: Urban und
Schwarzenberg.
Hirschmiiller, Albrecht. (1991). Freuds begegnung mit der
psychiatrie. Tubingen, Germany: Diskord.
VIENNA PSYCHOANALYTIC SOCIETY. see
Wiener Psychoanalytische Vereinigung
VIENNA, UNIVERSITY OF
After a series of lectures on Darwin by Carl Brihl
(1820-1899), an eminent professor of zoology at the
University of Vienna, Freud decided to study medicine
rather than law and to become a researcher in order to
“understand something about the enigmas of nature
1837
VIOLENCE, INSTINCT OF
and perhaps even contribute to solving them.” His
decision was also inspired by “Nature,” a text that has
been attributed to Goethe. In the absence of faculties
in the natural sciences, medicine substituted as basic
training for biologists, zoologists, and physiologists.
Freud, however, had no wish to become a physician.
The freedom in organizing studies accorded by the
edicts of 1872 suited his theoretical penchants.
Prepared by exercises with the microscope, he engaged
for six semesters in intensive studies of zoology with Carl
Claus (1835-1899), a Darwinian. Claus twice sent him on
a university grant to the zoological station at Trieste, Italy,
to study the sexual organs of the eel. Although Freud
himself underestimated the value of this research, his
description of the bisexual disposition of the fresh-water
eel is considered a fundamental study in this domain. His
studies of Aristotle with Franz von Brentano (1838-1917)
caused him to nurture for some time the notion of doing
a double doctorate in zoology and philosophy.
In the course of his seventh semester he moved away
from Claus, an exceptional though not very directive
master, and joined the laboratory of the physiologist
Ernst Wilhelm von Briicke (1819-1892), who was
assisted by Ernst Fleischl von Marxow (1846-1891) and
Siegmund Exner (1846-1926). This was “the inexhaustible
center that drove all Viennese medicine in the second
half of the century,’ where Freud finally found
“tranquility and total satisfaction,” as well as individuals
that he could “respect and take as models.” Briicke was
an outstanding figure whom Freud could identify with,
like Jean Martin Charcot later.
Being more of a researcher than a student, Freud
published five articles on neurophysiology before his
doctorate. With “Uber den Bau der Nervenfasern und
Nervenzellen beim Flusskrebs” (On the structure of
nerve fibers and cells in the crayfish) in 1882, he
became a pioneer in neurological research. He nevertheless
experienced failures in his work in the Institute
for Experimental Pathology, headed by Salomon
Stricker (1834-1898), and in the Chemistry Institute,
run by Ernst Ludwig (1842-1915).
In 1879 and 1880 he translated works of John Stuart
Mill, published in volume 12 of Mill’s Gesammelte Werke
(Complete works), in order to earn his living, since he
found himself in a difficult financial situation in spite of
grants from two Jewish organizations. At this time he
did his military service while preparing for his doctorate.
In the oral examinations for his doctorate he received
1838
grades of “excellent” for the first and third examinations
and a grade of “good enough” in the second. He sat for a
recapitulation exam in law for physicians and received
his medical doctorate on March 31, 1881. Among his
friends while he was a student were Carl Koller, Siegmund
Lustgarten, and Eduard Silberstein.
Eva LAIBLE
See also: Amentia; Brentano, Franz von; Breuer, Josef;
Briicke, Ernst Wilhelm von; Darwin, Darwinism, and
psychoanalysis; Goethe and psychoanalysis; Hard science
and psychoanalysis; Institut Max-Kassowitz; Internal/
external reality; Philosophy and psychoanalysis; Science
and psychoanalysis; Silberstein, Eduard; Wagner-Jauregg,
Julius (Julius Wagner Ritter von Jauregg).
Bibliography
Hemecker, Wilhelm. (1991). Vor Freud: philosophiegeschichtliche
voraussetzungen der psychoanalyse. Munich, Germany:
Philosophia.
Laible, Eva. (1993). Through privation to knowledge:
unknown documents from Freud’s university years. International
Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 74, 4, 775—790.
Lesky, Erna. (1976). The Vienna medical school of the 19th century
(L. Williams and I. S. Levij, Trans.). Baltimore, MD: Johns
Hopkins University Press. (Original work published 1965)
VIOLENCE, INSTINCT OF
The word violence derives from an Indo-European
root that refers to life. The natural instinct of violence
is thus not a destructive instinct, much less a death
instinct, but a natural life and survival instinct that
corresponds to the instinct of self-preservation in Sigmund
Freud’s first theory of the instincts.
It involves what Freud saw as a sort of natural “imaginary
cruelty” in 1897 and described in “Instincts and
Their Vicissitudes” (1915c) as being common to
humans and animals. This instinct’s goal is above all to
protect life and the narcissistic integrity of the subject.
This holds regardless of the potential effects caused
secondarily to an object that as yet has only a narcissistic
status in the subject’s imagination. Instinctual violence
has nothing to do with aggressiveness, sadism, or
hatred, whose libidinal components Freud showed to
be aimed at an object that had otherwise attained an
oedipal genital status.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
In Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality (1905),
Freud very clearly showed that this brutal instinct can
attract to itself a part of the sexual instincts, producing
aggressive components. In 1915 he attributed a narcissistic
and phallic character to violent dynamism and
advanced the hypothesis of a logically necessary anaclisis
of the sexual instincts on the brutal self-preservation
instincts, so as to reinforce the energy of the sexual
instincts in the direction of love and creativity.
The role of the instinct of violence was gradually specified
in European and American psychoanalytic studies
that since 1960 have focused on a veritable metapsychology
of narcissism. In La Violence fondamentale (Fundamental
violence; 1984) Jean Bergeret, based on such
studies and Freud’s first hypotheses, proposed an
attempted synthesis, forming a theory of instinctual violence.
He gave special emphasis to the difficulties Freud
encountered in trying to account for the stage of primitive
violence within the totality of the Oedipus myth. The first
acts of the drama (the oracle of Apollo and the episode of
Mount Cithaeron in particular) bear witness to human
beings’ deep intuitive awareness of their fundamental
instinct of brutality in the service of self-preservation.
Freud was never satisfied with his successive theories
about the instincts. Rather, he decided to focus on the
synchronic aspect of a conflict arising between tendencies
within the same psychogenetic generation. His theory
of instinctual anaclisis, however, would have enabled
him to conceptualize a diachronic conflict pitting the
violent pregenital tendencies against the sexual tendencies,
with all the possible configurations linked to fusion,
defusion, and the different modes of articulation of
these two fundamental groups of instincts. His choice of
a synchronic model of conflict prevented Freud from
better integrating into his psychodynamic and economic
conception this brutal instinct of violence and defense,
which he had nevertheless clearly described.
JEAN BERGERET
See also: Aggressiveness/aggression; Catastrophic change;
Combined parent figure; Criminology and psychoanalysis;
Cruelty; Envy and Gratitude; Fort-Da; Mastery,
instinct for; Phobias in children; Primal scene; Sadism;
Stammering; Transgression.
Bibliography
Bergeret, Jean. (1984). La violence fondamentale. Paris:
Dunod.
. (1994). La violence et la vie. Paris: Payot.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
VIOLENCE OF INTERPRETATION, THE: FROM PICTOGRAM TO STATEMENT
Freud, Sigmund. (1905d). Three essays on the theory of
sexuality. SE, 7: 123-243.
. (1915c). Instincts and their vicissitudes. SE, 14:
109-140.
VIOLENCE OF INTERPRETATION, THE:
FROM PICTOGRAM TO STATEMENT
The Violence of Interpretation, originally published in
1975 by the Presses Universitaires de France, was Piera
Castoriadis-Aulagnier’s first book, although she had
already published a number of important articles beginning
in 1961, and her research (seminar at the Hopital
Sainte-Anne), institutional involvement (creation of the
Quatrieme Groupe of the O.P.L.E. in 1969), and editorial
work (as head of the revue L’Inconscient and, then, Topique
beginning in 1969) were already widely known.
This book marked an important step in psychoanalysis
in France, especially with regard to psychosis. It
attracted a huge readership immediately, and has been
translated into Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and English.
Aulagnier’s project sought to reexamine the Freudian
metapsychological model on the basis of the psychoanalyst’s
obligation, in therapeutic work with psychotic
patients, to rethink the mind and its models. The magnitude
of the task and the systematic organization of
the new theories presented explain why this book was
published relatively late in her career.
The Violence of Interpretation, according to Aulagnier,
attests to the “prodigious work of reinterpretation carried
out by psychosis” (p. xxviii) and thus makes it possible to
catch a glimpse of an unthinkable “before” that has been
shared by all. Aulagnier did not base her work on the
idea of a “psychotic kernel” common to all, a theory she
rejected, but rather believed that the psychotic succumbs
to the attraction of a mode of representation that has
normally been surpassed, even though it remains latent
in all subjects. The author’s analysis thus culminated in a
theory of representation, and more specifically of what
she called a “primal” stage of representation, which
“ignores word-presentations and has as its exclusive
material the image of the physical thing” (p. xxix). Hence
Aulagnier’s definition of psychosis: “Psychosis is characterized
by the force of attraction exerted by the primal,
an attraction to which it opposes that ‘addition’ represented
by the creation of a ‘delusional’ interpretation that
makes ‘sayable’ the effects of that violence” (p. xxx).
1839
VISUAL
Aulagnier innovated a number of new concepts
based on this precept, in particular “primary violence,”
which is the effect of anticipation imposed by the discourse
of the mother (“word-bearer”) upon an infans
from whom a response is anticipated that the preverbal
infant is unable to give, and the “secondary violence”
that “leans on” the first.
For Aulagnier psychic activity is subdivided into
three modes of functioning, none of which necessarily
silence one another: primal process (pictographic representation),
primary process (fantasy representation),
and secondary process (ideational representation).
The phenomenon of specularization (Jacques
Lacan) and the psyche’s “borrowing” from sensory
models are characteristic of the primal process. The
“pictogram” is defined as “the formation of a relational
schema, in which the representative is reflected
as a totality identical with the world” (p. 25). This
“representative background” does not disappear from
the subject, but is “foreclosed to the power of the Is
knowledge” (p. 37), except in psychosis where it is
manifest.
The primary process is comprised of fantasy activity,
but Aulagnier emphasized that pleasure and
unpleasure are always experienced here as being
dependent upon an Other’s desire to give or refuse it.
Finally we have the secondary process, which is
linked to the appearance of word-presentations.
Nomination, once it involves affect, means naming
not just the object, but also the relation that links the I
to the object: “to name the other with the term
beloved is to designate the subject who is naming as
lover” (p. 97). The I’s self-naming, with the linguistic
signs proper to affect and the kinship system, enable it
to come into being. Aulagnier wrote: “The I is simply
the I’s knowledge of the I” (p. 5), but the I is also constructed:
in relation to its past in “self-historization”
and to its future in the “identificatory project.”
The conditions that make it impossible for an I to
come into being other than by passing through delusional
identification are the topic of the second part of the book,
where the author defines what she means by the “psychotic
potentiality” or “primary delusional thinking” that can
(or cannot) give way to actual psychosis.
Aulagnier developed the two major categories of
schizophrenia and paranoia and, based on the hypothesis
of secondary violence and delusional theories of
1840
origination, proposed a new psychoanalytic approach to
these pathologies.
SOPHIE DE MyOLLA-MELLOR
See also: Aulagnier-Spairani, Piera, France; Infans;
Object; Pictogram; Psychotic potential; Sense/nonsense.
Source Citation
Aulagnier, Piera. (2001) The violence of interpretation: From
pictogram to statement (Alan Sheridan, Trans.). Hove, UK,
and Philadelphia: Brunner-Routledge.
VISUAL
As an adjective, the term visual designates what is
perceptible in the field that presents itself to the eye. As
a noun, the visual involves the way in which the psychical
apparatus organizes this perceptual data.
As early as his study on aphasia (1891b), Freud empha- —
sized the importance of the visual in the representation of
things in order to understand its complicated relationship
with representation by words. In The Interpretation of
Dreams (1900a), he both provided an optical model for
the psychical apparatus and also noted that the dream
material, as well as that of memory traces, are most often
presented visually. Thus, modes of representation must
fulfill requirements of visual representations. The subsequent
recognition of visual component drives provided
Freud with the opportunity to verify that their vicissitudes
are not homologous to those of the other drives. Finally,
in Moses and Monotheism (1939a), he insisted that it was
necessary to set aside visual stimuli, especially those
caused by the maternal body, in order to name the father.
He connected this “advance in intellectuality” (1939a,
p. 111) to the impact of monotheistic religion on mental
life, especially when it prohibits representations.
In Freud’s work, the visual shows the privileged
connection between the sexual and the sensorial. Jacques
Lacan discussed this in his article on the “Mirror
Stage” (1949), where he expanded Freud’s observations
of the visual dimension of narcissism. Lacan
stressed the importance of the mirror image for the
infant held up to the mirror by its mother. When the
baby recognizes itself in the mirror, it achieves an identity
by assuming the mirror image. But this is also a
trap, because once the subject is captured, he confuses
himself with the mirror image and thus becomes alie-
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
nated by a visual definition of self. He is caught in the
succession of images.
In a study relating psychotic discourse to the mirror
stage, Piera Aulagnier proposed that in the psyche’s
primal activity of visual representation its invested
object should be called a pictogram. In doing so, she
emphasized the prevalence of the visual in unconscious
representations.
It is worthwhile to make another distinction between
the visible image and the visual image. Vision exhausts
only the empirical reality of a phenomenon, which can
become a psychic representation, that is, a visual image,
only by passing through the primary and secondary processes.
The difference between what is visible and the
visual of the image explains how dream images are
never confused with things seen by the dreamer. Because
it is incongruous with the desire to see, the visual image
assures the perpetual thrust of the scopic drive. The
impossibility of reducing the visual to the visible prevents
the image from showing the object of desire and
orients vision towards another image. If we grant Freud’s
assertion that the desire to see is related to seeing the
genital organs, the notion of the visual allows us to specify
what is involved in the attempt to see, namely the
female genitalia that eludes sight. The only way to represent
it is by the visual image, which is a fetish that only
exposes its unreal opposite, the maternal penis.
Why is the visual the predominant sense? This question
can be answered by considering that the visual is overdetermined
because there is no penis on the female body. When
the child fails to see a penis on a female body, his single sex
wavers and he begins to think that there is another sex,
which exists even though it is “invisible.” Other elements
of the visual deserve further attention. For example, the
central role that psychoanalysis grants the visual is justified
by the fact that there must be a visual reference, a virtual
psychical mirror (certain moments in the treatment) or a
visual fantasy. The determining function of the visual
might be related to the timelessness of the unconscious,
because only the visual is in a position to prevent the representation
of the fantasy from being eternalized.
JEAN-MICHEL Hirt
See also: Alpha elements; Amphimixia/amphimixis;
Dream screen; Dream work; Fort-Da; Functional phenomena;
Hallucinosis; Look/gaze; Mnemic trace/memory
trace; Organic repression; Perception-consciousness
(Pcpt.-Cs.); Psychic envelope; Psychic temporality;
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
ViSUAL ARTS AND PSYCHOANALYSIS
Representability; Secondary elaboration; Screen memory;
Smell, sense of; Sudden involuntary idea; Thing-presentation;
Thought; Voyeurism.
Bibliography
Aulagnier, Piera. (1975). La violence de |’interprétation. Du
pictogramme a I’énoncé. Paris: Presses Universitaires de
France.
Freud, Sigmund. (1900a). The interpretation of dreams. SE,
4—5: 1-751.
. (1939a [1934-38]). Moses and monotheism: Three
essays. SE, 23: 1-137.
Lacan, Jacques. (2002). The mirror stage as formative of the
I function as revealed in psychoanalytic experience. In
Ecrits: A selection (Bruce Fink, Trans.). New York: W. W.
Norton. (Original work published 1949)
VISUAL ARTS AND PSYCHOANALYSIS
The visual arts make use of nonverbal representation and
therefore require a different psychoanalytic approach
than the language arts. The work of art can be considered
as a compromise solution between impulses and defenses.
Psychoanalysis can then try to reveal the unconscious
ideas behind the creative work. But in the visual arts, even
more so than in the language arts, it is form itself, more
than the represented subject, that must be interpreted.
The first psychoanalytic text to examine the visual
arts was Freud’s Leonardo da Vinci and a Memory of his
Childhood (1910c). Freud opened the way for psychobiography
by demonstrating the impact of instinctual
and infantile life on the artist’s creative work. In his analysis
of La Gioconda and Saint Anne, he approached the
analysis of formal elements: the Gioconda’s enigmatic
smile owes its existence to Leonardo’s infantile life; the
confusion of the bodies of Anne and Mary in the
London drawing is said to be a form of condensation.
In 1911 Karl Abraham published an essay on Giovanni
Segantini. His goal was to show that psychoanalysis
can be applied to the analysis of mental processes
other than neurosis. He demonstrated the role of the
practice of making art in the psychic economy of the
artist, the importance of infantile experience, real or imagined,
and the antagonistic interplay of love and hate in
the genesis of the work. Unfortunately, his analysis of the
paintings themselves does not deepen the interpretation
of the manifest subject of the representation.
1841
VOYEURISM
In 1913 Otto Rank and Hanns Sachs published in Die
Bedeutung der Psychoanalyse fiir die Geiteswissenschaften
(Psychoanalysis and the humanities) a chapter on the
aesthetics and psychology of art, centered on the affects
of pleasure and unpleasure of the work of art. They
argued that the economy of affect governs the development
of the formal aspects of the work of art.
Freud published “The Moses of Michelangelo”
(1914b) but did not sign it, proof of his prudence in
using psychoanalysis for the interpretation of artistic
phenomena. Freud based his interpretation of the statue
on his own feelings. Since he identified with the
subject of the representation, he understood the statue
in terms of his own emotional investment, thus opening
a path to an approach to artistic phenomena that
was little used by later psychoanalysts, who were
primarily interested in an analysis of the process of
artistic creation. There were a number of important
contributions to this field aside from the work of
Freud: Otto Rank, Melanie Klein, Hanna Segal, Ernst
Kris, Donald Winnicott, and Didier Anzieu.
Children’s drawings and the work of psychotics have
been used as nonverbal material, but strangely they have
had little influence on the psychoanalysis of the visual
arts. This field owes a great deal to the work of artists
and art historians like Anton Ehrenzweig, Meyer Schapiro,
Jean Clair, and René Demoris, who have made use
of psychoanalytic theory. Along with the approach taken
by psychobiography and interpretations of the creative
process, both of which are focused on the artist, psychoanalysis
can also help us understand the work of art
itself, providing it can avoid using verbal language as the
only source of reference. When Freud wrote that the lack
of expression of the visual arts was due to the material
used by those arts, he was referring to this.
The image is not only a metaphor or symbol; it signifies,
through its materiality, the setting aside of its
metaphoric or symbolic meaning and the context in
which our perceptual field has classified it. It comes to
prominence through the brilliance of its materiality as
a new external perception that we nonetheless are able
to recognize. For the visual arts much more than for
literature, meaning is hidden in form, the result of the
conscious and unconscious intentions of the author.
It is in the formal specifics of the work—that is, its
style—that the process of figuration unique to the
author is found. This is what Freud called, referring to
the dream work, “pictorial language,” our first mode of
1842
expression. The painted or sculpted image should not be
considered only the transcription of verbal thought but
the expression of a visual unconscious that preserves our
earliest impressions. The artist uses a sensory material
that bears the traces of his first affective perceptions and
experiences, producing a figurative representation that
balances desire with external reality, actual perception
with what has been irremediably lost.
The psychoanalytic approach to the arts requires a
methodology first used by Freud in “The Moses of Michelangelo.”
The effect the work has on the spectator is the
object of analysis. The image must be considered a libidinal
object of investment that is offered to the spectator
and apprehended on the basis of the effects it provokes in
him. The work of art reactivates the spectator’s unconscious
desire and awakens, step by step, the representations
he has used as a support. Through this associative
process, the spectator-analyst juxtaposes the resonances
the work provokes in him and the formal aspects that can
be considered traces of the unconscious life of its author.
It is through this chain of association that he will be able
to reconstruct the fantasies that generated the work of art.
MICHEL ARTIERES
See also: Baudouin, Charles; “Claims of Psychoanalysis to
Scientific Interest”; Literary and artistic creation; Illusion;
Kris, Ernst; Leonardo da Vinci and a Memory of his
Childhood; “Moses of Michelangelo, The”; Rank (Rosenfeld),
Otto; Representability; Sublimation.
Bibliography
Anzieu, Didier. (1981). Le corps de l’ceuvre, essais psychanalytiques
sur le travail créateur. Paris: Gallimard.
Artieres, Michel. (1995). Cézanne ou l’inconscient maitre
d ’ceuvre. Lausanne: Delachaux and Niestleé.
Freud, Sigmund. (1914b). The Moses of Michelangelo. SE,
13: 209-238.
Kris, Ernst. (1952). Psychoanalytic explorations in art. New
York: International Universities Press.
Schapiro, Meyer. (1994). Theory and philosophy of art: Style,
artist, and society. New York: George Braziller.
VOYEURISM
Voyeurism is a deviant manifestation of sexuality that
involves looking without being seen in order to obtain
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
sexual pleasure. In Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality
(1905d), Freud examines sexual perversion and
indicates the circumstances under which “the pleasure
of looking [scopophilia] becomes a perversion (a) if it
is restricted exclusively to the genitals, or (b) if it is
connected with the overriding of disgust (as in the case
of voyeurs or people who look on at excretory functions),
or (c) if, instead of being preparatory to the
normal sexual aim, it supplants it.”
Later, in “Instincts and Their Vicissitudes” (1915c),
he provided a metapsychological explanation for
the instinct of looking, which involved the voyeurexhibitionist
pair and the reversal of activity into passivity
in connection with a precise object: “the sexual
member.” The different instinctual currents of seeing
are inflected by the voyeur, who tries to see the other’s
genitals while hiding his own, but who also tries to be
seen looking, in order to respond to what he believes is
the other’s desire to see. Jacques Lacan would later say
that the voyeur wants to be seen as a seer.
Freud continued to emphasize the visual component
of the perversions, but for him the specificity of
voyeurism is important because of the vicissitude of
the instinct of looking rather than its role in perversions.
Rather than allowing the evolution of the
instinct (component) of looking to develop in different
directions, the voyeur reduces the sexual and the
visual in sex to a narrow, stereotypical sexual situation.
He appears to do away with the sexual, the multiplicity
of objects and choices, by wrapping them in a rigid
fantasy. He tries to block the aggression in the instinct
in order to obtain pleasure, to the detriment of the
other. By splitting the ego, he uses sex for the purpose
of discharging instinctual violence. By appropriating
the other as image, the voyeur makes it an object of
pleasure, while remaining uninvolved in the other's
intimacy. The voyeur does not seek any form of
exchange or relationship, but obtains pleasure by seizing
the other’s image against its will. The goal is not
only the sight of parts of the body that are concealed
out of modesty or cultural opprobrium, but also to
dismember the body of the other. The voyeur watches
what is forbidden in order to destroy the physical
integrity of the person by substituting a dismembered
body for the unified image.
Several circumstances can lead to the occurrence of
voyeurism. The instinct to see is used through dis-
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
VOYEURISM
avowal and fetish formation to deny castration. The
fantasy of the phallic mother and the split of awareness
of the lack of a penis leads to rage and need for revenge
towards her. For Masud Khan, the pervert does not
succeed in creating a transitional object when reacting
against the encroachment of the maternal unconscious,
but manages to fabricate an “internal collageobject,”
which he then tries to discover in external
reality. The voyeur engages in this type of theatricalization
of the sexual relation by manipulation, submission,
and humiliation of the object.
Robert Stoller has insisted on the cultural necessity
of the perversion “forged by society and the family so
that they are not harmed further” by instinctual cruelty.
Because voyeurism turns the other into an image, an
object of envy and covetousness, it appears to also bear
witness to the visual focus of Western society. Seeing
at any cost is an imperative that is often confused
with science’s objective of mastery. In an “omnivisual
world,” according to Jacques Lacan’s expression, the
voyeur becomes the one who does not allow himself to
be blinded by sexual difference but cannot support the
truth. He knows exactly what his mother is like, but
tries to save his phallic image through some visual
sleight-of-hand. More than anyone, he denies what he
sees: the rift between the sexes, the fracture of bodies.
JEAN-MICHEL Hirt
See also: Activity/passivity; Exhibitionism; Face-to-face
situation; Infantile sexual curiosity; “Instincts and Their
Vicissitudes”; Libidinal development; Prohibition; Scoptophilia/
scopophilia; Turning around upon the subject’s
own self; Visual.
Bibliography
Bonnet, Gérard. (1996). La violence du voir. Paris: Presses
Universitaires de France.
Freud, Sigmund. (1905d). Three essays on the theory of
sexuality. SE, 7: 123-243.
. (1915c). Instincts and their vicissitudes. SE, 14:
109-140.
Khan, Masud. (1981). Alienation in perversions. London:
Hogarth Press and the Institute of Psycho-Analysis.
Stoller, Robert. (1975). Perversion: The erotic form of hatred.
New York: Pantheon.
1843
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WAELDER, ROBERT (1900-1967)
An Austrian psychoanalyst who taught in the psychiatric
section of Philadelphia Jefferson Medical College, Robert
Waelder was born on February 20, 1900, in Vienna, and
died on September 28, 1967 in Broomall, Pennsylvania.
He was the son of Joseph Waelder, a Jewish merchant.
After graduating from Maximilian gymnasium
with honors in 1918, Waelder entered the university
and in 1921 obtained a doctorate in physics.
At the age of twenty-two, Waelder consulted Sigmund
Freud about treatment and, following his advice,
he started a personal analysis with Robert Hans Jokl; he
subsequently underwent training analyses with Hermann
Nunberg and Anna Freud. In 1924, Waelder
became a member of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society,
where he performed a variety of functions as librarian
and as a member of the candidate committee. From
1932 to 1939, with Ernst Kris, Waelder edited Imago,
becoming that journal’s editor-in-chief in 1934.
As a representative of the Viennese analysts, and
within the context of an exchange of views, in 1936
Waelder presented in London his critique of the teachings
of Melanie Klein; “The Problem of the Genesis of
Psychical Conflict” was published in 1936. Waelder
also presented to the Royal Institute of International
Affairs his work on psychology and politics, which was
published as “The Psychological Aspects of International
Affairs” and suggested how psychoanalytic
notions might be applied to the study of war; in a similar
vein, he had written a short study on collective
psychoses; this was published first in French, and subsequently
as Psychological Aspects of War and Peace.
Another socio-political work, Progress and Revolution,
was published in 1967. According to Richard Sterba,
Waelder “showed a certain unworldliness that stood in
contrast to the vastness of his scientific and literary
knowledge” (Sterba, p. 138). He nevertheless created a
considerable impression upon colleagues. “Waelder’s
extensive knowledge and his vast vision are easily seen,
particularly in his later writings” (p. 141).
Waelder’s first marriage was to Jenny Pollak, who in
1928 also became a member of the Vienna Psychoanalytic
Society. In 1938, he emigrated to the United
States and taught at the Boston Psychoanalytic Institute.
Later, in 1943, he settled in Philadelphia and
became a training analyst at the recently founded Philadelphia
Psychoanalytic Institute. After a schism, in
which members broke away to form the Philadelphia
Association for Psychoanalysis, Waelder served as president
of that organization from 1953 to 1955. In 1963,
he was appointed professor of psychoanalysis at the
psychiatry department of Jefferson Medical College in
Philadelphia.
ELKE MUHLLEITNER
See also: United States
Bibliography
Sterba, Richard. (1982). Reminiscences of a Viennese psychoanalyst.
Detroit: Wayne State University Press.
Waelder, Robert. (1929). Psychological aspects of war and
peace. Geneva Studies, 10, 2.
. (1960). Basic theory of psychoanalysis. New York:
International Universities Press.
. (1967). Progress and revolution; a study of the issues
of our age. New York: International Universities Press.
1845
Wacner-JAUREGG, JULIUS (1857-1940)
. (1976). Psychoanalysis: Observations, theory, application:
Selected papers of Robert Waelder. New York: International
Universities Press.
WAGNER-JAUREGG, JULIUS (JULIUS
WAGNER RITTER VON JAUREGG)
(1857-1940)
Julius Wagner Ritter von Jauregg, an Austrian professor
of psychiatry, was born on March 7, 1857, in the
city of Wels, in Upper Austria, and died in Vienna on
September 27, 1940. He was the son of a high ranking
civil servant. While still a student and like Freud, he
published the results of his original research in the
laboratory of Salomon Stricker, professor of experimental
pathology at the University of Vienna. After
obtaining his doctorate in medicine in 1880, Wagner-
Jauregg, for two years, remained an assistant in Stricker’s
laboratory, where he met Freud. The two men
became friends and colleagues. When he failed to be
admitted to a training program in internal medicine,
Wagner-Jauregg decided on psychiatry. He submitted
his thesis for his habilitation in neuropathology in
1885 and qualified as a privatdozent in psychiatry in
1888. In 1889 he was appointed professor extraordinarius
at the University of Graz. Four years later, in 1893,
he was appointed professor ordinarus, or full professor,
at the University of Vienna, where he also became
director of the First Psychiatric and Neurological Clinic
and, from 1902, of the Second Psychiatric Clinic.
-The course of Wagner-Jauregg’s scientific work
includes such empirical discoveries as the central role
of iodine deficiency in the etiology of cretinism and
the introduction of iodine therapy to treat goiter.
Most significant was his use of malarial inoculations to
treat general paresis, then a relatively common disorder
in patients suffering from tertiary syphilis. This
treatment represented his belief that inducing febrile
illness could prove therapeutic in cases of psychosis,
and in 1927 it won him the Nobel Prize in physiology
or medicine.
Wagner-Jauregg was accused of abusing soliderpatients
in his clinic by employing extremely painful
electrical treatments to treat shell shock. The 1920
debate protocols from the military commission investigating
charges of brutality suffered by soldiers at the
hands of army doctors during the First World War
reveal a fundamental disagreement between Freud and
1846
Wagner-Jauregg in their respective views on the nature
of what came to be known as war neuroses. Freud was
appointed as an expert in the case after other psychiatrists,
former students of Wagner-Jauregg, recused
themselves. In Wagner-Jauregg’s view, as was commonly
thought at the time, soldiers who seemed to be
suffering from battle-related shell shock were actually
malingerers. In contrast, Freud suggested the importance
of the unconscious in such cases; he brought forward
positive results of psychoanalytic treatment and
proposed that war neuroses be treated more humanely
and considered as purely psychological in nature.
Freud emphasized that he believed Wagner-Jauregg
could not be personally guilty of cruelty to patients.
Despite Wagner-Jauregg’s negative attitude toward
psychoanalysis, a number of analysts, including Helene
Deutsch, Heinz Hartmann, Otto Pétzl, and Paul
Schilder, all worked in his clinic as interns or assistants.
Psychoanalytic training carried an obligation to work
in a clinical setting in a university psychiatric department.
Wagner-Jauregg’s congratulations on the occasion
of Freud’s sixtieth birthday led to subsequent
regular respectful exchanges between the two men.
Eva LAIBLE
See also: Freud, Anna; Hartmann, Heinz; Isakower, Otto;
“Notes Upon-a Case of Obsessional Neurosis” (Rat
Man); Nunberg, Hermann; Potzl, Otto; Schilder, Paul
Ferdinand; War neurosis.
Bibliography
Brown, Edward M. (2000). Why Wagner-Jauregg won the
Nobel Prize. History of Psychiatry, 11, 371-382.
Eissler, Kurt R. (1986). Freud as an expert witness: The discussion
of war neuroses between Freud and Wagner-Jauregg
(Christine Trollope, Trans.). Madison, CT: International
Universities Press. (Original work published 1979)
Jones, Ernest. (1953-1957). Sigmund Freud: Life and work (3
vols.). New York: Basic.
Lesky, Erna. (1976). The Vienna medical school of the 19th century
(L. Williams and I. S. Levij, Trans.). Baltimore, MD:
Johns Hopkins University Press. (Original work published
1965)
Miuhlleitner, Elke. (1992). Biographisches Lexikon der Psychoanalyse:
Die Mitglieder der psychologischen Mittwoch-
Gesellschaft und der Wiener psychoanalytischen Vereinigung,
1902—1938. Tubingen, Germany: Diskord.
Whitrow, Magda. (1993). Julius Wagner-Jauregg (1857—
1940). London: Smith-Gordon.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
WALTER, BRUNO (1876-1962)
The celebrated conductor and composer Bruno Walter
was born in Berlin on September 15, 1876, and died in
Los Angeles on February 17, 1962.
Born German, Bruno Walter Schlesinger was naturalized
as an Austrian citizen in 1911, took French citizenship
in 1938, and became an American citizen in
1948. Dropping his surname in favor of “Walter”
represented an identification with Walther von Stolzing,
the hero of Wagner’s comic opera, Die Meistersinger
von Niirnberg. Walter’s musical training took
place in Berlin, Cologne, and Hamburg, where he met
avant-garde composer Gustav Mahler, who became his
mentor and whom he followed to Vienna. There he
began a brilliant career as conductor and pianist, and
was also Mahler’s staunch defender.
Walter was an active participant on the unique and
complex intellectual scene in turn-of-the-century Vienna,
and his introduction to psychoanalysis occurred in 1906,
while a young conductor and Mahler’s protegé. Then at a
crucial stage in life, he suffered from a paralyzing neuralgia
and, after consulting a number of specialists, he decided
to seek help from Freud. From Walter’s autobiography we
know the course and outcome of their meeting, which has
been the subject of a small number of studies. Freud’s
work with Walter was unusual in that he operated less as
psychoanalyst than as a psychiatric consultant.
Indeed, while the young Walter expected months of
psychological investigation, Freud, after a physical exam
and a single visit, prescribed sojourns in Italy and Sicily.
The impact of the consultation had such an effect that
Walter obeyed immediately. His subsequent treatment
with Freud resembled therapy by suggestion such as was
common in the nineteenth century. When Walter asked
Freud if he would be able to play in front of an audience
because he feared a relapse, Freud took upon himself the
responsibility, assuming the role of a protective paternal
figure and inducing an almost hypnotic effect upon Walter,
traces of which were still discernable forty years later.
The case history of Bruno Walter was discovered by
the Austrian analyst Richard Sterba, who also emigrated
to the United States and was a great music
lover. Since his 1951 publication, this unusual affair
has come regularly under scrutiny, whether for purely
historical value, as a key example of brief therapy, for
Freud’s use of a somatic approach, or even as a method
of treating the so-called “actual neuroses.”
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Want oF BEING/LACK OF BEING
The close-knit Viennese artistic milieu fostered fortuitous
encounters. Mahler, for example, also had a
therapeutic consultation with Freud; and Ernest Jones,
in the second volume of Freud’s biography, mentions
that it took place to the intervention of Viennese neurologist
Richard Nepallek, who also happened to be a
relative of Mahler’s wife, Alma. Others have suggested
Walter as the source of the consultation, but have not
been able to prove it. It is true that during the 1930s
Walter collaborated with Herbert Graf, better known
in psychoanalytic circles as “Little Hans.” Whether
these experiences intensified Walter’s powerful
admiration for Freud, as revealed by Sterba, is not
known.
NICOLAS GOUGOULIS
See also: Music and psychoanalysis; Suggestion.
Bibliography
Chesire, Neil M. (1997). The empire of the ear: Freud’s problem
with music. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis,
6, 1127-1168.
Garcia, Emanuel E. (1990). Somatic interpretation in a
transference cure: Freud’s treatment of Bruno Walter.
International Review of Psycho-Analysis, 17, 83-88.
Gougoulis, Nicolas, and Kapsambelis, Vassilis. (1996).
Recherches sur le concept freudien des névroses actuelles.
Topique, 61, 493-502.
Sterba, Richard EF (1951). A case of brief psychotherapy by
Sigmund Freud. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis,
38, 75-80.
Walter, Bruno. (1946). Theme and variations. An autobiography.
New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
WANT OF BEING/LACK OF BEING
For Jacques Lacan, human being is a “lack of being.”
That was how he designated the subject’s fundamental
emptiness as it was caused by the first symbolization
and by the fact that desire originates in castration.
From the beginning of his teaching, Lacan noted
that for Freud the object is fundamentally lost, and the
subject spends his life looking for it. The object of psychoanalysis
is the lack of an object, and this lacking
object is at the heart of being. Lacan started elaborating
on this notion of a lack of being in 1957, when he
1847
War Neurosis
set about describing the oedipal crisis in terms of the
dialectic of desire and the question of the phallus.
During the mirror stage, the infant identifies with a
certain point within the maternal space. In fact, what the
subject takes for its own being is an other, both an image
in the mirror and an alter ego. This fundamental alienation
establishes misapprehension whereby one’s being is
confused with one’s ego. From the beginning the subject
is torn. He is divided between the place from which he
sees himself, and the image, the other with which he identifies.
From this perspective, a human being can never
experience a wholeness that would amount to being.
Because language allows the child to symbolize the
mother’s alternating presence and absence, it makes it
impossible for the child to become one with the mother.
From this point on, a gap is introduced between the
mother and child and any illusion of totality is broken.
The subject experiences his lack of being, and when
father later appears to put the phallus into play, he
proves the lack of being of the maternal phallus. “[T]he
child’s desire manages to identify with the mother’s
want-to-be” (Lacan, 2002, p. 197). This desire begins as
a quest for an object that might fill this lack.
Paradoxically the subject, as an effect of the symbolic
(trapped within language), can only use language to
search for the lost object. As Lacan wrote, “The being of
language is the nonbeing of objects” (p. 253). Being is
only a “lack of being,” and the thing that could fill this
lack is forbidden. This prohibition maintains desire.
Thus desire appears as the metonymy of a lack of being
whose signifier is the phallus that marks what the
mother lacks. The subject’s being is lack, and the cut that
produced the symbolic is the object a, which is the real
insofar as it is articulated in the symbolic and which is
also a gap that the ego as image occupies. The image of
the body, the principal mirage, indicates the place of
desire insofar as it is desire for nothing. This is the relation
of human beings with their own lack of being. But
at the same time, the image is what prevents the human
being from seeing it.
ALAIN VANIER
See also: Subject’s castration; Symbolic, the (Lacan).
Bibliography
Lacan, Jacques. (1958-1959). Le Séminaire-Livre VI, Le désir
et son interpretation (unpublished seminar).
1848
_ (1997). The seminar of Jacques Lacan, Book VII, The
ethics of psychoanalysis, (1959-1960) (Dennis Porter,
Trans.). New York: W. W. Norton, 1997.
. (2002). Ecrits: A selection. (Bruce Fink, Trans.). New
York: W. W. Norton.
WAR NEUROSIS
Freud’s interest, and that of his disciples, in war neurosis
(névrose de guerre) developed during the First World
War (1915b). The first psychoanalysts had an opportunity
to observe and to monitor many patients presenting —
such distinctive symptoms as paralyses, tremors, recurring
nightmares, the loss of sexual desire, and the like, all
related to the experience of war. Observations and
debate on these cases were presented in 1918 to the Fifth
International Congress in Budapest, by Freud, Sandor
Ferenczi, Karl Abraham, Ernst Simmel and Ernest Jones.
As well as the scientific interest in these pathologies
there was a need to prove to detractors of psychoanalysis
(who were only too happy to see a picture of neurosis
emerge that left, according to them, no room for the
unconscious) that war neurosis had in effect a definite
kinship with transference neuroses and hysteria.
The common denominator would be trauma,
which acts by breaching the psychic apparatus, and
which may appear either from the outside (traumatic
neurosis) or even from the inside (transference neurosis)
of the subject. In every case the trauma consists of
too great a quantity of excitation, which ruptures the
protective shield system, the psychic envelope. Generally
the symptoms appear after a clear interval and
take hold as a defense against anxiety.
From this period on, psychoanalysts have demonstrated
that trauma acts as a precipitating factor, revealing
a pre-existing neurotic structure; war then being the second
instance or the “afterwardsness” of an infantile
trauma. (Afterwardsness is Jean Laplanche’s neologism to
translate apres coup and Nachtraglichkeit into English.
Deferred action is the term used frequently in the Standard
Edition.) The symptoms (rumination over the traumatic
event, recurring nightmares, insomnia) appear as
repeated attempts to bind and abreact the trauma.
As the issue of the psychic after-effects of war is
always unfortunately topical, these works are used as a
benchmark for the teams who organize the treatment
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
of war victims in their countries, as the articles of
Marie-Rose Moro testify. But furthermore there is a
line of thought that results today in “Post Traumatic
Stress Disorders,” and which breaks, unfortunately,
with metapsychological topography and with the theory
of afterwardsness.
ALAIN DE MIJOLLA
See also: Germany; Kardiner, Abram; Neurosis; Simmel,
Ernst; Tavistock Clinic; Trauma; Traumatic neurosis.
Bibliography
Ferenczi, Sandor. (1980). Two types of war neuroses. In
Further contributions to the theory and technique of psychoanalysis
(pp. 124—141; John Rickman, Ed.; Jane Isabel Suttie
et al, Trans.). New York: Brunner/Mazel. (Original work
published 1916/1917).
Ferenczi, Sandor, Abraham, Karl, Simmel, Ernst, and Jones,
Ernest. (1921). Psychoanalysis and the war neuroses (The
International Psychoanalytical Library, No. 2). London:
International Psychoanalytical Press.
Freud, Sigmund. (1919d). Introduction to "Psycho-analysis
and the war neuroses.” SE, 17: 205-210.
Moro, Marie-Rose. (1998), Lenfant en situation de guerre ou
de catastrophe, réflexion préliminaire et Soutien psychologique
aupres des ex-détenus bosniaques musulmans et de leur
famille, Médecins sans frontiéres. Medical News, 7, 2.
Further Reading
Tucker, P., and Trautman, R. (2000). Understanding and
treating PTSD: Past, present and future. Bulletin of the
Menninger Clinic, 64, 37-51.
WASHINGTON PSYCHOANALYTIC SOCIETY
The organizational history of psychoanalysis in the
Washington D.C.-Baltimore metropolitan area is as
convoluted and complex as the intellectual weave that
created it. Psychoanalysis started early in Washington,
embraced by key U.S. psychiatrists, and it mutated and
expanded over the better part of a century. Currents of
thought and practice, often in conflict, came to
include ego psychology, Freudian revisionism, Sullivanian
interpersonal theory, and the use of psychoanalytic
theory to understand and treat psychoses. Among
the important figures in its history must be counted
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
WASHINGTON PSYCHOANALYTIC SOCIETY
psychiatric pioneers Adolf Meyer and William Alanson
White, the maverick Harry Stack Sullivan and his
colleagues Frieda Fromm-Reichmann and_ Clara
Thompson, and the determined Viennese defender of
orthodoxy, Jenny Waelder-Hall.
The precursor to the Washington Psychoanalytic
Society was founded in 1914, with William Alanson
White as its chair. Like several other psychiatrists fascinated
by Freudian ideas, White was superintendent of
the Government Hospital for the Insane, soon to be
renamed St. Elizabeth’s Hospital. White, who had been
interested in Freud’s teachings since about 1909, became
the first American author of a book on psychoanalysis
when his Mental Mechanisms was published in 1911.
Other significant figures early on the Washington scene
included Adolf Meyer, who was associated with Johns
Hopkins University, Ives Hendrick of Sheppard and
Enoch Pratt Hospital, and John MacCurdy, one of the
founders of the American Psychoanalytic Association.
Interest in treating the psychoses was common to all
these figures, and the use of analytic ideas for therapeutic
ends with severe psychopathology became an enduring
feature of psychoanalysis in Washington-Baltimore.
Members of the Washington Society originally met
regularly and discussed papers. A hiatus at the end of
the First World War lasted for several years, and for a
time the organization changed its name to the Washington
Psychopathological Society to distinguish itself from
a competing society. By the late 1920s, however, distinguished
analysts were visiting Washington from abroad
and the society had attracted significant local psychiatric
talent. Ernest Hadley, one of the first to open a private
psychoanalytic practice in Washington, became a major
administrative figure in the American Psychoanalytic
Association (APA) over the next two decades.
Efforts to create a more formal group culminated
with the founding of the Washington-Baltimore Psychoanalytic
Society in 1930. From the beginning the institute
situated itself as a constituent of the APA, to which
it became accredited in 1932; it also subsequently
affiliated with the International Psychoanalytical Association.
Members soon created a training program,
formally established as the Washington-Baltimore Psychoanalytic
Institute in 1940. Lewis Hill directed the
institute until 1949; he was succeeded by Ernest Hadley
for five years thereafter, until the latter’s death in 1954.
Background and education of members of the
Washington-Baltimore society in its early years distin-
1849
WASHINGTON PSYCHOANALYTIC SOCIETY
guished them in the broader context of the evolution of
psychoanalysis in the United States. “From the beginning,”
wrote Donald L. Burnham (1978) in an early historical
evaluation, “diversity of membership and of
approaches was a feature of the psychoanalytic groups
which formed in this region.” He added, “This may have
been partly because of their ‘home-grown’ quality. There
was less leadership and dominance from analysts who
had come originally form Vienna or Berlin” (p. 89). Analysts
in Washington included Midwesterners, Roman
Catholics, and children of rural America.
Harry Stack Sullivan, a representative American who
had grown up in upstate New York, strongly affected the
whole trajectory of psychoanalysis in Washington-
Baltimore; in retrospect, his influence was as pervasive
and crucial as it was controversial and divisive Like Meyer
and White, Sullivan came to psychoanalysis via the
treatment of psychoses. Soon after establishing the
Washington Psychoanalytic Institute, he went on, during
the mid-1930s, to help found the William Alanson White
Psychoanalytic (later changed to: Psychiatric) Foundation
and Washington School of Psychiatry. Active and influential
in psychoanalytic circles, Sullivan was also loudly not
a conventional analyst and eventually he developed a
systematic theory of development that emphasized the
interpersonal determinants of psychological life and the
cultural components of mental disorders.
Sullivan’s predominance also expressed itself through
the people he influenced in Washington and Baltimore, as
well as those he antagonized. Clara Thompson was a
friend, colleague, and ally who became a powerful figure in
the Washington-Baltimore Psychoanalytic Society
arid helped establish and lead the William Alanson
White Institute in New York, originally as a satellite of
the Washington-Baltimore Institute. Frieda-Fromm
Reichmann, who was also influenced by Sullivan,
became prominent in treating severe mental illness with
intensive psychotherapy, and was active in all the local
organizations. On Sullivan’s antagonistic side was Jenny
Waelder-Hall, a Viennese-trained analyst who arrived in
Washington in the mid-1940s. Considerable personal
enmity grew up between her and Sullivan, said to be
apparent from their first meeting. Donald Burnham
(1978) suggested that “it is tempting to view Waelder-
Hall and Sullivan not only as eloquent spokesmen but
as literal personifications of Vienna orthodoxy and
American eclecticism and of the difficulty, if not impossibility,
of reconciling the two” (p. 102).
The permutations that occurred in Washington
psychoanalysis soon after the end of World War II pro-
1850
ceeded, in any event, along intellectual fault lines with
the help of some personal and professional hostility.
By 1946 the Washington-Baltimore Psychoanalytic
Society split into two groups, although they would
share a single training organizations until separate
institutes were both officially approved in 1952 and
fully accredited by the American Psychoanalytic Association
three years later. The Baltimore Psychoanalytic
Society represented a strong version of the European
and Viennese current of orthodoxy led by Waelder-
Hall; while the Washington Psychoanalytic Society,
although it included orthodox analysts, also expressed
Sullivan’s influence, which was to outlast his premature
death in 1949.
Using psychoanalysis to treat severe mental disorders
followed a unique and separate but intertwined
trajectory in Washington-Baltimore. Apart from the
early work of Meyer and White, Sullivan, who declined
to accept the therapeutic pessimism commonly seen in
European psychiatry concerning psychosis, developed
a treatment scheme for schizophrenia for which he
claimed a high rate of success. By the late 1930s, Chestnut
Lodge, a private sanatorium in Rockville, Maryland,
became the site of efforts to treat patients with
sever mental illness using psychodynamic principles.
Invited by director Dexter Bullard, Frieda Fromm-
Reichman became the first of a number of psychoanalysts
to employ intensive, long-term therapy with
schizophrenics at Chestnut Lodge
Although tensions between orthodox analysis and
dissident currents persisted through he 1950s and
1960s in Washington-Baltimore, the period saw steady
growth in psychoanalysis at a time when the profession
found support at the National Institute of Mental
Health and a host of local institutions, including Walter
Reed Hospital and Georgetown University Medical
School. In the institutional skein, many prominent
analysts held multiple appointments. When Fromm-
Reichman’s celebrated Principles of Intensive Psychotherapy
was published in 1950, for example, she not
only was a leader at Chestnut Lodge but taught at the
Washington School of Psychiatry and the Washington-
Baltimore Psychoanalytic Institute, as well as the William
Alanson Institute of Psychiatry in New York.
By the 1970s, the decline of psychoanalysis as a
medical specialty led to modifications in many programs
that encouraged postgraduates outside of medicine,
and those in Washington and Baltimore were not
exceptions. The Washington Psychoanalytic Institute
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expanded its theoretical base, and training has come to
embrace a diversity of viewpoints in addition to a
Freudian core, including object-relations theory,
self psychology, intersubjectivist, and constructivist
approaches. The Baltimore Psychoanalytic Institute,
founded by Jenny Waelder-Hall on classical lines, was
now the Baltimore-Washington Psychoanalytic Institute,
and relocated to Laurel, Maryland. It modified its
programs beginning in the 1960s, and now trains psychologists
and social workers as well as psychiatrists.
Other institutes also opened in the Washington-
Baltimore metropolitan area in the last two decades of
the twentieth century. The International Institute of
Object Relations therapy, founded by David E. Scharff
and Jill Savage Scharff, is based in Chevy Chase, Maryland,
although it has created training modules in nearly
a dozen other cities. The Institute of Contemporary Psychotherapy
and Psychoanalysis of Washington, founded
by Joseph Lichtenberg and Rosemary Segalla, bases its
training program on Heinz Kohut’s self psychology.
JOHN GALBRAITH SIMMONS
Bibliography
Burnham, Donald. (1978). Orthodoxy and eclecticism in
American psychoanalysis: The Washington-Baltimore
experience. In J. Quen and E. Carlson (Eds.), American
psychoanalysis: origins and development (pp. 87-108). New
York: Brunner Mazel.
Noble, Douglas, and Burnham, Donald. (1969). History of
the Washington Psychoanalytic Society and the Washington
Psychoanalytic Institute. Washington DC: Washington Psychoanalytic
Society.
WEANING
Weaning is the name for the suppression or reduction of
breast milk and/or baby formula to replace it with more
solid food. Weaning is at the crossroads of biology, culture,
and the psychic organization of the mother/child dyad.
Weaning involves the interactive process of interruption
of the corporeal relationship between mother and
child. It begins spontaneously during the second six
months of life as an effect of the infant’s maturation; the
infant manifests a decreased interest in feeding, especially
if it has been breast fed, and begins an active search
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WEANING
for autonomy that the mother can perceive and facilitate
according to her affective syntony with the infant, as
Benjamin Spock described in “The Striving for Autonomy
and Regressive Object Relationship” (1963),
according to her affective syntony with the infant.
In his Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis
(1916—1917a [1915-1917]), Sigmund Freud described
weaning as traumatic, perhaps owing to syntony, but
also as the moment when nostalgia for the mother
appears, which is present in all infants, and above all in
those who have not been breast fed. Melanie Klein studied
the relations between weaning and the depressive
position that accompanies it and that continues on
thereafter. In “Les complexes familiaux dans la formation
de lindividu” (Family complexes in the formation
of the individual; 1938), Jacques Lacan organized
the various points of view in the following way: Traumatic
or not, he explained, weaning leaves in the psyche
a permanent trace of the biological relationship it
interrupts. This moment also presents the twofold
aspect of a crisis in the psyche, the first that unquestionably
has a dialectical structure. For the first time, a
vital tension is expressed in terms of a mental
intention.
Weaning forms the basis for the positive aspect of the
weaning complex, that is, the image of nourishment that
tends to establish the most archaic and stable feelings
uniting the individual with his or her family: It thus constitutes
the basis of familial and social life.
In LImage inconsciente du corps (The unconscious
image of the body; 1984), Francoise Dolto discussed
weaning as an oral castration of the child, that is, an
imposed deprivation of what for him or her is cannibalism
in relation to the mother. Dolto also elaborated E. Forman’s
concept of motherhood as a developmental stage
and associated the possibility of successful weaning with
the mother’s ability to accept the interruption of body-tobody
contact, and above all, to communicate with the
infant in various ways, among them providing food, but
also by means of words and gestures, which represent the
desire and possibility to speak for the child: “The baby is
talking about feeding, but not about the breast.”
The time of weaning, ever earlier in our culture,
represents the relational conflict characteristic of the late
oral or oral-sadistic stage. Bernard Golse emphasized its
ambivalent aspect, due to the fact that incorporating the
mother becomes destructive with teething. The infant
who suckles the breast attacks it and wins nourishment
1851
WEININGER, Otto (1880-1903)
by inflicting hurt. The cannibalistic impulses of the two
partners are reciprocally activated, and both must learn
to sense and control aggression. This is indeed what happens
in cases of “good” weaning, due both to a simultaneous
establishing of distance by the mother and by the
infant and to the working out of the child’s aggressive
and libidinal requirements in the presence of the mother
as an object.
Failures in weaning include late weaning (often
because of the mother’s desire to prolong the erotogenic
pleasure of nursing), which can be experienced
by the infant as punishment and which makes the process
of separation/individuation difficult. Inversely,
premature weaning—that is, before the infant has
been able to invest other objects—has varying effects
according to the circumstances. Among the most serious
failures, there is fusion of the life instinct and the
death instinct, as in cases of mental anorexia or addictions
to orally ingested substances. In extreme cases of
weaning following abandonment, Dolto explained in
Les Etapes majeures de lenfance (The major stages of
childhood; 1994), a behavioral regression, due to residual
fantasies from before the trauma, compromises
the previously acquired sound-producing capability of
the larynx and the oral cavity. Psychogenic mutism
can ensue, with or without loss of hearing.
James S. Grotstein studied the end of analytic treatment
as a weaning that makes possible a liberation of
narcissism with the aim of accepting the world as it is.
Paul-Claude Racamier more specifically described weaning
from the sleeping treatment, during which patients
are lavished with maternal care that helps them to
emerge from the regression and to establish very deep
bonds with the physician providing treatment.
GrazIA MARIA FAvA VIZZIELLO
See also: Anaclisis/anaclitic; Breastfeeding; Cruelty; Imago;
Maternal; Oral eroticism; Psychosexual development; Psychanalyse
et Pediatrie (Psychoanalysis and pediatrics);
Technique with children, psychoanalytic; Sexuality.
Bibliography
Dolto, Francoise. (1984). L’Image consciente du corps. Paris:
Le Seuil.
. (1994). Les Etapes majeures de lenfance. Paris:
Gallimard.
Lacan, Jacques. (1984). Les complexes familiaux dans la formation
de l’individu (pp. 23-30; written for Encyclopédie
1852
frangaise, Vol. 8). Paris: Larousse. (Original work published
1938)
Spock, Benjamin. (1963). The striving for autonomy and
regressive object relationship. Psychoanalytic Study of the
Child, 18, 361-36.
Further Reading
Furman, Erna. (1982). Mothers have to be there to be left.
Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 37, 15—28.:
Mahler, Margaret, Pine, Fred, and Bergman, Anni. (1975).
The psychological birth of the human infant: Symbiosis and
individuation. New York: Basic Books.
Pine, Fred. (1994). The era of separation-individuation. Psychoanalytic
Inquiry, 14, 4—24.
WEININGER, OTTO (1880-1903)
Otto Weininger, an Austrian and Jewish intellectual,
was born on April 3, 1880, in Vienna, where he committed
suicide on October 4, 1903. Adelheid, Otto’s
mother, whose health was frail, was a submissive wife
to his father, Leopold, a renowned goldsmith and
powerful personality. Of his six brothers and sisters,
only four reached adulthood. A gifted student, Otto
entered the University of Vienna in 1898 and took
courses in all the various subjects he would later treat
in his Sex and Character (1906). His professors
included Friedrich Jodl, Ernst Mach, and Richard von
Krafft-Ebing. He also frequently attended gatherings
of the university philosophical society. In 1900 he traveled
to Paris with Hermann Swoboda to attend a conference
on psychology, where he sided with those in
favor of an introspective approach to psychology as
opposed to an experimental and biological approach.
Weininger began writing Sex and Character (originally
entitled Eros and Psyche) in the autumn of 1900,
and the book progressed through an exchange of ideas
with Swoboda. In 1901, after having registered the
copyright to his manuscript, he sought to publish it,
and with this in mind he showed an outline to Freud,
who was not favorably impressed. In 1902 Weininger
submitted a revised version of the book to obtain his
doctorate in philosophy. On the day he received his
degree, he converted to Christianity. A third version of
his book—with the added chapters “Judaism,”
“Women and Mankind,” and “Woman and Her Significance
in the Universe”—was published in June 1903
by the major publishing firm Braumiiller.
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anMnliatteiat
Weininger suffered from severe mood swings of
exaltation and depression. During the summer of
1902, he traveled in Northern Europe and, writing to
his friend Arthur Gerber, asked, “Am I anything?”
Weininger left for Italy in somber spirits. In Calabria
on August 21, 1903, he drafted a new will and testament
that replaced the one he had written the previous
February 13. Returning home depressed, he spent five
days at his parents’ home. On October 3 he shot himself
through the heart in a rented room in the house in
which Beethoven, his favorite musician, had died.
Weininger was buried in a Protestant cemetery; his
father wrote the text for his gravestone. Leopold Weininger
admired his son’s book and firmly defended Otto’s memory
after his death, though Leopold did confide information
about Otto to a psychiatrist, who betrayed his trust.
In 1904, texts collected by Weininger’s friend Moritz
Rappaport were published as Uber die letzten Dinge
(translated as On Last Things [2001]). There Weininger’s
suicide was explained as a logical conclusion to Sex and
Character to insure its success both with a large general
audience and among intellectuals. In 1906 Wilhelm
Fliess’s charge of double plagiarism, specifically, that
Freud had passed on Fliess’s original ideas about bisexuality
to Weininger and Swoboda, also fueled the book’s
notoriety. In the case of “Little Hans” (Herbert Graf),
Freud wrote, “Weininger was completely under the sway
of his infantile complexes; and from that standpoint
what is common to Jews and women is their relation to
the castration complex” (1909b, p. 36n). In his book,
Weininger bears witness to the confusion about sexuality
and science that was characteristic of the time.
ERIK PORGE
See also: Christians and Jews: A Psychoanalytical Study;
Fliess, Wilhelm; Self-hatred; Swoboda, Hermann.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1909b). Analysis of a phobia in a fiveyear-
old boy. SE, 10: 1-149.
Le Rider, Jacques. (1982). Le cas Otto Weininger: Racines de
Pantiféminisme et de l'antisémitisme. Paris: Presses Universitaires
de France.
Porge, Erik. (1994). Vol d’idées? Paris: Denoél.
Rodlauer, Hannelore. (1990). Otto Weininger: Eros und Psyche.
Vienna: Verlag der Osterreichischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften.
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Weiss, Evoarpo (1889-1970)
Sengoopta, Chandak. (2000). Otto Weininger: Sex, science,
and self in imperial Vienna. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.
Swoboda, Hermann. (1911). Otto Weininger Tod. Vienna: F.
Deuticke.
Weininger, Otto. (1906). Sex and character. New York: G. P.
Putnam’s Sons. (Original work published 1903)
. (2001). A translation of Weininger’s “Uber die letzten
Dinge, 1904-1907,” On last things. Lewiston, NY: Edwin
Mellen Press. (Original work published 1904)
WEISS, EDOARDO (1889-1970)
Edoardo Weiss, a physician and psychoanalyst, was born
in Trieste (then a part of Austria-Hungary), on September
21, 1889, and died in Chicago on December 14,
1970. He spent his childhood and adolescence in Trieste,
part of a stable, well-to-do Jewish family originally from
Bohemia. After studying German in high school, he
enrolled in 1908 in medical school in Vienna. In October
of that year, he visited Freud, whose essay on the Gradiva
he had previously read. Weiss suffered from a slight case
of agoraphobia and wanted to talk to Freud about his
desire to practice psychoanalysis. Freud sent him to see
Paul Federn, with whom he began therapy, which lasted
until 1911. Weiss, the first president of the Italian Psychoanalytic
Society and a member of the Vienna Psychoanalytic
Society in 1913, was the real founder of the
psychoanalytic movement in Italy.
In 1914 he joined the Austro-Hungarian army as a
physician. He was initially assigned to Lublin, Poland,
then sent to the Croatian front. It was in Lublin, in a
hospital train, that he met his friend and fellow student,
Viktor Tausk, whose depression from the war and
declining relations with Freud had affected him deeply.
In 1917 Weiss married Wanda Shrenger. Weiss met his
wife at the University of Vienna; she would become the
first woman admitted to the Italian Psychoanalytic Society.
In 1919 he returned to Trieste, then a part of Italy, to work
as a psychiatrist in a provincial hospital. He also opened
his own practice as a psychoanalyst, introducing the field
to men such as Italo Svevo and Umberto Saba—in other
words, the leading representatives of Italian literature.
In 1927 he was forced to resign from the psychiatric
hospital where he worked, due to his failure to join the
Fascist party and Italianize his name. He moved to Rome,
where he published Elementi di psicoanalisi (1931). In
1853
WELTANSCHAUUNG
1932 he re-established the Societa Psicoanalitica Italiana
and launched the review, Rivista italiana di psicoanalisi.
In 1932 Emilio Servadio, who had trained with Weiss
and who was interested in parapsychology, organized
several sessions with a medium in order to demonstrate
the existence of paranormal phenomena. Weiss
informed Freud of his conviction in the authenticity of
the phenomena he had witnessed firsthand and received
the following response: “Given your role as a pioneer of
psychoanalysis in Italy, it would be unfavorable to consider
you at the same time a pioneer of occultism.”
In 1935 Weiss managed to obtain official recognition
from the International Psychoanalytical Association
(IPA) for the small Italian psychoanalytical society
and, with his students Nicola Perrotti and Emilio Servadio,
attended the International Congresses in Wiesbaden
(1932), Lucerne (1934), and Marienbad (1936).
Having emigrated to the United States in 1939, he
joined the Meninger Clinic in Topeka, Kansas, in 1940,
then moved to Chicago, where, together with Franz
Alexander, he became interested in the application of
psychoanalysis to psychosomatics. In 1942 he became a
training analyst at the Chicago Institute of Psychoanalysis.
In 1950 he took on the responsibility of collecting
the writings of Paul Federn in order to promote an
awareness of phenomenological ego psychology, which
in his opinion had been misunderstood by Freud.
In his last years Weiss taught at Marquette College
in Milwaukee as a guest lecturer for a couple of years,
while he was consistently a training analyst at Chicago
for many years, until his retirement. In 1970 his correspondence
with Freud was published under the title
Sigmund Freud as Consultant.
His writings include Agorafobia, isterismo d’angoscia
(1936), Principles of Psychodynamics (1950), The Structure
and Dynamics of the Human Mind (1960), Agoraphobia in
the Light of Ego Psychology (1964), and some seventy articles.
It was Weiss who introduced the term destrudo to
express the death instinct, and the concepts of projective
identification (created by Weiss in 1925, before Melanie
Klein and with a slightly different meaning), psychic presence,
resonance, and ego transition, which were critical for
understanding the nature and modality of object relations.
Weiss was especially interested in agoraphobia, our
understanding of which he considerably deepened in several
articles and two monographs.
ANNA Marta ACCERBONI
1854
See also: Claustrophobia; Death instinct (Thanatos); Ego
Psychology and Psychosis; Elementi di psicoanalisi, Libido;
Italy; Rivista di psicoanalisi.
Bibliography
Accerboni, Anna Maria. (1988). Psychanalyse et fascisme:
deux approches incompatibles. Le réle difficile d’Edoardo
Weiss. Revue internationale d’histoire de la psychanalyse, 1,
225-243.
. (1990). Sigmund Freud as remembered by Edoardo
Weiss, the Italian pioneer of psychoanalysis. International
Review of Psycho-Analysis, 17 (3), 351-359.
Federn, E. (1982). Edoardo Weiss und der Beginn der psychoanalytischen
Ichpsychologie. Sigmund Freud House
Bulletin, 6 (1), 25-32.
Freud, Sigmund, and Weiss, Edoardo. (1970). Sigmund
Freud as a consultant: Recollections of a pioneer in psychoanalysis.
New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.
Roazen, Paul. (2004). Edoardo Weiss: The house that Freud
built. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.
Weiss, Edoardo (1964). Agoraphobia in the light of ego psychology.
New York: Grune & Stratton.
WELTANSCHAUUNG
The term Weltanschauung, literally, “view of the
world,” had a very specific meaning for Freud, who
defined it in the New Introductory Lecture as follows:
“A Weltanschauung is an intellectual construction
which solves all the problems of our existence uniformly
on the basis of one overriding hypothesis,
which, accordingly, leaves no question unanswered
and in which everything that interests us finds its fixed
place” (1933a [1932], p. 158).
Indeed Freud had already used this concept as a
stick with which to beat philosophies and religions—
both lambasted, for example, in his Future of an IIllusion
(1927c). In 1933, however, he broadened the
notion, bringing science too under its aegis; this with
the proviso, though, that “the Weltanschauung of
science already departs noticeably from our definition.
It is true that it too assumes the uniformity of the
explanation of the universe; but it does so only as a
programme, the fulfillment of which is relegated to the
future.” (pp. 158-159). The fact was that the notion of
Weltanschauung usefully supplemented that of culture,
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
for it helped specify culture’s different spheres and
point up their underlying emotional raisons d’étre.
Freud extolled and defended the virtues of an intolerance
that refused, in the name of “truth,” to consider
all domains of human intellectual activity to be of
equal value: “It is simply a fact that the truth cannot be
tolerant, that it admits of no compromises or limitations,
that research regards every sphere of human
activity as belonging to it and that it must be relentlessly
critical if any other power tries to take over any
part of it” (p. 160). It has to be said, therefore, that
Freud’s views on religion and especially on philosophy
were rather narrow—judging, as he did, that they were
totally closed to doubt. On the other hand, his opposition
to dogmatism is much easier to comprehend if
one bears in mind that dogmatism constitutes the
major temptation for any theoretician, and no doubt
for Freud himself with respect to psychoanalysis. And
it was certainly for the sake of psychoanalysis that he
defended the ideal of scientific ascesis.
Apropos of the religious Weltanschauung, in 1933
Freud articulated ideas he had expressed in Totem and
Taboo (1912-13a) on the formation of religions, while
restating, in essence, some themes of The Future of an IIlusion
concerning the way religion panders to humanity’s
“desire for knowledge” and to its infantile need for protection.
To emphasize how risky a religious view of the
world is to thought, which it limits through its interdictions,
he also revisited the ideas expressed in “Civilized
Sexual Morality and Modern Nervous Illness” (1908d).
Most of Freud’s observations on the notion of Weltanschauung
were in fact concerned with religion, but he
did also mention art, which for him was “almost always
harmless and beneficent; it does not seek to be anything
but an illusion” (1933a [1932], p. 160), and philosophy,
about which he wrote: “Philosophy is not opposed to
science, it behaves like a science and works in part by the
same methods; it departs from it, however, by clinging to
the illusion of being able to present a picture of the universe
which is without gaps and is coherent” (p. 160).
Another kind of Weltanschauung, about which
Freud usually had very little to say, save for his considerations
on war, was politics, and specifically Marxism,
to which he opposed a conception of the evolution of
societies that was just as materialist as Marx’s, but
without any real discussion of Marx’s theories, which
seemed to him to be derived from “the obscure Hegelian
philosophy, in whose school Marx graduated” (p.
177). Nihilism of the anarchist variety he denounced
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
“Wy War?’’
as pure sophistry; it nevertheless constituted an attack
on the very core of scientific ideals, since it abolished
the criterion of truth.
Finally, Freud’s reflections on the notion of Weltanschauung
were generally conflated with an earnest and
vibrant pleading of the case of science, as when he said
about the common man: “Truth seems to him no more
capable of comparative degrees than death” (p. 172). His
conclusion was a real rallying cry: “A Weltanschauung
erected upon science has, apart from its emphasis on the
real external world, mainly negative traits, such as submission
to the truth and rejection of illusions. Any of our
fellow-men who is dissatisfied with this state of things,
who calls for more than this for his momentary consolation,
may look for it where he can find it. We shall not
grudge it him, we cannot help him, but nor can we on
his account think differently” (p. 182).
SOPHIE DE MIjOLLA-MELLOR
See also: Ideology; Illusion; Linguistics and psychoanalysis;
New Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis; Psychoanalytic
research; Science and psychoanalysis; Truth.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1908d). “Civilized” sexual morality and
modern nervous illness. SE, 9: 177-204.
. (1912—13a). Totem and taboo. SE, 13.
. (1927c). The future of an illusion. SE, 21: 1-56.
. (1933a [1932]). New introductory lectures on
psycho-analysis. SE, 22: 1-182.
“WHY WAR?”
In 1931 the Permanent Committee on Literature and
the Arts of the League of Nations proposed exchanges of
letters between intellectuals. Contacted in June 1932,
Freud agreed to respond to Einstein’s letter, which he
received in August. The result was a “Letter to Albert
Einstein” titled “Why War?” On September 8, 1932, he
stated to Max Eitingon that he had finally finished writing
the “tedious and sterile so-called discussion with
Einstein” (quoted in Jones, 1957, Vol. 3, p. 185). To Einstein’s
question “Is there any way of delivering mankind
from the menace of war?” (1933b [1932], p. 199), Freud
would respond by returning to a number of issues that
he had already addressed in his work on this subject,
1855
“Wry War?!
from “Thoughts for the Times on War and Death”
(1915b) to Civilization and Its Discontents (1930a).
Instead of his correspondent’s proposal to consider the
relationship between right and might, he preferred to
consider the relationship between right and violence,
and he argued that as distinct from the primitive law of
the strongest, “right is the might of a community” (p.
205). But right itself cannot be exercised without violence.
The wish to prevent war was no doubt embodied
in the League of Nations, but that organization
remained impotent, except on the level of ideas.
According to Freud, Einstein was correct in positing
an instinct of hate in humankind, a notion that fit with
“our mythological theory of the instincts” (p. 212). “The
death instinct turns into the destructive instinct when,
with the help of special organs, it is directed outwards
on to objects. The organism preserves its own life, so to
say, by destroying an extraneous one” (p. 211). This was
a factual circumstance that had to be taken into account;
the Bolshevist utopia clearly pointed up the illusion of
egalitarian material satisfaction.
Freud acknowledged that he did not have much to
propose: “We are pacifists because we are obliged to be
for organic reasons” (p. 214). “We are shaped by the
long process of the development of civilization, to which
we owe the best of what we have become, as well as a
good part of what we suffer from. Though its causes and
beginnings are obscure and its outcome uncertain, some
of its characteristics are easy to perceive. It may perhaps
be leading to the extinction of the human race, for in
more than one way it impairs the sexual function; uncultivated
races and backward strata of the population are
already multiplying more rapidly than highly cultivated
ones. The process is perhaps comparable to the domestication
of certain species of animals and it is undoubtedly
accompanied by physical alterations; but we are still
unfamiliar with the notion that the evolution of civilization
is an organic process of this kind” (p. 214).
“How long shall we have to wait before the rest of
mankind become pacifists too? There is no telling. ... But
one thing we can say: whatever fosters the growth of civilization
works at the same time against war” (p. 215).
In the spring of 1932, William C. Bullitt presented
Freud with the manuscript of their jointly authored
“psychological study” of President Thomas Woodrow
Wilson (1966). This study was in line with the hope
that Freud expressed in the last pages of his letter to
Einstein: “One instance of the innate and ineradicable
1856
inequality of men is their tendency to fall into the two
classes of leaders and followers. The latter constitute
the vast majority; they stand in need of an authority
which will make decisions for them and to which they
for the most part offer an unqualified submission.
This suggests that more care should be taken than
hitherto to educate an upper stratum of men with
independent minds, not open to intimidation and
eager in the pursuit of truth, whose business it would
be to give direction to the dependent masses. It goes
without saying that the encroachments made by the
executive power of the State and the prohibition laid
by the Church upon freedom of thought are far from
propitious for the production of a class of this kind.
The ideal condition of things would of course be a
community of men who had subordinated their
instinctual life to the dictatorship of reason. Nothing
else could unite men so completely and so tenaciously,
even if there were no emotional ties between them. But
in all probability that is a Utopian expectation”
(1933b, p. 212-213). In London in 1948 it was suggested
that political leaders be systematically required
to undergo psychoanalysis. This naturally elicited particularly
acute reactions among psychiatrists who were
members of the French Communist Party.
Written in that summer of 1932, on the threshold
of the rise of Nazism and the deployment of the death
instinct that would result from it, Freud’s reflections
later became a premonition whose accuracy he could
not possibly have imagined.
ALAIN DE MIJOLLA
See also: Civilization (Kultur); Death instinct (Thanatos);
Mythology and psychoanalysis; “Thoughts for the Times
on War and Death.”
Source Citation
Freud, Sigmund. (1933b [1932]). “Warum Kreig? (Brief an
Albert Einstein [sept. 1932]), Warum Kreig? Pourquoi la
guerre? Why War? Paris: Internationales Institut fur gestige
Zusammenarbeit am Volkerbund (Institute for International
Cooperation); GW, 16: 13-27; Why war? SE, 22: 197-215.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1915b). Thoughts for the times on war
and death. SE, 14: 273-300.
. (1930a [1929]). Civilization and its discontents. SE,
21: 57-145.
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Freud, Sigmund, and Bullitt, William. (1966b [1938]).
Introduction. In their Thomas Woodrow Wilson, twentyeighth
president of the United States: A psychological study
(pp. xi-xvi). New York: Weidenfeld and Nicholson.
Jones, Ernest. (1957). Sigmund Freud: Life and work. London:
Hogarth.
WIENER PSYCHOANALITISCHE
VEREINIGUNG
The history of the Wiener Psychoanalitische Vereinigung
(Vienna Psychoanalytical Society) is the primal history of
psychoanalysis. The members of the Psychological Wednesday
Society commenced their meetings in Freud’s
apartment in 1902. In 1908 the group adopted the designation
“Vienna Psychoanalytical Society” and was registered
under this name as a local group of the newly
formed International Psychoanalytical Association in
Vienna. Most of the members of the Vienna Psychoanalytical
Society were of Jewish origin and shared the history
of the Jews in the twentieth century.
The Society’s first president was Alfred Adler, who
resigned in 1911, after which Sigmund Freud himself
took over the helm until 1938. The founding period was
of course characterized by the genius of Freud, who built
the Society’s fortunes not only through his theories but
also by his skills as an organizer. Sandor Ferenczi
described this as the time of heroism and guerrilla war.
Adler and others resigned at the end of 1911 and formed
the Society for Free Psychoanalytic Research, later
known as the Society for Individual Psychology. Practically
all activities of the Vienna Psychoanalytical Society
ceased during the First World War because, as Freud put
it, the voice of psychoanalysis could not make itself
heard above the thundering of cannon. When the war
was over, the society quickly resumed operations. As
regards its organization, two groups of members can be
distinguished: representatives of the society’s “heroic
phase” like Paul, Otto Rank, and Eduard Hitschmann;
and the second-generation analysts, most of whom had
already undergone formalized training, such as Anna
Freud, Helene and Felix Deutsch, Edward and Grete
Bibring, Wilhelm Hoffer, Wilhelm Reich, Richard
Sterba, Otto Fenichel, and Siegfried Bernfeld.
When this new generation of psychoanalysts took
over, training was institutionalized and a psychoanalytic
outpatient clinic was established. The foundation of the
clinic in 1922 was followed two years later by that of the
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WIENER PSYCHOANALITISCHE VEREINIGUNG
training institute. The clinic was headed by Eduard
Hitschmann, with Wilhelm Reich as his deputy. In May
1936, after many peripatetic years, the Vienna Psychoanalytical
Society finally acquired premises of its own at
Berggasse 7, where the society itself, the training institute,
the outpatient clinic and the Internationaler Psychoanalytischer
Verlag (the publishing house) were
accommodated. The head of the training institute was
Helene Deutsch, who already complained in her report
for 1932 that the number of Austrian candidates had
dropped sharply owing to the economic crisis. In the
summer semester of that year the Vienna Psychoanalytical
Society had 22 candidates, of whom 12 were American,
2 German and 8 Viennese. After Hitler’s coming to
power in 1933, significant numbers of candidates from
Germany found a place for themselves at the training
institute of the Vienna society.
After falling ill with cancer, Sigmund Freud was no
longer able to take part in the society’s scientific meetings.
Its affairs were managed by Paul Federn, who was
elected deputy president after Otto Rank’s departure
in 1925, and later by Anna Freud, who was elected second
deputy and spoke for her father on the executive.
A powerful influence on the affairs of the society was
exerted by its “expanded executive,” which met on
Wednesday evenings at the Berggasse premises.
The imposition of an authoritarian constitution in
Austria in 1934 and Hitler’s coming to power in Germany
did not present an immediate threat to the
Vienna society. Although many members of the
Society sympathized with the then banned Social
Democrats, few—among them Siegfried Bernfeld,
Otto Fenichel, Hermann Nunberg, Buchsbaum, Wilhelm
Reich, and Friedjung—were politically engaged.
However, “administrative measures” were adopted to
prevent politically “dangerous” activity in the illegal
left-wing groups by members and candidates.
The Vienna Psychoanalytical Society’s heyday was in
the late 1920s and the 1930s. Some of the seminal works
of ego psychology originated at this time—for example,
August Aichhorn’s Wayward Youth (1925), Heinz Hartmann’s
Die Grundlagen der Psychoanalyse (Fundamentals
of psychoanalysis; 1927), Anna Freud’s Introduction
to Psycho-Analysis for Teachers (1930) and later The Ego
and the Mechanisms of Defence (1936), or Hermann
Nunberg’s Principles of Psychoanalysis (1932), which was
based on lectures at the society. Whereas Vienna already
had a rival in the thriving Berlin Psychoanalytic Institute
in the 1920s, many Jewish psychoanalysts came to
1857
WIENER PSYCHOANALITISCHE VEREINIGUNG
Vienna or to the society’s branch in Prague after the
Nazis took power in 1933.
Max Schur (1972) noted in his memoirs that Hitler
had made an overwhelming impression on the Austrian
people and that many of those in Schur’s group were
convinced that the country would be unable to withstand
the rising tide of Nazism. The first wave of emigration
commenced in these years, those who left including
Helene and Felix Deutsch, Siegfried Bernfeld, Ludwig
Jekels, Wilhelm Reich, Hanns Sachs and Fritz Wittels.
However, the endurance of Freud and his comrades who
stayed behind was unrewarded. Freud’s view that the
Austrian people were not quite so brutal, expressed in a
letter to Arnold Zweig, proved to be false. The Wehrmacht
marched into Vienna on March 12, 1938, and the
Vienna Psychoanalytical Society's executive held its last
meeting on March 13. It was resolved that everyone who
could should flee the country and that the seat of the
society should be transferred to wherever Freud settled.
The 68 extraordinary and ordinary members of the
Vienna Psychoanalytical Society, as well as an estimated
36 candidates, had to leave Vienna; only Alfred von
Winterstein and August Aichhorn stayed put.
Freud himself was able to depart with his family on
June 4, 1938. At the 15th International Psychoanalytical
Congress in Paris, Ernest Jones said in his opening
address that it was breathtaking to think that, of all
cities in the world, it was precisely in Vienna that psychoanalysis
was no longer to be practiced.
From 1938 August Aichhorn gathered a small circle
about him. He noted in his “Gedenkschrift” [commemorative
review]: “Starting with training analyses and
continuing with regular seminars and courses and with
the study of the works of the Freud school, the group
strove to attain its goal. One of our friends, Count Karl
von Motesicky, who had contributed much to the foundation
of the group, died in a concentration camp....
Without formalities and difficulties, but exercising caution
towards the outside world, the group worked on
throughout the period in a genuine spirit of loyalty and
friendship.” From 1938 until 1945, Vienna was a branch
of the “German Reich Institute of Psychological
Research and Psychotherapy”; it was headed temporarily
by Aichhorn, who was replaced by Gebsattel in 1943.
After 1945, The Vienna Psychoanalytical Society was
spared the fate of the German Psychoanalytical Society
and the arduous birth pangs of the German Psychoanalytical
Association; it was eventually reopened by Aichhorn,
1858
who wrote: “Now our path is clear; everyone can follow
his own research inclinations without hindrance, and
everyone is indeed doing so.” Nor was it long before IPA
recognition was forthcoming. However, it took decades
for the Vienna Psychoanalytical Society to re-establish its
links with international psychoanalysis. In setting about
the task of reconstruction, it was pervaded by the melancholy
realization that, while it had to preserve Freud’s
legacy, it could no longer aspire to the intellectual greatness
and influence of the old society. This was the prevailing
atmosphere for many years. After the trauma of the
expulsion and annihilation of the Jews and the ensuing
destruction of psychoanalysis in Vienna, a cloak of silence
descended over the unspeakable.
Upon Aichhorn’s death in 1949, Winterstein succeeded
to the presidency and remained in office until
19ST:
In 1950 the Society had just one candidate in training,
and the mood emerges clearly from a letter written by
Winterstein to Glover: “The only tendency which I have
observed in the last few years, and which I have been
enjoining the members to follow since I became president,
is to immerse themselves in the study of Freud’s
writings and to explore new ideas with great caution.”
Except for the interregnum of A. Becker (1972-74),
Wilhelm Solms-Rédelheim and Harald Leupold-
Lowenthal occupied the presidency from 1957 until 1982.
Solms was one of the founders of the “Mitteleuropdische
Arbeitstagung” (Central European Working Conference),
which links the German-speaking psychoanalysts to this
day, and also played an important part in the formation
of the EPF. The International Psychoanalytical Congress
held in Vienna in the summer of 1971 renewed the
society’s ties with international psychoanalysis. The
society began to grow again. After fierce argument over
the incorporation of group psychoanalysis and the status
of child analysis, a new generation of officers took the
helm in 1982. Impelled by the candidates and younger
members, a period of intense debate about the Vienna
Psychoanalytical Society’s past commenced. Although the
older members were politically relatively untainted after
the war, their mentality had been molded by it, and the
society effectively continued its subterranean existence.
Peter Schuster became president in 1982 and was
succeeded in 1984 by Wolfgang Berner, whose period
of office was distinguished by the rapprochement with
contemporary psychoanalysis and the holding of the
EPF congress in 1993. The society’s president from
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1993 until 1998 was Wilhelm Burian. A central concern
of the organization since the 1980s has been the permanent
reorganization of training so as to bring it into line
with international standards. An indication of the laboriousness
of this process is the fact that the third revision
of the training regulations is as of 2005 being discussed.
Unfortunately psychoanalysis has remained substantially
a Viennese phenomenon for the Austrian public; debate
is largely confined to the Vienna Psychoanalytical
Society, the Vienna Arbeitskreis fiir Psychoanalyse (Psychoanalytic
study group) and the Freud-Gesellschaft.
Like many psychoanalytic organizations, however, the
Vienna Psychoanalytical Society has been increasingly
preoccupied with itself and has shown relatively little
orientation towards the outside world. Around the start
of the twenty-first century public relations functions
have been assumed with great professionalism by the
Sigmund-Freud-Gesellschaft and the Freud Museum.
After prolonged peregrinations, the Vienna society
moved into its new headquarters at Gonzagagasse 11 in
1986. By 2005, it had over 70 members and some 100
candidates, thus for the first time exceeding the membership
level of 1938. Its work in the 1980s centered on
anti-Semitism both within and outside analyses and
the working through of the society’s wartime and postwar
past. Other themes have included the relations
between psychoanalysis and psychoanalytic psychotherapy—
a debate that culminated in the incorporation
of a seminar on psychoanalytic psychotherapy
in the training syllabus. In the fields of theory and
clinical practice there have been many, sometimes violent,
arguments about the future direction of psychoanalysis
and the influence of other psychoanalytic
schools, such as the “modern Kleinians” and objectrelations
theory as opposed to classical drive theory.
The latter prevailed the late 1990s and still has a not
inconsiderable number of adherents. Meanwhile, however,
the society had also become an official professional
organization, oscillating between the isolation of
“toeing the line” and “traitorous participation” in the
state bodies for psychotherapists. In 1989 the general
assembly of the Vienna Psychoanalytical Society
resolved by one vote to join the “Dachverband fur Psychotherapie”
(Confederation of psychotherapy) and
later the Psychotherapiebeirat (Psychotherapy advisory
committee). Then, in 1993, the Vienna Psychoanalytical
Society became the first training organization to
obtain recognition under the provisions of the Psychotherapy
Law. The political work on the committees
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WitBur, Georce B. (1887-1976)
and vis-a-vis the public has, in truth, not aroused
much interest. However, if one were to compile an
interim report, it would state that, although the Vienna
Psychoanalytical Society is no longer the “hub” around
which the other societies revolve, as it was before 1938,
it has after a long period of hesitation shrugged off its
self-imposed isolation and thereby Ba its place in
international psychoanalysis.
WILHELM BuRIAN
See also: Austria; Lehrinstitut der Wiener psychoanalytischen
Vereinigung; Minutes of the Vienna Psychoanalytic
Society.
Bibliography
Berner, Wolfgang. (1992). The Viennese Psychoanalytic
Society after 1945, In Peter Kutter (Ed.). Psychoanalysis
International, 1. Europe. Stuttgart-Bad Cannstadt:
Frommann-Holzboog.
Huber, Wolfgang. (1977). Psychoanalyse in Osterreich seit
1933. Vienna-Salzburg: Geyer-Edition.
Muhlleitner, Elke. (1992). Biographisches Lexikon der Psychoanalyse
(Die Mitglieder der Psychoanalytischen Mittwoch-
Gesellschaft und der Wiener Psychoanalytische Vereinigung
1902-1938). Tubingen: Diskord.
Schur, Max. (1972). Sigmund Freud: Living and dying. New
York: International Universities Press.
Solms-Rédelheim, Wilhelm. (1976). Psychoanalyse in Osterreich.
In D. Eicke (Ed.), Tiefenpsychologie. Beltz-
Weinheim-Basle: Die psychoanalytische Bewegung.
WILBUR, GEORGE B. (1887-1976)
George B. Wilbur was the second editor of American
Imago, following the death of its founder Hanns Sachs,
and Wilbur maintained that editorial position from
1947 until 1963. Wilbur was born in Larned, Kansas,
on December 22, 1887, and died on Cape Cod in
Hyannis, Massachusetts, on April 4, 1976.
Wilbur had first gone as an analytic patient to Otto
Rank in New York City in the fall of 1926, at a time
when Rank was over on one of his early trips to the United
States. At the time there was little publicity about
Rank’s problems with Freud; Ranks The Trauma of
Birth (1923) was originally dedicated to Freud, and analytic
pupils abroad then thought the book had Freud’s
1859
““Witp’ PsYcHO-ANALYSIS”’
blessings. Wilbur also went to Paris in the spring of 1927
to conclude the analysis with Rank; Wilbur’s wife Joy
also went to Rank then for treatment. The Wilburs had
put a mortgage on their house to finance the trip to
Paris, which cost three or four thousand dollars, with
one thousand going to Rank.
When Sachs died early in 1947, he had become a
respected Boston analyst who also taught at Harvard
Medical School, and Wilbur at that time went through all
Sachs’s papers. By then Wilbur was an established early
member of the Boston Psychoanalytic Society, although
he practiced on Cape Cod. Sachs and Rank had been the
original Viennese co-founders of Imago in 1912, but their
intimate friendship did not survive the problems that
arose between Freud and Rank. Wilbur insisted that there
were no bitter feelings between Sachs and Rank, but that
all the bitterness was in Jones’s biographical works.
Wilbur himself stayed in close contact with both
Sachs and Rank; for a time, when the American Psychoanalytic
Association (APA) was first considering making
the Boston Psychoanalytic Society a branch affiliate,
Wilbur’s association with Rank meant that he had to
resign temporarily in the early 1930s from his membership
in the Boston group, on the understanding that he
would be reinstated after the APA’s acceptance of the
Boston group had been secured. By 1936 Wilbur was
once again a Boston analyst in good standing, although
still living in South Dennis. Wilbur became a great
expert on the details connected with the intellectual differences
between Freud and Rank. Although Wilbur had
been stigmatized within psychoanalysis for going to
Rank in a year of the worst “vintage,” Wilbur maintained
that he had never heard anything at all in his own analysis
with Rank about the concept of the birth trauma.
Wilbur remained modest and unassuming,
although he had graduated from Harvard College
(1912) as well as Harvard Medical School (1916)
before practicing as a psychiatrist. Wilbur was originally
from Kansas, and heard about Freud first from his
teacher, the psychologist E. B. Holt, at Harvard. Holt,
like his own mentor William James, had been part of
the Boston School of psychotherapy that preceded the
coming of the Freudians. For a time Wilbur had practiced
analysis in Iowa, until he first moved to South
Dennis on Cape Cod in 1923. He preferred seeing
patients a couple of times a week, and therefore felt
himself more a Rankian than a Freudian, in that he
became more interested in therapeutic improvements
than in strict analysis. Wilbur, known among his
1860
friends as “Jake, appears in the American poet Conrad
Aiken’s Ushant as “Jacob.”
PauL ROAZEN
See also: Rank (Rosenfeld), Otto.
Bibliography
Lieberman, E. James. (1979). The Rank-Wilbur correspondence.
Journal of the Otto Rank Association, 14 (1), 7-24.
Roazen, Paul. (2003). Interview on Freud and Jung with
Henry A. Murray in 1965. The Journal of Analytical Psychology,
48, 1-27.
Slochower, Harry, and Schupper, Fabian X. (1967). George
Wilbur at 80. American Imago, 24(4), 287-289.
Wilbur, George B. (1943) Isador H. Coriat: Obituary. Psychoanalytic
Review, 30, 479-83.
Wilbur, George (Ed.). (1951). Psychoanalysis and culture.
New York: International Universities Press.
“ ‘WILD’ PSYCHO-ANALYSIS”
In a letter to Ferenczi dated October 27, 1910, Freud
described this short text as a “little didactic paper”
(vol. 1, p. 229). In “ ‘Wild’ Psycho-Analysis,” Freud
~ described a consultation with a divorced woman who
had come to him complaining of the crude advice
given to her by her regular doctor, who, invoking the
authority of psychoanalysis, had told her that she
could remedy her anxiety only by returning to her husband,
taking a lover, or masturbating.
Freud used this example to make several points. First,
he stressed that, contrary to the claims of some of its
detractors, psychoanalysis took “sexuality” to mean
more than just sexual relations, and he preferred to use
the word in a broader sense equivalent to that the verb
“to love.” Second, he reasserted the sound basis for distinguishing
the “actual neuroses” from those neuroses
for which psychoanalysis was indicated, and he recalled
that the analyst’s task is not just to explain the psychic
causes of their conditions to patients, but also, and more
importantly, to weaken the resistances that prevented
them from discovering those causes for themselves. Psychoanalysis
required an extended contact and the establishment
of a transference relationship, without which
the sudden revelation of secrets is “technically objectionable”
(p. 226), even if on occasion the outcome is more
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positive than that achieved by means of a pseudoscientific
explanation. In this connection, Freud evoked
the notion of tact, which would later become the subject
of an article by Ferenczi (1955).
Finally, because Freud’s case involved a doctor who
had not been psychoanalytically trained, he was able to
point out that psychoanalytic technique could not be
“learnt from books” but had to be “learnt from those
who are already proficient in it” (p. 226). He also took
this opportunity to announce the creation, in March
1910 at the Second Psycho-Analytical Congress in
Nuremberg, of “an International Psycho-Analytical
Association, to which its members declare their adherence
by the publication of their names.”
Freud would return to the necessity of psychoanalytic
training in The Question of Lay Analysis (1926e),
where he observed that “doctors form a large contingent
of quacks in psychoanalysis” (p. 230).
ALAIN DE MIOLLA
See also: Abstinence/rule of abstinence; American Psychoanalytic
Association; Berliner Psychoanalytisches
Institut; Groddeck, Georg Walther; International Psychoanalytical
Association; Sexuality; Tact.
Source Citation
Freud, Sigmund. (1910k). “Uber “wilde” Psychoanalyse,”
Zentralblatt fiir Psychoanalyse, 1, 91-95; GW, 7: 118-125;
‘Wild’ psycho-analysis. SE, 11: 219-227.
Bibliography
Ferenczi, Sandor. (1955). The elasticity of psycho-analytic technique.
In his Final contributions to the problems and methods
of psycho-analysis (pp. 87-101). London: Hogarth and the
Institute of Psycho-Analysis. (Original work published 1928)
Freud, Sigmund. (1926e). The question of lay analysis. SE,
20: 177-250.
Freud, Sigmund, and Ferenczi, Sandor. (1993-2000). The
Correspondence of Sigmund Freud and Sandor Ferenczi (3
vols.; Peter T. Hoffer, Trans.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press.
WINNICOTT, DONALD WOODS (1896-1971)
Donald Woods Winnicott, British psychoanalyst and
pediatrician, was born in Plymouth, England, on
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PsyYCHOANALYSIS
Winnicott, Donato Woops (1896-1971)
April 7, 1896, and died in London on January 25,
1971. He was the youngest child and only son of a
prosperous provincial English merchant. He attended
boarding school, where he read Darwin, and studied at
the University of Cambridge, where he read Freud as
an undergraduate. He entered the navy in 1917. In the
First World War, while still a medical student, he both
lost friends and saw action on a destroyer in’the navy.
Winnicott qualified as a physician in 1920. He gained
membership in the Royal College of Physicians in 1922
and became a pediatrician.
From 1923 to 1924 he specialized in pediatrics, married,
and began his training analysis with James Strachey.
Later he had further analysis with Joan Riviere, and
became a Kleinian training analyst. He became an
associate member of the British Psycho-Analytical
Society in 1934, a child analyst in 1935, a full member in
1936, and a training analyst in 1940. However, in the
1941-1945 controversial discussions in the British
society between the adherents of Melanie Klein’s views
and the adherents of Anna Freud’s, Winnicott played little
part, finding himself unable to ally fully with either
side. At that time, his interest in the effect of environmental
factors on development made his ideas unacceptable
to Klein. During the German blitz of the Second
World War, he became a consultant to the Government
Evacuation Scheme for London children. This work stimulated
his thinking on the relationship between
separation, deprivation, and delinquency, and it also
introduced him to Clare Britton, a social worker who
later became his second wife and lifelong colleague.
In 1944 Winnicott was elected fellow of the Royal College
of Physicians. After the war he became director of
the Child Department of the London Clinic of Psycho-
Analysis and twice served as president of the British
Psycho-Analytical Society (1956-1959 and 1965-1968).
He lectured and broadcast on infant and maternal welfare,
and inaugurated public lectures on psychoanalysis.
He became active internationally, writing copiously for
many audiences. While not joining any group in the British
society, his thinking influenced members of the Middle
Group, later the Independents. Winnicott died in his
sleep after surviving several heart attacks.
Winnicott’s work was informed by his vast experience
in observing mothers and babies as a pediatrician,
which allowed him to develop his ideas about the early
experience of individuation and about ways of assessing
psychic development, such as his spatula game
and the Squiggle Game, for communicating with older
1861
Winnicott, Donato Woops (1896-1971)
children. He described the psychophysiological state of
a new mother as the “primary maternal preoccupation.”
In contrast to Melanie Klein and Donald Fairbairn,
who saw the infant as having a definable ego
from birth, he saw the young infant as being undifferentiated
from the mother, cryptically stating “There is
no such thing as a baby,” meaning that a baby cannot
exist alone, that there needs to be a mother or mothering
person too. Close maternal attunement and
repeated bodily care (the “facilitating environment”)
allows the baby to begin to become aware simultaneously
of its own separateness and that of its mother.
Gradual and progressive failure of attunement at a rate
at which the baby can increasingly tolerate (“goodenough
mothering”) strengthens the emerging ego.
The baby thus emerges from “absolute dependence” to
“relative dependence” and begins to adapt to reality
and the painful awareness of the mother’s separateness
and all that this entails. Such adaptation includes the
development of concern and capacity for guilt.
As the difference between the baby’s awareness of
“me” and “not me” strengthens, many babies need a
way of bridging a gap that might be too much for
them. Such bridging explains the existence of transitional
phenomena. The transitional space in which
such phenomena occur provides room for the baby to
develop play and an increasing ability to stand being
alone. The baby becomes disturbed when lacking a
“good-enough” environment, for instance, when a
mother is physically or emotionally absent, disturbed,
or intrusive, or when the baby has needs that cannot
be fulfilled. When the mother cannot respond sensitively
to the baby’s gestures but substitutes one of her
own, her baby cannot be spontaneous, only compliant,
even imitative—thus developing a “false self.”
Winnicott also wrote about the effect of mother’s
unconscious states, including her unconscious hatred
of her baby, and he linked such hatred with the hate
that those responsible for delinquents develop toward
their charges and the idea of hate in the countertransference.
This developmental framework, with its
implication that pathology is linked to environmental
failure (either deficient provision tor needs or impingement),
allowed Winnicott to see that regression in
analysis may be a search for the absent experiences,
and it led him to emphasize that the analytic setting
and the person of the analyst may stimulate the
patient’s own inborn maturational tendency toward
growth and individuation to bring about self-cure.
1862
Strongly influenced by Klein, Winnicott accepted
much of her thinking, particularly with regard to
the internal world and its objects, and fantasy. He
differed from her on the effect of environmental provision
and emphasized the importance of early real
relationships.
Together with Klein and Fairbairn, one of the founders
of the British object-relations school, Winnicott
extended his influence to social work, education,
developmental psychology, and the probation service,
in addition to pediatrics and psychoanalysis. His writing
has been translated into almost all European languages;
he has been published in the United States,
South America, and Japan, and there is strong interest
in his work in France and Italy. In Britain, the Independent
Group of the British Psycho-Analytical
Society has followed his work, and his ideas have interested
those working in the field of infant observation
in Great Britain and the United States, as well as those
adhering to self-psychology theory and practice.
Since his death, the Winnicott Trust, founded by his
widow Clare, has continued and completed publication
of his work, and funds raised have supported
research in early mother-infant relationships at the
Winnicott Research Unit at the University of Cambridge.
The Squiggle Foundation, an organization
devoted to the study of Winnicott’s thinking, holds an
annual program of lectures and courses in London.
JENNIFER JOHNS
Notions developed: Breakdown; Capacity to be alone;
False self; Good-enough mother; Handling; Holding;
Integration; Primitive agony; Self (true/false); Squiggle;
Transitional object; Transitional object, space; Transitional
phenomena.
See also: Abandonment; Addiction; Adolescence; Alcoholism;
Annihilation anxieties; Autism; Breastfeeding;
Bulimia; Childhood; Children’s play; Collective unconscious
(analytical psychology); Creativity; Cruelty;
Demand; Dependence; Deprivation; Empty Fortress, The;
Envy and Gratitude; Family; Framework of the psychoanalytic
treatment; Great Britain; Illusion; Infans; Infant
development; Infantile omnipotence; Infantile psychosis;
Infant observation (direct); Internal object; Intersubjective/
intrasubjective; Jokes; Lack of differentiation; Lie;
Look/gaze; Maternal; Maternal care; Maturation; Mirror
stage; Mutual analysis; Narcissism; Object; Object a;
Omnipotence of thoughts; Partial drive; Splitting; Postnatal/
postpartum depression; Primary identification;
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Primary object; Psychosomatic limit/boundary; Protective
shield; Puberty; Quasi-independence/transitional
stage; Reality testing; Regression; Reverie; Self-image;
Self, the; Suffering; Symbiosis/symbiotic relation; Symbolization,
process of; Technique with children, psychoanalytic;
Transference hatred.
Bibliography
Phillips, Adam. (1988). Winnicott. London: Fontana Press.
Rodman, F. Robert. (2003). Winnicott: Life and work. Cambridge,
MA: Perseus Publishing.
Winnicott, Donald. (1958). Collected papers: Through paediatrics
to psycho-analysis. London: Tavistock Publications.
. (1964). The child, the family, and the outside world.
London: Penguin Books.
. (1965). The maturational processes and individual
development. London: Hogarth Press and the Institute of
Psycho-Analysis.
. (1971). Playing and reality. London: Tavistock
Publications.
WINTERNITZ-FREUD, PAULINE REGINE
(PAULI)). See Freud, Sigmund (siblings)
WINTERSTEIN, ALFRED FREIHERR VON
(1885-1958)
Austrian psychoanalyst Alfred Freiherr von Winterstein
was born on September 25, 1885, in Vienna,
where he died on April 28, 1958.
Educated at the famous Theresianische Akademie
and the Franz Josefs-Gymnasium, Winterstein
obtained his Matura (or baccalaureate) in 1903. He
completed his law studies in 1905.
After reading The Interpretation of Dreams (1900a),
Winterstein contacted Freud, attended his lectures,
and in 1910 became a member of the Vienna Psychoanalytic
Society. At that time he was writing articles
for the Neue Freie Presse, a bourgeois liberal newspaper,
and publishing poems in Karl Kraus’s Die Fackel.
He also wrote plays and was member of the Pen Club.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
WINTERSTEIN, ALFRED FREIHERR VON (1885-1958)
Winterstein submitted his thesis in 1911 and worked
for a time under the famous experimental psychologist
Wilhelm Wundt at the University of Leipzig. During a
visit to Burghdélzli, while staying with Eugen Bleuler,
he began an analysis with Carl Jung.
During the First World War, Winterstein was in the
dragoons and, after four years of duty, was promoted
to cavalry captain. Returning to Vienna, he continued
an analysis with Eduard Hitschmann and began practicing
analysis himself. He was interested in the application
of analytic ideas to literature and especially in
the psychoanalysis of parapsychological phenomena.
After the Nazi Anschluss, Winterstein elected to
remain in Vienna, but because by the Nuremberg laws he
was not considered a “pure Aryan,” he was forbidden to
practice psychotherapy; this was also the case with August
Aichhorn, the only other member of the Vienna Psychoanalytic
Society who remained in the city during the war.
Winterstein employed the war years to write a book
on Adalbert Stifter, the great Austrian writer, poet, and
painter. His Adalbert Stifter, Personlichkeit und Werk:
eine tiefenpsychologische Studie was published in 1946.
After 1945, Winterstein played a role in reconstituting
the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society, serving as its
president from 1949. He enjoyed an international
reputation and was invited in 1953 and 1955 to lecture
at meetings of International Psychoanalytical Association.
In 1957, poor health led to his retirement.
HARALD LEUPOLD-LOWENTHAL
See also: Austria; Wiener psychoanalytische Vereinigung.
Bibliography
Winterstein, Alfred F. (1911). Drei Falle von Versprechen.
Internationale Zeitschrift fiir Psychoanalyse, 2, 292-293.
. (1920). Die Nausikaepisode in der Odyssee. Imago,
6, 349-383.
. (1928). Die Pubertatstriten der Madchen und ihre
Spuren im Marchen: eine psychoanalytische Studie. Imago,
14, 199-274.
. (1934). Contributions to the problem of humor.
Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 3, 303-316.
. (1946). Adalbert Stifter, Personlichkeit und Werk:
eine psychoanalytische Studie. Vienna: Phonix.
. (1949). Telepathie und Hellsehen im Lichte der modernen
Forschung und wissenschaftlichen Kritik. Vienna: Phonix.
1863
WISH FOR A BABY
. (1954). A typical dream-sensation and its meaning.
International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 35, 229-233.
. (1956). On the oral basis of a case of male homosexuality.
International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 37, 298-302.
WISH FOR A BABY
The wish for a baby is one of the fantasies of childhood,
part of the set of significant motifs transmitted to the
child unbeknownst to its parents along with the biological
“breath of life” (Bydlowski, 1978), and that evolves in conjunction
with individual libidinal development. It is
marked by the Oedipus complex, by kinship relationships,
by family experiences of death and mourning. In Freud’s
account, the woman’s “wish to possess a penis is normally
transformed into a wish for a baby” (1933a [1932], p.
101). The wish for a baby is superimposed, repressed, or
revived in different forms at different times of life.
From the oral stage, the wish for a baby inherits the
urge to destroy the mother’s body entirely, including her
belly and everything in it. From the anal stage—inclined
to control and revenge—comes the theme of the stolen
baby, used to try and compensate for the loneliness of
the child confronted by the parental couple. Both the little
girl and the little boy long for the power, at once marvelous
and uncanny, to have a child: an imaginary child,
manipulable at first anally, then mentally (Soule, 1982).
The boy must in due course renounce this wish, whether
by means of displacement or sublimation, of repression,
or of reaction-formations ranging from the ritual of
couvade to the disavowal of paternity, or even beyond,
to delusion and paranoia (Soulé, 1982).
The wish for a child is also relevant to narcissism. An
ideal child, issuing from an ideal mother, is the equivalent
of the penis for the mother whom it fulfils. With no
third person to come between mother and baby, there is
no corresponding denial of the anal, aggressive function
of the imaginary child. On the oedipal level, for the girl,
the child is a product of incest, obtained from the father
without the mother’s knowledge and in rivalry with her.
Maria Torok (1968) relates the wish for a child in its
narcissistic dimension to death and mourning: “The
wish for a child can be understood as a denial of the
loss of a part of oneself?”
CHRISTINE PETIT
1864
See also: Pregnancy, fantasy of; Female sexuality; Penis
envy.
Bibliography
Bydlowski, Monique. (1978). Les Enfants du désir, le desir
d’enfant dans sa relation a l’Inconscient. Psychanalyse a
Université, 4 (13), 59-92.
David, Didier. (1996). Le désir d’enfant." In D. David and S.
Gosme-Séguret (Eds.). Le Diagnostic prenatal. Paris: E.S.F.
Freud, Sigmund. (1933a [1932]). New introductory lectures
on psycho-analysis. SE, 22: 1-182.
Soulé, Michel. (1982). Lenfant imaginaire: Fantasme
d’enfant, le désir d’enfant, le désir de grossesse. In La
Dynamique du nourrisson. Paris: E.S.F.
Torok, Maria. (1968). Maladie du deuil et fantasme du
cadavre exquis. Revue francaise psychanalyse, 32 (4).
WISH-FULFILLMENT
In Freudian theory, the fulfillment of a wish is an
aspiration, theme, or, one might even say, motor principle,
of unconscious formations like dreams, hysterical
symptomsan,d fantasies. In these formations an
unconscious, infantile sexual wish is expressed and fulfilled
in imagination in a more or less disguised way.
From this point of view, the fulfillment in question is
neither total nor definitive, but unique and dynamic.
Freud set forth his theory of wish fulfillment in
chapter 3 of The Interpretation of Dreams (1900a),
though he had already mentioned the idea in the preceding
chapter, “The Method of Interpreting Dreams,”
in connection with his dream of Irma’s injection: “The
dream represented a particular state of affairs as I
should have wished them to be. Thus its content was
the fulfilment of a wish and its motive was a wish.
When the work of interpretation has been completed,
we perceive that a dream is the fulfilment of a wish”
(1900a, pp. 118-119, 121). In fact, four months before
his dream of injecting Irma, in his correspondence
with Wilhelm Fliess, Freud first alluded to the general
principle of the dream as wish fulfillment. The context
was in the account of the “dream of convenience” of
“Mr. Pepi” (Rudi Kaufmann, a nephew of Josef
Breuer), who dreamed he was in the hospital so as not
to have to wake up in the morning (Letter of March 4,
1895, p. 114).
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Only interpretation and analysis can penetrate the
disguise under which a wish-fulfillment is expressed.
An unconscious wish is fulfilled in an imaginary way
and appears to the dreamer in masked form. Dream
work transforms the latent content of the dream into
manifest content by means of the processes of condensation
and displacement. Wish fulfillment is not the
cause of the dream, but it shapes the intentional structure
of the dream. Hence the need for the work of
interpretation. To be fulfilled, the wish, as an instinctual
intrapsychic force, must effect what Freud, in The
Interpretation of Dreams (1900a), called “perceptual
identity” (pp. 566-567). The path followed leads from
the triggering of an internal need to its satisfaction in
the experience of a hallucinated wish-fulfillment.
Thirty years later, in New Introductory Lectures on
Psycho-Analysis (1933a [1932]), Freud reaffirmed that
“in every dream an instinctual wish has to be represented
as fulfilled. The shutting-off of mental life from
reality at night and the regression to primitive
mechanisms which this makes possible enable this
wished-for instinctual satisfaction to be experienced in
a hallucinatory manner” (pp. 18-19).
His study of traumatic dreams connected with accident
neuroses led Freud, in Beyond the Pleasure Principle
(1920g), to postulate aims of the dream other than the fulfillment
of an unconscious wish. On the face of it, a dreamer
whose dreams regularly culminated in anxiety could
not be striving to satisfy an unconscious wish, yet even “if
you want to take these latter objections into account, you
can say nevertheless that a dream is an attempt at the fulfilment
of a wish,” Freud wrote (1933a [1932], p. 29).
With respect to hysterical symptoms, Freud noted that an
unconscious, infantile wish was certainly being fulfilled,
but so was a preconscious wish, so that two opposing
wishes, issuing from two different mental agencies, were
being fulfilled. As for fantasies or daydreams, “like dreams,
they are wish-fulfilments. ... The wishful purpose that is
at work in their production has mixed up the material of
which they are built, has rearranged it and has formed it
into a new whole” (Freud, 1900a, p. 492).
A wish never arises in isolation; it always encounters
other wishes, opposing it in an open structure, so that
desire is always in the process of organizing meaning.
Jacques Lacan considered this always-incomplete destiny
of desire to be the basis of the dialectic between demand
and desire, which for him defined the human condition.
DELPHINE SCHILTON
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Wish, HALLUCINATORY SATISFACTION OF A
See also: Amentia; Anxiety dream; Convenience, dream
of; Dream screen; Experience of satisfaction; Fantasy;
Formations of the unconscious; Illusion; Interpretation of
Dreams, The; Nightmare; Reverie; Transgression; Wish,
hallucinatory satisfaction of a; Work (as a psychoanalytical
notion).
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1900a). The interpretation of dreams. SE,
4: 1-338; 5: 339-625.
. (1920g). Beyond the pleasure principle. SE, 18:
1-64.
. (1933a [1932]). New introductory lectures on
psycho-analysis. SE, 22: 1-182.
Lacan, Jacques. (1998). Le séminaire. Book 5: Les formations
de l’inconscient. Paris: Seuil.
WISH, HALLUCINATORY
SATISFACTION OF A
The notion of the hallucinatory satisfaction of a wish is
one of the key elements in the Freudian conception of
psychic functioning. It postulates that, under certain
conditions, there is an intense need, transformed into
a wish for an object from which satisfaction is
expected, which, under certain circumstances can produce
sensations that are attributed wrongly to an
external agent, yet present all the characteristics of reality.
This is hallucinatory satisfaction.
These certain conditions can be of four kinds: the
immaturity of the psyche of the newborn baby,
dreams, problems in psychic functioning in certain
neurotics, or certain psychoses, called, as a matter of
fact, delusional.
Concerning the first kind, Freud expressed, from
the time of his Project for a Scientific Psychology (1950a
[1895]), a hypothesis that must be placed among the
founding ones of psychoanalysis. What are the possible
outlets, he asked, for the “need that has been excited”
in the child? The child has no means of autonomous
satisfaction at its disposal, so that “the primal powerlessness
of the human being becomes the earliest source
of all moral notions” (in other words: of the entire psychic
life, insofar as it is pointed toward the wish—the
italics are Freud’s). An “experience of satisfaction” can
ensue, because of an intervening adult who creates an
1865
Wish, HALLUCINATORY SATISFACTION OF A
association between the two “mnemic images,” that of
need (or wish) and that of satisfaction. The reappearance
of the former can, when the need (wish) is
intense, reactivate this association: “Now, when the
state of urgency or wishing reappears, the cathexis will
also pass over on to the two memories and will activate
them.... I do not doubt that in the first instance this
wishful activation will produce the same thing as a
perception, namely a hallucination” (1950c, p. 319),
Freud adding forthwith: “If reflex action is thereupon
introduced, disappointment cannot fail to occur.”
This idea was taken up again a few years later in The
Interpretation of Dreams: “The first wishing seems to
have been a hallucinatory cathecting of the memory of
a satisfaction. Such hallucinations, however, if they
were not to be maintained to the point of exhaustion,
proved to be inadequate to bring about the cessation
of the need or, accordingly, the pleasure attaching to
satisfaction” (1900a, p. 598).
As Freud wrote, in 1911, in a text called “Formulations
on the Two Principles of Mental Functioning”:
“The state of psychical rest was originally disturbed by
the peremptory demands of internal needs. When this
happened, whatever was thought of (wished for) was
simply presented in a hallucinatory manner, just as still
happens to-day with our dream-thoughts every night. It
was only the non-occurrence of the expected satisfaction,
the disappointment experienced, that led to the
abandonment of this attempt at satisfaction by means of
hallucination.” At this point the reality principle is introduced,
supplanting the pleasure principle. Freud
answered a possible objection in a note at the bottom of
the page: a being totally under the sway of the pleasure
principle could not survive “for the shortest time,”
responding, in fact: “the infant—provided one includes
with it the care it receives from its mother—does almost
realize a psychical system of this kind. It probably hallucinates
the fulfillment of its internal needs” (1911b, pp.
219-220). This “provided one includes with it the care it
receives from its mother” was well remembered by a
number of later authors, especially Donald Winnicott.
The notion returned in “A Metapsychological Supplement
to the Theory of Dreams” (1916-17f, p. 231): “At
the beginning of our mental life we did in fact hallucinate
the satisfying object when we felt the need for it. But
in such a situation satisfaction did not occur, and this
failure must very soon have moved us to create some
contrivance with the help of which it was possible to distinguish
such wishful perceptions from a real fulfillment
1866
and to avoid them for the future. In other words, we
gave up hallucinatory satisfaction of our wishes at a very
early period and set up a kind of ‘reality-testing.”
There is a certain hesitancy in these texts of Freud
between the terms need and wish; and only in his later
work did Freud come-to distinguish them more clearly,
need being defined as the expression of an organic function
(hunger, sexual and so forth), wish as something
mental when this need is transformed into the wish to
have an object. Accordingly, the status of the drive, as a
“border concept” (between psyche and soma) is put into
question (cf., among others, Laplanche, 1987).
As a matter of fact, in all his writings Freud insisted
on the “disappointment” following “inevitably” on
hallucinatory satisfaction (a hallucination of milk supplies
no nourishment ...). Accordingly, a reality principle
is set up at the same time representation is born,
pointing to what is “here inside,” not, as in the case of
perception, to what is “also outside” (1925h).
This notion was utilized by Freud, in very similar
terms, in his theory about dreams (1900a): the dream
is, in effect, a realization of a wish. In the framework of
psychic functioning, cut off from perception and
motor functions, “excitation follows a retrograde way.”
There is a “topographical regression,” and a restitution
of “the identity of perception,” or an association
. between the “images” of the movement of desire and
its satisfaction; but also regression to a primitive functioning
as “the dream is a fragment of infantile psychic
life.” If the pleasure principle prevails momentarily
over the reality principle, this sort of satisfaction is
quite liable to take on a hallucinatory quality.
At the same time as he was forming these theories,
Freud was also approximating dream functioning to
the function of psycho-neurotic defense mechanisms,
in particular those of hysteria: certain hysterical symptoms,
especially those affecting perception, can be
explained by an analogous schema.
Psychoses lend themselves particularly well to the hallucinatory
satisfaction of wishes, and, moreover, in a waking
state: “In psychoses these ancient and repressed
modes of psychic work return in force,” as the analysis of
the Schreber case (Freud, 1911c) showed dramatically.
Sandor Ferenczi (1913) took up the schema of
Freud and used it to account for the omnipotence of
thought, such as is observable in the young child
(“stage of hallucinatory magical omnipotence,” char-
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
acteristic of infantile megalomania), but also of obsessional
structures.
Foremost among later authors who were interested in
this question is Donald Winnicott (1971), who gave a
further nuance to the idea by introducing the notions of
illusion and transitional space, and also by describing the
process of progressive re-autonomization of the mother
(beyond the “primal maternal madness,” prolonged temporarily
by the symbiosis of pregnancy). He saw in this
the condition for the advent of disappointments, which in
the Freudian model were both inevitable and necessary:
the mother became “very good,” but would be also “very
bad.” Winnicott wrote that a “perfect” mother, that is to
say, one who immediately satisfied all her child’s needs,
“could be nothing but a hallucination.” Denise Braunschweig
and Michel Fain (1975) developed an analogous idea
in a different theoretical context, opposing the “day
mother” to the “night mother.”
In this respect, the studies of André Green (1993)
should be mentioned; he did significant work on
“negativity,” on the basis of a case of negative hallucination
(where a perception is banished from existence).
Equally the work of César and Sara Botella are
relevant, centering on the concept of the “hallucinatory,
the term being taken as a substantive, as a
description of a vast processual set.
ROGER PERRON
See also: Amentia; Convenience, dream of; Experience of
satisfaction; Interpretation of Dreams, The; Wish/yearning;
Wish-fulfillment; Word-presentation.
Bibliography
Botella, César, and Botella, Sara. (1990). La Problematique
de la régression formelle de la pensée et de ’hallucinatoire.
In La Psychanalyse: Question pour demain, colloque de la
S.P-P. Paris: Unesco, Presses Universitaires de France.
Ferenczi, Sandor. (1913). Le développement du sens de la
réalité et ses stades. In Psychanalyse I, Oeuvres completes
(Vol. 1: 1908-1912; pp. 51-64). Paris: Payot, 1968.
Laplanche, Jean. (1987). Nouveaux Fondements pour la psychanalyse.
Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
Winnicott, Donald W. (1969). Development of the theme of
the mother’s unconscious as discovered in psychoanalytic
practice. In C. Winnicott, R. Shepherd, M. Davis (Eds.),
Psychoanalytic explorations. London: Karnac Books.
. (1971). Playing and reality. London: Tavistock
Publications.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
WisH/YEARNING
WISH/YEARNING
A wish may be described as an intrapsychic impulse
accompanied by the intention to obtain some denied,
forbidden, or withheld satisfaction, or to rediscover a
primal satisfaction, mnemonic traces of which are
unconsciously inscribed.
In Studies on Hysteria (1895d), and in correspondence
with Wilhelm Fliess in May 1897, Freud employed the
term wish to designate a forbidden desire, speaking, for
example, of the “wish to be ill” and especially of the
“death wish.” This meaning was paramount in chapter 5
of The Interpretation of Dreams (1900a), in the section on
“Dreams of the Death of Persons of Whom the Dreamer
is Fond” (p. 248ff), and again in The Psychopathology of
Everyday Life (1901b) at the conclusion of chapter 8,
where it is considered in light of a neurotic conflict.
Beginning with the seventh chapter of The Interpretation
of Dreams, Freud placed increasing emphasis on a
more precise definition of the wish, which became highly
influential in the development of psychoanalytic theory.
Dream analysis determined, in effect, that the wish was
produced by unconscious mnemonic traces that were
fixed indelibly by the earliest experiences of infantile satisfaction.
The aim of the wish is to recreate that experience,
following paths laid down by primary process thought,
taking into account the “logic” of unconscious drives to
bypass censorship. The wish accomplishes this by being
articulated in the language of the most profoundly
cathected ideas. This is what led Freud to define the
dream as hallucinatory wish-fulfillment.
GERARD BONNET
See also: Aphanisis; Conflict; Demand; Experience of
satisfaction; Kantianism and psychoanalysis; Prohibition;
Transgression; Wish-fulfillment.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund, and Breuer, Josef. (1895d). Studies in hysteria.
SE, 2: 48-106.
—. (1900a). The interpretation of dreams. Part I, SE, 4:
1—338; Part II, SE, 5: 339-625.
. (1901b). The psychopathology of everyday life. SE, 6.
Further Reading
Holt, Robert R. (1976). Drive or wish? A Reconsideration of
the psychoanalytic theory of motivation. Psychological
Issues, 36, 158-197.
1867
Witcr of Metapsycxovoey, THE
Rubinstein, B.B. (1996). On the concept of an unconscious
wish. Psychological Issues, 62, 541-550.
Simon, B. (1986). Power of the wish and the wish for power.
Psychoanalytic Inquiry, 6, 119-132.
WITCH OF METAPSYCHOLOGY, THE
Harking back to a remark of Freud's, “Witch Metapsychology”
is occasionally invoked in an ironic or critical
way to characterize the resort to general metapsychological
principles as a way of avoiding some difficult problem.
In his article “Analysis Terminable and Interminable,”
Freud posed the following question: how, in the
course of the analysis, can an instinct be “tamed”—
that is to say, not suppressed, but brought, with its
conflicts, “completely into the harmony of the ego.”
“Tt is not easy to find an answer,” he wrote. “We can
only say: ‘So muss denn doch hie Hexe dran!’ [We
must call the Witch to our help after all!|—the Witch
Metapsychology. Without metapsychological speculation
and theorizing—I had almost said ‘phantasying—
we shall not get another step forward. Unfortunately,
here as elsewhere, what our Witch reveals is neither very
clear nor very detailed” (1937c, p. 225; the quotation is
from Goethe's Faust).
And indeed Freud leaves his question unanswered in
this paper, except for one sentence where he evokes the
opposition between primary and secondary processes.
This evasion is characteristic of the very problem he
poses in the above-cited passage: when psychoanalytical
thought runs into some difficulty or other (theoretical,
practical, or technical), it is often tempted to wriggle
out by invoking metapsychological principles of great
generality. Their very generality renders the response of
the “Witch” uncertain, however, for both question and
answer can be reframed in such a way as to achieve harmony,
opening the door wide to ill-defined disputes
among the psychoanalysts themselves with no clear criteria
to guide the discussion.
Over and above her picturesque quality, therefore,
the Witch metapsychology raises a basic epistemological
problem.
ROGER PERRON
See also: “Analysis Terminable and Interminable”; Goethe
and psychoanalysis; Literary and artistic creativity;
Science and psychoanalysis.
1868
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1937c). Analysis terminable and interminable.
SE, 23: 209-253.
WITTELS, FRITZ (SIEGFRIED) (1880-1950)
Austrian physician and psychoanalyst Fritz (Siegfried)
Wittels was born in Vienna on November 14, 1880,
and died on October 16, 1950, in New York.
The son of a stockbroker who claimed to be a descendant
of Chaim Vital, a seventeenth-century Jewish
cabbalist, Wittels attended the University of Vienna
beginning in 1898 and completed his medical studies
in 1904. He subsequently practiced at Vienna General
Hospital and, in 1907, became assistant to Julius
Wagner von Jauregg.
From 1905, Wittels attended Sigmund Freud’s lectures,
and in the spring of 1906 his uncle by his father’s
second marriage, Isidor Sadger, introduced him to the
circle that by then had formed around Freud.
While a member of the Psychological Wednesday
Society, Wittels also actively collaborated with Karl
Kraus on his satirical review Die Fackel. Kraus’s criticisms
of psychoanalysis from 1908 were not aimed at
Freud, whose ideas he valued, but mocked the reductive
application of psychoanalytic ideas to literature
and art, such as found in publications by Sadger, Wilhelm
Stekel, and Otto Rank. However, close ties with
both Kraus and Freud affected Wittels’s relationship
with both; a further complication was a young Viennese
actress, Irma Karczewska.
Wittels's ambivalence toward Kraus apparently contributed
to the latter’s critical attitude towards psychoanalysis;
it did not arise suddenly, as legend had it,
after Wittels, in a lecture before the Vienna Psychoanalytic
Society, criticized Die Fackel as a neurotic
symptom. The love triangle comprised of Wittels,
Karczewska, and Kraus led to a rupture between the
two men. Later, Wittels began work on his roman-aclet,
Ezechiel der Zugereiste (Ezekiel the alien), through
which he hoped to avenge himself upon his former
friend. Kraus attempted to stop publication of the
novel by legal means and Freud himself tried to persuade
Wittels to forego publication, from fear that it
would drag psychoanalysis into a damaging conflict
with Kraus. Freud’s words, “You are impossible in my
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
circle if you publish this book,” quoted by Wittels in
his memoirs (Timms, 1995, p. 98), led to Wittels’s resignation
from the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society in
1910.
Wittels had tried to attract private patients as early
as 1908, but with little success and, with time out for
World War I, he continued to practice as a psychiatrist
and resident neurologist at the Cottage Sanatorium in
Vienna. He had a long friendship with Rudolf von
Urbantschitsch, the head of the sanatorium, whom he
introduced to psychoanalytic circles about 1907.
Wittels spent the First World War in Turkey and
Syria as military physician. During and after the war,
he lent strong support to the social reformist ideas of
Josef Popper-Lynkeus. He also became close to Wilhelm
Stekel and his group, and during the early 1920s
he was analyzed by Stekel. Wittels’s biography of
Freud, partly the result of collaboration with Stekel,
was published in 1924, and soon published in England
and America. Sigmund Freud: His Personality, His
Teaching, His School won bitter remarks from Freud,
but Wittels nevertheless returned to the Vienna Society
in 1925, and two years later he was readmitted as a
member. After his reconciliation with Freud he made
some corrections and emendations to his biography
(1932).
In 1927, Wittels was elected to the propaganda committee
of the Vienna Society and directed its publications.
He was invited in 1928 by Alvin Johnson to teach
at the New School for Social Research in New York; over
the next three years he lectured in the United States and
in 1932 settled definitively in New York where, the same
year, he became a member of the New York Psychoanalytic
Society. He made his last visit to Europe in 1934,
remaining a member of the Vienna Society until 1936.
He joined to the American Psychoanalytic Association
and the New York Academy of Medicine; he taught at
the New York Psychoanalytic Institute and the New
School; and he was also associated with Bellevue Hospital
in New York and Columbia University.
Wittels married three times. His first wife, whom he
married in 1908, was Yerta Pick, the daughter of a
renowned psychiatrist in Prague; she died in 1913. In
1920 he wed Lilly Krishaber; and in 1947, he married
Poldi Goetz.
Wittels’s last book, The Sex Habits of the American
Women, was published posthumously in 1951. In 1995
Edward Timms published Freud and the Child
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Wittkower, Eric (1899-1983)
Woman, a highly edited version of Wittels’s not
entirely frank or reliable memoirs (Lensing, 1996).
ELKE MUHLEITNER
See also: Applied psychoanalysis and the interaction of
psychoanalysis; Fackel, Die; Death instinct (Thanatos);
Kraus, Karl; Wiener psychoanalytische Vereinigung.
Bibliography
Lensing, Leo A. (1989). “Geistige Vater” und “Das Kindweib.”
Sigmund Freud, Karl Kraus und Irma Karczewska in
der biographie von Fritz Wittels. International Forum of
Psychoanalysis, 30, 430-431.
. (1996). “Freud and the child woman” or “The
Kraus affair”? A textual “reconstruction” of Fritz Wittels’s
psychoanalytic autobiography. German Quarterly, 69 (3).
Mijolla, Alain de. Freud, biography, his autobiography, and
his biographers. Psychoanalysis and History, 1 (1), 4-27.
Muhlleitner, Elke. (1992). Biographisches Lexikon der Psychoanalyse
(Die Mitglieder der Psychologischen Mittwoch-
Gesellschaft und der Weiner Psychoanalytischen Vereinigung
(1903-1938). Tiibingen: Diskord.
Timms, Edward. (1986). Karl Kraus, apocalyptic satirist: Culture
and catastrophe in Habsburg Vienna. New Haven, CT:
Yale University Press.
. (Ed.) (1995). Freud and the child woman: The memoirs
of Fritz Wittels. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Wittels, Fritz. (1924). Sigmund Freud, his personality, his
teaching, his school. London: Allen & Unwin.
. (1932). Revision of a biography. Psychoanalytic
Review, 19, 241-256.
WITTKOWER, ERIC (1899-1983)
Eric Wittkower, although a British subject by birth,
was born on April 4, 1899, in Berlin and died on January
6, 1983 in Montreal.
He received his MD at the University of Berlin in
1924. From 1925 to 1930 he was assistant in the Medical
Clinic at the Charité in Berlin; from 1930 to 1933
he became assistant in the Psychiatric Clinic at the
Charité. From 1932 to 1933 he was privat dozent in
psychosomatic medicine at the University of Berlin.
Already he numbered among the European pioneers
in psychosomatic medicine.
Because of the situation in Germany, in 1933 he
and his wife Claire moved to Switzerland, and
1869
WolFeNsTEIN, MartHa (1911-1976)
thereafter on to England, where he first was a research
fellow at the Maudsley Clinic and then at Tavistock.
After further training in Edinburgh and Glasgow, he
served as a psychiatrist in the British Army from 1940
to 1945. In England, he was analyzed by Eva Rosenfeld,
then by John Rickman, and completed his
psychoanalytic training at the London Institute in
1950. In 1951 the Kleinian—oriented Wittkower left
Maudsley and Tavistock to go with his wife and two
children to Montreal, where he taught at McGill University
where he conceptually organized the domain
of transcultural psychiatry and where he founded and
edited the Transcultural Psychiatric Research Review.
He was also one of the founding fathers of the Canadian
Society of Psychoanalysis. In 1970 he helped to
found the International College of Psychosomatic
Medicine.
The prolific Wittkower authored four books,
including Emotional Factors in Skin Disease (1953),
Recent Developments in Psychosomatic Medicine
(1954), Divergent views in Psychiatry (1981), co-edited
three more, and wrote more than two hundred and
thirty articles, the great majority being on psychosomatic
medicine and transcultural psychiatry. Despite
those seminal contributions and his honorary recognition
by various psychoanalytic, psychiatric, and psychosomatic
organizations on four continents, he
prized his teaching most of all—his grateful colleagues
and students overwhelmingly agree.
Patrick MAHONY
See also: Canada; Tavistock Clinic.
Bibliography
Wittkower, Eric. (1953). Emotional Factors in skin disease.
New York: Paul Hoeber.
Wittkower, Eric, and Cleghorn, Robert (Eds.). (1954).
Recent developments in Psychosomatic Medicine. London,
Sir Isaac Pitman.
Wittkower, Eric, and Dongier, Maurice (Eds.). (1981).
Divergent views in Psychiatry. Baltimore, MD: Harper &
Row.
“WOLF MAN”. see From the history of an infantile
neurosis (Wolf Man)
1870
WOLFENSTEIN, MARTHA (1911-1976)
Martha Wolfenstein, a psychoanalyst and writer, was
born on November 10, 1911, in Cleveland, Ohio, and
died on November 30, 1976, in New York. She graduated
from Radcliffe College, and then earned an MA in
psychology and a PhD in aesthetics from Columbia
University. She was analyzed by the art historian and
lay analyst Ernst Kris and attended classes at the New
York Psychoanalytic Institute between 1948 and 1953.
A lay psychoanalyst, she was not a member of a society
belonging to the American Psychoanalytic Association,
but nonetheless was a widely admired teacher
and supervisor in New York City.
Wolfenstein’s mother died when she was a child,
and there is a history of parental (especially maternal)
loss extending back several generations in her family.
Ellen Handler Spitz has written insightfully about this
history and its role in Wolfenstein’s work. Wolfenstein
wrote three classic papers on childhood bereavement:
“How Is Mourning Possible?” (1966b), “Loss, Rage,
and Repetition” (1969), and “The Image of the Lost
Parent” (1973). She also wrote important studies of
two artists: René Magritte and Francisco de Goya. In
her paper, “Goya’s Dining Room” (1966a), she explicated
the psychological fantasies portrayed in Goya’s
paintings and argued that for Goya the loss of his hear-
- ing was linked to his earlier losses, in their infancy, of
all but one of his five children. She linked themes of
grief, rage, and sexual guilt to the horrifying images
that characterize the paintings that Goya painted after
his illness in 1792.
Wolfenstein books include Movies (1950), Children’s
Humor (1954), and Disaster (1957), a seminal analysis
of the impact of catastrophic events on individuals.
With the anthropologist Margaret Mead, she edited
Childhood in Contemporary Cultures (1955). This
volume grew out of the project Columbia University
Research in Contemporary Cultures, led by Mead and
Ruth Benedict. As a member of this project, Wolfenstein
made two trips to Paris in 1947 and 1953. While in
Paris she observed the behavior of parents and children
in parks and noted in her paper “French Parents Take
Their Children to the Park” (1955) that French children
quickly learn that displays of physical aggression are not
permissible, and that verbal disputes are substituted.
She concluded that for the French, childhood and
adulthood are very distinct, and that the relation
between childhood and adulthood is almost completely
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
opposite in France and in America. In America, childhood
is viewed as a nearly ideal time, and adults feel
nostalgic for their childhood. Adulthood is a ceaseless
round of work, and the enjoyment of immediate pleasures
is nearly lacking. For the French, the opposite is
true: it is in adulthood that one can live in the present
moment and that sensuous pleasures become ends in
themselves; concern with such pleasures and ingenuity
in achieving them are persistent themes of adult life.
Wolfenstein’s books and essays are exemplary for their
use of psychoanalytic insights as a prism with which to
illuminate and connect the origins and vicissitudes of
cultural values and attitudes to psychological imperatives.
Her papers on childhood bereavement were important
clinical contributions because they demonstrated
that the child’s or adolescent’s inability to fully engage in
mourning the loss of a beloved object, as opposed to
adapting, is inextricably linked to their particular stage of
development at the time of the parent’s death.
NELtE L. THOMPSON
Bibliography
Spitz, Ellen Handler. (1998). Martha Wolfenstein: Toward
the severance of memory from hope. Psychoanalytic
Review, 85, 105-115.
Thompson, Nellie. (2001). American women. psychoanalysts,
1911-1941. Annual of Psychoanalysis, 29, 161-177.
Wolfenstein, Martha. (1954). Children’s humor: A psychological
analysis. Glencoe, IL: Free Press.
. (1955). French parents take their children to the
park. In Margaret Mead and Martha Wolfenstein (Eds.),
Childhood in contemporary cultures (pp. 99-117). Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.
. (1957). Disaster: A psychological essay. Glencoe, IL:
Free Press.
. (1966a). Goya’s dining room. Psychoanalytic Quarterly,
35, 47-83.
. (1966b). How is mourning possible? Psychoanalytic
Study of the Child, 21, 93-123.
. (1969). Loss, rage, and repetition. Psychoanalytic
Study of the Child, 24, 432-462.
_ (1973). The image of the lost parent. Psychoanalytic
Study of the Child, 28, 433-456.
Wolfenstein, Martha, and Leites, Nathan. (1950). Movies: A
psychological study. Glencoe, IL: Free Press.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Wo rr, ANToNiA ANNA (1888-1953)
WOLFF, ANTONIA ANNA (1888-1953)
Swiss analyst Antonia (“Toni”) Anna Wolff was born
on September 18, 1888, in Ziirich, where she died on
March 21, 1953. Wolff was the oldest of three daughters
born to Konrad Arnold Wolff and Anna Elisebetha
Sutz. The Wolff family had resided in Ziirich since the
1300s and was one of its most distinguished names.
The family had been members of the Swiss Reform
Church for many centuries. Konrad had been a merchant
and a businessman in Japan prior to his marriage.
Although the marriage was arranged, it has been
described as a happy one. Wolff was her father’s favorite.
When he died in 1910, her mother sent her to Jung
for treatment of what today would be diagnosed as
depression. Jung immediately sensed her aptitude for
analysis, because in 1911 he invited her, along with his
wife and several other women that showed promise, to
the Weimar Psychoanalytic Congress.
When Jung began his nekyia into the unconscious,
Wolff was the one he turned to. He shared his dreams
and active imaginations with her, which he recorded
in his Red Book. She became his sou] mate for psychological
matters in a way that Emma could not provide.
She maintained this function for most of the rest of his
life. Jung described her as his “second wife.’ Jung’s
relationship to Wolff was completely public, and all
immediate members of the Jung family, including
Emma, were aware of the situation. Emma and Wolff
often sat on either side of Jung when he gave a seminar,
and Toni frequently traveled with Jung on his lecture
tours. This arrangement did not sit well with the children
and grandchildren, but it was completely
accepted by Jung’s analysands. It has been said that
Jung, as he got older, turned to her less frequently.
She became a founding member of the Analytical
Psychology Club in 1916 and was its president from
1928 to 1945. It was under her presidency that the tenper-
cent quota on Jews was passed. From 1948 to 1952
she was honorary president of the club. The club, the
only Jungian organization at the time, was her domain.
From the 1920s on she worked as a professional assistant
to Jung. Most people who entered analysis with
Jung also saw her. She was considered to be more practical
and worked in the personal aspects with the analysand,
whereas Jung dealt mainly with the archetypal
issues. She favored the term Complex Psychology over
any other name for Jung’s psychology, and when the
Jung Institute was founded she wanted to name it the
1871
Worb ASSOCIATION
“Institute for Complex Psychology”. Her major paper
was, “Structural Forms of the Feminine Psyche,” published
in German in 1951 and translated into English by
Paul Watziliwak. As of 2005 her other papers were being
prepared for publication in English by Robert Hinshaw.
On a personal level she was always described as elegant,
and dramatic in her dress; a chain smoker who
liked her cocktails, but was never drunk. She never married,
as Jung was the man in her life. There were rumors
of other flirtations, but nothing has been verified. She
suffered from severe rheumatoid arthritis, which hampered
her mobility toward the end of her life. She
worked until the day she died. Gerhard Adler described
having an excellent analytic hour with her the day before
she suffered her fatal heart attack on March 21, 1953.
THOMAS KirscH
See also: Jung, Carl Gustav.
WORD ASSOCIATION
Word association is connected with the work that
Carl Gustav Jung was engaged in at the Burghdlzli
Psychiatric Clinic of the University of Zurich in the
early stages of his career (Jung, 1917/1926/1943). .
Under the directorship of Eugen Bleuler, the Burghdélzli
Psychiatric Clinic was an international center of
excellence in psychiatric research at the turn of the
century. Jung became director of research on the
Word Association Test. This test usually consisted of
a hundred stimulus words that were read out singly
to a subject who was to “answer as quickly as possible
with the first word that occurs to you.” The reaction
time, verbal response, and test behavior were
recorded and analyzed. Verbal responses were classified
according to several linguistic categories. The test
was used to diagnose psychological typology and
psychopathology.
The Word Association Test (WAT) was based on
earlier theories of the associationism school of psychology,
which studied the
associations.
laws of mental
Jung introduced significant innovations to this
method. In addition to the cognitive dimensions, he
emphasized the emotional aspects involved. He noted
that the words to which subjects offered unusual
1872
responses were connected with themes having an emotional
impact on them. He found that subjects invariably
do not have conscious control over their responses.
Therefore, he argued, this method was tapping both
conscious and unconscious phenomena. He found that
clusters of ideas, images, and words loaded with much
affect (positive or negative) interfered with the ego
(as the coordinating agency) by producing unusual
responses. He called these clusters complexes. Jung used
Freud’s theories of repression to account for the autonomous
nature of complexes. Freud praised Jung for providing
experimental proof of the existence of the unconscious,
welcoming him in the early psychoanalytic
movement as a much needed hard-nosed scientist.
Although the term complex was used by Freud and Josef
Breuer earlier, it was with Jung’s meaning that it finally
entered the psychoanalytic vocabulary.
Jung and his associates applied the Word Association
Test to many psychiatric contexts, including forensic
diagnoses, publishing some remarkable cases of successful
detection. A much-neglected facet of Jung’s early
work is his application of this method to families. He
gave the test to members of the same families and found
that there were psychological subgroupings in the same
family. At the time, however, Jung possessed neither the
theoretical understanding nor the clinical experience to
take these findings further. One can argue that these
unfinished questions contributed to the development of
his theories about other manifestations of shared unconscious
structures in subjects, for example, the archetypes
(Papadopoulos, 1996).
Gradually, Jung abandoned this method and the
whole experimental approach to psychiatry, especially
after leaving the Burghélzli Psychiatric Clinic. Nonetheless,
his method of amplification (instead of free
association) and his sensitivity to the role of language
in psychotherapy owe their origin to the Word Association
Test. As of 2005, the Word Association Test is
hardly used, though it is taught in some Jungian training
programs and some analysts use it as a technique
to enhance the therapeutic process (Hill, 1975).
RENOS K. PAPADOPOULOS
See also: Amplification (analytical psychology).
Bibliography
Hill, John. (1975). Individuation and the association experiment.
Annual of Archetypal Psychology, 145-151.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Jung, Carl Gustav. (1917/1926/1943). The psychology of the
unconscious processes. In Coll. Works, Vol. 7: Two essays on
analytical psychology (R. F. Hull, Trans.). London: Routledge
and Kegan Paul, 1953.
Papadopoulos, Renos K. (1996). Archetypal family therapy:
Developing a Jungian approach to working with families.
In Laura S. Dodson and Terrill L. Gibson (Eds.), Psyche
and family: Jungian applications to family therapy. Wilmette,
IL: Chiron Press.
WORD-PRESENTATION
In the Freudian model, word-presentations correspond
to verbal language, and thing-presentations correspond
to visual images. They differ as signifier differs from
signified. In Freud’s view, although unconscious thingpresentations
and thought antedate word-presentations,
which are preconscious-conscious, he assigned a
special role to verbal language in the mechanism
whereby unconscious processes became conscious.
In the associationist perspective of his prepsychoanalytic
work, in particular, in On Aphasia (1891b),
where Freud first presented the antithesis between
thing- and word-presentations, the thing-presentation
constituted an open complex of images, whereas the
word-presentation was a closed entity whose special
task was to gather the “associations of the object”
together as the “complex” that constituted the object’s
identity. What Freud was apparently referring to here
was less the presence of something being represented
than the difference between two series of associations,
one of which is closed and the other open-ended. The
specific role of language is to produce meanings that
lie not in things prior to the advent of language but
rather in thought before the advent of words.
Upon discovering the unconscious, Freud came to
question this nominalist theory of knowledge, inherited
from John Stuart Mill, and embraced the idea
that unconscious thinking, and by extension thingpresentations,
were prior to language and wordpresentations.
At the same time, however, spoken language
acquired a privileged role in the mental
processes whereby things become conscious. As early
as “A Project for a Scientific Psychology” (1950c
[1895]), the word-presentation was seen as a substitute
for the hallucinatory satisfaction of a wish. This theoretical
conception of the relationship between pleasure
and language comports with psychoanalytic clinical
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
WoRD-PRESENTATION
practice: in Studies on Hysteria (1895d), Freud said that
in the treatment process there is a need to replace acts
with words to permit the abreaction of repressed wishes.
Freud thus stressed how the motor aspect of language
can facilitate an emotional release, in connection with
the revival of a memory, that is less costly than alternative
adequate reactions (tears, revenge, etc.).
Seen in this light, language constitutes the secondary
process (the processes of the ego) and the process of
emergence into consciousness, though it is true that
Freud never denied the possibility of thing-presentations
becoming conscious directly, as for instance in dream
images and hallucinations. Verbal thinking nevertheless
remained the ideal tool of psychoanalysis, for it allows
all parts of the psychic apparatus to be accessible at all
times to the thought process. In fact, the impartiality of
language makes it possible for the demands of the pleasure
principle to be placed in abeyance.
No doubt this property of language later spurred
Freud to assert that word-presentations, by virtue of
the “hypercathexis” of thing-presentations, “make it
possible for the primary process [the processes of the
id] to be succeeded by the secondary process” and for
“a higher psychical organization” to emerge, namely
the preconscious system (1915e, p. 202). In “An Outline
of Psychoanalysis” (1940a [1938]), however, he
proposed a more restricted view, arguing that language
did not in fact constitute the preconscious, though it
was an important feature of it. He then acknowledged
that for language to develop, the secondary process
and the ego must have organized and there must also
be in place a preverbal form of thinking correlated
with the economic equilibrium between the principles
of inertia and constancy. In this connection, in the
“Outline” Freud spoke of the opposition between free
and bound energy (p. 164), thus confirming his view
that at an early, prelinguistic stage, the preconsciousconscious
system binds the affects with ideational
representatives in a process that is the corollary of primal
repression. In this context, Freud viewed preconscious
thought as depending on the formation of the
categories of space, time, causality, and permanence
during the first two years of life, categories that supply
the foundation for the development of language.
Should we subscribe to Jacques Lacan’s view that
language is the precondition of the unconscious and
that with regards to the mental organization necessary
to constitute objects, “it is the world of words that creates
the world of things” (2002 [1953], p. 65)? Or
1873
Worbd-PRESENTATION
should we determine instead that the unconscious is a
prerequisite of language, that the organization of the
topography of the mental apparatus precedes and
accounts for the emergence of language? The issue is
important, for it decides the status of language relative
to the discovery of the unconscious and of childhood
sexuality.
The crux of the question is Freud’s conception of
the thing-presentation. The empiricist notions Freud
employed tend to reinforce the idea that the thingpresentation
refers only to the mental reproduction of
things, just as the concepts of image and mnemic trace
suggest. Contrasting with this Freudian empiricism is
Lacan’s promotion of an unconscious “structured like
a language”—an intellectualizing approach according
to which language gives the world meaning.
Both approaches lose sight of the fact that thingpresentations
are the outcome of the psychic work of
internalizing and reappropriating mmnemic traces
bound up with the hallucinatory satisfaction of wishes.
This work of representing and figuring the object is
the foundation of fantasizing and has its roots in
cathectic activity that antedates perception of objects.
The object presents itself in the first instance by way of
an affect. This totality can never be represented figuratively
in a complete way or expressed in words in a discourse
adequate to it.
In its relationship with the secondary process, language
appears defined essentially by its communicative
function. But it is at the same time subject to the primary
process, which tends to strip it of this function
and to bring into question the signifying-signified
relationship, thus introducing a factor ultimately
against the linguistic system itself. When a similarity
between signifiers serves to justify a conclusion that
the things signified are similar, words, as Freud
famously observed, are “treated like things” (1900a,
pp. 295-296; 1915e, p. 199). Freud’s study of dreams
and psychoneuroses brought him to this view. Yet
dreams only partially bring into question the
relationship between signifier and signified, between
word-presentation and thing-presentation. As Freud
reiterated, dreams modify not the “words themselves”
but rather “the thing-presentations to which the words
have been taken back” (1916-1917f, p. 229). In short,
“treating words as things” means making words not
into things but into other words, other signs, that
retain their referential function despite successive
substitutions.
1874
The primary process, meanwhile, can also alter the
relationship between the linguistic sign and the referent.
For example, in schizophrenia the elimination of
the semantic relationship between signifier and signified
also threatens the linguistic sign in its referential
function to a thing in the external world. Indeed, psychosis
implies a failure in the counter-cathexis of the
hallucinatory representation of wishes, which makes it
possible for the preconscious to operate. This failure
gives rise to a defensive hypercathexis of language,
which, though it constitutes an attempt at recovery by
“regaining the lost object” (1915e, pp. 203-204), nevertheless
relies on a like massive cathexis of the object.
In this context, any word may carry the excitatory
force of the primal scene, that is, the force of a sadistic
combination of two poorly differentiated imagos. In the
thought of schizophrenics, hypercathexis of language is
basic to their linguistic distortions and “concrete”
thinking, which in actuality, from the point of view of
the relationship between language and reality, is an eminently
abstract kind of thought. But concrete schizophrenic
thought can foster the illusion that language is
forever cut off from the world, whereas in fact the sign
can have no meaning outside of that opening onto the
outside world (thought) that is its very foundation.
The symbolic function, and hence language, are
linked to an economic process indicated by instinctual
cathexis. Freud’s description (1920g, pp. 14ff) of an
eighteen-month-old child playing with a reel on a
string (the Fort-Da game) shows how, in this economic
process, the work of symbolic substitution operates by
means of signs that represent the mother’s absence and
indicate acceptance of this fact, as distinct from mere
signals (as for instance the child’s earlier tears), which
are addressed to a mother who is effectively present
and are meant as a practical response. Inhibition of the
aim of the instinct, which results in a shift to tender
feelings toward the object and acceptance of a delay in
satisfaction, then allows sublimation and symbolization
through play, gesture, and language.
Thus the symbolic function, seen here in the process
of the subject’s working over the absent object, does
not arise from a learning process or from an experienced
contiguity between word and thing. Rather, it is
the means of articulating the double nature of the sign
and its differential value in the linguistic system. This
symbolic function is achieved through the work of
negation carried out in silence, manifesting itself notably
in the early split between ego and object, and find-
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
ing its true fulfillment, as distinct from its raison détre,
in language. As it accedes to speech, this representational
function has less to do with language reduced to
its role as signal than it does with language as sign, with
the sort of sudden advance that can sustain the acceptance
not only of a loss but also of a previously instituted
social convention regarding the loss.
ALAIN GIBEAULT
See also: Thing-presentation.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1891b). On aphasia: A critical study. New
York: International Universities Press.
. (1915e). The unconscious. SE, 14: 159-204.
. (1916-1917f [1915]). A metapsychological supplement
to the theory of dreams. SE, 14: 217-235.
. (1920g). Beyond the pleasure principle. SE, 18:
1-64.
. (1940a [1938]). An outline of psycho-analysis. SE,
23: 139-207.
. (1950c [1895]). A project for a scientific psychology.
SE, 1: 281-387.
Freud, Sigmund, and Breuer, Josef. (1895d). Studies on hysteria.
SE, 2: 48-106.
Lacan, Jacques. (2002). The function and field of speech and
language in psychoanalysis. In his Ecrits: A selection (Bruce
Fink, Trans.). New York: W. W. Norton. (Original work
published 1953)
WORK (AS A PSYCHOANALYTICAL NOTION)
In its general sense, the word work denotes an expenditure
of energy by a system or organism that produces
an effect or transformation. In psychoanalysis, mental
work is taken to mean any activity of the psychical
apparatus that is designed to deal with instinctual
excitations.
As early as “Some Points for a Comparative Study of
Organic and Hysterical Motor Paralyses” (1893c), a
paper originally published in French, Freud introduced
a notion cardinal to his entire work: “Every event,
every psychical impression is provided with a certain
quota of affect (Affektbetrag) of which the ego divests
itself either by means of a motor reaction or by associa-
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Work (As A PSYCHOANALYTICAL Notion)
tive psychical activity.... [T]his conception (Vorstellung)
does not become liberated and accessible so long
as the quota of affect of the psychical trauma has not
been eliminated by an adequate motor reaction or by
conscious psychical activity” (pp. 171-172). It was
therefore on the basis of clinical experience that the idea
of mental work imposed itself on Freud the therapist as
a necessary activity for the patient—as distinct, in particular,
from the patient’s more passive role in treatment
using hypnosis. In his earliest psychoanalytical writings,
it was a cognitive kind of work that was seen as making
it possible to resolve the contradiction between an
unacceptable idea that had aroused a painful affect and
the ego. The aim of such “associative working over
(assoziative Verarbeitung)” (1894a, p. 50) was to integrate
forgotten ideas—which Freud would later call
repressed ideas—into the realm of consciousness.
By drawing this distinction between associative
mental work and a motor discharge comparable to the
reflex arc, Freud not only described the aim of such
work, namely to deal with the quota of affect, but also
offered a first glimpse of what was to become psychoanalysis:
the study of the functioning of the psychical
apparatus, and at the same time a therapeutic method
designed to bring back into consciousness, by means,
precisely, of psychic work, ideas that had been
repressed. The term work appears frequently in Freud’s
writings, and very often it refers to one or other of
these two aspects of psychoanalysis.
It is significant that Freud chose a term belonging at
once to ordinary and to scientific language in order to
describe his view of the psychical apparatus: by analogy
with the natural sciences, which he so often invoked, he
took work to mean a physical measure implying a certain
expenditure of energy. Throughout Freud’s writings,
in fact, the idea of work supplied him with the
yardstick with which to gauge every manifestation of
mental activity, not only within the treatment (the
work performed respectively by analyst and analysand,
as discussed for example in the Studies on Hysteria
[1995d]), but also in respect of the operation of various
mental processes (as for instance the dream-work,
joke-work, the work of mourning, or the psychic work
of repression in the child during the oedipal period).
Beginning with The Interpretation of Dreams (1900a),
Freud considered—‘“since nothing but a wish can set
our mental apparatus at work” (p. 567)—that the
dream was a wish-fulfillment, and that it was governed
by the pleasure principle. The task of the dream-work,
1875
Work (As a PsYCHOANALYTICAL NoTION)
whose chief mechanisms Freud described as condensation,
displacement, considerations of representability,
symbolization, and secondary revision, was to transform
the formative components of dreams—daily residues,
bodily stimuli, dream-thoughts—into a manifest content
acceptable to the otherwise vigilant consciousness
of the dreamer. In Jokes and Their Relation to the Unconscious
(1905c), Freud discussed the work involved in the
construction of jokes, an activity designed to produce
pleasure, and demonstrated its kinship with the
mechanisms of the dream. The Three Essays on the Theory
of Sexuality (1905d) introduced the sexual instinct as
a way of conceptualizing the pressure for work mobilized
by desire; the work of the psychic apparatus was
thus deemed to be the management of excitations emanating
from the sexual instinct.
In “Formulations on the Two Principles of Mental
Functioning,” (1911b), Freud reasserted that the activity
of the psychical apparatus was governed by the
pleasure principle, but he added that in the course of
development the reality principle could establish itself
and modify things: “Just as the pleasure-ego can do
nothing but wish, work for a yield of pleasure, and
avoid unpleasure, so the reality-ego need do nothing
but strive for what is useful and guard itself against
damage” (p. 223). Later, in “Mourning and Melancholia”
(1916-17g [1915]), Freud showed that mourning
was responsible for the work of withdrawing libido .
from the object in situations where the object was
highly cathected.
The word work was used throughout Freud’s writings,
too, to denote effort expended during analytic
treatment, whether by the analyst or by the patient. In
his paper on “Constructions in Analysis,” for example,
he reminded his readers “that the work of analysis consists
of two quite different portions, that it is carried on
in two separate localities [and] involves two people, to
each of which a distinct task is assigned.” Moreover, the
“person who is being analysed has to be induced to
remember something that has been experienced by
him and repressed; and the dynamic determinants of
this process are so interesting that the other portion of
the work, the task performed by the analyst, [may be]
pushed into the background” (1937d, p. 258). The analyst’s
said task Freud nevertheless compared first of all
to that of the archaeologist; he then distinguished
between two kinds of work on the analyst’s part that
were undertaken in parallel: construction (or reconstruction)
and working-through (durcharbeiten), the
1876
second being needed in order to overcome the resistances
that the analyst’s constructions were liable to
provoke in the patient.
Finally, Freud did not overlook the everyday meaning
of work as professional activity. Like Voltaire,
whom he cited, he underscored the great value of work
in this sense, but for his part he viewed it from the
standpoint of the economics of the libido, and
described it as a form of sublimation offering the possibility
“of displacing a large amount of libidinal components,
whether narcissistic, aggressive or even
erotic”; to the extent that it made possible “the use of
existing inclinations ... or ... instinctual impulses,”
any profession could be “a source of special satisfaction”
(1930a [1929], p. 80n).
Many recent approaches to psychoanalysis have
given a significant place to the notion of work. A notable
example is André Green’s “work of the negative,”
which, though it is a product of the death instinct,
functions in a sense by making the negative positive: a
void, a lack, or a state of mourning itself becomes an
object of identification or an object susceptible of
cathexis, to the detriment of the absent object itself.
Negative hallucination, the function of disobjectalization,
negative narcissism, or the complex of the dead
mother are so many paradigms of the work of the
negative in operation.
Rene Angelergues (1993) has distinguished between
two qualitative orientations of mental work, the one
toward sublimation, the other toward erotization. It is
also worth mentioning the “work of thought” (Anzieu,
1996; Mijolla-Mellor, 1992). And, lastly, the phenomenon
of mentalization, which, according to the Ecole de
Psychosomatique de Paris, deals with the quantity and
quality of an individual’s ideas—and is thus closely akin
to that mental work which has the capacity to cope with
and manage anxiety and intraspsychic conflicts.
MICHELE POLLAK CORNILLOT
See also: Adolescent crisis; | Autohistorization;
Construction/reconstruction; Dream work; Interpretation
of Dreams, The; Mourning; Negative, work of; “Outline
of Psycho-Analysis, An”; Preconscious, the; Secondary
revision; Therapeutic alliance; Working-through.
Bibliography
Angelergues, René (1993). L’Homme_ psychique. Paris:
Calmann-Levy.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Anzieu, Didier. (1996). Créer, détruire. Paris: Dunod.
Freud, Sigmund. (1893c [1888-1893]). Some points for a
comparative study of organic and hysterical motor
paralyses. SE, 1: 155-172.
. (1894a). The neuro-psychoses of defence. SE, 3: 41-61.
. (1900a). The interpretation of dreams. Part I, SE, 4:
1-338: Part I, SE, 5: 339-625.
. (1905c). Jokes and their relation to the unconscious.
SE, 8: 1-236.
. (1905d). Three essays on the theory of sexuality. SE,
7: 123-243.
. (1911b). Formulations on the two principles of
mental functioning. SE, 12: 213-226.
. (1916-17 [1915]). Mourning and melancholia. SE,
14: 237-258.
. (1930a [1929]). Civilization and its discontents. SE,
21: 57-145.
. (1937d). Constructions in analysis. SE, 23: 255-269.
Freud, Sigmund, and Breuer, Josef. (1895d). Studies on hysteria.
SE, 2.
Mijolla-Mellor, Sophie de. (1992). Le Plaisir de pensée. Paris:
Presses Universitaires de France.
WORKING-OFF MECHANISMS
The term working-off mechanisms describes the work
of the psychic transformation that is accomplished by
the subject during or at the end of psychoanalytic
treatment. This process, developed by the ego’s new
capacities for binding, indicates the attainment of a
psychic liberation or opening-up.
The notion of working-off was mainly introduced by
Edward Bibring (1943) in the context of what he called
the “tension-controlling methods of the ego” (p. 513).
Daniel Lagache (1962) later adopted and further developed
it. In Lagache’s view, working-off mechanisms are
different from defense mechanisms, because the former
indicate that the defense has been lifted. The essential
point entails the “recognition and assimilation of the
fantasmatic conflict; which opens the way to the psychic
capacities for “foresight” and “replacement.”
Sigmund Freud did not explicitly mention the presence
of working-off mechanisms. However, in the
fifth of his “Five Lectures on Psycho-Analysis” (1910
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
WorKING OveR
[1909]) he emphasized how unconscious wishes are
liberated by psychoanalysis: a) repression is replaced
“by a condemning judgementcarried out along the best
lines” (p. 53), such that the subject’s ego can thereafter
“master” the “unserviceable” instincts of an incompletely
developed ego that could previously only repress
them; b) the instincts can then “be employed for the
useful purposes which they would have found earlier if
development had not been interrupted” (p. 53); c) the
individual’s unrealizable inclination is replaced by a
higher goal situated outside of sexuality: sublimation.
Lastly, a reference to such processes can be read
between the lines in some of Freud’s other texts: the
chapter “The Ego’s Dependency Relations” in The Ego
and the Id (1923), and “Analysis Terminable and Interminable”
(1937).
The notion of working-off mechanisms is difficult to
delimit on the metapsychological level. If it implies an
effort to account for the subject’s capacity for integration
and elaboration, it has often been understood, especially
by adherents of ego psychology, as an illustration of the
attitudes and behaviors of the “conscious ego.”
ELsA SCHMID-KITSIKIS
See also: Bibring, Edward; Ego (ego psychology).
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1910 [1909]). Five lectures on psychoanalysis.
SE, 11: 7 -55.
. (1937). Analysis terminable and interminable. SE,
23: 209 —253.
Lagache, Daniel. (1962). La conception de homme dans
Pexpérience psychanalytique. In E. Rosenblum (Ed.),
Oeuvres Completes, Volume 4: 1956-1962: Agressivite.
Structure de la personnalite et autres travaux, Paris: Presses
Universitaires de France.
WORKING OVER
Psychical working over is the work of thought that
links and associates mental representations among
themselves and through the intermediary of language,
leading to their evolution, through the successive
translations and networks of symbolic associations put
into operation by fantasies, from the stage of the primary
processes to that of the secondary processes. It is
1877
Working Over
an expression of the instinct’s requirement for psychic
work owing to its link with the somatic.
Sigmund Freud borrowed the term psychical working
over from Jean Martin Charcot, who described a period
of mental processing between the time of a trauma and
the appearance of hysterical symptoms. As early as
1892, and then in the Studies on Hysteria with Josef
Breuer (1895), Freud evokes a working out through
association that has not been able to take place in hysteria,
leading to stasis of the traumatic effect in a separate
psychic group, with no possibility of liquidation.
The mechanism takes into account the nucleus of
the actual (defense) neurosis that is central to the
neuro-psychoses (in this case, hysteria). The lack of
psychical working over is even more clear cut in the
actual neuroses, properly speaking. In the essay “On
the Grounds for Detaching a Particular Syndrome
from Neurasthenia under the Description ‘Anxiety
Neurosis” (1895), Freud invokes the absence of a psychical
working over of sexual tension as the cause of
the actual neuroses, through either excessive discharge
into the soma (melancholia, neurasthenia) or excessive
accumulation (anxiety neurosis).
Different levels of this work of linking and mentalization
of the instincts can be described. The first level
is the site of transformation of the physical quantity of
an excitation tending toward immediate, reflexive discharge
into a psychic quality that can be preserved and
serve as a tool for thought and a guide for action. This
transformation occurs through (1) the inhibitory
effects of the lateral cathexes (according to Freud’s
1895 “Project for a Scientific Psychology”); (2) representational
translations; and (3) the mechanisms of
symbolic representation of the Preconscious and censorship
(according to Freud’s writings from The Interpretation
of Dreams (1900) through his essays on
metapsychology [1915]). This level demonstrates the
capacity of the psychic apparatus, by means of its
representations, to direct and contain discharges, promote
deferred action, and impose a waiting period.
The containment of free psychic energy is accomplished
through fixation of that energy within representations
and symbolic networks that are relatively stable.
In Freud’s account, memory traces form a hierarchical
system of signs made up of successive strata (like the
lava flows he describes in “Instincts and Their Vicissitudes”
[1915]). He states this clearly in a letter to Wilhelm
Fliess dated December 6, 1896, where he evokes
1878
the “re-transcription” (1950a [1887-1902], p. 233) of
memory traces at several registers—at least three, perhaps
more—of signs. Each register corresponds to a
temporal stage in psychic life, and the passage from one
register to the next occurs by means of a process comparable
to translation. Each retranscribed memory trace
“inhibits its predecessor and draws of the excitatory
process from it” (1950a [1887-1902], p. 235).
For Jean Laplanche and Jean-Bertrand Pontalis in
their Vocabulaire de la psychanalyse (1967), psychical
working over constitutes an important junction
between the economic register (management of excitation)
and the symbolic register (the network of associations)
in Freud’s theory of the psychic apparatus. In the
view of such authors as Michéle Perron-Borelli and
Roger Perron (1997), Alain Gibeault (1989), or Francois
Duparc, this symbolic elaboration occurs by means of
symbolization processes that construct a network
extending from the most primitive fantasies of action to
the most elaborate fantasmatic organizations: the family
romance, or infantile theories of sexuality. According to
Duparc (1997, 1998), each system of signs (images of
motion, visual forms or representations of things,
representations of words, or elaborated fantasies) has its
own capacity for temporal containment, which
increases with the psychic delay that precedes discharge.
But in order for psychical working over to be a flexible,
creative process that is not limited to containing
action and orienting the subject toward abstract signification,
it must nevertheless allow for the possibility of
the instinct’s deployment in all its dimensions, including
the affects, resonances among fantasies and representational
forms, and controlled breaking of the habits
of language and thought. These tertiary processes,
which enable regression, have the effect of freeing language
from a state of mourning. For Duparc, representation
is a living process in that it transports the drives
through the various resonances charged with motricity
and affect, among the forms pertaining to the most primary
level of symbolization (forms conveying motion,
primal protofantasies), the visual forms and mechanisms
of figuration that fix the instincts’ movements
within the censorship of the preconscious, and the elaborate
forms of the rhetorical figures of language.
FRANCOIS DUPARC
See also: Conscious processes; Fundamental rule; Lifting
of amnesia; Memories; Memory; Psychoanalytic treat-
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
ment; “Remembering, Repeating, and Working
Through”; Resistance; Transference neurosis; Work (as a
psychoanalytic notion).
Bibliography
Duparc, Fran¢ois. (1997). Hallucination négative, formes
motrices et comportements autocalmants. Cliniques psychosomatiques.
Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
Duparc, Fran¢ois. (1998). L’Elaboration en psychanalyse.
Bordeaux, France: LEsprit du temps.
Gibeault, Alain. Destins de la symbolisation. (1989). Revue
francaise de psychanalyse, 53 (6), 1493-1617.
Freud, Sigmund. (1950a [1887-1902]). Extracts from the
Fliess papers. SE, 1: 173-280.
Perron, Roger, and Michéle Perron-Borelli. (1997). Fantasme.
Action. Pensée. Algiers, Algeria: Editions de la Société
algérienne de psychologie.
WORKING-THROUGH
Working-through is the name for an operation resulting
from the putting into effect of several processes
during treatment; it opposes the work of resistance by
making the analysand better aware, through time, of
the defensive mechanisms upon which resistance is
based, and it sparks “processes of remodeling the ego”
(1937c, p. 249). Freud accords it a primary place in the
analyzand’s domain, to the extent the analyst allows
him the time to accomplish it. At the same time however,
this activity also seems closely tied to interpretation,
and the interpretive modalities of the analyst. It
is a term that may only be surmised in relation to economic
principles, including those of resistance and elements
of timing such as duration and “tempo.”
The German term durcharbeiten is difficult to translate.
Although the English translation “workingthrough”
does successfully convey its dynamic aspect, it
fails to capture the aspect of work that occurs at the surface.
In the technical paper “Remembering, Repeating
and Working-Through (Further recommendations on
the Technique of Psycho-Analysis II)” (1914g), where
Freud uses the term for the first time, it was to describe
a “consistent technique used today” that prevails over
hypnosis because it gives up on privileging the interrogation
of the patient concerning a specific problem or
factor. It is a technique, writes Freud, used to study
“whatever is present for the time being on the surface of
the patient’s mind” (p. 147)— though this does not pre-
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
WORKING- THROUGH
vent him from deploying metaphors of in-depth work
in the same article. The term durcharbeiten thus conveys
two notions whose co-existence in a single word is difficult
to maintain: depth and surface.
Psychoanalytic technique came after that of hypnosis,
and Freud sometimes placed the two in opposition
in order to highlight ways in which Psychoanalysis
represents a departure. Working-through comes out of
a fundamental difference between the two techniques
in that it assumes a gradual, step-by-step approach to
resistance. Hypnosis circumvents the notion of resistance;
it allows repressed memories to emerge but in
no way involves “processes of remodeling the ego” and
repression in its dimension as a part of processes of
symbolization. The idea of resistance is necessary
given the economic aspects of the drives, notably with
regard to excesses of drive energy. But as Freud continually
pointed out, the ego defends itself against dangers
that are no longer current. Thus “to work
through” implies the idea of a repetition that garners
small quantities of energy to deal with the compulsion
to repeat emanating from the id. Working-through
is proposed answer to resistance in “Remembering,
Repeating and Working-Through.”
That the form of resistance forwarded at the time is
repression, attests to the fact that Freud conceived the
psychic apparatus as highly-advanced in the realm of
symbolization—flexible and effective in its ability to
confront the drives. But the effectiveness of the function
of working-through must be relativized in the
face of difficulties involving defusions of instinct, narcissistic
fragility, and deficiencies in symbolization.
Although it remains true in these instances that certain
forms of resistance must be recognized, interpreted,
and then given up when they no longer further the
ends of self-preservation; more recent analytic technique
has ways of handling the transference and a conception
of the framework for treatment which are
based on metapsychological representations that are
more complex than in 1914. Thus working-through is
no longer indicated at certain times during treatment;
and sometimes a poor understanding of negative elements
in the transference may lead the analysis into a
working-through that is intellectual and falsely
effective.
Although Freud did not explicitly come back to this
notion after 1920, it is useful to reconsider it while taking
into account the upheavals brought about by the
dual theory of the instincts and the negative currents it
1879
WORKING- THROUGH
entails. Although he did not use the term durcharbetten,
Freud reworks the idea of it in “Negation”
(1925h), when confronted with the negative element
that subtends a patient’s denial of the analyst's interpretation.
It would be necessary to wait until “Analysis
Terminable and Interminable” (1937c) for him to
explore how the joint efforts of the analyst and patient
to recognize and conquer resistance run aground upon
the negative factor of the “bedrock” of castration.
In theory, the more working-through can relate
representational content to its corresponding affect,
the more effective it is. We know that most of the
defensive forms resistance takes, whether splitting,
repression or negation, seek to divorce affect from
representation and leave them strangers to one
another. Certain defensive formations, notably those
that combine splitting and negation, make workingthrough
laborious, and its visible effects appear only in
the long term. The forms then assumed by these psychic
contents, ruled by resistances which stem from
the instability of drive fusion, are subject to the repetition
compulsion and are difficult to access by means
of working-through, unless the analyst pays special
attention to the psychoanalytic setting and to the analysis
of his or her counter-transference.
In “Remembering, Repeating and Working-
Through,” Freud optimistically stated that symptomatic
repetition compulsion could be rendered
“harmless,” or even “useful,” if the analyst could bring
it into the “transference as a playground in which it
[the repetition compulsion] is allowed to expand in
alniost complete freedom and in which it is expected to
display to us everything in the way of pathogenic
instincts that is hidden in the patient’s mind” (1914g,
p. 154), where everything is accessible to the analyst’s
interpretations. He cited the example of an analysis
that seemed to be stuck in one place but that was actually
evolving normally. What must be remembered, he
then wrote, is “that giving the resistance a name could
not result in its immediate cessation. One must allow
the patient time to become more conversant with this
resistance with which he has now become acquainted,
to work through it, to overcome it, by continuing, in
defiance of it, the analytic work according to the fundamental
rule of analysis” (p. 155).
Working-though is indeed linked to the notion of
time, of duration, as is pointed out again at the end of
the essay: “The working-through of the resistances
may in practice turn out to be an arduous task for the
1880
subject of the analysis and a trial of patience for the
analyst” (p. 155). The theme of the length of the analysis
was much more explicit, if only because of its title,
in the 1937 essay “Analysis Terminable and Interminable.”
The justification for prolonging the length of the
analytic cure is considered relative to the “acquired ...
alterations of the ego” (1937c, p. 235) in its defensive
struggle with the drives. These modifications of the
ego seem like fixations, and the analyst’s task is to promote
the “processes of remodeling the ego” in the
patient. Moreover, it is this aspect of the work of analysis
that, from the analyst’s viewpoint, supports the
idea that “to analyze” is “an interminable task” (p.
249).
In “An Outline of Psycho-Analysis” (1940a [1938]),
Freud put the finishing touches on his metapsychological
overview. The mental apparatus with its two
topographies, his two theories of the drives, and his
theories on anxiety constitute a complex whole, in
light of which thinking about analytic technique must
remain cautious.
The notion of working-through retains its full
importance, provided it is conceived in relation to the
notion of drive fusion and defusion and the consequences
thereof, as well as in relation to the analyst’s
interpretation, whether it is explicit or latent, as Jean-
Paul Valabrega proposed in La formation du psychanalyste
(The training of the psychoanalyst; 1994).
RENE PERAN
See also: Conscious processes; Fundamental rule; Lifting
of amnesia; Memories; Memory; Psychoanalytic treatment;
“Remembering, Repeating and Working-through”;
Resistance; Transference neurosis; Work (as a Psychoanalytical
Notion).
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1914g). Remembering, repeating and
working-through (Further recommendations on the technique
ofp sycho-analysis II). SE, 12: 145-156.
. (1925h). Negation. SE, 19: 233-239.
. (1937c). Analysis terminable and interminable. SE,
23: 255-269.
. (1940a [1938]). An outline of psycho-analysis. SE,
23: 139-207.
Valabrega, Jean-Paul. (1994). La formation du psychanalyste.
Paris: Payot.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
WULFF, MOSCHE (WOOLF, MOSHE)
(1878-1971)
Mosche Wulff (or Moshe Woolf), a physician and teacher,
was born on May 10, 1878, in Odessa, Russia,
and died in November 1, 1971, in Tel Aviv. The son of
an German retailer, after graduating from the Lycée
Richelieu in Paris and finishing his studies at a business
school, Wulff undertook medical studies in 1900
in Berlin. He defended his thesis in 1905 under the
direction of Theodor Ziehen.
The psychiatrist Otto Juliusburger, whom he served as
assistant at the Berlin-Lankwitz sanatorium, introduced
Wulff to psychoanalysis. He never underwent a training
analysis proper, although Karl Abraham, who worked at
the sanatorium from 1908, became his teacher. In 1911 he
joined the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society, and in the same
year he returned to Russia, establishing himselfi nO dessa.
When World War I began, he left Odessa for Moscow.
In 1922, after the Russian Revolution, Wulff
founded, with Ivan Ermakov among others, the Moscow
Psychoanalytic Society. This organization gave
birth the next year to the Russian Institute for Psychoanalysis,
officially recognized in 1924. From 1922
Wulff worked as a psychoanalyst at the Second Medical
Clinic of the University of Moscow.
As early as 1921 Wulff participated in creating a psychoanalytically
oriented children’s home, which in 1923
became a polyclinic and expanded into a state institute
where training programs were available. After Lenin’s
death, however, rejection of psychoanalysis began to
spread, eventually leading to the dissolution of the all psychoanalytic
institutions and organized activity. Wulff was
elected president of the Russian Institute for Psychoanalysis
at the end of 1924, yet after a few months it was closed.
In 1927 Wulff left the Soviet Union. Returning to
Berlin, he worked at the famous Schloss-Tegel Sanitarium,
founded that year by Ernst Simmel. Under financial
stress, this institution closed in 1931.
Wulff emigrated to Tel-Aviv in 1933 to found, with
Max Eitingon and other members of the Vienna Psychoanalytic
Society, the Psychoanalytic Society of
Palestine. After Eitingon’s death, Wulff served as its
president from 1947 to 1954 (in 1948 it became
known as the Psychoanalytic Society of Israel). He
remained honorary president of the society until his
death, after a long illness.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Wutrr, MoscHe (Wootr, MosHe) (1878-1971)
Among his most remarkable works are “Beitrage zur
infantilen Sexualitat” (Contributions to infantile sexuality;
1912), his frequently cited 1932 paper “Uber einen
interessanten oralen Symptomenkomplex und_ seine
Beziehung zur Sucht” (An interesting oral symptom complex
and its relation to addiction), and “The Child’s
Moral Development” (1941). He wrote in Hebrew as well
as in German and English. Additional articles in English
include “On Castration Anxiety” (1955) and “Fetishism
and Object Choice in Early Childhood” (1946).
Mosche Wulff is mainly important for his pioneering
work in introducing psychoanalysis to Russia and
to Israel, where he trained a generation of analysts and
psychiatrists. His translations of some of Freud’s works
into Russian have been reprinted in recent years. He
was primarily interested in the analysis of children and
in psychoanalytically inspired pedagogy. Some of his
works on infantile psychology became standard works
of reference for training teachers and educators.
RUTH KLOOCKE
See also: Germany; Israel; Psychoterapia (Psixoterapija-
Obozrenie voprosov lecenija I prikladonoj); Russia/USSR;
Tegel (Schloss Tegel).
Bibliography
Jaffe, Ruth. (1966). Moshe Woolf: Pioneering in Russia and
Israel. In Franz Alexander, Samuel Eisenstein, and Martin Grotjahn
(Eds.), Psychoanalytic pioneers. New York: Basic Books.
Kloocke, Ruth. (1995). Mosche Wulff, 1878-1871. Luzifer-
Amor, 8 (16), 87-101.
Miller, Martin. (1998). Freud and the Bolsheviks: Psychoanalysis
in imperial Russia and the Soviet Union. New Haven,
CT: Yale University Press.
Woolf, Moshe. (1941). The child’s moral development. In
K. R. Eissler (Ed.), Searchlights on delinquency (pp. 263—
272). London: Imago.
. (1955). On castration anxiety. International Journal
of Psycho-Analysis, 36, 95-104.
Wulff, Mosche. (1912). Beitrage zur infantilen Sexualitat.
Zentralblatftii rP sychoanalyse, 2, 6-17.
. (1932). Uber einen interessanten oralen Symptomenkomplex
und seine Beziehung zur Sucht. Internationale
Zeitschriffiti r Psychoanalyse, 18, 283-302.
. (1946). Fetishism and object choice in early childhood.
Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 15, 450-471.
1881
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YOUNG GIRL’S DIARY, A
Probably written by Hermine von Hug-Hellmuth, a
non-medical psychoanalyst who was considered a pioneer
in the field of child psychoanalysis, A Young Girl’s
Diary was, upon publication, considered to be a
watershed event (Sandor Ferenczi, December 26, 1919)
and was highly successful. It was the first—and
remained the only—book in a series entitled “Fundamental
Texts on Spiritual Development,” which the
new publishing company, created through the generosity
of Anton von Freund, intended to publish. Because
of its success the book provided considerable income.
Introduced by an anonymous “editor” who claimed
to have retained the girl’s style unaltered and uncensored,
it was accompanied by an enthusiastic letter
from Freud, dated April 27, 1915, which stated, “This
diary is a little jewel. I truly believe that we will never
again penetrate with such clarity and sincerity into the
movements of the soul that characterize the development
of a young girl in our society in the years before
puberty, in the present state of our civilization.”
The Diary contained the thoughts of the young
“Rita,” written between the ages of eleven and fourteen
and a half. Her lengthy commentary, which would be
considered innocuous by twenty-first century standards,
described the awakening of adolescent feelings in
a girl living in Vienna at the turn of the twentieth century.
The book describes, in Freud’s words, “how the
secret of sexual life emerges, first obscurely, then taking
complete control of the childish soul.” It is more of an
interesting commentary on middle-class Viennese life
and family relations during the birth of psychoanalysis.
Welcomed by Lou Andreas-Salomé (“this young
girl has lifted her diary to the rank of works esteemed
for their literary value”), Stefan Zweig (“a quite
remarkable document”), and the majority of critics, its
authenticity was soon questioned by the psychoanalytic
community. Siegfried Bernfeld began an investigation.
The arguments in favor of fraud, published in
August 1921 by Cyril Brut, an English critic, in the
British Journal of Psychology, resulted in the exposure
of Hermine von Hug-Hellmuth in 1922. Although she
provided additional details on the presumed author,
Hug-Hellmuth’s claims were not felt to be convincing,
and a number of individuals—Karl and Charlotte
Buhler, Josef Krug, Hedwig Fuchs—attempted to
prove it was a fraud. It has come to be felt that a number
of details in the diary are autobiographical.
The murder of Hermine von Heg-Hellmuth by her
nephew, Rudolf Hug, on September 9, 1924, served
only to intensify the swirl of rumors circulating
around the work, which in spite of its success was
withdrawn from publication in 1927. It was translated
into English in 1927.
See also: Adolescence; Hug-Hellmuth-Hug von Hugenstein,
Hermine; Technique with children, psychoanalytic.
Source Citation
Hug-Hellmuth, Hermine von. (1919). Tagebuch eines halbwiichsigen
Madchen; von 11 bis 14 1/2 Jahren. Vienna:
Internationaler Psychoanalytischer Verlag; A Young Girl’s
Diary. London: Allen and Unwin; New York: Seltzer, 1924.
Bibliography
Hug-Hellmuth, Hermine von. (1911-1924). Essais psychanalytiques
(D. Soubrenie, Ed.). Paris: Payot, 1991.
MacLean, George, and Rappen, Ulrich. (1991). Hermine von
Hug-Hellmuth. New York-London: Routledge.
1883
YUGOSLAVIA (EX-)
YUGOSLAVIA (EX-)
Three men—Stjepan Betlheim, Hugo Klajn, and
Nichola Sugar—born at the end of the nineteenth century
are at the root of psychoanalysis in Yugoslavia.
Having completed their medical studies and specialized
in neuropsychiatry in Germany and Austria, their return
to what was then the kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and
Slovenes marked the beginning of the spread of psychoanalytic
ideas in this region. They had to contend with
the resistance of the psychiatric milieu and the polite
interest of the intellectuals, except in Belgrade where
they met with great success in artistic circles.
Because they were Jews, these pioneers naturally
found themselves in the Resistance during World War
II. The victory over fascism and Nazism conferred an
authority on them that translated into the creation of
psychoanalytically informed treatment centers.
Psychoanalytic thinking spread very rapidly in Sarajevo
under the impetus of Dr. Aleksandar Markovic, and
in Ljubljana where a psychologist, Leopold Bregant, and
a psychiatrist, Milan Kobal, played an important role.
A new generation of Slovene psychoanalysts was
being trained in the neighboring Italian city of Trieste.
But it was mainly in Croatia and Serbia that the development
was decisive. The war (1991-1995) put an end, for
the moment, to scientific exchanges between Serb and
Croatian analysts. However, both of these groups managed
under difficult conditions to maintain vital contact
with Western analysts, particularly in France and Italy.
Croatia
The history of psychoanalysis in Croatia is linked to
the name of Stjepan Betlheim (1898-1970). He studied
medicine in Graz and Vienna. After a first analysis
with Paul Schilder, he completed his training with Sandor
Rado, whom Abraham Arden Brill invited in 1932
to organize an institute of psychoanalysis in New York.
Karen Horney in Berlin and Helene Deutsch in Vienna
supervised Betlheim’s first analyses. An “associate
member” of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society in
1928, he returned to Zagreb that same year. Until
World War II he divided his time between a neuropsychiatric
department and psychoanalysis in private
practice. In 1948 his good reputation enabled him to
introduce psychoanalysis in the medical faculty, and in
1953 to create a center for psychotherapeutic treatment
in the framework of the neuropsychiatric clinic,
thus offering the resources of psychoanalysis and its
psychotherapeutic applications for individuals and
1884
groups. In 1952 he was elected a “direct member” of
the International Psychoanalytical Association (IPA).
In 1963 he published The Neuroses and Their Treatment,
while simultaneously campaigning for the creation
of an Association of Yugoslav Psychotherapists.
The first steps in this direction were taken in 1964 at
the Congress of Neuropsychiatrists at Ohrid, and the
project bore fruit in Split in 1968.
In the period after World War II Stjepan Betlheim personally
psychoanalyzed his first students: Duska Blazevic,
Eugenie Cividini-Stranic, and Edouard Klain. At the same
time he created the Mokrice seminar, which, from 1966
until 1991, was a meeting place for therapists from the different
Republics constituting the Federal Socialist Republic
of Yugoslavia. Professor Maja Beck-Dvorzak organized
the psychoanalytic treatment of children and adolescents,
followed by Professor S. Nikolic, who introduced the technique
of the psychoanalytic psychodrama after a stay in
Paris in Serge Lebovici’s department, while undergoing
personal analysis with Jean Gillibert (1976-1979). In
Zagreb Duska Blazevic and Edouard Klain created a psychoanalytically
oriented review, Psychoterapja. It is the
responsibility of the remaining members of this group to
establish regular relations with the IPA, the only body
authorized to recognize its training courses.
Serbia
_ Two men contributed initially to opening Belgrade up to
psychoanalysis. The first, Hugo Klajn (1894-1981), physician
and psychiatrist, did his personal analysis in 1922
with Paul Schilder in Vienna. On his return to Belgrade
his public lectures and translation of a considerable part
of Freud’s work met with an immediate success. He
devoted himself mainly to theatre. As director of the
Yugoslav dramatic theatre and Studio 122, his directing
enriched the cultural domain. In 1955 he published War
Neuroses in Yugoslavs.
Nikola Sugar (1897-1945) was the second of these
founding fathers. He was analyzed in Berlin between
1922 and 1925 by Felix Boehm, then in Vienna
between 1925 and 1927 by Paul Schilder. An associate
member of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society from
1925 to 1933, he was a full member from 1935 to 1938.
When he returned to the city of Subotica (Vojvodina),
he also became a member of Budapest Psychoanalytic
Society. In 1938 he founded the first psychoanalytic
association in Belgrade. Without having any formal
character, it comprised nine members: six physicians,
psychiatrists, and neurologists, and three philosophy
professors. Meetings were held in the Belgrade Arts
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Faculty and were soon forbidden under the regency of
Prince Paul, who was close to Italy, Bulgaria, and Nazi
Germany. Sugar was deported and died.
Two of Sugar’s patients, Vladislav Klajn (1909-
1984) and especially Vojin Matic (born 1911) were
prolific in developing psychoanalytic activities. The
IPA awarded an honorary diploma to Professor Vojin
Matic at the San Francisco Congress in 1995. Vojin
Matic was an assistant at the university neuropsychiatric
clinic until 1952, before becoming a professor at
the Arts Faculty until his retirement. In 1953 he
founded the Medico-Psychopedagogical Center, the
first of its kind in Yugoslavia. Ten years later the center
was closed but continued to be active in the form of
the Institute for Mental Health. In relation with the
European Federation of Psychoanalysis, the Belgrade
group organized the Seminar for Eastern Countries in
1990. The subject was “Transference and Counter-
Transference.” Protocols for psychoanalytic treatment
were presented by S. Borovejki (Zagreb), V. Brzev (Belgrade),
M. Cicek (Zagreb), I. Ivanovic and G. Marinkow
(Belgrade). This seminar brought together
more than eighty participants from Eastern Europe
(Bulgaria, Hungary, Lithuania, Poland, Romania,
lCzechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia) and Western Europe
(Germany, Spain, France, Great Britain, and Italy).
Professors Nevenka Tadic, Ksenija Kondic-Belos, and
Tamara Stajner-Popovic concentrated particularly on
the development of psychoanalytic treatment for children
and adolescents. The San Francisco Congress
elected Stajner-Popovic and four of her colleagues
direct members of the IPA. This election was the fruit
of efforts by Hanna Groen-Prakken (of Holland) and
John Kafka (of the United States) within the IPA. It
opened the way for the constitution of a study group,
then the formation of a provisional society, which
could lead this group to recognition as a constituent
society of the IPA.
MICHEL VINCENT
Bibliography
Diatkine, Gilbert, Gibeault, Alain, Gibeault, Monique, and
Vincent, Michel. (1993). La psychanalyse en Europe orientale.
In La Psychanalyse et Europe de 1993, Paris: Presses
Universitaires de France.
Nikolic, S. (1987). La psychiatrie en Yougoslavie. Psychiatrie
francaise, 6, 41-51.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
ZAVITZIANOS, GeEorGeEs (1909-1995)
ZAVITZIANOS, GEORGES (1909-1995)
Greek physician and psychoanalyst Georges Zavitzianos
was born in Corfu, Greece, in 1909 and died in
North Bethesda, Maryland on December 13, 1995.
Escaping from Turks who burned the village of
Zavitza in 1700, the Zavitzianos family settled in the
Ionian island of Corfu, where they produced a succession
of scientists, writers, and artists.
After secondary school in Greece, Zavitzianos studied
medicine at Montpellier in France. Returning to his native
country in 1934, he worked as a neuropsychiatrist with a
psychoanalytic orientation; he had been briefly psychoanalyzed
by the early French analyst, Edouard Pichon.
During the late 1940s Zavitzianos participated in
the creation of the first Greek psychoanalytic group,
founded with the help and guidance of Marie Bonaparte;
in 1950 he was elected a member of the Societé
psychanalytique de Paris. However, soon thereafter he
decided to emigrate to North America. He spent some
time in Montreal and eventually settled in the United
States. He took part in founding several psychoanalytic
societies and institutes, and taught from 1950 to 1982.
Seduced by her beautiful soprano voice, he married
Sylvia Filyndras. He also underwent analysis with
Leo Stone.
Zavitzianos’s principal works concern female perversions
(1982); problems of transvestism (1977); and
what he called “homeovestism” (1972)—sexual enjoyment
in wearing the clothes of one’s own sex. He also
wrote about problems of psychoanalytic technique
(1967) and the patient-therapist relationship. Before
he died, in a letter to Anna Potamianou, written on
December 12, 1995, he expressed what he called his
only regret—the fact that he had not been able to
share his great analytic experience with his Greek
colleagues.
ANNA POTAMIANOU
See also: Canada; Greece.
Bibliography
Tzavaras, Athanase. (1996). Georges A. Zavitzianos: Corfu,
1909—Maryland/E.U, 1995. Cahiers de psychiatrie, 53, 10-13.
Zavitzianos, Georges. (1967). Problems of technique in the
analysis of a juvenile delinquent: therapeutic alliance and
transference neurosis. International Journal of Psycho-
Analysis, 48, 439-447.
1885
ZEITSCHRIFT FUR PSYCHOANALYTISCHE PADAGOGIK
. (1972). Homeovestism: perverse form of behavior
involving wearing clothes of the same sex. International
Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 53, 471-477.
. (1977). The object in fetishism, homeovestism and
transvestism.International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 58,
487-495.
. (1982). The perversion of fetishism in women. Psychoanalytic
Quarterly. 51, 405-425.
ZEITSCHRIFT FUR PSYCHOANALYTISCHE
PADAGOGIK
Founded in 1926 by Heinrich Meng, a German psychoanalyst,
and Ernst Schneider, a Swiss educationist, the
Zeitschnift fiir Psychoanalytische Padagogik (Review of
Psychoanalytic Teaching) was first published in Stuttgart,
then in Vienna until 1937, with a view to disseminating
psychoanalytic discoveries among educators and “inventing
a new way of posing problems” (Balint, 1932).
Contributors to the Review, many of whom were
women, were recruited from among psychoanalysts and
teachers from Austria (August Aichhorn, Siegfried Bernfeld,
Paul Federn, Anna Freud, Melanie Klein, Wilhelm
Reich, and Richard and Edith Sterba), Germany (Erich
Fromm, Frieda Fromm-Reichmann, Georg Groddeck,
Karl Landauer, and Nelly Wolffheim), Switzerland
(Hans Behn-Eschenburg, Oskar Pfister, Ernst Schneider,
and Hans Zulliger), but also from Hungary (Alice Balint
and Sandor Ferenczi), Britain (Dorothy Burlingham and
Mary Chadwick), France (Marie Bonaparte and René
Laforgue), as well as Sweden, Poland, and Russia (Sabina
Spielrein). The Review contained two articles by Freud,
who welcomed the initiative of the founders.
Although they initially nurtured the hope of being
able to avoid the neuroses with the help of an appropriate
education, the so-called psychoanalytic teachers
progressively yielded to disenchantment, even
pessimism. In 1936 Ruth Weiss presented a critical
review of the questions remaining to be treated (Vol.
10). And in 1937, the Review (Vol. 11) published the
papers presented at the Budapest symposium concerning
the “revision” of psychoanalytic teaching: it
analyzed the problems of the psychoanalytic educator
(Dorothy Burlingham) and the shortcomings of a
pedagogy that accorded insufficient importance to
group phenomena (Hans Zulliger) and gave rise to
misunderstandings (S. Bornstein-Windholz). And as
1886
a result of events at the time and the departure of
many psychoanalysts into exile, the Review ceased to
appear in 1937.
Although there was relatively little response from
the teaching profession, the provocation to think differently
about the field of education and the subversive
potential of the Review were important in the history
of the relationship between teaching and psychoanalysis.
Each issue, first monthly then quarterly, devoted
considerable space to a review of psychological, psychoanalytic,
and literary publications and reviews as
well as statements and reports on psychoanalytic training
and congresses.
As a forum for exchanging experiences and theorizing
about a new teaching practice that was at odds
with a repressive education, the Review saw itself as the
spokesperson for an education that was “enlightened”
by psychoanalysis. Its feature articles were illustrated
by case studies and focused on the manifestations
of infantile sexuality, the role of the emotions in learning,
intellectual inhibitions and academic failure,
the importance of transference phenomena, and the
unconscious of the adult educator. It pleaded for
another type of teacher training and for a collaboration
between psychoanalysts and teachers. It provided
a critical analysis of the different educational institutions
as well as of the ideals of the new education
movement.
The study of the phenomena of group psychology,
the contradictions of the educational system, the psychic
and social limits to the capacity to be educated, as
well as political determinism oriented the movement
for a psychoanalytically informed education and a
sociological critique of education.
JEANNE MOLL
See also: Internationaler Psychoanalytischer Verlag;
Meng, Heinrich; Schneider, Ernst.
Bibliography
Balint, Alice. (1953). The psycho-analysis of the nursery. London:
Routledge & Kegan Paul. (Original work published
1932)
Cifali, Mireille, and Moll, Jeanne. (1985). Pédagogie et Psychanalyse.
Paris: Dunod.
Moll, Jeanne. (1989). La Pédagogie psychanalytique. Origine
et histoire. Paris: Dunod.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
ZENTRALBLATT FUR PSYCHOANALYSE
In the wake of the Jahrbuch fiir Psychoanalyse, the psychoanalytic
movement published its first monthly periodical,
the Zentralblatt fiir Psychoanalyse (Central review of psychoanalysis)
in 1911. For the first two years Freud was the
editor and Wilhelm Stekel was the chief editor. Whereas
the Jahrbuch addressed a specialist readership close to
psychoanalysis and tended to reflect the specificity and
specialization of clinical and theoretical psychoanalysis,
the Zentralblatt had a more didactic mission. It tried on
the one hand to afford a view of the rapidly growing wave
of analytic literature and, on the other, to provide a forum
for shorter works that were more accessible for the general
public. Alongside more strictly medico-psychological articles,
the Zentralblatt focused as well on interdisciplinary
approaches involving history, literature, esthetics, teaching,
and popular culture. The periodical addressed itself specifically
to a lay readership both as the final consumer of
psychoanalytic progress and as the author, thus becoming
a witness to the “progress” of psychoanalytic knowledge.
The new periodical was introduced with a contribution
by Freud, “The Future Prospects of Psycho-
Analytic Therapy” (1910d). A considerable amount of
space was reserved for brief observations in the form
of examples, for the interpretation of dreams, parapraxes,
and symptoms resulting from the “psychoanalysis
workshop.” In addition to providing a large space
for reviews, intended as a guide to the mass of psychoanalytic
publications, the Zentralblatt also provided
the earliest information on psychoanalytic associations
and their calendars of activities, beginning with the
report on the first private psychoanalytic meeting held
in Salzburg on April, 27, 1908.
After 1912 the Zentralblatt also contained the “correspondence
sheet” (Korrespondenzblatt), previously
reserved exclusively for members of the International
Psychoanalytical Association (IPA), and thus became its
official organ. This official role provoked a conflict in
1912 between the association and the editor, Wilhelm
Stekel: Freud withdrew as editor in November 1912 and
Stekel, having disagreed with the master concerning the
choice of Viktor Tausk to replace him, took singlehanded
control of the position. That same year saw the
founding of a new periodical, Imago, which acted as an
alternative spokesperson for psychoanalysis.
Asa result of this tension the IPA suspended its official
collaboration with the Zentralblatt and in 1913 it
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
ZETZEL-ROSENBERG, ELIZABETH (1907-1970)
founded its own publication, the Internationale Zeitschrift
fiir Psychoanalyse, which resumed publication of
the “correspondence sheets.” Following this new configuration
of the market for psychoanalytic publications,
the Zentralblatt suspended its activity in 1914.
LypIA MARINELLI
See also: Abraham, Karl; Adler, Alfred; Internationale
Zeitschrift fiir (drtzliche) Psychoanalyse; Jahrbuch der Psychoanalyse;
Stekel, Wilhelm.
Source Citation
Zentralblatt fiir Psychoanalyse. Medizinische Monatsschrift
fiir Seelenkunde, Wiesbaden, J. F. Bergmann, 1910/11-1914
(Central review of psychoanalysis, medical monthly for
psychology).
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund, and Jones, Ernest. (1993 [1908-39]). The
complete correspondence of Sigmund Freud and Ernest Jones,
1908-1939, R.A. Paskauskas (Ed.), London: The Belknap
Press of Harvard University Press.
Stekel, Wilhelm. (1950). The autobiography of Wilhelm Stekel.
The life story of a pioneer psychoanalyst. New York:
Liveright.
ZETZEL-ROSENBERG, ELIZABETH
(1907-1970)
Elizabeth Zetzel-Rosenberg, psychoanalyst and physician,
was born March 17, 1907, in New York and died
November 22, 1970, in Scarsdale, New York. Her
father, James N. Rosenberg, was a distinguished jurist
and philanthropist, who led a United States committee
for the passage of the Genocide Convention at the
United Nations after World War IJ. After graduating
from Smith College, Zetzel pursued her medical education
at the University of London. She began her analytic
training in the 1930s at the British Psychoanalytic
Society where her analyst was Ernest Jones.
In a short memoir describing the years between
1936 and 1938, Zetzel (1969) recalled with pleasure
her exposure to the work of Melanie Klein and her followers,
Joan Riviere and Susan Isaacs. She credits
Donald Winnicott, however, with most influencing
her subsequent work because he was “fully alive to the
1887
Zutvticer, HANS (1893-1965)
importance of the real mother-child relationship ...
My first awareness of the importance of early object
relations was attributable to my opportunity to work
in his Clinic at Paddington Green Hospital.”
Zetzel returned to the United States in 1949 and
became a leading member of the Boston Psychoanalytic
Society, where she was an influential training analyst
and teacher; she was also secretary of the International
Psychoanalytic Association under the
presidency of Maxwell Gitelson from 1961 to 1965
(Rangell, 1971). Zetzel was a prolific writer and her
collected papers (1970) include contributions to psychoanalytic
technique—her name is practically synonymous
with the term “therapeutic alliance”—and to
the psychodynamics of hysteria and depression as delineated
in her seminal papers “On the Incapacity to
Bear Depression” and “The So-Called Good Hysteric.”
But equally important as her original contributions to
the psychoanalytic literature was her sympathetic
interest in the work of Melanie Klein. In an astute and
generous obituary written after Klein’s death, Zetzel
(1961) decried the fact that many contemporary analysts
still remained unfamiliar with Klein’s work. At
the same time, Zetzel was deeply skeptical of the theoretical
reconstructions that Klein posited in her writings.
She also chided Klein and her followers for failing
to acknowledge the work of other analysts, notably
Anna Freud, Willi Hoffer, Rene Spitz, Phyllis Green- .
acre, and Ernst Kris, whose findings on early psychic
development were convergent with their discoveries.
Zetzel’s advocacy of Klein’s work had significant
implications for the development of psychoanalytic
theory in the United States. Conventionally, psychoanalytic
theory in America in the 1950s is portrayed as
dominated by the variant of theory called ego psychology.
But Zetzel’s writings on Klein and her followers,
and her extended contacts with other analysts interested
in preoedipal development, notably Edith Jacobson
and Phyllis Greenacre, suggest a more fluid and
complex state of affairs. In other words, among a
group of influential psychoanalytic thinkers, there was
a sophisticated awareness of Klein’s work and a recognition
that her clinical discoveries should be considered
in their own work.
NELuE L. THompson
Bibliography
Rangell, Leo. (1971). Elizabeth R. Zetzel. International Journal
of Psycho-Analysis, 52, 229-231.
1888
Thompson, Nellie. (2001). American women psychoanalysts
1911-1941. Annual of Psychoanalysis, 29, 161-177.
Zetzel, Elizabeth. (1961). Melanie Klein 1882-1960. The Psychoanalytic
Quarterly, 30, 420-425.
_ (1969). 96 Gloucester Place: Some personal recollections.
International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 50, 717-719.
. (1970). The capacity for emotional growth. New
York: International Universities Press.
ZULLIGER, HANS (1893-1965)
Hans Zulliger, a psychoanalytically oriented Swiss
teacher and child psychoanalyst, was born on February
21, 1893, near Biel, Switzerland, and died in Illigen,
Berne Canton, in 1965. Coming from a modest background,
he was a student at the teachers school in
Hofwil-Berne. The principal of the school, Ernst Schneider,
taught psychology and psychoanalysis. All his life
Zulliger remained a primary school teacher in Illigen-
Bolligen, near Berne, continuing to teach working class,
rural, and underprivileged children until 1959.
From his first early encounter with psychoanalysis,
Zulliger was passionately enthusiastic about the new theory
of the unconscious. He read Freud and Alfred Adler,
contacted the pastor Oskar Pfister, who became his analyst,
and conducted his own research with his pupils. His
observations and reflections on school failure, anxiety,
and other symptoms, and on the need for and difficulties
of sexual education, led to a publication in 1921, a work
that was favorably received by the Swiss psychoanalytic
world. Freud encouraged the young author, who visited
the master twice. His subversively titled La psychanalyse a
lécole (Psychoanalysis at school) appeared in France in
1930. As a member of the Swiss Psychoanalytic Society,
Zulliger also played a part in elaborating projective tests.
In addition to working as a schoolteacher, he also
worked as a child psychotherapist, psychologist, and
writer (in German and in dialect). He contributed
many articles to the Zeitschrift fiir psycoanalytische
Padagogik, which he coedited after 1932, and he also
published in other Swiss teaching journals. In 1928 the
Revue francaise de psychanalyse published one of his
articles, “La psychanalyse et les écoles nouvelles” (Psychoanalysis
and the new schools).
Zulliger was without doubt the most popular representative
of the psychoanalytic teaching propounded
by the Zeitschrift fir psycoanalytische Pidagogik. He
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
excelled at recounting his practice in a lively style with
colorful language. His many case studies illustrate his
skillful mastery of the art of dialog and his profound
understanding of children, both as individuals and in
groups, as well as his insight into the games they
play. He had a sense of the therapeutic power of the
educational milieu, where the schoolteacher mediates
between children’s instinctual egos and cultural values.
After World War II, Zulliger’s lectures in Switzerland
and Germany contributed to reigniting the movement
for psychoanalytic teaching, of which he was a remarkable
pioneer.
JEANNE MOLL
See also: Schweizerische Arztegesellschaft fiir Psychoanalyse;
Switzerland (German-speaking); Zeitschrift fiir psychoanalytische
Paidagogik.
Bibliography
Cifali, Mireille, and Moll, Jeanne (Eds.). (1985). Pédagogie
et psychanalyse. Paris: Dunod.
Zulliger, Hans. (1928). La psychanalyse et les écoles nouvelles
(L. Leuzinger, Trans.). Revue fran¢aise de psychanalyse,
2 (4), 711-720.
. (1930). Psychanalyse a l’école (Jean-Pierre Peyraube,
Trans.). Paris: Flammarion.
. (1934). Prophetic dreams. International Journal of
Psycho-Analysis, 15 (2-3), 191-208.
(1950). Psycho-analysis and the forminterpretation
test. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis,
31 (1-2), 152-155.
ZWEIG, ARNOLD (1887-1968)
Born to a Jewish family in Glogau, Silesia, on November
10, 1887, novelist and author Arnold Zweig died in
East Berlin, almost completely blind, on November 26,
1968. At his death Zweig was the most celebrated
author in the German Democratic Republic (East
Germany).
Zweig was unrelated to the Austrian writer Stefan
Zweig, but both men were important to Sigmund
Freud, albeit in different ways. According to Ernest
Jones: “Freud’s attitude toward the two men was indicated
by his mode of address. Stefan was Lieber Herr
Doktor, Arnold was Lieber Meister Arnold” (1957, p.
133).
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Zweic, ArnoLo (1887-1968)
Between 1927 and 1939 Zweig and Sigmund Freud
conducted an exceptionally important correspondence.
When it was published in 1968, Freud’s son Ernst and
Arnold’s son Adam decided to withhold twenty-five letters
as being too personal or of insufficient scientific
value, creating an impression that they wished to conceal
something in their fathers’ private lives.
Originally a saddler by trade, Adolf Zweig became a
supplier to the Prussian army before anti-Semitic regulations
forced him to return to his former profession,
an incident that seems to have had a powerful impact
on his son. Zweig was a brilliant student who matriculated
at various European universities before being conscripted
during World War I, a painful experience that
undoubtedly played a role in his later antimilitarism.
Zweig began publishing fiction in 1911, and was a
profound admirer both of Thomas Mann and of the
nineteenth-century realists. Publication of The Case of
Sergeant Grischa (1927) made him known to a wide
audience and brought him to the attention of Freud.
After the National Socialists came to power in Germany,
Zweig emigrated to Palestine in 1933 and lived
for some years in Haifa. He traveled widely, and a trip
to New York in 1939 enabled him to meet other wellknown
German emigrés. Zweig had long been interested
in Zionism and socialism, but by the time Israel
became a state he was both disillusioned and impoverished.
He returned to East Germany in 1948, and was
soon elected a parliament deputy in the new socialist
republic. Zweig also succeeded Heinrich Mann as president
of the German Academy of Arts. Henceforth,
Zweig was a government-sponsored author and member
of the Communist Party. For his efforts to legitimize
East German literature, he was awarded the
Lenin Peace Prize.
Zweig’s literary workfeatures a severe critique of
militarism and lively political and social convictions.
These traits are also characteristic of his correspondence
with Freud; their subjects range from incest and
homosexuality to a wide variety of reflections on political,
historical, and poetical issues.
In one of the most famous letters in their correspondence
(May 11, 1934), Freud’s comments about
Zweig’s plan for a book on Friedrich Nietzsche served
as an opening for his own ideas on the problems of
psychological and psychopathological biography. He
wrote: “I cannot say whether these are my true reasons
against your plan. Perhaps they have something to do
1889
Zweic, STEFAN (1881-1942)
with the way in which you compare me to him. In my
youth [Nietzsche] signified a nobility to which I could
not attain” (Jones, 1957, p. 460). This passage probably
reflects the character of transference love that more or
less pervades the Freud-Zweig relationship. Zweig also
alludes briefly in the correspondence to the difficulties
he encountered in his own analysis in Berlin, by which
he hoped to treat severe depression and anxiety.
The year Freud began writing Moses and Monotheism,
he reported on the work and its difficulties in a
letter to Zweig (September 30, 1934). In discussing
the project with Max Eitington, Zweig remarked that
he had advised Freud to publish his book in Palestine.
Judaism was an important topic for both men
and the subject of many of their letters. In one letter
(May, 31 1936) Zweig reports on an archaeological
discovery that might confirm Freud’s theory about
the origins of the man Moses. In 1937, Freud, who
thought that his “hereditary claim to life would run
out in November,” (Jones, 1957, p. 213) asked Zweig,
who was considering a visit to Europe, not to postpone
it any longer.
In 1938, Zweig made a final attempt to intervene on
Freud’s behalf in favor of his being awarded the Nobel
Prize. Freud held out little hope for this, considering
opposition to psychoanalysis and his reputation in the
eyes of the Nazis. He wrote Zweig on June 28, 1938:
“[I]t can hardly be expected that the official circles
could bring themselves to make such a provocative
challenge to Nazi Germany as bestowing the honor on
me would be.” (Jones, 1957, p. 234)
Arnold Zweig was one of many celebrated literary
figures whose friendship Freud cultivated. Their common
interests in Judaism, pacifism, and such historical
figures as Napoleon, Nietzsche, and Moses brought
them particularly close.
BERNARD GOLSE
See also: Autobiography; Literature and psychoanalysis.
Bibliography
Freud, Sigmund. (1968a [1927—39]). The letters of Sigmund
Freud and Arnold Zweig (Ernst L. Freud, Ed.; Professor and
Mrs. W. D. Robson-Scott, Trans.). London: Hogarth Press,
1970.
Jones, Ernest. (1957). Life and work of Sigmund Freud (Vol.
3). New York: Basic Books.
1890
Further Reading
Mijolla, Alain de. (1993). Freud, biography, his autobiography,
and his biographers. Psychoanalysis and History, 1 (1),
4-27.
ZWEIG, STEFAN (1881-1942)
Stefan Zweig, an Austrian writer, was born in Vienna on
November 28, 1881, and committed suicide in Petropolis,
Brazil, on February 22, 1942. From a wealthy middleclass
Jewish family, Zweig enjoyed a privileged childhood.
He grew up in an open-minded and multilingual
home—a background that undoubtedly played a role in
his subsequent commitment to humanist and supranationalist
thought. While young he became a celebrated
author, traveled widely, and developed friendships with
a host of literary figures, among them the French novelist
and playwright Romain Rolland and the Belgian
poet Emile Verhaeren, whose work he translated. Zweig’s
best-know works include the novels Amok (1922),
Beware of Pity (1938), and Conflicts (1926), a collection
that includes the novella Twenty-four Hours in the Life of
a Woman. His autobiography, The World of Yesterday,
appeared posthumously in 1943.
Zweig’s work, at once distinguished by its richness
and diversity, includes poetry, plays, essays, short stories,
novels, and biographies. He was one of the most prolific
authors of his time and played a major role in creating a
rapprochement between French and German literature.
In Mental Healers (1932), Zweig not only discussed
Mary Baker Eddy, the founder of Christian Science,
and Franz Mesmer’s animal magnetism; he also
devoted an essay to Freud, for whom he expressed profound
admiration and gratitude. In 1908 Zweig and
Freud began a long correspondence that continued
until the latter’s death in London in 1939. Zweig delivered
Freud’s funeral oration.
In Zweig’s letter to Freud of September 8, 1926, he
wrote, “For me, psychology is today the great passion
of my life (as you will understand better than anyone
else). ... You still play the decisive role in the invisible
struggle for the soul. You alone are always the one to
explain to us, in a creative way, the mechanism of the
spiritual. More than ever we need you and your activity.”
Later, in his letter of October 21, 1932, he wrote,
“Everything I write is marked by your influence and
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
you understand, perhaps, that the courage to tell the
truth, probably the essential thing in my books, comes
from you: You have served as a model for an entire
generation.” Zweig’s interest in psychoanalysis found
expression in his writings. In both his novels and fictionalized
biographies, the main characters are presented
in “case histories,’ made more intriguing by a
nostalgic evocation of a society condemned by history.
Freud recognized in Zweig an interest in, and aptitude
for, psychological analysis. Although they argued
several times—over errors Zweig made in translating
Freud’s work and concerning Zweig’s appreciation of
such detractors as Charles E. Maylan—Freud valued
Zweig’s friendship until the end of his life.
After the Nazis prohibited and destroyed his books
in 1933, Zweig emigrated to London in 1934. Together
with Salvador Dali, he visited Freud on July 19, 1938.
Since Freud was near death, Zweig did not dare to
show him the two sketches that Dali had made of him.
In his last letter to Freud, dated September, 14, 1939,
nine days before Freud’s death, he wrote, “I hope that
you are suffering only from the era, as we all do, and
not also from physical pain. We must stand firm
now—it would be absurd to die without having first
seen the criminals sent to hell.”
After obtaining British citizenship in 1940, Zweig
settled in Petropolis, Brazil, in 1941. He became a
symbol of the anguish of exile and the refusal to
accept Hitler’s early triumphs. Despite this, in profound
despair after Nazi victories early in the war,
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
ZWEIG, STEFAN (1881-1942)
he committed suicide together with his second wife,
Lotte Altmann.
In his final declaration Zweig wrote, “It seems to
me therefore better to put an end, in good time and
without humiliation, to a life in which intellectual
work has always been an unmixed joy and personal
freedom earth’s most precious possession.” “I greet all
my friends! May they live to see the dawn after the
long night is over! I, all too impatient, am going on
alone” (Allday, 1972, p. 238).
CHRISTINE DE KERCHOVE
See also: “Dostoyevsky and parricide”; Goethe Prize; Literature
and psychoanalysis.
Bibliography
Allday, Elizabeth. (1972). Stefan Zweig: A critical biography.
Chicago: J. Philip O’Hara.
Freud, Sigmund, and Zweig, Stefan. (1987). Correspondence.
Paris: Rivages Poche.
Niémetz, Serge. (1996). Stefan Zweig: Le voyageur et ses mondes.
Paris: Belfond.
Zweig, Stefan. (1932). Mental healers: Franz Anton Mesmer,
Mary Baker Eddy, Sigmund Freud. New York: Viking Press.
Further Reading
Mijolla, Alain de. (1998). Freud, biography, his autobiography,
and his biographers. Psychoanalysis and History, 1 (1),
4-27.
1891
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FREUDIAN BIBLIOGRAPHY
Only those references to Freud that have been specifically cited in one form or another in the body of the dictionary itself have been
included in this list of his works, which does not pretend to be exhaustive (hence the fact that the series of references using a, b, c, etc. will
not all be found here). The full list, upon which this one is based, is in the Freud-Bibliographie mit Werkkonkordanz assembled by
Ingeborg Meyer-Palmedo and Gerhard Fichtner, (S. Fischer Verlag: 1989). Each entry in this list references the text’s first publication date,
its publication date in the Gesammelte Werke (GW), and its translation in the Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works
of Sigmund Freud (SE).
Freud, Sigmund. (1888—89a). Vorrede des Ubersetzers.
In H. Bernheim: Die Suggestion und ihre Heilwirkung,
Teil I, Leipzig-Wien, p. III-XII; Tiibingen: Diskord, 1985;
Preface to the translation of Bernheim’s Suggestion’. SE, 1:
71-85.
. (1889a). Rezension von Forel Auguste: "Der
Hypnotismus, Stuttgart 1889. Wiener medizinische
Wochenschrift, XXXIX, p. 1097-1100, 1892-1896; GW,
Nachtr., p. 125-139; Review of August Forel’s “Hypnotism.”
SE, 1: 89-102.
. (1890a). Psychische Behandlung (Seelenbehandlung).
In R. Kossman and J. Weiss (Eds.), Die Gesundheit:
Ihre Erhaltung, thre Storungen, thre Wiederherstellung
(Vol. I, pp. 368-384). Stuttgart, Berlin, Leipzig;
GW, V, p. 287-315; Psychical (or mental) treatment. SE,
7: 281-302.
. (with Oscar Rie [1891a]). Klinische Studie
iiber die halbseitige Cerebrallahmung der Kinder, Heft
III der Beitrage zur Kinderheilkunde. Wien: Kassowitz.
. (1891b). Zur Auffassung der Aphasien.Wien;
On aphasia; a critical study (E. Stengel, Trans.). New
York: International Universities Press, 1953.
—. (1891c). Kinderlahmung, Lahmung. In A.
Villaret (Ed.), Handwéorterbuch der gesamten Medizin
(Vol. 2, p. 91-93, 169-171). Stuttgart.
. (1891d). Hypnose. In A. Bum (Ed.), Therapeutisches
Lexikon (pp. 724-734). Wien; GW, Nachtr., p.
141-150; SE, I, p. 105-114. Hypnosis. SE, 1: 103-114.
. (1892—93a). Ein Fall von hypnotischer Heilung
nebst Bemerkungen tiber die Entstehung hysterischer
Symptome durch den “Gegenwillen.” Zeitschrift Hypnotische,
I, 102-107, 123-129; GW, I, p. 3-17; A case of
successful treatment by hypnotism. SE, 1: 115-128.
. (1892—94a). Traduction. Introduction et notes
de J.-M. Charcot: Lecons du mardi a la Salpétriere
(1887-1888). Paris, 1888; Poliklinische Vortrage, Vol.
I-II, Leipzig-Wien: 1895; GW, Nachtr., p. 153-157,
158-164 “Preface and footnotes to the translation of
Charcot’s Tuesday Lectures”. SE, 1: 129-144.
. (1892a). Neue Studien iiber Hypnotismus, Suggestion
und Psychotherapie, trad. de H. Bernheim: Hypnotisme,
suggestion, psychothérapie, études nouvelles.
Leipzig-Wien; Bernheim’s New studies in hypnotism
(Richard S. Sandor, Trans.). New York: International
Universities Press, 1980.
. (1893c). Quelques considérations pour une
étude comparative des paralysies motrices organiques
et hystériques. Archives of Neurology, XXVI, 29-43;
GW, I, p. 39-55; Some points for a comparative study
of organic and hysterical motor paralyses. SE, 1:
155-172.
. (1893e). Infantile cerebral paralysis (Lester A.
Russin, Trans.). Coral Gables, FL: University of Miami
Press, 1968.
(1893f). Charcot. Wiener medizinische
Wochenschrift, XLII, 1513-1520; GW, I, p. 21-35;
Charcot. SE, 3: 7-23.
. (1893g). Uber ein Symptom, das haufig die
Enuresis nocturna der Kinder begleitet, Neurologisches
Zeitblatt, XII, p. 735-737.
1893
FREUDIAN BIBLIOGRAPHY
. (1894a). Die Abwehr-Neuropsychosen. Versuch
einer psychologischen Theorie der acquirierten
Hysterie, vieler Phobien und Zwangsvorstellungen
und gewisser halluzinatorischer Psychosen, Neurologisches
Zeitblatt, XIII, 362-364, 402-409; GW, I, p. 59-
74; The neuro-psychoses of defence. SE, 3: 41-61.
. (1895b [1894]). Uber die Berechtigung, von
der Neurasthenie einen bestimmten Symptomenkomplex
alsAngst-Neuroseabzutrennen. Neurologisches
Zeitblatt, XIV, 50-66; GW, I, p. 315-342; On the
grounds for detaching a particular syndrome from
neurasthenia under the descriptionanxiety neurosis.
SE, 3: 85—115.
. (1895¢ [1894]). Obsessions et phobies; leur
mécanisme psychique et leur étiologie. Revue neurologique,
III, 33-38; GW, I, p. 345-353; Obsessions and
phobias: their psychical mechanism and their aetiology.
SE, 3: 69-82.
. (1895f). Zur Kritik derAngstneurose. Wiener
klinische Rundschau, IX, 417-419, 435-437, 451; GW,
I, p. 357-376; A reply to criticisms of my paper on
anxiety neurosis. SE, 3: 118-139.
. (1896a). Lhérédité et Pétiologie des névroses.
Revue neurologique, IV, 161-169; GW, I, p. 407-422;
Heredity and the aetiology of the neuroses. SE, 3:
141-156.
. (1896b). Weitere Bemerkungen tiber die
Abwehr-Neuropsychosen. Neurologisches Zeitblatt, XV,
434-448; GW, I, p. 379-403; Further remarkson the
neuro-psychoses of defence. SE, 3: 157-185.
. (1896c). Zur Atiologie der Hysterie. Wiener
klinische Rundschau, X, 379-381, 395-397, 413-415,
432 , 450-452; GW I, p. 425-459; The aetiology of hysteria.
SE, 3: 186-221.
. (1897a). Die infantile Cerebrallahmung. In H.
Nothnagel (Ed.), Spezielle Pathologie und Therapie
(Vol. IX). Wien.
. (1898a). Die Sexualitat in der Atiologie der
Neurosen. Wiener klinische Rundschau, XII, 21 , 55-57,
70-72, 103-105; GW, I, p. 491-516; Sexuality in the
aetiology of the neuroses. SE, 3: 259-285.
. (1898b). Zum psychischen Mechanismus der
Vergesslichkeit. Monatsschrift fiir Psychiatrie und Neurologie,
IV, 436-443; GW, I, p. 519-527; The psychical
mechanism of forgetfulness. SE, 3: 287-297.
. (1899a). Uber Deckerinnerungen. Monatsschrift
fiir Psychiatrie und Neurologie, VI, 215-230; GW,
I, p. 531-554; Screen memories. SE, 3: 299-322.
. (1900a). Die Traumdeutung. Leipzig-Wien: F.
Deuticke; GW, II-III; The interpretation of dreams.
1894
Part I. SE, 4; 1-338. The interpretation of dreams. Part
II. SE, 5: 339-625.
_(1901a). Uber den Traum. In L. Lowenfeld, H.
Kurella (Eds.), Grenzfragen des Nerven- und Seelenlebens.
Wiesbaden: J.-F. Bergmann, p. 307-344; GW, IIIII,
p. 643-700; On dreams. SE, 5: 629-685.
. (1901b). Zur Psychopathologie des Alltagslebens.
Uber Vergessen, Versprechen, Vergreifen, Aberglaube
und Irrtum. Monatsschrift fiir Psychiatrie und
Neurologie, X (1-2), 1-32, 95-143; Zur Psychopathologie
des Alltagslebens. Berlin, Karger, 1904; GW, IV; The
psychopathology of everyday life. SE, 6.
. (1904a [1903]). Die Freudsche psychoanalytische
Methode. In L. Lowenfeld (Ed.), Die Psychischen
Zwangserscheinungen (pp. 545-551). Wiesbaden; GW,
V, p. 3-10; Freud’s psycho-analytic procedure. SE, 7:
247-254.
. (1905a [1904]). Uber Psychotherapie. Wiener
medizinische Presse, XLVI, 9-16; GW, V, p. 13-26; On
psychotherapy. SE, 7: 255—268.
. (1905c). Der Witz und seine Beziehung zum
Unbewussten. Leipzig-Wien: F. Deuticke; GW, VI;
Jokes and their relation to the unconscious. SE, 8: 1—
236.
. (1905d). Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie.
Leipzig-Wien: FE. Deuticke; GW, V, p. 27, 33-145;
Three essays on the theory of sexuality. SE, 7: 123-243.
. (1905e [1901]). Bruchstiick einer Hysterie-
Analyse. Monatsschrift fiir Psychiatrie und Neurologie,
XVIII, 285-310, 408-467; GW, V, p. 161-286; Fragment
of an analysis of a case of Hysteria. SE, 7: 1-122.
. (1906a [1905]). Meine Ansichten tiber die
Rolle der Sexualitat in der Atiologie der Neurosen. In
L. Lowenfeld (Ed.), Sexualleben und Nervenleiden.
Wiesbaden: J.-F. Bergmann, p. 313-322; GW, V, p.
149-159; My views on the part played by sexuality in
the aetiology of the neuroses. SE, 7: 269-279.
. (1906c). Tatbestandsdiagnostik und Psychoanalyse.
Archiv Kriminal Anthropologie, XXVI, 1-10;
GW, VII, p. 3-15; Psycho-analysis and the establishment
of facts in legal proceedings. SE, 9: 97-114.
. (1907a [1906]). Der Wahn und die Triume in
W. Jensens Gradiva. Leipzig-Wien: Hugo Heller; GW,
VII, p. 29-122; Delusions and dreams in Jensen’s Gradiva.
SE, 9: 1-95.
. (1907b). Zwangshandlungen und Religionsbungen.
Zeitschrift fiir Religion, I, 4-12; GW, VII, p.
129-139; Obsessive actions and religious practices. SE,
9: 115-127.
. (1907c). Zur sexuellen Aufklarung der Kinder
(Offener Brief an Dr M. First). Soz. Med. Hyg., II,
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
360-367; GW, VII, p. 19-27; The sexual enlightenment
of children. SE, 9: 129-139.
. (1908a). Hysterische Phantasien und ihre
Beziehung zur Bisexualitat. Zeitschrift fiir Sexualwissenschaft,
I, 27-34; GW, VII, p. 191-199; Hysterical
phantasies and their relation to bisexuality. SE, 9:
156-166.
. (1908b). Charakter und Analerotik. Psychiatrie
und Neurologie Wochenschrift, IX, 465-467; GW,
VII, p. 203-209; Character and anal erotism. SE, 9:
167-175.
. (1908c). Uber infantile Sexualtheorien. Sexual-
Probleme, IV, 763-779; GW, VII, p. 171-188; On
the sexual theories of children. SE, 9: 205-226
. (1908d). Diekulturelle Sexualmoral und die
moderne Nervositat. Sexual-Probleme, IV, 107-129;
GW, VII, p. 143-167; ’Civilized’ sexual morality and
modern nervous illness. SE, 9: 177-204.
. (1908e [1907]). Der Dichter und das Phantasieren.
Neue Revue, I, 716-724; GW, VII, p. 213-223;
Creative writers and day-dreaming. SE, 9: 141-153.
. (1909a [1908]). Allgemeines tiber den hysterischen
Anfall. Zeitschrift Psychother. med. Psychol., I, p.
10-14; GW, VII, p. 235-240; Some general remarks on
hysterical attacks. SE, 9: 227-234.
. (1909b). Analyse der Phobie eines fiinfjahrigen
Knaben (Der Kleine Hans), Jahrbuch fiir psychoanalytische
und psychopathologie Forschungen, I, 1-
109; GW, VIL, p. 241-377; Analysis of a phobia in a
five-year-old boy. SE, 10: 1-149.
. (1909c [1908]). Der Familienroman der Neurotiker.
In Otto Rank, Der Mythus von der Geburt des
Helden. Versuch einer psychologischen Mythendeutung
(pp. 64-68). Leipzig-Wien: F. Deuticke; GW, VII, p.
227-231; Family romances. SE, 9: 235-241.
. (1909d). Bemerkungen tber einen Fall von
Zwangsneurose (“DerRattenmann”), Jahrbuch fiir psychoanalytische
und psychopathologie Forschungen, I,
357-421; GW, VII, p. 379-463; Notes upon a case of
obsessional neurosis. SE, 10: 151-318.
. (1910a [1909]). Uber Psychoanalyse. Finf
Vorlesungen, gehalten zur 20jahrigen Griindungsfeier
der Clark University in Worcester/Mass., September
1909. Leipzig-Wien: F. Deuticke; GW, VIII, p. 1-60;
Five lectures on psycho-analysis. SE, 11: 7-55.
. (1910c). Eine Kindheitserinnerung des Leonardo
da Vinci. Leipzig-Wien: F. Deuticke; GW, VIII,
p. 127-211; Leonardo da Vinci and a memory of his
childhood. SE, 11: 57-137.
. (1910d). Die zukiinftigen Chancen der psychoanalytischen
Therapie. Zentralblatt fiir Psychoana-
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
FREUDIAN BIBLIOGRAPHY
lyse, I, 1-9; GW, VIII, p. 104-115; The future prospects
of psycho-analytic therapy. SE, 11: 139-151.
. (1910e). Uber den Gegensinn der Urworte.
Jahrbuch fiir psychoanalytische und psychopathologie
Forschungen, II, 179-184; GW, VIII, p. 214-221; The
antithetical meaning of primal words. SE, 11: 153-161.
. (1910h). Uber einen besonderen Typus der
Objektwahl beim Manne (Beitrage zur Psychologie des
Liebeslebens, I). Jahrbuch fiir psychoanalytische und
psychopathologie Forschungen, II, 389-397; GW, VIII,
p. 66-77; A special type of choice of object made by
men. SE, 11: 163-175.
. (1910i). Die psychogene Sehstérung in psychoanalytischer
Auffassung. Arztliche Fortbildung, IX,
42—44; GW, VIII, p. 94-102; The psycho-analytic view
of psychogenic disturbance of vision. SE, 11: 209-218.
. (1910k). Uberwilde Psychoanalyse, Zentralblatt
fiir Psychoanalyse, I, 91-95; GW, VIII, p. 118-125;
Wild’ psycho-analysis. SE, 11: 219-227.
. (1911b). Formulierungen tiber die zwei Prinzipien
des psychischen Geschehens. Jahrbuch fiir psychoanalytische
und psychopathologie Forschungen, III,
1-8; GW, VIII, p. 230-238; Formulations on the two
principles of mental functioning. SE, 12: 213-226.
. (1911c [1910]). Psychoanalytische Bemerkungen
tuber einen autobiographisch beschriebenen
Fall von Paranoia (Dementia paranoides) [Schreber].
Jahrbuch fiir psychoanalytische und psychopathologie
Forschungen, III, 9-69; GW, VIII, p. 239-316; Psychoanalytic
notes on an autobiographical account of a
case of paranoia (dementia paranoides). SE, 12: 1-82.
. (1911d). Die Bedeutung der Vokalfolge. Zentralblatt
fiir Psychoanalyse, I, 105; GW, VIII, p. 348;
The significance of sequences of vowels. SE, 12: 341-
341.
. (1911le). Die Handhabung der Traumdeutung
in der Psychoanalyse. Zentralblatt fiir Psychoanalyse, II,
109-113; GW, VIII, p. 350-357; The handling of
dream-interpretation in psycho-analysis. SE, 12:
89-96.
. (1911f). Gross ist die Diana der Epheser. Zentralblatt
fiir Psychoanalyse, I, 158 ; GW, VUI, p. 360 ;
“Great is Diana of the Ephesians.” SE, 12: 342-344.
———. (1912b). Zur Dynamik der Ubertragung. Zentralblatt
fiir Psychoanalyse, I, 167-173; GW, VIII, p.
364-374; The dynamics of transference. SE, 12:
97-108.
. (1912c). Uber neurotische Erkrankungstypen.
Zentralblatt fiir Psychoanalyse, I, 297-302; GW, VIII,
p. 322-330; Types of onset of neurosis. SE, 12:
227-238.
1895
FREUDIAN BIBLIOGRAPHY
. (1912d). Uber die allgemeinste Erniedrigung
des Liebeslebens (Beitrage zur Psychologie des Liebeslebens,
II). Jahrbuch fiir psychoanalytische und psychopathologie
Forschungen, IV, 40-50; GW, VIII, p. 78-91;
On the universal tendency to debasement in the sphere
of love. SE, 11: 177-190.
. (1912e). Ratschlage fiir den Arzt bei der psychoanalytischen
Behandlung. Zentralblatt fiir Psychoanalyse,
II, 483-489; GW, VIII, p. 376-387; Recommendations
to physicians practising psycho-analysis.
SE, 12: 109-120.
. (1912f). Beitrage zur Onanie-Diskussion: Zur
Einleitung und Schlusswort (XIV). In Die Onanie. Vierzehn
Beitriige zu einer Diskussion der Wiener Psychoanalytischen
Vereinigung (Diskussionen der Wiener psychoanalytischen
Vereinigung, Heft II) (p. III, 132-140). Wiesbaden:
J.-E Bergmann; GW, VIII, p. 332-345; Contributions to a
discussion on masturbation. SE, 12: 239-254.
. (1912g). A note on the unconscious in psycho-
analysis. Proceedings of the Society for Psychical
Research, XXVI (66), 1913, 312-318; Einige Bemerkungen
iiber den Begriff des Unbewussten in der Psychoanalyse.
Internationale Zeitschrift fiir drztliche Psychoanalyse,
I, 1913, 117-123; GW, VIII, p. 430-439; A
note on the unconscious in psycho-analysis. SE, 12:
255-266.
. (1912-13a). Totem und Tabu. Leipzig-Wien:
Hugo Heller; GW, IX; Totem and taboo. SE, 13: 1-161.
. (1913a). Ein Traum als Beweismittel. Internationale
Zeitschrift fiir arztliche Psychoanalyse, I, 73-78;
GW, X, p. 12-22; An evidential dream. SE, 12:
267-277.
——. (1913c). Zur Einleitung der Behandlung
(Weitere Ratschlage zur Technik der Psychoanalyse).
Internationale Zeitschrift fiir arztliche Psychoanalyse, I,
1-10, 139-146; GW, VIII, p. 454-478; On beginning
the treatment (Further recommendations on technique
of psycho-analysis I). SE, 12: 121-144.
. (1913f). Das Motiv der Kastchenwahl. Imago,
IT, 257-266; GW, X, p. 24-37; The theme of the three
caskets. SE, 12: 289-301.
. (1913g). Zwei Kinderliigen. Internationale
Zeitschrift fiir arztliche Psychoanalyse, I, 359-362; GW,
VII, p. 422-427; Two lies told by children. SE, 12:
303-309.
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INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
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INTERNATIONAL Dictionary oF PSYCHOANALYSIS
TRANSLATION OF CONCEPTS/NOTIONS
This glossary is a translation of most of the notions and concepts discussed in the Dictionary into five languages: French, German,
Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish.
abandonment
Fr. abandon ; Ger.: Verlassen(heit) It.: abbandono;
Port.: abandono; Span.: abandono.
abstinence/rule of abstinence
Fr.: abstinence-regle dabstinence ; Ger.: Abstinenz,
Abstinenz Regel It: astinenza-regola di astinenza;
Port.: abstinéncia-regra de abstinéncia; Span.: abstinencia-
regla de abstinencia.
act/action
Fr.: acte, action ; Ger.: Akt, Aktion/Handlung It.: atto,
azione; Port.: acto, accao; Span.: acto, accion.
action-language
Fr.: langage d’action; Ger.: Handlungssprache; It.: linguaggio
d’azione; Port.: linguagem de accao; Span.:
lenguaje de accion.
acting out/acting in
Fr: acting-out/acting-in ; Ger.: Ausagieren/Acting-in
It.: acting out/acting in; Port.: atuagao-acting out/acting
in; Span.: actuacion/acting in.
action-(re)presentation
Fr. représentation d’action; Ger.: Handlungsreprasentanz;
It.: rappresentazione d’azione; Port.: representacao
de accao; Span.: representacion de accion.
action-thought
Fr: action-pensée (H. Kohut); Ger: Handlungsgedanke
It.: pensiero-azione; Port.: accao-pensamento;
Span.: accion-pensamiento.
active imagination
Fr. imagination active; Ger. aktive Phantasie; It.:
immaginazione attiva; Port.: imagina¢ao activa; Span.:
imaginacion activa.
active technique
Fr.: technique active; Ger.: aktive Technik; It.: tecnica
attiva; Port.: tecnica activa; Span.: técnica activa.
activity/passivity
Fr.: activité/passivite; Ger.: Aktivitat/Passivitat It.: attivita/
passivita; Port.: actividade/passividade; Span.:
actividad/pasividad.
act, passage to the
Fr.: acte (passage a |’-) ; Ger: Agieren It: passaggio
all'atto, agito; Port.: passagem ao ato; Span.: pasaje al
acto.
actual
Fr.: actuel; Ger.: aktuell It: attuale; Port.: actual; Span.:
actual.
actual neurosis/defense neurosis
Fr.: névrose actuelle/névrose de défense; Ger.: Aktualneurose/
Abwehrneurose; It.: nevrosi attuale/ nevrosi
da difesa; Port.: neurose actual/neurose de defesa;
Span.: neurosis actual/neurosis de defensa.
acute psychoses
Fr.: psychoses aigués; Ger.: akute Psychosen; It.: psicosi
acute; Port.: psicoses agudas.
Span.: psicosis agudas.
adaptation
Fr: adaptation; Ger: Anpassung It: adattamento;
Port.: adaptacao; Span.: adaptacion.
addiction
Fr.: addiction; Ger.: Sucht It.: dipendenza; Port.: adicao
a drogas, dependéncia; Span.: adiccion.
2013
TRANSLATION OF ConcepTs/NOTIONS
adhesive identification
Fr.: identification adhésive; Ger.: adhasive Identifizierung;
It: identificazione adesiva; Port.: identificacao
adesiva; Span.: identificacién adhesiva.
adolescence
Fr.: adolescence; Ger.: Adoleszenz It:
Port.: adolescéncia; Span.: adolescencia.
adolescenza;
adolescent crisis
Fr.: adolescence (crise d’-); Ger.: Adoleszenzkrise; It.:
crisi adolescenziale; Port.: crise de adolescéncia; Span.:
crisis de adolescencia.
adoption
Fr: adoption; Ger.: Adoption; It:
adopcao; Span.: adopcion.
adozione; Port.:
affect
Fr.: affect; Ger.: Affekt; It.: affetto; Port.: afecto; Span.:
afecto.
agency
Fr.: instance; Ger.: Instanz; It.: istanza; Port.: instancia;
Span.: instancia.
aggressiveness
Fr: agressivité; Ger. Aggressivitat; It:
Port.: agressividade; Span.: agresividad.
aggressivita;
alchemy
Fr.: alchimie; Ger.: Alchimie; It.: alchimia; Port.: a
mia; Span.: alquimia. alcoholism
Fr. alcoolisme; Ger.: Alkoholismus; It: alcolismo;
Port.: alcoolismo; Span.: alcoholismo.
alienation
Fr.: aliénation; Ger. Entfremdung; It.: alienazione;
Port.: alienacao; Span.: alienacién.
allergy
Fr.: allergie; Ger.: Allergie; It.: allergia; Port.: alergia;
Span.: alergia.
allergic relation
Fr: allergique (relation d’objet -); Ger.: allergische
Objektbeziehung; It.: relazione allergica; Port.: relacao
alérgica; Span.: relacion alérgica.
alpha-elements
Fr.: éléments alpha; Ger.: Alpha-Elemente; It: elementi
alfa; Port.: elementos alfa; Span.: elementos alfa.
alpha function
Fr.: fonction alpha; Ger.: alpha Funktion; It.: funzione
alfa; Port.: funcao alfa; Span.: funcion alfa.
2014
altruism
Fr. altruisme; Ger.: Niachstenliebe/Altruismus; It:
altruismo; Port.: altruismo; Span.: altruismo.
ambivalence
Fr.. ambivalence; Ger.: Ambivalenz; It.: ambivalenza;
Port.: ambivaléncia; Span.: ambivalencia.
amnesia
Fr.: amnésie; Ger.: Amnesie; It.: amnesia; Port.: amnésia;
Span.: amnesia.
amphimixia
Fr.: amphimixie; Ger: Amphimixis; It:
Port.: anfimixia; Span.: anfimixia.
anfimissi;
amplification
Fr.: amplification; Ger.: Amplifikation; It: amplificazione;
Port.: amplificagao; Span.: amplificacion.
anaclisis/anaclitic
Fr.: anaclitisme, anaclitique; Ger.: Anaklitismus, anaklitisch;
It.: anaclisi, anaclitico; Port.: anaclitismo, anaclitico;
Span.: anaclitismo, anaclitico.
anagogical interpretation
Fr.; interprétation anagogique; Ger.: anagogische Deutung;
It.: interpretazione anagogica; Port.: interpreta-
¢a0 anagogica; Span.: interpretaciOn anagégica.
anal eroticism
Fr.: €rotisme anal; Ger.: Analerotik; It.: erotismo anale;
Port.: erotismo anal; Span.: erotismo anal.
anality
Fr.: analité; Ger.: Analitat; [t.: analita; Port.: analidade;
Span.: analidad.
anal-sadistic stage
Fr.: stade sadique-anal; Ger.: anal(sadistische) Phase;
It.: fase sadico-anale; Port.: fase anal- sadica; Span.: fase
sadico-anal.
analysability
Fr.: analysabilité; Ger.: Analysierbarkeit; It: analizzabilita;
Port.: analisabilidade; Span.: analisabilidad.
analysand
Fr: analysé/analysant; Ger.: analysiert/analysierend,
der Analysand; It.: analizzato/analizzando; Port. analisado/
analisante; Span.: analizado/analizante.
analytical psychology
Fr.: psychologie analytique; Ger.: analytische Psychologie;
It.: psicologia analitica; Port.: psicologia analitica;
Span.: psicologia analitica.
INTERNATIONAL DicTioNARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
animal magnetism
Fr.: magnétisme animal; Ger.: animalischer Magnetismus;
[t.: magnetismo animale; Port.: magnetismo animal;
Span.: magnetismo animal.
animistic thought
Fr; animique (pensée -); Ger.: animistisches Denken;
It: pensiero animistico; Port.: pensamento animista;
Span.: pensamiento animista.
annihilation anxiety
Fr: angoisses d’anéantissement; Ger.: Vernichtungsangst;
It.: angoscia di annichilimento; Port.: angustias
de aniquilamento; Span.: angustias de aniquilamiento.
anorexia nervosa
Fr.: anorexie mentale; Ger.: Anorexie; It: anoressia
mentale; Port.: anorexia mental; Span.: anorexia
nerviosa.
anticathexis, counter-cathexis
Fr.: contre-investissement; Ger.: Gegenbesetzung; It.:
controinvestimento; Port.: contra-investimento; Span.:
contracarga.
anticipatory ideas
Fr.: representations d’attente; Ger.: Erwartungsvorstellungen;
It: rappresentazioni anticipatorie; Port.:
representacao de espera; Span.: representaciones de
espera.
antilibidinal ego/internal saboteur
Fr.: ego antilibidinal/saboteur interne; Ger.: antilibidinoses
Ich/innerer Saboteur; It.: Io antilibidico/sabotatore
interno; Port: Eu anti-libidinal/ sabotador
interno; Span.: Yo antilibidinal/saboteador interno.
antinarcissism
Fr.: anti-narcissisme; Ger.: Antinarzissmus; It.: antinarcisismo;
Port.: antinarcisismo; Span.: antinarcisismo.
anxiety
Fr.: angoisse; Ger.: Angst; It.: angoscia; Port.: angustia;
Span.: angustia.
anxiety dream
Fr: réve d’angoisse; Ger.: Angsttraum; It: sogno di
angoscia; Port.: sonho de angustia; Span.: sueno de
angustia.
aphanisis
Fr.: aphanisis; Ger.: Aphanisis; It.: afanisi; Port.: afanise;
Span.: afanisis.
aphasia
Fr: aphasie; Ger.: Aphasie; It.: afasia; Port.: afasia;
Spani.: afasia.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
TRANSLATION OF ConceptTs/NoTIONS
archaic
Fr; archaique; Ger: archaisch; It: arcaico; Port.:
arcaico; Span.: arcaico.
archaic mother
Fr.; mere archaique; Ger.: archaische Mutter; It.: madre
arcaica; Port.: mae arcaica; Span.: madre arcaica.
archetype
Fr.: archetype; Ger. Archetyp; It.: archetipo; Port.:
arquetipo; Span.: arquetipo.
arrogance
Fr.: arrogance; Ger: Arroganz; It: arroganza; Port.:
arrogancia; Span.: arrogancia.
as if personality
Fr: comme si (personnalité -); Ger. Als-ob-Personlichkeit;
It.: personalita come se; Port.: personalidade
como se; Span.: personalidad como si.
attachment
Fr. attachement; Ger: Bindung; It.: attaccamento;
Port.: apego; Span.: apego.
attention
Fr.: attention; Ger: Beachtung/Aufmerksamkeit; It.:
attenzione; Port.: atencao; Span.: atencion.
autism
Fr: autisme; Ger: Autismus; It: autismo; Port.:
autismo; Span.: autismo.
autistic capsule/autistic nucleus
Fr: noyau autistique; Ger. autistischer Kern; It.:
nucleo autistico; Port.: nucleo autistico; Span.: nucleo
autista.
autistic defenses
Fr: défenses autistiques; Ger.: autistische Abwehr(mechanismen);
It.: difese autistiche; Port.: defesas autisticas;
Span.: defensas autisticas.
autobiography
Fr.: autobiographie; Ger.: Autobiographie; It.: autobiografia;
Port.: autobiografia; Span.: autobiografia.
autoeroticism/alloeroticism
Fr: autoérotisme/alloérotisme; Ger.: Autoerotismus/
Alloerotismus; Jt: autoerotismo/alloerotismo; Port.:
auto-erotismo/alo-erotismo; Span.: autoerotismo/
aloerotismo.
automatism
Fr. automatisme; Ger.: Automatismus; Jt: automatismo;
Port.: automatismo; Span.: automatismo.
2015
TRANSLATION OF Concepts/NoTIONS
autoplastic/alloplastic
Fr: autoplastique/alloplastique; Ger.: autoplastisch/
alloplastisch; Jt: autoplastico/alioplastico; — Port.:
autoplastico/aloplastico; Span.: autoplastico/
aloplastico.
autosuggestion
Fr: autosuggestion; Ger.: Autosuggestion; It.: autosuggestione;
Port.: auto-sugestao; Span.: autosugestion.
basic assumption
Fr. presuppose de base; Ger: “basic assumption”/
Grundannahme; It.: assunto di base; Port.: pressuposto
de base; Span.: presupuesto de base.
basic fault
Fr: défaut fondamental; Ger: Grundstérung; It:
difetto fondamentale; Port.: falha basica; Span.: falla
basica.
belief
Fr.: croyance; Ger.: Glaube; It: credenza; Port.: crenca;
Span.: creencia.
benign/malignant regression
Fr.: regression benigne/maligne; Ger.: benigne/maligne
Regression; It: regressione benigna/maligna; Port.:
regressao benigna/maligna; Span.: regresion benigna/
maligna.
beta-elements
Fr.: elements béta; Ger.: Beta-Elemente; It.: elementi
beta; Port.: elementos beta; Span.: elementos beta.
beta screen
Fr. écran béta; Ger: Betaschirm; It: schermo beta;
Port.:‘ecra beta; Span.: pantalla beta.
binding/ unbinding
Fr.; liaison/déliaison; Ger.: Bindung/Entbindung; It.:
legame/slegamento; Port.: unido/desuniao; Span.:
union/desunion.
biological bedrock
Fr: roc du biologique; Ger. biologisches Fundament/
gewachsener Fels; It: roccia basilare del biologico;
Port.: fundo biologico; Span.: roca de base/
roca viva.
bipolar self
Fr.: Self bipolaire; Ger.: bipolares Selbst; It.: Sé bipolare;
Port.: self bipolar; Span.: self bipolar.
birth
Fr: naissance; Ger.: Geburt; It.: nascita; Port.: nascimento.
Span.: nacimiento.
2016
birth, dream of
Fr.: réve de naissance; Ger.: Geburtstraum; It.: sogno di
nascita; Port: sonho de nascimento; Span.: sueno de
nacimiento.
bisexuality
Fr.: bisexualité; Ger.: Bisexualitat; It.: bisessualita; Port.:
bissexualidade; Span.: bisexualidad. >
bizarre object
Fr.: objet bizarre; Ger.: bizarres Objekt; It.: oggetto bizzarro;
Port.: objecto bizarro; Span.: objeto bizarro.
black hole
Fr. trou noir; Ger: schwarzes Loch; It: buco nero;
Port.: buraco negro; Span.: agujero negro.
blank psychosis
Fr.: psychose blanche; Ger.: “Blanko” Psychose; It.: psicosi
bianca; Port.: psicose branca.
Span.: psicosis blanca.
body image
Fr.: image du corps; Ger.: Kérperbild; It: immagine
corporea; Port: imagem corporal; Span.: imagen
corporal.
borderline conditions
Fr.: etats limites; Ger: Borderline-Zustande; It.: stati
limite/ borderline; Port.: estados limites; Span.: estados
fronterizos.
boredom
Fr: ennui; Ger.: Langweile; It.: noia; Port.: aborrecimento;
Span.: aburrimiento.
boundary violations
Fr.; limites (violation des -); Ger.: Grenzverletzungen;
It: violazione dei limiti; Port.: violacdo dos limites;
Span.: violacion de los limites.
breakdown
Fr.: effondrement; Ger.: Zusammenbruch; It: crollo;
Port.: desmonoramento.Span.: desmoronamiento.
breaking through the protective shield
Fr: pare-excitations (effraction du -); Ger Durchbruch
des Reizschutzes; It.: effrazione del parastimoli
0 schermo antistimolo; Port.: efraccao do para-excitagoes;
Span.: efraccion del protector contra _ las
excitaciones.
breastfeeding
Fr: allaitement; Ger: Stillen; It: allattamento; Port:
aleitamento; Span.: amamantamiento.
INTERNATIONAL DicT:oNARY oF PSYCHOANALYSIS
breast, good/bad object
Fr: objet ou sein (bon/mauvais); Ger: Objekt oder
Brust (gut/bés); It.: oggetto 0 seno (buono/cattivo);
Port.: objecto ou seio (bom/mau); Span.: objeto o
pecho (bueno/malo).
bulimia
Fr.: boulimie; Ger.: Bulimie; It.: bulimia; Port.: bulimia;
Span.: bulimia.
Capacity for being alone
Fr.: capacité d’étre seul; Ger.: Fahigkeit zum Alleinsein;
It.: capacita di stare solo; Port.: capacidade de ficar sé;
Span.: capacidad de estar solo.
Capacity for maternal reverie
Fr.: reverie maternelle (capacité de -); Ger.: Fahigkeit
der Mutter zur Tagtraumerei; Ital.: capacita di réverie
materna; Port.: capacidade da mae devanear; Span.:
capacidad de “réverie” de la madre.
castration
Fr.: castration; Ger.: Kastration; It.: castrazione; Port.:
castra¢ao; Span.: castracion.
castration complex
Fr.: castration (complexe de -); Ger.: Kastrationskomplex;
It.: complesso di castrazione; Port.: complexo de
castracao; Span.: complejo de castracion.
catastrophic change
Fr.: changement catastrophique; Ger.: katastrophische
Veranderung; It: cambiamento catastrofico; Port.:
alteracdo catastrofica; Span.: cambio catastrofico.
cathartic method
Fr.: cathartique (méthode -); Ger.: kathartische Methode;
It: metodo catartico; Port.: método catartico;
Span.: metodo catartico.
cathectic energy
Fr.: énergie d’investissement; Ger.: Bezetzungsenergie;
Ital.: energia d’investimento; Port.: energia de investimento;
Span.: energia de investidura/carga.
cathexis
Fr.: investissement; Ger.: Besetzung; Ital.: investimento;
Port.: investimento; Span.: carga/investidura.
censorship
Fr. censure; Ger.: Zensur; It.: censura; Port.: censura;
Span.: censura.
certainty
Fr: certitude; Ger.: Gewissheit; It.: certezza; Port.: certeza;
Span.: certeza.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
TRANSLATION OF Concepts/NoTIONS
change
Fr.; changement; Ger.: Veranderung; It.: cambiamento;
Port.: mudanga; Span.: cambio.
character
Fr.: caractére; Ger.: Charakter; It.: carattere; Port.: carater;
Span.: caracter.
character formation
Fr.: caractere (formation du -); Ger.: Charakterbildung;
It.: formazione del carattere; Port.: formagaéo do
carater; Span.: formacion del caracter.
character neurosis
Fr.: caractére (névrose de -); Ger.: Charakterneurose;
It.: nevrosi del carattere; Port.: neurose de carater;
Span.: neurosis de caracter.
child analysis
Fr.: psychanalyse de l'enfant; Ger.: Kinderanalyse; Ital.:
psicoanalisi del bambino/infantile; Port.: psicanalise da
crian¢a; Span.: psicoanalisis del nino.
childhood
Fr.: enfance; Ger.: Kindheit; Ital.: infanzia; Port.: infancia;
Span.: infancia.
children’s play
Fr: jeu de enfant; Ger.: Spiel des Kindes; Ital.: gioco
infantile; Port.: brincadeira da crianga; Span.: juego del
nino.
choice of neurosis
Fr.: névrose (choix de la -); Ger.: Neurosenwahl; Ital.:
scelta della nevrosi; Port.: escolha da neurose; Span.:
eleccion de la neurosis.
civilization (Ku/tur)
Fr.: civilisation (Kultur); Ger.: Zivilisation/Kultur; It:
civilta/cultura Port.: civilizacao/cultura; Span.: civilizacidn/
cultura.
claustrophobia
Fr.: claustrophobie; Ger.: Klaustrophobie; Jt.: claustrofobia;
Port.: claustrofobia; Span.: claustrofobia.
clinging instinct
Fr.: cramponnement (instinct de -); Ger.: Anklammerungstrieb;
It.: istinto di aggrappamento; Port.: impulso
de agarrar; Span.: instinto de aferrar.
collective psychology
Fr.: psychologie collective; Ger.: kollektive Psychologie;
Ital. psicologia collettiva; Port.: psicologia colectiva;
Span.: psicologia colectiva.
2017
TRANSLATION OF Concepts/NoTIONS
collective unconscious
Fr.: inconscient collectif; Ger: das kollektive Unbewusste;
Ital.: inconscio collettivo; Port.: inconsciente
colectivo; Span.: inconsciente colectivo.
combined parent figure
Fr.: parents combines (figure des -); Ger: vereinigte
Elternfigur; Ital.: figura parentale combinata; Port.: figura
dos pais combinados; Span.: figura de los padres
combinados.
compensation
Fr.: compensation; Ger.: Kompensation; [t.: compensazione;
Port.: compensacao; Span.: compensacion.
compensatory structures
Fr: structures compensatrices; Ger: kompensatorische
Strukturen; Ital: strutture compensatorie; Port.: estruturas
compensatorias; Span.: estructuras compensatorias.
complementary series
Fr.: serie complementaire; Ger.: Ergianzungsreihe; [tal.:
serie complementare; Port.: série complementar;
Span.: serie complementaria.
complex
Fr. complexe; Ger: Komplex; It.: complesso; Port.:
complexo; Span.: complejo.
compromise formation
Fr: formation de compromis; Ger.: Kompromissbildung;
Ital.: formazione di compromesso; Port.: forma-
¢ao de compromisso; Span. formacién de
compromiso.
compulsion
Fr.: compulsion (ou contrainte); Ger.: Zwang; It.: coazione;
Port.: compulsao; Span.: compulsién.
concept
Fr: conception, concept; Ger.: Konzeption, Konzept;
It.: concezione, concetto; Port.: concep¢ao, conceito;
Span.: concepcion, concepto.
condensation
Fr.; condensation; Ger. Verdichtung; It: condensazione;
Port.: condensa¢ao; Span.: condensacion.
conflict
Fr.: conflit; Ger: Konflikt; It.: conflitto; Port.: conflito;
Span.: conflicto.
consciousness
Fr: Conscient (le)/conscience; Ger.: das Bewusste/
Bewusstsein; I[t.: il Conscio/coscienza; Port.: consciente/
consciéncia; Span.: el consciente/consciencia.
2018
conscious processes
Fr.: processus conscients; Ger.: bewusste Vorgange;
Ital: processi consci; Port.: processos conscientes;
Span.: procesos conscientes.
constitution
Fr.: constitution; Ger.: Konstitution; It.: costituzione;
Port.: constituicao; Span.: constitucion.
construction-reconstruction
Fr.: construction-reconstruction; Ger.: Konstruktion-
Rekonstruktion; It.: costruzione-ricostruzione; Port.:
constru¢ao-reconstrucao; Span.: construccionreconstruccion.
contact
Fr.: contact; Ger: Kontakt, Bertthrung; It.: contatto;
Port.: contacto; Span.: contacto.
contact-barrier
Fr.: barriere de contact; Ger.: Kontaktschranke; Ital.:
barriera di contatto; Port.: barreira de contacto; Span.:
barrera de contacto.
container-contained
Fr. contenant-contenu; Ger.: container-contained; It:
contenitore-contenuto; Port.: continente-contetido;
Span.: continente-contenido.
contradiction
Fr. contradiction; Ger.: Widerspruch; It.: contraddizione;
Port.: contradi¢ao; Span.: contradiccién.
control-analysis
Fr.: controle (psychanalyse sous -); Ger.: Kontrollanalyse;
It.: psicoanalisi sotto supervisione; Port.: psicanalise
sob superviséo; Span.: psicoanalisis de controlo
supervision.
convenience, dream of
Fr: réve de commodité; Ger.: Bequemlichkeitstraum;
It; sogno di comodita; Port.: sonho de conveniéncia;
Span.: suenlo de comodidad.
conversion
Fr. conversion; Ger.: Konversion; It: conversione;
Port.: conversao; Span.: conversion.
coprophilia
Fr.: coprophilie; Ger.: Koprophilie; It.: coprofilia; Port:
coprofilia; Span.: coprofilia.
counterphobic
Fr: contraphobique; Ger.: contraphobisch; It.: controfobico;
Port.: contra-fdbico; Span.: contrafébico.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
counter-identification
Fr: contre-identification; Ger.: Gegenidentifizierung;
It.: controidentificazione; Port.: contra-identificacao;
Span.: contraidentificacion.
counter-transference
Fr. contre-transfert; Ger: Gegeniibertragung; It.: controtransfert;
Port: contratransferéncia; Span:
contratransferencia.
creativity
Fr: creativite; Ger: Kreativitat; It: creativita; Port:
criatividade; Span.: creatividad.
cruelty
Fr: cruauté; Ger.: Grausamkeit; Ital: crudelta; Port:
crueldade; Span.: crueldad.
cryptomnesia
Fr: cryptomnésie; Ger.: Kryptomnesie; Ital.: criptomnesia;
Port.: criptomneésia; Span.: criptomnesia.
cultural transmission
Fr: transmission culturelle; Ger.: kulturelle Ubertragung;
Ital: trasmissione culturale; Port.: transmissao
cultural; Span.: transmision cultural.
cure
Fr.: guérison; Ger. Heilung; Ital: guarigione; Port.:
cura; Span.: curacion.
danger
Fr.: danger; Ger.: Gefahr; It: pericolo; Port.: perigo;
Span.: peligro.
dark continent
Fr.: continent noir; Ger.: schwarzer Kontinent; It.: continente
nero; Port.: continente negro; Span.: continente
negro.
day’s residues
Fr.: restes diurnes; Ger.: Tagesreste; It: resti diurni;
Port.: restos diurnos. Span.: restos diurnos.
death instinct
Fr.: pulsion de mort; Ger.: Todestrieb; It.: pulsione di
morte; Port.: pulsio de morte. Span.: pulsion de
muerte.
decathexis
Fr: désinvestissement; Ger.: Entziehung der Besetzung/
Unbesetztheit; It.: disinvestimento; Port.: desinvestimento;
Span.: desinvestimento.
defense mechanisms
Fr: défense (mécanismes de -); Ger.: Abwehrmechanismen;
It: meccanismi di difesa; Port.: mecanismos de
defesa; Span.: mecanismos de defensa.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
TRANSLATION OF CoNcEPTS/NOTIONS
defenses
Fr.: défenses; Ger.: Abwehr(mechanismen); It.: difese;
Port.: defesas; Span.: defensas.
deferred action
Fr: apres-coup; Ger.: Nachtraglichkeit, nachtraglich; It.:
posteriorita, posteriormente; Port.: s6 depois/a posterlori;
Span.: a posteriori, accion retardada, aplazada.
déja-vu
Fr: déja-vu; Ger.: Déeja-vu; It.: déja-vu; Port.: déja-vu;
Span.: déja-vu.
delusion
Fr.; délire; Ger.: Wahn; It.: delirio; Port.: delirio; Span.:
delirio.
demand
Fr: demande; Ger.: Forderung; It.: domanda; Port.:
demanda; Span.: demanda.
dementia
Fr.. démence; Ger.: Wahnsinn; It.: demenza; Port.:
deméncia; Span.: demencia.
dependence
Fr.: dependance; Ger.: Abhangigkeit; It: dipendenza;
Port.: dependéncia; Span.: dependencia.
depersonalization
Fr.: depersonnalisation; Ger: Depersonalisation,
Entfremdungserlebnis; I[t.: depersonalizzazione; Port.:
despersonaliza¢ao; Span.: despersonalizacion.
deprivation
Fr.: carence; Ger.: Fehlen/Mangel; It.: carenza; Port.:
carencia; Span.: carencia.
determinism
Fr.: déterminisme; Ger.: Determinismus; It.: determinismo;
Port.: determinismo; Span.: determinismo.
developmental disorders
Fr: développement (troubles du -); Ger. Entwicklungsstérungen;
[t.: disturbi evolutivi; Port.: transtornos
desenvolvimento; Span.: trastornos del desarrollo.
developmental process
Fr. développement (processus de -); Ger: Entwicklungsprozess;
It.: processo di sviluppo; Port.: processo
de desenvolvimento; Span.: proceso de desarrollo.
dipsomania
Fr. dipsomanie; Ger.: Trunksucht, Dipsomanie; It.:
dipsomania; Port.: dipsomania; Span.: dipsomania.
direct analysis
Fr: analyse directe; Ger. direkte Analyse; It.: analisi
diretta; Port.: analise directa; Span.: analisis directo.
2019
TRANSLATION OF ConcePTs/NOTIONS
discharge
Fr.: décharge; Ger.: Abfuhr; It.: scarica, deflusso; Port.:
descarga; Span.: descarga.
disintegration products
Fr.: produits de désintégration; Ger.: Zerfallsprodukte;
It: prodotti di disintegrazione; Port.: produtos de
desintegracao; Span.: productos de desintegracion.
dismantling
Fr: demantélement; Ger.: Zerfall, Zerfallenlassen; It.:
smantellamento; Port: desmantelamento; Span.:
desmantelamiento.
disorganization
Fr.: désorganisation; Ger.: Desorganisation; It.: disorganizzazione;
Port.: desorganizacao; Span.:
desorganizacion.
displacement
Fr.: deplacement; Ger.: Verschiebung; It.: spostamento;
Port.: deslocamento; Span.: desplazamiento.
displacement of the transference
Fr.: transfert lateral; Ger.: Nebeniibertragung; It.: transfert
laterale; Port.: transferéncia lateral; Span.: transferencia
lateral.
double
Fr.: double (le); Ger.: Doppelganger; It.: doppio; Port.:
duplo; Span.: doble.
double bind .
Fr.: double lien; Ger.: double bind; It.: doppio legame;
Port.: vinculo duplo; Span.: doble vinculo.
doubt
Fr.: doute; Ger. Zweifel; It: dubbio; Port: duvida;
Span.: duda.
dream
Fr.: reve; Ger.: Traum; It.: sogno; Port.: sonho; Span.:
sueno.
dream interpretation
Fr.: reve (interprétation du -); Ger.: Traumdeutung; It.:
interpretazione del sogno; Port.: interpretacao do
sonho. Span.: interpretacion del sueno.
dream screen
Fr: reve (€cran du -); Ger. Projektionsflache des
Traumes, Traumschirm; It: schermo del sogno; Port.:
ecra do sonho. Span.: pantalla del sueno.
dream symbolism
Fr: symbolisme du réve; Ger: Traumsymbolik; It:
simbolismo del sogno; Port.: simbolismo do sonho;
Span.: simbolismo del sueno.
2020
dream work
Fr.: réve (travail du -); Ger.: Traumarbeit; It.: lavoro del
sogno; Port.: trabalho do sonho; Span.: trabajo del
sueno.
dream’s navel
Fr.: ombilic du réve; Ger.: Nabel des Traums; It.: ombelico
del sogno; Port.: umbigo do sonho; Span.: ombligo
del sueno. -
dualism
Fr. dualisme; Ger.: Dualismus; It: dualismo; Port.:
dualismo; Span.: dualismo.
dynamic point of view
Fr: dynamique (point de vue -); Ger.: dynamischer
Gesichtspunkt; It.: punto di vista dinamico; Port.: ponto
de vista dinamico; Span.: punto de vista dinamico.
early interactions
Fr.: interactions précoces; Ger.: friihe Interaktionen;
It: interazioni precoci; Port.: interacgdes precoces;
Span.: interacciones precoces.
early Oedipus complex
Fr.: complexe d’CEdipe précoce; Ger.: friiher Odipuskomplex;
It.: complesso edipico precoce; Port.: complexo
de Edipo precoce; Span.: complejo de Edipo
temprano.
economic point of view
Fr.; économique (point de vue -); Ger.: bkonomischer
Gesichtspunkt; It: punto di vista economico; Port.:
ponto de vista econdmico; Span.: punto de vista
economico.
ego
Fr.: Moi; Ger.: Ich; It.: lo; Port.: Eu; Span.: Yo.
ego, alterations of the
Fr Moi (alterations du -); Ger: Ichveranderung; It.:
alterazioni dell’lo; Port.: alteragaoes do Eu; Span::
alteraciones del Yo.
ego autonomy
Fr.: Moi (autonomie du -); Ger: Ichautonomie; It:
autonomia dell’lo; Port: autonomia do Eu; Span.:
autonomia del Yo.
ego boundaries
Fr.: Moi (limites du -); Ger.: Ichgrenzen; It.: limiti
dell’Io; Port.: limites do Eu; Span.: limites del Yo.
ego, damage inflicted on the
Fr: Moi (dommages infligés au -); Ger: Ichbeschadigungen;
/t.: danni inflitti all’Io; Port.: danos infligidos
a0 Eu; Span.: dafios infligidos al Yo.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
ego feeling
Fr. Moi (sentiment du -); Ger.: Ichgefiihl; It: sentimento
dell’lo; Port.: sentimento do Eu; Span.: sentimiento
del Yo.
ego functions
Fr.: Moi (fonctions du -); Ger.: Ichfunktionen; It: funzioni
dell’Io; Port.: fun¢des do Eu; Span.: funciones del
YG,
ego interests
Fr.: Moi (intérets du -); Ger.: Ichinteressen; It.: interessi
dell’lo; Port.: interesses do Eu; Span.: intereses del Yo.
ego-instinct
Fr.: pulsions du Moi; Ger.: Ichtriebe; Span.: pulsiones
del Yo; It.: pulsioni dell’Io; Port.: pulsdes do Eu.
ego ideal
Fr.: Idéal du Moi; Ger.: Ichideal; It.: ideale dell’Io; Port.:
ideal do Eu; Span.: ideal del Yo.
ego identity
Fr.: identité du Moi; Ger.: Ichidentitat; It: identita
dell’lo; Port.: identidade do Eu; Span.: identidad del
NO:
ego-libido/object-libido
Fr.: libido du Moi (narcissique)/libido objectale; Ger.:
Ichlibido/Objektlibido; It.: libido dell’Io/libido oggettuale;
Port.: libido do Eu (narcisico)/libido objetal;
Span.: libido del Yo (narcisista)/ libido objetal.
ego states
Fr.: Moi (états du -); Ger.: Ichzustande; It.: stati dell’Io;
Port.: estados do Eu; Span.: estados del Yo.
ego-syntonic
Fr.: Moi (conformité au -, egosyntonie); Ger.: Ichtbereinstimmung,
Ichgerechtheit; It: concordanza con
Io, egosintonia; Port.: conformidade com o Eu, egosintonia;
Span.: conformidad al Yo, egosintonia.
elasticity
Fr: élasticité (technique d’-); Ger.: Elastizitat; It.: elasticita;
Port.: elasticidade; Span.: elasticidad.
emotion
Fr: émotion; Ger.: Emotion; It.: emozione; Port.: emo-
¢4o; Span.: emocion.
empathy
Fr: empathie; Ger: Einfiihlung; It: empatia; Port.:
empatia; Span.: empatia.
encopresis
Fr. encoprésie; Ger.: Enkopresie; I[t.: encoprest; Roris
encoprese; Span.: encopresis.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
TRANSLATION OF Concepts/NoTIONS
encounter
Fr: rencontre; Ger: Begegnung; It.: incontro; Port.:
encontro; Span.: encuentro.
energy
Fr.: energie; Ger.: Energie; It.: energia; Port.: energia;
Span.: energia.
enuresis
Fr.: enurésie; Ger.: Enuresis nocturna/Bettnassen; It.:
enuresi; Port.: enurese; Span.: enuresis.
envy
Fr.: envie; Ger.: Neid; It.: invidia; Port.: inveja; Span.:
envidia.
erogeneity
Fr.: erogeneité; Ger.: Erogeneitat; It.: erogenita; Port.:
erogeneidade; Span.: erogeneidad.
erotogenic masochism
Fr.: masochisme érogene; Ger.: erogener Masochismus;
It: masochismo erogeno; Port.: masoquismo erogeno;
Span.: masoquismo erogeno.
erotogenic zone
Fr: zone érogene; Ger.: erogene Zone; It.: zona erogena;
Port.: zona erogena; Span.: zona erogena.
erotomania
Fr.: erotomanie; Ger.: Erotomanie; It: erotomania;
Port.: erotomania; Span.: erotomania.
essential depression
Fr.: depression essentielle; Ger.: genuine Depression;
It: depressione essenziale; Port.: depressao essencial;
Span.: depresion esencial.
estrangement
Fr: étrangete (sentiment d’-); Ger: Entfremdungsgefiihl;
uncarriness; [t.: sentimento di estraneita; Port.:
sentimento de estranheza.Span.: sentimiento de
extraneza.
ethnopsychoanalysis
Fr.: ethnopsychanalyse; Ger.: Ethnopsychoanalyse; It.:
etnopsicoanalisi; Port.: | etnopsicanalise; — Span.:
etnopsicoanalisis.
evenly-suspended attention
Fr.: attention (également) flottante; Ger.: gleichschwebende
Aufmerksamkeit; It.: attenzione (liberamente)
fluttuante; Port.: atencao flutuante; Span.: atencion
(parejamente) flotante.
2021
TRANSLATION OF ConcepTs/NoTIONS
examination dream
Fr. réve d’examen; Ger: Priifungstraum; It: sogno di
esame; Port.: sonho de exame; Span.: suefio de examen.
excitation
Fr.: excitation; Ger.: Erregung; It.: eccitamento; Port.:
excitacao; Span.: excitacion.
exhibitionism
Fr.: exhibitionnisme; Ger.: Exhibitionismus; It.: esibizionismo;
Port.: exibicionismo; Span.: exhibicionismo.
experience of satisfaction
Fr.: experience de satisfaction; Ger.: Befriedigungserlebnis;
It: esperienza di soddisfamento; Port.: experiéncia
de satisfacao; Span.: vivencia de satisfaccion.
externalization-internalization
Fr.: externalisation-internalisation; Ger.: Verausserlichung-
Verinnerlichung; It.: esternalizzazione-internalizzazione;
Port.: externalizacao-internalizac4o; Span.:
externalizacion-internalizacion.
extraversion/introversion
Fr. extraversion/introversion; Ger. Extraversion/
Introversion; It.: estroversione/introversione; Port.:
extraversao/introversao; Span.: extroversion/
introversion.
face-to-face situation
Fr.: face-a-face (situation de); Ger. Situation im
Gegeniibersitzen; It.: vis-a-vis; Port.: situacao de face a
face; Span.: situacién de frente a frente.
facilitation
Fr.: frayage; Ger.: Bahnung; It: facilitazione; Port.:
facilitacao; Span.: facilitacion.
failure neurosis
Fr.: névrose d’échec; Ger.: Misserfolgsneurose; It.: nevrosi
di scacco; Port.: neurose de fracasso; Span.: neurosis
de fracaso.
false self
Fr.; faux Self; Ger.: falsches Selbst; It.: falso Sé; Port.:
falso self; Span.: falso self.
family
Fr.: famille; Ger.: Familie; It.: famiglia; Port.: familia;
Span.: familia.
family romance
Fr. roman familial; Ger: Familienroman; It: romanzo
familiare; Port.: romance familiar; Span.: novela familiar.
fantasy (reverie)
Fr.: fantaisie; Ger.: Phantasie; It: fantasia; Port.: fantasia;
Span.: fantasia.
2022
fantasy/phantasy
Fr.: fantasme; Ger.: Phantasie; IJt.: fantasia/fantasma;
Port.: fantasma/fantasia; Span.: fantasma.
fascination
Fr: fascination; Ger. Faszination; It: fascinazione;
Port.: fascinagao; Span.: fascinacion.
fate neurosis
Fr: névrose de destinée; Ger.: Schicksalsneurose; It:
nevrosi di destino; Port.: neurose de destino; Span.:
neurosis de destino.
father complex
Fr.: complexe paternel; Ger.: Vaterkomplex; It.: complesso
paterno; Port: complexo paterno; Span.: complejo
paterno.
fatherhood
Fr: paternité; Ger.: Vaterschaft; It.: paternita; Port.:
paternidade; Span.: paternidad.
fear
Fr.; peur; Ger.: Furcht; It: paura; Port.: medo; Span.:
miedo.
feces
Fr.: feces; Ger.: Faeces/Kot; It.: feci; Port.: fezes; Span.:
heces.
feminine masochism
Fr.; masochisme féminin; Ger.: weiblicher Masochismus;
It.: masochismo femminile; Port: masoquismo
feminino; Span.: masoquismo femenino.
feminine sexuality
Fr.; sexualité feminine; Ger.: weibliche Sexualitat; It.:
sessualita femminile; Port.: sexualidade feminina;
Span.: sexualidad femenina.
femininity
Fr.: feminité; Ger.: Weiblichkeit; It.: femminilita; Port.:
feminidade; Span.: feminidad.
femininity, rejection of
Fr.: feminité (refus de la -); Ger.: Ablehnung der Weiblichkeit;
It: rifiuto della femminilita; Port.: recusa da
feminidade; Span.: rechazo de la feminidad.
fetishism
Fr.: fetichisme; Ger: Fetischismus; It.: feticismo; Port.:
feiticismo; Span.: fetichismo.
fixation
Fr.: fixation; Ger.: Fixierung; It: fissazione; Port. fixa-
¢a0; Span.: fijacion.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
flight into illness
Fr.: fuite dans la maladie; Ger.: Flucht in die Krankheit;
It.: fuga nella malattia; Port.: fuga na doenga; Span.:
huida en la enfermedad.
foreclosure
Fr.: forclusion; Ger.: Verwerfung; It.: preclusione; Port.:
forclusao; Span.: repudio.
forgetting
Fr.: oubli; Ger.: Vergessen; It.: oblio; Port.: esquecimento;
Span.: olvido.
formula of fantasy
Fr.: fantasme (formule du -); Ger.: Formel der Phantasie;
It.: formula del fantasma; Port.: formula da fantasia;
Span.: formula del fantasma.
formations of the unconscious
Fr. formations de linconscient; Ger: Bildungen des
Unbewussten; It.: formazioni dell’inconscio; Port.: forma¢
oes do inconsciente; Span.: formaciones del
inconsciente.
four discourses
Fr.: discours (quatre -); Ger.: vier Diskurse; It.: quattro
discorsi; Port: quatro discursos; Span.: cuatro
discursos.
framework of the psychoanalytic treatment
Fr.: cadre (de la cure psychanalytique); Ger: Rahmen;
It: setting; Port.: enquadramento/Setting; Span.:
encuadre.
free energy/bound energy
Fr. énergie libre-énergie liée; Ger.: freie Energiegebundene
Energie; It.: energia libera-energia legata;
Port.: energia livre-energia ligada; Span.: energia libreenergia
ligada.
fragmentation
Fr.: fragmentation; Ger.: Zerkleinerung; It.: frammentazione;
Port.: fragmenta¢ao; Span.: fragmentacion.
free association
Fr: association (méthode de libre -); Ger.: Methode
der freien Assoziation; It.: associazione libera; Port.:
método de associacao livre; Span.: metodo de libre
asociacion.
friendship
Fr: amitié; Ger.: Freundschaft; It.: amicizia; Port.: amizade;
Span.: amistad.
fright
Fr. effroi; Ger.: Schreck; Span.: susto; It.: spavento;
Port.: susto, pavor.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
TRANSLATION OF Concepts/NoOTIONS
frustration
Fr.: frustration; Ger.: Versagung; It.: frustrazione; Port.:
frustra¢ao; Span.: frustracion.
fusion/defusion
Fr.: fusion/défusion; Ger.: Verschmelzung/Entschmelzung;
It.: impasto/disimpasto; Port.: fusao/defusao.-
Span.: fusion/defusion.
functional phenomenon
Fr.: phenomeéne fonctionnel; Ger.: funktionales Phanomen;
It.: fenomeno funzionale; Port.: fend6meno funcional;
Span.: fenomeno funcional.
fundamental rule
Fr.; regle fondamentale; Ger: Grundregel; It.: regola
fondamentale; Port.: regra fundamental; Span.: regla
fundamental.
fusion/defusion of instincts
Fr: union-désunion des pulsions; Ger: Triebmischung-
Triebentmischung; It.: impasto-disimpasto
delle pulsioni; Port.: fusao-desfusao das pulsdes; Span.:
fusion-defusion (pulsional).
gain (primary and secondary)
Fr.: benefice (primaire et secondaire); Ger.: Gewinn
(primarer und sekundarer); It.: vantaggio (primario e
secondario); Port.: beneficio (primaric e secundario);
Span.: beneficio (primario y secundario).
gender identity
Fr. identité sexuelle; Ger: Geschlechtsidentitat; It:
identita sessuale di genere; Port.: identidade sexual;
Span.: identidad de genero, identidad sexual.
general theory of seduction
Fr.: seduction généralisée (théorie de la -); Ger.: Theorie
der allgemeinen Verfiihrung; It.: teoria della seduzione
generalizzata; Port.: teoria da seducao; Span.:
teoria de la seduccion.
genital love
Fr.: amour génital; Ger.: genitale Liebe; [t.: amore genitale;
Port.: amor genital; Span.: amor genital.
genital stage
Fr.; stade génital; Ger.: genitale Phase; It.: fase genitale;
Port.: fase genital.Span.: fase genital.
gift
Fr.: cadeau; Ger.: Geschenk; It.: regalo; Port.: presente;
Span.: regalo.
good-enough mother
Fr: mére suffisamment bonne; Ger.: ausreichend gute
Mutter; Jt.: madre sufficientemente buona; Port.: mae
2023
TRANSLATION OF ConcePTs/NoTtioNns
suficientemente boa; Span: madre suficientemente
buena.
grandiose self
Fr: Soi grandiose; Ger.: Grassen-Selbst; Jt: Sé grandioso;
Port.: self grandioso; Span.: self grandioso.
graph of desire
Fr: graphe du desir; Ger: Graph des Begehrens; It:
grafo del desiderio; Port.: grafo do desejo; Span.: grafo
del deseo.
grid
Fr: grille; Ger: Raster; It.: griglia; Port.: grelha; Span.:
tabla.
group analysis
Fr: groupe (analyse de - ou groupanalyse); Ger.: Gruppenanalyse;
Jt: analisi di gruppo/ gruppoanalisi; Port.:
analise de grupo; Span.: analisis de grupo.
group psychotherapy
Fr.: groupe (psychotherapies de -); Ger: Gruppenpsychotherapie;
I: psicoterapia di gruppo; Port: psicoterapia
de grupo; Span.: psicoterapias de grupo.
guilt, feelings of
Fr: culpabilite (sentiment de -); Ger.: Schuldgefiihl; It:
senso di colpa; Port.: sentimento de culpa; Span.: sentimiento
de culpabilidad.
guilt, unconscious sense of
Fr: culpabilite inconsciente (sentiment de -); Ger:
unbewusstes Schuldgeftthl; Jt: senso di colpa incoscio;
Port.: culpa inconsciente; Span.: culpa inconsciente.
hallucinatory, the
Fr.: hallucinatoire (I’-); Ger.: das Halluzinatorische; It:
lallucinatorio; Port: o alucinatorio; Span: el/lo
alucinatorio.
hatred
Fr.: haine; Ger.: Hass; It: odio; Port.: 6dio; Span.: odio.
helplessness
Fr.: détresse (état de -): Ger: Hilflosigkeit; J.: impotenza,
derelizione; Port: — desamparo; Span.:
desamparo.
hermeneutics
Fr.: hermeneutique; Ger.: Hermeneutik; Jt: ermeneutica;
Port.: hermenéutica; Span.: hermenéutica.
heroic identification
Fr.: identification héroique; Ger.: heroische Identifizierung;
It: identificazione eroica; Port.: identificacao
heroica; Span.: identificacion heroica.
2024
heterosexuality
Fr.: hetérosexualite; Ger.: Heterosexualitat; It: eterosessualita;
Port.: heterossexualidade; Span.:
heterosexualidad.
historical reality
Fr: realité historique; Ger.: historische Realitat; It:
realta storica; Port.: realidade historica; Span.: realidad
historica.
historical truth
Fr.: verite historique; Ger: historische Wahrheit; It:
verita storica; Port.: verdade historica; Span.: verdad
historica.
homosexuality
Fr: homosexualité; Ger.: Homosexualitat; Jt: omosessualita;
Port.: homossexualidade; Span.: homosexualidad.
hospitalism
Fr: hospitalisme; Ger: Hospitalismus; It: ospedalismo;
Port.: hospitalismo; Span.: hospitalismo.
humor
Fr: humour; Ger: Humor; Jt: umorismo; Port:
humor; Span.: humor.
Fr: surinvestissement; Ger.: Uberbesetzung; It: sovrainvestimento;
Port.: sobrecarga/superinvestimento;
Span.: sobrecarga.
hypnoid states
‘Fr: hypnoides (états -); Ger: hypnoide Zustande; It:
Stati ipnoidi; Port: estados hipnoides; Span.: estados
hipnoides.
hypnosis
Fr.: hypnose; Ger.: Hypnose; It.: ipnosi; Port: hipnose.
Span.: hipnosis.
hypochondria
Fr.: hypocondrie; Ger.: Hypochondrie; It: ipocondria;
Port.: hipocondria; Span.: hipocondria.
hypocritical dream
Fr: réve hypocrite; Ger: heuchlerischer Traum: It:
sogno ipocritas Port.: sonho hipdécrita; Span.: sueno
hipocrita.
hysteria
Fr.: hysterie; Ger: Hysterie; It: isteria: Port: histeria;
Span.: histeria/histerismo.
hysterical paralyses
Fr.: paralysies hystériques; Ger.: hysterische Paralysien;
It: paralisi isteriche; Port.: paralisias histéricas; Span.:
paralisis histéricas.
INTERNATIONAL Dictionary oF PSYCHOANALYSIS
I
Fr.: Je; Ger.: Ich; It.: lo; Port.: Eu; Span.: Yo.
Id
Fr.: Ca; Ger.: Es; It.: Es; Port.: Isso; Span.: Ello.
ideal ego
Fr.: Moi ideal; Ger.: Idealich; It.: Io ideale; Port: Euideal;
Span.: Yo ideal.
idealization
Fr.: idéalisation; Ger.: Idealisierung; It.: idealizzazione;
Port.: idealiza¢ao; Span.: idealizacion.
idealized parental imago
Fr.: imago parentale idéalisée; Ger.: idealisierte Elternimago;
It: imago parentale idealizzata; Port.: imago
parental idealizada; Span.: imago parental idealizada.
idealizing transference
Fr. transfert idéalisant; Ger.: idealisierende Ubertragung;
Jt: transfert idealizzante; Port.: transferéncia
idealizante; Span.: transferencia idealizante.
ideational representative
Fr.: representant-representation; Ger.: Vorstellungsreprasentanz
(Vorstellungsreprasentant); Span.: representante-
representativo; I[t.: rappresentante-rappresentazione
(rappresentante ideativo); Port.: representante
ideativo.
identification
Fr.: identification; Ger.: Identifizierung; It.: identificazione;
Port.: identificacao; Span.: identificacion.
identification fantasies
Fr: identification (fantasmes d’-); Ger.: Identifizierungsphantasien;
It.: fantasmi d’identificazione; Port.: fantasias
de identificacao; Span.: fantasmas de identificacion.
identification with the aggressor
Fr: identification a l’'agresseur; Ger.: Identifizierung
mit dem Angreifer; [t.: identificazione con l’aggressore;
Port.: identificacdo com o agressor; Span.: identificacion
con el agresor.
identificatory project
Fr.: projet identificatoire; Ger.: identifikatorisches Projekt;
It: progetto identificatorio; Port.: projecto identificat6rio;
Span.: proyecto identificatorio.
identity
Fr: identité; Ger.: Identitat; It.: identita; Port.: identidade;
Span.: identidad.
ideology
Fr.: idéologie; Ger.: Ideologie; It.: ideologia; Port.: ideologia;
Span.: ideologia.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PsyYCHOANALYSIS
TRANSLATICN OF ConceptTs/NoTIONS
illusion
Fr.: illusion; Ger.: Illusion; It.: illusione; Port.: ilusao;
Span.: ilusion.
the Imaginary
Fr.: Imaginaire (I); Ger.: das Imaginare; It.: ? Immaginario;
Port.: o Imaginario; Span.: lo Imaginario.
imposter
Fr.: imposteur; Ger.: Hochstapler; It.: impostore; Port.:
impostor; Span.: impostor.
incompleteness
Fr.: inachevement; Ger.: Unvollstandigkeit; It.: incompletezza;
Port.: incompletude; Span.: incompletud.
incest
Fr.: inceste; Ger: Inzest; It: incesto; Port: incesto;
Span.: incesto.
individual
Fr.: individu; Ger.: Individuum; It: individuo; Port.:
individuo,; Span.: individuo.
infant development
Fr.: nourrisson (développement du -); Ger.: Entwicklung
des Sauglings; It.: sviluppo del neonatto; Port.:
desenvolvimento do bebe; Span.: desarrollo del
lactante.
infant observation
Fr.: bebe (observation du -); Ger.: Sauglingsbeobachtung;
It.: osservazione del bambino; Port.: observa¢ao
de bebés; Span.: observacion de bebes.
infantile amnesia
Fr. amnésie infantile; Ger: frithkindliche/infantile
Amnesie; It.: amnesia infantile; Port.: amnésia infantil;
Span.: amnesia infantil.
infantile neurosis
Fr.: névrose infantile; Ger.: infantile Neurose; It.: nevrosi
infantile; Port.: neurose infantil; Span.: neurosis
infantil.
infantile omnipotence
Fr.: toute-puissance (omnipotence); Ger.: Allmacht,
Omnipotenz; It: onnipotenza; Port.: omnipotencia;
Span.: omnipotencia.
infantile psychosis
Fr.: psychose infantile; Ger.: infantile Psychose; It.: psicosi
infantile; Port.: psicose infantil; Span.: psicosis
infantil.
2025
TRANSLATION OF ConcerptTs/NoTIONS
infantile schizophrenia
Fr.: schizophrenie infantile; Ger.: infantile Schizophrenie;
It: schizofrenia infantile; Port.: esquizofrenia
infantil; Span.: esquizofrenia infantil.
infantile sexual curiosity
Fr.: curiosité sexuelle infantile; Ger.: infantile Sexualneugier;
It.: curiosita sessuale infantile; Port.: curiosidade
sexual infantil; Span.: curiosidad sexual
infantil.
inferiority, feeling of
Fr.: sentiment d’infériorité; Ger.: Minderwertigkeitsgefiihl;
It: senso d’inferiorita; Port.: sentimento de inferioridade;
Span.: sentimiento de inferioridad.
inhibition
Fr. inhibition; Ger.: Hemmung; It.: inibizione; Port.:
inibicao; Span.: inhibicion.
initial interview(s)
Fr.: entretien(s) préliminaire(s); Ger.: Erstinterview;
It.: colloqui preliminari; Port.: entrevistas preliminares;
Span.: entrevista(s) preliminare(s).
innervation
Fr.: innervation; Ger. Innervation; It.: innervazione;
Port.: inervacao; Span.: inervacion.
instinct
Fr.: instinct; Ger.: Instinkt; It.: istinto; Port.: instinto;
Span.: instinto.
instinct/drive
Fr.: pulsion; Ger.: Trieb/Instinkt; It: pulsione; Port.:
pulsao; Span.: pulsion.
instinct for mastery
Fr: emprise (pulsion d’-); Ger: Bemachtigungstrieb;
It.: pulsione d’impossessamento; Port.: pulsio de domina¢
ao; Span.: pulsion de dominio.
instinctual impulse
Fr: motion pulsionnelle; Ger.: Triebregung; It.: moto
pulsionale; Port.: mogado pulsional; Span.: mocién
pulsional.
instinctual representative
Fr: représentant pulsionnel (représentant de la pulsion);
Ger.: Triebreprasentanz (Triebreprasentant); It:
rappresentante pulsionale (rappresentante della pulsione);
Port.: representante pulsional (representante da
pulsao); Span.: representante pulsional (representante
de la pulsion).
integration
Fr: intégration; Ger: Integration; It.: integrazione;
Port.: integra¢ao; Span.: integracion.
2026
intellectualization
Fr.: intellectualisation; Ger.: Intellektualisierung; It.:
intellettualizzazione; Port.: intelectualizacao; Span.:
intelectualizacion.
intergenerational
Fr.: transgéenérationnel (intergénérationnel); Ger.: generationstiberschreitend/
transgenerationell/intergenerationell;
Jt: transgenerazionale/intergenerazionale;
Port.: transgeracional/intergeracional; Span.: transgeneracional/
intergeneracional.
internal/external reality
Fr.: réalité intérieure/réalité extérieure; Ger: innere
Realitat/aussere Realitat; Jt: realta interna/realta
esterna; Port.: realidade interna/realidade externa;
Span.: realidad interior/ realidad exterior.
internal object
Fr: objet interne; Ger: inneres Objekt; It.: oggetto
interno; Port: objecto interno; Span.: objeto
interno.
interpretation
Fr.; interprétation; Ger.: Deutung; It.: interpretazione;
Port.: interpretagao; Span.: interpretacién.
intersubjective/intrasubjective
Fr.: intersubjectif/intrasubjectif; Ger: intersubjektiv/
intrasubjektiv;. It: intersoggettivo/intrasoggettivo;
Port.: intersubjectivo/intrasubjectivo; Span.: intersubjetivo/
intrasubjetivo.
introjection
Fr.: introjection; Ger.: Introjektion; It: introiezione;
Port.: introjec¢ao; Span.: introyeccién.
introspection
Fr.: introspection; Ger.: Selbstbeobachtung; It.: introspezione;
Port.: introspeccao; Span.: introspeccion.
isolation
Fr.: isolation; Ger.: Isolierung; It.: isolamento; Port::
isolamento; Span.: aislamiento.
joke
Fr.: mot esprit; Ger.: Witz; It: motto di spirito; Port.:
piada/chiste; Span.: chiste.
jouissance
Fr.: jouissance; Ger.: Geniessen; It: godimento; Port.:
gozo; Span.: goce.
judgment of condemnation
Fr: jugement de condamnation; Ger: Urteilsverwerfung;
It.: giudizio di condanna; Port.: julgamento de
condena¢ao; Span.: juicio de condenacion.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
knot
Fr: noeud; Ger.: Knoten; It.: nodo; Port.: nd; Span.: nudo,
knowledge or research, instinct for
Fr.: recherche (pulsion de -); Ger.: Wiss-/ Forschertrieb;
It: pulsione di conoscere, pulsione di sapere; Port::
pulsao de investigacao; Span.: pulsion de investigacion
(epistemofilia).
L and R schemas
Fr.: schemas L et R; Ger.: Modelle L und R; It.: schemi
Le R; Port.: esquemas L e R; Span.: esquemas Ly R.
lack of differentiation
Fr. indifférenciation; Ger.: Undifferenziertheit; It:
indifferenziazione; Port: indiferenciacao; Span.:
indiferenciacion.
language and disturbances of language
Fr.: langage et troubles du langage; Ger.: Sprache und
Sprachstorungen; It.: linguaggio e disturbi del linguaggio;
Port.: linguagem e perturbagoes da linguagem;
Span.: lenguaje y trastornos del lenguaje.
latency period
Fr.: latence (periode de -); Ger.: Latenzperiode/Latenzzeit;
[t.: periodo di latenza; Port.: periodo de laténcia;
Span.: periodo de latencia.
latent
Fr.: latent; Ger.: latent; It.: latente; Port.: latente; Span.:
latente.
latent dream thoughts
Fr: réve (pensées latentes du -); Ger.: latente Traumgedanken;
It: pensieri latenti del sogno; Port.: pensamentos
latentes do sonho; Span.: pensamientos latentes del sueno.
Law of the Father
Fr: Loi du Pere; Ger.: Vaterrecht; It: Legge del Padre;
Port.: Lei do Pai; Span.: Ley del Padre.
lay analysis
Fr: analyse profane (ou laique); Ger: Laienanalyse; It.:
analisi profana; Port.: andlise laica; Span.: analisis profano.
letter, the
Fr: lettre (la -); Ger.: Buchstabe; It.: lettera; Port.: letra;
Span.: letra.
libidinal development
Fr: développement libidinal; Ger.: Libidoentwicklung;
It: sviluppo libidico; Port.: desenvolvimento libidinal;
Span.: desarrollo libidinal.
libidinal stage
Fr: stade libidinal; Ger.: Libidophase; It.: fase libidica;
Port.: fase libidinal; Span.: fase libidinal.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
TRANSLATION OF Concepts/NoTIONS
lie
Fr: mensonge; Ger.: Liige; It: bugia; Port.: mentira;
Span.: mentira.
life instinct
Fr: pulsion de vie; Ger.: Lebenstrieb; It.: pulsione di
vita; Port.: pulsao de vida; Span.: pulsion de vida.
listening
Fr.: ecoute; Ger.: Zuh6ren; It.: ascolto; Port.: escuta;
Span.: escucha.
lifting of amnesia
Fr: amneésie (levée de l-); Ger: Aufheben einer Amnesie;
It: superamento della amnesia; Port.: levantamento da
amnesia; Span.: levantamiento de la amnesia.
linking, attacks on
Fr.: liens (attaques des -); Ger.: Angriffe auf Bindungen;
It.: attacchi al legame; Port.: ataque contra o vinculo;
Span.: ataque al vinculo.
look/gaze
Fr.: regard; Ger.: Blick; It.: sguardo; Port.: olhar; Span.:
mirada.
lost object
Fr.: objet (perte d’-), objet perdu; Ger.: Objektverlust,
das verlorene Objekt; It.: perdita d’oggetto/oggetto
perduto; Port.: perda do objecto, objecto perdido;
Span.: perdida de objeto, objeto perdido.
love
Fr: amour; Ger.: Liebe; It.: amore; Port.: amor; Span.:
amor.
Love-Hate-Knowledge
Fr: Amour-Haine-Connaissance; Ger.: Liebe-Hass-Wissen;
It.: Amore-Odio-Conoscenza; Port.: Amor-Odio-
Conhecimento; Span.: Amor-Odio-Conocimiento.
magical thought
Fr. magique (pensée -); Ger: magisches Denken; It.:
pensiero magico; Port.: pensamento magico; Span.:
pensamiento magico.
mania
Fr.: manie; Ger.: Manie; It.: mania; Port.: mania; Span.:
mania.
manic defenses
Fr; défenses maniaques; Ger.: manische Abwehr(mechanismen);
It.: difese maniacali; Port.: defesas maniacas;
Span.: defensas maniacas.
manifest
Fr: manifeste; Ger: manifest; It: manifesto; Port.:
manifesto; Span.: manifiesto.
2027
TRANSLATION OF Concepts/NoTIONS
mastery
Fr: maitrise; Ger. Bewaltigung/Beherrschung; It.:
padronanza; Port.: dominio; Span.: dominio.
masculinity/femininity
Fr. miasculinité/féminité; Ger: Mannlichkeit/Weiblichkeit;
It: mascolinita/femminilita; Port.: masculinidade/
feminidade; Span.: masculinidad/feminidad.
masochism
Fr.: masochisme; Ger.: Masochismus; It.: masochismo;
Port.: masoquismo; Span.: masoquismo.
masturbation
Fr.. masturbation; Ger.: Onanie; It.: masturbazione;
Port.: masturbacao; Span.: masturbacion.
maternal
Fr. maternel; Ger.: miitterlich; It: materno; Port.:
maternal; Span.: maternal.
maternal care
Fr: soins maternels; Ger: miitterliche Firsorge; It:
cure materne; Port.: cuidados maternos; Span.: cuidados
maternales.
matheme
Fr: matheme; Ger: Mathema; It: matema; Port.:
matema; Span.: matema.
maturation
Fr.: maturation; Ger.: Reifung; It.:; maturazione; Port.:
matura¢ao; Span.: maduracion.
megalomania
Fr.: megalomanie; Ger.: Groéssenwahn; It.: megalomania;
Port.: megalomania; Span.: megalomania.
melancholia
Fr; mélancolie; Ger.: Melancholie; It: melanconia;
Port.: melancolia; Span.: melancolia.
melancholic depression
Fr. depression mélancolique; Ger.: melancholische
Depression; It.: depressione melanconica; Port.:
depressdo melancolica; Span.: depresion melancélica.
memoirs of the future
Fr: souvenirs du futur; Ger: Errinnerungen an die
Zukunft; I[t.: ricordi del futuro; Port.: leombrancas do
futuro; Span.: recuerdos del futuro.
memories
Fr: souvenir; Ger.: Erinnerung; It.: ricordo; Port.:
recordacao; Span.: recuerdo.
memory
Fr. mémoire; Ger.: Gedachtnis; It: memoria; Port.:
memoria; Span.: memoria.
2028
mentalisation
Fr.: mentalisation; Ger.: Mentalisierung; It: mentalizzazione;
Port.: mentalizacao; Span.: mentalizacion.
metaphor
Fr: métaphore; Ger.: Metapher; It: metafora; Port.:
metafora; Span.: metafora.
metapsychology
Fr: métapsychologie; Ger. Metapsychologie; It.:
metapsicologia; Port: | metapsicologia; Span.:
metapsicologia.
metonymy
Fr: métonymie; Ger: Metonymie; It: metonimia;
Port.: metonimia; Span.: metonimia.
midlife crisis
Fr.: maturité (crise de la -); Ger.: Maturitatskrise; It.:
crisi della maturita; Port.: crise de maturidade; Span.:
crisis de la madurez.
mirror stage
Fr.: stade du miroir; Ger.: Spiegelstadium; It.: stadio
dello specchio; Port.: estadio do espelho; Span.: estadio
del espejo.
mirror transference
Fr: transfert en miroir; Ger.: Spiegeliibertragung;
transferencia especular; It.: transfert speculare; Port.:
transferéncia especular; Span.:
mnemic symbol
Fr.: symbole mnésique; Ger.: Erinnerungssymbol; It:
simbolo mnestico; Port.: simbolo mnésico; Span.: simbolo
mnémico.
mnemic trace, memory trace
Fr.: trace mnésique; Ger.: Erinnerungsspur; It.: traccia
mnestica; Port.: trago mnésico; Span.: huella mnémica.
model
Fr.: modele; Ger.: Modell; It.: modello; Port.: modelo;
Span.: modelo.
modesty
Fr: pudeur; Ger. Scham (-haftigkeit); It: pudore;
Port.: pudor; Span.: pudor.
monism
Fr: monisme; Ger.: Monismus; It:: monismo; Port.:
monismo; Span.: monismo.
moral masochism
Fr: masochisme moral; Ger.: moralischer Masochismus;
It: masochismo morale; Port.: masoquismo
moral; Span.: masoquismo moral.
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Mother Goddess
Fr.: déesse-mére; Ger: Mutter Gottin; It: Dea Madre;
Port.: Deusa-mae; Span.: Diosa-madre.
motricity/psychomotricity
Fr: motricité, psychomotricité; Ger.: Motorik, Psychomotorik;
Jt: motricita, psicomotricita; Port.: motricidade,
psicomotricidade; Span.: motricidad,
psicomotricidad.
mourning
Fr.: reve de deuil; Ger.: Trauertraum; It.: sogno di lutto;
Port.: sonho de luto; Span.: sueno de duelo.
mutative interpretation
Fr.: interpretation mutative; Ger.: verandernde Deutung;
t.: interpretazione mutativa; Port.: interpretacado
mutativa; Span.: interpretacion mutativa.
mutual analysis
Fr.: analyse mutuelle; Ger.: mutuelle Analyse; It.: analisi
reciproca; Port.: analise mutua; Span.: anilisis
mutuo.
mysticism
Fr.: mysticisme; Ger.: Mystik/Mystizismus; It.: misticismo;
Port.: misticismo; Span.: misticismo.
myth
Fr.: mythe; Ger.: Mythus/Mythos; It.: mito; Port.: mito;
Span.: mito.
myth of origins
Fr.: mythe des origines; Ger.: Ursprungsmythus; It.:
mito delle origini; Port.: mito das origens; Span.: mito
de los origenes.
myth of the hero
Fr.: héros (mythe du -); Ger.: Mythus des Helden; It:
mito dell’eroe; Port.: mito do herdi; Span.: mito del
héroe.
mythomania
Fr. mythomanie; Ger.: Mythomanie; It.: mitomania;
Port.: mitomania; Span.: mitomania.
nakedness, dream of
Fr.: réve de nudité; Ger.: Nacktheitstraum; It.: sogno di
nudita; Port: sonho de nudez; Span.: sueno de
desnudez.
Name-of-the-Father
Fr: Nom-du-Pére; Ger.: Name-des-Vaters; It.: Nome del
Padre; Port.: Nome do Pai; Span.: Nombre del Padre.
narcissism
Fr: narcissisme; Ger: Narzissmus; It.: narcisismo;
Port.: narcisismo; Span.: narcisismo.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
TRANSLATION OF Concepts/NoTIONS
narcissism of minor differences
Fr: narcissisme des petites differences; Ger.: Narzissmus
der kleinen Unterschiede; It: narcisismo delle piccole
differenze; Port.: narcisismo das pequenas diferencas;
Span.: narcisismo de las pequefias diferencias.
narcissistic defenses
Fr: defenses narcissiques; Ger. _narzissistische
Abwehr(mechanismen); It.: difese narcisistiche; Port.:
defesas narcisicas; Span.: defensas narcisisticas.
narcissistic elation
Fr: elation narcissique; Ger.: narzisstische Gehobenheit;
It: elazione narcisistica; Port.: elacdo narcisica;
Span.: elacion narcisistica.
narcissistic injury
Fr.: blessure narcissique; Ger.: narzisstische Krankung;
It.: ferita narcisistica; Port.: ferida narcisica; Span.: herida
narcisista.
narcissistic neurosis
Fr.: névrose narcissique; Ger.: narzisstische Neurose;
It.: nevrosi narcisistica; Port.: neurose narcisica; Span.:
neurosis narcisista.
narcissistic rage
Fr.: rage narcissique; Ger.: narzisstische Wut; It.: rabbia
narcisistica; Port: raiva narcisica; Span.: furia
narcisista.
narcissistic transference
Fr: transfert narcissique; Ger.: narzisstische Ubertragung;
It.: transfert narcisistico; Port.: transferencia narcisica;
Span.: transferencia narcisista.
narcissistic withdrawal
Fr.: narcissique (repli -); Ger.: narzisstischer Ruckzug;
It: ritiro narcisistico; Port.: retraimento narcisico;
Span.: repliegue narcisista.
narco-analysis
Fr: narco-analyse; Ger.: Narkose-Analyse; It.: narcoanalisi;
Port.: narcoanalise; Span.: narcoanalisis.
negative hallucination
Fr. hallucination négative; Ger: negative Halluzination;
/t.: allucinazione negativa; Port.: alucina¢gao negativa;
Span.: alucinacion negativa.
negative, work of the
Fr.: négatif (travail du -); Ger. Arbeit des Negativen;
It: lavoro del negativo; Port.: trabalho do negativo;
Span.: trabajo del negativo.
negation
Fr: négation; Ger.: Verneinung; It: negazione; Port.:
nega¢ao; Span.: negacion.
2029
TRANSLATION OF ConcePTs/NoTIONS
need for causality
Fr: besoin de causalité; Ger: Kausalititsbediirfnis; It:
bisogno di causalita; Port.: necessidade de causalidade;
Span. necesidad de causalidad.
need for punishment
Fr: besoin de punition; Ger: Strafbediirfnis; Jr:
bisogno di punizione; Port: necessidade de punicao;
Span.: necesidad de castigo.
negative capability
Fr: capacité negative; Ger: Fahigkeit zur Negativitat;
Tt: capacita negativa; Port: capacidade negativa; Span.:
capacidad negativa.
negative therapeutic reaction
Fr: reaction therapeutique negative; Ger: negative
therapeutische Reaktion; Jt: reazione terapeutica
negativa; Port: reagao terapéutica negativa; Span.:
reaccion terapeutica negativa.
negative transference
Fr: transfert négatif} Ger: negative Ubertragung;
Span.: transferencia negativa; It: transfert negativo;
Port.: transferéncia negativa.
neurasthenia
Fr: neurasthenie; Ger: Neurasthenie; /t.: nevrastenia;
Port.: neurastenia; Span.: neurastenia.
neuro-psychosis of defense
Fr: psychonevrose de defense; Ger: Abwehr-Neuropsychose;
[f.: psiconevrosi da difesa; Port: psiconeurose
de defesa; Span.: psiconeurosis de defensa. .
neuroses
Fr.: nevroses; Ger.: Neurosen; It: nevrosi; Port: neuroses;
Span.: neurosis.
neurotic defenses
Fr: defenses nevrotiques; Ger.: neurotische Abwehr(-
mechanismen); It: difese nevrotiche; Port: defesas
neuroticas; Span.: defensas neuroticas.
neutrality/benevolent neutrality
Fr.: neutralite, neutralite bienveillante; Ger.: Neutralitat,
wohlwollende Neutralitat; Jt: neutralita, neutralita
benevola; Port.: neutralidade, neutralidade benevolente;
Span.: neutralidad, neutralidad amable.
nightmare
Fr.: cauchemar; Ger.: Alptraum; It.: incubo; Port.: pesadelo;
Span.: pesadilla.
night terror
Fr.: terreur nocturne; Ger.: Pavor nocturnus; It: pavor
nocturnus; Port: terror nocturno; Span:
nocturno.
terror
2030
nonverbal communication
Fr: communication non verbale; Ger: nonverbale
Kommunikation; J&#: comunicazione non _ verbale;
Port: comunicacao nao verbal; Span.: comunicacion
no verbal.
normality .
Fr: normalite; Ger.: Normalitat; 2: normalita; Port.:
normalidade; Span.: normalidad.
nostalgia
Fr.: nostalgie; Ger.: Nostalgie, Heimweh; Span.: nostalgia;
[t.: nostalgia; Port.: nostalgia.
nuclear complex
Fr.: complexe nucléaire; Ger.: Kernkomplex; [t.: complesso
nucleare; Port.: complexo nuclear; Span.: complejo
nuclear.
numinous
Fr: numineux; Ger.: Numinose; It: numinoso; Port:
numinoso; Span.: numinoso.
object
Fr objet; Ger: Objekt; It: oggetto; Port: objecto;
Span.: objeto.
object 2
Fr.: objet a; Ger: Objekt a; It.: oggetto a; Port.: objecto
a; Span.: objeto a.
object, change of/choice of
Fr: objet (changement d’-, choix d-); Ger:
Objektwechsel, Objektwahl; It: cambiamento d’oggetto,
scelta d’oggetto; Port: mudanca de objecto,
escolha de objecto; Span.: cambio de objeto, eleccién
de objeto.
object relations
Fr.: relations d’objet; Ger: Objektbeziehungen; object
relations Span.: relaciones de objeto; It: relazioni
oggettuali; Port.: relagdes de objecto.
obsessional neurosis
Fr.: nevrose obsessionnelle; Ger: Zwangsneurose; It:
Nevrosi Ossessiva; Port.: neurose obsessiva; Span.: neurosis
obsesiva.
obsession
Fr.: obsession; Ger.: Obsession, Zwangsvorstellung; It.:
ossessione; Port.: obsessao; Span.: obsesion.
oceanic feeling
Fr: sentiment océanique; Ger: ozeanisches Gefihl;
Span.: sentimiento oceanico; It: sentimento oceanico;
Port.: sentido oceanico.
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
occultism
Fr.: occultisme; Ger.: Geheimwissenschaft/Okkultismus;
It.: occultismo; Port.: ocultismo; Span.: ocultismo.
Oedipus complex
Fr: complexe d’CEdipe; Ger. Odipuskomplex; It.:
complesso di Edipo; Port.: complexo de Edipo; Span.:
complejo de Edipo.
omnipotence of thoughts
Fr.: toute-puissance des pensées; Ger.: Allmacht der
Gedanken, omnipotentes Denken; It.: onnipotenza del
pensiero; Port.: omnipoténcia do pensamento; Span.:
omnipotencia del pensamiento.
ontogeny
Fr: ontogenése; Ger: Ontogenese; It.: ontogenesi;
Port.: ontogénese; Span.: ontogénesis.
operational thinking
Fr. pensée operatoire; Ger.: operatives Denken; It.:
pensiero operatorio; Port.: pensamento operatério;
Span.: pensamiento operatorio.
optical schema
Fr.: schema optique; Ger.: optisches Modell/visuelles
Modell; It: schema ottico; Port.: esquema Optico;
Span.: esquema Optico.
oral eroticism
Fr.: érotisme oral; Ger.: Oralerotik; It: erotismo orale;
Port.: erotismo oral; Span.: erotismo oral.
orality
Fr.: oralité; Ger.: Oralitat; It.: oralita; Port.: oralidade;
Span.: oralidad.
oral-sadistic stage
Fr.: stade sadique-oral (ou cannibalique); Ger.: oralsadistische
Phase, kannibalistische Phase; It.: fase sadicoorale,
fase cannibalica; Port.: fase oral-sadica, fase canibalistica;
Span.: fase sadico-oral (0 canibalistica).
oral stage
Fr.: stade oral; Ger.: orale Phase; It.: fase orale; Port.:
fase oral; Span.: fase oral.
organic psychoses
Fr.: psychoses organiques; Ger.: organische Psychosen;
It.: psicosi organiche; Port.: psicoses organicas; Span.:
psicosis organicas.
organic repression
Fr: refoulement organique; Ger.: organische Verdrangung;
It.: rimozione organica; Port.: recalque organico;
Span.: represion organica.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
TRANSOFL CAoncTepTIs/ONoTNION S
organization
Fr: organisation; Ger.: Organisation; It.: organizzazione;
Port.: organizacao; Span.: organizacion.
organ pleasure
Fr.: plaisir d’organe; Ger.: Organlust; It.: piacere d’organo;
Port.: prazer de orgao; Span.: placer de organo.
orgasm
Fr: orgasme; Ger: Orgasmus; It: orgasmo; Port.:
orgasmo; Span.: orgasmo.
orgone
Fr. orgone; Ger.: Orgonenergie; If: orgone; Port.:
orgone; Span.: orgon.
Other
Fr.: Autre; Ger.: Anderer; It.: Altro; Port.: Outro; Span.:
Otro.
otherness/alterity
Fr.: alterite; Ger.: Andersheit/Anderssein; It.: alterita;
Port.: alteridade; Span.: alteridad.
overdetermination
Fr.: surdétermination; Ger.: Uberdeterminierung; les
sovradeterminazione; Port.: superdetermina¢ao.
Span.: sobredeterminacion.
over-interpretation
Fr.: surinterpréetation; Ger.: Uberdeutung; TIt.: sovrainterpretazione;
Port.: superinterpretacao; Span.:
sobreinterpretacion.
pair of opposites
Fr.: couples d’opposes; Ger.: Gegensatzpaar; It.: coppia
d opposti; Port.: par antitético.Span.: par antitético.
parade of the signifier
Fr: defile du signifiant; Ger.: Engfiihrung des Signifikanten;
It.: defile del significante; Port.: desfiladeiro do
significante; Span.: desfiladero del significante.
paradox
Fr.: paradoxe; Ger.: Paradox; It.: paradosso; Port.: paradoxo;
Span.: paradoja.
paranoid position
Fr. position paranoide; Ger.: paranoide Position; It.:
posizione paranoide; Port.: posigao paranoide; Span.:
posicion paranoide.
paranoid psychosis
Fr: psychose paranoide; Ger. Paranoia; It.: psicosi
paranoide; Port.: psicose parandide; Span.: psicosis
paranoide.
2031
TRANSLATION OF ConceptTs/NoTIONS
parapraxis
Fr.: acte manque ; Ger.: Fehlleistung/Fehlhandlung It.:
atto mancato; Port.: acto falhado/ato falho; Span.: acto
fallido.
paranoid-schizoid position
Fr.: position schizo-paranoide; Ger.: paranoide-schizoide
Position; It: posizione schizoparanoide; Port.:
posic¢ao esquizo-paranoide; Span.: posicion esquizoparanoide.
paraphrenia
Fr.: paraphrénie; Ger: Paraphrenie; It.: parafrenia;
Port.: parafrenia; Span.: parafrenia.
paranoid psychosis
Fr.: psychose paranoide; Ger.: Paranoia; It.: psicosi
paranoide; Port.: psicose parandide; Span.: psicosis
paranoide.
parapraxis
Fr.: acte manque ; Ger.: Fehlleistung/Fehlhandlung It.:
atto mancato; Port.: acto falhado/ato falho; Span.: acto
fallido.
parenthood
Fr. parentaliteé; Ger: Elternschaft; It: genitorialita;
Port.: parentalidade; Span.: parentalidad.
parricide
Fr.: meurtre du pere; Ger.: Vatermord; It.: uccisione del
padre; Port.: assassinio do pai; Span.: asesinato del
padre/parricidio.
partial drive
Fr. pulsion partielle; Ger: Partialtrieb; It.: pulsione
parziale; Port.: pulsao parcial; Span.: pulsion parcial.
passion
Fr.: passion; Ger.: Leidenschaft; It.: passione; Port.:
paixao; Span.: pasion.
pass, the
Fr: passe (la -); Ger: “Passe”; It: la passe; Port.: o
passe; Span.: el pase.
penis envy
Fr: envie du pénis; Ger.: Penisneid; It.: invidia del
pene; Port.: inveja do pénis; Span.: envidia del pene.
Perception-Consciousness
Fr: Perception-Conscience; Ger.: Wahrnehmung-
Bewusstsein; | Perception-Consciousness It: Percezione-
Coscienza; Port.: Percepgao-Consciéncia; Span.:
Percepcion-Conciencia.
2032
perceptual identity
Fr: identité de perception; Ger.: Wahrnehmungsidentitat;
It: identita di percezione; Port.: identidade de
percepc¢ao; Span.: identidad de percepcion.
persecution
Fr: persécution; Ger.: Verfolgung; It.: persecuzione;
Port.: perseguicao; Span.: persecucion.
perversion
Fr.: perversion; Ger.: Perversion; It.: perversione; Port.:
perversao; Span.: perversion.
phallic woman
Fr.: femme phallique; Ger.: phallische Frau; It.: donna
fallica; Port.: mulher falica; Span.: mujer falica.
phantom
Fr.: fantome; Ger.: Gespenst; It.: spettro; Port.: espectro;
Span.: espectro.
phallic mother
Fr.: mere phallique; Ger.: phallische Mutter; It.: madre
fallica; Port.: mae falica; Span.: madre falica.
phallic stage
Fr.: stade phallique; Ger.: phallische Phase; It.: fase fallica;
Port.: fase falica; Span.: fase falica.
phobia
Fr.: phobie; Ger.: Phobie; It.: fobia; Port.: fobia; Span.:
fobia.
phobia of committing impulsive acts
Fr. phobie d’impulsion; Ger: Phobie mit Zwangsimpulsen;
It.: fobia di impulso; Port.: fobia de impulsividade;
Span.: fobia de impulso.
phobic neurosis
Fr; névrose phobique; Ger.: phobische Neurose; It:
nevrosi fobica; Port.: neurose fobica; Span.: neurosis
fobica.
phylogenesis
Fr: phylogenese; Ger.: Phylogenese; It.: filogenesi;
Port.: filogenese; Span.: filogénesis.
pictogram
Fr.: pictogramme; Ger.: Piktogramm; It.: pittogramma;
Port.: pictograma; Span.: pictograma.
pleasure-ego/reality-ego
Fr. Moi-plaisir/Moi-réalité; Ger: Lust-Ich/Realitats-
Ich; It.: lo-piacere/Io-realta; Port.: Eu-prazer/Eu-realidade;
Span.: Yo-placer/Yo-realidad.
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
pleasure in thinking
Fr.: plaisir de pensée; Ger.: Vergniigen am Denken; It:
piacere del pensiero; Port: prazer de pensamento;
Span.: placer de pensamiento.
postnatal/postpartum depression
Fr: depression postnatale ; Ger.: postpartale Depression;
It: depressione post-partum; Port.: depressao
pos-parto; Span.: depresion postparto.
preconception
Fr.: preconception; Ger.: Prakonzeption; It.: preconcezione;
Port.: pré-concep¢ao; Span.: pre-concepcion.
Preconscious, the
Fr.: Preconscient (le -); Ger: das Vorbewusste; It.: il
Preconscio; Port: o Pré-consciente; Span.: el
Preconsciente.
pregenital
Fr: pregenital; Ger.: pragenital; It: pregenitale; Port.:
pregenital Span.: pregenital.
pregnancy, fantasy of
Fr.: fantasme de grossesse; Ger.: Schwangerschaftsphantasie;
It.: fantasia di gravidanza; Port.: fantasia de
gravidez; Span.: fantasia de embarazo.
prehistory
Fr.: préhistoire; Ger.: Vorgeschichte; It: preistoria;
Port.: pre-historia; Span.: prehistoria.
premonitory dream
Fr.: reve premonitoire; Ger.: pramonitorischer Traum;
It: sogno premonitore; Port.: sonho premonitorio;
Span.: sueno premonitorio.
prepsychosis
Fr.: prépsychose; Ger.: Prapsychose; prepsicosis; It.:
prepsicosi; Port.: pré-psicose; Span.: prepsicosis.
prereflective unconscious
Fr.: inconscient préréfléchi; Ger.: prareflektives Unbewusstes;
/t.: inconscio preriflessivo; Port.: inconsciente
pré-reflectivo; Span.: inconsciente prereflexivo.
primal, the
Fr. originaire (I’); Ger.: originaér, das Urspriingliche;
It.: Poriginario; Port.: o originario; Span.: lo originario.
primal fantasies
Fr.: fantasmes originaires; Ger: Urphantasien; It.: fantasmi
originari; Port.: protofantasias/fantasias primitivas,
fantasias originarias.Span.: protofantasias/fantasias
originarias.
primai repression
Fr. refoulement originaire; Ger.: Urverdrangung; It.:
rimozione originaria; Port.: recalque (recalcamento)
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
TRANSLATION OF Concepts/NoTIONS
primitivo/recalque (recalcamento) originario; Span.:
represiOn primaria/represion originaria.
primal scene
Fr. scene originaire (scene primitive); Ger.: Urszene;
It.: scena originaria, scena primari; Port.: cena primitiva,
cena originaria; Span.: escena primaria, escena
originaria.
primary identification
Fr.; identification primaire; Ger.: primare Identifizierung;
It.: identificazione primaria; Port.: identificacao
primaria; Span.: identificacion primaria.
primary love
Fr: amour primaire; Ger: primare Liebe; It: amore
primario; Port.: amor primario; Span.: amor primario.
primary masochism
Fr.: masochisme primaire; Ger.: primarer Masochismus;
It.: masochismo primario; Port.: masoquismo
primario; Span.: masoquismo primario.
primary narcissism
Fr.: narcissisme primaire; Ger.: primarer Narzissmus;
It.; narcisismo primario; Port.: narcisismo primario;
Span.: narcisismo primario.
primary need
Fr.: besoin primaire; Ger.: Grundbediirfnis; It.: bisogno
primario; Port.: necessidade primaria; Span.: necesidad
primaria.
primary object
Fr. objet primaire; Ger: Primarobjekt; It: oggetto
primario; Port. objecto primario; Span.: objeto
primario.
primary process/secondary process
Fr.: processus primaire, processus secondaire ; Ger::
Primarvorgang, Sekundarvorgang; It.: processo primario,
processo secondario; Port.: processo primario,
processo secundario; Span.: proceso primario, proceso
secundario.
primitive
Fr.: primitif; Ger.: primitiv; It.: primitivo; Port.: primitivo;
Span.: primitivo.
primitive agonies
Fr: agonies primitives; Ger. primitive Agonien; It:
agonie primitive; Port.: agonias primitivas; Span.: agonias
primitivas.
primitive horde
Fr: horde primitive; Ger.: Urhorde; It.: orda primordiale;
Port.: horda primitiva; Span.: horda primitiva.
2033
TRANSLATION OF ConcePts/NoTIONS
principle
Fr principe; Ger: Prinzip; J¢.: principio; Port: principio;
Span.: principio.
principle of constancy
Fr: principe de constance; Ger.: Konstanzprinzip; It.:
principio di costanza; Port: principio de constancia;
Span.: principio de constancia.
principle of identity preservation
Fr: principe didentite; Ger: Identitatsprinzip; It:
principio di identita; Port: principio de identidade;
Span.: principio de identidad.
principle of (neuronal) inertia
Fr: principe d’inertie (des neurones); Ger: Tragheitsprinzip
(Prinzip der Neuronentragheit); J: principio
di inerzia (neuronica); Port: principio de inércia (neuronal);
Span.: principio de inercia (neuronal).
privation
Fr: privation; Ger: Entbehrung/Entzug; It: privazione;
Port.: privacao; Span.: privacion.
process
Fr: processus; Ger: Prozess, Vorgang; It: processo;
Port.: processo; Span.: proceso.
progressive neutralization
Fr: neutralisation progressive; Ger.: progressive Neutralisierung;
J¢.: neutralizzazione progressiva; Port: neutralizacao
progressiva; Span.: neutralizacion progresiva.
prohibition
Fr: interdit; Ger: verboten, Verbot; It: interdetto,
interdizione; Port.: proibido, proibicao; Span.: prohibido,
prohibicion.
projection
Fr.: projection; Ger.: Projektion; It: proiezione; Port.:
projeccao; Span.: proyeccion.
projection and “participation mystique”
Fr.: projection et “participation mystique”; Ger.: Projektion
und “ participation mystique”; It: proiezione e
partecipazione mistica; Port.: projeccao e “participacado
mistica”; Span.: proyeccion y “participacion mistica.”
projective identification
Fr.: identification projective; Ger.: projektive Identifizierung;
It.: identificazione proiettiva; Port.: identifica-
¢a0 projectiva; Span.: identificacion proyectiva.
protective shield
Fr.: pare-excitations; Ger.: Reizschutyz; It.: parastimoli o
schermo antistimolo; Port: para-excitacdes: Span.:
protector o proteccion contra las excitaciones o los
estimulos.
2034
protothoughts
Fr.: protopensées; Ger.: Protogedanken; [t.: protopensieri;
Port: proto-pensamentos; Span.: protopensamientos.
psyche/psychism
Fr.: psychisme; Ger.: Psyche; It.: psichismo; Port.: psiquismo;
Span.: psiquismo.
psychic apparatus
Fr: appareil psychique; Ger.: psychischer/seelischer
Apparat; It: apparato psichico; Port.: aparelho psiquico/
mental; Span.: aparato psiquico.
psychic causality
Fr.: causalité psychique; Ger.: psychische Kausalitat; It:
causalita psichica; Port.: causalidade psiquica; Span.:
causalidad psiquica.
psychic envelope
Fr.: enveloppes psychiques; Ger.: psychische Hiille; It:
involucri psichici; Port.: involucros psiquicos; Span.:
envolturas psiquicas.
psychic reality
Fr: réalité psychique; Ger: psychische Realitat; It:
realta psichica; Port.: realidade psiquica; Span.: realidad
psiquica.
’ psychic representative
Fr.: représentant psychique; Ger.: psychische Reprasentanz,
psychische Reprasentant; Jt.: rappresentante psichico;
Port.: representante psiquico; Span.: representante
psiquico.
psychic structure
Fr.: structure psychique; Ger.: psychische Struktur; It:
struttura psichica; Port.: estrutura psiquica; Span:
estructura psiquica.
psychic temperality
Fr: temporalité psychique; Ger.: psychische Zeitlichkeit;
It: temporalita psichica; Port: temporalidade psiquica;
Span.: temporalidad psiquica.
psychoanalysis
Fr.: psychanalyse; Ger.: Psychoanalyse; It.: psicoanalisi;
Port.: psicanalise; Span.: psicoanialisis.
psychoanalyst
Fr.: psychanalyste; Ger: Psychoanalytiker; It: psicoanalista;
Port.: psicanalista; Span.; psicoanalista.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
psychoanalytic technique
Fr: technique psychanalytique; Ger.: psychoanalytische
Technik; It.: tecnica psicoanalitica; Port.: técnica
psicanalitica; Span.: tecnica psicoanalitica.
psychoanalytic treatment
Fr.: cure psychanalytique; Ger.: Psychoanalytische Kur;
It.: cura psicoanalitica; Port.: cura psicanalitica; Span.:
cura psicoanalitica.
psychobiography
Fr.: psychobiographie; Ger.: Psychobiographie; It.: psicobiografia;
Port.: psicobiografia; Span.:
psicobiografia.
psychodrama
Fr: psychodrame; Ger. Psychodrama; It: psicodramma;
Port.: psicodrama; Span.: psicodrama.
psychogenesis/organogenesis
Fr.: psychogenése/organogenése; Ger.: Psychogenese/
Organogenese; It.: psicogenesi/organogenesi; Port.:
psicogenese/organogenese; Span.: _ psicogénesis/
organogenesis.
psychohistory
Fr.: psychohistoire; Ger.: Psychogeschichte; It.: psicostoria;
Port.: psico-historia; Span.: psicohistoria.
psychological tests
Fr: tests psychologiques; Ger.: psychologische Tests;
It.: test psicologici; Port.: testes psicologicos; Span.:
tests psicologicos.
psychological types
Fr.: types psychologiques; Ger.: psychologische Typen;
It.: tipi psicologici; Port.: tipos psicologicos; Span.:
tipos psicologicos.
psychoses, chronic and delusional
Fr.: psychoses chroniques et délirantes; Ger: chronische
und wahnhafte Psychosen; It.: psicosi croniche e
deliranti; Port.: psicoses cronicas e delirantes; Span.:
psicosis cronicas y delirantes.
psychosexual development
Fr: développement psychosexuel; Ger.: psychosexuelle
Entwicklung; /t.: sviluppo psicosessuale; Port.:
desenvolvimento psicossexual; Span.: desarrollo
psicosexual.
psychosomatic
Fr.: psychosomatique; Ger.: psychosomatisch; It.: psicosomatica;
Port.: psicossomatica; Span.:
psicosomatica.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
TRANSLATION OF ConcepTs/NOTIONS
psychosomatic limit/boundary
Fr. limite psychosomatique; Ger.: psychosomatische
Grenze; It.: limite psicosomatico; Port.: limite psicossomatico;
Span.: limite psicosomatico.
psychotherapy
Fr.: psychotherapie; Ger.: Psychotherapie; It.: psicoterapia;
Port.: psicoterapia; Span.: psicoterapia.
psychotic defenses
Fr: defenses psychotiques; Ger.: _ psychotische
Abwehr(mechanismen); It.: difese psicotiche; Port.:
defesas psicoticas; Span.: defensas psicoticas.
psychotic/neurotic
Fr.: psychotique/nevrotique; Ger.: psychotisch/neurotisch;
It.: psicotico/nevrotico; Port.: psicotico/neurotico;
Span.: psicotico/neurotico.
psychotic panic
Fr.: panique psychotique; Ger. psychotische Angst;
Span.: panico psicotico; It: panico psicotico; Port.:
panico psicotico.
psychotic part of the personality
Fr.: partie psychotique de la personnalité; Ger.: psychotischer
Pers6nlichkeitsanteil; It.: parte psicotica della
personalita; Port.: parte psicotica da personalidade;
Span.: parte psicotica de la personalidad.
psychotic potential
Fr: potentialite psychotique; Ger. psychotisches
Potential; It: potenzialita psicotica; Port.: potencialidade
psicotica; Span.: potencialidad psicotica.
psychotic transference
Fr.: transfert psychotique; Ger.: psychotische Ubertragung;
It.: transfert psicotico; Port.: transferencia psicotica;
Span.: transferencia psicotica.
puberty
Fr.: puberté; Ger.: Pubertat (-szeit); It: puberta; Port.:
puberdade; Span.: pubertad.
puerperal psychoses
Fr.: psychoses puerpérales; Ger.: puerperale Psychosen;
Span.: psicosis puerperales; I[t.: psicosi puerperali;
Port.: psicoses puerperais.
punishment dream
Fr: reve de punition; Ger.: Straftraum; It: sogno di
punizione; Port: sonho de puni¢ao; Span.: sueno
punitivo.
2035
TRANSLATION OF Concepts/NOTIONS
purified-pleasure-Ego
Fr.: Moi-plaisir purifié; Ger.: purifiziertes Lust-Ich; It.:
Io-piacere purificato; Port: Eu-prazer-purificado;
Span.: Yo-placer purificado.
purposive idea
Fr.: représentation-but (représentation de but); Ger.:
Zielvorstellung; It.: rappresentazione finalizzata; Port.:
representa¢ao-meta; Span.: representacion-meta.
quantative/qualitative
Fr.: quantitatif/qualitatif; Ger: quantitativ/qualitativ;
It.: quantitativo/qualitativo; Port.: quantitativo/ qualitativo;
Span.: cuantitativo/cualitativo.
quasi-independence/transitional stage
Fr.: quasi-indépendance; Ger.: Quasiunabhangigkeit;
It.: quasi-indipendenza; Port.: quase-independéncia;
Span.: cuasi-independencia.
rationalization
Fr; rationalisation; Ger.: Rationalisierung; It: razionalizzazione;
Port.: racionalizacao; Span.: racionalizacion.
reaction-formation
Fr. formation réactionnelle; Ger.: Reaktionsbildung;
It: formazione reattiva; Port.: formag¢ao_reactiva;
Span.: formacion reactiva.
reality principle
Fr.: principe de réalité; Ger.: Realitatsprinzip; [t.: principio
di realta; Port.: principio de realidade; Span.:
principio de realidad.
realization
Fr. realisation; Ger.: Realisierung; It.: realizzazione;
Port.: realizacao; Span.: realizacion.
Real, the
Fr.: réel (le -); Ger.: das Reale; It.: il Reale; Port.: o real;
Span.: lo real.
real trauma
Fr.: traumatisme reel; Ger.: reales Trauma; It.: trauma
reale; Port.: traumatismo real; Span.: traumatismo real.
Real, Symbolic, and Imaginary father
Fr.: Pere réel, imaginaire et symbolique; Ger.: realer,
imaginarer, symbolischer VaterIt.: Padre reale, immaginario,
simbolico; Port.: Pai real, imaginario, simbolico.
; Span.: Padre real, imaginario, simbdlico.
reciprocal paths of influence
Fr.: voies d’influence réciproque; Ger.: wechselseitige
Einflussnahme; It.: vie di influenza reciproca; Port.:
vias de influéncia reciproca; Span.: vias de influencia
reciproca.
2036
regression
Fr.: régression; Ger.: Regression; It.: regressione; Port.:
regressao; Span.: regresion.
relations (commensalism, parasitism, symbiosis)
Fr: relations (commensalisme, symbiose, parasitisme);
Ger.: Beziehungen (Kommensalismus, Parasitismus,
Symbiose); It: rapporti (convivialita, simbiosi, parassitismo);
-Port.: relagdes (comensalismo, parasitismo,
simbiose); Span.: relaciones (comensalismo, parasitismo,
simbiosis).
relaxation principle and neo-catharsis
Fr.: principe de relaxation et néocatharsis; Ger.: Relaxationsprinzip
und Neokatharsis; It.: principio di distensione
e neocatarsi; Port.: principio de relaxamento e
neocatarse; Span.: principio de _ relajacion y
neocatarsis.
relaxation psychotherapy
Fr.: relaxation (psychothérapie de -); Ger.: Entspannungstherapie;
It.: psicoterapia di rilassamento; Port.:
psicoterapia de relaxamento; Span.: psicoterapia de
relajacion.
remembering
Fr: remémoration; Ger.: Erinnerungsvorgang/Erinnern/
Wiedererinnern; It.: rimemorazione; Port.: rememora¢
ao; Span.: rememoracion.
reminiscence
Fr.: reminiscences; Ger.: Reminiszenz; It: reminiscenze;
Port.: reminiscéncia; Span.: reminiscencias.
reparation
Fr.: réparation; Ger.: Wiedergutmachung; It.: riparazione;
Port.: reparacao; Span.: reparacion.
repetition
Fr: repétition; Ger: Wiederholung; It: ripetizione;
Port.: repeti¢ao; Span.: repeticion.
repetition compulsion
Fr: repétition (compulsion de -); Ger.: Wierderholungszwang;
It.: coazione a ripetere; Port.: compulsao a
repeticao; Span.: compulsion a la repeticion.
repetitive dream
Fr: reve répétitif; Ger: Wiederholungstraum; It:
sogno ripetitivo; Port.: sonho repetitivo; Span.: suefio
repetitivo.
representability
Fr. figurabilité; Ger.: Darstellbarkeit; It: rappresentabilita,
(raf)figurabilita; Port: figurabilidade/representabilidade;
Span.: figurabilidad.
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
representative
Fr.: représentance; Ger.: Vertretung, Reprasentanz; It.:
Tappresentanza; = Port: ~~ representancia; — Span.:
representancia.
representation of affect
Fr: representation d’affect; Ger: Affektreprasentanz;
It.: rappresentazione d’affetto; Port.: representacao de
afecto; Span.: representacion de afecto.
representation/presentation/idea
Fr: representation; Ger: Vorstellung/Idee/Repriasentanz;
It.: rappresentazione; Port.: representacdo; Span.:
representacion.
repressed
Fr: refoulé; Ger. verdrangt, das Verdrangte; It:
rimosso; Port.: recalcado; Span.: reprimido.
repression
Fr.: refoulement; Ger.: Verdrangung; It: rimozione;
Port.: recalque, recalcamento; Span.: represion.
repression, lifting of
Fr.: refoulement (levee du -); Ger.: Aufhebung der Verdrangung;
It: abolizione/superamento della rimozione;
Port.: levantamento do recalque; Span.: levantamiento
de la represion.
repudiation
Fr. rejet; Ger. Verwerfung, Ablehnung; It. rigetto;
Port.: rejeicao; Span.: repudio.
rescue fantasies
Fr.: fantasmes de sauvetage; Ger.: Rettungsphantasien;
It.: fantasie di salvataggio; Port.: fantasias de resgate;
Span.: fantasias de rescate.
resistance
Fr: résistance; Ger.: WiderstandIt.: resistenza; Port.:
resisténcia. ; Span.: resistencia.
resolution of the transference
Fr: transfert (résolution [ou liquidation] du -); Ger:
Aufldsung der Ubertragung; It.: risoluzione del transfert;
Port.: resolucao da transferéncia; Span.: resolucion
de la transferencia.
return of the repressed
Fr: refoulé (retour du -); Ger: Wiederkehr des Verdrangten,
Riickkehr des Verdrangten; It.: ritorno del
rimosso; Port.: retorno do recalcado; Span.: retorno de
lo reprimido.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
TRANSLATION OF ConcEPTS/NOTIONS
reverie
Fr.: réverie (réve diurne); Ger.: Tagtraum; It.: fantasticheria,
sogno a occhi aperti; Port.: sonho diurno, devaneio;
Span.: sueno diurno (devaneo).
reversal into the opposite
Fr.: renversement; Ger.: Umkehrung/Verwandlung ins
Gegenteil; It.: trasformazione nel contrario; Port.:
transformacao no seu contrario; Span.: transformacion
en lo contrario/conversion en lo contrario.
rite, ritual
Fr.: rite, rituel; Ger.: Ritus, Ritual (rituell, Zeremoniell);
It.: rito, rituale; Port.: rito, ritual; Span.: rito, ritual.
rivalry
Fr.: rivalité; Ger.: Rivalitat; It: rivalita; Port.: rivalidade;
Span.: rivalidad.
sadism
Fr. sadisme; Ger: Sadismus; It.: sadismo; Port.:
sadismo; Span.: sadismo.
sadomasochism
Fr.; sado-masochisme; Ger.: Sadomasochismus; It.:
sadomasochismo; Port.: sado-masoquismo; Span.:
sado-masoquismo.
schizophrenia
Fr.: schizophrenie; Ger.: Schizophrenie; It.: schizofrenia;
Port.: esquizofrenia; Span.: esquizofrenia.
screen memory
Fr.: souvenir-écran; Ger.: Deckerinnerung; It.: ricordo
di copertura; Port.: recordacao encobridora; Span.:
recuerdo encubridor.
secondary narcissism
Fr.: narcissisme secondaire; Ger.: sekundarer Narzissmus;
It: narcisismo secondario; Port: narcisismo
secundario; Span.: narcisismo secundario.
secondary revision
Fr.: élaboration secondaire; Ger.: sekundare Bearbeitung,
sekundare Ausarbeitung; It.: elaborazione secondaria;
Port.: elaboracao secundaria; Span.: elaboracion
secundaria.
secret
Fr.: secret; Ger.: Geheimnis; It.: segreto; Port.: segredo;
Span.: secreto.
seduction
Fr.: seduction; Ger.: Verfiihrung; It.: seduzione; Port.:
seducao; Span.: seduccion.
2037
TRANSLATION OF Concepts/NoTions
seduction scenes
Fr: seduction (scénes de -); Ger: Verfiihrungsszenen;
Tt: scene di seduzione; Port.: cenas de seducao; Span.:
escenas de seduccion.
selected fact
Fr. fait choisi; Ger: ausgewihlte Tatsache; It: fatto
scelto; Port: facto seleccionado; Span. hecho
seleccionado.,
self
Fr.: Self (Soi); Ger.: Selbst; It: Sé; Port.: si; Span.: si.
self analysis
Fr: autoanalyse; Ger: Selbstanalyse; It: autoanalisi;
Port.: auto-analise; Span.: autoanalisis.
self-consciousness
Fr: conscience de soi; Ger: Selbstbewusstsein; It.:
autocoscienza; Port.: consciéncia de si mesmo; Spar:
conciencia de si.
self-esteem
Fr: estime de soi; Ger: Selbstachtung; It: autostima;
Port: auto-estima; Span: sentimiento de si,
autoestima.
self-hatred
Fr.: haine de soi; Ger.: Selbsthass; It: odio di sé; Port.:
Odio de si proprio; Spar: odio de si mismo.
self-image
Fr.: image de soi; Ger.: Selbstbild; It.: immagine di sé;
Port.: imagem de si mesmo; Span.: imagen de si.
self-mutilation
Fr: automutilation; Ger: Selbstverstiimmelung; I?.: automutilazione;
Port.: automutilacao; Span.: automutilacion.
self-object
Fr.: Selfobjet; Ger: Selbstobjekt; It.: oggetto-Sé; Port.:
self-objecto; Span.: self objeto.
self-preservation
Fr.: autoconservation; Ger.: Selbsterhaltung; It: autoconservazione;
Port: ~~ autoconservacao; — Span.:
autoconservacion.
Self psychology
Fr: psychologie du Self; Ger.: Selbst-Psychologie; It.:
psicologia del Se; Port.: psicologia do Self; Span.: psicologia
del Self.
self-punishment
Fr: autopunition; Ger.: Selbstbestrafung; It.: autopunizione;
Port.: auto-puni¢ao; Span.: autopunicion.
2038
self-representation
Fr. representation de soi; Ger.: Selbstreprasentanz; It.:
rappresentazione di se; Port: representacao de si;
Span.: representacion del self.
self (true/false)
Fr.: Self (vrai/faux); Ger: Selbst (wahres/falsches); It.:
Sé (vero/falso); Port.: self (verdadeird/falso); Span.: self
(verdadero/falso).
sense/nonsense
Fr. sens/non-sens; Ger. Sinn/Unsinn; It.: senso/non
senso; Port. sentido/sem sentido; Span.: sentido/
sinsentido.
sense of smell
Fr: odorat; Ger: Geruchssinn; It: olfatto; Port.:
olfacto; Span.: olfato.
sexual differences
Fr. differenciation sexuelle/sexuee; Ger.: Geschlechtsdifferenzierung/
geschlechtliche Differenzierung; It:
differenziazione sessuale/di genere; Port.: diferenciacao
sexual/sexuada; Span.: diferenciacion sexual/sexuada.
sexual instinct
Fr: pulsion sexuelle; Ger: Sexualtrieb/Geschlechtstrieb;
It.: pulsione sessuale; Port.: pulsao sexual; Span.:
pulsion sexual.
sexuality
’ Fr: sexualite; Ger.: Sexualitat; It: sessualita; Port.: sexualidade;
Span.: sexualidad.
sexualization
Fr.: sexualisation; Ger.: Sexualisierung; It.: sessualizzazione;
Port.: sexualizacao; Span.: sexualizzacién.
sexual theories of children
Fr: theories sexuelles infantiles; Ger: infantile
Sexualtheorien; Span.: teorias sexuales infantiles; It.:
teorie sessuali infantili; Port.: teorias sexuais infantis.
sexual trauma
Fr. traumatisme sexuel; Ger: sexuelles Trauma; It:
trauma sessuale; Port.: traumatismo sexual.
Span.: traumatismo sexual.
sexuation
Fr: sexuation (formules de la -); Ger: Sexuierung;
Span.: formulas de la sexuacién; It: formule della sessuazione;
Port.: formulas da sexuacio.
shadow
Fr: ombre; Ger.: Schatten; It: ombra; Port: sombra;
Span.: sombra.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
shame
Fr.: honte; Ger.: Scham; It.: vergogna; Port.: vergonha;
Span.: vergiienza.
signifier
Fr.: signifiant; Ger.: Signifikant; It.: significante; Port.:
significante; Span.: significante.
signifier/signified
Fr: signifiant/signifie; Ger.: Signifikant/Signifikat; It:
significante/significato; Port.: significante/significado;
Span.: significante/significado.
signifying chain
Fr: chaine signifiante; Ger.: Signifikantenkette; It.:
catena significante; Port.: cadeia significante; Span.:
cadena significante.
silence
Fr.: silence; Ger.: Schweigen; It.: silenzio; Port.: siléncio;
Span.: silencio.
skin
Fr.: peau; Ger.: Haut; It.: pelle; Port.: pele; Span.: piel.
skin-ego
Fr.. Moi-peau; Ger.: Haut-Ich; It.: Io-pelle; Port.: Eupele;
Span.: Yo-piel.
sleep/wakefulness
Fr. sommeil/veille; Ger: Schlaf/Wachen; It.: sonno/
veglia; Port.: sono/vigilia; Span.: sueno/ vigilia.
slips of the tongue
Fr.: lapsus; Ger.: Lapsus; It.: lapsus; Port.: lapso; Span.:
lapsus.
somatic compliance
Fr.: complaisance somatique; Ger.: somatisches Entegenkommen;
I[t.: compiacenza somatica; Port.: complacéncia
somatica; Span.: complacencia somatica.
somnambulism
Fr: somnambulisme; Ger.: Somnambulismus; It:
sonnambulismo; Port.: sonambulismo; Span.: sonambulismo.
specific action
Fr: action spécifique ; Ger.: spezifische Aktion It:
azione specifica; Port.: accdo especifica; Span.: accion
especifica.
splitting
Fr.: clivage; Ger.: Spaltung; It.: scissione; Port.: clivagem;
Span.: escision.
splitting of the ego
Fr.: Moi (clivage du -); Ger.: Ichspaltung; It.: scissione
dell’Io; Port.: clivagem do Eu; Span.: escision del Yo.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
TRANSLATION OF Concepts/NoTIONS
splitting of the object
Fr: clivage de lobjet; Ger: Objektspaltung; It.: scissione
dell’oggetto; Port.: clivagem do objecto; Span.:
escision del objeto.
splitting of the subject
Fr: refente; Ger: Spaltung; It.: scissione; Port.: cisdo;
Span.: escision.
squiggle
Fr.: squiggle (“gribouillis”); Ger.: Schnérkel; It.: scarabocchio;
Port.: garatuja; Span.: garabato.
stage (or phase)
Fr.: stade; Ger.: Stufe; It.: fase, stadio; Port.: fase, estadio;
Span.: fase/estadio.
stammering
Fr.: begaiement; Ger.: Stottern; It.: balbuzie; Port.:
gaguez; Span.: tartamudeo.
stranger
Fr.: etranger (peur, angoisse devant I’-); Ger.: Fremdenangst;
It.: angoscia, paura dell’estraneo; Port.: angustia
diante do estranho; Span.: miedo, angustia ante lo
extrano.
strata/stratifications
Fr.: strates et stratifications; Ger.: Schichten und
Schichtungen; It.: strati e stratificazione; Port.: estratos
e estratificacoes; Span.: estratos y estratificaciones.
structural theory
Fr.: structurale (théorie -); Ger.: Strukturtheorie; It:
teoria strutturale; Port.: teoria estrutural; Span.: teoria
estructural.
subconscious
Fr.: subconscient; Ger.: unterbewusst, das Unterbewusste;
It.: subconscio; Port.: subconsciente; Span.:
subconsciente.
subject
Fr. sujet; Ger: Subjekt; It: soggetto; Port.: sujeito;
Span.: sujeto.
subject of the unconscious
Fr.: sujet de Pinconscient; Ger.: Subjekt des Unbewussten;
It.: soggetto dell’inconscio; Port.: sujeito do
inconsciente; Span.: sujeto del inconsciente.
sublimation
Fr.: sublimation; Ger.: Sublimierung; It.: sublimazione;
Port.: sublimag¢ao; Span.: sublimacion.
substitute
Fr. substitut; Ger.: Ersatz; It.: sostituto; Port.: substituto;
Span.: sustituto.
2039
TRANSLATION OF Concepts/NoTIONS
substitutive formation
Fr.: formation substitutive; Ger.: Ersatzbildung; It.: formazione
sostitutiva; Port.: formacao substitutiva;
Span.: formacion sustitutiva/formacion sustituta.
sucking/thumbsucking
Fr.: succion; Ger.: Saugen; It.: suzione; Port.: suc¢cao;
Span.: succion.
sudden involuntary idea
Fr.: idée subite involontaire; Ger.: Einfall; It: idea
improwvisa involontaria; Port.: ideia subita involuntaria;
Span.: idea subita involuntaria.
suffering
Fr.: souffrance; Ger.: Leiden; It.: sofferenza; Port.: sofrimento;
Span.: sufrimiento.
suggestion
Fr.: suggestion; Ger.: Suggestion; It.: suggestione; Port.:
sugestao; Span.: sugestion.
suicidal behavior
Fr.: suicidaires (conduites); Ger.: suizidales Verhalten;
It.: condotte suicidarie; Port.: condutas suicidarias;
Span.: conductas suicidas.
suicide
Fr.: suicide; Ger.: Selbstmord; It.: suicidio; Port.: suicidio;
Span.: suicidio.
sum of excitation
Fr: somme d’excitation; Ger.: Erregungssumme; It.:
somma di eccitamento; Port.: soma de excita¢ao;
Span.: suma de excitacion.
superego
Fr.: Surmoi; Ger.: Uber-Ich; It: Super-Io; Port.: super-
Eu; Span.: Superyo.
signal anxiety
Fr: angoisse-signal; Ger: Angst als Signal; It:
segnale d’angoscia; Port.: angustia-sinal; Span.: angustia
senal.
symbiosis, symbiotic relation
Fr.: symbiose, relation symbiotique; Ger.: Symbiose,
symbiotische Beziehung; It.: simbiosi, relazione simbiotica;
Port.: simbiose, relagao simbidtica; Span.: simbiosis,
relaci6n simbi6tica.
symbol
Fr.: symbole; Ger.: Symbol; It.: simbolo; Port.: simbolo;
Span.: simbolo.
2040
symbolic equation
Fr: équation symbolique; Ger: symbolische Gleichung;
It.: equazione simbolica; Port.: equacdo simbolica;
Span.: ecuacion simbdlica.
symbolic realization
Fr: réalisation symbolique; Ger: symbolische Realisierung;
It.: realizzazione simbolica; Port.: realizacao
simbolica; Span.: realizacion simbolica.
symbolic, the
Fr.: symbolique (le -); Ger.: das Symbolische; It: il
Simbolico; Port.: 0 simbolico; Span.: lo simbolico.
symbolism
Fr.: symbolisme; Ger.: Symbolik; It.: simbolismo; Port.:
simbolismo; Span.: simbolismo.
symbolization
Fr.: symbolisation (processus de -); Ger.: Symbolisierung;
It.: processo di simbolizzazione; Port.: simboliza-
¢a0; Span.: proceso de simbolizacion.
symptom
Fr: symptome; Ger: Symptom; Span.: sintoma; It:
sintomo; Port.: sintoma.
symptom formation
Fr: symptome (formation de -); Ger.: Symptombildung;
It.: formazione del sintomo; Port.: formacao de
sintoma; Span.: formacion del sintoma.
symptom/sinthome
Fr.: sinthome; Ger.: Sinthome; It.: sinthomo; Port.: sintoma;
Span.: sintom.
synchronicity
Fr; synchronicité; Ger.: Synchronizitat; It: sincronicita;
Port.: sincronicidade; Span.: sincronicidad.
system, systemic
Fr.: systeme, systémique; Ger.: System, systemisch; It:
sistema, sistemico; Port.: sistema, sistémico; Span.: sistema,
sistémico.
taboo
Fr.: tabou; Ger.: Tabu; It.: tabu; Port.: tabu; Span.: tabu.
tact
Fr.: tact; Ger.: Takt; It: tatto; Port.: tacto; Span.: tacto.
telepathy
Fr.: telepathie; Ger.: Telepathie, Gedankeinduktion; It:
telepatia; Port.: telepatia; Span.: telepatia.
tenderness
Fr: tendresse; Ger.: Zartlichkeit; It: tenerezza; Port.:
ternura; Span.: ternura.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
therapeutic alliance
Fr: alliance thérapeutique; Ger: therapeutisches
Arbeitsbiindnis; It.: alleanza terapeutica; Port.: alianca
terapéutica; Span.: alianza terapéutica.
thing-presentation
Fr. representation de chose; Ger.: Sachvorstellung,
Dingvorstellung; It: rappresentazione di cosa;
Port.: representa¢ao de coisa; Span.: representacién de
cosa.
Thing, the
Fr.: Chose (la); Ger: das Ding, die Sache; It.: la Cosa;
Port.: a Coisa; Span.: la Cosa.-
thought
Fr.: pensée; Ger.: Gedanke; It.: pensiero; Port.: pensamento;
Span.: pensamiento.
thought identity
Fr.: identite de pensée; Ger.: Denkidentitat; It.: identita
di pensiero; Port.: identidade de pensamento; Span.:
identidad de pensamiento.
thought-thinking apparatus
Fr.: appareil a penser les pensées; Ger.: Apparat zum
Denken von Gedanken; It.: apparato per pensare i pensieri;
Port. aparelho para pensar os pensamentos;
Span.: aparato para pensar los pensamientos.
tic
Fr.: tic; Ger.: Tick/nervéses Zucken; It.: tic; Port.: tique;
Span.: tic.
time
Fr.: temps; Ger.: Zeit; It.: tempo; Port.: tempo; Span.:
tiempo.
topographical point of view
Fr: topique (point de vue -); Ger.: topischer Gesichtspunkt;
It.: punto di vista topico; Port.: ponto de vista
topico; Span.: punto de vista topico.
topology
Fr. topologie; Ger.: Topologie; It.: topologia; Port.:
topologia; Span.: topologia.
totem, totemism
Fr. totem, totémisme; Ger.: Totem, Totemismus; It:
totem, totemismo; Port.: totem, totemismo; Span.:
totem, totemismo.
training analysis
Fr: psychanalyse didactique; Ger.: Lehranalyse; It.: psicoanalisi
didattica; Port.: psicanalise didactica; Span.:
psicoanalisis didactico.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
TRANSLATION OF CoNnceptTs/NoTIONS
transcultural
Fr.: transculturel; Ger.: transkulturell; It: transculturale;
Port.: transcultural; Span.: transcultural.
trance
Fr.: transe, trance; Ger.: Trance; It.: trance; Port.: transe;
Span.: trance.
transference
Fr.: transfert; Ger.: Ubertragung; It.: transfert; Port.:
transferéncia; Span.: transferencia.
transference depression
Fr.: dépression de transfert; Ger.: Ubertragungsdepression;
It.: depressione di transfert; Port.: depressao de
transferéncia; Span.: depresion de transferencia.
transference love
Fr.: transfert (amour de -); Ger.: Ubertragungsliebe; lie
amore di transfert; Port.: amor de transferéncia; Span.:
amor de transferencia.
transference hatred
Fr: transfert (haine de -); Ger: Hasstibertragung/
Ubertragung (des Hasses); Span.: odio de transferencia;
It.: odio di transfert; Port.: dio de transferéncia.
transference neurosis
Fr: transfert (névrose de -); Ger.: Ubertragungsneurose;
It.: nevrosi di transfert; Port.: neurose de transferencia;
Span.: neurosis de transferencia.
transference of creativity
Fr: transfert de créativité; Ger: Ubertragung der
Kreativitat; It.: transfert di creativita; Port.: transferéncia
de criatividade; Span.: transferencia de
creatividad.
transference relationship
Fr.: transférentielle (relation -); Ger.: Ubertragungsbeziehung;
It.: relazione di transfert; Port.: relagao transferencial;
Span.: relacion transferencial.
transformation
Fr: transformation; Ger.: Verwandlung; It.: trasformazione;
Port.: transformagao; Span.: transformacion.
transgression
Fr.: transgression; Ger.: Ubertretung; It.: trasgressione;
Port.: transgressao; Span.: transgresion.
transitional object
Fr: objet transitionnel; Ger.: Ubergangsobjekt; It.:
oggetto transizionale; Port.: objecto transicional;
Span.: objeto transicional.
2041
TRANSLATION OF Conceets/NoTioNns
transitional object, space
Fr: transitionnel (objet transitionnel, aire transitionnelle);
Ger: Ubergangsobjekt, Ubergangsraum; It.:
oggetto transizionale, area transizionale; Port.: objecto
transicional, area transicional; Span.: transicional
(objeto transicional, campo transicional).
transitional phenomenon
Fr: phenoméne transitionnel; Ger.: Ubergangsphanomen;
Jt: fenomeno transizionale; Port: fendmeno
transicional; Span.: fenomeno transicional.
translation
Fr: traduction; Ger: Ubersetzung; It: traduzione;
Port.: tradugao; Span.: traduccion.
transmuting internalization
Fr: interiorisation mutative; Ger: verwandelnde Internalisierung;
Jf: interiorizzazione trasmutante; Port:
interiorizacao mutativa; Span.: interiorizacién mutativa.
transsexualism
Fr: transsexualisme; Ger.: Transsexualismus; Jt: transessualismo;
Port.: transsexualismo; Span.: transexualismo.
trauma
Fr.: traumatisme; Ger.: Trauma; It.: trauma; Port: traumatismo;
Span.: traumatismo.
traumatic neurosis
Fr.: traumatique (neévrose -); Ger: traumatische Neurose;
[t.: nevrosi traumatica; Port.: neurose traumatica;
Span.: neurosis traumatica.
truth
Fr.: verite; Ger.: Wahrheit; It: verita; Port: verdade;
Span.: verdad.
turning around
Fr: retournement; Ger: Wendung; It: capovolgimento;
Port.: voltar; Span.: vuelta.
turning around upon the subject's own self
Fr: retournement sur la personne propre; Ger.: Wendung
gegen die eigene Person; It: capovolgimento
sulla propria persona; Port.: voltar contra si mesmo:
Span.: vuelta en contra del sujeto.
twinship transference, alter ego transference
Fr.: transfert en jumelage (transfert a l’alter ego); Ger::
Zwillingsiibertragung, Alter ego-Ubertragung; It:
transfert gemellare o di alter ego; Port: transferéncia
gemelar; Span.: transferencia gemelar (transferencia al
alter ego).
typical dream
Fr: reve typique; Ger: typischer Traum; It: sogno
tipico; Port.: sonho tipico; Span.: sueho tipico.
2042
ulcerative colitis
Fr: recto-colite hémorragique; Ger.: hamorrhagische
Rekto-Kolitis; It: rettocolite ulcerosa; Port.: rectolite
hemorragica; Span.: rectocolitis hemorragica.
unary trait
Fr: trait unaire; Ger.: einziger Zug; It.: tratto unario;
Port.: trago unario; Span.: trazo unario.
unconscious concept
Fr: concept inconscient; Ger.: Konzept vom Unbewussten;
Jf: concetto inconscio; Port.: conceito inconsciente;
Span.: concepto inconsciente.
unconscious fantasy
Fr: phantasme inconscient; Ger.: unbewusste Phantasie;
Jt: fantasia inconscia/fantasma inconscio; Port.:
fantasia inconsciente; Span.: fantasia inconsciente.
Unconscious, the
Fr.: Inconscient; Ger.: Unbewusste; It.: Inconscio; Port.:
Inconsciente; Span.: Inconsciente.
undoing
Fr.: annulation retroactive; Ger.: Ungeschehenmachen;
It: annullamento retroattivo; Port.: anulacao retroactiva;
Span.: anulacion retroactiva/neutralizacion.
unpleasure
Fr.: deplaisir; Ger.: Unlust; It.: dispiacere; Port.: desprazer;
Span.: displacer.
. unvalidated unconscious
Fr.: inconscient invalide; Ger: ungewichtetes Unbewusstes;
/f.: inconscio non convalidato; Port.: inconsciente
invalidado; Span.: inconsciente invalidado.
urethral eroticism
Fr.: erotisme urétral; Ger.: Urethralerotik/Harnerotik;
[t.: erotismo uretrale; Port: erotismo uretral; Span.:
erotismo uretral.
“vagina dentata,” fantasy of
Fr.: fantasme du vagin denté; Ger.: Phantasie von einer
vagina dentata; It.: fantasia della vagina dentata; Port:
fantasia da vagina dentata; Span.: fantasia de la vagina
dentada.
vertex
Fr.: vertex; Ger: “vertex”; It: vertice; Port.: vértice;
Span.: vertice.
vertical and horizontal splitting
Fr.: clivage vertical et horizontal; Ger.: vertikale und
horizontale Spaltung; It.: scissione verticale e orizzontale;
Port: clivagem vertical e horizontal; Span.: escision
vertical y horizontal.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
violence, instinct for
Fr.: violence (instinct de -); Ger.: Gewaltsinstinkt; It:
istinto di violenza; Port.: impulso de violéncia; Span.:
instinto de violencia.
visual
Fr.: visuel; Ger.: visuell; It.: visivo; Port.: visual; Span.:
visual.
voyeurism
Fr: voyeurisme; Ger.: Voyeurismus; It.: voyeurismo;
Port.: voyeurismo; Span.: voyeurismo.
want of being/lack of being
Fr: manque-a-étre; Ger.: Fehlen-an-Sein; Jt: mancanza
ad essere; Port.: falta-a-ser; Span.: déficit de ser/
falta de ser.
war neurosis
Fr.: nevrose de guerre; Ger.: Kriegsneurose; It.: nevrosi
di guerra; Port.: neurose de guerra; Span.: neurosis de
guerra.
weaning
Fr.: sevrage; Ger.: Entwohnung It.: svezzamento; Port.:
desmame; Span.: destete.
wish
Fr.: voeu (souhait); Ger.: Wunsch; It.: desiderio (voto,
auspicio); Port.: votos-desejo; Span.: deseo (augurio).
wish for a baby
Fr.. désir d’enfant; Ger.: Kinderwunsch; It.: desiderio
di un bambino; Port.: desejo de um filho; Span.: deseo
de un nino.
wish-fulfillment
Fr.: désir (accomplissement du -); Ger.: Wunscherfillung;
It.: appagamento di desiderio; Port.: realizacao
de desejo; Span.: realizacion de deseo.
wish, hallucinatory satisfaction of a
Fr: désir (satisfaction hallucinatoire du -); Ger.: halluzinatorische
Wunscherfillung; It: appagamento allu-
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
TRANSOLF CAoncTeptIs/ONoTNION S
cinatorio del desiderio; Port.: satisfagéo alucinatoria
do desejo; Span.: satisfaccion alucinatoria de deseo.
wish/yearning
Fr; desir (ou désirance); Ger.: Wunsch, Begehren; It.:
desiderio; Port.: desejo; Span.: deseo.
word association
Fr.: association de mots; Ger. Wortassoziation; It:
associazione di parole; Port.: associagao de palavras;
Span.: asociacion de palabras.
word-presentation
Fr.: representation de mot; Ger.: Wortvorstellung; It.:
rappresentazione di parola; Port.: representacao de
palavra; Span.: representacion de palabra.
work
Fr.: travail; Ger.: Arbeit; It.: lavoro; Port.: trabalho;
Span.: trabajo.
work of mourning
Fr.: travail de deuil; Ger.: Trauerarbeit; It.: lavoro del
lutto; Port.: trabalho do luto; Span.: trabajo de duelo.
working-off mechanisms
Fr: dégagement (mécanismes de -); Ger. Abarbeitungsmechanismen;
I[t.: meccanismi di disimpegno;
Port.: mecanismos de desimpedimento; Span.: mecanismos
de desprendimiento.
working over
Fr: élaboration psychique; Ger.: psychische Verarbeitung/
psychische Bearbeitung/psychische Ausarbeitung/
psychische Aufarbeitung; It: elaborazione psichica;
Port.: elaboracao psiquica; Span.: elaboracion
psiquica.
working-through
Fr.: perlaboration; Ger.: Durcharbeiten; It.: rielaborazione;
Port.: perlaboragao; Span.: trabajo elaborativo.
2043
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS FROM THE FRENCH EDITION
I am indebted to Michel Prigent for giving me the idea to take part in this project to create a
Dictionary of Psychoanalysis, as well as for giving me responsibility for its History Section.
Although it was his wish to add this Dictionary to the diverse catalog published by Presses Universitaires
de France; the vagaries of a collaboration that was difficult to establish and maintain
based on divergent conceptual underpinnings led me in the end to submit on my own the very
different project which these volumes represent to Editions Calman-Levy in March 1995.
Encouraged and pursued by Isabelle Seguin until 1998, its principle form was accepted
by Jean-Etienne Cohen-Séat who was the project’s director at that time. After his departure
Olivier Nora and Denis Bourgeois assumed responsibility for reworking it, with the assistance
of Olivier Amiel after 1998. Finally Jean-Etienne Cohen-Séat closed the loop on its
publication, or rather on its development into its final form after a relatively stagnant period
in terms of editing. I am indeed particularly grateful to Marc Grinsztajn for his material
support (to which Marie Donnet equally contributed), as well as for the moral backing he
provided during the final months of this saga.
As soon as Cecile Nail became involved in the project in 2000, she was entrusted with
the task of completing a critical re-reading of all the dictionary’s entries, and the questions
she raised led me to revisit each of the texts one by one once more, on top of the debates
raised by a previous reader who was well-educated but not particularly a specialist in psychoanalysis.
Besides the inevitable errors that were thereby unearthed, this work corrected
certain contradictions and highly-impediment ambiguities, as well as numerous naiveties
and tics in the “language” of psychoanalysis itself. Although some of these still remain, this
work pruned them down vigilantly.
All this added to the timeline and entailed supplemental investments. I can not say
enough times that Editions Camann-Lévy undertook considerable financial risk by not giving
up on the development of an original and voluminous work, comprising numerous
translations and which paid a decent honorarium to each of its authors, all without external
support, including even any reliance on the Centre National du Livre in 2001, and all
this whilst their Human Sciences Division was undergoing a severe fiscal crisis. I owe them
an immense personal debt of gratitude, just as I can never forget the choice Jean-Etienne
Cohen-Séat made upon his return as Director in the Spring of 2000 to make the necessary
sacrifices in order that the Dictionary’s publication be continued, and that its production
be as impeccable as possible.
I have never been alone in this enterprise, and I am also grateful for the adept and
never-ending support provided by all the members of this sound and venerable publishing
2045
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS FROM THE FRENCH EDITION
house. They all helped me get the project off the ground and saw to its completion, but in
particular I should like to mention Elisabeth Laye and Rosa Thieck, without forgetting
Claire Teuwissen and Heidi Warnecke, who worked to get foreign publishers to get started
on publishing this work, as well as Bernard Dobremetz and above all Bénédicte Gerber,
(who invested the most faithfully of all in this work throughout all these long years, and
who was my most reliable supporter), who saw to the delicate tasks of executing its actual
production.
Catherine Joubaud and Eliane Rosenberg-Mounier must also be singled-out. It was their
mission to “set up” the final manuscript, meaning to read all the entries a first time through —
after I had finished re-reading them, in order to standardize the formats, which had changed
a bit over the years, and also to identify and correct stylistic and spelling errors, as well as
other incoherencies which had managed to escape our previous readings—all this in addition
to revising the 3,200 bibliographic references. I must also thank Jacques Sédat for the
revisions he was kind enough to undertake of the proofs. Last but not least, Catherine Picard
and Catherine Schram effected a final critical revision of all the proofs which was particularly
painstaking and once again came on the heels of my own reading.
The translators were either longtime friends like Ruth Menahem, or highly-qualified
professionals like Pierre-Emmanuel Dauzat who had contributed some of the edition’s finest
gems, like History of Psychoanalysis (at the Presses Universitaires de France), Dominique
Lepreux, Alix Gaillard-Dermigny who, with Martine Sandor-Buthaud, assumed responsibility
for all the Analytic Psychology articles, and finally Danielle Goldstein and Catherine
Wieder. Other friends and colleagues contributed to the constitution of the glossary which
includes the translation of a large number of concepts into five different languages: Dr.
Pedro Luzes and M. Norton Godinho from the Portuguese, Dr. Roberto Goldstein and
Mrs. Béatrice Marquis-Goldstein from the Spanish, Dr. Gian Franco Nicolussi and Dr.
Alberto Luchetti from the Italian, Mr. Andrew Weller from the English, and Andrew Weller
and Mrs. Vera Renz from the German. ;
It is true that 20 years of work as an editor allowed me to draw upon a wealth of friends
who greatly contributed to completing a work in seven years that should have called for
even more time. First of all I must thank those amongst my colleagues who spontaneously
agreed to encourage this project by supporting it in various forms from the first moment it
was announced. Their encouragement touched me deeply and I viewed it as a mark of confidence
that was accorded to me even though everything still remained to be done. Their
list is long and certain amongst them will no longer be with us at the time the book to
which they attached their immediate confidence appears, but it is my duty to remember
their names: Mr. André Alsteens (Belgium), Dr. Jacqueline Amati-Mehler (Italy), Professor
Didier-Anzieu (France), Dr. Harold Blum (United States), Professor René Diatkine
(France), Dr. Roger A. Dufresne (Canada), Dr. Horacioi Etchegoyen (Argentina), Dr. Ernst
Federn (Austria), Professor Gerhard Fichtner (Germany), Dr. Olivier Flournoy (Switzerland),
Dr.-Professor Folch Mateu (Spain), Dr. Peter Fonagy (United Kingdom), Dr. André
Green (France), Dr. Leon Grinberg (Spain), Mrs. Han Groen-Prakken (Netherlands), Professor
André Haynal (Switzerland), Dr. Otto E. Kernberg (United States), Miss Pearl King
(United Kingdom), Professor Georges Lantéri-Laura (France), Professor Serge Lebovici
(France), Dr. Harald Leupold-Léwenthal (Austria), Professor Peter Loewenberg (United
States), Ft/ Pedro Luzes (Portugal), Mr. Patrick Mahony (Canada), Mrs. Joyce MacDougall
(France, Dr. Keigo Okonogi (Japan), Mrs. Anna Potamianou (Greece), Dr. Jean-Michel
Quinodoz (Switzerland), Porfessor Alvaro Rey de Castro (Peru), Mrs. Anne-Marie Sandler
(United Kingdom), Professor Joseph Sandler (United Kingdom), Dr. Antonio Santamaria
Fernandez (Mexico), Professor Jacques Schotte (Belgium), Mr. Riccardo Steiner (United
2046 INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS FROM THE FRENCH EDITION
Kingdom), Dr. Jean-Paul Valabrega (France), Dr. Robert Wallerstein (United States), Professor
Daniel Widlocher (France) and Mrs. Nathalie Zaltzmann (France)
At practically the same moment in time, a certain number of other associates were asked
for their scientific advice concerning the choice of entries and authors in the areas where they
excelled the most. I shall recall them here more precisely by including their privileged
domains: Anna Maria Accerboni and Giancarlo Gramaglia advised us concerning entries
related to Italy; Jorge Luis Ahumada for Argentina, Andre Alsteens for Belgium, Mireille
Cifali and Bernard Minder for Switzerland, Judith Dupont for Hungary, Horacio Etchegoyen
for South America, Han Groen-Prakken for the Netherlands, Ludger M. Hermanns for Germany,
Robert D. Hinshelwood and Riccardo Steiner for the United Kingdom, Didier Houzel
for the entries on Wilfred R. Bion, Per Magnus Johansson for the Scandinavian countries,
Thomas Kirsch and Christian Gaillard for Psychoanalytic Psychology, Maria Luisa Munoz
for Spain, IIngrid Scholz-Strasse for Austria, Agnés Oppenheimer for Heinz Kohut, Bernard
Pernot, Marie-Christine Laznik and Jacques Sédat for the entries on Lacanian psychoanalysis,
Jean-Francois Rabain for Japan, Joseph Reppen and Paul Roazen for the United States.
I believe I sufficiently emphasized the use of the word “we” in my introductory comments
to this Dictionary for it to be understood how indebted I have been to the members
of the editorial committee for their scientific contributions and undying support. Whether
it was a question of the initial choice between which articles to include and authors to use,
or of assuming responsibility for writing a large number of articles and therefore taking up
the slack when one or another of the former fell short, the following were in various guises
the artisans of a work that without them would not exist: Sophie de Mijolla-Mellor (for
writing of 96 entries and managing 165), Roger Perron (for writing 83 entries and managing
254), and Bernard Golse (for writing 40 articles and managing 194); all of whom were
helped in the beginning by Jacues Angelergues. Affection, friendship and gratitude combined
with the talents each of these colleagues possess resulted in a collaborative effort that
rendered the management of the project far easier than I could have ever hoped for.
All that remains are the principal artisans of the work: that is the 460 authors who combined
forces from all four corners of the globe into an enterprise upon which they bestowed
us the pleasure and the honor of believing in, and therefore of being able to invest ourselves
in, usually with great passion. Though some will never see the results of their efforts, including:
André Alsteens, Didier Anzieu, Parthenope Bion Talamo, Owen Hugh D. Blomfield,
Simone Decombert, Joél Dor, Serge Lebovici, Rosario Merendino, Marie-Therese Neyraut-
Sutterman, Agnes Oppenheimer, Augusto Miguel Picollo, Helene Rank-Veltfort, Joél Sipos
and Maria Torrok; their presence remains alive and well in the texts they have written.
I do not want to close this all too brief list of acknowledgements, given the many supporters
and friends I must have forgotten, without highlighting our debt to the work completed
by our British and American colleagues in the development of their indispensable
tool, the “PE.P. Archives CD-ROM,” which groups together the totality of articles published
by the primary English-language psychoanalytic journals from their inception dates
through today. Much fact checking and supplemental information were made possible
thanks this resolutely modern instrument of research.
However we shouldn’t let this homage fool us! It is mixed with equal parts envy and regret
that we have not yet been able to complete a similar compendium of the Frenchlanguage
psychoanalytic literature. Let it express nonetheless the hope that our Dictionary
may itself now become usable and susceptible to being regularly updated by future means of
diffusion and search-engines that this 21st century, which has spawned it, has yet to develop.
ALAIN DE MIOLLA
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS 2047
Liter tia pi i coed geal ahd
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Page numbers in boldface indicate main entry on subject. Locations of insert photographs are indicated in the following manner:
I:pl. 1,” where I is the volume number, and pl. 1 is the plate number as indicated in the insert. The inserts can be found after p. 238
in Vol. I, after p. 998 in Vol. II, and after p. 1722 in Vol. 3.
A
A la recherche du temps perdu (Proust), 986
“A Paise dans la civilization” (Pichon), 1283
“A Pécoute du télescopage des generations”
(Faimberg), 846
A partir de Freud (Pasche), 1242
“A propos de la mythomania”
(Neyraut), 1098
A propos de la relation érotomaniaque
(Kestemberg), 912
“A propos de trois cas d’anorexie mentale”
(Laurent-Lucas-Championniére-Mauge),
948-949
“A quoi reconnait-on le structuralisme?”
(Deleuze), 1668
GN Te 1
AAGP (Allgemeine Arztliche Gesellschaft
fiir Psychotherapie) (General Medical
Society for Psychotherapy), 49, 1131, 1547
Abadi, Mauricio, 118
Abandonment, 1-3, 101, 394-395, 715
Abed, Mohamed, 1155
Abel, Carl, 3-4, 981, 1495
Abel, Karl, 1585
Abello, Nuria, 933
Abello, Nuria, 1637
Aberastury, Arminda (“La Negra”), 4—5, 55,
A217, 1015
Aberastury, Federico, 117
Ablation, 1521
ABP (Associacao Brasileira de
Psicanalise), 215
Abraham, Georges, 1701
Abraham, Hilda, 5
Abraham, Karl, 5—6, 638
on addiction, 23
on alcoholism, 41
on ambivalence, 6, 56—57, 74, 326, 394,
1082, 1204-1205
on anal eroticism, 514, 515
on anal-sadistic stage, 74
on anality, 72
on applied psychoanalysis, 108
Benedek and, 159
Berliner Psychoanalytische Poliklinik and,
164, 675
Berliner Psychoanalytisches Institut and, 5,
6, 165
on birth dreams, 186
Boehm and, 5, 198
Brazilian psychoanalysis and, 217
British Psycho-Analytical Society and, 228
on bulimia, 233
Burghdlzli Asylum and, 180, 236
on castration complex, 1676
on character, 270, 272
child analysis and, 1731
on choice ofn eurosis, 288
cinema and, 293
on coprophilia, 346
on depression, 394
Development of Psycho-Analysis and, 581
on dreams, 443
Eder and, 460
Eitingon and, 493
First World War and, 585
Freud, Ernst and, 622
Freud-Jung split and, 1200
German psychoanalysis and, 674
on gifts, 682
Glover, Edward and, 5, 684
2049
Glover, James and, 5, 684, 685
Hartmann and, 727
Hogarth Press and, 753
on imposter, 803
on incorporation, 1105
on indications/contraindications for
psychoanalysis, 809
on internal objects, 395, 396, 849
International Psychoanalytical Association
and, 854
Internationale Zeitschrift fiir Psychoanalyse
and, 860
on introjection, 6, 869
Jahrbuch der Psychoanalyse and, 884
Jahrbuch fiir psychoanalytische und
psychopathologische Forschungen and, 884
Jury and, 904
Klein and, 5, 914
on libidinal development, 5—6, 38, 56-57,
966, 967, 1038
on libido, 968, 969
on lies, 972
Mahler-Schénberger and, 1001
on mania, 1006, 1007
on melancholia, 6, 1037, 1038, 1039, 1082
Miiller-Braunschweig and, 1085
on mythology, 443, 1099
on narcissism, 1106
on narcissistic neuroses, 1114
on object, 1169
object a and, 1173
on object loss, 994
on oral eroticism, 516
on oral-sadistic stage, 6, 1038, 1082,
1114, 1203
on oral stage, 6, 57, 516, 1203, 1204-1205
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
on orality, 1202
on organization, 1208
on paranoia, 1230
on part-objects, 1649
on partial drives, 1241
on payment for treatment, 1069
on phallic mother, 1261, 1263
photographs of, I:pl.1, II:pl.9
on psychoanalytic treatment, 1729
on psychoses, 21, 1404
on psychosexual development, 1406
on psychosis/neurosis distinction, 1415
Reik and, 5, 1462, 1463
on religion, 899
Revista de psiquiatria y disciplinas conexas
and, 1497
Russian/Soviet psychoanalysis and, 1518
on sadism, 1022, 1526
on schizophrenia, 6, 1540
Schmidt, Vera and, 1544
on Schreber case, 1546
Secret Committee and, 5, 1561
Secrets of a Soul, The and, 1562, 1563
on silence, 1610
Simmel and, 5, 6, 1611
Strachey-Sargent and, 1664
on sucking, 1682
Swiss psychoanalysis and, 1702
on tics, 1756
on trauma, 1801
on urethral eroticism, 517
on “vagina dentata” fantasy, 1831
on violence, 34
on visual arts, 1841
on war neuroses, 1848
on whole-object love, 218
Wulff and, 1881
Abraham, Nicolas, 6-7
Confrontation and, 327
on cultural transmission, 358
on intergenerational phenomena,846
on introjection, 870
on phantom, 1265-1266
on secrets, 1560
Torok and, 6, 1764-1765
Abreaction
cathartic method and, 258, 1670
cinema on, 1562, 1563
constancy principle and, 1322
discharge and, 418
lifting of amnesia and, 976, 977
lifting of repression and, 1486
2050
memories and, 1041
neurotic defenses and, 1141
Absence, 99, 1121, 1122, 1749-1750
Abstinence, 7—8, 11, 1385, 1786
Absurdity, 1584
Accerboni, Anna Maria, 881
Acevedo de Mendilaharsu, Sélika, 1829
Achard, Laura, 1829
Acheson, Dean, 1087
Achté, Kalle, 584
“Acquisition and Control of Fire, The”
(Freud), 107, 299, 348, 517, 1367-1368
Act/action, 9-10
abstinence and, 7
adolescence and, 27
fantasy and, 9, 552-553
passage to the act, 10, 18-19, 1390
See also Thought vs. action
Acting in, 10
Acting out, 10-11
action-presentations and, 13
alcoholism and, 41
change and, 267
discharge and, 10, 418
“Dora” case and, 10, 605
fundamental rule and, 657
passage to the act and, 10, 18
termination of treatment and, 1737
transference and, 10, 11, 657, 1786
Action. See Act/action
Action-language, 11-12, 13
Action-presentations, 12-13
Action-representations. See Actionpresentations
Action-thought, 9, 13-14
Active analysis, 1657
Active imagination, 14-15, 67
Active technique, 15-16, 581, 1729
abstinence and, 8
Development of Psycho-Analysis and, 407
frame of psychoanalytic treatment and, 607
Freud on, 15, 16, 640
Kovacs-Prosznitz on, 923
Activity/passivity, 16-18
anality and, 72
female sexuality and, 570-571
feminist views of psychoanalysis and, 576
masculinity/femininity and, 16, 17,
576, 1020
sadism/masochism and, 17, 1021
“Actor’s Complex, The” (Guilbert), 715
Actual neuroses, 19-20, 231, 326, 345, 420,
1138-1139
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Acufia, Fernando, 1832
Acute psychoses, 21-22
Adami, Valério, 240
Adamoy, Jacqueline, 1499
Adaptation, 22-23
complexes and, 321 ;
ego and, 375, 475, 488
introjection and, 870
Loewenstein on, 989
war neuroses and, 907
“Adaptation, Individuation and
Collectivity” (Jung), 811
Addiction, 23-24
alcoholism, 40—42
alienation and, 44
anorexia nervosa and, 92
Brunswick and, 232
bulimia and, 233
cocaine and, 308
dependence and, 392
narcissistic neuroses and, 1114
Adelman, Janet, 1598
Adhesive identification, 24-25
asthma and, 125
autism and, 24, 137
dismantling and, 419
infant development and, 815
object and, 1170
Adler, Alfred, 25-26
on aggression, 33
on anxiety neurosis, 1137
Baudouin and, 154, 155
on belief, 159
Bjerre and, 188
Brazilian psychoanalysis and, 217
child analysis and, 279
on compulsion, 323
definition of psychoanalysis and, 1363
Delgado and, 385
on ego, 462—463
Ellenberger on, 497
on erythrophobia, 522
extroversion/introversion and, 538
Freud and, 25, 639, 1643
on fusion/defusion, 659
Greek psychoanalysis and, 701
Hall and, 721
Hilferding-Hénigsberg and, 746
on inferiority feelings, 831-832
Jahrbuch der Psychoanalyse and, 884
Jelliffe and, 1379
Jung and, 902
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
on masculine protest, 252, 575, 1018-1019,
1105, 1110, 1246
monism/dualism and, 1070, 1071
“On the History of the Psychoanalytic
Movement” and, 1192
photograph of, I:pl.2
on politics, 1293
Psyche and, 1351
Psychoterapia and, 1411
Rank and, 1444
Sigmund Freud: Life and Work on, 973
on social feeling, 1617-1618
Swedish psychoanalysis and, 1697
Wiener psychoanalytische Vereinigung
and, 132, 854, 1857
See also Individual psychology
Adler, Gerhard, 79, 80
Adolescence, 26-28
aggression and, 26, 35
Blos on, 28, 196—197
bulimia and, 234
dependence and, 392
heroic self and, 740
Male on, 1004
midlife crisis and, 30, 1055
passage to the act in, 19
pleasure ego/reality ego and, 1288
self-mutilation and, 1572
self-representation and, 1578
suicide and, 1686
superego and, 1691
Adolescent crisis, 27, 28-30
Adorno, Theodor, 30-32, 1632
Foulkes and, 601
German psychoanalysis and, 675, 677
Institute for Social Research and, 1013
Marxism and, 31, 1018
Aeschylus, 574, 922
Aesthetic conflict, 137
“Aetiology of Hysteria, The” (Freud)
on defense mechanisms, 376
on lifting of amnesia, 976
on memories, 1040
on mnemic symbols, 1061, 1062
on mnemic traces, 1064
on seduction theory, 1755
Stekel and, 1657
Affect
abandonment and, 2
cathexis and, 259
deprivation and, 397
emotions and, 501
hysterical paralysis and, 774
identification with the aggressor and, 792
memories and, 1040, 1041
music and, 1088-1089
neurotic defenses and, 1142
object relations theory and, 1176-1177
primary object and, 1317
quantitative/qualitative dimensions of,
1427-1428
quota of, 786, 1428, 1433-1434, 1875
representation and, 781, 1477-1478
repression and, 1482-1483
reversal into the opposite and, 1495
suppression and, 1693
unpleasure and, 1826
work and, 1875
working-through and, 1880
See also Emotions; Pleasure principle
Affectionate current, 56
Affective attunement, 454, 867
“Affects in Theory and Practise” (Brierley),
226
Affranchissement, 241
Afterwardsness. See Deferred action
Agency, 32-33
“Agegresivité et fantasmes d’agression”
(Diatkine), 411
Aggression, 33-35
adolescence and, 26, 35
allergies and, 48
anaclitic depression and, 70
anxiety and, 100, 101
“as if” personality and, 122
Bak on, 147
conflict and, 326
criminology and, 354
cruelty and, 355
death instinct and, 372
depression and, 394
depressive position and, 395, 396
envy and, 508-509
feminine masochism and, 572
Greenacre on, 702
guilt and, 716
mastery and, 1024
object relations theory and, 1176
oral-sadistic stage and, 1203
paranoid position and, 1231
phobia of impulsive acts and, 1272
sadomasochism and, 1527
Schlumberger on, 1542
self-mutilation and, 1573
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
sublimation and, 1679
vs. violence, 33-34
“Aggression in Relation to Emotional
Development” (Winnicott), 1581
Agieren. See Acting out
Agoraphobia, 306
Agorio, Roberto, 1828, 1829
Agrachey, Sergei, 1520
Aha-Erlebnis, 1569
Aichhorn, August, 35-36
on abandonment, 2
Austrian psychoanalysis and, 133
Blos and, 196
boundary violations and, 209
Caruso and, 248
Czech psychoanalysis and, 361
Eissler and, 490
Goring and, 689
Hietzing Schule and, 745
Kohut and, 919
Lehrinstitut der Wiener
psychoanalytischen Vereinigung and, 959
Mahler-Schénberger and, 1001
Nazi Germany and, 1858, 1863
Ross and, 1516
Sterba-Radanowicz-Hartmann, Editha
and, 1658
Swedish psychoanalysis and, 1698
Vienna Ambulatorium and, 959
Wiener psychoanalytische Vereinigung
and, 1857, 1858
Zeitschrift fiir psychoanalytische Padagogik
and, 1886
Aigrisse, Gilberte, 158
“Ailment, The” (Main), 1003
“Aimée” case, 36-39, 104
Aims, 534
Ainsworth, Mary
on anaclitic depression, 70
on attachment, 125, 815, 822, 1030
on hospitalism, 760
on maternal care, 1029
on puerperal psychoses, 1422
on strange situation, 125, 822
Tavistock Clinic and, 1728
Aisenstein, Marilia, 1460, 1630, 1631
Aiza, Victor, 566, 1051, 1052
Ajase complex, 39—40, 319, 887, 888, 922
Ajuriaguerra, Julian de
Diatkine and, 410
on infant development, 814
Lebovici and, 955
on relaxation psychotherapy, 1465
2051
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Swiss psychoanalysis and, 1701
on tenderness, 1736
Alajouanine, Théophile, 1283
Alanen, Yrj6, 584
Albiston, Norman, 131
Albu, Enid. See Balint, Enid
Alchemy, 40, 115, 902, 1597, 1608
Alcohol consumption, 1585
Alcoholism, 40-42, 412-413
Alexander, Franz Gabriel, 42-43
on allergies, 47
American Academy of Psychoanalysis and,
43,58
on asthma, 124, 125
Benedek and, 160
Berliner Psychoanalytisches Institut and,
42, 166
Bettelheim and, 173
Boston Psychoanalytic Society/Institute
and, 207
on character, 272
Chicago Psychoanalytic Institute and,
277-278, 919, 1823
Congres mondial de psychiatrie and, 539
on dependence, 392
Freud, Oliver and, 631
German psychoanalysis and, 1060
on group analysis, 601
Heimann and, 730
Hungarian School and, 764
International Federation of Psychoanalytic
Societies and, 852
Kardiner and, 906
Kris-Rie and, 925
Murray and, 1087
neopsychoanalysis and, 1131
photograph of, I:pl.3
on psychic causality, 1354
on psychosomatics, 43, 208, 1408-1409
Rado and, 1441
Rank and, 1445
Rivista di pscioanalisi and, 1508
Ross and, 1516
Sachs and, 42, 1523
Saussure, Raymond de and, 1536
Southern California Psychoanalytic
Society/Institute and, 992, 993
Tegel clinic and, 1734
on termination of treatment, 1738
Weiss and, 1854
Alexander, Irving, 1396
Alexandris, Athena, 701
Alexithymia, 18, 41, 523
2052
Alfred Binet Center. See Centre Alfred-Binet
Algerian psychoanalysis, 1155
Alienation, 43-45
Althusser on, 53
Aulagnier-Spairani on, 44, 111
certainty and, 265
ego ideal and, 44, 480
fourth analysis and, 603
Tand, 775
ideology and, 795-796
imaginary and, 799
lack of being and, 1848
passion and, 1243
sudden involuntary ideas and, 1683
symptom-formation and, 1717
Alimentary orgasm, 413
Allen, Frederick, 1445
Allen, Woody, 47, 292, 294, 1365
Allende Navarro, Fernando, 284, 1033
Allendy, René Felix Eugéne, 45-47
Borel and, 204
Claude and, 46, 305, 1345-1346
Congres des psychanalystes de langue
francaise des pays romans and, 329-330
Disque vert, Le and, 423, 424
Ey and, 539
French psychoanalysis and, 607-608
Journal d un médicin malade, 46, 896-897
Laforgue and, 46, 934
Nin and, 46, 1150
Psychanalyse et les névroses, La, 46, 305,
934, 1345-1346
Psyché and, 1350
Revue frangaise de psychanalyse and, 1498
Société psychanalytique de Paris founding
and, 199, 1623, 1624
surrealism and, 1696
Allendy-Nel-Dumouchel, Yvonne, 45, 46
Allergic character, 48
Allergic object relationship, 47, 48
Allergies, 47, 47-49
Allgemeine Arztliche Gesellschaft fiir
Psychotherapie (AAGP), 49, 1131, 1547
Allgemeine Neurosenlehre (Brun), 231
Alloeroticism, 141
Allouch, Jean, 1084
Allport, Gordon William, 1567
Almanach der Psychoanalyse, 49-50
Almassy, Endre, 766
Alpha-elements, 50-51, 184
beta-elements and, 50, 171
contact-barrier and, 50, 340
infant development and, 815
proto-thoughts and, 1343
Alpha function, 51-52, 184, 952, 953
alpha-elements and, 50
arrogance and, 121
beta-elements and, 171
beta-screens and, 171-172
frame of psychoanalytic treatment and, 606
hallucinosis and, 722
proto-thoughts and, 1343
Als, Heidelise, 1382
Als ob personality. See “As if” personality
Altenberg, Peter, 732
Alter ego, 52, 185, 317
Alter ego transference. See Twinship
transference
Alteration of the ego, 76, 468-469
Alterity. See Otherness
Althusser, Louis, 52-53, 611, 1018, 1668
Altounian, Jeanine, 846, 1439
Altruism, 53-55, 97, 1449
Altruistic surrender, 54, 236
Alvarez, B., 315
Alvarez de Toledo, Luisa Agusta Rebeca
Gambier de, 55-56, 117, 1015
Alvim, Francisco, 1296, 1297
Alvin, F., 1637
Alyoshina, Julia, 1520
Amae, 56, 888
Amar, André, 1632
Amaral, Ligia, 919
Ambition, 517, 1679
Ambivalence, 56—57
Abraham, Karl on, 6, 56-57, 74, 326, 394,
1082, 1204-1205
aggression and, 34
anal eroticism and, 514-515
anal-sadistic stage and, 74
anality and, 72
bisexuality and, 187
biting and, 6
contradiction and, 341
cruelty and, 355
death and, 370
depression and, 57, 394
doubt and, 435-436
fusion/defusion and, 658
gifts and, 683
guilt and, 716
infantile psychosis and, 825, 826
maternal and, 1027
melancholia and, 21, 57, 1038, 1082
myth of origins and, 1321
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
need for causality and, 1119
oral-sadistic stage and, 1203, 1204-1205
orality and, 57, 1202
pairs of opposites and, 1220
paranoia and, 1228
reaction-formations and, 1449
rivalry and, 1506
symptoms and, 1715
taboo and, 1723-1724
turning around and, 1806
uncanny and, 1815
undoing and, 1822
weaning and, 1851-1852
Amentia, 57-58
“Amentia” (Meynert), 1054
American Academy of Psychoanalysis, 43,
58, 58-60, 852
American Handbook of Psychiatry, 1541
American Imago, 60, 801, 803, 1523, 1859
American Institute for Psychoanalysis,
759, 1644
American Psychoanalytic Association
(APA), 60-63
American Academy of Psychoanalysis and,
58, 59
Brill and, 227, 1823
Burrow and, 237, 238
Canadian psychoanalysis and, 242,
243, 244
Freud U.S. visit and, 303, 1823
Hall and, 721
International Psychoanalytical Association
and, 227-228, 856, 857, 858-859, 1531,
1644, 1824, 1825-1826
Journal of the American Psychoanalytic
Association and, 897-898
Klein and, 992, 993
Kohut and, 919
lay analysis and, 61, 62-63, 857, 858-859,
951, 1432, 1644, 1823
Loewenstein and, 988
Los Angeles Psychoanalytic Society/
Institute and, 992, 993
Putnam and, 207, 227, 1425, 1823
Rank and, 1445
Russian/Soviet psychoanalysis and, 1519
San Francisco Psychoanalytic Society and
Institute and, 1529, 1530-1532
Second World War and, 1558
Sterba-Radanowicz-Hartmann and, 1658
Wilbur and, 1860
American Society for Group Psychotherapy
and Psychodrama, 78
American Therapeutic Society, 207
Amnesia, 63—66
infantile, 64, 592, 819-820
lifting of, 976-977
somnambulism and, 1636
Amour au travers de la haine, L’
(Dorey), 729
Amphimixia, 66-67
Amplification, 67-68, 79, 865
Amputation, 1682
Amsden, George, 192
An Autobiographical Study (Freud), 1672
Anaclisis, 68-70, 1191, 1663, 1682
attachment and, 126
erotogenicity and, 520, 521
myth of origins and, 1092
narcissism and, 1105
object-choice and, 1175
objects and and, 1168
orality and, 1202, 1204
primary need and, 1316
reciprocal paths of influence and, 1456
sucking and, 1682, 1752-1753
Anaclitic depression, 70-71, 397, 760, 1641
Anagogical interpretation, 71-72, 1679
Anal eroticism, 72, 514-515
anal-sadistic stage and, 73, 515
coprophilia and, 346
encopresis and, 504
gifts and, 682
money and, 514, 519
stages and, 1652
sublimation and, 1679
symptoms and, 1714
Anal-sadistic stage, 73-74
activity/passivity and, 17
anal eroticism and, 73, 515
anality and, 72
castration complex and, 252
compulsion and, 322
cruelty and, 355
encopresis and, 504
masochism and, 74, 518, 1021
obsessional neurosis and, 74, 211
sadism and, 74, 1525
Anal stage
conflict and, 326
demand and, 388
mastery and, 1023-1024
modesty and, 1067
wish for a baby and, 1864
See also Anal-sadistic stage
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
“Analisis del asociar, del interpreter y de las
palabras” (Alvarez de Toledo), 55
Anality, 72-73
character and, 272
inferiority feelings and, 831
pregnancy fantasy and, 1302
projective identification and, 72, 1338
See also Anal eroticism; Anal-sadistic stage;
Anal stage
Analysand, 74-75
“Analyse des réves, L” (Jung), 89
Analyse Freudienne, 1084
Analyse freudienne, 1084
“Analyse originelle, L” (Mannoni), 1010
Analysis. See Psychoanalytic treatment
“Analysis, Terminable and Interminable”
(Freud), 16, 76-77, 81, 182
on castration complex, 254
on change, 268
on character, 269-270
on ego, 466
on ego interests, 484
on externalization-internalization, 537
on female sexuality, 574
fourth analysis and, 603-604
on fusion/defusion, 659
on incompleteness, 806
on infantile sexual curiosity, 1590
on memory, 1043
on negative therapeutic reaction, 1126
on rejection of femininity, 575
on repetition compulsion, 1475
on repression, 1480
on termination of treatment, 76—77, 1737
on therapeutic alliance, 1741
on transference, 423
on unpleasure, 1827
on Witch metapsychology, 1868
on working-off mechanisms, 1877
on working-through, 1880
“Analysis of a Case of Infantile Obsessional
Neurosis” (Sokolnicka), 1633
“Analysis of a Phobia in a five-year-old boy”
(Freud). See “Little Hans” case
“Analysis of a Schizophrenic State of
Depersonalization” (Rosenfeld), 1514
“Analysis of Psychotics, The” (Federn), 568
Analysis of the Self, The (Kohut), 691,
784, 920
on action-thought, 13
on mirror transference, 1059
on narcissism, 1107
on narcissistic rage, 1115
2053
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
on narcissistic transference, 1115
on self, 1579, 1580
on self-object, 1574
self psychology and, 1576
on twinship transference, 1810
Analysis under supervision, 1692-1693
Analyst role. See Psychoanalyst role
Analytic object, 209, 1568
Analytic psychodrama, 77-79
Analytic relationship. See Psychoanalyst
role; Psychoanalytic treatment
Analytic technique. See Psychoanalytic
treatment
“Analytic Therapy” (Freud), 95
Analytical psychology, 79-81
alchemy and, 40, 115
amplification and, 67-68, 865
on animus/anima, 86-87, 313, 812,
903-904
archetypes in, 115
Canadian psychoanalysis and, 246
on counter-transference, 1779-1780
on ego, 463, 469-470
on extroversion/introversion, 537-538
on self, 469-470
on transference, 79, 80, 1779-1780
See also Jung, Carl Gustav; Self (analytical
psychology)
See also specific concepts
Analytical Psychology Club, 79, 1871
Analytische Seelsorge (Pfister), 1260
Analyzability, 81, 1787
Anatomy of Human Destructiveness, The
(Fromm), 651
Anaximander, 313
Anderson, Robin, 896
Andersson, Ola, 81-83, 82, 497, 1698-1699
Andkjer Olsen, Ole, 391
Andrade de Azevedo, Ana Maria, 859
Andrau, Renée, 806
André, Jacques, 574
André Berge: écrivain, psychanalyste,
éducateur (Berge), 162
Andreas, Friedrich Carl, 83
Andreas-Salomé, Louise, 83—84
on alcoholism, 41
Bjerre and, 188
German psychoanalysis and, 674
Heller and, 732
on narcissism, 84, 1106, 1107
“On Transience” and, 1195
on partial drives, 1241
on sublimation, 1679
2054
Tausk and, 1727
on Young Girls Diary, A, 1883
Andreoli, Antonio, 1701
Angelergues, René, 314, 912, 1435, 1876
Angoisse et la pensée magique, L’
(Odier), 1183
Angst. See Anxiety
Animal behavior. See Ethology
Animal magnetism, 84-85, 972-973,
LST S29
Animal phobias, 1273, 1275
Animistic thought, 85-86
certainty and, 265
double and, 434
estrangement and, 524
fundamental rule and, 657
Mead on, 1035
omnipotence of thoughts and, 85, 86, 1189
taboo and, 85, 1724
Animus/anima, 86-87, 313, 812, 903-904
Anlehnung. See Anaclisis
Anna Freud Center, 230, 818
Anna Freud Foundation, 490
“Anna O.” case, 87-89, 224, 1223-1224
cathartic method and, 87-89, 225, 257-258
creativity and, 352
daydreams and, 555, 1493
developmental processes and, 1329
feminist views of psychoanalysis and, 578
hypnosis and, 88, 225, 258, 768
memory and, 1042-1043
transference and, 88, 89, 225, 1787
Année psychologique, L’-, 89-90
Annees brunes, Les, 241
Annihilation anxieties, 90, 1256, 1433
Annual of Psychoanalysis, 278
Anorexia nervosa, 54, 91-92, 138, 1578,
1665, 1686
Another Woman (film), 294
Ansart, Pierre, 1632
Anschluss. See Nazi Germany
Ansermet, Francois, 1701
Anthony, James, 601
Anthropology, 92-94
Binswanger on, 181
civilization and, 299
double and, 434
ethnopsychoanalysis and, 154, 409-410,
526-527
incest and, 804
Kardiner and, 906
magical thinking and, 1000
Malinowski, 1005
Mead, 410, 651, 1035
Roheim and, 93, 1000, 1509-1510
signifiers and, 1604
Anti-analysand, 75, 809
Anti-oedipal, 1436
Anti-Oedipus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia
(Deleuze and Guattari), 97-99, 612
Anti-psychiatry, 98, 699
Anti-Semitism, 1437-1439
Austrian psychoanalysis and, 133
Bernheim and, 170
Bjerre on, 189
Collége de Psychanalystes and, 314
Dutch psychoanalysis and, 1133
failure neurosis and, 544
Freud and, 899
Freud’s secondary schooling and, 1836
German romanticism and, 673
Hesnard and, 742
Hungarian psychoanalysis and, 765
Jung and, 902
Khan and, 698
Laforgue and, 1401, 1402
Langer on, 941
Loewenstein on, 291
Mauco and, 1034
Revue francaise de psychanalyse and, 1498
U.S. psychoanalysis and, 1824
Weininger and, 1588
See also Holocaust; Nazi Germany
Anti-Semitism: A Social Disease
(Simmel), 1612
Anticathexes, 94-95
defense mechanisms and, 377
depression and, 395
desexualization and, 398
disorganization and, 420
hysteria and, 773
protective shield and, 1341
reaction-formations and, 94, 1449
repression and, 94, 1309, 1478, 1482, 1492
somnambulism and, 1636
tics and, 1756
Anticipatory ideas, 95-96
Anticipatory mourning, 1196
Antigone, Lacan on, 526
Antilibidinal ego, 96-97
Antinarcissism, 97, 1114
Antiphrasis, 4
Antisocial behavior, 2, 18-19, 154, 972
See also Criminology
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, Pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
“Antisocial Tendency, The”
(Winnicott), 972
“Antithetical Meaning of Primal Words,
The” (Freud), 3-4, 1495, 1585, 1723
Antoedipus (Racamier), 1436
Anxiety, 99-102
abandonment and, 2, 101
active technique and, 15
allergies and, 47, 48
annihilation, 90, 1256, 1433
autism and, 1809
automatic, 734, 1604, 1639, 1639
birth and, 185
birth trauma and, 834
Bleger on, 194
Brun on, 231
castration complex and, 253
danger and, 102, 364
Darwinism and, 366
death and, 370
disintegration, 90, 418, 605, 1320
ego and, 466, 471-472, 479
eight-month, 1186, 1664
encopresis and, 504
envy and, 509
fear and, 562-563
gifts and, 682
helplessness and, 734
id and, 779
infantile psychosis and, 826
inhibition and, 832
libido and, 969
Mom on, 1068
neurasthenia and, 1136
New Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis
on, 1145
orality and, 1202-1203
paranoid position and, 1231
passage to the act and, 18
patient physical position and, 541, 542
phobias and, 1273, 1274
protective shield and, 1340
psychotic panic and, 1416
quota of affect and, 1433-1434
Real and, 1454
seduction theory and, 1592
self-mutilation and, 1572
shame and, 1599
specific actions and, 1638-1639
splitting of the object and, 1642
Stekel on, 1131-1132
subject’s desire and, 1678
substitute formations and, 1680
suffering and, 1683
superego and, 1691
symptoms and, 1715
trauma and, 1801
uncanny and, 1816
See also Castration anxiety; Signal anxiety
“Anxiety and Infancy” (Spitz), 1664
Anxiety dreams, 102-103, 1150
Anxiety hysteria. See Phobic neurosis
Anxiety neurosis, 19, 420, 1135-1137, 1681
Anzieu, Annie, 896, 1297, 1653
Anzieu, Didier, 103-105, 1613-1614
adhesive identification and, 24, 815
“Aimée” case and, 38
Association psychanalytique de France and,
122, 124
Berge and, 162
Bick and, 104, 178
on body image, 197
Congres des psychanalystes de langue
frangaise des pays romans and, 331
dream screen and, 441
on ego, 465
French psychoanalysis and, 613
French psychoanalytic establishment split
(1964) and, 104, 122
on Freud’s self-analysis, 643, 754
group analysis and, 610, 710, 1371
on heroic identification, 738-739
on identification, 790
on incompleteness, 805
on infant development, 815
infant observation and, 816
on introspection, 871
Journal de la psychanalyse de T enfant
and, 896
on maternal, 1028
on mother-infant bond, 1613
on mythology, 1097
on negative therapeutic reaction, 1127
Nouvelle Revue de psychanalyse and, 1162
on object, 1170
on paradox, 434, 1127, 1226
photograph of, I:pl.4
on pleasure in thinking, 1289
on protective shield, 1341
on psychic envelopes, 739
Rorschach and, 1394
Schilder and, 1538
on self, 1567
on self-consciousness, 1569
Société francaise de psychanalyse and, 1619
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
Société psychanalytique de Paris and, 1626
sociology and, 1632
on tenderness, 1736
Union of Psychoanalysts and Psychologists
and, 1034
on visual arts, 1842
on work, 1876
See also Skin-ego
Anzieu, Marguerite, 104
APA. See American Psychoanalytic
Association; Asociacion psicoanalitica
Argentina
Apathy, 506
APDEBA (Asociacion Psicoanalitica de
Buenos Aires), 118
Apel, Karl-Otto, 1699
“Apercu sur histoire de la littérature
psychanalytique” (Viderman), 1834-1835
APF. See Association psychanalytique de
France
Aphanisis, 105-106
annihilation anxieties and, 90
female sexuality and, 574
phallus and, 1264
Aphasia, 106-107, 143, 212, 1042
Aphemia, 106
Apollinaire, Guillaume, 45, 223, 708
Apollon, Willy, 246
Aportaciones al concepto de objeto en
psicoanalisis (Baranger), 150
Apparatus, 32
Applied psychoanalysis, 107-108
Apprenti-historien et le maitre-sorcier (L’-)
(Aulagnier), 110-111, 130, 142
Apres coup. See Deferred action
APUI (Association pour une Instance Tierce
des Psychanalystes), 957, 1084
Aragao de Souza Pinto, Jenserico, 213
Aragon, Louis, 730, 1283, 1695
Aranha, Zenaira, 215
Arar, Fatima, 1155
Aray, Julio, 1832, 1833
Arbours Association, 699
Archaic, 111-112
Anzieu on, 104, 790
archaic mother, 112-113, 365
cultural transmission and, 357, 358
disintegration anxieties and, 418
dreams and, 112, 1007
phobias and, 1274
tenderness and, 1736
Archaic identity. See “Participation
mystique”
Archaic mother, 112-114, 365
2055
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
“Archaique et le profond dans la pensée de
Melanie Klein, L” (Petot), 1326
Archeological metaphors, 114, 296
archaic and, 111, 112, 113
constructions and, 336-337
history and, 750
memories and, 1040-1041
Archeology, 1080
Archetypal psychology, 115
Archetypes, 115
amplification and, 67
collective unconscious and, 115, 313
complexes and, 321
directed daydreams and, 414
imago and, 800
literature and, 986
midlife crisis and, 1055
numinous and, 115, 1165
self and, 115, 1581
synchronicity and, 1720
transference and, 1779
Archimedes, 1683
Archives de psychologie, 1620
Archives de psychologie, Les, 115-116, 301—
302, 592
Archivio generale di neurologia e psichiatria,
963, 1508
Arcila, G., 315
Arendt, Hannah, 1439
Argelander, Hermann, 1602
Argentine Psychoanalytic Association. See
Asociaci6n psicoanalitica Argentina
Argentinian psychoanalysis, 116-119, 241
analytic psychodrama and, 78
Bleger, 118, 193-194
Carcamo, 55, 117, 247-248
Garma and, 665
International Psychoanalytical Association
and, 858
Langer and, 117, 118, 665, 941
Mom and, 118, 1068
Pichon-Riviére and, 117, 118, 193,
1284-1285
Revista de psicoandalisis, 1496
Uruguayan psychoanalysis and, 1829
Arieti, Silvano, 1541
Aristotle, 225, 256, 445
hermeneutics and, 738
on psyche, 1349
sexuation and, 1595
on thought identity, 1749
Arlow, Jacob, 48, 119-120, 487, 897,
1148, 1610
2056
Armand Trousseau Children’s Hospital,
120-121, 427
Aron, Raymond, 935
Aron, W., 1640
ARPAC (Asociacion Regiomontana de
Psicoanalisis, L’), 1052
Arrivé, Michel, 982
Arrogance, 121-122, 1141
Arrué, Omar, 285
Art. See Creativity; Visual arts
Art of Loving, The (Fromm), 651
Art therapy, 985
Artaud, Antonin, 46, 1152, 1696
Artaza, Ximena, 284, 285
Artemis, 1080
Artesanias psicoanaliticas (Baranger), 150
Arthus, Henri, 1395
Artieres, Michel, 1628
Aryen, son role social, L’ (Vacher de
Lapouge), 1437
Arztgesellschaft fiir Psychoanalyse
(Switzerland), 231
“As if” personality, 122, 405
anality and, 72
autistic capsule and, 138
blank psychoses and, 191
borderline conditions and, 122, 202
lies and, 972
Ascher, Jacques, 42, 900, 1439
Asociacion de psicoanalitica de Madrid,
1638
Asociacion psicoanalitica argentina, 1637
Asociaci6n psicoanalitica Argentina (APA),
4,118
Alvarez de Toledo and, 55
Brazilian psychoanalysis and, 214
Carcamo and, 247
founding of, 117
Garma and, 665
Perestrello, Danilo and, 1250
Pichon-Rivieére and, 1284
Racker and, 1440
Rascovsky and, 1447
Revista de psicoandlisis and, 117, 248,
1447, 1496
Asociacion Psicoanalitica de Buenos Aires
(APDEBA), 118
Asociacion Psicoanali[]tica del
Uruguay, 150
Asociacion psicoanalitica du Chili, 284
Asociacion psicoanalitica mexicana (APM),
1051, 1052
Asociacion Regiomontana de Psicoanilisis,
L’ (ARPAC), 1052
Asociacion Venezolana de Psicoanalisis
(ASOVEP), 1833
ASOVEP (Asociacion Venezolana de
Psicoanalisis), 1833
“Assistant Producer, The” (Nabokov), 493
Associacao Brasileira de Psicanalise (ABP),
215, 1012
Associacao brasileira de psicoterapia
analitica de grupo, 217
Associacao jungiana brasileira, 217
Association, 320, 337-338, 1424, 1680
See also Free association
Association de la Cause freudienne, 455—
456, 612
Association de la fondation du champ
freudienne, 455
Association de santé mentale, 610, 911, 955
Association des Psychanalystes de Belgique,
157, 956
Association for Child Psychoanalysis, 925,
1658
Association for the Advancement of
Psychoanalysis, 1558, 1644, 1745-1746
Association for the Psychiatric Treatment of
Offenders, 1543
Association Freudienne internationale
(AFI), 612, 1084
Association Internationale d’Etudes
Médico-Psychologiques et Religieuses, 156
Association Internationale d’histoire de la
psychanalyse. See International
Association of the History of
Psychoanalysis
Association Internationale Psychothérapie
et de Psychologie Catholique, 290
Association Médico-Psychologique d’Aide
aux Religieux, 156
Association mondial de la psychanalyse. See
World Association of Psychoanalysis
Association pour une Instance Tierce des
Psychanalystes (APUI), 957, 1084
Association Psychanalytique de France
(APF), 122-124
Anzieu and, 104
Berge and, 162
Confrontation and, 327
Congreés des psychanalystes de langue
francaise des pays romans and, 331
Documents et Débats, 123, 124, 426
Ecole de la Cause freudienne and, 455
Ecole freudienne de Paris and, 458
Favez and, 122, 561
Fédida and, 569
founding of, 611
Granoff and, 692
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Lagache and, 935
Language of Psychoanalysis, The, 944
Nouvelle Revue de psychanalyse and, 1162
recent role of, 613
Smirnoff and, 122, 123, 1617
Société psychanalytique de Paris and, 1626
Assoun, Paul-Laurent
on determinism, 401
on epistemology, 1370
on hatred, 729
on parricide, 1239
on philosophy, 1270
Asthma, 47, 124-125, 1613, 1665
Astor, David, 230
Athanassiou, Cléopatre, 995-996, 1499
Atheism, 159
Athena, 574
Atkinson, James Jasper, 1303, 1320, 1321
Attachment, 125-126
adolescence and, 29
American Academy of Psychoanalysis
and, 59
ethology and, 528
infant development and, 814-815
infantile neurosis and, 821-822
maternal care and, 1029-1030
Robertson on, 1509
skin and, 1612
See also Attachment theory
Attachment theory, 125, 126
abandonment and, 2
experience of satisfaction and, 537
Fairbairn and, 546
on primary need, 1316
Attacks on linking, 983-984
“Attacks on Linking” (Bion), 51, 121, 983
Attention, 126-128
alpha function and, 952
dismantling and, 419
dream-like memory and, 439
evenly-suspended, 530-531
hypercathexis and, 767
Attention and Interpretation (Bion), 127,
184, 439, 1464
Attia, Samia, 1155
Attias, Addys, 1833
Attunement, 1029
Atwood, George E., 1307, 1567, 1827
“Au-dela du ‘principe de réalite?”
(Lacan), 799
“Au-dessus de la mélée” (Rolland), 1511
Au vif de infantile (Guignard), 830
Aubert—Godart, Anne, 1304
Aubry, Carlos, 1
Aubry Weiss, Jenny, 128-129, 195,
610, 1732
Auersberg, Alfred, 248
Aufhebung, 1674
Aufreiter, Friedl, 243
Aufreiter, Hans, 243
Augustine, St., 930
Aulagnier-Spairani, Piera, 110-111,
129-130
on alienation, 44, 111
on autism, 137
on autohistorization, 142, 1385
on body image, 197
Canadian psychoanalysis and, 244
on certainty, 266
on complementary zone-object, 189
Confrontation and, 327
Ecole freudienne de Paris and, 457, 458
on ego, 467
on ego ideal, 480
on encounter, 505
Enriquez-Joly and, 506
French psychoanalysis and, 129, 613
on fusion/defusion, 659
on J, 110-111, 130, 142, 775-776, 793,
DIE AY
on idealization, 784
on ideational representation, 785-786
on identificatory project, 790, 793-794
on ideology, 795, 796
Inconscient, L’ and, 528, 611, 806, 807, 1835
on infans stage, 812, 813-814
on infant development, 815
on infantile psychosis, 826-827
on intergenerational phenomena, 846
on internal/external reality, 848
on knowledge instinct, 918
on listening, 984
on logic, 990
on megalomania, 1036-1037
on need for causality, 1119-1120
on object, 1170
on pass, 1243, 1251
on passion, 1244
on perversion, 1259
photograph of, [:pl.5
on pictogram, 221, 1285-1287, 1312-1313
on primal, 1312-1313
on primary/secondary processes,
1328, 1840
on process, 1328
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
Psychanalyse, La and, 1348
on psychic causality, 1355
on psychic temporality, 1360
on psychoses, 192, 1404, 1839-1840
on psychotic potential, 1417-1418
Quatriéme Groupe and, 129, 529, 611, 807,
1429, 1430, 1645
on representability, 1477
on representation, 782
Schilder and, 1538
on sense/nonsense, 1584, 1585
Societé francaise de psychanalyse and, 1619
Societé psychanalytique de Paris and, 1628
on subject, 1674
on time, 1757-1758
Topique and, 130, 807, 1759
on truth, 1805
on uncanny, 1816
on visual, 1841
Austin, John, 1153
Australian Association of Group
Psychotherapists, 132
Australian psychoanalysis, 130-132
Austregesilo, Antonio, 214
Austrian psychoanalysis, 132-136, 207
See also Wiener psychoanalytische
Vereinigung
Austrian Society for the Study of Child
Psychoanalysis, 135
Authoritarian personality, 1632
Authoritarian Personality, The (Adorno
et al.), 32, 1018
Autism, 136-138
Abraham, Karl on, 6
adhesive identification and, 24, 137
Bettelheim on, 136, 173, 502—504
birth trauma and, 1803
black holes and, 189-190, 218
breakdown and, 218
defenses and, 139
deprivation and, 397
dismantling and, 419, 420
imaginary and, 799
infantile, 71, 136
infantile psychosis and, 824, 825, 828
Mahler-Schonberger on, 136, 139,
503, 1001
Putnam Children’s Center and, 208
repetition and, 1474
self-mutilation and, 1572, 1573
skin and, 1613
sucking and, 1682
tube-ego and, 1806
2057
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Tustin on, 137, 138, 139, 420, 1809
Autism and Childhood Psychosis (Tustin),
138, 189, 1682
Autistic Barriers in Neurotic Patients
(Tustin), 138, 189, 1806
Autistic capsule/nucleus, 138-139
Autistic defenses, 139
Autistic object, 1573
Autistic States in Children (Tustin), 420
Auto-analyse, L’: Son réle dans la découverte
de la psychanalyse par Freud (Anzieu), 643
Auto-sadism, 1577
“Autobiographical Study, An” (Freud),
139-140
on Darwinism, 366
on fantasy, 551
on hypnoid states, 768
on latency period, 946
on libido, 970
on phylogenesis, 1277
on repetition compulsion, 1475
on seduction scenes, 1565
Autobiography, 140-141
Autobiography of a Schizophrenic Girl
(Sechehaye), 1557
Autoeroticism, 141-142
alcoholism and, 41
anaclisis and, 68, 69, 1752-1753
anal-sadistic stage and, 74
autism and, 136
choice of neurosis and, 288
desexualization and, 399
dipsomania and, 412, 413
enuresis and, 507
fragmentation and, 605
homosexuality and, 757
maternal and, 1027, 1028
narcissism and, 1105
object loss and, 994
Oedipus complex and, 1186
substitute formations and, 1680
sucking and, 141, 1681-1682
suicide and, 1687
See also Masturbation
Autohistorization, 142, 1385
Automatic anxiety, 734, 1604, 1639, 1639
Automatic writing, 987, 1695
Automatism, 142-143, 323, 386, 1672
Automatisme psychologique (Janet), 1672
Automatisme psychologique, L’ (Janet), 769
Automatisme psychologique, L’ (Janet), 1685
Automization, 473-474
Autonomy, 3, 29, 91
2058
See also Ego autonomy
Autoplastic behavior, 144
Autoportrait d une psychanalyste (Dolto-
Marette), 426
Autosuggestion, 144, 1432
Autre Ecrits (Lacan), 460, 1552
Autumn Sonata (film), 294
Aux carrefours de la haine (Enriquez-Joly),
506
Avant-garde, 45
Avery, Tex, 294
Avoidance, 1274
“Ayahuasca” (Alvarez de Toledo), 55
Ayala, Jaime, 1052
Ayme, Jean, 1766
Ayrosa, Carneiro, 214
Azim, Hassan, 244
Aziz, Robert, 1720
Azoubel, David, 217
B
Babel of the Unconscious, The (Mehler), 1086
Babies. See Infancy
Babinski, Joseph, 1414, 1529
Babits, Mihaly, 765
Bach, Helmut, 1131
Bachelard, Gaston, 145-146, 400, 559,
1367-1368, 1550, 1668
Bachelard, Pierre, 1350
Bachmann, Ingeborg, 706
Backward Child and His Mother, The: A
Psychoanalysis Study (Mannoni), 456
Badiou, Alain, 241
Baer Bahia, Alcyon, 214, 248
Baginsky, Adolf, 146, 842
Baginsky, Joseph, 637
Bahia, A. A., 215, 216, 217
Bahr, Hermann, 1214-1215
Baillarger, Jules, 1178
Bailly, Jean Sylvain, 84
Bailly, René, 458
Bak, Robert C., I:pl.6, 146-147, 391,
764, 1148
Bakan, David, 900
Balbo, Gabriel, 388-389
Baldacci, Jean-Louis, 1630
Balderas, R., 1052
Balibar, Etienne, 241
Balint, Enid
Australian psychoanalysis and, 132
Balint, Michael and, 148
Balint groups and, 147
British psychoanalysis and, 699-700
Tavistock Clinic and, 1728
Balint, Michael, 148-149
on alcoholism, 42
amae and, 56
Australian psychoanalysis and, 131, 132
Balint groups and, 147, 149
Bick and, 177
British psychoanalysis and, 697, 699-700
on change, 268
on character, 273
on clinging instinct, 307, 737
on counter-transference, 1090
on dependence, 392
Development of Psycho-Analysis and, 407
on ego-libido/object-libido, 486
on elasticity, 494
Ferenczi and, 148, 149, 328, 581
on frame of psychoanalytic treatment, 607
on genital love, 671
German psychoanalysis and, 1060
Groddeck and, 706
Hungarian psychoanalysis and, 765, 766
Hungarian School and, 148, 700, 763, 764
on id, 779
on internal/external reality, 848
on libido, 969
Main and, 1003
on mutual analysis, 1090
on narcissism, 97, 148-149, 151, 1111
on primary love, 1314-1315
on primary narcissism, 148-149, 151, 1315
Psychanalyse, La and, 1348
Psyche and, 1351
Raimbault, Emile and, 1442
on regression, 160-161, 1709
Sachs and, 148, 1523
on self, 1582
on sucking, 1682
Tavistock Clinic and, 1728
on tenderness, 1736
on transference love, 1785
Balint groups, 147-148, 149, 700,
1003, 1442
Balint-Szekely-Kovacs, Alice, 148, 149-150
Hungarian psychoanalysis and, 765, 766
Hungarian School and, 764
on primary narcissism, 1315
Zeitschrift fir psychoanalytische Padagogik
and, 1886
Balkany, Charlotte, 1653
Ball, Benjamin, 306, 1528
Ballesteros, Lopez, 1637
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Ballet, Gilbert, 1136
Bally, Charles, 1556
Bally, Gustav, 1505
Bally, Gustave, 1703
Balmary, Marie, 1143
Balsam, Rosemary H., 898
Barag, Gerda, 876
Barag, Gershon, 876
Barajas, Rafael, 1051
Barande, Ilse, 610, 1004, 1499
Barande, Robert, 1630
CCTP and, 264
group analysis and, 610
Inconscient, L’ and, 807
on indications/contraindications for
psychoanalysis, 809
on silence, 1610
Societe psychanalytique de Paris and,
1626, 1628
Viderman and, 1835
Baranés, Jean-José, 846, 1266, 1499
Baranger, Madeleine, 150
Argentinian psychoanalysis and, 118
Mom and, 1068
Uruguayan psychoanalysis and, 1829
Baranger, Willy, 150-151
Argentinian psychoanalysis and, 118-119
Federacion psicoanalitica de América latina
and, 566
Italian psychoanalysis and, 881
Mom and, 1068
Uruguayan psychoanalysis and, 1829
Bard, Janet Rioch, 59
Bargues, Raymonde, 129
Barinbaum, Gisela S., 1146
Barker, Pat, 696
Barrau, Bernard, 1653
Barrett, William G., 1529, 1532
Bartemeir, Leo, 242, 725
Barthes, Roland, 1099, 1247
Barthes, Rolland, 1668
Basaglia, Franco, 880
Basic anxiety, 90
Basic assumptions, 151, 709-710, 711
Basic fallacy, 153
Basic fault, 151-152, 161, 1090
Basic Fault, The: Therapeutic Aspects of
Regression (Balint), 148, 151
Basic Neurosis, The—Oral Regression
and Psychic Masochism (Bergler),
152-153, 163
Basic Principles of Psychoanalysis (Brill), 960
Basic Problems of Ethnopsychiatry
(Devereux), 153-154
Basic schizoid position, 96-97
Basic trust, 1598
Basic Writings of Sigmund Freud, The
(Brill), 227
Bass, Alan, 241
Bassine, Philippe, 277
Bastide, Roger, 93, 153, 1774
Bataille, Georges, 204
Bataille, Laurence, 1211
Bataille, Sylvia, 1101
Bateson, Gregory, 1720
on double bind, 433
Liberman and, 980
Mead and, 1035
Pankow and, 1222
on paradox, 1225
U.S. psychoanalysis and, 1825
Baudelaire, Charles, 974
Baudouin, Charles, 154-155
Archives de psychologie, Les and, 302
on autosuggestion, 144
Belgian psychoanalysis and, 158
Desoille and, 400
Dubal and, 450
Institut Jean-Jacques Rousseau and, 302
Psyche and, 1350
Sechehaye and, 1556
on suggestion, 1431-1432
Swiss psychoanalysis and, 1700
Baudrillard, Jean, 241, 327
Baudry, Jean-Louis, 294
Bauduin, Andrée, 157
Bauer, Ida, 155-156
See also “Dora” case
Bauleo, Armando, 328
Baumeyer, Franz, 677, 679
Bayle, Gérard, 1273, 1499, 1628, 1629, 1630
Beard, George M., 1135, 1822
Beaunis, Henri, 89
Bechterev, Vladimir, 1515
Beck-Dvorzak, Maja, 1884
Becker, Alois, 133, 1858
Beckett, Samuel, 1457, 1568
Bedeutung der Psychanalyse fiir die
Geiteswissenschaften, Die (Rank and
Sachs), 1842
Bedwetting. See Enuresis
Beerholdt, A., 677
Beethoven, Ludwig van, 1658, 1659
Beethoven and His Nephew (Sterba and
Sterba), 1658
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
Begoin, Jean
on dismantling, 419
French psychoanalysis and, 610
Martinican psychoanalysis and, 1014
Portuguese psychoanalysis and, 1297
Revue francaise de psychanalyse and, 1499
Begoin-Guignard, Florence, 610
Begriff der “Deutung” in der Psychoanalyse,
Der (Bernfeld), 169
Behaviorism, 9, 289, 309, 477
Behn-Eschenburg, Hans, 1886
Being and Nothingness (Sartre), 1535
Being and Time (Heidegger), 181
Being/having opposition, 788
Being/nonbeing opposition, 326
Beirnaert, Louis, 156, 266, 611
“Beitrage zur infantilen Sexualitat”
(Wulff), 1881
Bejarano, Angelo, 426, 610
Beland, Hermann, 679
Belgian psychoanalysis, 156-158,
450-451, 956
Belgische School voor Psychoanalyse (Ecole
Belge de Psychanalyse), 158
Belgische Vereniging voor Psychoanalyse
(Société Belge de Psychanalyse),
157-158, 451
Belief, 158-159
Belkin, Aron, 1519
Bellak, Leopold, 1395
Bellak, Sonya Soral, 1395
Bellanova, Piero, 880
Bellour, Raymond, 294
Ben Rejeb, Riadh, 1156
Ben-Tal, Vicky, 876
Bénassy, Maurice
Dubal and, 450
French psychoanalysis and, 609
Parcheminey and, 1236
Revue francaise de psychanalyse and, 1499
Schlumberger and, 1542
Societé psychanalytique de Paris and, 1625
Benchekroun, Mohammed Fouad, 1155
Benchemsi, Zhor, 1156
Bender, Lauretta, 1538
Benedek, Therese, 159-160
Chicago Psychoanalytic Institute and, 278
German psychoanalysis and, 675
Hungarian School and, 764
on parenthood, 1237
Swedish psychoanalysis and, 1699
Benedetti, Gaetano, 1404
Benedict, Ruth
2059
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
on civilization, 299
Fromm and, 651
Mead and, 1035
on Oedipus complex, 1186
U.S. psychoanalysis and, 1825
Benevolence, 8, 531, 1144
Benhabib, Loufti, 1155
Benhamou, Hervé, 1520
Benign/malignant regression, 160-161
Benjamin, Harry, 1799
Benjamin, Jessica, 576, 577
Benmiloud, Khaled, 1155
Bennani, Jalil, 1155
Bennett, Edward A., 80
Benoit, Pierre, 428
Benounich, Abdelhag, 1155
Benova, M., 361
Benoziglio, Norbert, 1701
Benslama, Fethi, 1156
Benveniste, Emile, 4, 981, 982, 1604
Beratis, Stavroula, 701
Berdiirfnis. See Need
Berenstein, Isidoro, 118
Berg, Charles, 82
Berge, André, 161-162
Centre psychopédagogique Claude-
Bernard and, 161, 265, 559, 560, 609
Clark-Williams trial and, 161, 304
Laforgue and, 934
Psyché and, 161, 1350
Schlumberger and, 1541
Société frangaise de psychanalyse and,
161, 162, 1619
surrealism and, 1696
Berger, Margarethe, 287
Berger, Maurice, 1372
Bergeret, Jean
on character, 270
French psychoanalysis and, 613
on humor, 763
Laforgue and, 934
on “Little Hans” case, 820
on mastery, 1025
on neuroses, 1139
North African psychoanalysis and, 1154
on psychic structure, 1359
on sadism, 1526
on self, 1580
on violence instinct, 1839
Berges, Jean, 388-389
Berggasse 19, Wien IX, III:pl.10,
162-163, 642
2060
Bergler, Edmund, 152-153, 163, 1022
on neutrality, 1144
photograph of, I:pl.7
on silence, 1610
Bergman, M., 846
Bergmann, Martin, 568
Bergsmann, Mihaly. See Balint, Michael
Bergson, Henri, 485
Evolution psychiatrique, V and, 532, 539
hypnosis and, 769
Le Bon and, 953
libido and, 968
on memory, 1042, 1043
Minkowski and, 1057
on psychic apparatus, 1351
Putnam and, 1425
Bérillon, Edgar, 331
Berke, Joseph, 699
Berkeley, George, 847
Berlin Group, 322
Berlin Institute of Psychoanalysis. See
Berliner Psychoanalytisches Institut
Berliner, Bernhard, 1529
Berliner Psychoanalytische Poliklinik, 164—
165, 492, 493, 675, 1069
Berliner Psychoanalytische Vereinigung,
674, 1542, 1611
Berliner Psychoanalytisches Institut (BPI),
165-166
Abraham, Karl and, 5, 6, 165
Alexander and, 42, 166
Berliner Psychoanalytische Poliklinik and,
164-165
Bernfeld and, 166, 169
Boehm and, 165, 198, 199
Chicago Psychoanalytic Institute and, 277—
278
founding of, 61
Sachs and, 165, 166, 1523
Schultz-Hencke and, 1547
Simmel and, 165, 166, 1611
training model of, 62, 1769, 1771
Berman, Anne, 166-167, 608, 1624
Berman, Annette, 204
Berman, Antoine, 241
Berman, Emanuel, 877
Bermann, Gregorio, 116
Bernard, Paul, 540
Bernard, Walter, 1640
Bernardi, Ricardo, 1829
Bernays, Edward, 1655
Bernays, Eli, 634
Bernays-Freud, Anna, 633-634
Bernays-Freud, Minna, 167-168, 621, 1502
Berne, Eric, 568
Berner, Wolfgang, 133, 1858
Bernfeld, Siegfried, 168-170
on Berliner Psychoanalytisches Institut,
166, 169 ,
Fenichel and, 169, 579
on Freud, Josef, 627
German psychoanalysis and, 675
Hietzing Schule and, 745
Lamp! and, 939
Lampl-de Groot and, 938
Lehrinstitut der Wiener
psychoanalytischen Vereinigung, 959
Marxism and, 169, 1017
photograph of, I:pl.8
San Francisco Psychoanalytic Society and
Institute and, 1529
Schultz-Hencke and, 1547
on Secrets of a Soul, The, 1562
Sigmund Freud: Life and Work and, 974
U.S. psychoanalysis and, 1824
Wiener psychoanalytische Vereinigung
and, 1857, 1858
Young Girl's Diary, A and, 1883
Zeitschrift fiir psychoanalytische Pidagogik
and, 1886
Bernhardt, Ernst, 79
Bernheim, Hippolyte, 170-171
British psychoanalysis and, 695
“Cacilie M.” case and, 239
cathartic method and, 225
Delboeuf and, 144, 384
on dreams, 436
Freud and, 332
Freud’s translation, 403
on hypnosis, 769
Liebeault and, 972
on negative hallucination, 1124
on suggestion, 1684-1685
U.S. psychoanalysis and, 1822
Bernier, Jean, 37-38
Bernstein, P., 1157
Bertalanffy, Ludwig von, 1371
Bertrand, Alexandre, 85, 973
Besancon, Alain, 750
Besan¢on, Guy, 1813
Besdine, Matthew, 1289
Besserman Vianna, Helena, 216, 328
Beta-elements, 171, 184
alpha-elements and, 50, 171
beta-screens and, 171-172
hallucinosis and, 723
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
maternal reverie and, 1030-1031
proto-thoughts and, 1343
Beta-screen, 171-172, 340
Betlheim, Stjepan, 727, 1884
Bettelheim, Bruno, 136, 172-173, 461,
502-504, 986, 1553
Beyond Good and Evil (Nietzsche), 201
Beyond the Pleasure Principle (Freud), 173-
175, 975
on anxiety dreams, 103
on automatism, 143
on binding/unbinding, 179
on castration complex, 254
on childhood, 280
on children’s play, 283
collective psychology and, 311
on conflict, 326
on constancy principle, 1323
on death instinct, 371, 372
on discharge, 417
on disorganization, 420
on drives, 445, 446
dualism and, 1070
on ego, 464
Ego and the Id, The and, 471, 472
on ego functions, 478
on ego-instincts, 483
on ego-libido/object-libido, 485
on Eros, 511-512, 513
on estrangement, 524
excitation and, 534
on facilitation, 543
on fate neurosis, 556
on fear, 563
on Fort-da game, 599, 927, 994, 1710
on free energy/bound energy, 617
on fusion/defusion, 658, 659
on gifts, 683
on hypercathexis, 767
on infant observation, 817
on libido, 485, 968
on masochism, 1021
on mythology, 1097
on narcissism, 1105
on nightmares, 1149-1150
on Nirvana principle, 1151
“On Narcissism” and, 1191
on oral eroticism, 516
on orality, 1202
on pain, 1281
on pleasure, 894
on pleasure principle, 1291, 1326
on primary masochism, 1315
on protective shield, 1340
on psychic representative, 1358
psychoanalytic research and, 1379
publication of, 639-640, 753
on punishment dreams, 1422-1423
on racism/anti-Semitism, 1438
Real and, 1453-1454
on repetition, 1473
on repetition compulsion, 1470, 1474
on repression, 1479
on sadism, 1526
on sexuality, 1593
on topographical point of view, 1760
on transference neuroses, 1786
on trauma, 1801
on wish-fulfillment, 1083, 1865
Bianchedi, Elizabeth, 888
Bible, 119, 624, 1269
Biblioteca de Psicoanalisis, 117
Bibliotheque de psychanalyse, 611, 935
Bibliotheque Sigmund Freud, 1629
Bibring, Edward, 176
on altruism, 54
Bornstein and, 205
Boston Psychoanalytic Society/Institute
and, 207
Canadian psychoanalysis and, 242
Czech psychoanalysis and, 361
Gesammelte Werke, 680
Hartmann and, 727
Lehrinstitut der Wiener
psychoanalytischen Vereinigung and, 959
on therapeutic alliance, 1741
Vienna Ambulatorium and, 959
Wiener psychoanalytische Vereinigung
and, 1857
on working-off mechanisms, 1877
Bibring-Lehner, Grete, 176-177
on anxiety neurosis, 1137
Boston Psychoanalytic Society/Institute
and, 207
Canadian psychoanalysis and, 242
Lehrinstitut der Wiener
psychoanalytischen Vereinigung and, 959
on parenthood, 1237
photograph of, I:pl.9
Sterba and, 1659
Wiener psychoanalytische Vereinigung
and, 1857
Bick, Esther, 177-178
on adhesive identification, 24, 125, 419,
815, 1170
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
Anzieu and, 104, 178
on autistic capsule, 138
on body image, 197
on breastfeeding, 221
child analysis and, 1732
on disintegration anxieties, 418
on infant observation, 177, 178, 816, 817,
818-819
on infantile psychosis, 825
on prematurity, 1304
Schilder and, 1538
on self, 1567
on self-mutilation, 1573
on skin, 178, 221, 815, 1170, 1613
Tavistock Clinic and, 177, 1728
on tenderness, 1736
on transitional phenomena, 1794
Bicudo, Virginia, 214, 216, 217
Bidimensionality, 137
Big graph, 1031
Big Other, 53, 1202
Bigras, Elizabeth, 864
Bigras, Julien Joseph Normand, 178-179,
245, 528, 864, 1623
Bilz, Rudolf, 1734
Binding/unbinding of the instincts,
179-180
activity/passivity and, 17
adolescence and, 27
free energy/bound energy and, 617
fusion/defusion and, 658, 659
tics and, 1756
trauma and, 1801
Binet, Agnes, 766
Binet, Alfred, 89, 460, 769, 871
Binger, Carl, 43
Binion, Rudolf, 314
Binswanger, Herbert, 852
Binswanger, Ludwig, 180-182, 638
“Anna O.” case and, 225, 1224
on epistemology, 1371
Evolution psychiatrique, L’ and, 532
Fedida and, 569
on German romanticism, 674
on Goethe, 686
Hirschfeld, Elfriede and, 747
Merleau-Ponty and, 1047
Minkowski and, 1057
on phenomenology, 1267
Swiss psychoanalysis and, 1702, 1703
Binswanger, Otto, 674, 678
Bioenergy, 272
2061
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Biolibidio (Levi Bianchini), 963
Biological bedrock, 182-183, 254, 575,
773, 1278
“Biological Economy of Birth, The”
(Greenacre), 702
Bion, Wilfred Ruprecht, 183-184
on alpha-elements, 50-51, 184, 815
on alpha function, 51-52, 121, 184, 952,
953
analytic psychodrama and, 78
Anzieu and, 104
Argentinian psychoanalysis and, 118
on arrogance, 121
on attacks on linking, 983-984
on attention, 127-128, 439
on autobiography, 140
on basic assumption, 151, 709-710, 711
on beta-elements, 171, 184
on beta-screens, 171-172
on binding/unbinding, 658
on birth, 185
on birth trauma, 1803
on bizarre object, 188
Bleger and, 194
Brazilian psychoanalysis and, 217
British psychoanalysis and, 699
Canadian psychoanalysis and, 244
on castration, 1676
on castration complex, 254
on catastrophic change, 257, 418
on change, 268
on common sense, 419
on compulsion, 323
on concepts, 323-324
on contact-barrier, 339-340
on container-contained, 184, 340, 850
Corrao and, 347
on death instinct, 373
on deferred action, 380
definition of psychoanalysis and, 1363
on disintegration anxieties, 418
on dream-like memory, 439
on emotions, 501
on envy, 508-509
on fantasy, 551
feminist views of psychoanalysis and, 577
Foulkes and, 601
on frame of psychoanalytic treatment, 606
on grids, 704, 705, 1031
on groups, 183, 184, 601, 709, 710-711,
Tlsy NS7A|
on hallucinatory, 722
on hallucinosis, 722-723
2062
on hatred, 729
on infans stage, 813
on infant development, 815
on infant observation, 817
on infantile psychosis, 824-825, 826
on intergenerational phenomena, 846
on internal/external reality, 848
on internal objects, 849, 850
on invariant, 871-872
Israeli psychoanalysis and, 878
Italian psychoanalysis and, 879, 880, 881
on lack of differentiation, 932
Learning from Experience, 50, 171, 339, 704,
952-953
on logic, 990
Los Angeles Psychoanalytic Society/
Institute and, 992
on Love-Hate-Knowledge links, 995-996
Main and, 1003
on maternal, 1028
on memoirs of the future, 1039-1040
Money-Kyrle and, 1070
on nameless dread, 90
on negative capability, 1123-1124
on nonverbal communication, 1154
on object, 1170
on preconception, 1299-1300
on primal, 1312
on primary object, 1317
on projective identification, 1336, 1339
on protective shield, 1340
on proto-thoughts, 1343
psychology and psychoanalysis and, 1398
on psychotic defenses, 1414
on psychotic panic, 1416
on psychotic part of the personality,
1416-1417
on psychotic transference, 1419
on puerperal psychoses, 1422
Racamier and, 1436
on realization, 1451-1452
Rees and, 1457
on relations model, 1464
on representation, 551, 782
on resistance, 1489
on reverie, 5, 127-128, 184, 1030-1031,
1169, 1317
Rickman and, 183, 1502
Second World War and, 1558
on selected facts, 1566-1567
on self, 1568
on sense/nonsense, 1585
Simmel and, 1612
on skin, 1613
sociology and, 1632
on splitting, 1646
on splitting of the object, 1642
Swedish psychoanalysis and, 1699
on symbiosis, 1464, 1706
on symbolic equation, 1709
on symbolization, 1714
Tavistock Clinic and, 1728
on thought-thinking apparatus, 1749-1750
on transformations, 1790
Tustin and, 1809
on vertex, 1833-1834
on work of the negative, 1130
Bios, Psyche, Person (Caruso), 249
Biosocial theory, 307
Biotrauma, 90
Bipolar self, 184-185
Birot, Elisabeth, 1686
Birraux, Annie, 1275, 1276
Birth, 185-186, 185, 1747
Birth dreams, 185-186
“Birth of Intellect, The” (Ferenczi), 1289
Birth trauma, 641
anaclitic depression and, 70
asthma and, 124
castration complex and, 253
Laforgue on, 933
Rank on, 124, 253, 641,833, 834,
1802-1803
Bisexuality, 186-187, 1635, 1752
aggression and, 33
female sexuality and, 365, 571
femininity and, 573
homosexuality and, 757
masculinity/femininity and, 186-187, 1019
object-choice and, 187, 1175
parenthood and, 1237
pregnancy fantasy and, 1302-1303
rejection of femininity and, 575
rivalry and, 1506
sublimation and, 1679
superego and, 1691
symbolization and, 1714
Weininger and, 1587-1588
Biting, 6
Bittencourt de Martins, Zaira, 215, 217, 248
Bitter, Wilhelm, 677
Bizarre object, 188, 850, 851
Bjerre, Poul, 188-189, 1697
Bjork, Stig, 584
Black holes, 189-190, 218
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Black Skin, White Masks (Fanon), 549
Blacker, Kay Hill, 871
Blackett-Milner, Marion, 190-191
Blackmail, 1686
Blanc, Claude, 314
Blanchot, Maurice, 241
Blank psychoses, 191-192
Blankenburg, Wolfgang, 1267
Blanton, Smiley, 192-193, 541, 835, 1729
“Blasphemy and the Punishment of
Heaven” (Sterba), 1658
Blau, Abram, 1137
Blazevic, Duska, 1884
Bleger, José, 193-194
Argentinian psychoanalysis and, 118,
193-194
on frame of psychoanalytic treatment,
606, 1405
on group psychotherapies, 713
on individual, 811
on psychoses, 1405
Bleuler, Paul Eugen, 194-195
Abraham, Karl and, 5
on ambivalence, 56, 1220
on autism, 6, 136
Brill and, 227
Burgholzli Asylum and, 235
complexes and, 319
Czech psychoanalysis and, 360
on dementia, 389
Eitingon and, 492-493
Evolution psychiatrique, L’ and, 532
free association and, 616
on Hirschfeld, Elfriede, 747
on infantile psychosis, 824, 825
International Psychoanalytical Association
and, 854
Jahrbuch fiir psychoanalytische und
psychopathologische Forschungen and, 884
Jung and, 1398, 1399
Lacan and, 37
Maeder and, 999
Minkowska-Brokman and, 1056
Minkowski and, 1057
Morgenstern-Kabatschnik and, 1073
Nervous Anxiety States and their Treatment
and, 1132
Nunberg and, 1165
Oberholzer and, 1167
on paranoid psychosis, 1232
Pfister and, 1260
photograph of, I:pl.11
Piaget and, 1282
on psychoses, 191, 1403
Rorschach and, 1394, 1512-1513
Sarasin and, 1534
on schizophrenia, 195, 1234, 1540
on secondary narcissism, 1110
Spielrein and, 1639
on Studies on Hysteria, 1671
Swiss psychoanalysis and, 1702
Van Ophuijsen and, 1200
Winterstein and, 1863
Blind Alley (film), 292
Blindness, psychogenic, 1392-1393
Blitzsten, N. Lionel, 277
Bloc, Le—Notes de la psychanalyse, 195
Bloch, Iwan, 674
Bloch, Jean-Richard, 195-196, 1075
Blomfield, O. H. D., 131
Bloom, Harold, 987
Bloomsbury Group, 695, 708, 1662, 1663
Blos, Peter, 196-197
on adolescence, 28, 196-197
German psychoanalysis and, 1060
Hietzing Schule and, 745
photograph of, I:pl.10
Blow, Susan, 1425
“Blue Book” (Quatriéme Groupe),
603, 1430
Blum, Ernst, 1222, 1703
Blum, Harold P., 897, 1228, 1368,
1600, 1601
Blushing, fear of. See Erythrophobia
Boas, Franz, 1035, 1822
Body ego, 139, 479, 1571
Body image, 197-198
Dolto-Marette on, 428
Schilder on, 1538
self-image and, 1571
tube-ego and, 1806
Body schema, 478, 1571
Boehm, Felix Julius, 198-199
Abraham, Karl and, 5, 198
Berliner Psychoanalytische Poliklinik
and, 164
Berliner Psychoanalytisches Institut and,
165, 198, 199
Deutsche Psycoanalytische Gesellschaft
and, 675
Goring Institute and, 199, 406, 676, 689
Kemper, Werner Walther and, 910
Nazi Germany and, 164, 198, 199, 406,
675, 676, 689, 852
on phallic woman, 1264
Serbian psychoanalysis and, 1884
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PsYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
Sokolnicka-Kutner and, 198, 1633
Tomasi and, 1758
Bofill, P., 331
Bofill, Pedro, 1296
Bogner, Dieter, 136
Bohleber, Werner, 1602
Bohomolec, Elzbieta, 1292
Bokanowski, Thierry, 1499, 1781-1782
Bolk, Ludwig, 1510
Bollas, Christopher, 914, 1170-1171, 1580
Bolsche, Wilhelm, 1197
Bonaparte, Marie Léon, 199-201
on autobiography, 140
Belgian psychoanalysis and, 157
Berman and, 166
Bernays-Freud, Minna and, 168
Carcamo and, 247
Congres des psychanalystes de langue
francaise des pays romans and, 329
Dubal and, 450
Eitingon and, 493
Fliess correspondence and, 642
Flournoy, Henri and, 591
Freud, Anna and, 619
Gesammelte Werke and, 680
Greek psychoanalysis and, 700, 922, 1885
Guilbert and, 716
Hesnard and, 742
Hungarian psychoanalysis and, 765
Imago Publishing Company and, 802
Internationaler Psychoanalytischer Verlag
and, 862
Janet and, 886
Laurent-Lucas-Championniére-Mauge
and, 948
Le Bon and, 953
Loewenstein and, 291, 989
multilingualism and, 1086
Nazi Germany and, 681, 893
Pichon and, 1283
on Poe, 200, 974-975
primal scene and, 1310
Psyché and, 1350
Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, The
and, 1381
Revue francaise de psychanalyse and, 200,
934, 988, 1497, 1498, 1499
Rivista di pscioanalisi and, 1508
Roheim and, 1510
Schilder and, 1538
Sechehaye and, 1557
Second World War and, 1557
Servadio and, 1586
2063
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663—1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Sigrmund Freud: Life and Work and, 974
Societe psychanalytique de Paris and,
199-260080, ,98 8, 1623, 1624, 1626,
1629, 1630
Sokolnicka-Kutnaenrd, 1634
surrealism and, 1696
Tegel dinic and, 1734
translatibyo,n 8s8 7
Zeitschrift firp sychoanalytPiasdacghogei k
and, 1886
Bondiek, Erika, Chilean psychoanalysainsd ,
284, 285
Bonds of Leve (Benjamin), 577
Bondy, Theresa, 361
Bonhoeffer, Karl, 646, 665, 1085
Bonnafe, Laden, 1765
Bonnafé, Marie, 411
Book of the It, The (Groddeck), 201-202,
Borch-aoobsen, Mikkel, 89, 225, 1224
Borderline conditions, 202—203
abandonment and, 2
archaic mother and, 113
“as if” personality and, 122, 202
attacks on linking and, 983
basic fault and, 152
blank psychoses and, 191, 192
character and, 270
consciousness and, 334
dependence and, 392
ego interests and, 484
narcissistic injury and, 1113
narcissistic neuroses and, 1114
narcissistic withdrawal and, 1117
pain and, 1220
paranoid-schizoid position and, 1233
passage to the act and, 19
protective shield and, 1341-1342
psychic structure and, 1359
psychoanalytic nosography and, 1375
schizophrenia and, 1540
skin-ego and, 1613-1614
“Wolf Man” case and, 649
work of the negative and, 1130
Borderline Conditions and Pathological
Narassism (Kernberg), 191
Boredom, 203-204, 1757
Borel, Adrien Alphonse Alcide, 204-205
Cenac and, 261
Claude and, 305
Congres des psychanalystes de langue
francaise des pays romans and, 329, 608
French psychoanalysis and, 608
2064
Pichon and, 1283
Societe psychanalytique de Paris and, 1623
surrealism and, 1696
Boringhieri, Paolo, 1199
Borne, Ludwig, 356, 616
Bornstein, Berta, 205-206
Lehrinstitut der Wiener .
psychoanalytischen Vereinigung and, 959
New York Psychoanalytic Institute/Society
and, 1148
photograph of, I:pl.12
primary identification and, 1314
Bornstein, Steffi, 205, 360
Bornsztajn, Maurycy, 1292
Borowiech, Stefan, 1292
Borromean knot, 916, 917, 1454
object a and, 1173
philosophy and, 1270, 1271
structural theories and, 1667
subject and, 1673
symptoms and, 1718-1719
topology and, 1761, 1763-1764
Borsoi, Gerson, 215
Bose, Girindrasekhar, 206, 807, 808
Boss, Medard, 181, 852, 1703
Bosse, Jean, 245, 1621-1622
Bosseret, Marguerite, 449
Boston Psychoanalytic Society, 1523
Boston Psychoanalytic Society/Institute,
206—209, 1087, 1425, 1444, 1860, 1888
Boszormenyi-Nagy, Ivan, 845
Botella, César, 722, 1116, 1867
Botella, Sara, 722, 1116, 1867
Botero, Fernando, 1618
Bottle feeding, 222
Bouasse, Henri, 1201
Boucebci, Mahfoud, 1155
Boucourechliev, André, 1628
Boulanger, Francoise, 243, 1623
Boulanger, Jean-Baptiste, 243, 245
Bound energy. See Free energy/bound
energy
Boundary violations, 209-210
Bourdier, Pierre, 610, 1004
Bourgeois, Héliane, 1014
Bourget, Paul, 1634
Bourguignon, André, 124
Bousquet, Joé, 37, 1014
Boutonier, Juliette. See Favez-Boutonier,
Juliette
Bouveresse, Jacques, 127
Bouvet, Maurice, 1626
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Bouvet, Maurice Charles Marie Germain,
210-211
allergic object relationship and, 47
Chertok and, 277
Choisy and, 290
Congrés des psychanalystes de langue
francaise des pays romans and, 331
on depersonalization, 393
on ego, 467
French psychoanalysis and, 609, 610
Granoff and, 692
Marty and, 211, 1016
on neurotic defenses, 1142
on object relations, 1170
Parcheminey and, 210, 1236
Perrier and, 211, 1251
on psychic structure, 1359
on psychoanalytic treatment, 1385
Viderman and, 1835
Boven, William, 1620
Bovet, Lucien, 1442
Bovet, Pierre, 116, 1282, 1620
Bowlby, Edward John Mostyn, 211-212
on abandonment, 2
on amae, 56
anaclitic depression and, 70, 71
on aphanisis, 105-106
on attachment, 125, 126, 814-815,
821-822
Aubry Weiss and, 129
Bick and, 177
on Brierley, 226
British psychoanalysis and, 697, 699
child analysis and, 1732
on clinging instinct, 307, 737
on developmental processes, 1330
ethology and, 528
on experience of satisfaction, 537
on individual, 811
on infant development, 814
on infant observation, 817, 818
on infantile depression, 71
Laing and, 937
Lebovici and, 955
on maternal care, 1028, 1029
on narcissism, 97
on primary need, 1316
Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, The
and, 1382
Riviere-Hodgson Verrall and, 1507
Robertson and, 1509
on social feeling, 1618
on stranger anxiety, 1664
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
on sucking, 1682
Suttie and, 1457
Tavistock Clinic and, 1728
on tenderness, 1736
Tustin and, 1809
BPI. See Berliner Psychoanalytisches Institut
BPS. See British Psycho-Analytical Society
Braatoy, Trygve, 1157-1158
Braconnier, Alain, 27
Bradley, Charles, 824
Braid, James, 768, 973, 1684, 1774
Brain, 212-213, 389, 1054, 1065
Brandao, Teixeira, 614
Brandchaft, Bernard, 1307
Brandell, Gunnar, 1699
Brandschaft, Bernard, 1568
Braun, Heinrich, 1609, 1836
Braunschweig, Denise
on censoring the lover in her, 262, 1174
Confrontation and, 327
on hallucinatory wish-fulfillment, 1867
on object, 1170
Revue francaise de psychanalyse and, 1499
on typical dreams, 1811
Brazelton, T. Barry, 454, 955, 1304, 1382
Brazilian psychoanalysis, 213-218
Enriquez-Joly and, 507
Franco da Rocha and, 614
International Psychoanalytical Association
and, 214, 216, 858, 955, 1012
Kemper, Werner Walther and, 214, 215,
217, 910-911
Koch and, 919
Marcondes and, 214, 215, 216, 217, 919,
1012-1013
Perestrello, Danilo and, 214, 215, 216, 1250
Porto-Carrero and, 214, 1295
Brazilian psychoanalytic society. See
Sociedade brasiliera de psicanalise
Breakdown, 218, 1420
Breast
absence of, 323-324, 1749-1750
claustrophobia and, 306
dream screen and, 440-441
encounter and, 505
Isakower phenomenon and, 440, 441, 875
love and, 994
maternal and, 1027-1028
object a and, 1173
object loss and, 993-994
oral stage and, 1204
privation and, 1326, 1327
sexuality and, 1594
social feeling and, 1618
subject’s castration and, 1676
sucking and, 1682
transitional phenomena and, 1794, 1795
See also Breast as good/bad object;
Breastfeeding
Breast as good/bad object, 218-220
anxiety and, 100
archaic mother and, 112, 113
beta-elements and, 171
concepts and, 323-324
disintegration anxieties and, 418
orality and, 1203, 1204
pictogram and, 1286
splitting of the object and, 1642
Breastfeeding, 220-222
anaclisis and, 68, 69
black holes and, 189
mourning and, 29
See also Sucking
Brecht, Karen, 679
Breen, Dana, 577
Bregant, Leopold, 1884
Brenman-Pick, Irma, 1338
Brenner, Charles, 119, 487, 897, 1148
Brentano, Franz von, 222—223, 636, 1838
internal/external reality and, 847
philosophy and, 1268
on self-consciousness, 1569
Silberstein and, 1609
Breton, André, 223-224
on Claude, 305
Embirikos and, 498
French psychoanalysis and, 607
Held and, 731
Lacan and, 37
Martinican psychoanalysis and, 1014
surrealism and, 1695-1696
Brette, Francoise, 1631
Breuer, Josef, 224—226
on adolescence, 26
on aggression, 33
on “Anna O.” case, 87, 1223
on autosuggestion, 144
“Cacilie M.” case and, 239
cathartic method and, 257-258, 1384
on change, 267
Charcot and, 1529
on complexes, 319, 320
on conflict, 325
on constancy principle, 1322
contact and, 338
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARYO F PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
on daydreams, 555, 1493
on dreams, 436
“Emmy von N.” case and, 500
on facilitation, 543
free energy/bound energy and, 617
Freud’s autobiography and, 139
Freud’s friendship with, 637, 638
on hypnoid states, 768
on hypnosis, 769
on indications/contraindications for
psychoanalysis, 808-809
on masochism, 33
on neuroses, 287
photograph of, I:pl.13
on primary/secondary processes, 1318
on psychic energy, 1355
on remembering, 1467
on reminiscences, 1470-1471
on repression, 1482
on splitting, 1646
Swedish psychoanalysis and, 1697
transference relationship and, 1787
on trauma, 1800
on unpleasure, 1826
Vienna General Hospital and, 1837
See also Studies on Hysteria
Bria, Pietro, 1816
Briand, Aristide, 204, 953
Bricena, Antonio, 1832
Bridger, Harold, 601, 1003, 1728
Brief, Otta, 361
“Brief Notion of Psychoanalysis, A” (Porto-
Carrero), 1295
Brierley, Marjorie Flowers, 226-227
Controversial Discussions and, 226, 343,
344, 697
feminist views of psychoanalysis and, 577
Glover, James and, 685, 696
Klein and, 697
Brigands (Schiller), 1539
Bril, Blandine, 1775
Bril, Jacques, 349
Brill, Abraham Arden, 227-228
American Psychoanalytic Association and,
D2 NOLS
Burghdlzli Asylum and, 227, 236
Freud U.S. visit and, I:pl.16, 207, 303,
587, 1822
Frink and, 648, 649
Internationaler Psychoanalytischer Verlag
and, 862
Jelliffe and, 1379
Jones and, 892
2065
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Kardiner and, 906
on lay analysis, 951, 1432
Lehrman and, 960
Lorand and, 991
Nazi Germany and, 893
New York Psychoanalytic Society and,
227, 1147
photographs of, I:pl.14,16
Rank and, 1445
Standard Edition and, 1655
Sullivan and, 1688
Swiss psychoanalysis and, 1702
Bringing Up Baby (film), 292
Brisset, Charles, Ey and, 540
British Confederation of
Psychotherapists, 698
British Independent Group, Fairbairn
and, 546
British Institute of Psycho-Analysis,
Canadian psychoanalysis and, 1621
British Psycho-Analytical Society (BPS),
228-230, 698
Australian psychoanalysis and, 132
Bowlby and, 212
Brazilian psychoanalysis and, 214, 215
Brierley and, 226
Canadian psychoanalysis and, 242-243
Eder and, 461
Fairbairn and, 545
feminist views of psychoanalysis and, 577
Fliigel and, 593-594
Freud, Anna and, 212, 228, 229, 619, 1245
Friedlander-Frankl and, 646
Glover, Edward and, 229, 343, 344,
684, 697
Glover, James and, 685
Heimann and, 730
Hellman Noach and, 733
Hoffer and, 752, 753
infant observation and, 818
International Journal of Psychoanalysis, The
and, 853
International Psychoanalytical Association
and, 856
Isaacs-Sutherland and, 873
Jones and, 892
Khan and, 913-914
Klein and, 510, 619, 914-915
Limentani and, 230, 978
Low and, 997
Payne and, 228, 343, 344, 1245
Rickman and, 1501, 1502
Riviere-Hodgson Verrall and, 1507
2066
Rosenfeld, Herbert and, 1514
Rycroft and, 1521
Sandler and, 1533
Schmideberg-Klein and, 1542
Sharpe and, 1599
Strachey and, 1662
Strachey-Sargent and, 1663, 1664
Winnicott and, 1861
See also Controversial Discussions
British psychoanalysis, 695-700
child analysis and, 279, 697-698
Controversial Discussions and, 343, 697
See also British Psycho-Analytical Society
(BPS); British school; Controversial
Discussions
British school, 183, 278, 1336
Broca, Paul, 106, 212, 1042
Brod, Max, 708
Brodeur, Claude, 1622
Broglie, Louis de, 1350
Bromberg, Walter, 41
Brookes, R. A., 131
Brothers Karamazov, The (Dostoyevsky),
23, 985
Brouillet, André, 275
Brown, N., 294
Brown, Norman, 1632
Browne, William, 696
Browne, William J., 413
Brticke, Ernst Wihelm von, 230-231, 637,
1550, 1837, 1838
Freud’s autobiography and, 139
German romanticism and, 673
Interpretation of Dreams, The and, 866
psychology and psychoanalysis and, 1397
Brudny, Guillermo, 285
Bruhl, Cramer, C. von, 412
Brun, Rudolf, 231-232, 1549, 1703
Bruner, Jerome, 1153
Bruno, Giordano, 1243
Bruno de Jésus-Marie, Father, 156, 934
Brunswick, David, 1529
Brunswick, Mark, 232
Brunswick, Ruth Mack, 232-233
on female sexuality, 571, 1186
Gardiner and, 664
on phallic woman, 1264
Schur and, 232, 233, 1548
“Wolf Man’ case and, 233, 649, 1221
Brunswick Square Clinic, 684, 685, 695
Brusset, Bernard, 234, 830, 1406, 1407
Brusset, Bruno, 1652
Brut, Cyril, 1883
Bryan, Douglas, 593, 1664
Bryher (Winifred Ellerman), 430
Buber, Martin, 999
Bubi Caligula (Sachs), 1523
Buchmann, Frank, 999
Budapest School. See Hungarian School
Buddenbrooks (Mann), 1008
Buddhism, 39, 922, 1096
Buder, Hildegard, 677
Buhler, Charlotte, 177, 733
Buhler, Karl, 172
Bulemia, 1578
Bulimia, 91, 233-234, 413
Bullard, Dexter, 1688, 1850
Bullard, Dexter M., Sr., 652
Bulletin de la Fédération européenne de
psychanalyse, 530
Bulletin de la S.P.P., 1629
Bullitt, William C., 234-235, 608, 641,
681, 1293
See also Thomas Woodrow Wilson, Twentyeighth
President of the United States. A
Psychological Study
Bunuel, Luis, 294, 1067, 1695
Burghdlzli Asylum, 235-236
Binswanger and, 180
Brill and, 227
Eitingon and, 493
Gross and, 607
Jung and, 180, 235, 236, 901-902, 1399
Lacan and, 929
Rittmeister and, 1505
schizophrenia and, 1540
Sechehaye and, 1557
Sokolnicka-Kutner and, 1633
Spielrein and, 1639
Swiss psychoanalysis and, 1702
word association and, 1872
Burgner, Marion, 577
Burian, Wilhelm, 133, 1859
Burke, Mark, 214-215, 910
Burlingham-Rosenfeld School. See Hietzing
Schule
Burlingham-Tiffany, Dorothy, 236-237
on abandonment, 2
Aichhorn and, 36
Berggasse 19, Wien IX and, 163
Blos and, 196
Controversial Discussions and, 343
Freud, Anna and, 619, 1514
Hampstead Clinic and, 724
Hietzing Schule and, 510, 745, 1513
Imago Publishing Company and, 802
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
on infantile depression, 70-71
on latent dream thoughts, 947
Lehrinstitut der Wiener
psychoanalytischen Vereinigung and, 959
Lehrman and, 960
Tegel clinic and, 1734
Zeitschrift fiir psychoanalytische Padagogik
and, 1886
Burnhan, Donald L., 1850
Burning child dream, 1677
Burrow, Trigant, 237-238, 601, 709, 713
Burt, Sir Cyril, 696
Buxbaum, Edith, 959
Bychowski, Gustav, 1292
Bydlowski, Monique, 1297, 1298, 1864
C
Cabanis, Pierre, 795
Cabernite, Leao, 216
Cabinet of Dr. Caligari, The (film), 292, 293
“Cacilie M.” case, 239-240
Cadernos de psicanalise, 217
Cadernos do Tempo psicanalitico, 217
Caesura (Bion), 185
Cahen, Michele, 1465
Cahiers Confrontation, Les, 240-241
Cahiers du Centre Alfred-Binet, Les, 411
Cahiers du Cinema, 295
Cahiers Jungiens de Psychanalyse, 80
Cahiers pour T analyse, 611
Cahn, Raymond, 27, 806, 1627, 1674
Caillaux, Girard de, 1528
Caillot, Jean-Pierre, 1226
Cain, Jacques, 1628
California Psychoanalytic Society,
1529, 1530
Callier, Jean, 934
Camacho, Jose, 1052
Camara, Domicio A., 910
Cameron, Ewen, 242, 243
Campos, Claudio de, 216
Campos, Murilo de, 214
Canadian Institute of Psychoanalysis, 243
Canadian Journal ofPsychoanalysis/Revue
canadienne de psychanalyse, 245
Canadian psychoanalysis, 241-246, 864,
1620-1623
Canadian Psychoanalytic Society (CPS),
241-242, 243-244, 1620-1623
Cancerophobia, 1717
Canguilhem, Georges, 401
Cannibalistic stage. See Incorporation; Oralsadistic
stage
Cannon, Walter Bradford, 1323
Capacity to be alone, 3, 246-247
Capgras, J., 381
Capgras, Joseph, 1136
Capitalism, 45, 98, 1632
Capitalisme et Sexualité (Capitalism and
sexuality) (Allendy & Allendy-nel-
Dumouchel), 45, 46
Carcamo, Celes Ernesto, 55, 117, 247-248,
665, 1284
Carefree (film), 292
Caretaker self, 1582
Carl Gustav Jung Institute/Ziirich, 80
Carloni, Glauco, 881
Carnap, Rudolf, 980
Carneiro Ledo Vetter, Inaura, 215
Carpelan, Henrik, 584
Carpenter, William, 768
Cartels constituants de l’analyse Freudienne,
612, 1083, 1084
Caruso, Igor A., 248-249
Austrian psychoanalysis and, 134-135
Frankl and, 615
International Federation of Psychoanalytic
Societies and, 852
Psyché and, 1350
Carvajal, Guillermo, 566, 567
“Cas de Mme Lefebvre, Le”
(Bonaparte), 200
Cas de psychose infantile, Un (McDougall
and Lebovici), 828, 955
Casas de Peredo, Myrta, 1829
Casaula, Eleonora, 285
Case histories, 249-251
See also specific cases
“Case of Examination Neurosis, A” (Alvarez
de Toledo), 55
“Case of Paranoia Running Counter to the
Psycho-Analytic Theory of the Disease, A”
(Freud), 848, 1234, 1307
“Case of Psychogenic Mutism, A”
(Morgenstern-Kabatschnik), 1073
“Case of Psychogenous Muteness, A”
(Morgenstern), 1610
Case of Sergeant Grischa, The (Zweig), 1889
“Case of Successful Treatment by
Hypnotism, A” (Freud), 220, 341, 448, 1560
Caslant, E., 400
Cassel Hospital, 230, 700, 1003
Cassirer, Ernst, 198, 785, 1119
Cassirer-Bernfeld, Suzanne, 974
Castel, Pierre-Henri, 401, 1217
Castoriadis, Cornelius, 1632
Castoriadis-Aulagnier, Piera. See Aulagnier-
Spairani, Piera
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
Castration, primal, 1678
Castration anxiety, 251, 253
abandonment and, 2
biological bedrock and, 182, 254, 773
birth dreams and, 186
Bose on, 206
claustrophobia and, 306
dark continent metaphor and, 365
dead mother complex and, 369
death and, 370
fantasy and, 552, 553
fetishism and, 582
fragmentation anxiety and, 100, 605
Haitzmann case and, 1587
identification and, 789
inferiority feelings and, 831
Oedipus complex and, 1185
overview of, 101
perversion and, 1256
phallic mother and, 1261, 1262
phobias and, 1274, 1275
phobic neurosis and, 1276
privation and, 1326-1327
sadomasochism and, 1527
stammering and, 1653
“vagina dentata” fantasy and, 1831
Castration complex, 251-256, 1635
Abraham, Nicolas on, 7
aphanisis and, 105
cinema and, 295
disavowal and, 416
disintegration anxieties and, 418
female sexuality and, 570, 573
frustration and, 653
gaze and, 990
genital stage and, 672
“Little Hans” case and, 76, 251, 253, 254
penis envy and, 252, 253, 254, 1246
phallic stage and, 1262-1263
primary narcissism and, 1110
self-mutilation and, 1572
self psychology on, 1576
sexual theories of children and, 1591
sexuation and, 1595, 1596
splitting of the ego and, 1648
subject and, 1676-1677
subject’s castration and, 1676, 1677
superego and, 1691
symbolic and, 1711
symptoms and, 1717, 1718
topology and, 1761
Weininger and, 1588
2067
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
“Wolf Man” case and, 252, 253, 650
Castro, Elena, 285
Catastrophe theory, 256-257, 1665
Catastrophic change, 257, 418
Catharsis, 78, 294
See also Cathartic method
Cathartic method, 257-259, 1384, 1411
active technique and, 15
“Anna O.” case and, 87-89, 225, 257-258
change and, 267
cinema on, 1562, 1563
conversion and, 345
“Emmy von N.” case and, 499
remembering and, 1467
Cathectic energy, 259
Cathexis, 259-261, 1663
attention and, 127
autoeroticism and, 141
cathectic energy and, 259
change and, 267
conflict and, 326
death instinct and, 371
decathexis and, 373-374
displacement and, 421
ego and, 464
ego-instincts and, 483
family and, 548
free energy/bound energy and, 617
identification and, 788
infantile sexual curiosity and, 829
melancholia and, 21, 1038
narcissism and, 1105
primary identification and, 1313
representation and, 782
rituals and, 1504
sadomasochism and, 1527
self-esteem and, 1570
self-mutilation and, 1573
self-object and, 1575
sense/nonsense and, 1585
sexual theories of children and, 1590
sexualization and, 398
skin and, 1613
sleep/wakefulness and, 1614
somatic compliance and, 1635
somnambulism and, 1636
stages and, 1652
stammering and, 1653, 1654
subject’s desire and, 1677
sum of excitation and, 1689
superego and, 1690, 1691
symbiosis and, 1705
2068
symbolization and, 1713
thought and, 1746
transference and, 1776, 1777
turning around and, 1807
See also Anticathexes; Hypercathexis
Catholicism
Austrian psychoanalysis and, 134
basic assumptions and, 711
Beirnaert and, 156
Choisy and, 290
Delgado and, 385
Filipino psychoanalysis and, 1268
Italian psychoanalysis and, 879
jouissance and, 895-896
Lacan and, 611
Nodet and, 1152, 1153
Pichon and, 1283
See also Religion
Catoire, Gilles, 1731, 1783
Cauldwell, D. O., 1799
Causalité psychique, La (Green), 1355
Causality, 1720
Causality, need for. See Need for causality
“Ce que tout médicin doit savoir de la
psychanalyse” (Cénac), 261
Ce sexe qui r’en est pas un (Irigiray), 578
CEFFRAP (Centre d’études fran¢aises pour
la formation et la recherche active en
psycholgie), 104
Célerier, Marie-Claire, 233
Celeste et le Sublunaire, Le (Viderman), 1835
Célibataire, Le, 1084
Cenac, Michel, 261-262
Aubry Weiss and, 128
Centre de diagnostic et de traitements
psychanalytiques and, 609
Claude and, 305
Lacan and, 929
Loewenstein and, 989
Parcheminey and, 1236
Société psychanalytique de Paris and,
261, 1630
Cendrars, Blaise, 45, 708
Censoring the lover in her, 262, 1174
Censorship, 262-263, 1677
analytic psychodrama and, 78
condensation and, 325
consciousness and, 333
day’s residues and, 367
displacement and, 421
dreams and, 262, 437, 438, 442, 1559
ego and, 464
fundamental rule and, 655
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
mentalization and, 1046
punishment dreams and, 1422
reversal into the opposite and, 1495
self-punishment and, 1577
symptoms and, 1715
Center for Psychoanalytic Training and
Research. See Centre de consultations et
de traitements psychanalytiques Jean-
Favreau
Central masturbatory fantasy, adolescence
and, 27, 29
Centre Alfred-Binet, 263, 263-264, 410,
911, 955
Centre Claude Bernard. See Centre
psychopédagogique Claude-Bernard
Centre de consultations et de traitements
psychanalytiques Jean-Favreau (CCTP),
264-265, 562, 1627, 1630, 1645
Centre de diagnostic et de traitements
psychanalytiques, 609
Centre de formation et de recherches
psychanalytiques (CFRP), 612, 1009,
1010, 1084
Centre d’étude des sciences de "homme, 609
Centre d’études et de recherches freudiennes
(CERF), 1083
Centre Etienne-Marcel, 347, 427, 428
Centre Jean-Favreau, 1630
Centre Psychoanalytique Raymond-de-
Saussure, 1536, 1701
Centre psychopédagogique Claude-
Bernard, 265
Berge and, 161, 265, 559, 560, 609
Clark-Williams and, 303, 304
Favez-Boutonier and, 265, 559, 609
French psychoanalysis and, 609
Kestemberg-Hassin and, 911
Cercle Freudien, 612, 1084
CERF (Centre d’études et de recherches
freudiennes), 1083
Certainty, 265-266
Certeau, Michel de, 195, 241, 266-267
Césaire, Aimé, 1009, 1014
Cesar de Castro, Jodo, 214
Cesarman, Fernando, 566, 1051, 1052
Cesio, Fidias, 118
CFRP. See Centre de formation et de
recherches psychanalytiques
Chabane, Mohand, 1156
Chabert, Catherine, 1394
Chadwick, Mary, 430, 684, 685, 696, 1886
Chaeva, Svetlana, 1520
Chaigneau, Héléne, 1765-1766
Chaines d Eros, Les (Green), 1174
Chamberlain, Houston Stewart, 1437
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Champ Freudien, Le, 611, 1010
Chance, 1720
Change, 267-269
catastrophic, 257, 418
cure and, 358-359
Chaos theory, 401
Character, 269-271, 272-273, 1449
Character analysis, 1729
Character Analysis (Reich), 271, 1461
“Character and Anal Eroticism” (Freud), 72,
269, 272, 514, 516-517
Character neurosis, 48, 270, 273-274, 557
Character resistance, 487
Charcot, Jean Martin, 274-276, 637
Andersson on, 82
“Anna O.” case and, 88
on aphasia, 106
on autosuggestion, 144
Bernheim and, 170
Binet and, 89
“Cacilie M.” case and, 239
cathartic method and, 225
on dreams, 436
Ellenberger on, 497
on erotogenicity, 520
French psychoanalysis and, 607
Freud’s autobiography and, 139
Freud’s translation, 403
on gaze, 990
on heredity of acquired characters, 736
on homosexuality, 757
on hypnosis, 768, 769
on hysteria, 772, 1529
on hysterical paralysis, 774
Janet and, 885
Meyer and, 1052
on neuroses, 287, 735
photograph of, I:pl.15
on psychic causality, 1353
Salpétriere Hospital and, 275, 1527-1528
on suggestion, 1684—1685
Swedish psychoanalysis and, 1697
on trauma, 1800, 1801
on traumatic neuroses, 1471
U.S. psychoanalysis and, 1822
on working over, 1878
Chasseguet-Smirgel, Janine
on ego ideal, 480
on female sexuality, 365, 574
feminist views of psychoanalysis and,
576, 578
on homosexuality, 757
on idealization, 784
Schlumberger and, 1542
on self-esteem, 1570
Societé psychanalytique de Paris and, 1626
on student protests (1968), 612
Chateaubriand, Francois-René, 203, 795
Chaurand, André, 1765
Chebel, Malek, 1156
Chemistry, 726
Chemouni, Jacquy, 900
Chentrier, Théodore, 242, 243, 276
Cherkaoui, Leila, 1155
Chertok, Léon, 276-277
Chertok, Leon, 1519
Chessman, Caryl, 200, 1499
Chestnut Lodge, 1540, 1688, 1850
Chicago Psychoanalytic Institute, 43,
277-279
Bettelheim and, 173
Kohut and, 919-920
Los Angeles Psychoanalytic Society/
Institute and, 992
US. psychoanalysis, 1823
Chicago Psychoanalytic Society, 43, 278,
279, 492
Chien andalou, Un (film), 294
Child, His “Illness,” and the Others, The
(Mannoni), 456
Child analysis, 279-280
Aubry Weiss and, 128-129
Bornstein on, 205
British psychoanalysis and, 279, 697-698
counter-transference and, 350, 1733, 1784
developmental disorders and, 408—409
developmental processes and, 1330
Diatkine and, 280, 411, 610, 613, 955, 1731,
1732
Diatkine on, 280, 411, 610, 613, 955
Dolto-Marette and, 280, 427-428, 592—
593, 610, 1347, 1732
Erikson and, 510-511
Favreau and, 610
Favreau on, 562, 610
French psychoanalysis and, 610, 613
Freud, Anna and, 76, 279, 618-619, 697,
1386-1387, 1731-1732, 1733, 1783
Heuyer on, 744
Hug-Hellmuth and, 279, 283,
761-762, 1731
Journal de la psychanalyse de I enfant and,
896
Katan-Rosenberg and, 908
Klein and, 76, 279, 280, 283, 618-619, 697—
698, 915, 1366, 1731-1732, 1733
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
Lampl-de Groot and, 938
Lebovici and, 280, 610, 613, 955,
1732, 1784
“Little Hans” case and, 75—76, 279-280,
690, 1366, 1783
Moreno and, 1072
Morgenstern-Kabatschnik and, 280, 1073
Peraldi and, 1247
play in, 281, 283
prepsychosis and, 1306
puberty and, 1420
Rambert and, 1442-1443
“Richard” case and, 1500-1501
silence and, 1610
Sterba-Radanowicz-Hartmann, Editha
and, 1658
technique in, 1731-1734
transference and, 279, 1386-1387, 1732,
1733, 1782-1784, 1782-1784
unconscious fantasies and, 1817
See also Klein-anna Freud conflict
“Child Is Being Beaten, A” (Freud)
amnesia and, 65
on castration complex, 253
on cruelty, 354
on fantasy, 551, 553
on inferiority feelings, 831
on masochism, 1021
on mastery, 1024
on perversion, 1258
on representation, 782
on sadomasochism, 1527
on skin, 1612
on subject, 1675
Childbearing, wish for. See Wish for a baby
Childhood, 280-282
abandonment in, 1-3
adolescence and, 28-29
culture and, 282
death and, 370
Fort-da game and, 280, 283, 599-600
Hoffer on, 752, 753
hospitalization during, 120
individual and, 810
nakedness dreams and, 1103
phobias in, 1273-1275
primitive and, 1319
repetition and, 1473-1474
Childhood and After (Isaacs), 874
Childhood and Society (Erikson), 282,
477, 511
Childhood in Contemporary Cultures (Mead
and Wolfenstein), 1870
2069
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Childhood of the Artist, The (Greenacre), 702
Childhood sexuality. See Infantile sexuality
Children, treatment of
analytic psychodrama, 78-79
Argentinian psychoanalysis and, 117
Baginsky on, 146
Centre Alfred-Binet, 263, 263-264, 410,
S955
Centre psychopédagogique Claude-
Bernard and, 265
Controversial Discussions and, 343-344
Detski Dom, 402-403, 1515, 1518, 1544
Ecole experimentale de Bonneuil and,
456-457
group psychotherapy, 5
Hellman Noach and, 732-733
infant observation and, 818-819
Institut Claparéde, 841-842
Mannoni-Van der Spoel and, 1010
psychodrama, 5
See also Hampstead Clinic
Children in Conflict, Twelve Years of
Psychoanalytic Practice (Rambert), 1442
Children in Need (Schmideberg-Klein), 1543
Children of Oedipus (Lapuz), 1268
Children of the Dream, The
(Bettelheim), 173
Children’s Hospital of Michigan, 1658
Children’s play, 282-284
active imagination and, 14
activity/passivity and, 17
child analysis and, 279, 281
creativity and, 351
humor and, 762
transitional phenomena and, 1797
Chilean psychoanalysis, 284-285, 1033
Chinese psychoanalysis, 285-287
Chiozza, Luis, 118
Cho Doo-Young, 921
Chodorow, Nancy, 577
Choice of neurosis, 287-289, 345, 435
Choisy, Maryse, 211, 289-290, 609, 1252
See also Psyché, revue internationale de
psychanalyse et des sciences de Thomme
Chora, 578
Christianity
anti-Semitism and, 1437
parricide and, 1078, 1092
perversion and, 1257
Pfister on, 1260
rituals and, 1504
See also Catholicism; Religion
Christianity and Fear (Pfister), 1260
2070
Christians and Jews: A Psychoanalytical
Study (Loewenstein), 291, 988, 1438
Christoffel, Hans, 1550, 1703
Christus, 266
Chrobak, Rudolf, 239
Chronic disorganization, 1409
Chrzanowski, Gerard, 852
Ciaccia, Antonio di, 880
Cid, Sobral, 1296
Cifali, Mario, 195, 1701
Cifali, Mireille, 195, 1701
Cinema, 292-296
Allendy-Nel-Dumouchel on, 45
allergic object relationship in, 47
definition of psychoanalysis and, 1365
documentary films, 1603
on Freud, 293, 642, 644-645
German psychoanalysis and, 674
Lainé and, 937
Rank on, 429
Secrets of a Soul, The, 293, 294, 295, 1365,
1523, 1562-1563
See also Creativity
Circulo brasileiro de psicandlise, 217
Cividini-Stranic, Eugenie, 1884
Civilization, 298-300
Darwinism and, 367
disillusionment and, 1750-1751
religion and, 1467
Civilization and Its Discontents (Freud),
296-298
on altruism, 53-54
on anal eroticism, 515
on anthropology, 93
on castration complex, 255
collective psychology and, 311
on communism, 1519
on conflict, 326
on death instinct, 372, 983-984
definition of psychoanalysis and, 1364
on disillusionment, 1750
on ego, 466
on ego-instincts, 483
on ethics, 525
on fire, 1367
on guilt, 716
on incest, 804
on individual, 810
jouissance and, 894-895
on memories, 1040-1041
on myth of origins, 1321
on narcissism of minor differences, 1109
on oceanic feeling, 425, 660, 895, 1181—
1182, 1511
on organic repression, 1207, 1208
on parricide, 1238-1239
Pichon and, 1283
on politics, 1293
publication of, 640-641
on racism/anti-Semitism, 1438
on repetition compulsion, 1475
on repression, 1479
on sense of smell, 1616
on suffering, 1683
on superego, 1690
on taboo, 1723
on transgression, 1792
on urethral eroticism, 517
“Why War?” and, 1856
“Civilized Sexual Morality and Modern
Nervous Illness” (Freud), 298, 299, 311,
797, 804, 1023, 1632, 1750-1751, 1855
Cixous, Héléne, 328, 577
“Claims of Psycho-Analysis to Scientific
Interest, The” (Freud), 93, 300-301, 462,
WO Z 129351632
Clair, Jean, 1842
Claparede, Edouard, 301-302
Archives de psychologie, Les and, 115, 116,
301-302, 592
Binet and, 89
Disque vert, Le and, 423, 424
Favez and, 560
on mentalization, 1046
Odier and, 1182
Piaget and, 1282
Sechehaye and, 1556
Swiss psychoanalysis and, 1620, 1700
Clark, Ronald W., 642
Clark University, 207, 302-303, 1424
Clark-Williams, Margaret, 303-304
Berge and, 161
Bonaparte and, 200
Favez-Boutonier and, 560
French psychoanalysis and, 609
Mauco and, 1034
Société psychanalytique de Paris and, 1625
Torok and, 1764
Clarté movement, 1697
Classical school of analytical psychology, 80
Classification francaise des troubles mentaux
de enfant et de l adolescent (Mises), 1276
“Classified Index of the Major Concepts”
(Miller), 460
Claude, Henri Charles Jules, 304-306
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Allendy and, 46, 305, 1345-1346
Borel and, 205
Cenac and, 261
Congres des psychanalystes de langue
francaise des pays romans and, 329
Dalbiez and, 363
Delay and, 305, 382
Disque vert, Le and, 424
Ey and, 539
French psychoanalysis and, 607
Lacan and, 929
Laforgue and, 933, 1345-1346
Lagache and, 935
Nacht and, 305, 1101
Nodet and, 1152
Revue francaise de psychanalyse and, 305,
1497-1498
Sainte-anne Hospital and, 1528
Société psychanalytique de Paris and, 1624
Sokolnicka-Kutner and, 1634
Claus, Car], 1838
Claustrophobia, 306-307
Clavreul, Jean
on alcohclism, 41, 42
Centre d’études et de recherches
freudiennes and, 1083
Confrontation and, 327
Ecole freudienne de Paris and, 457-458
French psychoanalytic establishment split
(1964) and, 1619
Inconscient, L’ and, 129, 528, 611, 806,
807, 1835
on perversion, 1259
Clément, Catherine, 327
Clément, Louis, 1154, 1155
Clementis, Lina Generali, 879
Clérambault, Georges de
on automatism, 143
on erotomania, 522
Lacan and, 929
Nodet and, 1152
on passion, 1243
on perversion, 1259
Clinging instinct, 307
Hermann on, 307, 737, 1438
tenderness and, 1736
“Clinical Approach to the Psychoanalytic
Theory of the Life and Death Instincts, A”
(Rosenfeld), 1515
“Clinical Aspects of Psychoanalysis” (Porto-
Carrero), 1295
Clinical Journal (Ferenczi), 328, 581, 1090,
1315, 1465, 1781
Clinical practice. See Psychoanalytic
treatment
Clinical Studies in Psychoanalysis
(Lorand), 991
“Clinique psychanalytige, La. La relation
objet” (Bouvet), 211
Clinique psychanalytique (Laforgue), 544
Clitoris
amphimixia and, 66
castration complex and, 251, 253
female sexuality and, 570, 573, 1753
perversion and, 1258
Clouzet, Maxime, 1350
“Cluster A and Cluster B” (Balint), 160
Cobb, Stanley, 43, 208, 405
Cobweb, The (film), 293
Cocaine, 307-308
Cocteau, Jean, 45
Code Name “Mary” (Gardiner), 664
Codet, Henri, 329, 532, 1624
Codet, Odette. See Laurent-Lucas-
Championniére-Maugé, Odette
Cogito, 44
Cognitivism, 65, 308-309, 380, 1064
Cohen, Robert, 1517
Cohen, Yecheskiel, 877-878
Cold psychoses, 911
Cold War, 609, 1519, 1557, 1558, 1602
Collected Papers: Through Paediatrics to
Psychoanalysis (Winnicott), 1107, 1796
Collected Papers on Schizophrenia and
Related Subjects (Searles), 309-311
Collective hypnosis, 44
Collective psychology, 311, 311-312,
712, 1724
Collective unconscious, 312—314
Allendy on, 46
amplification and, 67
animus/anima and, 87
archetypes and, 115, 313
numinous and, 1164-1165
College des Psychanalystes, 314, 612, 1835
Colloque de Bonneval. See Colloque sur I’
inconscient
Colloque sur I’ inconscient, 314-315, 610,
969, 1046
Coloma, Jaime, 285
Colombian psychoanalysis, 315-316
Colonization
Fanon on, 549-550, 1014
Indian psychoanalysis and, 808
North African psychoanalysis and,
1154, 1155
racism and, 1437
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
Colorni, Renata, 1199
Columbia University Clinic for
Psychoanalytic Training and Research, 906
Combined parent figure, 316, 1188,
12625031
Coming of Age in Samoa (Mead), 1035
Commensal relations, 1464.
“Common Neurotic State, The” (Freud), 20
Common sense, 419
Communicating Vessels (Breton), 37, 1695
Communication theory, 980
Communism
Allendy and Allendy-nel-Dumouchel
on, 45
Althusser and, 53
Chinese psychoanalysis and, 286
Detski Dom and, 402-403, 1518
French psychoanalysis and, 609
Hungarian psychoanalysis and, 764, 766
Lacan and, 37, 611
Lebovici and, 954
Polish psychoanalysis and, 1292
Politzer and, 1294
Roheim and, 1510
Rolland and, 1511
Romanian psychoanalysis and, 1511
Russian/Soviet psychoanalysis and,
1518-1519
surrealism and, 1695
Zweig, Arnold and, 1889
Compensation, 317
dream interpretation and, 865
extroversion/introversion and, 538
unconscious and, 538
Compensatory structures, 317-318
Complemental series, 318
Complementary zone-object, 189, 505
Complexes, 318-321
imago and, 800
Jung on, 319, 320-321, 557, 800, 902, 1872
structural theories and, 1666
See also Castration complex; Oedipus
complex
Complexes familiaux dans la formation de
Pindividu, Les (Lacan), 801, 1851
Component instincts, 518, 519, 1612, 1752
Compromise formations, 321-322
Arlow on, 119-120
conflict and, 325
contradiction and, 341
displacement and, 421
fantasy and, 554
flight into illness and, 590
2071
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
modern conflict theory on, 1066
parapraxes and, 1235
reaction-formations and, 1449
rituals and, 1504
substitute formations and, 1681
Compulsion, 322-323
“ASZ2 on, 1
basic fault and, 151
character and, 271
dipsomania and, 412
obsessional neurosis and, 323, 1180
obsessions and, 322, 1178
“Compulsive activities and religious
exercise” (Freud), 660
Comte, Auguste, 159, 1631
Concentration camps
Bettelheim on, 172, 503
Frankl on, 615
Freud family and, 634, 635, 641, 899
See also Holocaust; Nazi Germany
Concepeao Freudiana das Psiconeuroses
(Cesar de Castro), 214
Concept of Repression (Bose), 206
Conceptia Psihanalitica (Popescu-
Sibiu), 1511
Conceptions of Modern Psychiatry
(Sullivan), 1688
Concepts, 323-324
Condemmning judgments, 900-901
Condensation, 324-325
day’s residues and, 367
dreams and, 437, 438, 441, 442, 1047
forgetting and, 597
formations of the unconscious and, 598
letter and, 961-962
metaphor and, 1047
primary/secondary processes and, 1318
representability and, 1477
reversal into the opposite and, 1494
secondary revision and, 1559
signifier/signified and, 1606
slips of the tongue and, 1616
subject's desire and, 1677
Conditions of Nervous Anxiety and Their
Treatment (Stekel), 1657
Conflict, 325-327
analytic psychodrama and, 78
modern conflict theory on, 1065-1066
negation and, 1122
shadow and, 1596
Confrontation, 240, 314, 327-328, 611,
612, 1835
Confrontation anxiety, 1648
2072
Confrontations with Myself (Deutsch-
Rosenbach), 405
Confucianism, 285
“Confusion of Tongues between Adults and
the Child” (Ferenczi), 328-329, 440, 581,
870, 1465, 1643
Congrés des psychanalystes de langue
francaise des pays romans, 329-331, 608,
609, 1252, 1498, 1499, 1536, 1625
Congres international de l’hypnotisme
experimental et scientifique, Premier
(1889), 331-332
Congrés mondial de psychiatrie (1950),
532, 539
Congress of Psychiatrists, 329
Connaissance de T enfant par la psychanalyse,
La (Lebovici and Soulé), 955
Connaissance de Tinconscient, 611
Connell, E. H., 545
Conscious processes, 332-333
Consciousness, 333-334
alpha function and, 50
attention and, 127
belief and, 158
conflict and, 326
conscious processes and, 332-333
contact-barrier and, 339-340
ego and, 464, 469
forgetting and, 596, 597
mmemic traces and, 334, 1063-1064, 1065
neurophysiology and, 213
philosophy and, 1270
self and, 1567
self-consciousness, 50, 1569-1570
Consensual validation, 419
“Considerations sur les anomalies du
comportement sexuel chez l’animal”
(Favreau), 562
Consistency, 417
Constancy principle, 1322-1323, 1325
anxiety and, 102
excitation and, 534
Fechner on, 565
Nirvana principle and, 1151, 1323
Constitution, 334-335
concept and, 324
doubt and, 435-436
fixation and, 588
Lacan on, 37
mythomania and, 1098
Construction de T espace analytique, La
(Viderman), 335-336, 848, 1043, 1835
Constructions, 336-337
amnesia and, 65
anticipatory ideas and, 96
Freud on, 336-338
interpretation and, 862
Viderman on, 335
“Constructions in Analysis” (Freud),
337-338 S
on amnesia, 65, 977
on anticipatory ideas, 96
on historical truth, 749, 750
on infantile amnesia, 820
on primal scene, 1310
on transference relationship, 1787
on work, 1876
Consumerism, 92
Contact, 338-339
body image and, 197
mastery and, 1025
rituals and, 1504
taboo and, 1724
tenderness and, 1736
Contact-barrier, 50, 339-340, 340
Container-contained, 340-341
alpha function and, 51-52
arrogance and, 121
Bion on, 184, 340, 850
frame of psychoanalytic treatment and, 606
_ internal objects and, 850
object and, 1170
pain and, 1220
thought-thinking apparatus and, 1750
Conté, Claude, Ecole freudienne de Paris
and, 458
“Contra-Indications to the ‘Active’
Psychoanalytical Technique”
(Ferenczi), 16
Contradiction, 341-342, 345
Contri, Giacomo, 880, 1199
“Contribution al’étude des phobies”
(Mallet), 1273, 1275
“Contribution to the Analysis of the
Negative Therapeutic Reaction, A”
(Riviere-Hodgson Verrall), 1507
“Contribution to the Pathopsychology of
Phenomena Associated with Falling
Asleep, A” (Isakower), 874
“Contribution to the Understanding of
Schizophrenic Speech, A” (Katan), 191
“Contribution to the Understanding of the
Symbolic Meaning of the Circle, A”
(Alvarez de Toledo), 55
“Contributions to the Psychology of Love”
(Freud), 251-252, 342-343, 1594, 1725
Control analysis, 602-604, 1692-1693
Control analysis. See Supervised analysis
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Control-Mastery Theory, 1532-1533
Controversial Discussions, 228, 229, 343—
344, 619, 697, 915, 1644
Bowlby and, 212
Brierley and, 226
definition of psychoanalysis and, 1363
Envy and Gratitude and, 509
Friedlander-Frankl and, 646
Glover, Edward and, 684
Heimann and, 730
Isaacs-Sutherland and, 343, 344, 697,
873-874
Jones and, 893
Low and, 997
Payne and, 343, 344, 697, 1245
Schmideberg-Klein and, 1543
Second World War and, 1558
Winnicott and, 1861
See also Klein-anna Freud conflict
Convenience dreams, 344-345, 1864
Convention psychanalytique, 612
Convergence, 1084
Conversion, 345-346, 772, 773
allergies and, 47, 48
biological bedrock and, 182
“Cacilie M.” case and, 240
as defense neurosis, 19
discharge and, 418
excitation and, 534
hysterical paralysis and, 774
innervation and, 836
neurotic defenses and, 1142
psychosomatic limit and, 1410
psychosomatics and, 345, 1409
somatic compliance and, 1635
stammering and, 1653, 1654
symptoms and, 1715
Conversion hysteria. See Conversion
Cooper, Arnold, 888, 1533
Cooper, David, 699
Coordinating Committee for Latin
American Psychoanalytic Organizations
(COPAL), 150, 216, 565, 1447
See also Federacion psicoanalitica de
América latina
COPAL. See Coordinating Committee for
Latin American Psychoanalytic
Organizations
Coppens, Yves, 1739
Coprophagy, 72
Coprophilia, 346, 1616, 1756
Coq-Heron, Le, 347
Coriat, Isidor, 207
Corman, Louis, 1395
Corominas, Julio, 1637
Corona, Carlos, 1051
Corps et le politique, Le, 241
Corrao, Francesco, 347-348, 880, 881, 1758
Cortazar, Julio, 241
Cortes de Barros, Joao, 215
Corti, Adda, 879
Costoriadis, Cornélius, 807
Cotet, Pierre, 124
Couch in New York, A (film), 294
Coué, Emile, 144, 1432
Counter-cathexes. See Anticathexes
Counter-identification, 348
Counter-Oedipus, 348-349, 1465
Counter-transference, 349-351, 1368
analysand and, 75
analytical psychology on, 1779-1780
Balint groups on, 147
boundary violations and, 209
case histories and, 250
change and, 268
child analysis and, 350, 1733, 1784
complexes and, 321
constructions and, 335
container-contained and, 340
counter-identification and, 348
dead mother complex and, 368
direct analysis and, 414
“Dora” case and, 604
elasticity and, 494
empathy and, 502
Hirschfeld, Elfriede and, 747
indications/contraindications for
psychoanalysis and, 809
infantile neurosis and, 820
Jung and, 639, 747
mother and, 577
mutual analysis and, 1090
nonverbal communication and, 1153-1154
patient physical position and, 542
psychoanalytic semiology and, 1380
Racker on, 1440, 1778
Searles on, 310
Servadio on, 1586
silence and, 1610-1611
termination of treatment and, 77
Counterfeiters, The (Gide), 1634
Counterphobic phenomena, 349
“Counting with Psychoanalysis” (Leclaire),
1668
Cournut, Jean, 1499
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
on intervention, 863
on phantom, 1266
on secrets, 1560
Societe psychanalytique de Paris and, 1628,
1630, 1631
on transference hatred, 1782
Cournut, Monique, 1630
Cournut-Janin, Monique, 264, 578
Cours de philosophie positive (Comte), 1631
Course of General Linguistics
(Saussure), 1604
Course of Life, The (Fliess), 589
“Couvade und die Psychogenese der
Vergeltungsfurcht, Die” (Reik), 1237
Couvrette, Jean-Jacques, 864
Couvreur, Catherine, 1782
Covello, Lucio, 528, 806
Cox, John, 1297
CPS (Canadian Psychoanalytic Society),
241-242, 243-244, 1620-1623
Cramer, Bertrand
child analysis and, 1784
on developmental processes, 1330
on encopresis, 504
on infantile psychosis, 825
Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, The
and, 1382
Swiss psychoanalysis and, 1701
“Creative Writers and Day-dreaming”
(Freud), 351-352
Abraham and, 443
applied psychoanalysis and, 107
on daydreams, 555, 1494
on fantasy, 551
on reader, 985
Creativity, 352-353
action-thought and, 13, 14
adolescence and, 27
Allendy-Nel-Dumouchel on, 45
Anzieu on, 643
applied psychoanalysis and, 107-108
Blackett-Milner on, 190
Borel on, 204
Brazilian psychoanalysis and, 216-217
complexes and, 321
deprivation and, 397
Freud on, 351
Greenacre on, 702
heroic self and, 739-741
humor and, 352, 890
infantile omnipotence and, 822
intellectualization and, 844
Lacan on, 37
2073
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
narcissism and, 14
nonintegration and, 843-844
popularity of psychoanalysis and, 62
reparation and, 1472
Rycroft on, 1521
sexuality and, 1594
sublimation and, 1679
sudden involuntary ideas and, 1683
surrealism and, 1695-1696
symbolization and, 1714
transference of, 1787-1788
transitional phenomena and, 1794, 1795
See also Cinema; Literature; Visual arts
Cremerius, Johannes, 678
Crémieux, Rosine, 410
Crevel, René, 37, 46, 1695
Crews, Frederic C., 987
Crichton-Miller, Hugh, 699, 1457, 1727
Cries and Whispers (film), 294
“Crime de lintrojection, Le” (Torok and
Abraham), 870
Crime of Punishment, The
(Menninger), 1045
Criminal Sociology (Ferri), 353
“Criminals from a Sense of Guilt”
(Freud), 353
Criminologia (Garofalo), 353
Criminology, 353-354
Alexander, Franz Gabriel on, 43
Cénac on, 261
Friedlander-Frankl on, 646
Glover, Edward on, 684
Lacan on, 261
Menninger on, 1045
passage to the act, 10, 18-19, 1390
Schiff on, 1537
Crisanto, Carlos, 1254
Crise d originalité juvenile, La (Debesse), 28
Critica, 116
Critical Dictionary of Psychoanalysis, A
(Rycroft), 1521
“Critical Notes on the Theory of the
Pregenital Organization of the Libido”
(Balint), 149
Critical-paranoia, 1695
Critical theory, 30-32
Critique de la raison dialectique
(Sartre), 1352
Critique des fondements de la psychologie
(Politzer), 1294
Croatian psychoanalysis, 1884
Croce, Benedetto, 879
Cross-cap, 1763
2074
Crowd, The (Le Bon), 953
Crowds, 1632
Cruelty, 354-356
erotogenic zones and, 519
mastery and, 354, 355, 917, 1025
moral masochism and, 1071
superego and, 1691
urethral eroticism and, 517
Crypt, 7
Cryptomnesia, 356-357, 591-592
“Cryptomnesia” (Jung), 356
Csath, Géza, 765
Csillag, Sidonie, 1391
See also “Psychogenesis of a Case of
Homosexuality in a Woman, The”
Cullen, William, 1414
Cullére, A., 1136
Cultural transmission, 357-358
Culture
amplification and, 67
analytical psychology on, 79
animus/anima and, 87
anthropology and, 92-93
Bettelheim on, 173
childhood and, 282
civilization and, 298
in Civilization and Its Discontents, 296-297 -
definition of psychoanalysis and,
1364, 1365
Devereux on, 154
dream symbolism and, 441
ego syntony and, 489-490
ethics and, 525
ethnopsychoanalysis and, 526-527
family and, 547
feminist views of psychoanalysis and, 577
Filipino psychoanalysis and, 1268
Fornari on, 598
Freud on, 296-297, 640, 641
heroic self and, 739-740
Horney-Danielson on, 58, 59, 759, 1824
hypnosis and, 769
Indian psychoanalysis and, 807, 808
individual and, 810
inferiority feelings and, 832
Kardiner on, 906
Korean psychoanalysis and, 921
Martinican psychoanalysis and, 1014
Marxism on, 1018
Mead on, 1035
myth of origins and, 1092
mythology and, 1095-1096
Oedipus complex and, 1186
reaction-formations and, 1449
Roheim on, 1510
transcultural perspectives,
1774-1775, 1870
Weltanschauung and, 1854-1855
Cumulative trauma, 913
Cuny, Alain, 934
Cupello, Nicolas, 1832
Cure, 358-360, 1385, 1777, 1787
“Cure-type, La” (Bouvet), 210
Curiosity, 121
See also Infantile sexual curiosity
Custodio de Faria, Abbé José, 85, 1295
Cutting, 1572
Cybernetic theory, 1720
Cybernetics, 143
Cyrano de Bergerac, 54
Cyssau, Catherine, 563
Czech psychoanalysis, 78, 360, 360-361,
432-433, 1212
Czech Study Group, 360, 361
Czinner, Alice, 737
Da Silva, Guy, 245
Dadaism, 45, 708
Dahl, Hartvig, 1517
Dahleim, Luis, 566
Dahmer, Helmut, 1351
Dai, Bingham, 286
Daimonion, 153
Dalbiez, Roland, 363-364
Claude and, 305
Desoille and, 400
on epistemology, 1371
Ey and, 363, 539
French psychoanalysis and, 608
Pichon and, 363, 1283
Dali, Salvador, 37, 293, 1695
Dallal, Eduardo, 1052
Damourette, Jacques, 982, 1283
Dane, Paul Greig, 130, 131, 132
Danger, 364
animistic thought and, 85
annihilation anxieties and, 90
anxiety and, 102, 364
ego functions and, 479
fear and, 563
war and, 598
Daniels, George, 906
Danish psychoanalysis, 390-391
Danish Psychoanalytic Society, 391
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Dansereau, Michel, 245
Dante Alighieri, 986
Dare, Christopher, 1533
Dark continent metaphor, 365-366, 1175
Dark Wood to White Rose (Luke), 986
Darwinism, 366-367
Breuer and, 224
criminology and, 353
German romanticism and, 673
Hall and, 721
heredity of acquired characters and, 736
Jelliffe and, 889
mnemic traces and, 1064
ontogenesis and, 1196-1197
phylogenesis and, 366-367, 1277
prehistory and, 1303
primitive and, 1319
primitive horde and, 1320, 1768
psychosomatics and, 1408
Daseinanalyse, 181, 231, 615, 1267, 1535
Daudet, Alphonse, 1098
Daumeézon, Georges, 807, 1766
Daunou, Pierre, 795
Davanzo, Hernan, 284, 285
David, Christian
Congres des psychanalystes de langue
francaise des pays romans and, 331
on genital love, 671
Inconscient, L’ and, 807
Marty and, 1016
on masculinity/femininity, 1020
on psychosomatics, 610, 1407, 1409
Revue francaise de psychanalyse and, 1499
Société psychanalytique de Paris and, 1628
on state of being in love, 1656
on suffering, 1684
Viderman and, 1835
David, Michel, 881
David, Myriam, 129
Davidson, Andrew, 130
Davidson, Shamai, 877
Dayan, Maurice, 848, 1353
Daydreams
directed, 414-415
illusion and, 796
projection and, 1336
reverie and, 554-555, 1493-1494
secondary revision and, 1559
unconscious fantasies and, 1817
wish-fulfillment and, 1865
See also Reverie
Daymas, Simone, 1005
Day’s residues, 367-368, 437, 438, 442
“Irma’s injection” dream and, 872
latent/manifest dream elements and, 947,
948, 1007
See also Mnemic traces
De Beauvoir, Simone, 576, 644
De Boor, Clemens, 1602
De la psychanalyse a la médicine
psychosomatique (Held), 731
De la psychose paranoiaque dans ses rapports
avec la personnalité (Lacan), 36, 38, 104,
459, 532
“De la topic réalitaire: Notations sur une
meétapsychologie du secret” (Abraham and
Torok), 1560
De Pangoisse aT extase (Janet), 250, 886
De Pargent en psychanalyse et au-dela
(Viderman), 1836
Del interprétation, essai sur Freud (Ricoeur),
459, 611
De Ruggiero, Guido, 1508
De Sade, Marquis, 905
De Sanctis, Sancte, 824, 827, 1832
De Zubiria, R., 315
“Dead Mother, The” (Green), 1780
Dead mother complex, 368-369
Deadly Innocents, The: Portraits of Children
Who Kill (Gardiner), 664
Death, 369-371, 1751
amphimixia and, 66-67
animistic thought and, 86
breastfeeding and, 220
certainty and, 266
dipsomania and, 412-413
dreams and, 370, 1810-1811
estrangement and, 524
Fort-da game and, 600
orgasm and, 1209
Death drive. See Death instinct
Death instinct (Thanatos), 371-373
Abraham, Nicolas on, 7
activity/passivity and, 17
alienation and, 44
antinarcissism and, 97, 1114
anxiety and, 100
attacks on linking and, 983-984
autistic capsule and, 138
Beyond the Pleasure Principle on, 174
binding/unbinding and, 179
biological bedrock and, 182
castration complex and, 254, 255
character and, 271
conflict and, 326
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
constancy principle and, 1323
cruelty and, 355
culture and, 297
cure and, 359
defenses and, 375
desexualization and, 399
destrudo and, 400
dipsomania and, 413
discharge and, 417
disintegration anxieties and, 418
disorganization and, 421
drives and, 446, 447
dualism and, 449
ego and, 372, 464
ego-instincts and, 483
envy and, 508, 509
erotogenic masochism and, 517
essential depression and, 523
ethics and, 526
excitation and, 534
externalization-internalization and, 537
Fechner and, 565
free energy/bound energy and, 617
fusion/defusion and, 658, 659
guilt and, 716
helplessness and, 734
id and, 777
identification and, 640, 788
Klein on, 175, 372, 373, 915, 1139
Vacanone 175s 3725575
libido and, 968
life instinct and, 371, 372, 511-512
masochism and, 371, 372, 512,
1020-1021, 1022
mastery and, 1025
moral masochism and, 372, 1072
narcissism and, 1107
negative therapeutic reaction and, 1126
negative transference and, 1127
neuroses and, 1139
Nirvana principle and, 371, 1151, 1152
operational thinking and, 1199
paranoid-schizoid position and, 1233
parricide and, 1239
phobias and, 1274, 1276
primary masochism and, 1125
projective identification and, 1338, 1339
protective shield and, 1341
racism/anti-Semitism and, 1439
repetition compulsion and, 371,
1474-1475
Rosenfeld, Herbert on, 1515
2075
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
sadism and, 371, 1526
sadomasochism and, 1527
Schilder on, 1538
secrets and, 1560
sexuality and, 1593
Spielrein on, 1639
splitting and, 1646
splitting of the object and, 1642
sublimation and, 1679
superego and, 372, 1691
trauma and, 1801
Weiss on, 372, 1854
“Why War?” on, 1856
Debesse, Maurice, 28
Debray-Ritzen, Pierre, 612
Decartes, Rene, 1675
Decathexis, 373-374
dismantling and, 419
paranoia and, 1230
pleasure in thinking and, 1289
psychotic potential and, 1418
Decherf, Gérard, 1226
Decobert, Simone, 138, 1247, 1628
“Decomposition of the Psychic Personality”
(Freud), 1160, 1479
Deconditioning, 19
Dedekind, Richard, 1816
Deep Analysis, the Clinical Study of an
Individual Case (Berg), 82
Defeat of Baudelaire, The (Laforgue), 974
Defecation
anaclisis and, 68
anal eroticism and, 514-515
anal-sadistic stage and, 73-74
anality and, 72
coprophilia, 346
encopresis, 504
gifts and, 682
mastery and, 1024
Defenestration phobia, 1272
Defense mechanisms, 376-377
alteration of the ego, 469
altruism and, 54
anxiety and, 100
boredom as, 204
Bornstein on, 205
character and, 269-270
choice of neurosis and, 288
compensatory structures and, 317-318
depression and, 394
ego and, 466, 477, 479
estrangement and, 524
2076
idealization and, 783
identification with the aggressor and, 792
isolation, 875-876
megalomania and, 1036
negation as, 1121
paranoid-schizoid position and, 375
process and, 1328 .
racism and, 1437
suppression and, 1693-1694
symptoms and, 1715
turning around and, 1808
See also Defenses
Defense neuroses, 19-20, 325, 326, 1135
Defenses, 374-376
alcoholism and, 41
fantasy and, 552, 553, 554
Horney-Danielson on, 1140-1141
identification with the aggressor, 792-793
intellectualization, 844
neurotic, 1141-1142
psychic structure and, 1359
psychotic, 1413-1414
psychotic panic and, 1416
sexual drive and, 445
See also Defense mechanisms
Deferred action, 377-381
adolescence and, 26
anaclisis and, 68
archaic and, 113
child analysis and, 1733
displacement and, 422
fatherhood and, 558
Graph of Desire and, 693
incompleteness and, 805
mnemic traces and, 379, 380, 1064
primary identification and, 1313
repetition and, 1472
repression and, 1479, 1483
Rosolato on, 613
seduction scenes and, 1565
seduction theory and, 670, 1592
stages and, 1652
trauma and, 1801, 1802
war neuroses and, 1848, 1849
Deflation, 1596
Detusion. See Fusion/defusion
Degeneracy, 37, 1524
Deglado, Honorio, 116
Degoumois, Claire, 1701
Deja raconté, 382
Deja vécu, 382, 524
Deja vu, 265, 381-382, 524, 796
Déjerine, Jules, 106, 695, 1345, 1414, 1529
Del psicoanalisis a la Psicologia social
(Pichon-Riviére), 1285
Delarai-Chabaux, Catherine, 1572
Delay, Jean, 382-383
Claude and, 305, 382 >
Enriquez-Joly and, 506
on narco-analysis, 1117
Parcheminey and, 383, 1236
Pasche and, 1241
Psyché and, 1350
Sainte-anne Hospital and, 1528
Delboeuf, Joseph Remi Leopold, 383-384
on autosuggestion, 144
Congrés international de l'hypnotisme
experimental et scientifique, 331, 332
Disque vert, Le and, 424
on hypnosis, 769, 1685
Deleuze, Gilles, 97-99, 612
philosophy and, 1271
on politics, 1293
on Spinoza, 1640
on structuralism, 1668—1669
Delgado, Gustavo, 1254
Delgado, Honorio, 384—385, 1253, 1496,
1497, 1832
Delinquency. See Criminology
"Delirium, 1413, 1418
Delusions, 21, 385-386
constructions and, 337, 338
cryptomnesia and, 356
erotomania, 521-522, 1032, 1785-1786
estrangement and, 524
identification fantasies and, 791
illusion and, 797
need for causality and, 1119
paranoia and, 1228
of persecution, 1252
rationalization and, 1448
superego and, 1690
Delusions and Dreams in Jensen's “Gradiva”
(Freud), 351, 386-387, 985
Abraham and, 443
on anxiety dreams, 103
applied psychoanalysis and, 107
archeological metaphors in, 114
on daydreams, 555, 1494
on deja vu, 382
on Eros, 513
on fantasy, 551
on negative hallucination, 1124
on passion, 1244
publication of, 732.
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
on repetition, 1474
on scientific nature of psychoanalysis, 1551
Demand, 387-389
Démenti. See Disavowal
Dementia, 389-390, 462
Dementia praecox, 6, 389, 1053, 1232
1540, 1652
Demonic, 524
Demoris, René, 1842
Demos, John, 1393
Denial
alcoholism and, 41, 42
defenses and, 375
fetishism and, 582-583
negation and, 1121
>
negative hallucination and, 1125
splitting and, 1650
See also Disavowal
Denis, Paul
on breastfeeding, 221
on death instinct, 373
on mastery, 1926
Revue francaise de psychanalyse and, 1499,
1500, 1630
on sadism, 1526
Société psychanalytique de Paris and, 1631
on transference relationship, 1789
Denmark. See Danish psychoanalysis
Denver Psychoanalytic Society, 1641
Dependence, 391-393
addiction and, 23-24
anorexia nervosa and, 91
as basic assumption, 151, 709
group analysis and, 709
infantile neurosis and, 820
psychoanalyst role and, 310
Dépersonalisation et relation d objet
(Bouvet), 393
Depersonalization, 393-394
“as if” personality and, 122
boredom and, 203
Bouvet on, 211
disintegration anxieties and, 418
estrangement and, 524
patient physical position and, 541
self-consciousness and, 1569
Depression, 394-395
abandonment and, 3, 394-395
adolescence and, 27
ambivalence and, 57, 394
anaclitic, 70-71, 397, 760
antinarcissism and, 1114
dead mother complex and, 368
deprivation and, 397
desexualization and, 399
essential, 523, 1409
guilt and, 718
hypochondria and, 771
infantile, 70-71
libido and, 969
mastery and, 1024
mourning and, 394, 1081
postnatal, 1297-1298
primary narcissism and, 1110
psychoanalytic nosography and, 1375
Schreber case and, 1545
self-mutilation and, 1573
suicide and, 1687
transference and, 368, 1780-1782
See also Depressive position; Melancholia
Depression: Comparative Studies of Normal,
Neurotic, and Psychotic Conditions
(Jacobson), 883
Depression essentielle, La (Marty), 523
“Depression in the Schizophrenic”
(Segal), 1709
Depressive position, 394, 395-396
anaclitic depression and, 70
anxiety and, 100-101, 102
archaic and, 112
combined parent figure and, 316
disintegration anxieties and, 418
early Oedipus complex and, 1188
emotions and, 501
heroic self and, 740
imago and, 800-801
infant development and, 815
melancholia and, 1039
reparation and, 1471-1472
Riviere-Hodgson Verrall on, 1507
selected facts and, 1566
splitting of the object and, 1642
thought-thinking apparatus and, 1750
Depressive threat, 27
Deprivation, 397-398
disintegration anxieties and, 418
encopresis and, 504
frustration and, 653
hospitalism and, 70, 397, 760-761
maternal care and, 1029
See also Abandonment; Environment
failure
Depth psychology
alchemy and, 40
archaic and, 112
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
Austrian psychoanalysis and, 133, 134
British psychoanalysis and, 695
German psychoanalysis and, 677
Derbolowsky, U., 678
Deéreglements de !humeur, Les (Delay), 383
Deri, Frances, 360, 992, 1529, 1734
Derrida, Jacques
on cinema, 295
Confrontation and, 327, 328
on female sexuality, 365
French psychoanalysis and, 613
on mystic writing pad, 1160
philosophy and, 1271
on signifiers, 1605
Desanti, Jean-Toussaint, 53, 1552
Descartes, René
on doubt, 435
on illusion, 796
Lacan and, 1271
on memory, 1043
philosophy and, 1268, 1270
Pichon and, 1283
on psyche, 1348, 1349
on self-consciousness, 1569
Descent of Man, The (Darwin), 367, 1320
Descobert, Simone, 138, 911
Descombey, Jean-Paul, 42, 413
Descoueyte, Luce, 1014
Description. See Case histories
“Désertion du capitaine Rimbaud, La”
(Mijolla), 791
Desexualization, 398-399, 473, 1679, 1691
Desir et la pervision, Le (Aulagnier-Spairani
et al.), 1259
Desire
alcoholism and, 42
alienation and, 43
altruism and, 54
amentia and, 58
death instinct and, 372
Deleuze/Guattari on, 98
demand and, 388
family and, 98
illusion and, 796
Kantianism and, 905—906
lack ofb eing and, 1848
Law oft he Father and, 950
literature and, 987
maternal and, 1027
metonymy and, 1050-1051
object a and, 1172-1173
Other and, 1213
2077
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
philosophy and, 1271
phobias and, 1272-1273
pictogram and, 1286
pleasure principle and, 1290
primary need and, 1316
primary/secondary processes and, 1317
prohibition and, 1331
representation and, 781-782
reverie and, 555
sexuation and, 1595
signifier/signified and, 1606
signifying chain and, 1607
subject and, 1677-1678
subject’s castration and, 1676
Thing and, 1743
transgression and, 1791-1793
See also Graph of Desire; Libido; Wishfulfillment
Desire and Its Interpretation (Lacan), 1172
Desnos, Robert, 1696
Desoille, Robert, 399-400, 414, 555, 1494
Despair, 1571
Destins du plaisir, Les: Aliénation, amour,
passion (Aulagnier), 130, 918
“Destruction as the Cause of Becoming”
(Spielrein), 1518
Destructive drives
anality and, 72
cruelty and, 355
orality and, 1202-1203, 1205
repetition compulsion and, 1475
skin and, 1612
transference hatred and, 1781
See also Death instinct; Oral-sadistic stage
Destructuring of thought, 72-73
Destrudo, 372, 400, 1854
Destutt de Tracy, Antoine, 795
“Detaching a Syndrome of Anxiety Neurosis
from Neurasthenia” (Freud), 364, 420,
1135-1138, 1335, 1878
Determinism, 378, 400—402
Detienne, Marcel, 574
Détienne, Marcel, 1628
Detroit Psychoanalytic Society, 1658, 1659
Detski Dom, 402-403, 1515, 1518, 1544
Deuil pathologique, Le (Lagache), 936
Deuticke, Franz, 403-404, 884
Deuticke, Hans, 404
Deutsch, Felix, 404
on American Imago, 60
Boston Psychoanalytic Society/Institute
and, 207, 208
Deutsch-Rosenbach and, 404, 405
2078
Hartmann and, 727
Rank-Minzer and, 1444
Revue francaise de psychanalyse and, 1498
Vienna Ambulatorium and, 959
Wiener psychoanalytische Vereinigung
and, 1857, 1858
Deutsch-Rosenbach, Helene, 404—406
Abraham, Karl and, 5
on “as if” personality, 72, 122, 138, 191,
405, 972
Boston Psychoanalytic Society/Institute
and, 207
Croatian psychoanalysis and, 1884
on false self, 1646
on fate neurosis, 556-557
on female sexuality, 571, 1186
on femininity, 1400-1401
Foulkes and, 601
Hartmann and, 727
Hungarian School and, 766
on imposter, 803
Kris and, 924
on latent dream thoughts, 947
Lehrinstitut der Wiener
psychoanalytischen Vereinigung and, 959
Mahler-Schonberger and, 1001
on neurotic defenses, 1142
photograph of, I:pl.18
Rank-Minzer and, 1444
Ross and, 1516
Swedish psychoanalysis and, 1698
Tausk and, 1727
Vienna Ambulatorium and, 568
Wagner-Jauregg and, 1846
Wiener psychoanalytische Vereinigung
and, 1857, 1858
Deutsche Gesellschaft fiir Psychanalyse,
Psychotherapie, Psychosomatik und
Tiefenpsychologie, 677
Deutsche psychoanalytische Vereinigung
(DPV), 677, 679, 852, 1084, 1085,
1602, 1644
Schultz-Hencke and, 1547
Deutsche Psycoanalytische Gesellschaft
(DPG), 42
Berliner Psychoanalytische Poliklinik
and, 164
Boehm and, 199
Fenichel and, 579
founding of, 675
German psychoanalysis and, 1060
Happel and, 725
International Federation of Psychoanalytic
Societies and, 852
International Psychoanalytical Association
and, 856, 1060
medicine and, 678-679
Nazi Germany and, 675-677, 1085, 1644
neopsychoanalysis and, 679, 1131
postwar reestablishment of, 677, 856
Schultz-Hencke and, 1547
Spanish psychoanalysis and, 1637
Spitz and, 1641
Deutsches Institut fiir Psychologische
Forschung und Psychotherapie (Goring
Institute), 133, 164, 166, 406-407
Boehm and, 199, 406, 676, 689
Caruso and, 248
French psychoanalysis and, 609
Goring and, 406, 676, 689, 1547, 1557
Kemper and, 214, 1505
Laforgue and, 609, 934
Miller-Braunschweig and, 406, 676, 1085
Psyche and, 1351
Rittmeister and, 406, 1505-1506
Schultz-Hencke and, 406, 676, 1547
Second World War and, 1557
Wiener psychoanalytische Vereinigung
and, 1858
Deux Sources consciente et inconsciente de la
vie morale, Les (Odier), 1183
Deuxieme sexe, La (de Beauvoir), 576
Development of Psycho-Analysis (Ferenczi
and Rank), 407, 580-581, 979-980
Development of the Psycho-Analytical Theory
of the Psychoses, The (Rickman),
1501, 1502
“Development of War, The”
(Money-Kyrle), 1070
Developmental disorders, 408-409
Developmental point of view. See Genetic
point of view
Developmental processes, 1329-1331
Developments in Psychoanalysis (Heimann
and Riviere), 392
Devereux, Georges, 93, 153-154,
409-410, 527
on counter-Oedipus, 1465
on individual, 810
Roheim and, 1510
Schlumberger and, 1542
on transcultural perspectives, 1775
Di Vitto, Barbara, 1304
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Illness (DSM), 824, 828, 993, 1138, 1178—
1179, 1804
Diagnostic profile,.724
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Dialectic of Sex, The: The Case for Feminist
REvolution (Firestone), 576
“Dialectical Materialism and
Psychoanalysis” (Reich), 1017-1018
Diarrhea, 66
Diary of My Analysis with Freud (Blanton),
£92,541, 835
Dias, Flavio, 214, 919
Diathesis-stress model of
schizophrenia, 1541
Diatkine, Gilbert, 1630, 1631
Diatkine, René, 410-411
on anaclitic depression, 70
Association de santé mentale and, 610
Belgian psychoanalysis and, 157
CCTP and, 264
Centre Alfred-Binet and, 263, 410, 955
Centre de diagnostic et de traitements
psychanalytiques and, 609
on character, 274
child analysis and, 280, 411, 610, 613, 955,
£731, 1732
Colloque sur I’ inconscient and, 314
Congres des psychanalystes de langue
francaise des pays romans and, 330
on developmental disorders, 408
on developmental processes, 1330
on indications/contraindications for
psychoanalysis, 809
on infantile psychosis, 825, 826
Kestemberg-Hassin and, 911
Lebovici and, 954
Martinican psychoanalysis and, 1014
on maternal reverie, 1031
Nacht and, 410, 1102
on object, 1168
on pregenital stage, 1186
on prepsychosis, 1306
Racamier and, 1435
Revue francaise de psychanalyse and, 1500
Société psychanalytique de Paris and, 410,
411, 1625, 1628, 1630
on stammering, 1653
Swiss psychoanalysis and, 1701
Diaz Conti, Ricardo, 1052
Dicks, Henry V., 1457, 1728
Dictionary of Psychology (Warren), 1553
Dictionnaire de psychanalyse et de
psychotechnique, 742, 934
Didier-Weill, Alain, 347
Die Sprache des Traumes (Stekel), 1657
Die Traume der Dichter (Stekel), 1657
Diercks, Christine, 133
Differentiation. See Lack of differentiation
“Differentiation between Concrete and
Metaphorical Thinking in the Recovering
Schizophrenic Patient, The” (Searles), 786
“Differentiation of the Psychotic from the
Non-psychotic Personalities, The” (Bion),
188, 1417
“Difficulty in the Path of Psycho-Analysis,
A” (Freud), 366, 483
Dilthey, Wilhelm, 181, 704, 1699
Dionysus, 41
Dipsomania, 412-414
Direct analysis, 414
Direct observation. See Infant observation
Directed daydreams, 414-415, 1494
Disappointment, 782
Disavowal, 415-417
consciousness and, 334
ego and, 466
negation and, 1121
psychotic defenses and, 1413
structural theories and, 1667
work of the negative and, 1129
See also Denial
Discharge, 417-418
acting out and, 10, 418
constancy principle and, 1322
excitation and, 533, 534
primary/secondary processes and,
1317, 1318
self-mutilation and, 1573
thought and, 1747
Discontinuity, autism and, 137
Discours psychanalytique, 1084
Discourse, 601-602, 813, 931
Discovery of the Unconscious, The: The
History and Evolution of Dynamic
Psychiatry (Ellenberger), 497
Disillusionment, 1750-1751
Disintegration anxieties, 90, 418, 605, 1320
Disintegration products, 419
Dismantling, 137, 419-420
Disorganization, 420-421, 1460
Displacement, 421—422
action-presentations and, 13
anxiety and, 101
cathexis and, 260
condensation and, 324
conscious processes and, 333
day’s residues and, 367
dreams and, 437, 438, 441, 442
forgetting and, 597
formations of the unconscious and, 598
letter and, 961-962
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
metonymy and, 1050
neurotic defenses and, 1142
primary/secondary processes and, 1318
representability and, 1477
screen memories and, 1555
secondary revision and, 1559 ,
signifier/signified and, 1606
slips of the tongue and, 1616
stranger anxiety and, 1664
subject’s desire and, 1677
substitute formations and, 1681
Displacement of the transference, 422—423
“Disposition to Obsessional Neurosis, The”
(Freud)
on anal eroticism, 514
on anality, 72
on character, 269
on choice of neurosis, 288
Hirschfeld, Elfriede and, 746-747
on obsessional neurosis, 1179
on organization, 1208
on paraphrenia, 1234
on pregenital organization, 1301
Disque vert, Le, 423—424, 607
Disséminaire, Le (Viderman), 1835
Dissociation, 1645, 1646, 1672
“Dissolution of the Oedipus Complex, The”
(Freud), 1185
on castration complex, 252-253
on identification, 789
on penis envy, 1246
publication of, 641
on repression, 1480
“Dissolutions de la méemoire” (Delay), 383
Distance relation, Bouvet on, 211
“Disturbance of Memory on the Acropolis,
A’ (Freud), 424—425
on déja vu, 381, 382
on depersonalization, 393
on disavowal, 416
on estrangement, 524
Freud, Jakob Kolloman and, 625
Freud’s self-analysis and, 638
on illusion, 796
on memory, 1043
Rolland and, 424—425, 638, 1182, 1511
Divided attention, 127
Divided Self, The (Laing), 699, 937-938
Divine Comedy (Dante), 986
“Do delirio em geral” (Franco da
Rocha), 614
Do mito a verdade cientifica: Estudos
psicanaliticos (Martins), 1015
2079
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Doane, M. A., 294
Déblin, Alfred, 674
Doctor, His Patient and the Illness, The
(Balint), 149, 151
Doctor and the Soul, The (Frankl), 615
Doctors of Infamy: The Story of the Nazi
Medical Crimes (Mitscherlich), 1060-1061
Documents et Débats (APF), 123, 124, 426
Dogma of Christ and Other Essays on
Religion, Psychology, and Culture, The
(Fromm), 1017
Doi, Takeo, 56, 887, 888
Dolto-Marette, Francoise, 426-429
Armand Trousseau Children’s Hospital
and, 120, 427
Belgian psychoanalysis and, 158
Berge and, 161
Bloc, Le—Notes de la psychanalyse and, 195
Centre psychopédagogique Claude-
Bernard and, 265
child analysis and, 280, 427-428, 592-593,
610, 1347, 1732
on deprivation, 397
Desoille and, 400
French psychoanalysis and, 613
French psychoanalytic establishment split
(1953) and, 427, 560, 930, 1619
French psychoanalytic establishment split
(1964) and, 427, 957
on gaze, 990
IPA excommunication, 162, 327, 427, 455,
611, 692
Laforgue and, 934, 1625
on modesty, 1067
Morgenstern-Kabatschnik and, 427,
1073, 1346
Pankow and, 1222
Peraldi and, 1247
Psychanalyse et Pédiatrie, 1346-1347
Psyche and, 1350
psychological tests and, 1395, 1398
on puberty, 1421
Schilder and, 1538
Schlumberger and, 1541
on self-image, 1572
on transitional phenomena, 1794
on weaning, 1851, 1852
Domingues de Morais, Maria Regina, 217
Dominguez, Hugo, 1832, 1833
Dominique: the analysis of an adolescent
(Doito-Marette), 427
Don Juan (Rank), 429
Dongier, Maurice, 314
Donnars, Jacques, 934
2080
Donnet, Jean-Luc
on blank psychoses, 191
CCTP and, 264
on frame of psychoanalytic treatment, 606
Inconscient, L’ and, 807
on intergenerational phenomena, 846
Société psychanalytique de Paris and,
1626, 1630
on transference, 1781
Doolittle-aldington, Hilda (H.D.), 429-431
Dopamine hypothesis, 1540
Dor, Joél, 578
“Dora” case, 604-605
acting out and, 10, 605
adolescence and, 26
anxiety dreams and, 103
conversion and, 345
cruelty and, 354
dreams of mourning and, 1083
enuresis and, 507
flight into illness and, 590
free association and, 616
gain and, 664
hysteria and, 772
identification and, 787, 788
latent dream thoughts and, 948
Oedipus complex and, 1184
partial drives and, 1240
repetitive dreams and, 1476
resistance and, 1384
rituals and, 1503
somatic compliance and, 1635
transference and, 1384, 1776-1777
unary trait and, 1814
urethral eroticism and, 517
Dorer, Maria, 82
Dorey, Gabrielle, 1430
Dorey, Roger, 563, 729, 1024, 1025
Dorn, Gerard, 811
Dos Santos, Joao, 1297
Dos suerios de analistas (Langer), 941
Dostoyevsky, Fyodor, 23, 431-432, 1515
“Dostoyevsky and Parricide” (Freud), 351,
412, 413, 431-432, 985, 1071-1072, 1238
Dosuzkov, Theodor N., 361, 432-433,
1212, 1292
Double, the, 429, 434, 434-435, 1106, 1815
Double, The (Rank), 429
Double bind, 433-434, 1720
Doublethink, 111
Doubrovsky, Serge, 327
Doubt, 265, 435-436, 549
Doucet, Pierre, 245
Douki, Saida, 1155, 1156
Doumic-Girard, Alice, 1004
Douville, Olivier, 1156
Doyle, Arthur Conan, 1181
Doyle Ferreira, Iracy, 215
DPG. See Deutsche Psycoanalytische
Gesellschaft ;
DPV. See Deutsche psychoanalytische
Vereinigung
Dr. Mabuse (film), 292, 293
Dracoulides, Nicolas, 700
Drager, Kathe, 676
“Dragons and Dragon Killers”
(Roheim), 1509
Drang. See Pressure
Drazien, Muriel, 880
Dream-confusion disorders, 21
Dream interpretation, 438—439, 864-865
hermeneutics and, 738
Kemper, Werner Walther on, 910
translation and, 1797-1798
wish-fulfillment and, 1865
See also Dream work; Dreams;
Interpretation
Dream-like memory, 439-440
“Dream of the Wise Baby, The”
» (Freud), 440
Dream screen, 440-441
Dream symbolism, 437, 441-442,
1798, 1811
Dream work, 436, 437, 442-443
See also Dreams
Dreams, 436-438
action-presentations and, 12
adolescence and, 27
alchemy and, 40
amentia and, 58
amnesia and, 64
amplification and, 67, 865
anagogical interpretation and, 71
anticipatory ideas and, 95
anxiety dreams, 102—103, 1150
archaic and, 112, 1007
archetypes and, 115
birth in, 185-186
censorship in, 262
certainty and, 265
cinema and, 293, 295
condensation and, 324—325
conflict and, 325
contradiction and, 341
of convenience, 344-345
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
daydreams and, 555, 1494
day’s residues and, 367-368, 437, 438, 442
death and, 370, 1810-1811
Delusions and Dreams in Jensen's “Gradiva”
and, 386-387
determinism and, 401
displacement and, 421-422
doubt and, 435
“Dream of the Wise Baby, The” on, 440
ego and, 462
examination dreams, 533, 1811
fantasy and, 550
Freud’s self-analysis and, 436, 438, 533
Garma on, 666, 1366—1367
German romanticism and, 673
hypocritical, 771-772
hysteria and, 773
incompleteness and, 805
infantile and, 830
infantile omnipotence and, 822
jokes and, 890
latent/manifest dream elements, 437, 438,
442, 489, 946—947, 948, 1007,
1007-1008, 1747
logic and, 989-990
maternal and, 1028
“Metapsychological Supplement to the
Theory of Dreams, A” on, 1048
mnemic traces and, 1063
of mourning, 1083
mourning and, 1081, 1082
mythology and, 443, 1099
of nakedness, 1103, 1810
narcissistic withdrawal and, 1116
night terrors and, 1149
nightmares, 102—103, 1149-1150
overdetermination and, 1216
phobias and, 1275
premonitory, 1305
primary/secondary processes and, 1318
primitive words and, 4
projection and, 1336
psychic temporality and, 1359
of punishment, 1422-1423, 1577
regression and, 1459
repetitive, 1476
representability and, 1477
reversal into the opposite and, 1494-1495
screen memories and, 1555
self-state, 1579
Silberer on, 1608
sleep/wakefulness and, 1614-1615
slips of the tongue and, 1616
somnambulism and, 1636
subject’s desire, 1677
substitute formations and, 1680
surrealism and, 1695
symbolism and, 437, 441-442, 1798, 1811
symbolization and, 441, 442, 654-655
thought and, 1747
transgression and, 1793
wish-fulfillment and, 1866
See also Dream work; Secondary revision
“Dreams and Myths” (Abraham), 5,
443, 1099
“Dreams and Telepathy” (Freud), 1181,
1476, 1488, 1735
“Dreams in Folklore” (Freud), 564
Dream’s navel, 443, 1453
Dreams of convenience. See Convenience,
dreams of
Drei aufsatze iiber den inneren Konflict
(Gross), 708
Drei Grundelemente des wissenschaftlichen
Denkens bei Freud, Die (Binswanger), 181
Dressed to Kill (film), 292
Drive regression, 1687
Drives, 444-448
action-presentations and, 13
activity/passivity and, 17
adolescence and, 28, 29
aggression and, 34, 35
anaclisis and, 69
analytic psychodrama and, 78
anticathexes and, 94
Beyond the Pleasure Principle on, 173-175
breast as good/bad object and, 220
compulsion and, 322, 323
cruelty and, 354
culture and, 297
dualism and, 449
ego autonomy and, 474
emotions and, 501
ethology and, 528
excitation and, 534
Fairbairn on, 545
fixation and, 588
idealization and, 783
identity and, 795
“Instincts and Their Vicissitudes” on, 446,
838, 1674
instinctual representative and, 841
jouissance and, 894
mastery and, 1026
object and, 1171
object relations theory and, 447, 1176, 1177
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
objects and, 1168
operational thinking and, 1198
partial drives, 1239-1241, 1257-1258
politics and, 1293
psychic energy and, 1356
psychosexual development and, 1406
Schiller on, 1539 .
Schur on, 1548
scientific nature of psychoanalysis and, 726
self and, 1580
self-preservation and, 1575
self psychology and, 1576
sexualization and, 1595
splitting and, 1646
subject of the unconscious and, 1675
termination of treatment and, 76, 77
work of the negative and, 1129
See also Death instinct; Life instinct; Sexual
drives; Sexuality
Dromomania, 412
Drug treatments. See Psychopharmacology
Drumont, Edouard, 1437
Druon, Catherine, 1304
Du Bois-Reymond, Emil, 637
“Du langage pictorial au langage de
linterprete” (Aulagnier-Spairani), 1477
Dualism, 448-449
activity/passivity and, 17
antinarcissism and, 97
Beyond the Pleasure Principle on, 174
change and, 267
conscious processes and, 333
contradiction and, 341-342
desexualization and, 399
drives and, 445-446
German romanticism and, 673-674
Klein on, 449, 1106
monism and, 1070-1071
pain and, 1219
transgression and, 1793
See also Death instinct; Life instinct
Dubal, George, 195, 449-450
Dubal, Georges, 1556
Dubal, Rosette, 450
Dubois, Paul, 1411
Dubowitz, Margit, 765
Dufour, Roger, 415
Dufresne, Roger, 245, 1621, 1622
Dugas, Ludovic, 1569
Dugautiez, Maurice, 157, 450-451,
450-451, 956
Diihrssen, Annemarie, 679, 1131
2081
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Dujarrier, Louis, 1628
Dukes, Géza, 356, 766
Dumas, Didier, 1266
Dumas, Georges, 305, 382, 886, 1053,
1054, 1634
Dumesnil, B, 1573
Dumézil, Claude, 1083, 1084, 1099
Dumezil, Georges, 1350
Dumont, Louis, 810
Dumontpallier, Victor, 331
Dunbar, Helen Flanders, 43, 1222, 1408
Duparc, Frangois, 423, 1125, 1878
Dupont, M. A., 1052
Dupre, Ernest, 827, 1098
Durand, Father Charles, 156
Durcharbeiten. See Working-through
Durkheim, Emile, 1631
Durrell, Lawrence, 706
Durst, Margarete, 1816
Diiss, Louisa, 1395
Dutch psychoanalysis, 1132-1134
Emden and, 498-499, 1132
Lampl-de Groot and, 938
Landauer and, 940
Leeuw and, 958
Van Ophuijsen and, 1133, 1200
Dutch Psychoanalytic Institute, 938
Dutch Society for Psychoanalysis. See
Nederlandsche vereeniging voor psychoanalysise
Dutourd, Jean, 383
D’Waelhens, Alphonse, 315, 1348
Dwelshauvers, Georges, 157, 424
Dynamic point of view, 451, 1049
aggression and, 35
drives and, 447
neuroses and, 1138
psychic energy and, 1355
puberty and, 1421
repression and, 1484
rituals and, 1504
See also Metapsychology
“Dynamics of Transference, The” (Freud)
on anticipatory ideas, 95
on imago, 800
on interpretation, 862
on negative transference, 1127
on resistance, 1488
on resolution of the transference, 1490
on silence, 1610
on transference hatred, 1781
Dysmorphophobia, 1578
2082
Eagle, Morris N., 1517
“Early Development of Female Sexuality,
The” (Jones), 893
Early interactions, 453-454
Early Oedipus complex, Klein on, 113, 219,
915, 1174, 1187, 1188 ‘
“Early Stages of the Oedipus Conflict”
(Klein), 517
Eating disorders, 54, 91-92, 138, 233-234,
1202, 1578, 1665, 1686
Eberwein, Robert, 296
EBP (Escola Brasileira de Psicanalise do
campo freudiano), 217
EBP] (Ecole Belge de Psychanalyse
Jungienne), 158
ECE (Ecole de la Cause freudienne), 455—
456, 612, 931, 1083, 1519, 1644, 1645
Echec de Baudelaire, L’ (Laforgue), 544, 934
Eckstein, Emma, 454-455, 667, 1671
Ecole Belge de Psychanalyse (Belgische
School voor Psychoanalyse), 158
Ecole Belge de Psychanalyse Jungienne
(EBPJ), 158
Ecole de la Cause freudienne (ECF), 455—
456, 612, 931, 1083, 1519, 1644, 1645
Ecole de psychanalyse Sigmund Freud, 456
Ecole experimentale de Bonneuil, 456-457
Ecole freudienne, 1084
Ecole freudienne de Paris (Freudian School
of Paris), 457-458, 611
Certeau and, 266
dissolution of, 612, 931, 1083-1084, 1630,
1631, 1645
founding of, 129, 427, 455, 457, 506,
611, 930
Italian psychoanalysis and, 880
Mannoni and, 1009
Miller and, 458, 612
pass and, 1242, 1251, 1430
Peraldi and, 1247
Perrier and, 457, 458, 1251
Quatriéme Groupe and, 1429-1430
training analysis and, 1770
See also French psychoanalytic
establishment split (1964)
Ecole Lacanienne de psychanalyse (ELP),
612, 1084
Ecole psychosomatique de Paris, 1016,
1198, 1876
Economic point of view, 458-459, 1049
aggression and, 35
collective psychology and, 311
constancy principle and, 1323
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
derivatives of the repressed and, 1481
discharge and, 417
drives and, 446-447
empathy and, 502
excitation and, 533, 534
fixation and, 588
humor and, 762
jokes and, 890, 891
language and, 1874
libido and, 968-969
mourning and, 1081, 1082
negative therapeutic reaction and, 1126
neuroses and, 1138
operational thinking and, 1198
perception-consciousness system and, 1248
primary/secondary processes and, 1318
psychic energy and, 1355, 1356
puberty and, 1421
repression and, 1483-1484
trauma and, 1455, 1801
traumatic neuroses and, 1804
unpleasure and, 1826-1827
See also Metapsychology
“Economic Problem of Masochism, The”
(Freud)
on conflict, 326
on death instinct, 372
on ego, 465
Ego and the Id, The and, 472
on erotogenic masochism, 517-518, 1021
on excitation, 1753
on feminine masochism, 572, 1258
on fusion/defusion, 658
on identification, 789
on imago, 800
on masochism, 1021-1022
on moral masochism, 1071
on negative therapeutic reaction, 1126
on Nirvana principle, 1151-1152
on oral eroticism, 516
on pairs of opposites, 1220
on perversion, 1258
on pleasure principle, 1291
on punishment dreams, 1423
on quantitative/qualitative
dimensions, 1428
on sadism, 1526
on sadomasochism, 1527
on turning around, 1807
Ecrit du temps, L’, 124, 611
Ecrits (Lacan), 37, 38, 459-460, 571, 611,
612, 930-931, 1552, 1668
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
ECRO (Esquema Conceptual Referential y
Operativo), 1285
Eczema, 1665
Edcumbe, Rose, 577
Eder, David Montagu, 460-461
British psychoanalysis and, 695, 696, 697
Israeli psychoanalysis and, 876
Jung and, 460, 461, 695
Low and, 997
Edinger, Edward, 80
Education et psychotherapie institutionelee
(Tosquelles), 1766
Education familiale, L’ (Berge), 162
Educational Monograph Series (IPA),
858, 859
Effort, L’, 196
EEP. See Ecole freudienne de Paris
EFPP (European Federation for
Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy), 1412
Ego, 461-468
abandonment and, 2, 3
activity/passivity and, 17
adaptation and, 375, 475, 488
adolescence and, 26, 29
aggression and, 34-35
Alexander, Franz Gabriel on, 43
allergic object relationship and, 47
alteration of, 76, 468-469
amnesia and, 64
amphimixia and, 66
amplification and, 67
anaclitic depression and, 70
analytical psychology on, 463, 469-470
antilibidinal, 96-97
basic fault and, 152
belief and, 158
binding/unbinding and, 179
blank psychoses and, 191, 192
breast as good/bad object and, 219
capacity to be alone and, 247
cathexis and, 260
censorship and, 263
character and, 269, 273, 274
children’s play and, 283
choice of neurosis and, 288
collective unconscious and, 313
compensation and, 317
concept development, 461—466, 475-476
consciousness and, 334
conversion and, 345
counter-identification and, 348
cruelty and, 355
cultural transmission and, 357
damage inflicted on, 475
death instinct and, 372, 464
defenses and, 374, 375, 376, 377
depersonalization and, 393
depression and, 394, 395
depressive position and, 396
dipsomania and, 413
disavowal and, 415, 416
double and, 434
dualism and, 449
Ego and the Id, The on, 464-465, 470,
471-472, 476
ego boundaries and, 474
ego psychology on, 475-477
ego states and, 488-489
envy and, 509
Erikson on, 282
Eros and, 513
experience of satisfaction and, 536
externalization-internalization and, 537
Fairbairn on, 545
fascination and, 556
Freud, Anna on, 466, 472-473, 476, 477
frustration and, 654
functions of, 476-477, 478-479, 482
groups and, 712
guilt and, 470, 471, 716, 717
humor and, 762-763
Tand, 775
id and, 777
idealization and, 783-784
identity and, 481-482, 511, 794
imaginary and, 799
infant development and, 815
infantile omnipotence and, 823
inhibition and, 833
internal objects and, 849
introjection and, 870
Lacan on, 463, 467, 475, 929
“Tittle Hans” case and, 75-76
masochism and, 1022
maternal and, 1027
melancholia and, 21, 1038, 1039
mourning and, 3
mystic writing pad and, 1158-1159
narcissism and, 1106, 1107
narcissistic defenses and, 1111
narcissistic neuroses and, 1113-1114
negative therapeutic reaction and, 1127
object and, 70
passage to the act and, 18
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
perception-consciousness system and,
1248-1249
primary object and, 1317
prohibition and, 1332
protective shield and, 1340
psychic structure and, 1358
psychogenic blindness and, 1392-1393
psychoses and, 1404
psychosomatic limit and, 1410
reality testing and, 1451
regression and, 1460
repression and, 1479, 1480
rituals and, 1504
Sartre on, 1534-1535
screen memories and, 1556
secrets and, 1560
self and, 1567, 1568
self-consciousness and, 1569-1570
self-esteem and, 1570
self-image and, 1571
self-mutilation and, 1572-1573
self-preservation and, 1575, 1576
self-punishment and, 1577
self-representation and, 1578
skin and, 1613
somnambulism and, 1636
Spitz on, 1641
splitting of the object and, 1642, 1648
stages and, 1651
state of being in love and, 1656
subject and, 1673
substitute formations and, 1680
superego and, 465, 1690
symptoms and, 1715
synthetic function of, 476-477, 478,
479, 482
true/false self and, 1581
turning around and, 1807
Winnicott on, 1862
See also Skin-ego; Splitting of the ego;
Structural theory
Ego and the Id, The (Freud), 174,
470-472, 640
on aggression, 34
on bisexuality, 187
on cathectic energy, 259
on character, 272
collective psychology and, 311
on cultural transmission, 357
on cure, 359
on death instinct, 372
on defenses, 375
on destrudo, 400
2083
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
on ego, 464465, 470, 471-472, 476
on ego ideal, 479-480
ego psychology and, 486
on fusion/defusion, 658, 659
Groddeck and, 777
on guilt, 717
on id, 777-778
on infant development, 814, 815
on life instinct, 975
on melancholia, 21
on moral masochism, 1071
on narcissism, 1105, 1106
on negative therapeutic reaction,
1125-1126
on object, 1169
on orality, 1202
on otherness, 1214
on pain, 1219
on perception-consciousness system, 1248
on primary identification, 1313
psychic energy and, 1356
on psychic representative, 1358
on secondary narcissism, 1111
on self-hatred, 1571
on stratification, 1665
on superego, 471, 479, 1690
on suppression, 1694
on topographical point of view, 1760
US. psychoanalysis and, 1825
on working-off mechanisms, 1877
See also Structural theory
Ego and the Mechanisms of Defense, The
(Anna Freud), 54, 466, 472-473, 619, 792,
1387,1808
Ego autonomy, 466, 473-474, 477
Ego boundaries, 474-475, 477-478,
487-488
Ego cathenis, 474, 487
Ego collapse, 1687
Ego-consciousness, 1569-1570
“Ego Distortion in Terms of True and False
Self” (Winnicott), 1567, 1582
Ego feeling, 474, 477-478, 487, 489
Ego ideal, 479-480
alienation and, 44, 480
“as if” personality and, 122
ego and, 463
groups and, 712
ideal ego and, 481
idealization and, 783, 784
idealized parental imago and, 784
identification and, 788, 789
identificatory project and, 793
2084
mania and, 1006, 1007
mastery and, 1024
megalomania and, 1036
narcissism and, 1105, 1106
narcissistic injury and, 1113
object and, 1169 :
primary narcissism and, 1110
prohibition and, 1332
secondary narcissism and, 1110-1111
self-esteem and, 1570
See also Ideal ego
Ego identity, 481-482, 511, 794, 1324
“Ego in Freud’s Theory and in the
Technique of Psychoanalysis, The”
(Lacan), 467, 1453
Ego-instincts, 56, 445, 482484, 975, 1119
“Ego-integration in Child Development”
(Winnicott), 843
Ego interests, 484
Ego-libido/object-libido, 463, 484486, 968
ego-instincts and, 483
erotogenic zones and, 519
hypochondria and, 770
identificatory project and, 793
mourning and, 1081
object a and, 1173
objects and, 1168
“On Narcissism” on, 1191
puberty and, 1420
self-esteem and, 1570
sublimation and, 1678
turning around and, 1807
Ego psychology, 486—487
on adaptation, 22, 475, 989
alteration of the ego and, 469
Arlow and, 119
Bettelheim and, 173
cathexis and, 260
on defenses, 375
definition of psychoanalysis and, 1364
development of, 466
Dutch psychoanalysis and, 1134
on ego, 475-477
on ego feeling, 474, 477-478
on ego functions, 478
on ego syntony, 489-490
Federn, Paul and, 466, 475, 476, 477,
487-488, 568
Finnish psychoanalysis and, 584
Freud, Anna and, 473
Hartmann on, 466, 475, 476, 477, 488,
727, 728 a/
on id, 779
on identity, 794
inferiority feelings and, 831
on It, 201
Kardiner and, 906
Kris and, 925
Lampl-de Groot and, 938-939
Loewenstein and, 989
metapsychology and, 1049
Nacht and, 1103
New York Psychoanalytic Institute/Society
and, 1148
on projective identification, 1339
on psychic energy, 1356
psychology and psychoanalysis and, 1397
on psychosexual development, 1407
Rapaport on, 1446
on representation, 781
self psychology and, 1576
stages and, 1652
structural theories and, 1667
U.S. psychoanalysis and, 1825
Wiener psychoanalytische Vereinigung |
and, 1857 {
Ego Psychology and the Problem of
Adaptation (Hartmann), 22, 273, 488, 727 |
, Ego Psychology and the Psychoses (Federn),
487-488, 568
Ego states, 474, 488-489, 568
Ego syntony, 489-490
Egotism, 355
Egyptian mythology, 1096
Ehrenzweig, Anton, 1842
Ficholz, Enid. See Balint, Enid
Eiferman, Rivka, 877
Fight-month anxiety, 1186, 1664
Eiguer, Alberto, 845, 846
Eiminder, Sandor, 1765
Einfalle. See Sudden involuntary ideas
Einfithlung. See Empathy
Einfuhrung in die Psychanalyse (Schultz-
Hencke), 1130
Einige Ideen zur Schopfungs- und
Entwicklungsgeschichte des Organismen
(Fechner), 565
Einleitung in ein Aegyptisch-semitisch
indoeuropeanisches Wurzelworterbuch
(Abel), 3
Einstein, Albert, 1378, 1550
See also “Why War?”
Eisler, Jozsef, 765, 766
Eissler, Kurt Robert, 490-491
Eissler-Selke and, 492
INTERNATIONAL Dictionary oF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Italian psychoanalysis and, 879
Journal of the American Psychoanalytic
Association, 897
Lampl-de Groot and, 938
New York Psychoanalytic Institute/Society
and, 1148
on pleasure in thinking, 1289
Sigmund Freud: Life and Work and, 974
Sigmund Freud Archives and, 490, 491,
642, 1600
Tausk and, 1727
Vienna Ambulatorium and, 959
“Wolf Man” case and, 1221
Eissler-Selke, Ruth, 491-492, 919
Eitingon, Max, 492-494, 638
Benedek and, 159
Berggasse 19, Wien IX and, 162
Berliner Psychoanalytische Poliklinik and,
164, 492, 493, 675
Berliner Psychoanalytisches Institut and,
165, 166
Brazilian psychoanalysis and, 1012
Burghdélzli Asylum and, 180
Congres des psychanalystes de langue
francaise des pays romans and, 330
on counter-transference, 747
Deutsche Psycoanalytische Gesellschaft
and, 675, 676
Dutch psychoanalysis and, 1132-1133
German psychoanalysis and, 674, 675
Happel and, 725
International Psychoanalytical Association
and, 854, 855
Internationale Zeitschrift fir Psychoanalyse
and, 860
Israeli psychoanalysis and, 461, 876, 1881
lay analysis and, 855, 951
“Lines of Advance in Psycho-Analytic
Therapy” and, 980
Loewenstein and, 988
on occultism, 1181
photographs of, I:pl.19, III:pl.9
on psychoanalytic treatment, 1729
Secret Committee and, 493, 1561
on Secrets of a Soul, The, 1563
Swiss psychoanalysis and, 1549, 1702
Tegel clinic and, 1734
Tomasi and, 1758
training analysis and, 1769
Van Ophuijsen and, 1200
Eitington, Max, 1611
Ekman, Tore, 1699
Eksterman, A., 216
El Khayat, Ghita, 1155
Elan vital, 485
Elasticity, 15, 16, 494—495, 581
“Elasticity of the Psychoanalytic Technique,
The” (Ferenczi), 494, 1725
Electra, 27
Electra complex, 319
Electricity, 1181
Elementary Structures of Kinship, The (Lévi-
Strauss), 1774
Elementi di psiocoanalisi (Weiss), 495, 878,
1853-1854
Elements of Psycho-Analysis (Bion), 171,
340, 704, 705, 995, 1030, 1031, 1299
Elias, Norbert, 601
“Elisabeth von R.” case, 495—497
cathartic method and, 258
Darwinism and, 366
erotogenicity and, 520
femininity and, 573
phylogenesis and, 1277
resistance and, 496, 1488
Ellenberger, Henri Frederic, 497
on “Anna O.” case, 88, 89, 1223
Binswanger and, 181
on “Emmy von N.’ case, 500
Pfister and, 497, 1260
on psychotherapy, 1411
Ellery, Reginald S., 131
Ellis, Havelock, 130, 141, 695, 1257,
1671, 1751
Eloge de la phobie (Birraux), 1275
ELP (Ecole Lacanienne de psychanalyse),
612, 1084
Eluard, Paul, 37, 1695
Embirikos, Andreas, 498, 700, 922, 1696
Emde, Robert N., 454, 888
Eminescu, Mihai, 1511
Emma case
memories and, 1041
mnemic symbols and, 1062
mnemic traces and, 1064
proton-pseudos and, 1342
screen memories and, 1555
trauma and, 1801
Emminghaus, Hermann, 827
“Emmy von N.” case, 499-500, 1076-1077
Andersson on, 82, 497
cathartic method and, 258
complexes and, 319
Darwinism and, 366
Delboeuf and, 384
Ellenberger on, 497
free association and, 616, 1384
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
Emotions, 47, 48, 268, 500-501
Empathy, 501-502
counter-identification and, 348
elasticity and, 494
Ferenczi on, 59, 494, 502
identification and, 790
Kohut on, 502, 920
projective identification and, 1339
tact and, 1725
Empedocles of Agrigento, 356, 511-512
Empty behavior syndrome, 1665
Empty Fortress, The (Bettelheim), 173,
502-504
Encéphale, L’, 305
Enchanted Soul, The (Rolland), 1511
Enckell, Mikael, 584
Encopresis, 504-505
Encore (Lacan), 1595
Encounter, 505-506
Encounter group movement, 238
Encryption, 1560
Endorphins, 1573
Energy. See Free energy/bound energy;
Psychic energy
Enfances (Dolto-Marette), 426
“Enfant, l’infantile et la causalité psychique,
L” (Brusset), 830
Enfant arriéré et sa mere, L’ (Mannoni-Van
der Spoel), 1010
Enfant au caractere difficile, L’ (Berge), 162
Enfant dans T adulte ou I éternelle capacite de
reverie, L’ (Diatkine), 1031
Enfant et le Psychanalyste, L’ (Ferro), 1784
Enfant imaginaire, L (Stein), 613
Engel, Pascal, 1271
Engel, Werner, 79
Engelman, Edmund, 162, 1603
Engels, Friedrich, 45
Enriquez, Eugene, 1322, 1628, 1632
Enriquez-Joly, Micheline, 506-507, 846,
1560, 1626
Ensaios de psicanalise (Porto-Carrero), 1295
Entertaining Satan (Demos), 1393
Entfremdung. See Alienation
“Entretien avec Pierre Geissman a propos de
lobservation des bebés” (Green), 818
Entropy, 372
Entwurfz u einer Psychiatrie auf
psychoanalytischer Grundlage
(Schilder), 1538
Enuresis, 507-508, 517, 1636
Environment
Bowlby on, 211-212
2085
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
breastfeeding and, 221
disintegration anxieties and, 418
early interactions and, 453-454
ego autonomy and, 474
infantile omnipotence and, 823
infantile psychosis and, 826
narcissism and, 1107
pictogram and, 1287
pleasure ego/reality ego and, 1288
primitive agony and, 1320
protective shield and, 1340
See also Environment failure; Family;
Good-enough mother; Mother; Motherinfant
bond
Environment failure, 545-546, 546
See also Deprivation; Environment
Envy, 56, 508-509, 509-510, 1203-1204
Envy and Gratitude (Klein), 508, 509-510,
1203-1204
EPF. See European Psychoanalytical
Federation
Epicurus, 1290
Epilepsy, 143, 431, 432, 985
Epistemology, 1369-1371
Bion on, 184, 1451
interpretation and, 863
psychic reality and, 1357
realization and, 1451
scientific nature of psychoanalysis
and, 1551
Epistemophilia, 1679
Erickson, Milton, 1685
Erikson, Erik Homburger, 510-511
Blos and, 196
on childhood, 282
definition of psychoanalysis and, 1364
on “Dora” case, 604
on ego, 466, 477, 481-482, 511, 1324
Hietzing Schule and, 745
on identity, 794, 795
on identity preservation principle, 1324
on infant development, 814
Japanese psychoanalysis and, 888
Mead and, 1035
photograph of, I:pl.20
Psyche and, 1351
psychobiography and, 1388
psychohistory and, 1393
Rycroft and, 1521
San Francisco Psychoanalytic Society and
Institute and, 1529
on self, 1567
on self-representation, 1578
2086
on Shakespeare, 1598
U.S. psychoanalysis and, 1824, 1825
Erlich, Shmuel, 877
Ermakoy, Ivan, 402, 1518, 1543, 1881
Ernet, M., 294
Ernst, Max, 1695-1696
Erogenous zones. See Erotogenic zones ~
Eros, 511-514
See also Life instinct
Eros and Civilization: A Philosophical
Inquiry into Freud (Marcuse), 1013, 1018
Eroticism
amphimixia and, 66-67
breastfeeding and, 220-221
mother-infant bond and, 220-221, 262
See also Anal eroticism; Oral eroticism;
Urethral eroticism
Erotogenic (primary) masochism, 517-518,
1021, 1022, 1125, 1130, 1315-1316, 1475
Erotogenic zones, 518-519
anal-sadistic stage and, 73
body image and, 197
component instincts and, 1752
erotogenicity, 519-521
female sexuality and, 571
masturbation and, 1026
organ pleasure and, 1205-1206
organic repression and, 1207
sexualization and, 399 .
skin as, 1612 ©
Erotogenicity, 519-521
Erotomania, 521-522, 1032, 1785-1786
Erreurs et dignité de la pensée humaine
(Flournoy), 591
Errinnerungssymbol. See Mnemic symbols
Erwartungsvorstellungen. See Anticipatory
ideas
Erythrophobia, 522-523
Es, das. SeeId
Escape from Freedom (Fromm), 651
Escola Brasileira de Psicandlise do campo
freudiano (EBP), 217
Esman, Aaron H., 196
Espace analytique, L’, 611, 612, 1010, 1084
Espasa, Palacio, 394
Espinosa, O., 315
Esquema Conceptual Referential y Operativo
(ECRO), 1285
Esquirol, Jean-Etienne, 1178, 1272,
1421, 1528
Esquisses Psychanalytiques, 1084
Essats de psychanalyse (Freud), 1696
Essays (Andreas-Salomé), 83
Essays on Applied Psychoanalysis
(Jones), 893
Essential depression, 523-524, 1409
Estates General of Psychoanalysis, 328
Esterson, Arnold, 699
Estrangement, 524-525
Estudios de psicologia dinamica (Matte-
Blanco), 284 ;
Etapes majeures de | ’enfance, Les (Dolto-
Marette), 1852
Etchegoyen, Horacio
Argentinian psychoanalysis and, 118, 119
Chilean psychoanalysis and, 285
International Psychoanalytical Association
and, 567, 859
on primary identification, 1314
Eternity s Sunrise (Blackett-Milner), 190
Ethics, 525-526
Ey on, 540
Kantianism and, 905
Lainé on, 937
Ethics of Psychoanalysis, The (Lacan),
894-895, 1743
Ethnology
Devereux on, 154
on parenthood, 1237
on primitive horde, 1320
totemism and, 1768
on transgression, 1791
Ethnopsychoanalysis, 526-527
Devereux on, 154, 409-410
ethology and, 528
on individual, 810
Ethology, 115, 307, 527-528, 837
Etre psychanalyste (Favez), 561
“Etude des fantasmes chez l’enfant”
(Diatkine), 411
“Etude psychosomatique de dix-huit cas de
recto-colite hémorragique”
(M’Uzan), 1813
Etudes, 156
Etudes de Psychologie médicale (Delay), 383
Etudes Freudiennes, 178, 528-529, 61 1
613, 807
Etudes poiétiques, 1696
Etudes psychiatriques (Ey), 22
Eucharist, alcoholism and, 41
Eumenides (Aeschylus), 574
Euphemism, 4
European Federation for Psychoanalytic
Psychotherapy (EFPP), 1412
European Psychoanalytical Federation
(EPF), 529-530 .
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Congres des psychanalystes de langue
francaise des pays romans and, 331
Federacion psicoanalitica de América latina
and, 567
Fedida and, 569
Kestemberg-Hassin and, 911
Leeuw and, 958
Polish psychoanalysis and, 1292
Romanian psychoanalysis and, 1512
Saussure, Raymond de and, 529, 1536
Sociéte psychanalytique de Paris and,
1626, 1630
Wiener psychoanalytische Vereinigung
and, 1858
European School of Psychoanalysis—
Spain, 1638
Evang, Karl, 1156
Evenly-suspended attention, 530-533, 655,
1299, 1368, 1384
“Evidential Dream, An” (Freud), 746, 1074
Evil, envy and, 508
Evolution psychiatrique, L’, 532, 539, 608
Held and, 731
Hesnard and, 532, 742, 933
Lacan and, 37, 532
Laforgue and, 532, 933
Minkowski and, 1057
Parcheminey and, 1236
Pichon and, 1283
Revue francaise de psychanalyse and, 1497
Schiff and, 1537
Société psychanalytique de Paris and, 532,
539, 1623
Evolutionary theory, 736
See also Darwinism; Lamarckianism;
Phylogenesis
Ewer, H. H., 429
Examination dreams, 533, 1811
“Examination of the Earliest Pregenital
Stage of Libido Development”
(Abraham), 6
“Examples of the Active Technique”
(Kovacs-Prosznitz), 923
Excitation, 533-535
anal eroticism and, 514
anxiety and, 99
binding/unbinding and, 179
claustrophobia and, 306
conscious processes and, 333
dipsomania and, 412
discharge and, 417
disorganization and, 420
dreams and, 437
facilitation and, 542—543
pain and, 1219
pleasure principle and, 534, 1290, 1753
protective shield and, 1340, 1341
psychosexual development and, 1406
reciprocal paths of influence and,
1455-1456
regression and, 1459
sum of, 1689
Excretory function. See Defecation
Exhibitionism, 535, 1021
activity/passivity and, 17
aggression and, 34
alcoholism and, 41
nakedness dreams and, 1103
secrets and, 1560
sexualization and, 1595
subject of the unconscious and, 1675
turning around and, 1807, 1808
Existential analysis. See Daseinanalyse
Existential psychology: from Analysis to
Synthesis (Caruso), 248-249
Existential quantifier, 1595
Existentialism, 1535, 1668
Exner, Sigmund, 543, 1355, 1838
Experience, 265
“Experience du psychanalyste chez l’enfant
et chez l’adulte devant de modele de la
névrose infantile et de la névrose de
transfert, L” (Lebovici), 830
Experience of satisfaction, 535-537, 1713
“Experience of Tragedy, Expectations, and
the Moral Order, The” (Rubinstein), 1517
Experiences in Groups (Bion), 50, 184,
709, 710
Experiment in Leisure, An (Blackett-
Milner), 190
Experimental Diagnostics of Drives
(Szondi), 1722
Experimentelle Untersuchungen iiber
Assoziationen Gesunder (Jung), 320
Exploration de I Affectivité Subsonsciente par
la Méthode du Réve-éveillé (Desoille), 400
Explorations in Autism (Meltzer), 419
Explorations in Personality (Murray), 1087
Explorations of Psychoanalysis
(Greenson), 703
Expression in Philosophy (Deleuze), 1640
Expression of the Emotions in Man and
Animals, The (Darwin), 366
Expressive techniques, 1395, 1398
External/internal reality. See Internal/
external reality
Externalization-internalization, 537
change and, 268
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
identification and, 790
internal objects and, 849, 850
superego and, 471
Extreme situation, 136, 503
Extroversion/introversion, 537-538, 1396
Ey, Henri, 538-540
on acute psychoses, 22
on automatism, 143
Colloque sur Il’ inconscient and, 314,
315, 610
Dalbiez and, 363, 539
Ellenberger and, 497
Evolution psychiatrique, L’ and, 532
Lacan and, 929
Nodet and, 1152
on ontogenesis, 1197
on organodynamic current, 1392
on phenomenology, 1267
on psychosomatics, 1409
Sainte-anne Hospital and, 1528
Eye-breast, 1682
Ezriel, Henry, 601, 699, 709, 1371
Fabre, Nicole, 414, 1654
Fabric of Affect in the Psychoanalytic
Discourse, The (Green), 541, 722, 1428
Face-to-face situation, 541-542, 1412
Fachinelli, Elvio, 1199
Facilitation, 542—543, 1605, 1607
Fackel, Die, 543-544, 924, 1587, 1868-1869
Fact of Observation in Psychoanalysis, The
(Bernfeld), 169
Faigenbaum, Dorian, 461
Failure neurosis, 544-545, 1401-1402
Faim et le corps, La: une étude
psychanalytique de T anorexie mentale
(Kestemberg, Kestemberg, and
Descobert), 138, 911, 912
Faimberg, Haydée
on intergenerational phenomena, 846
on internal/external reality, 848
on phantom, 1266
on secrets, 1560
Societé psychanalytique de Paris and, 1630
Fain, Michel
on allergies, 47, 48
on censoring the lover in her, 262, 1174
on character, 270, 274
on child analysis, 280
Congres des psychanalystes de langue
frangaise des pays romans and, 331
on death instinct, 372
French psychoanalysis and, 613
2087
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
on hallucinatory wish-fulfillment, 1867
on interpretation, 863
on object, 1170
on psychic causality, 1354
on psychosomatics, 610, 1016, 1409
Societé psychanalytique de Paris and, 1626,
1627, 1628, 1629
on typical dreams, 1811
Fairbairn, William Ronald Dodds, 545-546
American Psychoanalytic Association
and, 992
on antilibidinal ego, 96-97
Bleger and, 194
Brazilian psychoanalysis and, 217
on breast as good/bad object and, 220
Chodorow and, 577
definition of psychoanalysis and, 1363
on ego, 467
on false self, 546-547
on id, 779
on internal objects, 849, 850-851
Nein and, 697
on libido, 969
object relations theory and, 546, 1176
on quasi-independence/transitional
stage, 1429
on self, 1582
on splitting of the ego, 1233
Swedish psychoanalysis and, 1699
Winnicott and, 1862
Fait de Panalyste, Le, 124
Faith Is the Answer: A Pastor and a
Psychiatrist Discuss Your Problems
(Blanton and Peale), 193
Faladé, Solange, 455, 458, 1083, 1084
Fall of Man, The (Eissler), 491
Falret, Jean-Pierre, 1178
False neuroses, 1139
False recognition, 524
False self, 546-547, 1579, 1581-1582
anality and, 72
“as if” personality and, 122
autistic capsule and, 138
drives and, 1580
internal objects and, 850
lies and, 972
splitting and, 1646
Falzeder, Ernst, 746, 747
Familial unconscious, 1721
“Famille devant Lacan, La” (Pichon), 1284
Family, 547-548
adolescence and, 30
allergic object relationship and, 47
2088
Deleuze/Guattari on, 98
failure neurosis and, 544
Marxism and, 1018, 1023
“Family Adaptation of the Child”
(Ferenczi), 494
Family homeostasis, 1720
Family romance, 548-549
hero myth and, 1094-1095
heroic self and, 740
mythology and, 1096
“Family Romances” (Freud), 555, 1494
Family secret, 6
Family therapy
anorexia nervosa and, 92
double bind and, 433-434
psychoanalytic, 1371-1372
secrets and, 1561
Fanon, Frantz, 549-550, 1009, 1014
Fantasias Eternas (Langer), 941
Fantasy, 550-553
act/action and, 9, 552-553
action-presentations and, 12—13
active imagination and, 14
amnesia and, 65
anaclisis and, 69
anorexia nervosa and, 91
anxiety and, 100-101
body image and, 197
breastfeeding and, 220, 221
combined parent figure and, 316
creativity and, 351, 352
daydreams and, 1493-1494
depression and, 394, 395
early interactions and, 454
early Oedipus complex and, 1188
family romance, 548-549
historical reality and, 748
ideational representation and, 785
internal/external reality and, 1451
Lacan on, 552, 553-554
memories and, 1041
mythology and, 1096, 1099
paranoid-schizoid position and,
1233-1234
passage to the act and, 18
perversion and, 1255-1256
of pregnancy, 1302-1303
psychic temporality and, 1360
psychosexual development and, 1406
real trauma and, 1455
representation and, 551, 554, 782
rescue fantasies, 1487-1488
tics and, 1756
time and, 1757
unconscious, 115, 119-120, 1312,
1817-1818
wish-fulfillment and, 1865
See also Primal fantasies; Reverie
“Fantasy and the Origins of Sexuality”
(Laplanche and Pontalis), 378, 1307
Fergeman, Poul, 391
Faria, Abbé. See Custodio de Faria, Abbé
José
Fascination, 555-556
Fascism, 1632
Italian psychoanalysis and, 879, 1508, 1557,
1800, 1853
Reich, Wilhelm on, 271, 1022-1023, 1462
See also Nazi Germany
Fast, Irene, 576
Fate neurosis, 544, 556-557
Father
abandonment and, 3
adolescence and, 26, 30
belief and, 159
Bonaparte on, 200
certainty and, 266
counter-Oedipus and, 348-349
critical theory and, 31, 32
-erotogenic masochism and, 518
female sexuality and, 571, 573
feminist views of psychoanalysis and,
576, 577
Fort-da game and, 599, 600
holding and, 754
homosexuality and, 757
identification and, 789
individual and, 810
Law of the Father and, 950
masculine protest and, 1018-1019
masturbation and, 1026
Moses and Monotheism on, 1078
nostalgia for, 3
primary identification and, 1313
Real, Symbolic, and Imaginary, 1452-1453
religion and, 660
superego and, 526
See also Fatherhood; Myth of origins;
Oedipus complex; Parricide
Father complex, 557
See also Oedipus complex
“Father of the Family, The” (Balint-Szekely-
Kovacs), 149
Fatherhood, 558-559
Faurel, Jean. See Delay, Jean
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
“Fausse reconnaissance (déja raconté) in
Psycho-Analytic Treatment” (Freud), 381
Faust (Goethe), 686, 1096, 1690
Favez, Georges, 560-561
Anzieu and, 104
Association psychanalytique de France and,
122, 561
Belgian psychoanalysis and, 158
Documents et Debats and, 426
Fedida and, 569
French psychoanalytic establishment split
(1964) and, 122
Favez-Boutonier, Psyché and, 559, 1350
Favez-Boutonier, Juliette, 559-560
Anzieu and, 104
Association psychanalytique de France
and, 122
Belgian psychoanalysis and, 158
Berge and, 161
Centre psychopédagogique Claude-
Bernard and, 265, 559, 609
Clark-Williams trial and, 304
Desoille and, 400
Fédida and, 569
French psychoanalytic establishment split
(1953) and, 427, 560, 930, 1619
French psychoanalytic establishment split
(1964) and, 122
Laforgue and, 934, 1625
Pankow and, 1222
Psyché and, 1350
Schlumberger and, 1541
Société francaise de psychanalyse and, 427
Favreau, Jean Alphonse, 561-562
CCTP and, 264, 562
child analysis and, 562, 610
Congres des psychanalystes de langue
francaise des pays romans and, 330
Leuba and, 963
Male and, 1004
Nacht and, 561, 1102
photograph of, I:pl.21
Société psychanalytique de Paris and, 1630
Fear, 364, 562-564, 1274
“Fear of Breakdown, The” (Winnicott),
DNS a255
Fear of success, 544
Feces, 564
anal-sadistic stage and, 73-74
coprophilia and, 346, 1616, 1756
object a and, 1173
secrets and, 1560
subject’s castration and, 1676
subject’s desire and, 1678
See also Defecation
Fechner, Gustav Theodor, 564-565
Breuer and, 224
on constancy principle, 1322
Ellenberger on, 497
German romanticism and, 673
Jokes and their Relation to the Unconscious
and, 891
on pleasure principle, 1290
on psychic apparatus, 1352
on psychic energy, 1355
psychology and psychoanalysis and, 1397
on repetition, 1472
on stability, 174, 371, 417, 449
Feder, Luis, 1051, 1052
Federacion psicoanalitica de América latina
(FePAL), 565-567, 666, 1051, 1447
See also Coordinating Committee for Latin
American Psychoanalytic Organizations
Federn, Ernst, 172, 495, 1165
Federn, Paul, 567-569
Aichhorn and, 36
allergic object relationship and, 47
on alteration of the ego, 469
on altruism, 54
Argentinian psychoanalysis and, 117
Bibring and, 176
Burrow and, 238
Czech psychoanalysis and, 361
on depersonalization, 393
on ego boundaries, 474, 475
on ego feeling, 474, 477-478
ego psychology and, 466, 475, 476, 477,
487-488, 568
on ego states, 488-489
Fenichel and, 579
Finnish psychoanalysis and, 584
Hilferding-H6nigsberg and, 746
Hollos and, 756
Isakower and, 874
Italian psychoanalysis and, 878
Japanese psychoanalysis and, 887, 888, 921
Jelliffe and, 889
Lehrinstitut der Wiener
psychoanalytischen Vereinigung, 959
Lehrinstitut der Wiener
psychoanalytischen Vereinigung and, 959
on libido, 969
Lorand and, 991
Marxism and, 1017
Meng and, 568, 1044
on narcissism, 97, 1111
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
Nunberg and, 1165
Rivista di pscioanalisi and, 1508
Schilder and, 1538
on schizophrenia, 487, 568, 1540
Swedish psychoanalysis, 1698
Urbantschitsch and, 1828 :
Vienna Ambulatorium and, 959
Weiss and, 1853, 1854
Wiener psychoanalytische Vereinigung
and, 1857
Winternitz-Freud, Rosi and, 635
Zeitschrift fiir psychoanalytische Padagogik
and, 568, 1044, 1886
Fédida, Pierre, 569-570
Favez-Boutonier and, 560, 569
Groddeck and, 607
on intergenerational phenomena, 845
Société psychanalytique de Paris and, 1628
Feigenbaum, A., 876
Feigenbaum, Dorothy, 1377
Feitelberg, Sergei, 939
Feldmann, H., 91
Feldmann, Sandor, 765, 766
Felszeghy, Bela, 765
Feltzman, Osip, 1518
Female Eunuch, The (Greer), 576
Female sexuality, 570-572, 1635-1636, 1753
amphimixia and, 66
aphanisis and, 105
Bonaparte on, 200
castration complex and, 251, 252, 253, 254
as dark continent, 365, 1175
Dolto-Marette on, 428
feminist views of psychoanalysis and,
576-577
Granoff on, 692
hysteria and, 773
Jones on, 697
jouissance and, 1596
masculinity/femininity and, 1020
masochism and, 572
Nin and, 1150
object-choice and, 1174-1175
Oedipus complex and, 1185-1186
orgasm and, 1209
perversion and, 1259
phallic mother and, 1262
phallic stage and, 570, 1263
phallus and, 365, 570-571, 578, 1185—
1186, 1265
pregenital organization and, 1301-1302
Spielrein on, 1639
See also Femininity; Penis envy
2089
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Female Sexuality (Bonaparte), 200
“Female Sexuality” (Freud), 254, 516,
641, 1019
Feminine masochism, 572—573, 576, 1021,
1022, 1258
Feminine Mystique, The (Friedan), 576
Feminine Psychology (Horney-
Danielson), 759
Femininity, 573-575
Andreas-Salomé on, 84
castration complex and, 252, 254
Deutsch-Rosenbach on, 1400-1401
as hollow space, 573, 574, 575
Horney on, 59
Lampl-de Groot on, 938
New Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis
on, 1145
object-choice and, 1174-1175
pregnancy fantasy and, 1302-1303
“Psychogenesis of a Case of Homosexuality
in a Woman, The” and, 1389
Rascovsky on, 1447
rejection of, 113, 574, 575-576, 773,
1018, 1738
sexuation and, 1596
taboo and, 1724
See also Female sexuality; Masculinity/
femininity
“Femininity as a Masquerade” (Riviere-
Hodgson Verrall), 1507
Feminism. See Feminist views of
psychoanalysis
Feminist views of psychoanalysis, 576-578
Allendy-Nel-Dumouchel and, 45
boundary violations and, 209
cinema and, 294, 295, 296
Confrontation and, 612
Deutsch-Rosenbach and, 1401
female sexuality and, 571
Horney-Danielson, 759
Leclaire and, 957
literature and, 987
mother goddess and, 1080
phallic mother and, 1262
Pichon and, 1283
Fenichel, Hanna, 1660
Fenichel, Otto, 578-579
on addiction, 23, 233
on American Imago, 60
on anxiety neurosis, 1137
Argentinian psychoanalysis and, 117
on asthma, 125
Berliner Psychoanalytisches Institut
and, 166
2090
Bernfeld and, 169, 579
Bibring and, 176
Bibring-Lehner and, 176
on boredom, 203
Bornstein and, 205
on character, 270
on claustrophobia, 306
Czech psychoanalysis and, 360, 361
on dipsomania, 413
Dosuzkov and, 432, 433
on early Oedipus complex, 1188
on evenly-suspended attention, 531
Garma and, 117
Greenson and, 703
Heimann and, 730
on indications/contraindications for
psychoanalysis, 809
Jacobson and, 883
Jekels and, 888
Kemper, Werner Walther and, 910
Koch and, 214
Lehrinstitut der Wiener
psychoanalytischen Vereinigung and, 959
on narcissism of minor differences, 1109
Nazi Germany and, 675-676, 1045
on neurotic defenses, 1142
Norwegian psychoanalysis and, 1157
on oral dependence, 392
on politics, 1293
Psychoanalytic Theory of Neurosis, The, 270,
S/S), WeXes)
Rado and, 1441
Reich, Annie and, 1461
San Francisco Psychoanalytic Society and
Institute and, 1529
Schultz-Hencke and, 1547
Second World War and, 1558
on silence, 1610
on stages, 1652
on stammering, 1653
Swedish psychoanalysis and, 1698
on tics, 1756
on transference relationship, 1789
USS. psychoanalysis and, 992, 1824
Wiener psychoanalytische Vereinigung
and, 1857
FePAL. See Federacién psicoanalitica de
América latina
Fer, introjection and, 7, 328, 581, 869, 870—
871, 1105, 1336
Féré, Charles, on anxiety neurosis, 1136
Ferenczi, Sandor, 579-582, 638
Abraham, Karl and, 6
on active technique, 8, 15-16, 581,
607, 1729
on alcoholism, 41
on altruism, 97
American Academy of Psychoanalysis
and, 59 5
on amphimixia, 66
on analyzability, 81
Andreas-Salomé and, 83
on anticipatory ideas, 95-96
on anxiety neurosis, 1137
on archaic mother, 113
Australian psychoanalysis and, 131
on autoplastic behavior, 144
Balint and, 148, 149, 328, 581
Balint-Szekely-Kovacs and, 149
Benedek and, 159
Berggasse 19, Wien IX and, 162
Beyond the Pleasure Principle and, 174
Bigras and, 178
on boredom, 203
Bose and, 808
Brazilian psychoanalysis and, 217
British Psycho-Analytical Society and, 228
Burrow and, 237
on castration complex, 254
on change, 268
on character, 273
on child analysis, 279
on choice of neurosis, 288
on criminology, 354
on cryptomnesia, 356
death of, 764
on deferred action, 380
definition of psychoanalysis and, 1363
direct analysis and, 414
on dreams, 440
on drives, 447
Dubal and, 450
on early Oedipus complex, 1188
Eder and, 460, 696
on ego, 465
Eitingon and, 493
on elasticity, 494, 581
on empathy, 59, 494, 502
on erotogenic zones, 519
French psychoanalysis and, 608
Freud-Jung split and, 1260
Freud U.S. visit and, I:pl.16, 60, 207, 303,
580, 587, 1424
Freud’s analysis of, 423, 1781, 1781-1782
Fromm-Reichmann and, 652
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Granoff and, 692
Groddeck and, 706
Gross and, 708
on hallucinatory, 722
on hallucinatory wish-fulfillment,
1866-1867
Hermann and, 737
Hesnard and, 741
Hoffman and, 157
Hogarth Press and, 753
Hollos and, 756
on homosexuality, 757
Hungarian psychoanalysis and, 765, 766
Hungarian School and, 763, 764
on identification, 787, 789
on identification fantasies, 791
on intergenerational phenomena, 846
on internal objects, 849
International Psychoanalytical Association
and, 639, 854
Internationale Zeitschrift fiir Psychoanalyse
and, 860, 1445
Internationaler Psychoanalytischer Verlag
and, 861
on introjection, 7, 328, 581, 869, 870-871,
1105, 1336
Jones and, 580, 651, 892
Klein and, 59, 580, 914
on knowledge instinct, 918
Kovacs-Prosznitz and, 923
on libido, 969
on lies, 971
on lifting of amnesia, 977
“Lines of Advance in Psycho-Analytic
Therapy” and, 979
“Little Arpad” case and, 279,
987-988, 1768
“Little Hans” case and, 914
Lorand and, 991
Mahler-Schonberger and, 1001
on Medusa’s head, 556
on mutual analysis, 581, 1090
Nacht and, 328, 1103
on nakedness dreams, 1103
on narcissism, 1106
on negative hallucination, 1124-1125
on negative transference, 1128
negative transference and, 77
on neutrality, 1144
on object, 1169
on Oedipus complex, 1322
on omnipotence of thoughts, 1189
on orgasm, 1210
on otherness, 1774
Palos and, 209, 747
on paranoia, 1229
on paranormal phenomena, 640, 1181
on partial drives, 1241
on passion, 1244
on phallic mother, 1261
photographs of, I:pl.16,22, III:pl.9
on phylogenesis, 1278, 1738-1739
Phylogenetic Fantasy, A and, 1279
on pleasure in thinking, 1289
on prehistory, 1303
on primary love, 1315
on primary narcissism, 1315
on Psychanalyse des névroses et des
psychoses, La, 1361
on psychic causality, 1354
on psychoanalyst role, 160, 268
psychoanalytic filiations and, 1373
Psychoterapia and, 1411
psychotherapy and, 1412
Rado and, 579, 1441
on real trauma, 1455
on regression, 160, 581, 1739
on relaxation principle/neo-catharsis,
1464-1465
on repetitive dreams, 1476
Roheim and, 580, 1509
on Schreber case, 1546
Secret Committee and, 1561, 1562
on Secrets of a Soul, The, 1563
on seduction scenes, 1566
on seduction theory, 735
on silence, 1610
Sokolnicka-Kutner and, 1633
Spanish psychoanalysis and, 1637
Spitz and, 1641
splits in psychoanalysis and, 1643
on splitting of the ego, 1647
on Studies on Hysteria, 1671
Szondi and, 1722
on tact, 1725-1726, 1729
on telepathy, 1735
on tenderness, 1736
on termination of treatment, 1737, 1738
Thompson and, 1745
on tics, 1756
Torok and, 1765
Toten and Taboo and, 1766
on totemism, 1768
on training analysis, 1769
on transference, 407, 422, 1777
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
transference depression and, 1781-1782
on transference relationship, 1787
on trauma, 328-329, 581
Urbantschitsch and, 1828
on “vagina dentata” fantasy, 1831
on war neuroses, 1848
Wiener psychoanalytische Vereinigung
and, 1857
Zeitschrift fiir psychoanalytische Pidagogik
and, 1886
Ferradini, Franco, 880
Ferrari, Pierre, 896
Ferrari Hardoy, Guillermo, 117
Ferreira, Antonio J., 433
Ferreira, Pedro, 215
Ferri, Enrico, 353
Ferro, Antonino, 1297, 1733, 1784
Fetishism, 582-583
addiction and, 23
castration complex and, 253
cinema and, 295, 296
consciousness and, 334
defenses and, 375
exhibitionism and, 535
Glover, James on, 686
Greenacre on, 702
idealization and, 783
mnemic symbols and, 1062
perversion and, 1258
phallic mother and, 1261
repression and, 1485
screen memories and, 1555
sense of smell and, 1616
splitting and, 1646, 1647
transitional phenomena and, 1794
“Fetishism” (Freud), 582
Almanach der Psychoanalyse and, 50
on disavowal, 253, 416
“Metapsychological Supplement to the
Theory of Dreams, A” and, 1048
on perversion, 641, 1258
on phallic mother, 1263
on psychic causality, 1354
on psychoses, 1404
on scotomization, 1554
on splitting of the ego, 1647
“Fetishism and Object Choice in Early
Childhood” (Wulff), 877
Feuchtersleben, Ernst von, 1403, 1414
Feuerbach, Ludwig, 53, 1511
Fiasché, Angel, 1700
Fiasche, Dora, 1700
Fichte, Johann Gottlieb, 401
2091
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Fichti, Paula, 1603
Fichtner, Gerhard, 1670
Ficino, Marsilio, 1243
Fiction. See Literature
Field, Joanna. See Blackett-Milner, Marion
Field, Tiffany, 1304
Fight/flight, 151, 709
Figures de la psychanalyse, 1084
Filigrane, 245, 1247
Filipino psychoanalysis, 1268-1269
Film. See Cinema
Film, The: A Psychological Study
(Minsterberg), 295
Fine, Alain, 348, 1629, 1631
Fink, Eugen, 1271
Fink, Siegfried, 130
Finland. See Finnish psychoanalysis
Finnish psychoanalysis, 583-585
Finnish Psychoanalytic Society. See Suomen
Psykoanalyytinen Yhdisytts
Finzi, Roberto, 1437
Fire, 1367-1368
Firestone, Shulamith, 576
First World War, 585—587, 639
American Psychoanalytic Association
and, 61
British psychoanalysis and, 696
French psychoanalysis and, 607, 1361
Freud, Ernst and, 586, 622
Freud, Martin and, 585, 586, 626
Freud, Oliver and, 631
German psychoanalysis and, 674-675
International Psychoanalytical Association
and, 854
Internationaler Psychoanalytischer Verlag
and, 861
psychoanalytic treatment and, 1729
racism/anti-Semitism and, 1438
war neuroses and, 1848
Wiener psychoanalytische Vereinigung
and, 1857
First Year of Life, The (Spitz & Cobliner),
70, 1641
Fischelova, V., 361
Fischer, Kuno, 891
Fisher, Charles, 242, 897
Fisk, Norman, 1799
Five Lectures on Psycho-Analysis (Freud),
303, 587-588, 868, 900-901, 1119, 1164,
1822-1823, 1877
See also Introductory Lectures on
Psychoanalysis
Fixation, 588-589
cathexis and, 260
2092
character and, 270
choice of neurosis and, 288
constitution and, 335
ego states and, 489
erotogenic zones and, 518
internal objects and, 850
libido and, 968
narcissism and, 1105
obsessional neurosis and, 1179
oral stage and, 1205
primal repression and, 1309, 1485
regression and, 588, 1460
stages and, 1652
stammering and, 1653
“Fixations homosexuelles chez les femmes
névrosées, Les” (Saussure), 1536
Flagey, Daniele, 157
Flaubert, Gustave, 85, 1535
Flechsig, Paul, 1524, 1537, 1545
Fleisch] von Marxow, Ernst, 308, 637, 1838
Flescher, Joachim, 879
Flexner report, 61, 855
Fliess, Robert, 233, 348, 1610
Fliess, Wilhelm, 589-590
on bisexuality, 186
Deuticke and, 403
Eckstein and, 454, 1671
“Elisabeth von R.” case and, 496
Freud plagiarism accusation, 543, 667, 924,
1704, 1853
Freud’s autobiography and, 139, 140
Freud’s cryptomnesia and, 356-357
Freud’s friendship with, 168, 425, 628,
637-638, 667, 1010, 1190, 1643
“Trma’s injection” dream and, 873
latency period and, 945
libidinal stages and, 966
splits in psychoanalysis and, 1643
transference of creativity and, 1787-1788
See also Fliess correspondence
Fliess correspondence, 158, 689
on addiction, 23
on alcoholism, 41
on anal eroticism, 514
on anticathexis, 94
on anxiety, 99
on applied psychoanalysis, 107
on autoeroticism, 141
on bisexuality, 1752
on “Cacilie M.” case, 239, 240
on cathectic energy, 259
on censorship, 262
on compulsion, 322
on coprophilia, 346
on defenses, 374
on deferred action, 378
on definition of psychoanalysis, 1363, 1364
on dipsomania, 412
on displacement, 421
on “Dora” case, 605
on dreams, 436
on dreams of convenience, 344
on erotogenicity, 520
on fantasy, 550
on feces, 564
on Freud, Emanuel, 633
on Freud, Jakob Kolloman, 625
on Freud, Joham, 632
on Freud, Julius, 633
on Freud, Martin, 625-626
Freud’s self-analysis and, 589-590,
628, 1568
on gain, 664
on Gattel, 667
German psychoanalysis and, 674
on heredity of acquired characters, 736
on humor, 762
on identification, 787, 790
on incest, 804
on “Katharina” case, 909
on language, 917
on Law of the Father, 950
on letter, 961
on libido, 967-968
on lifting of amnesia, 977
on masculinity/femininity, 1019
on melancholia, 21
on memories, 1041
on metapsychology, 1049
on mnemic traces, 1063
on myth of origins, 1092
on nakedness dreams, 1103
on narcissistic neuroses, 1113
on neurasthenia, 1135
on neuroses, 287, 288, 735
on neurotica, 1142
on Oedipus complex, 1183, 1188
on oral eroticism, 515
on organic repression, 1207
on orgasm, 1209
on pain, 1281
on pairs of opposites, 1220
on parapraxes, 1235
on partial drives, 1240
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
on preconscious, 1300
on primal scene, 1310
on primitive, 1319
on projection, 1335
on proton-pseudos, 1342
on psychic causality, 1353
on psychoanalytic nosography, 1375
publication of, 611, 642
Schur and, 628
on seduction theory, 1563-1564, 1592,
1754-1755
on sense of smell, 1616
on sexuality, 1593
on Shakespeare, 1597
on slips of the tongue, 1615
on specific actions, 1638
on Studies on Hysteria, 1670
on supervised analysis, 1692
on symptom-formation, 1716
on translation, 1797
on truth, 1805
on unconscious, 1818-1819
on undoing, 1821-1822
on wish-fulfillment, 1864
on wishes, 1867
on working over, 1878
See also “Project for a Scientific
Psychology, A”
Flight into illness, 590, 664
Flooding-dreams, 1559
Flora, Francesco, 1508
Florenzano, Ramon, 285
Flores, Sara, 1254
Flournoy, Henri, 590-591
Archives de psychologie, Les and, 302
Baudouin and, 154
Sechehaye and, 1556
Société psychanalytique de Paris founding
and, 591, 608
Swiss psychoanalysis and, 1620, 1700, 1703
Flournoy, Olivier, 331, 1628, 1701
Flournoy, Théodore, 591-592
Archives de psychologie, Les and, 115-116
Claparéde and, 301
on cryptomnesia, 356, 591-592
Jung and, 1399
Piaget and, 1282
Silberer and, 1608
on Studies on Hysteria, 1671
Swiss psychoanalysis and, 1700
Flower Dolls: Essays in Child Psychotherapy
(Dolto-Marette), 592-593
Fliigel, John Carl, 593-594, 697, 873
Fluss, Gisela, 594-595, 1609
Flying dreams, 1811
Foco, 217
Foi qui guerit, La (Charcot), 170
Foissin, Monique, 934, 1154
Folch-Mateu, P., 331
Folch Mateu, Pere, 1296
Folie chez T enfant, La (Moreau de
Tours), 827
Follin, S., 315
Fonagy, Ivan, 982, 1153, 1653
Fonagy, Peter, 822, 888, 1030, 1732
Fontaine, Roberto, 1014
Forced choice (vel), 44
Forces of Destiny, The (Bollas), 1580
Forclusion, 252
Fordham, Michael, 80, 1728
Foreclosure, 595-596
disavowal and, 417
infantile psychosis and, 826
negation and, 1121-1122
neuroses and, 1139
perceptual identity and, 1249
Pichon on, 1284
psychoses and, 1404
psychotic defenses and, 1413
Real and, 1453
repudiation and, 1487
scotomization and, 1554
splitting and, 1646
structural theories and, 1667
work of the negative and, 1129
Forel, August, 194, 231, 235, 1052,
1685, 1702
Forgetting, 325, 382, 596-597,
1402-1403, 1482
See also Amnesia; Parapraxes; Slips of the
tongue
Forman, E., 1851
Formation de I esprit scientifique, La
(Bachelard), 145
Formations of the unconscious, 597-598
interpretation and, 862
metaphor and, 1047
overdetermination and, 1217
wish-fulfillment and, 1864
See also Dreams; Parapraxes; Slips of the
tongue
Formations of the Unconscious, The (Lacan),
597, 692-693, 1172
Former Yugoslavian psychoanalysis,
1884-1885
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
“Forms and Transformations of Narcissism”
(Kohut), 784, 920, 1423
Formula of the signifier, 1031
Formulas of sexuation. See Sexuation,
formulas of
“Formulations on the Two Principles of
Mental Functioning” (Freud), 9
on attention, 127
on binding/unbinding, 179
on choice of neurosis, 288
on condemning judgments, 901
on conflict, 326
on constancy principle, 1151
on developmental processes, 1330
on ego, 462, 1048
on experience of satisfaction, 536
on fantasy, 551
grids and, 704
on hallucinatory wish-fulfillment, 1866
on internal/external reality, 848
on logic, 989
on maternal care, 1029
on mythology, 1095
on pleasure principle, 1291, 1325, 1807
on primary narcissism, 1110
on purified-pleasure-ego, 1423
on reality principle, 1450
on thought, 1746, 1747
on work, 1876
Fornari, Franco, 331, 598-599, 880, 881
Forschertrieb. See Knowledge instinct
Forsyth, David, 696
Fort-da game
capacity to be alone and, 246
childhood and, 280, 283, 599-600
death instinct and, 371
infant observation and, 817
language and, 1874
metaphor and, 1048
object a and, 1173
object loss and, 994
symbolic and, 600, 927
symptoms and, 1714
thought-thinking apparatus and, 1750
Forum (Martinique), 1014
Forum der Psychanalyse, 679
Forums de champ lacanian, 456
Forzano, Giovacchino, 879
Foucault, Michel, 459, 613, 1380, 1668, 1699
Foulkes, Siegmund Heinrich, 600-601
Burrow and, 238
on group analysis, 709, 713, 1371
2093
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Italian psychoanalysis and, 880
Landauer and, 940
Main and, 1003
Tavistock Clinic and, 1728
Foundations of the Nineteenth Century
(Chamberlain), 1437
Fouque, Antoinette, 328, 612, 957
Fouquet, Pierre, 40, 413
Four discourses, 601-602, 931, 1031
Four Fundamental Concepts of
Psychoanalysis, The (Lacan), 930, 969-970,
1453-1454, 1583, 1674
Four Servants (Bion), 184
Fourier, Charles, 1437
Fourth analysis, 602-604, 611, 1430
Fourth Group. See Quatriéme Groupe
(Fourth Group)
“Fragment of an Analysis of a Case of
Hysteria’. See “Dora” case
Fragmentation, 605-606
anxiety and, 100
disintegration anxieties and, 418, 605
infant observation and, 816
paranoid-schizoid position, 1233
Fraiberg, Selma, 139, 821
Fraisse, Paul, 89, 90
Frame of psychoanalytic treatment,
606-607, 1405, 1732
France. See French psychoanalysis
France juive, La (Drumont), 1437
Franco da Rocha, Francisco, 614-615, 1012
Francois, Frédéric, 1153
Frank, Jan, 361
Frankfurter Psychoanalystisches
Institut, 1602
“Frankie” case, 205
Frankl, Viktor, 615
Franz, Marie Louise von, 80, 903
Fraser, Donald, 130
Frayages, 245, 1247
Frazer, James George, 85, 339, 1000,
1367, 1768
Frederick, Charles, 1044
Free association, 615-617
active imagination and, 14
active technique and, 15
anticipatory ideas and, 95-96
binding/unbinding and, 180
child analysis and, 1732
dreams and, 438
Dubal on, 449
“emmy von N.” case and, 616, 1384
fundamental rule and, 615, 655, 1180
2094
Jones on, 207
obsessional neurosis and, 1180
relaxation principle/neo-catharsis
and, 1465
self-state dreams and, 1579
Free energy/bound energy, 260, 333, 617—
618, 1355-1356, 1878
See also Psychic energy
Free-floating attention. See Evenlysuspended
attention
Freiberg, Selma, 1382
Freire de Garbarino, Mercedes, 1829
French, Thomas M., 47, 124, 278
French Lacanian organizations, 612, 1083-
1084, 1630, 1631, 1645
See also Lacan, Jacques-Marie Emile
See also specific organizations
French psychoanalysis, 607-614
Centre psychopédagogique Claude-
Bernard and, 265
Congres des psychanalystes de langue
francaise des pays romans and, 329, 330
Disque vert, Le and, 423, 607
Ey and, 539
feminist views of psychoanalysis and,
577-578
Granoff and, 692
group analysis and, 710
Jankelevitch, 886-887
Lacan on, 37, 38
See also French Lacanian organizations;
French psychoanalytic establishment split
(1953); French psychoanalytic
establishment split (1964); Société
francaise de psychanalyse; Société
psychanalytique de Paris
French Psychoanalytic Association. See
Association psychanalytique de France
French psychoanalytic establishment split
(1953), 427, 609, 929-930, 1644-1645
Berge and, 161
Bouvet and, 210
Confrontation and, 327
Congres des psychanalystes de langue
francaise des pays romans and, 330
Favez and, 561
Fayez-Boutonier and, 427, 560
Granoff and, 692
Hesnard and, 743
Laforgue and, 934
Laurent-Lucas-Championniére-Maugé
and, 949
Lebovici and, 954-955
Leclaire and, 692, 957
Male and, 1004
Mannoni and, 1009
Mannoni-Van der Spoel and, 1010
Marty and, 1016
Nacht and, 560, 609, 929, 1102, 1644
Perrier and, 692, 1251
Raimbault, Emile and, 1442
Reverchon-Jouve and, 1493
Revue frangaise de psychanalyse and, 1499
French psychoanalytic establishment split
(1964), 455, 457, 609, 1619, 1645
Anzieu and, 104, 122
Aulagnier-Spairani and, 129
Belgian psychoanalysis and, 158
Berge and, 162
Confrontation and, 327
Dolto-Marette and, 427
Enriquez-Joly and, 506
Favez and, 561
Hesnard and, 743
Inconscient, L and, 806
Lacan/Dolto excommunication, 162, 327,
427, 455, 611, 692, 930
Leclaire and, 611, 957
Perrier and, 611, 957, 1251, 1645
Smirnoff and, 122, 1617
French Psychoanalytic Society. See Société
frangaise de psychanalyse
Freud: Living and Dying (Schur),
627-628, 1548
Freud: Master and Friend (Sachs),
1523, 1561
Freud (Mannoni), 1009
Freud, Alexander Gotthold Efraim, 635-636
Freud, Anna, 618-620
on abandonment, 2
on abstinence, 8
on acting out, 11
on adaptation, 22
on adolescence, 27, 28
Aichhorn and, 36
on altruism, 54
Andreas-Salomé and, 83
Aubry Weiss and, 128
Austrian psychoanalysis and, 133
Bettelheim and, 172
on blank psychoses, 192
Blos and, 196
Bornstein and, 205
Bowlby and, 212
Burlingham and, 162, 236
child analysis and, 76, 279, 618-619, 697,
1386-1387, 1731-1732, 1733, 1783
on childhood, 281
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
on children’s play, 283
Chilean psychoanalysis and, 284, 1033
cinema and, 293
Congrés mondial de psychiatrie and,
532,039
Czech psychoanalysis and, 360
on defenses, 375, 377
definition of psychoanalysis and, 1363
on depression, 70-71
Detski Dom and, 402
on developmental processes, 1330
on ego, 466, 472-473, 476, 477, 486
on ego functions, 478
on ego psychology, 1652
Eissler and, 490
Emden and, 498
on encopresis, 504
Evolution psychiatrique, L’ and, 532
on externalization-internalization, 537
on fear, 563
First World War and, 585
Freud, Martin and, 626
Freud, The Secret Passion and, 644
Freud and, 641
Freud Museum and, 629, 642
Freud’s analysis of, 618, 640, 1021
Freud’s Gestapo comment and, 682
Friedlander-Frankl and, 646
Geleerd and, 668
Gesammelte Schriften and, 680
Gesammelte Werke and, 680
Goethe Prize and, 687
Greek psychoanalysis and, 700
Hampstead Clinic and, 619, 697, 724
Hartmann and, 727, 728
Hellman Noach and, 733
Hietzing Schule and, 745
Hoffer and, 752-753
Hogarth Press and, 753
on homosexuality, 8
Hungarian School and, 766
on identification, 790
on identification with the aggressor, 54,
792-793
Imago and, 803
Imago Publishing Company and, 802
on infant development, 814
on infantile neurosis, 821
International Journal of Psychoanalysis, The
and, 229, 853
on isolation, 876
Japanese psychoanalysis and, 888
Jones and, 893
on Judaism, 900
Katan and, 907
Katan-Rosenberg and, 908
Nein and, 915
Kris-Rie and, 925, 1503
Lampl-de Groot and, 938
Lebovici and, 955
Lehrinstitut der Wiener
psychoanalytischen Vereinigung and, 959
Lehrman and, 960
on “Little Hans” case, 75-76
Mahler-Schonberger and, 1001
Main and, 1003
Mitscherlich and, 1060
Morgenstern-Kabatschnik and, 1073
Nazi Germany and, 725
on neutrality, 1144
New York Psychoanalytic Institute/Society
and, 1148
on paranormal phenomena, 1181, 1735
on perversion, 1258
on phobias, 1274
photographs of, I:pl.23,27
on pregenital stage, 1186
Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, The and,
492, 728, 1381
Psychoanalytical Treatment of Children,
The, 833, 1386-1387
“Rat Man” case and, 821
Reich, Annie and, 1461
Robertson and, 1509
Rosenfeld, Eva Marie and, 1513-1514
Ross and, 1516-1517
Sandler and, 1533
Schilder and, 1538
Sechehaye and, 1557
Second World War and, 1557
Secret Commitee and, 1562
on self, 1567
Servadio and, 1586
Sigmund Freud: Life and Work and, 974
Sigmund Freud Archives and, 1600
Sigmund Freud Copyrights Limited and,
1601-1602
Sigmund Freud Museum and, 1603
Sigmund Freud Society and, 136, 163
on silence, 1610
Spitz and, 528
on splits in psychoanalysis, 1645
on splitting of the object, 1649
Standard Edition and, 1654-1655
Sterba and, 1658, 1659
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
Stone and, 1661
Strachey and, 1662-1663
on structural theories, 1666
Swedish psychoanalysis and, 1698
Swiss psychoanalysis and, 1549
theme of three and, 1740
on transference, 1783
on turning around, 1808
U.S. psychoanalysis and, 1825
Waelder and, 1845
Wiener psychoanalytische Vereinigung
and, 1857
Winternitz-Freud, Rosi and, 635
Zeitschrift fur psychoanalytische Padagogik
and, 1886
See also Controversial Discussions; Kleinanna
Freud conflict
Freud, Emanuel, 632-633
Freud, Ernst, 621-623, 1601
Eitingon and, 493
First World War and, 586, 622
Hampstead Clinic and, 724
Freud, Esther Adolfine, 635
Freud, Jakob Kolloman, I:pi.25,
623-625, 1268
Freud, Joham, 632
Freud, John, 1539
Freud, Josef, 623, 627
Freud, Julius, 425, 633
Freud, Lucie, 1601
Freud, Martin, 625-626
Charcot and, 1529
First World War and, 585, 586, 626
Imago Publishing Company and, 801
Internationaler Psychoanalytischer Verlag
and, 862
Sigmund Freud Copyrights Limited
and, 1601
Freud, Oliver, 631-632
Freud, Pauline, 632
Freud, Philipp, 633
Freud, Sigmund Schlomo, 636-643
Abraham and, 5, 1191
on abstinence, 7—8, 1786
on acting out, 10
on active technique, 15, 16, 640
on actual vs. defense neuroses, 19,
1138-1139
on addiction, 23
addiction and, 42
Adler, Alfred and, 25, 639, 1643
on adolescence, 28
on affectionate current, 56
2095
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
on agency, 32—33
on aggression, 33-34
Aichhorn and, 36
Ajase complex and, 39
on alcoholism, 40-41, 42
Almanach der Psychoanalyse and, 50
on alteration of the ego, 468
on altruism, 53-54
on ambivalence, 56, 57
on amentia, 58
on American Imago, 60
on amnesia, 63-64, 819-820, 976-977
on anaclisis, 68-69, 70, 1191
on anagogical interpretation, 71
on anal eroticism, 514-515
on anal-sadistic stage, 73, 74
on anality, 72
on analysand, 74
on analyzability, 81, 1787
Andersson on, 82
Andreas-Salomé and, 83
on animistic thought, 85-86
on “Anna O.” case, 88, 225
on annihilation anxieties, 90
on anthropology, 92—93
on anticathexes, 94
on anticipatory ideas, 94
on anxiety, 99, 100, 779
on anxiety dreams, 102—103
on anxiety neurosis, 1135-1137
on aphasia, 106
on applied psychoanalysis, 107-108
on archaic, 111-112, 113
archeological metaphor use, 111, 112, 113,
114, 336-337, 750, 1040-1041
Argentinian psychoanalysis and, 116
attacks on linking and, 983-984
on attention, 127, 952
Australian psychoanalysis and, 130
on autism, 136
on autoeroticism, 141
on automatism, 143
on autoplastic behavior, 144
Bachelard and, 1367-1368
Baginsky, Adolf and, 146, 842
on basic assumption, 711
Baudouin and, 154
Belgian psychoanalysis and, 156-157
Berggasse 19, Wien IX and, 162-163
Berliner Psychoanalytisches Institut
and, 165
Bernays-Freud, Minna and, 167-168, 621
2096
Bernfeld and, 168
Bernheim and, 170
Bettelheim and, 173
on Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 173-174
on binding/unbinding, 179-180
Binswanger and, 180-181
biographies of, 611, 623, 627-628, 642, >
644, 651, 893, 973-974, 1197, 1548, 1869
on biological bedrock, 182, 575, 1278
Bion and, 184
on birth, 185—i86
on birth trauma, 124, 641
on bisexuality, 186-187, 1587, 1660
Bjerre and, 188, 189, 1697
Blanton and, 192-193
Bleuler and, 194
on body ego, 139
on body image, 197
Bonaparte and, 199, 200, 974
on boredom, 203
Bose and, 206
Bouvet and, 210
Brazilian psychoanalysis and, 217, 1012
on breast as good/bad object and, 219
on breastfeeding, 220-221
Brentano and, 222—223
Breton and, 223, 224, 1695
British Psycho-Analytical Society and, 228
Briicke and, 231, 637
Brunswick and, 232, 233
Burghdélzli Asylum and, 236
Burlingham and, 236
Burrow and, 237-238
“Cacilie M.” case and, 239-240
on case histories and, 250
on castration complex, 251-255
on cathartic method, 258
on cathectic energy, 259
on cathexis, 259-260
on censorship, 262
on certainty, 265-266
on change, 267-268
on character, 269-270, 272, 273
Charcot and, 170, 275-276, 637
1528-1529
on child analysis, 1731
on childhood, 280
on children’s play, 282-283
>
on Chilean psychoanalysis, 284
on choice of neurosis, 287-288
Choisy and, 289
on cinema, 292—293
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
on civilization, 298—299
Claparéde and, 302
on claustrophobia, 306
on cocaine, 307-308
cognitivism and, 309
collective psychology and, 311-312
on communism, 1519
on complemental series, 318
on complexes, 318-319
on compromise formations, 321, 1066
on compulsion, 322
on condemning judgments, 900-901
on condensation, 324-325
on conflict, 325-326
Congrés des psychanalystes de langue
francaise des pays romans and, 329
Congres international de Phypnotisme
experimental et scientifique and, 332
on conscious processes, 332—333
on consciousness, 333-334
on constancy principle, 1322-1323
on constitution, 334
on constructions, 336-338
on contact, 338, 339
on contact-barrier, 339
on contradiction, 341, 342
on conversion, 345
- on counter-Oedipus, 348
on counter-transference, 349-350
on creativity, 351
on criminology, 353
on cruelty, 354-355
on cryptomnesia, 356—357
on cultural transmission, 357
on culture, 296—297, 640, 641
on cure, 358
Czech psychoanalysis and, 360
Dali and, 1696
on danger, 364
on Darwinism, 366—367
on daydreams, 554-555, 1493, 1817
on day’s residues, 367, 437, 438
on death, 370, 1751
on death instinct, 371-372, 508, 509, 523
death of, 344, 619, 621, 641-642,
1557, 1644
on decathexis, 374
on defense mechanisms, 376
on defenses, 374-375
on deferred action, 378, 379-380
on definition of psychoanalysis, 1362
on deja vu, 381-382
nn
eee a
«w
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Delboeuf and, 384
Delgado and, 385, 1253
on delusions, 385, 791
on dementia, 389
on dependence, 391-392
depersonalization and, 393
on depression, 394
on deprivation, 397, 760
on derivatives of the repressed, 1481, 1484
Desoille and, 400
on destrudo, 400
on determinism, 401—402
Deuticke and, 403
Deutsch and, 404
Deutsch-Rosenbach and, 405
on developmental disorders, 408
on developmental processes, 1329-1330
on dipsomania, 412, 413
on disavowal, 415-416
on discharge, 417
on disillusionment, 1750-1751
on disorganization, 420
on displacement, 421-422
Disque vert, Le and, 423
on double, 429, 434-435
on doubt, 435-436
on dream symbolism, 437, 441-442, 1811
on dream work, 442
on dreams, 367, 436—437, 438-439, 443,
866-867, 1190
on dream’s navel, 443, 1453
on dreams of convenience, 344
on dreams of mourning, 1083
on drives, 444-447
on dualism, 448-449
Dubal and, 450
on dynamic point of view, 451
on eating disorders, 91, 233
Eckstein and, 454-455, 667
Eder and, 461
on ego, 461-466, 475-476, 775
on ego functions, 478-479
on ego ideal, 479-480
on ego-instincts, 482—483
on ego interests, 484
on ego syntony, 489
Eitingon and, 493
on “Elisabeth von R.” case, 495-496
Ellenberger on, 497
Emden and, 498
on “Emmy von N.” case, 499-500
on emotions, 501
on encounter, 505
on enuresis, 507
on envy, 508
on epistemology, 1370
on Eros, 511-513
on erotogenic masochism, 517-518,
1315-1316
on erotogenic zones, 518-519, 1205-1206
on erotogenicity, 519-521
on erotomania, 521—522
on erythrophobia, 522-523
on estrangement, 524
on ethics, 525-526
on ethnopsychoanalysis, 527
on evenly-suspended attention, 530-531
on examination dreams, 533
on excitation, 533
on exhibitionism, 535
on experience of satisfaction, 536
on externalization-internalization, 537
on facilitation, 542-543, 1605, 1607
Fackel, Die and, 543, 924
on failure neurosis, 544
on family, 547, 547-548
on family romance, 548-549, 740
on fantasy, 550-552
on fascination, 555-556
on father, 1452
on father complex, 557
father of, I:pl.25, 623-625,
1080-1081, 1269
Favez-Boutonier and, 559
on fear, 562—563
on feces, 564
Fechner and, 564-565, 1397
Federn, Paul and, 568
on female sexuality, 570-571, 573-574,
576, 1635-1636, 1753
on female sexuality as dark continent,
Bie) HENS)
on feminine masochism, 572
Ferenczi and, 580, 581, 1781-1782
on fetishism, 582, 1258
films on, 293, 642, 644-645
First World War and, 585-586
on fixation, 588
on flight into illness, 590, 664
Flournoy, Henri and, 591
Flournoy, Théodore and, 592
Fluss and, 594-595
on forgetting, 596-597
on formations of the unconscious, 597, 598
on Fort-da game, 599, 600, 994, 1048
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
fourth analysis and, 603-604
on frame of psychoanalytic treatment, 606
Frankl and, 615
on free association, 615-616
on free energy/bound energy, 617-618
French psychoanalysis and, 607, 608
Freund Toszeghy and, 174, 586, 639, 645
on friendship, 646-647
on fright, 648
Frink and, 648, 649
on frustration, 653, 654
on functional phenomenon, 654-655
on fundamental rule, 655-657
on fusion/defusion, 658-659
on gain, 664
Gattel and, 666-667
on gaze, 990
on gender identity, 668
on genital stage, 672-673
German romanticism and, 673-674
Gestapo comment, 681-682
on gifts, 682-683
Goethe and, 686-687, 984, 1838
Goethe Prize award, 687, 1044
Groddeck and, 200, 705
Gross and, 707, 708
on group analysis, 237-238
on groups, 237-238, 712-713
Guilbert and, 715, 716
on guilt, 716, 717
Halberstadt-Freud, Sophie and, 372,
719-720
on hallucinatory, 722
on hallucinatory wish-fulfillment,
1865-1866
hard science and, 726
Hartmann and, 727
on hatred, 728-729
H.D. and, 429, 430-431
Heller and, 732
on heredity of acquired characters, 736
on hermeneutics, 738
on heroic self, 739
Hesnard and, 741, 742
on heterosexuality, 743-744
Hirschfeld, Elfriede and, 746—747
on historical reality, 335, 748
on historical truth, 749
on history, 750
Hitschmann and, 751-752
Hollitscher-Freud and, 755
Hollos and, 756
2097
Ina
‘au 1. pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
om homosexuality, 757, 738, 1389-1391
an humor, 762-763
Hungaram School and, 764
ambypercathesis, 767
om hypnosis, 332, 769, 1685
am hypectondra, 770-771
om hysterical paralysis, 773-774
ami, 776, 777-780
am deal eae, 491, LIPL
am idealization, 733-784
am ideatiomal representation, 785
am ieattonal representative, 786, 841
om Menttitcation, 56, 737—790, 790, 798,
TSE4 ei
om ideaiegy 786
am iilusien,. 796-737
om imaginary, 73S
Tmageand, 300, 302
image Publishing Company and, 801-802
am inca, H+
um ineummpieteness, 305—806
Indian psychoanalysis and, 807
am inficatens/ contraindications for
asycnuanalvysis, 308-309
am individiral, $10
um inertiz principle, [13241325
um infant development, $14
am infant ebservation, $17
1m infanhie ammipetence, 823
om infantile seal curiosity, $29, 1195,
Im instinctual representative, 841
instttur Max-~Kassowitz and, 842-843
2 intelectualization, $44-345
im infergenerational phenomena, 845
am intermai/ external reality, 847-848
am internal ebrects, 395, $49-$50
ntemattonal Psychoanalytical Association
an, to
inrernattonaie Zertschrift fiir Psychoanalyse
inftemattonaler Psychoanalytischer Verlag
ami, Sel
on interpretation, 71, 862-863
on introjection, 869, 871, 1642
on isolation, 875-876
on It, 201
Italian psychoanalysis and, 878
Jackson and, 539
Jahrbuch der Psychoanalyse and, 884 is
Jahrbuch fiir psychoanalytische und
psychopathologische Forschungen and, 884
Janet and, 886, 1397
Jankelévitch and, 887
Japanese psychoanalysis and, 887
Jekels and, 888
on jokes, 890, 891-892
Jones and, 892, 893
Judaism and, 425, 624, 898-900, 1269
Jury and, 904
Kantianism and, 905
Kardiner and, 906
on “Katharina” case, 26, 909
on knowledge instinct, 917-918
Kris and, 924
Kris-Rie and, 925
Lacan and, 38, 930
Laforgue and, 933
Lampl-de Groot and, 938
on language, 942-943, 1606
on latency period and, 945-946
on latent/manifest dreanr elements, 947,
948, 1007-1008
law and, 949-950
on law and psychoanalysis, 949
on Law of the Father, 950
on lay analysis, 855, 951, 1118, 1432-1433
Le Bon and, 953-954
on letter, 961
on libidinal development, 965-967
on libido, 967-969, 970
on lies, 971
on life instinct, 174-175, 297, 511-512,
abs, 975
on lifting of amnesia, 976-977
on lifting of repression, 1486
on linguistics, 981
on literature, 984-985, 986
on logic, 989-990
on love, 671, 994-995
on love trauma, 1656
Maeder and, 999
on magical thinking, 1000
Mahler, Gustav and, 1000-1001
on mania, 1006, 1007
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Marcinowski and, 1011
on Marxism, 1017
on masculinity/femininity, 577,
1019-1020, 1400
on masochism, 1020—1022, 1315-1316
on mastery, 1023-1024, 1025
on masturbation, 1026-1027
on maternal, 1027-1028
on maternal care, 1028
on megalomania, 1036
on melancholia, 21, 1037—1039, 1082-1083
on memories, 1040, 1041
on memory, 1042-1043
on metapsychology, 1049
Meynert and, 1054
Minutes of the Vienna Psychoanalytic
Society and, 1058
on mnemic symbols, 1061-1062
on mnemic traces, 1062-1065
on modesty, 1067
monism/dualism and, 1070-1071
on moral masochism, 1071-1072
Morselli and, 1076
on mother goddess, 1080
mother of, 629-630
on mourning, 3, 21, 1082, 1798
on multidisciplinary interactions, 108
* on multilingualism, 1086
on music, 1088
Mussolini and, 879
on mystic writing pad, 1158-1159, 1613,
1757, 1819
on myth of origins, 1092-1093, 1239
on mythology, 107, 1095-1097, 1099,
1739-1740
on nakedness dreams, 1103
on narcissism, 1104-1106, 1190-1191
on narcissism of minor differences, 1109
on narcissistic neuroses, 1113
on narcissistic withdrawal, 1116, 1117
Nazi Germany and, 681-682
on need for causality, 1118-1119
on need for punishment, 1120
on negation, 1121, 1122-1123
on negative hallucination, 1124, 1125
on negative therapeutic reaction, 1125—
1127, 1469-1470, 1782
on negative transference, 1127, 1128
Nervous Anxiety States and their Treatment
and, 1131-1132
on neurasthenia, 1135
on neuro-psychoses of defense, 1138
on neurophysiology, 212-213
iiiiiie eiC
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
on neuroses, 287, 735, 1138-1139
on neurotic defenses, 1141-1142
on neurotica, 1142-1143
on neutrality, 1143-1144
on nightmares, 1149-1150
on Nirvana principle, 1151-1152
on nuclear complex, 1163-1164
Nunberg and, 1165
on object, 1168-1169, 1171
on object-choice, 1174, 1175
on object loss, 993-994
on obsessional neurosis, 1179-1180
on obsessions, 1178
on oceanic feeling, 265-266, 895, 899,
1091, 1181-1182
on Oedipus complex, 1183-1186, 1188
on omnipotence, 822
on omnipotence of thoughts, 1189, 1339
on self-consciousness, 1569, 1570
on ontogenesis, 1196, 1197
on optical schema, 1200-1201
on oral eroticism, 515-516
on oral-sadistic stage, 1203
on orality, 1202
on organ pleasure, 1205-1206
on organic repression, 1206-1208
on organization, 1208-1209
on orgasm, 1209-1210
Other and, 1212-1213
on otherness, 1214, 1774
on over-interpretation, 1217
on overdetermination, 1216-1217
on pain, 1219-1220, 1280
on pairs of opposites, 1220-1221
on paranoia, 1227-1228, 1229-1231
on paranoid psychosis, 1232
on paranormal phenomena, 640,
1145, 1181
on paraphrenia, 1234, 1403
on partial drives, 1239-1241,
1257-1258, 1332
on passion, 1243-1244
on patient physical position, 541, 542
on payment for treatment, 1068-1069
on penis envy, 1245-1246
on perception-consciousness system,
1248-1249
on perceptual identity, 1249
Perrotti and, 1251
on persecution, 1252-1253
Peruvian psychoanalysis and, 1253
on perversion, 1255, 1257-1258
Pfister and, 1260
on phallic mother, 1261, 1263
on phallic stage, 1262-1263
on phallus, 1264
philosophy and, 1269, 1270
on phobias, 1178, 1274
on phobic neurosis, 1276
photographs of, I:pl.16,24-27, III:pl.9
on phylogenesis, 1277
on pictogram, 1285
on pleasure, 894
on pleasure ego/reality ego, 1288
on pleasure in thinking, 1289
on pleasure principle, 174, 1290-1291,
1325-1326
on politics, 1293
popular images of, 62
on preconscious, 1300
on pregenital organization, 1301
on pregnancy fantasy, 1302
on prehistory, 1303-1304
on premonitory dreams, 1305
on prepsychosis, 1305-1306
on primal, 1286, 1312
on primal fantasies, 1307-1308
on primal repression, 1308-1309, 1485
on primal scene, 1310-1311
on primary identification, 788-789, 815,
1313-1314
on primary narcissism, 148-149, 151, 1110
on primary need, 1316
on primary object, 1317
on primary/secondary processes, 1317—
1319, 1328
on primitive, 1319
on primitive horde, 1320-1322
on primitive words, 3—4
on privation, 1326
on prohibition, 1331-1332
on projection, 1334, 1335-1336
on protective shield, 174, 533, 1340, 1341
on proton-pseudos, 1342
on psi system, 1345
on Psychanalyse des neévroses et des
psychoses, La, 1360-1361
on Psychanalyse et les névroses, La, 1346
on psyche, 1348
Psyche and, 1351
on psychic apparatus, 1351-1352
on psychic causality, 1353-1354
on psychic energy, 1355-1356
on psychic masochism, 153
on psychic reality, 1356-1357
on psychic representative, 1358, 1433
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
on psychic structure, 1358-1359
on psychoanalyst role, 160, 1368, 1369
on psychoanalytic filiations, 1373
psychoanalytic nosography and,
1374-1375
on psychoanalytic research, 1378
Psychoanalytic Theory of Neurosis, The
and, 1383
on psychoanalytic treatment, 127, 531,
1068, 1181, 1384-1385, 1456-1457,
1469-1470, 1728-1730
on psychogenesis/organogenesis,
1391-1392
on psychogenic blindness, 1392-1393
on psychology and psychoanalysis, 1397
on psychoses, 1404, 1418
on psychosexual development, 1405-1406
on psychosis/neurosis distinction,
1414, 1415
on psychosomatic limit, 1410
on psychosomatics, 1408
Psychoterapia and, 1411
on psychotherapy, 1411, 1412
on psychotic defenses, 1413
on psychotic transference, 1419
on puberty, 1420, 1421
on puerperal psychoses, 1422
on punishment dreams, 1422
on purified-pleasure-ego, 1423
on purpose of psychoanalysis, 20
on purposive idea, 1424
Putnam and, 207, 1424-1425
on quantitative/qualitative dimensions,
1427-1428
on quota of affect, 1428, 1433
Rado and, 1441
Rank and, 1802, 1859-1860
on rationalization, 1448
on reaction-formations, 1449
on real trauma, 1455
on reality principle, 1450
on reality testing, 1450-1451
on reciprocal paths of influence, 1456
on regression, 160, 1459-1460
Reik and, 1463
on rejection of femininity, 575, 773
on religion, 158-159, 265-266, 312, 660—
661, 899, 1181-1182, 1466-1467, 1855
on remembering, 1467
on reminiscences, 1470-1471
on repetition, 1472, 1473
on repetition compulsion, 1474-1475
on repetitive dreams, 1476
2099
INQEX
Velume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
om representability, 1477
om representation, 780—782
om representation of affect, 1477-1478
om repression, 1478—1480, 1482-1484,
1485-1486, 1650
em repudiation, 1487
om rescue fantasies, 1487—1488
om resistance, 1488-1489
om resolution of the transference,
1480-1491
em return of the repressed, 1491-1492
em reversal into the opposite, 1494-1495
Revista de psicoanalisis and, 1496
Revista de psiquiatria y disciplinas conexas
and, 1497, 1832
Revue francaise de psychanalyse and,
1487-1498
Rie and, 1502-1503
om rituals, 1503-1505
om rivalry, 1506
Riviere~Hodgson Verrall and, 1507
Rivista dt pscioanalisi and, 1508
Rolland and, 1511
Rosenfeld, Eva Marie and, 1514
Russian/Soviet psychoanalysis and, 1518
Sachs and, 1523
Sadger and, 1524—1525
em sadism, 1525
en sadomasochism, 388, 1527
Sarasin and, 1534
Sartre and, 1535
Saussure and, 1536
om Schaulust, 1553
Schilder and, 1538
Schiller and, 1539
om schizophrenia, 1540
Schur and, 1548
om scientific nature of psychoanalysis,
300-301, 1364, 1550-1551
om scotomization, 1554
om screen memories, 1555—1556
Sechehaye and, 1556
om secondary narcissism, 1110-1111
om secondary revision, 1558-1559
secondary schooling, 1836-1837
Secret Commitee and, 1561-1562
am secrets, 1560
am Secrets of a Soul, The, 1563
om seduction, 490-491, 669-670, 735,
[3583-1566
om seduction theory, 1563-1564, 1592,
TSL17SS
on self-esteem, 1570
on self-hatred, 1571
on self-preservation, 1575-1576
on self-punishment, 1577
on sense/nonsense, 1584
on sense of smell, 1616
on sexual difference recognition,
1588, 1589
on sexual drives, 1589
on sexual theories of children, 1590-1591
on sexuality, 987, 1593-1594
on sexualization, 398
on sexuation, 1595
on Shakespeare, 1597
on shame, 1599
siblings of, 632-636
on signal anxiety, 119, 1604
on signifiers, 1605
Silberer and, 1608
Silberstein and, 1609-1610
on silence, 1610
on skin, 1612, 1613
on sleep/wakefulness, 1614
on slips of the tongue, 1402-1403,
1615-1616
Société Psychanalytique de Paris and,
1625, 1625
sociology and, 1632
Sokolnicka and, 1633-1634
on somatic compliance, 1634-1635
on somnambulism, 1636
on specific action, 9
on specific actions, 1638-1639
Spielrein and, 1639
Spinoza and, 1640
on splitting, 1286-1287, 1645-1646
on splitting of the ego, 1233, 1404, 1642,
1647, 1647-1648, 1649
on stages, 1651-1652
on stammering, 1653
Stekel and, 1657
Sterba and, 1659
Storfer and, 1661-1662
Strachey and, 1662-1663
Strachey-Sargent and, 1664
on stratification, 1665
on structural theories, 1666
structuralism and, 1668
Studienausgabe, 1669-1670
on subconscious, 1672-1673
on subject, 1673, 1675
subject’s castration and, 1676
on sublimation, 1678-1679
INTERNATIONAL Dictionary oF PSYCHOANALYSIS
on substitute formations, 1680, 1681
on sucking, 1681-1682
on sudden involuntary ideas, 1683
on suffering, 1683-1684
on suicidal behavior, 1686
on suicide, 1687 ‘
on sum of excitation, 1689-1690
on supervised analysis, 1692
on suppression, 1693-1694
surrealism and, 1695, 1696
Swedish psychoanalysis and, 1697
Swiss psychoanalysis and, 1549-1550, 1700
Swoboda and, 1704
on symbiotic relation, 1705-1706
on symbol, 1706-1708
on symbolism, 1712
on symbolization, 1712-1713
on symptom-formation, 1716-1717, 1718
on symptoms, 1714-1715
Szondi and, 1721
on taboo, 1723
on tact, 1725, 1729
Tausk and, 642, 1726, 1727
Tegel clinic and, 1734
on telepathy, 1181, 1457, 1735
on temporality, 1359-1360
, on tenderness, 1735-1736
on termination of treatment, 76—77,
1737, 1738
on therapeutic alliance, 1740-1741
on Thing, 1743
on thing-presentations, 1741-1743, 1874
on thought, 1746-1747
on thought identity, 1749
on tics, 1756
on time, 1756—1757
Tomasi and, 1758
on topographical point of view, 1760
on totemism, 1768-1769
on training analysis, 1457, 1769-1770
on training of the psychoanalyst, 1771
on transference, 422, 423, 1469,
1490-1491, 1776-1777
on transference hatred, 1781
on transference love, 1785-1786
on transference neuroses, 1786—1787
transference of creativity and, 1787-1788
on transference relationship, 1787
on transgression, 1791, 1792-1793
on translation, 1797-1798
on trauma, 328, 1800-1301
on traumatic neuroses, 1803-1804
a
ee
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
on truth, 1804-1805
on turning around, 1494, 1495, 1806-1808
on typical dreams, 1810-1811
on uncanny, 1815-1816
on unconscious, 1673, 1818-1819,
1820-1821
on unconscious concepts, 1817
on unconscious fantasies, 1817
on undoing, 1821-1822
University of Vienna and, 1837-1838
on unpleasure, 1826-1827
on urethral eroticism, 516-517
U.S. psychoanalysis and, 648, 1823,
1824-1825
USS. visit (1909), I:pl.1660,-611,7 2,07 ,
302-303, 580, 587, 721, 1424, 1822-1823
on “vagina dentata” fantasy, 1831
Vienna General Hospital and, 1837
Vienna Psychoanalytic Society and, 132
on violence instinct, 1838-1839
on visual, 1840
on visual arts, 984, 985, 1841, 1842
on voyeurism, 1843
Wagner-Jauregg and, 1846
Walter and, 1847
on war neuroses, 1848
on weaning, 1851
on Weininger, 1587-1588
on Weltanschauung, 1854-1855
Wiener Cottage Sanatorium and, 1828
Wiener psychoanalytische Vereinigung
and, 1857
on “wild analysis”, 1860-1861
on wish-fulfillment, 1864-1865
on wishes, 1867
on Witch metapsychology, 1868
on word association, 1872
on word-presentations, 1873-1874
on work, 1875-1876
on work of the negative, 1129
on working-off mechanisms, 1877
on working over, 1878
on working-through, 1879-1880
on Young Girls Diary, A, 1883
Zeitschrift fiir psychoanalytische Padagogik
and, 1886
Zentralblatt fiir Psychoanalyse and, 1887
Zulliger and, 1888
Zweig, Arnold and, 1889-1890
Zweig, Stefan and, 1890-1891
See also Fliess correspondence; Splits in
psychoanalysis
Freud, Sigmund Schlomo, works
“Acquisition and Control of Fire, The”, 107,
299, 348, 517, 1367-1368
“Aetiology of Hysteria, The”, 376, 976,
1040, 1061, 1062, 1064, 1657
“Analytic Therapy’, 95
“Antithetical Meaning of Primal Words,
The’, 3—4, 1495, 1585, 1723
“Autobiographical Study, An”, 139-140,
366, 551, 768, 946, 970, 1277, 1475, 1565
Biblioteca Nueva de Madrid Obras
Completas, 175
“Case of Paranoia Running Counter to the
Psycho-Analytic Theory of the Disease,
A’, 848, 1234, 1307
“Case of Successful Treatment by
Hypnotism, A’, 220, 341, 448, 1560
“Character and Anal Eroticism’, 72, 269,
272, 514, 516-517
“Civilized Sexual Morality and Modern
Nervous Illness”, 298, 299, 311, 797, 804,
1023, 1632, 1750-1751, 1855
“Claims of Psycho-Analysis to Scientific
Interest, The”, 93, 300-301, 462, 1192,
129351632
“Compulsive activities and religious
exercise”, 660
“Constructions in Analysis’, 65, 96, 337—
338, 749, 750, 820, 977, 1310, 1787, 1876
“Contributions to the Psychology of Love’,
251-252, 342-343, 1594, 1725
“Creative Writers and Day-dreaming”, 107,
351, 443, 551, 555, 985, 1494
“Criminals from a Sense of Guilt’, 353
“Decomposition of the Psychic
Personality”, 1160, 1479
“Detaching a Syndrome of Anxiety
Neurosis from Neurasthenia’, 364, 420,
1135-1138, 1335, 1878
“Difficulty in the Path of Psycho-Analysis,
A’, 366, 483
“Disposition to Obsessional Neurosis,
The”, 72, 269, 288, 514, 746-747, 1179,
1208, 1234, 1301
“Dissolution of the Oedipus Complex,
The”, 252-253, 641, 789, 1185, 1246, 1480
“Dostoyevsky and Parricide”, 351, 412, 413,
431-432, 985, 1071-1072, 1238
“Dreams and Telepathy’, 1181, 1476,
1488, 1735
“Dreams in Folklore”, 564
“Dynamics of Transference, The”, 95, 800,
862, 1127, 1488, 1490, 1610, 1781
“Evidential Dream, An”, 746, 1074
“Family Romances’, 555, 1494
“Fausse reconnaissance (déja raconté) in
Psycho-Analytic Treatment’, 381
“Female Sexuality’, 254, 516, 641, 1019
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
Five Lectures on Psycho-Analysis, 303, 587—
588, 868, 900-901, 1119, 1164, 1822—
1823, 1877
“Freud’s Psycho-Analytic Procedure”, 272,
541, 655, 809
“Future Prospects of Psycho-Analytic
Therapy, The”, 95, 557 :
Gesammelte Schriften, 175, 680, 1662, 1672
Gesammelte Werke, 176, 680-681, 802, 874
“Geschlechstrieb, Der”, 1589
“Heredity and the Etiology of the
Neuroses”, 287, 412, 653, 735, 736, 1041,
1178, 1363
“Humor”, 50
“Hypnosis”, 23
“Hysterical Phantasies and their Relation
to Bisexuality”, 551, 839-840
“Infantile Genital Organization, The”, 252,
365, 415-416, 672, 1184-1185, 1208,
1301-1302
Klinische Studie iiber die halbseitiger
Cerebrallahmung der Kinder (with Rie),
916, 1502
Letters of Sigmund Freud 1879-1939,
The, 1601
Letters of Sigmund Freud and Arnold Zweig,
The, 1601
“Libidinal Types”, 969, 1117
“Libido Theory, The’, 372, 485, 1105,
1486, 1538
“Lines of Advance in Psycho-Analytic
Therapy”, 979-980, 1486
“Loss of Reality in Neurosis and Psychosis’,
22, 1234, 1404
Mass Psychology and the Analysis of the
Ego, 1293
“Medusa’s Head”, 556, 990
“Metapsychology”, 323, 786, 805, 838, 1257
“Moses of Michelangelo, The”, 985,
1079, 1842
“Neurosis and Psychosis’, 21, 22, 465,
1048, 1139, 1234
“Note on the Prehistory of the Technique
of Analysis”, 356, 616
“Note upon the ‘Mystic Writing Pad’, A’,
1042, 1063-1064, 1159-1160, 1340, 1819
“Notes on Dream Interpretation’, 443
Observations and Analyses Drawn from
Analytical Practice, 1246
“Observations on Transference-Love’, 7,
350, 1244, 1785
“Obsessions and Phobias: Their Psychical
Mechanism and Their Aetiology”, 322,
1274, 1680
2101
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
“Obsessive Actions and Religious
Prac107t, 3i11, c716e, 71s7, ”839,, 14 66,
1503, 1632, 1723
On Aphasia, 127, 403, 539, 781, 802, 847,
1042, 1086, 1873
“On beginning the treatment’, 422, 541,
616, 664, 835, 1068, 1384
“On Dreams’, 1190, 1302
“On Psychoanalysis’, 130
“On Psychotherapy’, 1411
“On Repression’, 1281
“On the Psychic Mechanisms of Hysterical
Phenomena’, 225, 384, 767, 768, 1689—
1690, 1826
“On the Universal Tendency to
Debasement in the Sphere of Love”, 252,
342, 346, 995, 1319, 1597-159186,1 6
“On Transformations of Instinct as
Exemplified in Anal Erotism’, 252, 514—
515, 682, 1069
“On Transi108e0, n108c1, e11’95-,119 6
Opere, 1199
Origins of Psycho-Analysis, The, 802
“Paths of Psychoanalytic therapy, The”, 586
Phylogenetic Fantasy, A: Overview of the
Transference Neuroses, 366, 750, 1091—
1092, 1093, 1137, 1184, 1278, 1279-1280,
1330
“Preliminary Communication” (with
Breuer), 1470, 1483, 1670
Psych-analysis and Faith: The Letters of
Sigmund Freud and Oskar Pfister, 1601
“Psychical, or Mental, Treatment”, 556,
1124, 1353
“Psychical Mechanism of Forgetfulness,
The?, 596, 1351
“Psycho-Analysis”, 321, 489, 531
“Psycho-Analysis and Telepathy”, 747,
1181, 1735
“Psycho-Analysis and the Establishment of
the Facts in Legal Proceedings”, 107, 319,
616, 1560
“Psycho-Analytic View of Psychogenic
Disturbance of Vision, The”, 482-483,
1392 alo
Psychoanalytic Dialogue: The Letters of
Sigmund Freud and Karl Abraham,
A, 1601
“Psychogenesis of a Case of Homosexuality
in a Woman, The”, 757, 817, 1389-1391
“Psychopathic Characters on the Stage”,
351, 985, 1215
“Recommendations to Physicians
Practicing Psychoanalysis”, 127, 531,
1068, 1181, 1456-1457, 1490, 1729
“Remarks on the Theory and Practice of
Dream-Interpretation’, 1475
2102
“Reply to Criticisms of My Paper on
Anxiety Neuroses, A’, 1136
“Screen Memories’, 169, 551, 594, 632,
1555, 1609
“Seventeenth-Century Demonological
Neurosis, A’, 1587, 1774
“Sexual Enlightenment Of Children, The’,
1590
“Sexuality in the Aetiology of the
Neuroses’”, 19, 41, 412, 525, 653, 1353
> “Short Account of Psycho-Analysis, A’,
385, 415, 674, 1503-1504
“Significance of Sequences of Vowels,
hexs!723
“Some Additional Notes on Dream-
Interpretation as a Whole’, 747, 1422
“Some Character-types Met with in
Psycho-Analytic Work’, 269, 272, 1239
“Some General Remarks on Hysterical
Attacks”, 1495, 1680
“Some Neurotic Mechanisms in Jealousy,
Paranoia, and Homosexuality”, 38, 376—
377, 549, 1506
“Some Points for a Comparative Study of
Organic and Hysterical Motor Paralyses”,
773-774, 1875
“Some Psychical Consequences of the
Anatomical Distinction between the
Sexes”, 253, 416, 570, 641, 668, 1125,
1245, 1635-1636
“Some Reflections on Schoolboy
Psychology”2,6 , 1836
“Special Type of Choice of Object Made by
Men, A’, 252, 342, 1183, 1487, 1593
“Splitting of the Ego in the Process of
Defense, The”, 415, 582, 641, 1354, 1647—
1648, 1665
Standard Edition of the Complete
Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, 68,
94, 698, 753-754, 1558, 1654-1656,
1662-1663, 1664
“Taboo ofV irginity, The”, 251, 252,
342-343, 556, 1109, 1724-1725
“Theme of the Three Caskets, The’, 1080,
1610, 1739-1740
Thomas Woodrow Wilson: A Psychological
Study (with Bullitt), 234, 235, 311, 485,
750, 1293, 1743-1745, 1856
Toward the Preparation of a
Metapsychology, 732
“Transference”, 95
“Two Lies Told by Children”, 746, 971
“Types of Onset of Neurosis”, 653
“Why War?”, 372, 447, 641, 879, 1097,
1855-1856
“Wild’ Psycho-Analysis”, 61, 855,
1860-1861
See also “Analysis, Terminable and
Interminable”; Beyond the Pleasure
Principle; “Child Is Being Beaten, A”;
Civilization and Its Discontents; Delusions
and Dreams in Jensen’s “Gradiva”;
“Disturbance of Memory on the
Acropolis, A”; Ego and the Id, The;
“Fetishism”; Fliess correspondence;
“Formulations on the Two Principles of
Mental Functioning”; “Further Remarks
on the Neuro—Psychoses of Defence”;
Future of an Illusion, The; Group
Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego;
Inhibitions, Symptoms, and Anxiety;
“Instincts and Their Vicissitudes”;
Interpretation of Dreams, The;
Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis;
Jokes and their Relation to the
Unconscious; Leonardo da Vinci and a
Memory of his Childhood; “Little Hans”
case; “Metapsychological Supplement to
the Theory of Dreams, A”; Moses and
Monotheism; “Mourning and
Melancholia”; “Negation”; “Neuro—
Psychoses of Defense, The”; New
Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis;
“On Narcissism: An Introduction”; “On
the History of the Psychoanalytic
Movement”; “On the Sexual Theories of
Children”; “Outline of Psychoanalysis,
An”; “Project for a Scientific Psychology,
A”; Psychopathology of Everyday Life, The;
Question of Lay Analysis, The;
“Remembering, Repeating and Working—
Through”; “Repression”; Studies on
Hysteria; “Thoughts for the Times on
War and Death”; Three Essays on the
Theory of Sexuality; Totem and Taboo;
“Uncanny,” The”; “Wolf Man” case
Freud, Sophie. See Halberstadt-Freud,
Sophie
Freud, The Secret Passion (film), 293, 611,
644-645, 1365
Freud 1930-1939 (film), 1603
Freud-Bernays, Martha, I:pl.27, 620-621,
L735
Freud et son temps, 611
Freud-Jung split, 639, 1643
analytical psychology and, 79
Archives de psychologie, Les and, 116
Austrian psychoanalysis and, 132-133
complexes and, 319
deferred action and, 378
definition of psychoanalysis and, 1363
dream interpretation and, 865
ego and, 463, 469
extroversion/introversion and, 538
Freud U.S. visit and, 303
Freud’s autobiography and, 140
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
International Psychoanalytical Association
and, 854
Jahrbuch der Psychoanalyse and, 884
libido and, 485, 486, 902, 968, 1191
Morichau-Beauchant and, 1075
myth of origins and, 1322
narcissism and, 1191
Oberholzer and, 1167
“On the History of the Psychoanalytic
Movement” and, 639, 1191, 1192-1193
Pfister and, 1260
prehistory and, 1303
“Psychology of the Unconscious, The”
and, 1399
psychotherapy and, 1411-1412
Schreber case and, 1376
Secret Committee and, 640, 854,
1193, 1561
sexual drives and, 1589
Spielrein and, 1639
Tausk and, 1726
Totem and Taboo and, 1766
transference and, 1779
Van Ophuijsen and, 1200
Freud Made Easy, 116
Freud Museum (London), 230, 628-629,
642, 1600
Freud-Nathanson, Amalia Malka, 629-631
Freud or Jung (Glover), 684
Freud Professorship (University College,
London), 230
Freudo-Marxism, 1632
Freud’ sP apers on Technique (Lacan),
1200-1201
“Freud’s Psycho-Analytic Procedure”
(Freud), 272, 541, 655, 809
Freud’s self-analysis, 638, 1568
Anzieu on, 643
dreams and, 436, 438, 533
fatherhood and, 558
Fliess and, 589-590, 628, 1568
forgetting and, 596-597
Freud, Jakob Kolloman and, 625
Freud, Julius and, 425, 633
Freud, Philipp and, 633
Freud-Nathanson, Amalia Malka and,
629-630
German romanticism and, 673
hysteria and, 772-773
introspection and, 871
“Irma’s injection” dream and, 573, 628,
872-873, 1032, 1453, 1502, 1864
mysticism and, 1091
Oedipus complex and, 425, 551
“On Dreams” and, 1190
punishment dreams and, 1422
reversal into the opposite and, 1494-1495
Rie and, 1502
Rolland and, 1511
Schiller and, 1539
Schur on, 628
transference of creativity and, 1787-1788
Freud s Self-analysis (Anzieu), 643, 754
Freud’s Theories of Neurosis
(Hitschmann), 752
Freud s Vienna and Other Essays
(Bettelheim), 172-173
Frichet, Anne, 1304
Friedan, Betty, 576
Friedlander, Saul, 750
Friedlander-Frankl, Kate, 343, 645-646, 697
Friedrich, Volker, 679
Friendship, 646-648
Fries, Ludwig, 1734
Fright, 364, 563, 648, 1275
Frink, Horace Westlake, 648-649, 906
Frischauf, Marie, 1461
Frois-Wittmann, Jean, 1695
From India to the Planet Mars
(Flournoy), 356
“From the History of an Infantile Neurosis”.
See “Wolf Man” case
Fromm, Erich, 31, 650-652
Brazilian psychoanalysis and, 215
Foulkes and, 601
Fromm-Reichmann and, 652
German psychoanalysis and, 675, 940
Horney-Danielson and, 759
International Federation of Psychoanalytic
Societies and, 852
Marxism and, 651, 1017
Mexican psychoanalysis and, 651, 1051
neopsychoanalysis and, 1131
photograph of, I:pl.28
on politics, 1293
Sachs and, 651, 1523
Sigmund Freud Institute and, 1602
Sullivan and, 1688
Swedish psychoanalysis and, 1698, 1699
Thompson and, 1745, 1746
U.S. psychoanalysis and, 1824
Zeitschrift fiir psychoanalytische Padagogik
and, 1886
Fromm-Reichmann, Frieda, 652-653
Foulkes and, 601
Fromm and, 650-651
German psychoanalysis and, 675, 940
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
Groddeck and, 706
Pankow and, 1222
on psychoses, 1404
on psychotic transference, 1419
on schizophrenia, 1540
Sigmund Freud Institute and, 1602
Sullivan and, 1688
Swedish psychoanalysis and, 1699
Thompson and, 1746
Washington Psychoanalytic Society
and, 1849
Zeitschrift fiir psychoanalytische Padagogik
and, 1886
Frosch, John, 90, 897
Fruits of the Earth, The (Gide), 1656
Frustration, 653-654
active technique and, 8
civilization and, 299
disintegration anxieties and, 418
envy and, 509
holding and, 754
proto-thoughts and, 1343
realization and, 1451
self-mutilation and, 1573
thought-thinking apparatus and, 1749
transference love and, 1785
transmuting internalization and, 1798
Frustration-aggression Test, 1395
Fiichs, Siegfried, 652
Fuchs, Siegmund Heinrich, 1602
Fuentes, Carlos, 241
“Function and Field” (Lacan), 1710
Function of the Orgasm (Reich), 1354, 1461
Functional phenomenon, 654-655
Fundamental rule, 15, 541, 615, 655-658
See also Free association
“Funzione dei conflitti preedipici”
(Servadio), 1586
Furatdo, Diogo, 1296
Furcht. See Fear
Furer, Manuel, 1423
Furst, Sidney S., 1600
“Further Remarks on the Neuro-Psychoses
of Defence” (Freud)
on choice ofn eurosis, 287
on compromise formations, 321
on defense mechanisms, 376
on defenses, 374-375
on dipsomania, 412
on neuroses, 1138
on projection, 1335
on psychoses, 1404
on repression, 374, 735
2103
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
on rituals, 1503
on seduction theory, 1755
on substitute formations, 1680
Furtmiiller, Carl, 25
Fusco, Marie-Claude, 1617
Fusion/defusion, 124, 220, 221, 658-660
Fusion transference, 1059-1060, 1115
Future Lasts Forever, The (Althusser), 53
Future of an Illusion, The (Freud), 660-661
on civilization, 298
collective psychology and, 311
definition of psychoanalysis and, 1364
on disillusionment, 1750
on frustration, 653
on helplessness, 1439
on illusion, 796
on myth of origins, 1321
Pfister and, 660, 1260
on politics, 1293
on privation, 1326
publication of, 640, 660
on religion, 1855
Rolland on, 296, 660
on taboo, 1723
on transgression, 1792
on Weltanschauung, 1854
“Future Prospects of Psycho-Analytic
Therapy, The” (Freud), 95, 557
G
Gabbard, Glen O., 209, 296, 853, 898, 1109
Gabbard, Krin, 296
Gabriel, M., 40
Gachkel, Victor, 276
Gaddini, Eugenio, 663-664, 881, 1586
Gaddini, Renata, 663
Gadelius, Bror, 1697
Gagey, Jacques, 560
Gain (primary and secondary), 590, 664,
1385, 1635, 1740
Gall, Franz Joseph, 1266
Galton, Francs, 720
Galvan Remus, Estela, 1051
Gambier, Luisa. See Alvarez de Toledo, Luisa
Agusta Rebeca Gambier de
Games. See Children’s play
Gammil, James, 610
Gampel, Yolanda, $46, 877, 878, 896
Gandhi s Truth (Erikson), 511, 1388
Garat, Dominique, 795
Garbarino, Héctor, 1829
2104
Garcia, Antonio, 1832
Garcia, Roger, 1052
Garcia Badaracco, Jorge, 118, 1465
Garcia Marquez, Gabriel, 241
Garcia Reynose, Diego, 118
Garcia Reynose, Gilou, 118
Gardiner, Muriel M., 664-665 ‘
Brunswick and, 233
Freud Museum and, 629
photograph of, II:pl.1
“Wolf Man” case and, 1221
GAREFP (Groupe antillais de recherche,
detude et de formation
psychanalytique), 1014
Garma, Angel, 665-666
Alvarez de Toledo and, 55
Argentinian psychoanalysis and, 117,
118, 665
Carcamo and, 247
Colombian psychoanalysis and, 315
Congrés des psychanalystes de langue
francaise des pays romans and, 331
Dolto-Marette and, 427
on dreams, 1366-1367
Federacion psicoanalitica de América latina
and, 566
Martins, Cyro and, 1015
Pichon-Riviére and, 1284
Rascovsky and, 1447
Spanish psychoanalysis and, 1637
Garofalo, Raffaele, 353
Garon, Josette, 245, 864
Garza, Cesar, 1052
Gasqueres, Evelyne-anne, 1430
Gattel, Felix, 666-667, 674, 1136
Gaufay, Guy Le, 1084
Gaumont, Marcel, 246
Gaupp, Robert, 37, 665
Gay, Peter, 491, 642, 900, 1743-1744
Gaze, 990-991
cinema and, 295
mirror stage and, 1059
object a and, 1173
optical schema, 1201-1202
patient physical position and, 542
voyeurism and, 1843
Geahchan, Dominique
Collége des Psychanalystes and, 314,
612, 1835
Confrontation and, 314, 327, 328, 612, 1835
Inconscient, L and, 807
Viderman and, 1835
Gebsattel, Viktor Emil Freiherr von
Caruso and, 248
Evolution psychiatrique, L’ and, 532
Marcinowski and, 1011
on phenomenology, 1267
Wiener psychoanalytische Vereinigung
and, 1858
ee
Geets, Claude, 843
Geheimnisse einer Seele, 674
Gehemmte Mensch, Der (Schultz-
Hencke), 1131 ,
Geijerstam, Emanuel af, 1697 |
Geissmann, Claudine, 896 ;
Geissmann, Pierre, 896 :
Geisteswissenschaften. See Anthropology
Gelb, Adhemar, 600 j
Geleerd, Elisabeth, II:pl.2, 667-668 ]
Gemeinsame Tagtraume (Sachs), 1524
Gemelli, Agostino, 879, 1508
Gender development, 1660
Gender dysphoria, 1799
Gender identity, 668-669
homosexuality and, 757—758
identity preservation principle and, 1324
masculinity/femininity and, 668-669, 1020
Gendrot, Jacques, 1442
, Généalogie de la psychanalyse (Henry), 1271
General theory of seduction, 669-670, 1197,
1204, 1342, 1566
“Genesis of Psychical Conflict in Earliest
Infancy” (Riviere-Hodgson Verrall), 1507
Genet, Jean, 1535
Genetic Field Theory of Ego Formation, A
(Spitz), 1641
Genetic point of view, 1049, 1138, 1667
Geneva Psychoanalytic Society, 1700
Génie des origines, Le: Psychanalyse et
psychoses (Racamier), 1436
Genital love, 670-672
Genital stage, 672-673
Aberastury on, 5
adolescence and, 28
character and, 271
demand and, 388
erotogenic masochism and, 518
genital love and, 671
phobias and, 1275
sadism and, 1525
Genitalita e cultura (Fornari), 598
Genocide, 358
See also Holocaust
Gentile, Giovanni, 879
Gentis, Roger, 1766
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Géopsychanalyse, 241
Gerlach, Alf, 287
German psychoanalysis, 674-679
Allgemeine Arztliche Gesellschaft fiir
Psychotherapie and, 49, 1131, 1547
Kemper, Werner Walther and, 910
Mitscherlich and, 677, 679, 1060
Money-Kyrle and, 1069
See also Berliner Psychoanalytische
Poliklinik; Berliner Psychoanalytisches
Institut; Deutsche Psycoanalytische
Gesellschaft
German Psychoanalytic Society. See
Deutsche Psycoanalytische Gesellschaft
German romanticism, 673—674, 686,
1349, 1686
Germany. See German psychoanalysis
Geré, George, 242, 390-391, 1529
Gero-Heymann, Elisabeth, 360
Gesammelte Schriften (Freud), 175, 680,
1662, 1672
Gesammelte Werke (Freud), 176, 680-681,
802, 874
“Geschlechstrieb, Der” (Freud), 1589
Geschlechstrieben. See Sexual drives
Gestalt, 1668
Gestalt theory, 709, 713, 1059
Gestapo, 681-682
See also Nazi Germany
Ghorbal, Mohamed, 1156
Ghost sites, 114
Giannotti, Adriano, 880, 881
Gibault, Alain, 911, 1878
Gibeault, Alain, 423, 613, 1630
Gibeault, M., 1500
Gicklhorn, Renée, 627
Gide, André, 1634, 1656
Gifts, 682-683
Gilgamesh, 1095, 1096
Gill, Merton, 1446, 1447
Gillespie, William H., 230, 697, 857
Gillibert, Jean
Croatian psychoanalysis and, 1884
group analysis and, 610
Inconscient, LV’ and, 807
on mastery, 1025
on racism/anti-Semitism, 1439
Revue francaise de psychanalyse and, 1499
Gilligan, Carol, 577
Gillot, Hendrik, 83
Gimes, Miklos, 766
Gincburg, Mira, 1703
Girard, Claude, 1499, 1627, 1803
Girard, Philippe, 957
Girard, René, 1322
GIREP (Groupe International du Réve
Eveille en Psychanalyse), 414
Girod, F., 294
Gisbert, Alfonso, 1833
Gitelson, Max, 692, 857, 1833, 1888
Glauber, I. Peter, 568
Gliserman, Martin, 60
Global ego, 1675
Glossary of Psychoanalytical Terms (Jones),
1553, 1654-1655, 1663
Glover, Edward, 683-685
Abraham, Karl and, 5, 684
British Psycho-Analytical Society and, 229,
343, 344, 684, 697
British psychoanalysis and, 696, 697
on character, 272
Controversial Discussions and, 343,
344, 997
on dipsomania, 413
Eder and, 461
on failure neurosis, 544
Fairbairn and, 545
Friedlander-Frankl and, 646
on indications/contraindications for
psychoanalysis, 809
photograph of, II:p1.3
Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, The
and, 1381
on psychoanalytic treatment, 1729
on psychotherapy, 1412
Schmideberg-Klein and, 1542
on silence, 1610
on splitting, 1649
Strachey-Sargent and, 1664
Glover, James, 685-686
Abraham, Karl and, 5, 684, 685
on alcoholism, 42
British psychoanalysis and, 696, 697
Payne and, 685, 1245
Sharpe and, 1599
Gnosticism, 313
Gobineau, Arthur de, 1437
Godel, Kurt, 342
Godelier, Maurice, 1629
Godfrey, Clarence, 130
Goeckel, Rudolf, 1349
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von,
686-687, 984
applied psychoanalysis and, 107
Breuer and, 224
on ego, 475
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
Freud and, 686-687, 984, 1838
German romanticism and, 673
Groddeck and, 705
on individuation, 811
Sarasin and, 1534
Schiller and, 1539
sublimation and, 1678
on suicide, 1686
superego and, 1690
Goethe Prize, 687-688, 1044
Golan, Shmuel, 877
Goldberg, Arnold, 279
Goldberg, Susan, 1304
Goldman, Emma, 303, 1822
Goldstein, Kurt, 600, 652, 1047
Goldstein, Néstor, 566
Golse, Bernard, 1304, 1652, 1756,
1851-1852
Gomberoff, Mario, 285
Gombrich, Ernst Hans, 1825
Gomes, Martim, 214
Gomperz, Theodor, 223
Gondolo-Calais, F., 42
Gonzalez, Avelino, 566, 1051
Gonzalez, José Luis, 1051, 1052
Gonzalez, M., 315
Gonzalez Pineda, Francisco, 1051, 1052
Good-enough mother, 688
false self and, 546
handling and, 725
holding and, 754
maternal care and, 1029
object and, 1169
transitional phenomena and, 1794,
1795, 1862
true/false self and, 1582
Goode de Garma, Elisabeth, 117, 315
Goodman, Paul, 1445
Goodman, Stanley, 1530, 1532
Goody, Esther, 1237
Gordy, Louise, 960
Gorgone, Georg. See Urbantschitsch,
Rudolf von
Goring, Herman, 406, 689
Goring, Matthias Heinrich, 689
Claude and, 305
Goring Institute and, 406, 676, 689,
15475 lod
Laforgue and, 544, 1401, 1625
Goring Institute. See Deutsches Institut ftir
Psychologische Forschung und
Psychotherapie
Gorky, Maxim, 282, 1519
2105
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Goteborg Institute for Psychotherapy, 1700
Gougoulis, Nicolas, 1629
Gouhier, Henri, 1350
Gouttali, Boubker, 1155
Goya, Francisco de, 1870
Graber, Gustav Hans, 675
“Gradiva” (Jensen). See Delusions and
Dreams in Jensen’s “Gradiva”
Graf, Herbert, 690, 1847
See also “Little Hans” case
Graf, Max, 75, 107, 108, 690, 690-691
Graf-Freud, Regina Deborah, 634
Graham, Frank W., 131, 132
Grandiose self, 691
alter ego and, 52
bipolar self and, 184-185
narcissistic transference and, 1115
object relations and, 1171-1172
twinship transference and, 1810
Grandiosity, 1581
Granel, Julio, 1423
Granoff, Wladimir Alexandre, 691-692
Confrontation and, 327
on femininity, 574
French psychoanalytic establishment split
(1964) and, 122, 610-611, 957
Perrier and, 1251
photograph of, II:pl.4
Psychanalyse, La and, 1348
Schlumberger and, 1542
Smirnoff and, 1617
Société francaise de psychanalyse and,
692,-1619
Grant-Duff, Iseult, 685, 696
Graph of Desire, 554, 692-695, 895
Grasset, Bernard, 742
Grasset, Joseph, 106, 381
Gray, Paul, 487
Great Britain. See British psychoanalysis
Great Men: Psychoanalytic Studies
(Hitschmann), 752
Greed. See Money
Greek psychoanalysis, 498, 700-701,
922, 1885
Greek Psychoanalytic Society, 1696
Green, André
on anal eroticism, 515
on anality, 72-73
on archaic, 112
on blank psychoses, 191
Bouvet and, 211
Colloque sur I’ inconscient and, 315, 610
2106
Congres des psychanalystes de langue
francaise des pays romans and, 331
on dead mother complex, 368-369
on death instinct, 372, 373
Delay and, 383
on despair, 1571
on developmental disorders, 409
on drives, 447
on exhibitionism, 535
French psychoanalysis and, 613
on fusion/defusion, 659
on hallucinatory, 722
on hallucinatory wish-fulfillment, 1867
on heroic self, 739
Inconscient, L’ and, 807
on infant development, 814
on infant observation, 818
“Instincts and Their Vicissitudes” and, 839
on intergenerational phenomena, 846
on lack of differentiation, 932
on myth of origins, 1093
on mythology, 1097
on narcissism, 97, 1107, 1111, 1117
on narcissistic injury, 1113
on narcissistic withdrawal, 1117
on negative hallucination, 1125
on negative therapeutic reaction,
1126, 1782
on nonverbal communication, 1154
Nouvelle Revue de psychanalyse and, 1162
on object, 1171
object relations theory and, 1176
on Oedipus complex, 1174, 1186
on patient physical position, 541
on phallic mother, 1262
on primary/secondary processes, 1328
on psychic causality, 1354, 1355
on psychic representative, 1358
on psychosomatic limit, 1410
on quantitative/qualitative
dimensions, 1428
on quota of affect, 1433
on representation, 781
Revue frangaise de psychanalyse and, 1499
on sadism, 1526
on self, 1568
on self-mutilation, 1573
on sleep/wakefulness, 1614
Société psychanalytique de Paris and, 1626,
1627, 1628, 1629, 1630
structuralism and, 1669
on transference depression, 1780
on translation, 1798
on turning around, 1807
on work of the negative, 1129-1130, 1876
Green, Maurice, 1746
Greenacre, Phyllis, 701-702
on allergies, 48
Bak and, 147
Canadian psychoanalysis and, 242
on identity, 794
on imposter, 122, 803
Journal of the American Psychoanalytic
Association, 897
Lampl-de Groot and, 938
photograph of, II:pl.5
Psychoanalytic Study of the Child,
The and, 1381
Zetzel-Rosenberg and, 1888
Greenberg, Clement, 1825
Greenberg, Joanne R., 652, 1176
Greenson, Daniel, 1531
Greenson, Ralph, 702-703
on boredom, 203
on change, 268
on empathy, 502
on identity, 794
Journal of the American Psychoanalytic
Association, 897
Los Angeles Psychoanalytic Society/
Institute and, 992
on psychoanalytic treatment, 1729
on repetition, 1473
San Francisco Psychoanalytic Society and
Institute and, 1529
on silence, 1610
on therapeutic alliance, 1741
on transference relationship, 1787-1789
Greer, Germaine, 576
Grégoire, Ménie, 934
Gressot, Michel, 331, 703-704, 1152,
1536, 1701
Greve Schlegel, German, 116, 284
Griaule, Marcel, 1350
Gribinski, Michel, 124, 1163
Grid, 704-705, 1031
Grief. See Mourning
Griesinger, Wilhelm, Burgholzli Asylum
and, 235
Grieving. See Mourning
Grimaldi, Paulo, 566
Grinberg, Leon
on acting out, 11
Argentinian psychoanalysis and, 18, 117
Brazilian psychoanalysis and, 217, 1015
on counter-identification, 348
INTERNATIONAL Dictionary oF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Federacion psicoanalitica de América latina
and, 566
on guilt, 718
on hallucinosis, 723
Liberman and, 964
on primary identification, 1314
Spanish psychoanalysis and, 1638
on suicide, 1688
Swedish psychoanalysis and, 1700
Venezuelan psychoanalysis and, 1832-1833
Grinberg, Rebeca, 118
Grinstein, Alexander, 1600, 1658
Groddeck, Georg Walther, 200, 705-707
cryptomnesia and, 356
Fromm-Reichmann and, 652
German psychoanalysis and, 674
on id, 777
photograph of, II:pl.6
on psychic causality, 1354
on psychosomatics, 1408
on relaxation principle/neo-catharsis, 1465
Zeitschrift fiir psychoanalytische Padagogik
and, 1886
Groen, Jan, 1133
Groen-Prakken, Hanna, 1885
Groethuysen, Bernard, 1493
Groos, Karl, 1472
Gros, J.-P. Durand de, 768, 973
Grosclaude, Michéle, 390
Gross, Alfred, 1734
Gross, Otto Hans Adolf, 674, 707-708, 1293
Grote, Louis R., 1044
Grotjahn, Martin, 852, 992, 1045, 1348
Grotstein, James, 1423, 1852
Group (Neri), 709-710
Group analysis, 709-710
British psychoanalysis and, 699
Burrow on, 237-238
family therapy and, 1371
Foulkes on, 601, 709
French psychoanalysis and, 610, 613
Group illusion, 738-739
Group phenomenon, 710-711
See also Group analysis; Groups
Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego
(Freud), 712—713
on anthropology, 93
applied psychoanalysis and, 107
Civilization and Its Discontents and, 297
collective psychology and, 311, 712
on conflict, 326
on death instinct, 372
on ego, 464, 712
on ego ideal, 1106
on fascination, 555-556
heroic identification and, 739
on identification, 640, 788, 1083, 1314
on incest, 804
on inferiority feelings, 831
Jankelévitch and, 887
Le Bon and, 953-954
on libido, 967
on literature, 1094
on mania, 1006
on myth ofo rigins, 712, 713, 1321
on narcissism of minor differences, 1109
on self-consciousness, 1570
on otherness, 1214
publication of, 753
on racism/anti-Semitism, 1438
on secondary narcissism, 1111
sociology and, 1632
structural theory and, 174
on superego, 1690
Totem and Taboo and, 1767
Group psychotherapies, 713-714
Aberastury’s use of, 5
analytic psychodrama, 77—78
Australian psychoanalysis and, 132
Bion on, 184
Moreno on, 713, 1072
See also Group analysis
Groupe antillais de recherche, d’étude et de
formation psychanalytique (GAREFP),
1014
Groupe d’études philosophique et
scientifiques pour l’examen des idées
nouvelles, 45, 46, 204
Groupe et le Sujet du groupe, Le (Kaés), 710
Groupe et I Inconscient, Le (Anzieu), 710
Groupe frangaise de Montréal, 1621
Groupe International du Reve Eveille en
Psychanalyse (GIREP), 414
Groups
alienation and, 44
Anzieu on, 104
basic assumptions and, 151, 709-710, 711
Bion on, 183, 184, 601, 709, 710-711,
PSP USA L
collective psychology and, 311
ego ideal and, 480
family and, 547
heroic identification and, 738-739
Le Bon on, 953-954
paranoia and, 1227
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
relations model and, 1464
See also Balint groups; Group analysis
Grubrich-Simitis, Ilse, 623, 681, 1199, 1601,
1669-1670
Griinbaum, Adolf, 1271, 1370, 1378, 1517
Grunberger, Bela
on agency, 33
Congres des psychanalystes de langue
frangaise des pays romans and, 330
French psychoanalysis and, 613
on narcissism, 97, 1107, 1111
on narcissistic elation, 1112
on narcissistic injury, 1113
on narcissistic transference, 1115
Psyché and, 1350
on racism/anti-Semitism, 1438-1439
on sadism, 1526
on silence, 1610
Société psychanalytique de Paris and, 1626
on student protests (1968), 612
Torok and, 1764
Viderman and, 1834
Grundformen der Angst (Riemann), 1131
Grundformen un Erkenntnis menschlichen
Daseins (Binswanger), 181
Grundlagen der Psychanalyse, Der
(Hartmann), 727
Grupo Luso-Espanol de psicoanalisis, 1637
Gruppo e Funzione Analitica, 347
Guattari, Felix, 97-99, 612, 1293
Gudden, Bernhard von, 235
Guedeney, Colette, 911
Guedeny, Nicole, 1297
Guedes, P., 216
Guex, Germaine, 2, 714-715, 715,
1536, 1701
Guignard, Florence, 830, 1014, 1297
Guilbert, Yvette, 715-716
Guild, Julius, 244
Guilhot, Jean, 415
Guilhot, Marie-aimee, 415
Guillaumin, Jean
French psychoanalysis and, 613
on incompleteness, 805
on intergenerational phenomena, 845
on internal/external reality, 847, 848
on object, 1171, 1172
Société psychanalytique de Paris and, 1628
Guilt, 716-718
Ajase complex and, 39
anxiety and, 100, 101
breast as good/bad object and, 219
criminology and, 353
2107
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
depression and, 394
depressive position and, 395, 396
early Oedipus complex and, 1188
ego and, 470, 471, 716, 717
ethics and, 525, 526
identification with the aggressor and,
792-793
inferiority feelings and, 831
introjection and, 870
jouissance and, 894
masochism and, 717, 1022
masturbation and, 1026
melancholia and, 21
modesty and, 1067
moral masochism and, 717, 1022, 1071
myth of origins and, 1321
mythology and, 1096-1097
need for punishment and, 1120
negative therapeutic reaction and,
1125, 1126
Oedipus complex and, 353
parricide and, 1078, 1092, 1239
representation and, 781
rituals and, 1504
secrets and, 1561
self-mutilation and, 1573
self-punishment and, 1577
superego and, 297, 471, 716-717,
1690, 1691
Guimaraes Dahlheim, Luiz, 215, 1833
Guimaraes de Almeida, Edgar, 215
Guiraud, Paul, 314, 1152
Gulag, 44
Gull, William, 91
Gumbel, Erich, 877
Gundert, Hermann, 675, 677
Guntrip, Harry, 191, 577
Gustin, John, 1380
Gutheil, Thomas G., 209
Gutton, Philippe, 27, 1420-1421
Guyomard, Patrick, 526, 611, 612, 1084
Guyotat, Jean, 845, 846
Gyermekszoba pszichologiaja, A (Balint-
Szekely-Kovacs), 149
Gyémroi, Edit, 764, 766
H
Haag, Antje, 287
Haag, Geneviéve, 178, 896, 1304, 1682, 1806
Haag, Michel, 1304, 1794
Haarstrick, Franz Rudolf, 677
Haas, Ladislas, 361
Haass-Wiesegart, Margarethe, 286-287
2108
Haberlin, Paul, 1702
Habermas, Jiirgen, 31, 1061
Hachevra Hapsychoanalytit be Israel. See
Israeli Psychoanalytic Society
Haddad, Gérard, 900
Haddadi, Djamila, 1155
Hadfield, James Arthur, 686, 1457
Hadley, Ernest, 1849
Haeckel, Ernest
Darwinism and, 366, 367
Ferenczi and, 1738
heredity of acquired characters and, 736
monism and, 1070
myth of origins and, 1322
on ontogenesis, 1196-1197, 1277,
1278, 1330
on prehistory, 1303
Haenel-Guttmann, Irene, 1734
Haffani, Fakhredinne, 1155
Haitzmann case, 1587, 1774
Hajdu, Lilly, 766
Halayem, Mohamed, 1155, 1156
Halberstadt-Freud, Ernstl, 719, 745, 818
Halberstadt-Freud, Sophie, 372, 640,
719-720
Hale, Nathan G., Jr., 62, 1823
Haley, Jay, 433
Haley, Thomas, 853
Hall, Granville Stanley, 720-721
Freud U.S. visit and, I:pl.16, 60, 207,
302-303, 721
on ontogenesis, 1197
USS. psychoanalysis and, 1822
Halliday, James L., 1407
Hallucinatory, the, 721-722
action-presentations and, 12
constructions and, 338
déja vu and, 381-382
delusions and, 386
disintegration products and, 419
dreams and, 438
experience of satisfaction and, 536
Ey on, 540
good-enough mother and, 1582
internal/external reality and, 847
negative, 1124-1125, 1130, 1477
object and, 1169
omnipotence of thoughts and, 1189
perceptual identity and, 1249
primary need and, 1316
psychic reality and, 1357
reality testing and, 1451
Schreber case and, 1376
splitting and, 1646, 1647, 1648
subject’s desire and, 1677
symbiosis and, 1705
symbolic equation and, 1709
symbolization and, 1713
symptoms and,1715 ~
thought identity and, 1749
work of the negative and, 1130
Hallucinatory wish-fulfillment, 1865-1867
amentia and, 58
Fantasy and, 551
primary/secondary processes and, 1318
projection and, 1336
reality principle and, 1450, 1866
word-presentations and, 1873
Hallucinogenic drugs, 55, 386
Hallucinosis, 722-723
Halsmann, Philipp, 353
Hamlet (Shakespeare), 27, 107, 294, 985,
1096, 1238, 1597
Hamlet and Oedipus (Jones), 723-724
Hampstead Clinic/War Nurseries, 281, 619,
697, 724
Burlingham-Tiffany and, 236
child analysis and, 1732
Friedlander-Frankl and, 646
Hellman Noach and, 733
Hietzing Schule and, 745
Hoffer and, 752
Ross and, 1516
Sandler and, 1533
Handling, 724-725, 843
Hands of the Living God, The (Blackett-
Milner), 190
Hann, Fanny, 765
Hanna Perkins Center for Child
Development, 908
Hanold, Norbert, 103
Hansen, Erik Bjerg, 391
Hansen, Finn, 1158
Happel, Clara, 675, 725-726
Hard science, 726-727
See also Scientific nature of psychoanalysis
Hargreaves, Ronald, 1458, 1728
Harnack, Arvid, 1506
Harnik, Jen6, 166, 390, 765, 910
Harris, Martha, 818, 880, 1728, 1732
Hart, Bernard, 696, 989
Hartenberg, Paul, 1136
Hartmann, Eduard von, 1268, 1349, 1683
Hartmann, Heinz, 727-728, 1548
on adaptation, 22, 475, 488
Bak and, 147
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
on character, 273
on childhood, 281
on defenses, 375, 377
definition of psychoanalysis and, 1364
on desexualization, 399
Dolto-Marette and, 427
on ego, 466, 468, 477, 486
on ego autonomy, 466, 473-474
on ego functions, 478, 488
on ego interests, 484
on ego-libido/object-libido, 486
ego psychology and, 466, 475, 476, 477,
727, 728, 1576
Favez and, 560
French psychoanalysis and, 608
Freud, Anna and, 619
Greenacre and, 702
Hogarth Press and, 753
on id, 779
on identification, 790
on internal/external reality, 848
Isakower and, 874
Jacobson and, 883
Japanese psychoanalysis and, 888, 921-922
Kris and, 925
Lampl-de Groot and, 938
Lehrinstitut der Wiener
psychoanalytischen Vereinigung and, 959
on libido, 969
on metapsychology, 1049
Nacht and, 1101
on neurotic defenses, 1142
on neutrality, 1144
New York Psychoanalytic Institute/Society
and, 1148
on object, 1171
Psyche and, 1351
Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, The and,
492, 728, 1381
psychology and psychoanalysis and, 1398
on psychosexual development, 1407
Rado and, 727, 1441
Schilder and, 1538
Second World War and, 1557
on self, 1567, 1579
on self-image, 1571
on self-representation, 1578
Société psychanalytique de Paris and, 1625
on stages, 1652
on structural theories, 1667
structuralism and, 1669
U.S. psychoanalysis and, 1825
Wagner-Jauregg and, 1846
Wiener psychoanalytische Vereinigung
and, 1857
See also Ego psychology
Hartocollis, Pierre, 701
Harzallah, Khalifa, 1155
Hassoun, Jacques, 1156
“Hate in the Counter-Transference”
(Winnicott), 1782
Hatred, 728-729
environment and, 1862
links of, 995-996
narcissism of minor differences and, 1109
ofs elf, 41, 1126, 1570-1571, 1588
transference and, 1781-1782
“Why War?” on, 1856
Hattingberg, Hans von, 1011, 1505
Haunting Melody, The: Psychoanalytic
Experiences in Life and Music (Reik), 1088
Hautler, Adolf, 1091
Haynal, André, 1701
H.D.. See Doolittle-aldington, Hilda
Head, Henry, 1538
Head banging, 1573
Hegel, Georg W. F.
on alienation, 43
Althusser and, 53
Austrian psychoanalysis and, 134
Breton and, 224
on civilization, 298
constructions and, 335, 337
Lacan and, 1270-1271
monism and, 1070
on otherness, 1214, 1271
on passion, 1243
on phenomenology, 1266
pleasure in thinking and, 1289
on recognition, 53
on self-consciousness, 1569
surrealism and, 1695
on thought identity, 1749
on work of the negative, 1129
Heidegger, Martin
Binswanger and, 181
Brentano and, 222
Lacan and, 930, 1270, 1271
Marcuse and, 1013
on phenomenology, 1266, 1267
Psyché and, 1350
Schultz-Hencke and, 1547
Swiss psychoanalysis and, 1703
Heigl, Franz, 677
Heigl-Evers, Anneliese, 677
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
Heilborn, Hanna, 360, 992
Heimann, Paula, 729-730
Argentinian psychoanalysis and, 118
on change, 268
child analysis and, 698
Controversial Discussions and, 343,
344, 697 d
on counter-transference, 350, 1440
on dependence, 392
on empathy, 502
German psychoanalysis and, 1060
Klein and, 510
on paranoid position, 1231
Heine, Heinrich, 434, 673, 686, 891, 899
Heinrich-Schultz, Johannes, 1131
Heinroth, J. C. H., 1407
Heisenberg, Werner, 401
Held, René, 730-732
Congres des psychanalystes de langue
francaise des pays romans and, 331
French psychoanalysis and, 609
Male and, 1004
Nacht and, 731, 1102
Société psychanalytique de Paris and,
731, 1626
Hellens, Franz, 157, 423
Heller, Hugo, 351, 404, 732-733, 860
Heller, Maggie, 732
Heller, Peter, 745
Heller, Theodore, 827
Hellman Noach, Ilse, 131, 697, 733-734
Hellmuth, Hermine von. See Hug-
Hellmuth-Hug von Hugenstein, Hermine
Helmholtz, Hermann von, 322, 866
Helplessness, 2, 734-735
act/action and, 9
annihilation anxieties and, 90
dependence and, 392
experience of satisfaction and, 536
infant development and, 814
narcissistic injury and, 1112
phobias and, 1275
racism/anti-Semitism and, 1439
trauma and, 1801
Henderson, A. F., 1297
Henderson, Joseph L., 1581
Henderson Hospital, 700
Hendrick, Ives, 207, 1849
Henny, Rene, 1701
Henri, Claude, 988
Henri-Rousselle Hospital, 1528
Henry, Michel, 1271
Henry, Portrait of a Serial Killer (film), 292
2109
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Herbart, Johann Friedrich
Andersson on, 82
Brentano and, 222, 223
Kantianism and, 905
psychology and psychoanalysis and, 1397
on repression, 1482
Swedish psychoanalysis and, 1699
Hercules, 299
Herder, Johann, 686
“Heredity and the Etiology of the Neuroses”
(Freud), 287, 412, 653, 735-736, 1041,
1178, 1363
Heredity of acquired characters, 736-737
Hermann, Imre, 737-738
on anti-Semitism, 291, 1438
Bak and, 146, 147
on clinging instinct, 307, 737, 1438
Hungarian psychoanalysis and, 765
Hungarian School and, 763, 764
Kovacs-Prosznitz and, 923
Nazi Germany and, 766
on shame, 1599
Szondi and, 1721
Hermanns, Ludger, 679
Hermeneutics, 68, 738, 863
Hernandez, Max, 1254
Hero myth, 1094-1095
Heroic identification, 738-739, 790, 1095
Heroic self, 739-741
Herold, Karl Maria, 1734
Herrmann, Fabio Antonio, 566
Hersant, Yves, 1628
Hertz, Dan, 877
Herzl, Theodor, 1503
Hesitation, doubt and, 435
Hesnard, Angélo Louis Marie, 741-743
Claude and, 305
Congres des psychanalystes de langue
francaise des pays romans and, 329
Disque vert, Le and, 423, 424
on ethics, 525
Evolution psychiatrique, L’ and, 532,
742, 933
Favreau and, 561
French psychoanalysis and, 607-608
Lacan and, 38
North African psychoanalysis and, 1155
Psychanalyse des névroses et des psychoses,
La, 134, 607, 741, 1345, 1360-1362, 1459
Psyché and, 742, 1350
Revue francaise de psychanalyse and, 200,
742, 934, 1497, 1498
2110
Société psychanalytique de Paris and, 742,
1619, 1623, 1624
Hesse, Hermann, 50, 674
Heteroglossia, 1643
Heterosexuality, 743-744, 1660
Heuyer, Georges, 744-745
analytic psychodrama and, 78
Berge and, 161
Borel and, 204
Clark-Williams and, 303
Diatkine and, 410
Favez and, 560
Favez-Boutonier and, 559
on infantile psychosis, 824
on infantile schizophrenia, 827
Lacan and, 36, 929
Lebovici and, 954
Male and, 1004
Morgenstern-Kabatschnik and, 1073
Psyché and, 1350
Smirnoff and, 1617
Sokolnicka and, 304-305, 744
Sokolnicka-Kutner and, 1634
Heyer, Carl Gustav, 1011
Hidden Symbolism of Alchemy and the
Occult Arts (Silberer), 71
Hiding/showing, 1067
Hietzing Schule, 236, 510, 745, 1513
Higgins, John W., 413
Hilbert, David, 1378, 1550
Hilferding-H6nigsberg, Margarethe, 746
Hilflosigkeit. See Helplessness
Hill, Lewis, 1849
Hillman, James, 115
Hinojosa, Ruben, 1052
Hinshelwood, Robert D., 396, 1339
Hirschfeld, Elfriede, 746-748
Hirschfeld, Magnus, 674, 757, 1799
Hirschmiiller, Albrecht, 89, 1223
Hirt, Jean-Michel, 1156
Historical point of view, 1049
Historical reality, 748-749
constructions and, 335, 338
developmental processes and, 1330
fantasy and, 552
mnemic traces and, 1064
Historical truth, 749-750
amnesia and, 65
anticipatory ideas and, 96
constructions and, 338
“Dora” case and, 604
remembering and, 1468
History, 750-751
Certeau on, 266-267
id and, 778
mythology and, 1096
psychohistory, 511, 986, 1293, 1393-1394
History and Psychoanalysis: An Inquiry into
the Possibilities and Limits of Psychohistory
(Friedlander), 750
History of psychoanalysis, 613, 1058
See also “On the History of the
Psychoanalytic Movement”
History of Psychoanalysis in Canada
(Parkin), 244
Hitchcock, Alfred, 293, 294, 1365
Hitler, Adolf. See Nazi Germany
Hitschmann, Eduard, 751-752
on Bergler, 163
Finnish psychoanalysis and, 584
Foulkes and, 601
Isakower and, 874
Jahrbuch der Psychoanalyse and, 884
Lehrinstitut der Wiener
psychoanalytischen Vereinigung, 959
photograph of, II:pl.7
Pyschoanalytische Bewegung, Die and, 1387
Sterba and, 1659
. Swedish psychoanalysis and, 1698
Vienna Ambulatorium and, 568, 958, 959
Wiener psychoanalytische Vereinigung
and, 1857
Winterstein and, 1863
Hitzig, Eduard, 235
Hobaica, W., 1832
Hoch, August, 227, 1547
Hofer, Johannes, 1158
Hoff, Hans, 133
Hoffer, Alex, 1144
Hoffer, Hedwig, 1533
Hoffer, Willi, 752-753
Controversial Discussions and, 343, 697
German psychoanalysis and, 1060
Gesammelte Werke and, 680
Hartmann and, 727
International Journal of Psychoanalysis, The
and, 853
Lehrinstitut der Wiener
psychoanalytischen Vereinigung and, 959
Mahler-Schénberger and, 1001
photograph of, II:pl.8
Sandler and, 1533
Sterba-Radanowicz-Hartmann and, 1658
Vienna Ambulatorium and, 959
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Wiener psychoanalytische Vereinigung
and, 1857
Hoffer-Schaxel, Hedwig, 959
Hoffman, Ernst, 157, 450, 956
Hoffmann, E. T. A., 1393, 1815
Hofstein, Francis, 1552
Hogarth Press, 698, 753-754
Holden, Jeni, 1297
Holder, Alex, 1533
Holding, 754-755
dead mother complex and, 369
frame of psychoanalytic treatment and, 607
integration and, 843
true self and, 1582
Holistic societies, 810
Holland. See Dutch psychoanalysis
Holland, Norman, 987, 1597
Hollitscher-Freud, Mathilde, 755-756
Hollos, Istvan, 347, 580, 756, 765-766, 766
Holman, Portia, 177
Holmes, Gordon, 1414
Holmstrém, Reijo, 584
Holocaust
alienation and, 44
anti-Semitism and, 1437
Bettelheim on, 172, 173, 503
Bick and, 177
cultural transmission and, 358
failure neurosis and, 544
Happel and, 726
Israeli psychoanalysis and, 877
Judaism and, 900
See also Anti-Semitism; Nazi Germany
Holstijn, Westerman, 1133
Holt, E. B., 1860
Holt, Robert R., 1517
Holter, Peter Andreas, 1157, 1158
Holzman, Phillip, 8
Home for the Heart, A (Bettelheim), 173
Home of the Brave (film), 292
Homer, 1348
“Homme au magnétophone, L”, 612
Homme escave de son infériorité, L’
(Gdier), 1182
Homosexuality, 756-758
abstinence and, 8
activity/passivity and, 17
alcoholism and, 41
altruism and, 54
anal eroticism and, 514
anality and, 72
Boehm on, 199
delusions and, 386
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Illness on, 993
erotomania and, 521—522
female sexuality and, 365, 571
fetishism and, 583
Freud on, 757, 758, 1389-1391
friendship and, 647
identification and, 787
libido and, 969
Morselli on, 1076
narcissism and, 1190
Nazi Germany and, 1438
Other and, 1213
paranoia and, 757, 1227, 1229-1230, 1231
perversion and, 1255
phallic mother and, 1261, 1264
phobias and, 1274
pregnancy fantasy and, 1303
projection and, 1335
puberty and, 1420
Rank on, 1445
Sadger on, 1524-1525
Saussure, Raymond de on, 1536
Schreber case and, 757, 1227, 1229, 1230,
123251377, 1545515465 1587
secondary narcissism and, 1111
social feeling and, 1618
Stoller on, 1660
sublimation and, 1679
suicide and, 1686, 1687
symptom-formation and, 1717
term origins, 743, 756-757
transsexualism and, 1799
Weininger on, 1588
Honegger, Johann Jakob, 1702
“Honte comme angoisse sociale, La”
(Hermann), 1599
Hopkins, Juliet, 1732
Hopkins, Pryns, 1497
Horkheimer, Max, 31
Foulkes and, 601
German psychoanalysis and, 675, 677, 940
Institute for Social Research and,
1013, 1602
Sigmund Freud Institute and, 1602
Horn, M. W., 300
Horney-Danielson, Karen, 758-760
Abraham, Karl and, 5
Adorno and, 31
American Psychoanalytic Institute and, 58
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
Association for the Advancement of
Psychoanalysis and, 1558, 1644,
1745-1746
Australian psychoanalysis and, 132
Berliner Psychoanalytische Poliklinik, 675
Berliner Psychoanalytisches Institut
and, 166 ;
Brazilian psychoanalysis and, 215
Croatian psychoanalysis and, 1884
on culture, 58, 59, 759, 1824
definition of psychoanalysis and, 1364
Deutsch-Rosenbach and, 405
on female sexuality, 365, 571, 574,
576, 1186
on femininity, 59
Fromm and, 651
German psychoanalysis and, 674
Heimann and, 730
on memory, 1043
neopsychoanalysis and, 1131
Neurosis and Human Growth, 759,
1140-1141
on penis envy, 1246
photograph of, II:pl.9
Psyche and, 1350
Sachs and, 1523
Schmideberg-Klein and, 1542
Swedish psychoanalysis and, 1699
Thompson and, 1745
U.S. psychoanalysis and, 1824
Horowitz, Milton, 989
Hospital (consultation) psychiatry, 208
Hospitalism, 70, 397, 760, 760-761, 1641
“Hospitalism” (Spitz), 70
Houzel, Didier
on attention, 127, 128
Bick and, 178
child analysis and, 1731, 1783
on infant observation, 817-818
on infantile psychosis, 825
Journal de la psychanalyse de T enfant
and, 896
on night terrors, 1149
Portuguese psychoanalysis and, 1297
on sleep/wakefulness, 1615
on somnambulism, 1636
How Does Analysis Cure? (Kohut), 920,
1574, 1810
Hsueh Jen Keut, 285
Hubback, C. J. M., 861
Hufeland, C. W., 412
Hug-Hellmuth-Hug von Hugenstein,
Hermine, 761-762
2111
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
child analysis and, 279, 283, 761—762, 1731
definition of psychoanalysis and, 1363
Nein and, 915
Vienna Ambulatorium and, 959
Young Girl's Diary, A, 761-762, 1883
Hughlings Jackson, John. See Jackson, John
Huglings
Huguenin, Gustav, 235
Human Mind, The (Menninger), 1045
Human Motives (Putnam), 1425
Human Relations, 1728
Humanism, 1668
Humanist psychology, 26, 615, 759
Humor, 762-763
creativity and, 352, 890
empathy and, 502
Freud’s Gestapo comment, 681-682
jokes, 325, 890-892, 1584-1585
repetition and, 1473
sense/nonsense and, 1584-1585
“Humor” (Freud), 50
“Humour et la folie” (Racamier), 1226
Hungarian psychoanalysis, 764—767
Ferenczi and, 580
Hollos and, 756
Kovacs-Prosznitz and, 923
Roheim and, 765, 766, 1510
See also Hungarian School
Hungarian Psychoanalytic Association, 765,
766, 1441
Hungarian Psychoanalytic Society, 1661
Hungarian School, 146-147, 148, 700,
763-764, 766, 923
Hunger, 171, 483
Hunger orgasm, 91
Huo Datong, 287
Hupka, Joseph, 353
Huss, Magnus, 40
Husserl, Edmund
Binswanger and, 181
Brentano and, 222
on phenomenology, 1266, 1267
Sartre and, 1534
Schilder and, 1537
Schultz~Hencke and, 1547
on self-consciousness, 1569
Swedish psychoanalysis and, 1699
Swiss psychoanalysis and, 1703
Huston, John, 293, 611, 644, 1365
Huxley, Aldous, 44
Hypercathexis, 260, 767
attention and, 127
2112
conscious processes and, 332
perception-consciousness system and, 1248
protective shield and, 1340
trauma and, 1801
word-presentations and, 1873
Hypersyntony, 1006
Hypnagogic processes, 71 R
Hypnoid states, 768
Hypnoidia, 1671
Hypnosis, 768-770
alcoholism and, 40
alienation and, 44
animal magnetism and, 84-85
“Anna O.” case, 88, 225, 258, 768
autosuggestion and, 144
Bernheim on, 170
Bose on, 206
cathartic method and, 258
Charcot on, 275
Chertok and, 277
cinema and, 292, 294
Congrés international de 'hypnotisme
experimental et scientifique and, 331-332
cure and, 358
“Emmy von N.” case and, 499, 500
German romanticism and, 673
hypnoid states and, 768
Liebeault and, 972-973
lifting of repression and, 1486
“Lucy R.” case and, 997-998
negative hallucination and, 1124
Putnam on, 1424
splitting and, 1645
sudden involuntary ideas and, 1683
superego and, 1690
surrealism and, 1695
trance and, 1774
working-through and, 1879
“Hypnosis” (Freud), 23
Hypnotism, suggestion and, 1684
Hypochondria, 770-771
as actual neurosis, 19
anal eroticism and, 514
body image and, 198
breast as good/bad object and, 219
erotogenic zones and, 519
erotogenicity and, 521
Freud and, 640
Hypocritical dreams, 771-772
Hyppolite, Jean, 315, 610, 1123
Hysteria, 771-772
INTERNATIONAL DicTioNaRY oF PsYCHOANALYSIS
activity/passivity and, 16
actual vs. defense neuroses and, 20
alcoholism and, 40
“Anna OQ.” case, 87-89, 225, 1223-1224
anorexia nervosa and, 91
autoplastic behavior and, 144
character and, 271
Charcot on, 772, 1529
complexes and, 318-319
as developmental disorder, 408
displacement and, 421
“Elisabeth von R.” case and, 495-496
fantasy and, 550
feminist views of psychoanalysis and, 578
flight into illness and, 590
forgetting and, 596
innervation and, 837
Janet on, 886
Jung on, 1396
lies and, 971
lifting of amnesia and, 976, 977
memory and, 1041—1042, 1043
mnemic symbols and, 1062
mmemic traces and, 1063
neuroses and, 287
psychic reality and, 1356-1357
Regis on, 1459
reminiscences and, 1470
repression and, 1482
reversal into the opposite and, 1495
somatic compliance and, 1634—1635
splitting and, 1645
stammering and, 1653
stratification and, 1665
subconscious and, 1672
subject's desire and, 1678
trauma and, 1801
See also Conversion; “Dora” case:
Seduction theory
Hysterical conversion. See Conversion
“Hysterical Fate Neurosis” (Deutsch-
Rosenbach), 556-557
Hysterical paralysis, 773-774
“Hysterical Phantasies and their Relation to
Bisexuality” (Freud), $51, 839-840
|
I, 775-776
Aulagnier-Spairani on, 110-111, 130, 142,
775-776, 793, 1119, 1170
autohistorization and, 142
identificatory project and, 793
integration and, 843
es
a
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
need for causality and, 1119
object and, 1170
I Ching, 1720
I Never Promised You a Rose Garden
(Greenberg), 652
I-persona, 238
IAAP. See International Association for
Analytical Psychology
Ich, das. See Ego; Self
“Tch als Subjekt und Objekt im
Narzissismus, Das” (Federn), 568
Ich-Psychologie und Anpassungsproblem
(Hartmann), 727
Ich und das Denken, Das (Hermann), 737
Id, 776-780
alpha function and, 51
archaic and, 111-112
Aulagnier-Spairani on, 110
cathexis and, 260
contradiction and, 341
death instinct and, 371-372
ego and, 464, 466, 477
Ego and the Id, The on, 470-471
ego autonomy and, 473
ethics and, 525
identification and, 789
object relations theory on, 1177
subject of the unconscious and, 1675
unconscious and, 1819
work of the negative and, 1129
See also Structural theory
Id and the Regulatory Principles of
Psychoanalysis, The (Schur), 1549
Id psychology, 479
Idea/representation. See Representation
Ideal ego, 481, 577, 1036, 1037, 1191
See also Ego ideal
Ideal object, 545
Idealization, 783-784
alcoholism and, 41
alienation and, 44
anagogical interpretation and, 71
animus/anima and, 87
borderline conditions and, 202
desexualization and, 399
ego ideal and, 480
family romance and, 548
Horney-Danielson on, 759
passion and, 1243
sublimation and, 1679
Idealized parental imago, 52, 184-185,
784, 1810
Idealizing transference, 542, 785, 1116, 1580
Ideational representation, 785-786,
841, 989
Ideational representatives, 786-787,
841, 1433
Idee. See Representation
Idees fixes, 385, 1178
Identification, 787-791
adolescence and, 26, 29
alcoholism and, 41
allergies and, 47, 48
Althusser on, 53
amae and, 56
animistic thought and, 86
“as if” personality and, 122
asthma and, 124
Aulagnier-Spairani on, 110, 111
autohistorization and, 142
bisexuality and, 187
body image and, 197
Bornstein on, 205
breastfeeding and, 221
Burrow on, 237
character and, 269, 272
conflict and, 326
counter-identification and, 348
criminology and, 354
critical theory and, 31
cultural transmission and, 357
Death instinct and, 640, 788
desexualization and, 399
ego and, 462, 464, 465
ego ideal and, 480
empathy and, 502
fatherhood and, 558
fetishism and, 583
heroic, 738-739, 790
hysteria and, 773
identificatory project, 790, 793-794
identity preservation principle and, 1324
imaginary and, 799
imaginary/symbolic, 798-799
literature and, 985
mastery and, 1024
melancholia and, 1082, 1083
midlife crisis and, 1055
mirror stage and, 775, 790, 1107
narcissism and, 788, 1105, 1107, 1111
need for causality and, 1119
object relations theory on, 1177
Oedipus complex and, 1185
operational thinking and, 1198
oral eroticism and, 516
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
perversion and, 1257-1258
primary, 788-789, 790, 815
projection and, 1336
psychological tests and, 1395
puerperal psychoses and, 1422
superego and, 471, 1691
unary trait and, 1814
work of the negative and, 1129
See also Identification with the aggressor;
Primary Identification; Projective
identification
Identification (Lacan), 798, 1761, 1814
Identification fantasies, 791-792
Identification with the aggressor, 54,
792-793, 869, 870
Identificatory project, 790, 793-794
Identified patient, 1720
“Identiteé et l’identification chez les
adolescents, L” (Kestemberg-Hassin), 911
Identity, 794-795
ego and, 481-482, 511, 794
identity preservation principle, 1323-1324
thought identity, 1748-1749
Identity and the Life Cycle (Erikson), 511
Identity preservation principle, 1323-1324
Ideologia e Idealizacion (Langer), 941
Ideology, 795-796
“Ideology and Ideological State
Apparatuses” (Althusser), 53
IFPS. See International Federation of
Psychoanalytic Societies
Igert, Maurice, 1154
Ignotus, Hugo, 580, 765
Tkonen, Pentti, 584
Ilan, Eliezer, 877
“TiIness of Mourning and the Fantasy of the
Exquisite Corpse, The” (Torok), 850, 1765
Illusion, 796-798, 826
“TIlusion et la désillusion dans la cure
psychanalytique, L” (Favez), 561
Illusion of a Future, The (Pfister), 660, 1260
Im Dickicht der Sprache (Storfer), 1662
Image and Appearance of the Human Body,
The (Schilder), 1538
Image inconsciente du corps, L’ (Dolto-
Marette), 1851
Imaginary, the, 799-800
death instinct and, 372
ethology and, 528
Ferenczi and, 1739
knot and, 916-917
Land R schemas and, 927
Real and, 1453
subject and, 1673
2113
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
See also Borromean knot
Imaginary father, 1452
Imaginary identification/symbolic
identification, 798-799
Imagination, 414
Imago, II:pl.10, 800-801, 850, 1028, 1664
See also Idealized parental imago
Imago Publishing Company, 680,
801-802, 997
Imago. Zeitschrift fiir die Anwendung der
Psychoanalyse auf die
Geisteswissenschaften, 800, 802-803
American Imago and, 60
applied psychoanalysis and, 107-108
Heller and, 732
Hug-Hellmuth and, 761
Internationale Zeitschrift fiir Psychoanalyse
and, 860
Internationaler Psychoanalytischer Verlag
and, 802-803, 861
Kris and, 924, 1845
Rank and, 107, 800, 802, 1445
Sachs and, 1523
Waelder and, 1845
Imbasciati, Antonio, 880
Imbeault, Jean, 245
“Impatience of Hamlet, The” (Sharpe), 723
“Imperceptible Obvious, The”
(Wilson), 1497
“Importance of the Unconscious in
Psychopathology, The” (Jung), 317
Imposter, 122, 803
Impotence, 342
Impulse, 143, 1677
Impulsive actions, phobias of, 1272-1273
In der Schule bei Freud (Andreas-
Salomé), 83
Inactuel, LV’, 124
Inanalysé, L’, 241
Incest, 803-804
adolescence and, 29
anti-Semitism and, 1437
castration complex and, 252, 1676
compulsion and, 322
counter-Oedipus and, 349
fantasy and, 552
frame of psychoanalytic treatment and,
606, 607
impotence and, 342
Jung on, 1400
Lacan on, 526, 1676
lies and, 971
myth of origins and, 1092
prohibition of, 1332
2114
sexuation and, 1595
structural theories and, 1667
suicide and, 1687
superego and, 1594, 1690, 1691
symbolic and, 1710
wish for a baby and, 1864
See also Myth of origins
Inceste et Tincestuel, L’ (Racamier), 1436
Incompleteness, 804-806
Inconscient, L’, 129-130, 528-529, 611,
806-807, 1835
Inconscient des modernes, L’ (Vaysse), 1271
“Inconscient et la défense psychologique de
Pindividu” (Morichau-Beauchant),
196, 1075
Inconscient et Realité (Dayan), 848
Incorporation
Abraham, Karl on, 1105
Abraham, Nicolas on, 7
allergies and, 48
dependence and, 392
identification and, 787
internal objects and, 849
introjection and, 869
melancholia and, 1038
narcissism and, 1105
oral-sadistic stage and, 1203
orality and, 1202
secrets and, 1560
sucking and, 1682
Torok on, 1765
on ulcerative colitis, 1814
“vagina dentata” fantasy and, 1831
Independent Group. See British Psycho-
Analytical Society
Index Psycho-Analyticus (Rickman), 1502
Indian psychoanalysis, 206, 807-808
Indian Psychoanalytic Society, 206, 807, 808
Indications/contraindications for
psychoanalysis, 808-810
Individual, 467, 810-811
Individual and His Society, The (Kardiner),
906, 907
“Individual and Mass Behavior in Extreme
Situations” (Bettelheim), 172
Individual psychology, 25-26
See also Adler, Alfred
Individuation, 811-812
adolescence and, 27
Blos on, 197
identity and, 794
individual and, 811
infant development and, 814-815
Mahler-Schonberger on, 1002
paranoia and, 1228
self and, 1581
self-consciousness and, 1569-1570
Shakespeare and, 1598
transference and, 1779
true/false self and, 1582
weaning and, 1852
Inequality of Human Races, The
(Gobineau), 1437
Inertia principle, 1322-1323, 1324-1325
Infancy
adolescence and, 28, 29
amae and, 56
amnesia and, 65
autism in, 71, 136
dependence and, 392
early interactions and, 453-454
helplessness and, 734, 814
projective identification in, 51
See also Infans stage; Infant development;
Infant observation; Infantile sexuality;
Mother-infant bond
Infans stage, 812-814
Infant development, 814-816
See also Infantile sexuality; Libidinal
development
* Infant observation, 281, 815, 816-819
adhesive identification and, 24
Bick on, 177, 178, 816, 817, 818-819
developmental processes and, 1330
“Infant Observation: Its Relevance to
Psychoanalytic Training” (Freud), 818
Infante, José Antonio, 284, 285
Infanticide, 39
Infantile, the, 830-831
Infantile amnesia, 64, 592, 819-820
Infantile anxiety, 1646
Infantile creativity, 190
Infantile depression, 70-71, 236, 368-369
“Infantile Genital Organization, The”
(Freud)
on castration complex, 252
on disavowal, 415-416
on female sexuality, 365
on genital stage, 672
on Oedipus complex, 1184-1185
on organization, 1208
on pregenital organization, 1301-1302
Infantile neurosis, 75-76, 820-822, 1140
Infantile omnipotence, 822-823, 1106, 1189
Infantile psychosis, 823-827, 827-828
Infantile schizophrenia, 823, 827-828
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Infantile sexual curiosity, 829-830, 1093,
1195, 1262, 1590
Infantile sexuality, 1405-1407, 1593,
1752-1755
activity/passivity and, 17
anaclisis and, 69
autoeroticism and, 141
biological bedrock and, 182
breastfeeding and, 221
childhood and, 280
constitution and, 334
controversy about, 1751-1752
criticisms of psychoanalysis and, 639
curiosity and, 829, 1093, 1195, 1262, 1590
deferred action and, 380
drives and, 445
Eckstein on, 455
Eros and, 512
erotogenic zones and, 519, 520
exhibitionism and, 535
feces and, 564
fixation and, 588
Freud-Jung split and, 1192
infantile amnesia and, 819, 820
infantile and, 830
“Little Hans” case and, 75
masturbation and, 1026-1027
ontogenesis and, 1197
organ pleasure and, 1206
orgasm and, 1209
partial drives and, 1240
pleasure ego/reality ego and, 1288
primary object and, 1753-1754
seduction and, 221
seduction scenes and, 1565—1566
seduction theory and, 1564, 1592
sexual drives and, 1589
superego and, 1690
Weininger on, 1588
“Wolf Man” case and, 649
See also Libidinal development
Infants Without Families (Anna Freud and
Burlingham-Tiffany), 236, 619
Infatuation, 994
Inferiority feelings, 323, 550, 831-832, 1246
“Influence of Oral Erotism on Character
Formation, The” (Abraham), 1202
Influencing machines, 1193-1194
Informed Heart, The; Autonomy in a Mass
Age (Bettelheim), 172, 173
Inhibition, 832-833
friendship and, 646, 647
jokes and, 890
knowledge instinct and, 918
orgasm and, 1209, 1210
sublimation and, 1679
symptoms and, 1715
thought and, 1747-1748
Inhibitions, Symptoms, and Anxiety (Freud),
833-834
on abandonment, 2
on anticathexes, 94
on anxiety, 99, 100, 101, 102, 1137, 1604
on automatism, 143
on castration complex, 251, 253, 254
on cathexis, 260
on change, 267
collective psychology and, 311
on Darwinism, 366
on defense mechanisms, 377
on defenses, 375
on derivatives of the repressed, 1481
on ego, 466
ego psychology and, 486
on erotogenicity and, 521
on fear, 563
on helplessness, 1439
on inhibition, 832
on isolation, 876
on libido, 969
on object loss, 994
on obsessional neurosis, 1180
on pain, 1219
on phobias, 1276
on protective shield, 1340
publication of, 641, 833
Rank and, 1803
on representation, 782
on repression, 1480
on resistance, 1489
on rituals, 1504-1505
on scotomization, 1554
on substitute formations, 1680, 1681
on symptom-formation, 1716
on undoing, 1822
Inhibitory id, 495
Initial interview, 834-836
“Tner World in Ibsen’s ‘Master-Builder’,
The” (Riviere-Hodgson Verrall),
1507-1508
Innervation, 836
Innocence of Dreams, The (Rycroft), 1521
Inside/outside. See Internal/external reality
Insight, 836-837, 871
Insight and Responsibility (Erikson), 511
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
Instinct theory
Adorno and, 31
dualism and, 449, 659
erotogenicity and, 521
sexualization and, 398, 399
See also Death instinct; Life instinct
Instincts, 837-838 .
actual vs. defense neuroses and, 20
alcoholism and, 41
amae and, 56
anaclisis and, 69
anaclitic depression and, 70
anthropology and, 93
anxiety and, 99
archetypes and, 115
binding/unbinding of, 179-180
Chinese psychoanalysis and, 286
ideational representative and, 786
impulse and, 839-840
incompleteness and, 805
mastery and, 917, 1025
psychogenic blindness and, 1392
See also Death instinct (Thanatos); Drives;
Life instinct (Eros)
“Instincts and Their Vicissitudes” (Freud),
838-839
on activity/passivity, 16, 17
on adaptation, 22
on binding/unbinding, 179
on death instinct, 371
on drives, 446, 838, 1674
on fantasy, 552
on hatred, 728-729
on instinctual impulse, 840
on introjection, 869
on love, 995
on masochism, 1021, 1315
on mastery, 1025
on narcissism, 1105
on object, 1168
on organ pleasure, 1206
on primary need, 1316
on projection, 1335
on psychic representative, 1358
on psychosomatic limit, 1410
on purified-pleasure-ego, 1423
on quantitative/qualitative
dimensions, 1428
on reaction-formations, 1449
on reversal into the opposite, 1495
on sadism, 355, 1525-1526
on sadomasochism, 1527
2115
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
on self, 1579
on self-preservation, 1575
on splitting, 1287
on subject of the unconscious, 1675
on turning around, 1495, 1806, 1807
on violence instinct, 1838
on voyeurism, 1843
on working over, 1878
Instinctual impulse, 839-840
Instinctual representative, 786, 841, 1358
Institut Claparéde, 841-842
Institut de psychanalyse de Paris, 608, 609,
1623-1631
CCTP and, 264
Diatkine and, 410-411
Favez-Boutonier and, 560
Held and, 731
Lebovici and, 955
Male and, 1004
Nacht and, 609, 955, 1004
Racamier and, 1435
Institut de psychosomatique (IPSO), 610,
611, 1016
Institut fir psychogene Erkrankungen, 165
Institut fiir Sozialforschung. See Institute
for Social Research
Institut Jean-Jacques Rousseau, 302,
1544, 1556
Institut Max-Kassowitz, 842-843
Institute for Psychopathology and
Psychotherapy, 1547
Institute for Social Research, 1013,
1044, 1602
Institute of Psychoanalysis and
Psychotherapy, 1292
Institute of the Freudian Field, 1519
Instituto brasiliero de psicandlise, 214
Insurance, 679, 1069
Integration, 843-844
Intellect. See Pleasure in thinking
Intellectual Growth in Young Children
(Isaacs), 873
Intellectualization, 67-68, 844-845,
862, 1448
Intensity, 324-325
Intentionality, 1478, 1482, 1486
Interactions of psychoanalysis. See
Multidisciplinary interactions
Interassociatif européen de
psychanalyse, 1084
Intergenerational phenomena, 357-358,
791, 845-847
Internal/external reality, 847-849
adolescence and, 29, 30
2116
Adorno on, 31
alcoholism and, 41
danger and, 364
ego boundaries and, 474
fantasy and, 1451
historical reality and, 748-749
Isakower phenomenon and, 875
“Metapsychological Supplement to the
Theory of Dreams, A” on, 1048
projection and, 1334, 1335-1336
psychic reality and, 1357
reality testing and, 1450-1451
skin-ego and, 1613
transitional phenomena and, 1794, 1795
Internal objects, 849-851, 1171
blank psychoses and, 191
borderline conditions and, 202
concepts and, 323-324
depressive position and, 395-396
emotions and, 501
introjection and, 870
Klein on, 219, 395-396
maternal and, 1027
object relations theory on, 1176
paranoid position and, 1231
paranoid-schizoid position and, 1233
pregnancy fantasy and, 1302
splitting of, 1642
transference displacement and, 423
trauma and, 1801
Internal saboteur. See Antilibidinal ego
Internalization. See Externalizationinternalization
International Association for Analytic
Psychology, 217
International Association for Analytical
Psychology (IAAP), 80
International Association of the History of
Psychoanalysis (Association
Internationale (histoire de la
psychanalyse), 507, 613, 851-852
International Classification of Diseases
(WHO), 828, 1138, 1276
International Federation of Psychoanalytic
Societies (IFPS), 677, 852-853, 1131
Brazilian psychoanalysis and, 217
International Federation of Working
Groups on Depth Psychology, 134
International Forum of Psychoanalysis,
852-853
International Journal of Offender Therapy
and Comparative Criminology, The, 1543
International Journal of Psychoanalysis, The,
229, 698, 853-854
on analysand, 75
Brierley and, 226
Fliigel and, 593
Hartmann and, 727
Internationale Zeitschrift fiir Psychoanalyse
and, 860, 861 ;
Internationaler Psychoanalytischer Verlag
and, 861 :
Jones and, 698, 853, 860, 893
Khan and, 913
Riviere-Hodgson Verrall and, 229,
593, 1507
Sandler and, 853, 1533
on Secrets of a Soul, The, 1563
International Psychoanalytic Press. See
Internationaler Psychoanalytischer Verlag
International Psychoanalytical Association
(IPA), 854-860
Abraham presidency, 5
Adler founding, 25
American Psychoanalytic Association and,
227-228, 856, 857, 858-859, 1531, 1644,
1824, 1825-1826
Argentinian psychoanalysis and, 117, 118,
241, 248
Association psychanalytique de France and,
122, 123
_ Australian psychoanalysis and, 131-132
Austrian psychoanalysis and, 132, 133, 134,
135-136, 1858
Belgian psychoanalysis and, 157
Berge and, 162
Berliner Psychoanalytisches Institut
and, 166
Brazilian psychoanalysis and, 214, 216, 858,
955, 1012
British Psycho-Analytical Society and, 230
Canadian psychoanalysis and, 241,
242, 243
Chilean psychoanalysis and, 284
Chinese psychoanalysis and, 287
Colombian psychoanalysis and, 315
Confrontation and, 327
Congres des psychanalystes de langue
fran¢aise des pays romans and, 330
Czech psychoanalysis and, 361
Danish psychoanalysis and, 390-391
Deutsche psychoanalytische Vereinigung
and, 1085
Dolto-Marette and, 162, 327
Dutch psychoanalysis and,
1132-1133, 1200
Eissler-Selke and, 492
Eitingon and, 492 |
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
European Psychoanalytical Federation and,
529, 530
Federacion psicoanalitica de América latina
and, 565, 566, 567
Fedida and, 569
Ferenczi and, 580
Finnish psychoanalysis and, 584
Fliigel and, 593
founding of, 61, 580
French psychoanalysis and, 608, 609,
610, 613
French psychoanalytic establishment split
(1953) and, 609, 1251
French psychoanalytic establishment split
(1964) and, 610-611, 957
Fromm and, 651
Gaddini and, 663
Garma and, 665
German psychoanalysis and, 674, 675, 677,
856, 1060
Greek psychoanalysis and, 701
Hartmann and, 728
Hesnard and, 742
Hungarian psychoanalysis and, 765, 766
Indian psychoanalysis and, 807
International Federation of Psychoanalytic
Societies and, 852
International Journal of Psychoanalysis, The
and, 853
Internationale Zeitschrift fiir Psychoanalyse
and, 860
Internationaler Psychoanalytischer Verlag
and, 861, 862
Israeli psychoanalysis and, 876, 877
Italian psychoanalysis and, 879, 881, 1854
Japanese psychoanalysis and, 888
Jones and, 893
Jung and, 79, 854, 902
Kemper, Werner Walther and, 910
Kohut and, 919
Korean psychoanalysis and, 921
Lampl-de Groot and, 938
lay analysis and, 639, 854-855, 857,
858-859
Lebovici and, 955
Leclaire and, 957
Limentani and, 858, 978
Loewenstein and, 988, 989
Los Angeles Psychoanalytic Society/
Institute and, 993
Mexican psychoanalysis and, 1051
Nacht and, 1102
New York Freudian Society and, 1146-1147
North African psychoanalysis and, 1155
Norwegian psychoanalysis and, 1157
“On the History of the Psychoanalytic
Movement” on, 1192
Peruvian psychoanalysis and, 1254
Polish psychoanalysis and, 1292
Portuguese psychoanalysis and, 1296
psychoanalytic filiations and, 1373
psychoanalytic treatment and, 1729
Rank and, 854, 1445
Reich, Annie and, 1461
Reich, Wilhelm and, 1462
Revista de psicoandlisis and, 1496
Russian/Soviet psychoanalysis and, 1518,
1519, 1520
Sandler and, 1533
Saussure, Raymond de and, 1536
Secret Committee and, 854, 1561, 1562
Servadio and, 1586
Smirnoff and, 1617
Société frangaise de psychanalyse and, 560,
692, 1251, 1619
Société psychanalytique de Paris and,
1624, 1630
Spanish psychoanalysis and, 1637
Standard Edition and, 1558, 1663
supervised analysis and, 1692
Swedish psychoanalysis and, 1698
Swiss psychoanalysis and, 1549, 1620, 1700,
1701, 1702
training analysis and, 1769, 1770
Uruguayan psychoanalysis and, 1829
U.S. psychoanalysis and, 1558
Venezuelan psychoanalysis and, 1832
Wiener psychoanalytische Vereinigung
and, 1857
Zentralblatt fiir Psychoanalyse and, 1887
Zetzel-Rosenberg and, 1888
See also French psychoanalytic
establishment split (1964)
International Review of Psychoanalysis, 1533
International Sociological Association, 1632
International Training Commission (ITC),
855-856
International Working Group of
Psychoanalytic Societies, 134
Internationale Arztliche Gesellschaft fiir
Psychotherapie, 49
Internationale Foderation
psychoanalytischer Gesellschaften. See
International Federation of Psychoanalytic
Societies
Internationale Zeitschrift fiir arztliche
Psychoanalyse. See Internationale
Zeitschrift fiir Psychoanalyse
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
Internationale Zeitschrift fiir
Individualpsychologie, 25
Internationale Zeitschrift fiir Psychoanalyse,
II:pl.11,12, 732, 761, 860-861
Abraham and, 5
Burrow and, 238
Federn, Paul and, 568
German psychoanalysis and, 675
Imago and, 803
Internationaler Psychoanalytischer Verlag
and, 860, 861
Marcinowski and, 1011
Rado and, 860, 1441
Rank and, 1445
on Secrets of a Soul, The, 1563
Internationaler Psychoanalytischer Verlag,
732, 861-862
Almanach der Psychoanalyse and, 49-50
German psychoanalysis and, 675
Gesammelte Schriften and, 680
Imago and, 802-803, 861
Internationale Zeitschrift fiir Psychoanalyse
and, 860, 861
Jones and, 893
Rank and, 49, 861, 1445
Storfer and, 1661
Van Ophuijsen and, 1200
Interpersonal analysis, 577, 759, 1688, 1746
Interpersonal Psychoanalysis: The Selected
Papers of Clara Thompson
(Thompson), 1746
Interpretation, 178
Interpretation, 862-864
Interprétation, 864, 864,1247 -
Interpretation
amplification and, 68
anagogical, 71
analytic psychodrama and, 77-78
analyzability and, 81
autobiography and, 140
Bernfeld on, 169
Bouvet on, 210
child analysis and, 1733
lifting of amnesia and, 977
negation and, 1122
over-interpretation, 1217
vertex and, 1833-1834
Interpretation of dreams. See Dream
interpretation
Interpretation of Dreams, The (Freud),
866-867
action-presentations and, 12
on adolescence, 28
pa) Niao !
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
on agency, 32, 33
on amnesia, 64
on anthropology, 93
on anticathexes, 94
on anxiety, 969
on anxiety dreams, 103
on attention, 127
on Bernays-Freud, Minna, 168
on biological bedrock, 182
on birth, 185-186
on breastfeeding, 220
on castration complex, 251
on cathectic energy, 259
on censorship, 262
on character, 269, 272
cinema and, 293
cognitivism and, 309
on condensation, 324, 325
on consciousness, 333, 1567
on constancy principle, 1323
on contradiction, 341
on daydreams, 555, 1493
on day’s residues, 367
on death, 370
on deferred action, 378
Delboeuf and, 384
Delusions and Dreams in Jensen’ s
“Gradiva” and, 387
on determinism, 401
Deuticke and, 403
on displacement, 421
on dream symbolism, 441
on dream work, 442
on dreams, 436-437, 438
on dream’s navel, 443, 1453
on dreams of convenience, 344
on dreams of mourning, 1083
on ego, 462
on ego interests, 484
ego psychology and, 486
on Eros, 512
on evenly-suspended attention, 530-531
on examination dreams, 533
on excitation, 533
on experience of satisfaction, 536
on facilitation, 543
on fantasy, 550, 551
on fatherhood, 558
on fear, 563
Federn, Paul and, 568
on free association, 1384
on free energy/bound energy, 617
2118
on Freud, Jakob Kolloman, 624
on Freud, Josef, 623, 627
on Freud’s secondary schooling, 1836
Freud’s self-analysis and, 643
Gesammelte Schriften and, 680
Gesammelte Werke and, 681
on hallucinatory wish-fulfillment, 1866 _
on hypercathexis, 767
on hypocritical dreams, 771
on identification, 787
on incompleteness, 805
on infant development, 814
on infantile amnesia, 820
on infantile psychosis, 825-826
on inferiority feelings, 831
on internal/external reality, 847-848
on “Irma’s injection” dream, 628, 872-873,
1032, 1216, 1453, 1502
Jokes and their Relation to the Unconscious
and, 891
Jung and, 864-865
on language, 440, 942
on latent/manifest dream elements,
947, 1007
on logic, 989-990
on masochism, 1021
Matte-Blanco on, 1033
on memory, 1042
Meyerson and, 1053-1054
on mnemic traces, 1063-1065
on mourning, 1081
on mysticism, 1091
on nakedness dreams, 1103
on need for punishment, 1120
on neurotic defenses, 1142
New Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis
on, 1145
on nightmares, 1149
on Nirvana principle, 1151
on Oedipus complex, 1184
“On Dreams” and, 1190
on optical schema, 1201
on over-interpretation, 1217
on overdetermination, 1216
on partial drives, 1240
on perceptual identity, 1249
philosophy and, 1271
on pictogram, 1285
on pleasure in thinking, 1289
on pleasure principle, 1290, 1325
on politics, 1293
Politzer and, 1294
on prehistory, 1303
on premonitory dreams, 1305
on primal, 1312
on primal scene, 1310
on primary need, 1316
on primary/secondary processes, 1328
on primitive words, 3 ~
on psi system, 1345
on psyche, 1348, 1349
on psychic apparatus, 1351, 1379
on psychic causality, 1353-1354
on psychic energy, 1355
on psychic reality, 1356
on psychology and psychoanalysis, 1397
publication of, 638, 866
on punishment dreams, 1422
on purposive idea, 1424
on quantitative/qualitative
dimensions, 1428
Real and, 1453
on regression, 1459
on repetition, 1473
on representability, 1477
on repression, 1479, 1485, 1491
on rescue fantasies, 1488
on reversal into the opposite, 1494, 1495
on scientific nature of psychoanalysis, 1551
on secondary revision, 1558-1559
on secrets, 1560
on self-consciousness, 1570
on self-punishment, 1577
on sense/nonsense, 1584
on sexuality, 1593
on sleep/wakefulness, 1614
Stekel and, 1657
on stratification, 1665
structural theories and, 1666
on subject of the unconscious, 1675
on sudden involuntary ideas, 1683
surrealism and, 1695
on symbolization, 442
on thought, 1746, 1747
on thought identity, 1749
on time, 1757
on transgression, 1791
Trauma of Birth, The and, 1802
on typical dreams, 1810-1811
on unconscious, 1819
on unpleasure, 1826-1827
on visual, 1840
on wish-fulfillment, 1864, 1865
on wishes, 1867
on work, 1875-1876
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Interpretation of Dreams, The (Stekel), 1657
Interpretation of Schizophrenia, The
(Arieti), 1541
Interpreéte un quéte de sens (Aulagnier-
Spairani), 130
Interrelations. See Early interactions
Intersubjective/intrasubjective dichotomy,
867-868
Intersubjectivity, 546, 821, 867-868,
1307, 1827
Intervention, 863
Introduction a la thérie des instincts
(Bonaparte), 200
“Introduction a l’étude du transfert en
clinique psychanalytique”
(Schlumberger), 1542
“Introduction a une discussion sur le
concept d’objet en psychanalyse”
(Diatkine), 411
Introduction to the Psychoanalytic Theory of
the Libido (Sterba), 1659
Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis
(Freud), 868-869
on anticipatory ideas, 95
on anxiety, 563
on anxiety dreams, 103
on birth, 185
on change, 267
on choice of neurosis, 288
on complemental series, 318
on constitution, 335
on day’s residues, 368
on definition of psychoanalysis, 1364
on disavowal, 415
on ego, 463
on ego interests, 484
First World War and, 586
Five Lectures on Psycho-Analysis (Clark
University) and, 207, 302-303, 868
on gain, 664
on internal/external reality, 847
Jankélevitch and, 887
on latent dream thoughts, 947, 948
on lifting of repression, 1486
music and, 1088
on ontogenesis, 1197
on organ pleasure, 1206
on organization, 1208
on paraphrenia, 1234
on parapraxes, 1235
on primal, 1312
on primal fantasies, 1307
publication of, 732
on punishment dreams, 1422
on regression, 1460
on resistance, 1489
on reversal into the opposite, 1495
on rituals, 1504
on separation, 995
on sexuality, 1593
on slips of the tongue, 1615
on suggestion, 1685
on termination of treatment, 1737
on traumatic neuroses, 1804
on weaning, 1851
Introjection, 869-870
Abraham, Karl on, 6, 869
anality and, 72
anxiety and, 100
archaic mother and, 113
breast as good/bad object and, 219
coprophilia and, 346
criminology and, 354
depersonalization and, 393
depressive position and, 396
disintegration anxieties and, 418
ego and, 465
female sexuality and, 577
Ferenczi on, 7, 328, 581, 869, 870-871,
1105, 1336
Fort-da game and, 600
heroic self and, 739-740
identification and, 789
identification fantasies and, 791
imago and, 801
infantile psychosis and, 826
internal objects and, 849, 850
libido and, 6
narcissism and, 1105
oral stage and, 1205
paranoid-schizoid position and, 1233
pictogram and, 1286
projection and, 1336
projective identification and, 1338
self and, 1579
self-punishment and, 1577
splitting of the object and, 1642
Torok on, 1765
trauma and, 7
“Introjection and Transference” (Ferenczi),
580, 869, 870-871, 1106
Introspection, 871
Introversion. See Extroversion/introversion
Invariant, 871-872
Invasion of Compulsory Sexual Morality, The
(Reich), 1461
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
Investigation psychosomatique, L’ (Marty,
M’Uzan and David), 1016, 1198, 1407
To legato e la Liberta, L’ (Perrotti), 1252
IPA. See International Psychoanalytical
Association
IPSO (Institut de psychosomatique), 610,
611, 1016
Irigiray, Luce, 327, 365, 578, 1247
“Trma’s injection” dream, 872-873
femininity and, 573
Mathilde case and, 1032
overdetermination and, 1216
Real and, 1453
Rie and, 1502
Schur on, 628
wish-fulfillment and, 1864
Irony, 1584-1585
Isaacs-Sutherland, Susan, 873-874
Argentinian psychoanalysis and, 118
British Psycho-Analytical Society and, 229,
343, 344
British psychoanalysis and, 697
Controversial Discussions and, 343, 344,
697, 873-874
on defense mechanisms, 377
on fantasy, 552
Glover, James and, 685
Hellman Noach and, 733
on imago, 801
on paranoid position, 1231
Psychanalyse, La and, 1348
Riviere-Hodgson Verrall and, 873, 1507
Tavistock Clinic and, 1728
Tustin and, 1809
on unconscious fantasies, 1817
Zetzel-Rosenberg and, 1887
Isakower, Otto, 680, 874, 959, 1148
Isakower phenomenon, 440, 441, 874-875
Isay, R. A., 757
Islam, 1156
Islas, J., 1052
Isolation, 875-876, 1141-1142, 1180
Israél, Lucien, 807, 957
Israél, Paul, 1628, 1630, 1630-1631
Israeli psychoanalysis, 461, 876-878, 1881
Israeli Psychoanalytic Society, 876, 877-878
Israéls, Hans, 1546
Isserlin, Max, 940
It, 201
Italian psychoanalysis, 878-881
Fornari and, 598
Levi Bianchini and, 963
Musatti and, 878, 880, 881, 1088, 1800
2119
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Opere and, 1198
pass and, 1243
Perrotti and, 878, 879, 881, 1251, 1854
Tomasi and, 879, 1758
Weiss and, 495, 878, 879, 963, 1508, 1853
Italian Psychoanalytic Society. See Societa
Psicoanalitica Italiana
ITC, See International Training
Commission
J
Jabés, Edmond, 1628
Jaccard, Roland, 732
Jackson, Don D,, 433
Jackson, Edith, 619, 626
Jackson, John Hughlings
British psychoanalysis and, 695, 696
on epilepsy, 143
Ey and, 539
Meyer and, 1052, 1053
on ontogenesis, 1197
on organodynamic current, 1392
on phylogenesis, 1277
Jacobson, Edith, 883-884
Bak and, 147
Canadian psychoanalysis and, 242
on ego boundaries, 474
on identification, 790
on identity, 795
Journal of the American Psychoanalytic
Association, 897
Mahler-Schénberger and, 1001
Nazi Germany and, 676, 883
New York Psychoanalytic Institute/Society
and, 1148
object relations theory and, 1176
photograph of, II:pl.13
on primary identification, 1314
Psyche and, 1351
Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, The
and, 1382
on self, 1567
on self-representation, 1578
Zetzel-Rosenberg and, 1888
Jacoby, Russell, 60
Jaffe, Ruth, 876, 877
Jager, Karl, 743
Jahrbuch der Psychoanalyse, 679, 884, 1887
Jahrbuch fiir psychoanalytische und
psychopathologische Forschungen, 5, 403
Jakobson, Roman
on contact, 339
formations of the unconscious and, 598
2120
linguistics and, 982, 986
on phallus, 1264
on signifiers, 1604
structural theories and, 1667
structuralism and, 1668
Jalousie amoureuse, La (Lagache),
884-885, 936
Jaloux, Edmond, 423-424, 1350
James, Colin, 391
James, Henry, 908
James, William
Flournoy, Théodore and, 592
Freud U.S. visit and, 303
Hall and, 720
Murray and, 1087
Putnam and, 1424
on self, 1567
US. psychoanalysis and, 1822
Janet, Pierre, 885-886
“Anna QO.” case and, 89, 225
on automatism, 143
on autosuggestion, 144
British psychoanalysis and, 695
“Cacilie M~ case and, 240
case histories and, 250
cathartic method and, 225
Charcot and, 274, 275
on claustrophobia, 306
on compulsion, 322
on conflict, 325 ~
on deja vu, 381
Delay and, 383
Desoille and, 400
Ellenberger on, 497
on estrangement, 524
French psychoanalysis and, 607
on hypnosis, 769
on intellectualization, 844
Jung and, 901
Lacan and, 37
Male and, 1004
on memory, 1043
Meyerson and, 1053, 1054
on mythomania, 1098
“Neuro-Psychoses of Defense, The”
and, 1671
on neuroses, 287
on obsessions, 1178
on ontogenesis, 1197
on phobias, 1272, 1273
Piaget and, 1282
Pichon and, 886, 1283
on primary/secondary processes, 1318
Psychdesa nénvrosaes let dyes spsycehos es,
Laand, 1361
Psyche and, 1350
psychology and psychoanalysis and, 1397
on psychosis/neurosis distinction, 1414
Salpétriére Hospital and, 1529
Sokolnicka-Kutner and, 1633
on splitting, 1646
on subconscious, 1672, 1673
on suggestion, 1685
Swedish psychoanalysis and, 1697
US. psychoanalysis and, 1822
Janin, C., 1500
Jankelevitch, Samuel, 886—887, 1634
JAPA (Journal of the American
Psychoanalytic Association), 897-898, 1548
Japan Psychoanalytic Society, 887, 888, 922
Japanese psychoanalysis, 887, 887-888, S88,
920, 921-922
Jaques, Eliott, 1055, 1632
Jaspers, Karl
Delgado and, 385
on delusions, 386
Evolution psychiatrique, LC’ and, 532
Lacan and, 37
on nostalgia, 1158
on phenomenology, 1267
on process, 1327
Psyché and, 1350
“Je sais bien mais quand méme”
(Mannoni), 1010
Jealousy
Lagache on, 884-885, 1230
orality and, 1202
otherness and, 1214
paranoia and, 1230
“Jealousy as a Mechanism of Defence”
(Riviere-Hodgson Verrall), 1507
Jeammet, Philippe, 27, 392, 911, 1686
Jeammet, Phillipe, 234
Jeanneau, Augustin, 331, 722, 1627, 1628
"Teddi, Essedik, 1155, 1156
Jekels, Ludwig, 888-889
Bergler and, 163
photograph off I:pl.i4
Polish psychoanalysis and, 888, 129]
Rivista di psctoanalisi and, 1508
on Shakespeare, 1597
Swedish psychoanalysis and, 1698
Tegel clinic and, 1734
Vienna Ambulatorium and, 959
INTERNATIONAL Dictionary oF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Wiener psychoanalytische Vereinigung
and, 1858
Jelliffe, Smith Ely, 889-890
photograph of, II:pl.15
Psychoanalytic Review, The and, 1379
U.S. psychoanalysis and, 1822
Jellinek, Edmund, 413
Jensen, Wilhelm, 103, 107, 108
Jensen, William, See also Delusions and
Dreams in Jensen's “Gradiva” (Freud)
Jessner, Lucie, 207
Jewish Family Service, 1658
Jiménez, Juan Pablo, 285
Jocasta complex, 319
Jodl, Friedrich, 1852
Joffe, Walter, 508
John of the Cross, St., 895
Johnson, Alvin, 1869
Jokes, 325, 890-891, 891-892, 1584-1585
See also Humor
Jokes and their Relation to the Unconscious
(Freud), 890, 891-892
applied psychoanalysis and, 107
collective psychology and, 311
on empathy, 502
on humor, 762
on introjection, 871
on pleasure principle, 1291
publication of, 638
on repetition, 1473
on sense/nonsense, 1585
on work, 1876
Jokipaltio, Leena-Maija, 584
Jokl, Robert Hans, 959, 1659, 1845
Jones, Ernest, 892-894
on American Imago, 801
American Psychoanalytic Association and,
Gly 227, 237
on anagogical interpretation, 71
on anal eroticism, 515
on “Anna O.” case, 87, 89, 225, 1223, 1224
on aphanisis, 90, 105, 1264
Argentinian psychoanalysis and, 117
Australian psychoanalysis and, 130, 131
Belgian psychoanalysis and, 157
Berggasse 19, Wien IX and, 162
Bernays, Eli and, 634
on Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 174-175
on birth dreams, 186
Blanton and, 193
Boston Psychoanalytic Society/Institute
and, 206-207
boundary violations and, 209
Brazilian psychoanalysis and, 919
British Psycho-Analytical Society and, 228,
229, 230
British psychoanalysis and, 695-696, 697
Canadian psychoanalysis and, 241, 242
on cocaine, 308
Congres des psychanalystes de langue
frangaise des pays romans and, 330
Controversial Discussions and, 343, 344
Danish psychoanalysis and, 390
Delgado and, 385
Development of Psycho-Analysis and, 581
on “Dora” case, 604
Eder and, 460
Emden and, 498
on empathy, 502
on erythrophobia, 523
Fairbairn and, 545
on female sexuality, 105, 365, 571, 574, 576
Ferenczi and, 580, 651, 892
First World War and, 585-586
Fliigel and, 593, 594
Freud, Anna and, 619
Freud, Ernst and, 622
on Freud-Bernays, 620
Freud biography by, 611, 642, 643, 644,
651, 893, 973-974
Freud-Jung split and, 1200, 1260
Freud U.S. visit and, I:pl.16, 207, 587
on functional phenomenon, 655
German psychoanalysis and, 675
Glover, James and, 684, 685, 686
Gross and, 707
Hamlet and Oedipus, 723-724
on Herbart, 82
Hogarth Press and, 753
Hungarian psychoanalysis and, 580
on Inhibitions, Symptoms, and Anxiety, 833
International Journal of Psychoanalysis, The
and, 698, 853, 860, 893
International Psychoanalytical Association
and, 854, 856
Internationale Zeitschrift fiir Psychoanalyse
and, 860
Internationaler Psychoanalytischer Verlag
and, 861
Italian psychoanalysis and, 879
Jankélévitch and, 887
Kemper, Werner Walther and, 910
Klein and, 697
on lay analysis, 951, 1432
Malinowski and, 1005
Nazi Germany and, 681, 725
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
on nightmares, 1150
Norwegian psychoanalysis and, 1157
on occultism, 1181
“Outline of Psychoanalysis, An” and, 1216
on phallic mother, 1261
photographs of, I:pl.16, II:p1.16, III:pl.9
on privation, 1326 .
Psychanalyse, La and, 1348
psychoanalytic filiations and, 1373
on Psychoanalytic Review, The and, 1380
Psychoanalytic Review and, 889
on psychotherapy, 1412
Putnam and, 1424
Rank and, 1445
on rationalization, 1448
Revue francaise de psychanalyse and, 1498
Riviere-Hodgson Verrall and, 893,
1507, 1655
Rivista di pscioanalisi and, 1508
Russian/Soviet psychoanalysis and, 1518
Rycroft and, 1520
Schur and, 628
on scopophilia, 1553
Second World War and, 1557, 1558
Secret Committee and, 640, 854,
1193, 1561
on Secrets of a Soul, The, 1563
Servadio and, 1586
on Shakespeare, 1597
Silberer and, 1608
Société psychanalytique de Paris and, 1624
splits in psychoanalysis and, 1644
Standard Edition and, 1654-1655,
1662-1663
Sterba and, 1658, 1659
on suicide, 1686
on symbolism, 190, 442, 1707, 1712
Tavistock Clinic and, 1727
Walter and, 1847
on war neuroses, 1848
Wiener psychoanalytische Vereinigung
and, 1858
Jones, Maxwell, 700
Jordan, Juan Francisco, 285
Jorn, Asger, 390
Jornal de psicanalise, 217
Joseph, Betty, 132
Joseph, Edward, 858, 1627, 1833
Jouissance, 894-896
death instinct and, 372
ethics and, 526
fantasy and, 552
masochism and, 1022
2121
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Name-of-the-Father and, 1104
object a and, 1173
philosophy and, 1271
repetition compulsion and, 1475
sexuation and, 1596
subject’s castration and, 1676-1677
suffering, 1684
symptoms and, 1718
Journal de la psychanalyse de enfant, 410,
896, 955, 1084
Journal de psychologie normal et
pathologique, 1054
Journal dun médicin malade (Allendy), 46,
896-897
Journal francais de psychiatrie, Le, 1084
Journal of Analytical Psychology, 80, 1581
Journal of Psychohistory, The, 1394
Journal of the American Psychoanalytic
Association (JAPA), 897-898, 1548
Journey Within, The (Rolland), 1182, 1511
Jouve, Pierre Jean, 898, 1493, 1537
Jouve-Reverchon, Blanche, 330
Joyce, James, 38, 986, 1719
Jozsef, Attila, 146-147
Jucovy, M., 846
Judaism, 898-900
Arlow and, 119
Bernays-Freud, Minna and, 168
Bleger and, 194
Freud, Jakob Kolloman and, 624, 1269
Freud-Bernays and, 620
Freud’s self-analysis and, 425
German psychoanalysis and, 675
Kraus and, 924
mysticism and, 1091
parricide and, 1078
Wiener psychoanalytische Vereinigung
and, 1857
Zweig, Arnold and, 1890
Judgment of condemnation. See
Condemning judgments
Juelich, Dierk, 679
Juillerat, Bernard, 93, 1769
Julien, Philippe, 1084
Julius Caesar (Shakespeare), 1597
Juliusberger, Otto, 413, 674, 1881
Jumpertz, Benedetta, 1014
Jung, Carl Gustav, 638, 901-903
on active imagination, 14-15
on alchemy, 40
Allendy and, 46
on amplification, 67, 79, 865
analytical psychology and, 79
2122
on animus/anima, 86-87, 313
on archetypes, 115, 414
Archives de psychologie, Les and, 116, 302
Australian psychoanalysis and, 130
Bachelard and, 145, 1367
Baudouin and, 154, 155
Belgian psychoanalysis and, 157,158 .
on belief, 159
on Bernays-Freud, Minna, 168
Binet and, 89
Binswanger and, 180
on birth dreams, 186
Bjerre and, 188
Brazilian psychoanalysis and, 217
Brill and, 227
British psychoanalysis and, 695
Burgholzli Asylum and, 180, 235, 236,
901-902, 1399
Burrow and, 237
Canadian psychoanalysis and, 246
Caruso and, 248
on collective unconscious, 67, 313
on compensation, 317, 865
on complexes, 319, 320-321, 557, 800,
902, 1872
counter-transference and, 639, 747
on cryptomnesia, 356
Czech psychoanalysis and, 360
definition of psychoanalysis and, 1363
Delgado and,.385
Delusions and Dreams in Jensen’s “Gradiva”
and, 386-387
Desoille and, 400
on determinism, 401
Deuticke and, 403, 404
on dream interpretation, 864-865
Dutch psychoanalysis and, 1132
Eder and, 460, 461, 695
on ego, 463, 469-470
Eitingon and, 493
Ellenberger on, 497
on extroversion/introversion, 537-538
Ferenczi and, 580, 765
Flournoy, Henri and, 591
free association and, 616
Freud U.S. visit and, I:pl.16, 60, 207, 302—
303, 587, 1424
Galton and, 720
German psychoanalysis and, 674
Gross and, 607
Hirschfeld, Elfriede and, 747
on imago, 800
on individuation, 811-812
International Psychoanalytical Association
and, 79, 854, 902
Internationale Arztliche Gesellschaft fiir
Psychotherapie and, 49
Jahrbuch fir psychoanalytische und
psychopathologische Forschungen and, 884
Jelliffe and, 889, 1379
Jones and, 892
Judaism and, 899
Jung-Rauschenbach and, 902, 903
Le Bon and, 954
on libido, 968
on literature, 986
Maeder and, 999
Marcinowski and, 1011
on midlife crisis, 1055
monism/dualism and, 1070, 1071
on mother goddess, 1080
Murray and, 1087
on mysticism, 1091, 1643
on mythology, 1094
Nervous Anxiety States and their Treatment
and, 1132
on numinous, 1164-1165
Nunberg and, 1165
Ossipov and, 1212
on paranoia, 1229
Pfister and, 1260
photographs of, I:p].16, II:pl.17
Piaget and, 1282
on projection, 1337-1338
Psyche and, 1351
on psychic energy, 1356
on psychological types, 1395-1396
“Psychology of the Unconscious, The”, 902,
1399-1400
Psychoterapia and, 1411
on religion, 660, 1399, 1467
Rittmeister and, 1505
Rorschach and, 1394, 1513
Russian/Soviet psychoanalysis and, 1518
on schizophrenia, 1396, 1398-1399, 1540
Schneider and, 1544
Schreber case and, 1546
on self, 1580-1581
on self-consciousness, 1569-1570
on shadow, 1596-1597
Sigmund Freud: Life and Work on, 973
Silberer and, 1608
Sokolnicka and, 1633
Spielrein and, 639, 747, 1620, 1639-1640
structuralism and, 1668
on sublimation, 1679
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, Pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Swedish psychoanalysis and, 1697
Swiss psychoanalysis and, 1702
on symbolization, 1714
on symptom-formation, 1716
on synchronicity, 1719-1720
on telepathy, 1735
on transference, 1779, 1780
transference and, 8
Winterstein and, 1863
Wolff, Antonia and, 1871-1872
on word association, 1872
See also Freud-Jung split
Jung-Rauschenbach, Emma, 902, 903-904
Jungian Psychoanalytic Society and Institue,
1531
Jury, Paul, 276, 904
Justice intérieure, La (Interior justice)
(Allendy), 46
K
Kachele, Horst, 1520
Kadyrov, Igor, 1520
Kaes, René, 1632
Kaés, René
group analysis and, 610, 613, 710,
1371-1372
on intergenerational phenomena, 845,
1197
North African psychoanalysis and, 1156
Kafka, Franz, 708, 899
Kafka, John, 1885
Kagan, Abraham, 897
Kahn, Copelia, 1597
Kahn, Laurence, 1163
Kain (Szondi), 1722
Kaiser, Hellmuth, 1734
Kakar, Sudhir, 808
Kalmanson, Denise, 825
Kaminer, Isidor, 679
Kamm, Bernard A., 1529
Kanmuryojukyo, 39
Kann, Loé, 209
Kanner, Leo
on autism, 71, 136, 139
on infantile psychosis, 824, 825, 828
Kant, Emmanuel. See Kantianism
Kantianism, 905-906
on civilization, 298
collective unconscious and, 313
on determinism, 401
grid and, 704
internal/external reality and, 847
Lacan and, 1271
memoirs of the future and, 1039
metapsychology and, 1270
nostalgia and, 1158, 1159
otherness and, 1214
preconception and, 1299
thing-presentations and, 1742
unconscious concepts and, 1817
Kantor, Jorge, 1254
Kaplan, Abraham, 1640
Kaplan, E. Ann, 294
Kardiner, Abram, 906-907
American Academy of Psychoanalysis
and, 58
Brazilian psychoanalysis and, 215
on civilization, 299
Fromm and, 651
Horney-Danielson and, 759
Rado and, 1441
U.S. psychoanalysis and, 1825
Karinthy, Frigyes, 765
Karl Abraham Institute, 166
Karpe, Richard, 361
Karpinska, Louise von, 82
Karush, Aaron, 907
Kasanin, Jascha, 1529, 1530
Kasbaoui, Monique, 1155
Kassowitz, Max, 842-843
Katan, Maurits, 191, 192, 907-908, 1133
Katan-Rosenberg, Anny, 908-909
Katchalov, Pavel, 1519, 1520
“Katharina” case, 909
adolescence in, 26
neurasthenia and, 1136
primal scene and, 1310
Rie and, 1503
seduction scenes and, 1565
Kaufmann, Pierre, 1321
Kawin, Bruce, 296
Keats, John, 1124
Kehrer, Ferdinand, 1547
Keller, Tina, 154
Kemper, Kattrin, 215, 217
Kemper, Werner Walther, 909-911
Berliner Psychoanalytische Poliklinik
and, 164
Brazilian psychoanalysis and, 214, 215, 217,
910-911
German psychoanalysis and, 678, 679
Goring and, 689
Rittmeister and, 1505
Schultz-Hencke and, 1547
Kempf, Edward, 1745
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
Kempner, Salomea, 676, 1557
Kennedy, Hansi, 1732
Kenworthy, Marion, 1445
Kernberg, Otto
on abandonment, 2
on analyzability, 81
on blank psychoses, 191-192
on borderline conditions, 202
Canadian psychoanalysis and, 244
on character, 270, 273
Chilean psychoanalysis and, 284, 285
on dependence, 392
on ego, 467
ego psychology and, 487
Ferenczi and, 766
on id, 779
International Psychoanalytical Association
and, 859-860
Japanese psychoanalysis and, 888
Journal de la psychanalyse de I enfant
and, 896
Journal of the American Psychoanalytic
Association and, 898
on narcissism, 1111, 1171
on narcissistic injury, 1113
on narcissistic withdrawal, 1117
on neutrality, 1144
on object relations, 1171-1172
object relations theory and, 1176
on paranoia, 1228
on psychosis/neurosis distinction, 1415
Russian/Soviet psychoanalysis and, 1520
on self, 1579
on suicide, 1687, 1688
U.S. psychoanalysis and, 1826
Kernberg, Paulina, 285
Kertbeny, Karoly Maria, 743, 756-757
Kesselring, Rudolf, 1292
Kestemberg, Jean, 912-913
on autistic capsule, 138
Congres des psychanalystes de langue
frangaise des pays romans and, 331
group analysis and, 610
Kestemberg-Hassin and, 911
Lebovici and, 954, 955
Revue francaise de psychanalyse and, 1499
Kestemberg-Hassin, Evelyne, 911-912
on adolescence, 27
on anorexia nervosa, 91
on autistic capsule, 138
Congres des psychanalystes de langue
francaise des pays romans and, 331
2123
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
European Psychoanalytical Federation
and, 529
Lebovici and, 954
Racamier and, 1435
Revue francaise de psychanalyse and, 1499
Schmideberg-Klein and, 1542
Societé psychanalytique de Paris and,
911, 1626
on transference, 423
Khan, Mohammed Masud Rasa, 913-914
on “as if” personality, 122
on Blackett-Milner, 191
child analysis and, 698
on dependence, 392
Language of Psychoanalysis, The, 944
Nouvelle Revue de psychanalyse and,
1162, 1163
Rycroft and, 1521
on self, 1580
on sleep/wakefulness, 1615
Smirnoff and, 1617
on voyeurism, 1843
Khostov, Alexander, 1519
Kierkegaard, Soren, 1535
Kim, Sung Hee, 920
Kinberg, Olof, 1697
Kinder, Marsha, 296
Kinderseminar, 165
King, Father Leycester, 290
King, Pearl, 229, 857
Kirsch, Jean, 79, 1780
Kitayama, O., 888
Kizer, Manuel, 1832, 1833
Klain, Edouard, 1884
Kiajn, Hugo, 1884
Klajn, Vladislav, 1885
Klauber, John, 1060
Klaus, Carl, 1277
Klein, Georges, 309
Klein, Hillel, 877
Klein, Sydney, 132, 138, 189, 960
Klein-anna Freud conflict, 355, 1783,
1817-1818
See also Controversial Discussions
Klein-Reizes, Melanie, 914-916
on abandonment, 3
Aberastury and, 4
Abraham, Karl and, 5, 914
on adaptation, 22
on aggression, 34
alpha function and, 51
on ambivalence, 57, 683
2124
American Academy of Psychoanalysis
and, 59
on anal eroticism, 515
on anal-sadistic stage, 74
on anality, 72
on anorexia nervosa, 91
on anxiety, 100, 1676
Anzieu and, 104
on archaic, 111, 112, 113
Argentinian psychoanalysis and, 117,
118-119
on arrogance, 121
on autism, 1809
on basic assumptions, 151, 711
on basic schizoid position, 96
Berliner Psychoanalytisches Institut
and, 166
on beta-elements, 171
Bick and, 177
on biological bedrock, 183
Bion and, 183, 184
Bleger and, 194
Boehm and, 198
Bowlby and, 211
Brazilian psychoanalysis and, 217
on breast as good/bad object, 218-219
on breastfeeding, 221
Brierley and, 226
British psychoanalysis and, 697, 699
on castration anxiety, 101 :
on castration complex, 254
on change, 268
Chicago Psychoanalytic Institute and, 278
child analysis and, 76, 279, 280, 283, 618—
619, 697-698, 915, 1366, 1731-1732, 1733
on childhood, 281
on children’s play, 281, 283
Chilean psychoanalysis and, 285
on claustrophobia, 306
on combined parent figure, 316, 1262
on compulsion, 323
on conflict, 326
Congres des psychanalystes de langue
francaise des pays romans and, 330
Congres mondial de psychiatrie and,
532, 539
on container-contained, 340
Corrao and, 347
on counter-transference, 350, 1784
on creativity, 352
on cruelty, 355
on death instinct, 175, 372, 373, 915, 1139
on defenses, 374, 375
definition of psychoanalysis and, 1363
on depression, 70, 72, 102, 394, 395
on depressive position, 395-396
on developmental processes, 1330
on dualism, 449, 1106
on early Oedipus complex, 113, 219, 915,
1174, 1187, 1188
on ego, 463, 467
on emotions, 501
on envy, 56, 508, 509-510
on erotogenic masochism, 518
Evolution psychiatrique, L’ and, 532
on fantasy, 552
on father, 1346
on fatherhood, 558
on female sexuality, 571, 576-577,
1186, 1263
feminist views of psychoanalysis and,
576-577
Ferenczi and, 59, 580, 914
Finnish psychoanalysis and, 584
on Fort-da game, 600
French psychoanalysis and, 610
Freund Toszeghy and, 645
on frustration, 653, 654
on fusion/defusion, 659
German psychoanalysis and, 679
‘on gifts, 683
Glover, Edward and, 684
on guilt, 100, 716-717, 718
Heimann and, 730
Hellman Noach and, 733
on helplessness, 734
on heroic self, 740
Hungarian School and, 764
on hypochondria, 771
on id, 779
on idealization, 784
on idealizing transference, 785
on identification, 790
on imago, 800-801
on infans stage, 812
on infant development, 814, 815
on infant observation, 817
on infantile omnipotence, 822-823, 1106
on infantile psychosis, 824, 826
on infantile sexual curiosity, 829
“Instincts and Their Vicissitudes” and, 839
on internal/external reality, 848
on internal objects, 849, 850
on introjection, 870
Isaacs-Sutherland and, 873-874
INTERNATIONAL Dictionary oF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Israeli psychoanalysis and, 878
Italian psychoanalysis and, 598, 879,
880, 881
Japanese psychoanalysis and, 888
Jones and, 893
Kemper, Werner Walther and, 910
Kestemberg-Hassin and, 912
on knowledge instinct, 918
Language of Psychoanalysis, The, 944
Lebovici and, 955
on libidinal development, 966
on logic, 990
on Love-Hate-Knowledge links, 996
Main and, 1003
on manic defenses, 396, 1007
on masturbation, 1026
on maternal, 1028
Mom and, 1068
Money-Kyrle and, 1069, 1070
Morgenstern-Kabatschnik and, 1073
on narcissism, 1106
on narcissistic neuroses, 1114
on negative transference, 1127-1128
on neuroses, 1139
on object, 1169
on object loss, 218, 994
object relations theory and, 1176
on omnipotence of thoughts, 1189
optical schema and, 1201
on oral eroticism, 516
on orality, 1202-1204, 1205
on paradox, 1226
on paranoia, 1227
on paranoid position, 1231
on paranoid psychosis, 1232
on paranoid-schizoid position, 100, 112,
113, 188, 194, 418, 816, 1232,
1233-1234, 1566
on part-objects, 1168, 1594
on phallic mother, 1261—1262
on phallic stage, 1263
on phobias, 1274-1275, 1276
Portuguese psychoanalysis and, 1297
on pregenital stage, 1186
on pregnancy fantasy, 1302
on primal, 1308, 1312
on primal scene, 1311
on primary object, 1317
on privation, 1326
on projection, 1336
on psychic energy, 1356
Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, The
and, 1381
psychology and psychoanalysis and, 1398
on psychoses, 21, 1404, 1422
on psychotic anxiety, 90
on psychotic defenses, 1414
on psychotic panic, 1416
on psychotic part of the personality, 1417
on purified-pleasure-ego, 1423
on quota of affect, 1433-1434
on reparation, 1472
on resistance, 1489
“Richard” case and, 1276, 1500-1501
Rickman and, 1501
Riviere-Hodgson Verrall and, 1507
Roheim and, 1510
Rosenfeld, Eva Marie and, 1514
Rosenfeld, Herbert and, 1514
Russian/Soviet psychoanalysis and, 1520
on sadism, 1022, 1526
on schizophrenia, 1540
Schmideberg-Klein and, 1542
Sechehaye and, 1557
on selected facts, 1566
on self, 1567, 1579
Sharpe and, 1599
Simmel and, 1612
Smirnoff and, 1617
on splitting, 984, 1646
on splitting of the object, 1642, 1648-1649
on stammering, 1653
Strachey and, 1663
Strachey-Sargent and, 1664
on structural theories, 1666
on sublimation, 1679
on suffering, 1684
on suicide, 1686
on superego, 1691
on suppression, 1694
Swedish psychoanalysis and, 1699, 1700
Swiss psychoanalysis and, 1701
on symbiosis, 1706
on symbolism, 1708
symbolization, 1713
Tausk and, 1727
on thought, 1747-1748
on tics, 1756
Torok and, 1765
true/false self and, 1582
on turning around, 1807
Tustin and, 1809
on ulcerative colitis, 1814
on unconscious fantasies, 115, 1817
on urethral eroticism, 517
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
U.S. psychoanalysis and, 992-993, 1888
on “vagina dentata” fantasy, 1831
on visual arts, 1842
Waelder and, 1845
on weaning, 1851
Winnicott and, 1861,1862 ,
Wittkower and, 1870
Zeitschrift fiir psychoanalytische Padagogik
and, 1886
Zetzel-Rosenberg and, 1887, 1888
See also Controversial Discussions; Kleinanna
Freud conflict; Object relations
theory; Paranoid-schizoid position;
Projective identification
Kleinman, Arthur, 1775
Kleinsorge, H., 678
Kleist, Heinrich von, 1524, 1656
Klinische Studie iiber die halbseitiger
Cerebrallahmung der Kinder (Freud and
Rie), 916, 1502
Kluckhohn, Clyde, 1087
Knapp, Peter Hobart, 124
Kneipzeitung, 1585
Knife phobia, 1272
Knight, Robert P., 897
Knobel, Mauricio, 217
Knopfmacher, Wolf, 1836
Knot, 554, 916-917
See also Borromean knot
Knowledge. See Epistemology; Knowledge
instinct
Knowledge, links of, 995-996
Knowledge instinct, 917-918, 1025, 1119,
1289-1290, 1747
Kobal, Milan, 1884
Koch, Adelheid Lucy, 214, 910, 918-919,
1012, 1833
Kocourek, Jiri, 361
Koechlin, Philippe, 1766
Koerber, Heinrich, 674
Koffka, Kurt, 1047
Kofman, Sarah, 327, 577-578
Kogan, Ilani, 877
Kohler, Wolfgang, 1047
Kohut, Heinz, 919-920
on abandonment, 2
on act/action, 9
on action-presentations, 13
on action-thought, 9, 13-14
on agency, 33
on alter ego, 52
on analyzability, 81
on “as if” personality, 122
2125
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Australian psychoanalysis and, 132
Bettelheim and, 173
on bipolar self, 185
on borderline conditions, 203
on boredom, 203
Brazilian psychoanalysis and, 217
Burrow and, 237
on castration complex, 254
on change, 268
Chicago Psychoanalytic Institute and, 277,
278-279
on compensatory structures, 318
definition of psychoanalysis and, 1364
on disintegration anxieties, 90, 418
on dreams, 1579
on ego, 477
on ego-libido/object-libido, 486
on empathy, 502, 920
on fragmentation, 605
on grandiose self, 691, 1171
on id, 779
on idealized parental imago, 784
on idealizing transference, 785, 1116
on identity, 795
on identity preservation principle, 1324
Israeli psychoanalysis and, 878
on libido, 969
Los Angeles Psychoanalytic Society/
Institute and, 993
on mirror transference, 1059-1060, 1115
on narcissism, 1107, 1111
on narcissistic injury, 1113
on narcissistic rage, 1113, 1115
on narcissistic transference, 920,
1115-1116
on narcissistic withdrawal, 1117
on progressive neutralization, 1331
on psychoanalyst role, 310
psychohistory and, 1394
psychology and psychoanalysis and, 1398
on purified-pleasure-ego, 1423
on self, 1567, 1579-1580
on self-image, 1572
on self-object, 56, 1574-1575
on self psychology, 467, 477, 503,
1576-1577
on sexualization, 1595
on splitting, 1650
on transference of creativity, 1787-1788
on transmuting internalization, 1798
on true/false self, 1582
on twinship transference, 52, 1810
USS. psychoanalysis and, 1826, 1851
2126
See also Self psychology
Koinos, 347
Kojéve, Alexandre, 795
Koller, Carl, 307
Koller, Carl, 1838
Komarova, Lola, 1519
Koolhaas, Gilberto, 1828, 1829 .
Koppe, Simo, 391
Korean psychoanalysis, 920-921
Kosawa, Heisaku, 39, 887, 888, 920,
921-922
Kosuth, Josef, 136
Kosztolanyi, Dezs6, 765
Kotzebue, Otto von, 1723
Kouretas, Demétrios, 700, 701, 922
Kovacs-Prosznitz, Vilma, 922-923
Ferenczi and, 580
Hungarian psychoanalysis and, 765, 766
Hungarian School and, 764, 766
Lorand and, 991
Roheim and, 923, 1509
Kraepelin, Emil
on acute psychoses, 21
Boehm and, 198
on delusions, 386
on dementia, 389
on dementia praecox, 1053, 1057
on erotomania, 521
Evolution psychiatrique, L? and, 532
Gross and, 707 ©
on infantile psychosis, 824
Lacan and, 36-37
on paranoid psychosis, 1232
on paraphrenia, 1234
on phobias, 1272
on psychosis, 36-37
on schizophrenia, 1540
Schreber case and, 1545, 1546
on secondary narcissism, 1110
“Wolf Man” case and, 1221
Krafit-Ebbing, Richard von
on activity/passivity, 16
on anxiety neurosis, 1136
on heterosexuality, 743
on homosexuality, 757
on libidinal development, 965
on masochism, 1020
on perversion, 1257
on sadism, 1525
on sadomasochism, 1527
on sexual bondage, 556
on sexuality, 1751
Stekel and, 1657
Weininger and, 1852
Kraus, Karl, 543, 923-924, 1868-1869
Kravtsov, Boris, 1520
Kreisler, Leon
on allergies, 47, 48
on child analysis, 280
on deprivation, 397
on helplessness, 734
on hospitalism, 761
on prematurity, 1304
on stranger anxiety, 1665
Kretschmer, Ernst, 37, 49, 902
Kris, Ernst, 924-925
Czech psychoanalysis and, 361
definition of psychoanalysis and, 1364
ego psychology and, 466, 475
Gesammelte Werke and, 680
Greenacre and, 702
Hartmann and, 727, 728
on identification, 790
Imago Publishing Company and, 802
Lehrinstitut der Wiener
psychoanalytischen Vereinigung and, 959
Loewenstein and, 989
on metapsychology, 1049
_ on neutrality, 1144
New York Psychoanalytic Institute/Society
and, 1148
photograph of, II:pl.18
Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, The and,
492, 728, 1381
on psychosexual development, 1407
on self, 1579
on Shakespeare, 1598
on stages, 1652
U.S. psychoanalysis and, 1824, 1825
on visual arts, 1842
Waelder and, 1845
Kris-Rie, Marianne, 925
Freud, The Secret Passion and, 644
Lehrinstitut der Wiener
psychoanalytischen Vereinigung and, 959
New York Psychoanalytic Institute/Society
and, 1148
photograph of, II:pl.19
Rie and, 1503
Kristeva, Julia
on alterity, 1774
on female sexuality, 365, 571
feminist views of psychoanalysis and,
577, 578
on literature, 987
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
on myth of origins, 1092
on nonverbal communication, 1154
on pregnancy fantasy, 1303
on signifiers, 1605
“Kritik der Freudischen Theorien”
(Bleuler), 195
Kroeber, Alfred Louis, 1321
Kronengold, Eduard, 1659
Kriill, Marianne, 642, 900, 1143
Krusenstern, Adam J. von, 1723
Krystal, Henry, 1382
Kubie, Lawrence, 227, 897, 1824
Kucera, Otakar, 361, 1292
Kuchta, Jan, 1292
Kuhn, Roland, 569, 1267
Kihnel, G., 677, 678
Kuiper, Piet, 1060
Kulka, Raanan, 878
Kulovesi, Yrj6, 584, 1698
Kultur. See Civilization
Kumar R. Channi, Robson KM, 1297
Kiinkel, Fritz, 689
Kuntzel, T., 294
Kunz, Hans, 1061, 1351
L
Land R schemas, 927-928
La Barre, Weston, 1510
La Mettrie, Julien Offray de, 143
Labrecque, J. P., 243
Lacan, Jacques-Marie Emile, 928-932
on adaptation, 22-23
“Aimée” case, 37-38, 104
on alienation, 43-44
Althusser and, 53, 611
on anxiety, 18
Anzieu and, 104
Argentinian psychoanalysis and, 118, 119
Aubry Weiss and, 128
Aulagnier-Spairani and, 129
Austrian psychoanalysis and, 134, 135
on autism, 137
on automatism, 143
Beirnaert and, 156
Belgian psychoanalysis and, 158
Berge and, 161
on biological bedrock, 183
Bloc, Le—Notes de la psychanalyse and, 195
on body image, 197
Bonaparte and, 974
on Borromean knot, 1173, 1270, 1271,
1454, 1761, 1763-1764
Bouvet and, 210, 211
Brazilian psychoanalysis and, 217-218
Canadian psychoanalysis and, 244, 245
Caruso and, 249
on castration complex, 252, 254
Cenac and, 261
Certeau and, 266
Champ Freudien, Le and, 611
on change, 268
Chertok and, 277
on child analysis, 280
on cinema, 294, 295-296
Clark-Williams trial and, 304
Colloque sur I’ inconscient and, 314, 969
on compulsion, 323
Confrontation and, 328
Congres des psychanalystes de langue
francaise des pays romans and, 330
Congres mondial de psychiatrie and, 539
on cure, 359, 1385
Danish psychoanalysis and, 391
on death instinct, 175, 372, 373
on deferred action, 378, 381
definition of psychoanalysis and,
1363, 1364
Delay and, 383
on demand, 387—388
on determinism, 401
Development of Psycho-Analysis and, 407
Diatkine and, 410
on disavowal, 417
on disintegration anxieties, 418
on displacement, 422
Ecole de la Cause freudienne and, 455-456,
612, 931, 1083
Ecole experimentale de Bonneuil and, 456
Ecole freudienne de Paris and, 266, 327,
457, 458, 930
Ecole freudienne de Paris founding and,
457, 506
Ecrits, 37, 38, 459-460, 571, 611, 612
on ego, 463, 467, 475, 929
on Eros, 513
on erotogenicity, 521
on ethics, 526
on ethology, 528
Evolution psychiatrique, L’ and, 37, 532
Ey and, 539
on fantasy, 552, 553-554
on fascination, 556
on fatherhood, 558
on female sexuality, 365, 571, 1265
on femininity, 1596
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
feminist views of psychoanalysis and,
577, 578
Ferenczi and, 1739
on foreclosure, 595-596, 1121-1122, 1139,
1404, 1413, 1453, 1487, 1554, 1646
on formations of the unconscious, 597-598
on Fort-da game, 600
on four discourses, 601-602, 931
on frame of psychoanalytic treatment, 606
French psychoanalysis and, 608,
610-611, 612
on Freud, 1710
on frustration, 653-654
on fundamental rule, 656
on fusion/defusion, 659
on gaze, 990
German psychoanalysis and, 678
Granoff and, 692
on Graph of Desire, 554, 692-695, 895
Greek psychoanalysis and, 701
on hallucinatory, 722
Held and, 731
on heroic self, 739
One 7793
on id, 779
on ideal ego, 481
on identification, 787, 790
on identificatory project, 794
on imaginary, 799
on imaginary identification/symbolic
identification, 798-799
on imago, 801
Inconscient, L’ and, 806-807
on infans stage, 812, 813
on infantile psychosis, 826
on inhibition, 833
“Instincts and Their Vicissitudes” and, 839
on intergenerational phenomena, 846
on internal/external reality, 848
IPA excommunication, 162, 327, 427, 455,
611, 692, 930
Italian psychoanalysis and, 880
on Jokes and their Relation to the
Unconscious, 892
on jouissance, 372, 552, 894-896, 1271
on Kantianism, 905—906
on knot, 916-917, 1454
on Land R schemas, 927-928
on lack of being, 1847-1848
Lampl-de Groot and, 938
Language of Psychoanalysis, The and, 944
on Law oft he Father, 950
on lay analysis, 951
2029
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Leclaire and, 957
on letter, 961-962
on libido, 969-970
on linguistics, 982
on literature, 986, 987
Loewenstein and, 989
Mannoni and, 1009
Mannoni-Van der Spoel and, 1010
Martinican psychoanalysis and, 1014
Marxism and, 611, 1018
on masochism, 1022
on matheme, 1031-1032
Merleau-Ponty and, 1046
on metaphor, 1047-1048
on metonymy, 1050-1051
on mirror stage, 815, 1058-1059, 1107
monism and, 1071
mother goddess and, 1080
on myth of origins, 1092, 1239
Nacht and, 200, 1101, 1102-1103
on narcissism, 1107
on neuroses, 289
Nodet and, 1152
on object, 1170
on object a, 994, 1172-1173
on object loss, 994
object relations theory and, 1173, 1176
on optical schema, 1200-1202
Ornicar? and, 1211, 1552
on Other, 1212, 1213
on overdetermination, 1217
Pankow and, 1222
on parade ofs ignifiers, 1225
on pass, 1242-1243, 1430, 1770
on passage to the act, 18
Peraldi and, 1247
on perceptual identity, 1249
Perrier and, 1251
on perversion, 1255, 1259
on phallus, 1264-1265
philosophy and, 1270-1271
on phobias, 1275, 1276
photograph of, II:pl.20
Pichon and, 1284
Portuguese psychoanalysis and, 1297
on privation, 1326-1327
Psychanalyse, La and, 1348
on psychic causality, 1354
on psychic energy, 1356
on psychoanalyst role, 1368
Psychoanalytic Quarterly, The and, 1378
2128
Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, The
and, 1381
on psychoanalytic treatment, 1384,
1385, 1729
psychology and psychoanalysis and, 1398
on psychoses, 36-38, 192, 1404, 1405
on puberty, 1421
Quatriéme Groupe and, 1430, 1645
Racamier and, 1436
Raimbault, Emile and, 1442
on Real, 1453-1454
on Real, Symbolic, and Imaginary father,
1452-1453
on repetition compulsion, 1475
on representation, 782
Russian/Soviet psychoanalysis and, 1519
Sainte-anne Hospital and, 1528
San Francisco Psychoanalytic Society and
Institute and, 1531
on scientific nature of psychoanalysis, 145
Scilicet and, 611, 1552
scotomization and, 1554
on self-consciousness, 1569
on self-image, 1572
on self-representation, 1578
seminars, 1583-1584
on sense/nonsense, 1584
on sexuation, 1588-1589, 1595-1596
on Shakespeare, 1598
on signifier/signified, 1606-1607
on signifiers, 1605
on signifying chain, 1607
on slips of the tongue, 1616
Smirnoff and, 1617
Société fran¢aise de psychanalyse founding
and, 129, 427, 930
Société psychanalytique de Paris and, 1624,
1625, 1629
Spanish psychoanalysis and, 1638
on specularization, 1840
on Spinoza, 1640
on splitting of the subject, 1649-1650
structural theories and, 1667
on structuralism, 1668-1669
on subject, 1673
on subject of the drive, 1674
on subject of the unconscious, 1675
on subject’s castration, 1676-1677
on subject’s desire, 1677-1678
on superego, 1691
surrealism and, 1695, 1696
Swedish psychoanalysis and, 1699
on symbolic, 1710-1711
on symbolism, 1708
on symbolization, 1714
on symptom-formation, 1716
on symptom/sinthome, 1718-1719
theory development, 36-37
on Thing, 1743, 1814
on topology, 1761-1764
training analysis and, 1770
on truth, 1805
on unary trait, 1761, 1814-1815
on unconscious, 1307
U.S. psychoanalysis and, 1826
Venezuelan psychoanalysis and, 1833
Viderman and, 335, 1835
on visual, 1840-1841
on voyeurism, 1843
on weaning, 1851
on “Wolf Man” case, 1139
on word-presentations, 1873, 1874
See also French psychoanalytic
establishment split (1953); French
psychoanalytic establishment split
(1964); Mirror stage; Name-of-the-
Father
Lacava, Marta, 1829
Lack, 295
Lack of being, 1847-1848
-Lack of differentiation, 932-933
Lacoste, Patrick, 294, 295
Lacoue-Labarthe, Philippe, 241, 327, 1271
Lacretelle, Jacques, 424
Ladame, Francois, 27, 1701
Ladame, Paul, 116
Lady in the Dark (film), 293-294
Lafora, Gonzalo, 116
Laforgue, Delia, 1401
Laforgue, Paulette, 1634
Laforgue, René, 933-935, 1625
Allendy and, 46, 934
on Baudelaire, 974
Berge and, 161
on Bonaparte, 199
Canadian psychoanalysis and, 245
Choisy and, 290
Claude and, 305
Congrés des psychanalystes de langue
frangaise des pays romans and, 329
on disavowal, 416
Disque vert, Le and, 423
Dolto-Marette and, 427
Eitingon and, 493
Embirikos and, 498
Ey and, 539
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
on failure neurosis, 544
Favez-Boutonier and, 559, 560
French psychoanalysis and, 607-608
Freud, Oliver and, 631
Goring Institute and, 609, 934
Hesnard and, 742
International Federation of Psychoanalytic
Societies and, 852
Lacan and, 38
Leuba and, 962
Loewenstein and, 988
Nazi Germany and, 934, 963, 1401,
1557, 1625
neopsychoanalysis and, 1131
North African psychoanalysis and,
1154, 1155
on perversion, 1258
photograph of, II-pl.21
Pichon and, 933, 1283, 1284
Psychanalyse et les névroses, La, 46, 305,
934, 1345-1346
Psyché and, 934, 1350
Psychopatholgie de ’léchec, 934, 1401-1402
Revue francaise de psychanalyse and, 200,
934, 1497, 1498
Sainte-anne Hospital and, 1528
Schlumberger and, 1541
on scotomization, 416, 933, 1284,
1553-1554
Société psychanalytique de Paris and, 199,
934, 988, 1236, 1623, 1624, 1625
Sokolnicka-Kutner and, 1292, 1634
Zeitschrift fiir psychoanalytische Padagogik
and, 1886
Lafortune, Mireille
Canadian psychoanalysis and, 245
Congrés des psychanalystes de langue
francaise des pays romans and, 329
Lagache, Daniel, 935-936
Anzieu and, 104
Association psychanalytique de France and,
123, 611
Beirnaert and, 156
Belgian psychoanalysis and, 158
Berge and, 161
Bibliothéque de psychanalyse and, 611
Bouvet and, 210
Clark-Williams and, 303-304
Desoille and, 400
Documents et Débats and, 426
on ego ideal, 480
Favez-Boutonier and, 559
French psychoanalysis and, 608, 609
French psychoanalytic establishment split
(1953) and, 427, 560, 609, 930, 934, 1102,
1618-1619, 1625, 1644
French psychoanalytic establishment split
(1964) and, 122, 123
on heroic self, 739, 740
on ideal ego, 481
on jealousy, 884-885
Language of Psychoanalysis, The and, 935,
943-944
Loewenstein and, 989
on neutrality, 1144
Nodet and, 1152
Pankow and, 1222
on paranoia, 1230
on passion, 1244
Perrier and, 1251
Psyché and, 1350
on repetition, 1473
on reverie, 555, 1493
Revue francaise de psychanalyse and, 1499
Schiff and, 1537
Societe francaise de psychanalyse and, 427,
935, 1618-1619
Société psychanalytique de Paris and, 1624
on sublimation, 1679
on transference, 422-423, 1473
Viderman and, 1835
on working-off mechanisms, 1877
Lagadec, Claude, 864
Laignel-Lavastine, Maxime, 382, 1236, 1528
Laine, Tony, 936-937
Laing, Ronald David, 937-938
anti-psychiatry and, 699
Deleuze/Guattari and, 98
Rycroft and, 1521
Tavistock Clinic and, 1728
Lairy, Catherine G., 314
Laks Eizirik, Claudio, 566, 567
Lamarckianism
collective unconscious and, 313
Darwinism and, 367
Ferenczi and, 1738
heredity of acquired characters, 736
ontogenesis and, 1197
phylogenesis and, 1278
prehistory and, 1303
Lambert, Johann Heinrich, 1266
Lamella, 969-970
Lampedusa, Princess of. See Tomasi di
Palma di Lampedusa-Wolff Somersee,
Alessandra
Lamperiere, Therese, 506
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
Lampl, Hans, 939
Bornstein and, 205
Dutch psychoanalysis and, 1133
Freud, Oliver and, 631
Hartmann and, 727
Lampl-de Groot, Jeanne, 938-939
Dutch psychoanalysis and, 1133, 1134
on female sexuality, 571
German psychoanalysis and, 1060
Leeuw and, 958
Lehrinstitut der Wiener
psychoanalytischen Vereinigung and, 959
Rado and, 1441
Lancashire witches, 1709
Landauer, Karl, 939-941
death of, 676
Dutch psychoanalysis and, 1133, 1200
Foulkes and, 601
Fromm-Reichmann and, 652
German psychoanalysis and, 675, 725
Meng and, 1044
Nazi Germany and, 1557
Sigmund Freud Institute and, 1602
Zeitschrift fur psychoanalytische Padagogik
and, 1886
Lang, Andrew, 85, 1320
Lang, Jean-Louis
Documents et Débats and, 426
French psychoanalytic establishment split
(1964) and, 122
on infantile psychosis, 825
on prepsychosis, 1306
on psychogenesis, 610
Smirnoff and, 1617
Société francaise de psychanalyse and, 1619
Lange, Johannes, 37
Langer, Marie Glass Hauser de, 941-942
Argentinian psychoanalysis and, 117, 118,
665, 941
Brazilian psychoanalysis and, 910-911
Federacion psicoanalitica de América latina
and, 566
Mexican psychoanalysis and, 1051
Questionamos and, 216
Racker and, 1440
Swedish psychoanalysis and, 1700
Venezuelan psychoanalysis and, 1833
Langer, William L., 1393
Langignon, Colette, 428
Langlois, Jean-Louis, 245, 1621
Language, 942-943
Abel on, 3-4
action-language, 11—12, 13
2129
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume3 , pp. 1345-1892
Alvdae Torledeo ozn, 55
aphasia, 106, 143, 212, 1042
body image and, 198
brain and, 212
Breton on, 224
conceapndt, s32 3
dream symbolainds, m44 1
dreams and, 440
female sexuality and, 571
feminist views of psychoanalysis and, 578
formations of the unconscious and, 598
fundamental rule and, 656
ideational representation, 785-786
infans stage and, $12-814
Judaism and, 900
knot and, 917
Lacan on, 730
lack of being and, 1848
literature and, 986
love and, 671
Merleau-Ponty on, 314
metaphor and, 1047-1048
mmnemic traces and, 1063
modern conflict theory on, 1065
multilingualism and, 1085-1086
myth of origins and, 1092, 1321
negation and, 1121, 1122
nonverbal communication and, 1153
Other and, 1213
parade of signifiers and, 1225
quota of affect and, 1433
representability and, 1477
reversal into the opposite and, 1495
seduction theory and, 670
signifier/signified and, 1606
signifiers and, 1605
surrealism and, 1695
word-presentations and, 1873-1874
work of the negative and, 1129
See also Linguistics; Metaphor; Metonymy
Language and Insight (Schafer), 1571
Language of Psychoanalysis, The (Laplanche
and Pontalis), 943-944
on aphanisis, 105
on complemental series, 318
on contact, 338—339
on deferred action, 378
on experience of satisfaction, 535-536
on fate neurosis, 557
on guilt, 716, 717
on intentionality, 1478, 1482
2130
Lagache and, 935, 943-944
on mastery, 1025
on psychical representative, 841
publication of, 124, 611
on self, 1579
on stages, 1652
on working over, 1878 $
Lanteri-Laura, Georges, 315
Lantos, Barbara, 343, 1509
Lanzer, Ernst, 944-945
See also “Rat Man” case
Lapicque, Louis, 423, 424
Lapimski, Michael, 1292
Laplace, Pierre Simon, 401
Laplanche, Jean
on applied psychoanalysis, 108
Bibliothéque de psychanalyse and, 611
on breastfeeding, 220, 221
Colloque sur I inconscient and, 314,
315, 610
on compulsion, 323
Confrontation and, 327
on contact, 338-339
on death instinct, 175
on deferred action, 381, 613, 1848
on destrudo, 400
Decuments et Débats and, 426
on drives, 447
on empathy, 502
Fedida and, 569
on frame of psychoanalytic treatment, 606
French psychoanalysis and, 608
French psychoanalytic establishment split
(1964) and, 122
on fusion/defusion, 658, 659
on general theory of seduction, 669, 670,
1197, 1204, 1342, 1566
on guilt, 1239
on hallucinatory wish-fulfillment, 1866
on intergenerational phenomena, 846
on knowledge instinct, 918
on masochism, 1022
on maternal reverie, 1031
on object, 1170
object relations theory and, 1176
on ontogenesis, 1197
on oral stage, 1204
on parricde, 1239
on phobic neurosis, 1276
on primal fantasies, 848, 1307, 1308
on proton-pseudos, 1342
Psychanalyse a I université and, 124
on psychic representative, 1358
on psychosexual development, 1407
on reciprocal paths of influence, 1456
on remembering, 1467
on repetition, 1473
on repetition compulsion, 1475
on seduction theory, 1143
on self-consciousness, 1569
Société francaise de psychanalyse and, 1619
on sublimation, 1678, 1679
on suffering, 1683
on symbolization, 1713
See also Language of Psychoanalysis, The
Lapuz, Lourdes, 1268
Larguier des Bancels, J., 89
Laségue, Charles, 1528
Lasselin, M., 42
Laswell, Harold, 1825
Latency, 325, 333, 337, 758
See also Latent dream thoughts
Latency period, 205, 945-946
Latent dream thoughts, 437, 438, 442,
946-948, 1747
Lateral transference, 422423, 1777
Laufer, Egle, 29
Laufer, Egle, 577
Laufer, Moses, 27, 29, 1420
Launay, Jacques, 415
Laurent, Eric, 137, 458
Laurent, Eric, 1638
Laurent-Lucas-Championniére-Maugeé,
Odette, 948-949
Lavie, Jean-Claude, 1008, 1619
Law and psychoanalysis, 949-950
Law of the Father, 950
Lawrence, D. H., 708, 1150
Lay analysis, 639, 854-855, 857, 858,
950-952
American Psychoanalytic Association and,
61, 62-63, 857, 858-859, 951, 1432,
1644, 1823
Dutch psychoanalysis and, 1200
Freud on, 855, 951, 1118, 1432-1433
International Psychoanalytical Association
and, 639, 854-855, 857, 858-859
Los Angeles Psychoanalytic Society/
Institute and, 992
National Psychological Association for
Psychoanalysis and, 1118
Pichon on, 1283
Rank and, 1445
Reik and, 951, 1118, 1432, 1463, 1558
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
San Francisco Psychoanalytic Society and
Institute and, 1529
Lazar-Geroe, Clara, 130-131
Laznik-Penot, Marie-Christine, 799
Le Beuf, Diane, 1330
Le Bon, Gustave, 291, 555-556, 953-954,
1214, 1685
Le Guen, Claude
on Oedipus complex, 1186
on primal repression, 1309
on repression, 1479, 1480, 1481, 1486, 1487
Revue francaise de psychanalyse and,
1499, 1500
Societé psychanalytique de Paris and,
1628, 1630
Le Guillant, Louis, 1350
Le Lay, Yves, 302, 432
Le Porta, Ernesto, 215
Le Rider, Jacques, 298
Le Surréalisme au service de la
Revolution, 1695
Leaning. See Anaclisis
Learning from Experience (Bion), 50, 171,
339, 704, 952-953, 995, 1030, 1312
Lebovici, Ruth, 1542
Lebovici, Serge Sindel Charles, 954-956
on anaclitic depression, 70
analytic psychodrama and, 78
Association de santé mentale and, 610
Belgian psychoanalysis and, 157
on Berman, 167
Brazilian psychoanalysis and, 216
Centre Alfred-Binet and, 263, 955
child analysis and, 280, 610, 613, 955,
1732, 1784
Colloque sur I’ inconscient and, 314
communism and, 609
Congres des psychanalystes de langue
francaise des pays romans and, 330
Croatian psychoanalysis and, 1884
on dependence, 392
on developmental disorders, 408
on developmental processes, 1330
Diatkine and, 410
Dolto-Marette and, 427
on early interactions, 454
French psychoanalysis and, 609, 613
Greek psychoanalysis and, 700
Heuyer and, 744
on hospitalism, 760
on indications/contraindications for
psychoanalysis, 809
on infant development, 814
on infantile, 830
on infantile neurosis, 821
on infantile psychosis, 825, 826, 828
Institut de psychanalyse de Paris and, 609
on intergenerational phenomena, 846
International Psychoanalytical Association
and, 857
Italian psychoanalysis and, 881
Japanese psychoanalysis and, 888
Journal de la psychanalyse de enfant and,
896, 955
Kestemberg-Hassin and, 911
Nacht and, 954, 1102
on object, 1170
on phobias, 1275
on pregenital stage, 1186
on prematurity, 1305
on prepsychosis, 1306
on primary narcissism, 1110
Psyché and, 1350
on puerperal psychoses, 1422
Racamier and, 1435
Schlumberger and, 1542
on self-consciousness, 1569
Société psychanalytique de Paris and, 954—
955, 1625, 1626, 1627, 1630
on stranger anxiety, 1664
structural theories and, 1666
on termination of treatment, 1737
ont ics, 1756
Venezuelan psychoanalysis and, 1833
Lechat, Fernand, 157, 450-451, 956-957
Leclaire, Serge, 957-958
Association pour une Instance Tierce des
Psychanalystes and, 957, 1084
Bloc, Le—Notes de la psychanalyse and, 195
Colloque sur I’ inconscient and, 314, 610
Confrontation and, 327, 328, 612
on doubt, 436
Ecole freudienne de Paris and, 457, 458
Enriquez-Joly and, 506
on erotogenicity, 521
French psychoanalysis and, 613
French psychoanalytic establishment split
(1953) and, 692, 957
French psychoanalytic establishment split
(1964) and, 611, 957
Inconscient, L’ and, 807
on pass, 1243
Perrier and, 1251
Psychanalyse, La and, 1348
on psychogenesis, 610
Russian/Soviet psychoanalysis and, 1519
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
Société frangaise de psychanalyse and, 1619
Société psychanalytique de Paris and,
1629, 1630
structuralism and, 1668
student protests (1968) and, 612
Lecons cliniques de psychiatrie (Meynert), 57
Leeuw, Pieter Jacob Van der. See Van der
Leeuw, Pieter Jacob
Lefebvre, Henri, 315, 610
Lefebvre, Paul, 245
Lefort, Robert, 137, 1732
Lefort, Rosine, 137, 1732
Left-wing philosophers, 37—38
Legal issues. See Law
Legendre, Pierre, 1439, 1632
Legros, Hélene, 887
Lehmann, Andrée, 156
Lehrinstitut der Wiener psychoanalytischen
Vereinigung, 61, 959
Lehrman, Philip R., II:p].22, 960
Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm, 1214,
1270, 1271
Leigh, Stanley, 1809
Leiris, Michel, 204, 1774
Leite Lobo, Fabio, 215, 566
Lejeune, Philippe, 1628
Lemieux, Marcel, 864
Lemkin, Raphaél, 1437
Lemlij, Moisés, 1254
Lemmertz, José, 215, 1015
Lennmalm, Frithiof, 1697
Lenormand, Henri-René, 607
Leonardo da Vinci, 750, 844, 960-961, 1525,
1551, 1679
See also Leonardo da Vinci and a Memory of
his Childhood
Leonardo da Vinci and a Memory ofh is
Childhood (Freud), 375, 750, 783, 787,
844-845, 960-961, 985
applied psychoanalysis and, 108
on memories, 1041
on narcissism, 1105, 1190
“On the Sexual Theories of Children”
and, 1195
on paranoia, 1229
on passion, 1243, 1244
on phallic mother, 1263-1264
as psychobiography, 1388
psychohistory and, 1393
on repetition, 1473, 1474
on screen memories, 1555
on secondary narcissism, 1111
on Spinoza, 1640
2131
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
on thought, 1746, 1747
on visual arts, 1841
Leone Bicudo, Virginia, 919
Lerner, Leila, 1380
Leroi-Gourhan, André, 1739
Les formations de T inconscient (Lacan), 1649
Les Lots de Fimitation (de Tarde), 1685
Lesche, Carl, 1699
Lester, Eva, 209
L’Etat amoureux (David), 1656
L’Etat mental des hystériques (Janet), 1670
Letter, the, 961-962, 1605
Letters of Sigmund Freud 1879-1939,
The, 1601
Letters of Sigmund Freud and Arnold Zweig,
The, 1601
Lettre personnelles a monsieur le Directeur
(Mannoni), 1009
Leuba, John, 962-963
Belgian psychoanalysis and, 157
Bouvet and, 210
Cénac and, 261
Clark-Williams and, 303, 304
Congres des psychanalystes de langue
francaise des pays romans and, 330
Delay and, 383
Dolto-Marette and, 427
Dubal and, 450
Favez-Boutonier and, 559
Favreau and, 561
Held and, 731
Laforgue and, 934
Loewenstein and, 989
Pasche.and, 963, 1242
Psyché and, 1350
Revue francaise de psychanalyse and, 1498
Schlumberger and, 1541
Société psychanalytique de Paris and, 1625
Leunbach, J. H., 390
Leupold-Léwenthal, Harald, 133, 136, 1858
Levi Bianchini, Marco, 878, 963-964, 1508
Levi-Strauss, Claude
on breastfeeding, 222
on ethnography, 93
French psychoanalysis and, 610, 613
on incest, 804
on individual, 810
Lacan and, 930
on myth ofo rigins, 1321-1322
on mythology, 1099
on Oedipus complex, 1186
Psyché and, 1350
on signifiers, 1604
2132
structural theories and, 1667
structuralism and, 1668
on trance, 1774
on unconscious, 1307
Levinas, Emmanuel, 1214, 1271
Levinson, Daniel J., 1055
Lévy, André, 1632
Lévy, Daniéle, 957
Levy, David M., 906, 1825
Lévy, Kata, 766, 1610
Lévy, Lajos, 580, 765
Levy, Steven J., 897
Lévy-Bruhl, Lucien, 1035, 1337
Levy-Bruhl, Odile, 129
Levy-Valensi, Eliane Amado, 900
Lévy-Valensi, Joseph, 382, 1528
Lewin, Bertram D.
Brill and, 227
Canadian psychoanalysis and, 242
on claustrophobia, 306
on dream screen, 440-441
Federn, Paul and, 568
Journal of the American Psychoanalytic
Association, 897
on negative hallucination, 1125
Psychoanalytic Quarterly, The and, 1377
Ross and, 1516
on sleep/wakefulness, 1614
Lewin, Kurt, 713, 1632
Lewinter, Roger, 195, 706
Ley, Roberto, 941
Lhermitte, Jean, 1350
Liapounov, Alexandre, 256
Liberman, David, 117, 118, 566, 964, 964,
980-981
Libidinal development, 964—967
Abraham, Kar! on, 5-6, 38, 56-57, 966,
967, 1038
activity/passivity and, 17
adolescence and, 28, 29
ambivalence and, 56—57
anality and, 72
breastfeeding and, 221
choice of neurosis and, 288
erotogenic masochism and, 517-518
erotogenic zones and, 518
ideational representation and, 785-786
Nein on, 915
Lacan on, 38
melancholia and, 1038
ontogenesis and, 1198
organization and, 1208
INTERNATIONAL DicTiIONARY oF PSYCHOANALYSIS
sadism and, 1205
subject’s castration and, 1676
See also Infantile sexuality; Psychosexual
development
See also specific stages
Libidinal stages, 966-967, 1184-1185
See also Libidinal development
“Libidinal Types” (Freud), 969, 1117
Libido, 967-971
Aberastury on, 5
Adler on, 25
adolescence and, 27
alcoholism and, 41
altruism and, 54
analytical psychology on, 79
Andreas-Salomé on, 84
anticathexes and, 94
biological bedrock and, 182
boredom and, 203
cathexis and, 260
character and, 271
Dolto-Marette on, 1346
drives and, 444
ego and, 463
ego-instincts and, 483
ego-libido/object-libido, 484-486
_ envy and, 508, 509
Freud-Jung split and, 485, 486, 902,
968, 1191
hypochondria and, 770
id and, 778
Jung on, 1400
Kardiner on, 907
masculinity/femininity and, 1594
psychic energy and, 1356
regression and, 968, 1460
Sartre on, 1535
Schultz-Hencke on, 1547
sexual drive and, 444
skin and, 1612
Spinoza and, 1640
stages and, 1651, 1652
stammering and, 1653
transitional phenomena and, 1794
unused, 1604
See also Libidinal development; Sexual
drives
“Libido, La” (Allendy), 46
“Libido Theory, The” (Freud), 372, 485,
1105, 1486, 1538
“Library of Psychology and
Psychoanalysis”, 1543
Lichtenberg, Georg, 891
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Lichtenberg, Joseph, 1851
Lichtenstein, Heinz, 794-795, 1323,
1324, 1567
Liebeault, Ambroise Auguste, 170, 332,
768-769, 972-973
on suggestions, 1684, 1685
Liebermann, David, 285
Liebermann, H., 1758
Liégois, Jules, 331
Lien social, Le, 241
Lies, 971-972
Life and Work of Sigmund Freud (Jones). See
Sigmund Freud: Life and Work
Life and Works of Edgar Allen Poe: A
Psychoanalytic Interpretation (Bonaparte),
974-975
Life drive, 1646
Life instinct (Eros), 975-976
Beyond the Pleasure Principle on, 179
biological bedrock and, 182
castration complex and, 255
conflict and, 326
culture and, 297
death instinct and, 371, 372, 511-512
drives and, 446
dualism and, 449
Eros and, 511-512, 513
excitation and, 534
Freud on, 174-175, 297, 511-512, 513, 975
fusion/defusion and, 658, 659
guilt and, 716
id and, 777
identification and, 788
libido and, 1589
sexual drives and, 975, 1589
sexuality and, 1593
Life Narcissism, Death Narcissism (Green),
1107, 1117, 1807
Life of One's Own, A (Field), 190
Life of Ramakrishna, The (Rolland), 1181
Life of Vivekananda and the Universal
Gospel, The (Rolland), 1181
Lifting of amnesia, 976-977
Lifton, Robert Jay, 1393, 1445
Lifwynn Institute, 238
Lijtenstein, Marcos, 1829
Lilith (film), 292
Limentani, Adam, 978-979
Australian psychoanalysis and, 131
British Psycho-Analytical Society and,
230, 978
International Psychoanalytical Association
and, 858, 978
Khan and, 914
photograph of, II:pl.23
on Societe psychanalytique de Paris, 1627
Lindeman, Eduard, 242
Lindemann, Erich, 208
Lindner, S., 518
“Lines of Advance in Psycho-Analytic
Therapy” (Freud), 979-980, 1486
Linguisteria, 1606
Linguistica, Interaccion comunicativa y
Proceso psicoanalitico (Liberman),
980-981
Linguistics, 981-983
Abel, 3-4
amphimixia and, 66
Liberman and, 964
representation and, 782
signifiers and, 1604
See also Language
Linking. See Attacks on linking
Links, 983-984, 995-996
Linton, Ralph, 410, 651
Lipiner, Salomon, 1836
Lipps, Theodor, 502, 673, 891
List E.,, 135.
Listening, 984
Listening with the Third Ear (Reik), 1118
Literary creation, 1524
Literature, 984—985, 986-987
Anzieu and, 105
applied psychoanalysis and, 107-108
Bachelard on, 145
Bonaparte on, 200, 974
Brazilian psychoanalysis and, 213-214
Breton and, 223-224
death and, 370
Dostoyevsky, 351, 412, 413, 431-432, 985
double in, 429, 434-435
family romance and, 549
First World War and, 696
Freud on, 107, 351, 431-432, 984-985
H.D., 429-431
hero in, 1094
infantile omnipotence and, 823
Jouve, 898
Katan on, 908
Laforgue on, 974
Mann, 50, 673, 674, 1008-1009
Murray on, 1087
passion and, 1244
Reik on, 1463
Rolland, 1510-1511
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
Sharpe on, 1599-1600
Littérature, 1695
“Littérature moderne et psychanalyse”
(Allendy-Nel-Dumouchel), 45
Little, Margaret, 1728
“Little Arpad” case, 279, 787, 987-988,
988, 1768
“Little Hans” case, 75-76
aggression and, 34
anticipatory ideas and, 95
anxiety dreams and, 103
castration complex and, 76, 251, 253, 254
child analysis and, 75-76, 279-280, 690,
1366, 1783
childhood and, 280
condemning judgments and, 901
cure and, 359
defenses and, 375
deferred action and, 378
developmental disorders and, 408
developmental processes and, 1329
disavowal and, 415
Eder and, 460
family and, 547
fatherhood and, 558
identification and, 787
incest and, 804
infant observation and, 817
infantile neurosis and, 75-76, 820-821
infantile sexual curiosity and, 829, 1590
inhibition and, 833
“Little Arpad” case and, 988
Name-of-the-Father and, 1104
nuclear complex and, 1164
Oedipus complex and, 76, 1184, 1185, 1322
“On the Sexual Theories of Children” and,
1194-1195
phobias and, 1274, 1276
on pregenital organization, 1301
primal scene and, 1310
prohibition and, 1332
psychology and psychoanalysis and, 1397
Real, Symbolic, and Imaginary father
and, 1452
Real and, 1453
representation ofa ffect and, 1478
sexual theories ofc hildren and, 1591
substitute formations and, 1680
thought and, 1746, 1747
transference and, 1783
Weininger and, 1587-1588, 1853
Littoral, 1084
Lizarazo, Arturo, 315
2133
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Lobo Moreira da Silva, Amilear, 215-216
Lockot, Regine, 679
Loewald, Hans, 1176
Loewenfeld, Heinrich, 360
Loewenteld, Yela, 360
Loewenstein, Rudolph M,, 988-989
on abstinence, 8
on anti-Semitism, 291
Canadian psychoanalysis and, 242
Carcamo and, 117, 247
Cénac and, 261
Chentrier and, 276
Congres des psychanalystes de langue
francaise des pays romans and, 329,
330, 331
definition of psychoanalysis and, 1364
Dolto-Marette and, 427
on ego-libido/object-libido, 486
ego psychology and, 466, 475
French psychoanalysis and, 608
Geleerd and, 668
Hartmann and, 728
on homosexuality, §
on identification, 790
Kas and, 925
Lacan and, 608, 929
Lagache and, 935
Leuba and, 962
on metapsychology, 1049
Nacht and, 989, 1101, 1103
Nazi Germany and, 1557
on neutrality, 1144
New York Psychoanalytic Institute/Society
and, 1148
Parcheminey and, 989, 1236
photograph of, II:pl.24
Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, The
and, 1381
on psychosexual development, 1407
on racism/anti-Semitism, 1438
Revue francaise de psychanalyse and,
988, 1498
Sachs and, 988, 1523
Saussure, Raymond de and, 1536
on self, 1579
on silence, 1610
Societe psychanalytique de Paris founding
and, 199, 988, 1623
on stages, 1652
on training analysis, 1770
US. psychoanalysis and, 1825
Loewy, Emanuel, 163
Logic, 738, 989-990, 1816
2134
Logic of Fantasy, The (Lacan), 554
“Logical Time and the Assertion of
Anticipated Certainty” (Lacan), 929
Logique des sentiments, La (Ribot), 1672
Logiques de Pinconscient, Les (Neyraut), 990
“Logos” (Heidegger), 930
Logotherapy, 615 :
Lomas, Peter, 1521
Lombard, Pearl, 331, 1610-1611, 1628
Lombroso, Cesare, 353, 1076
Long, Constance, 685
Longinus, 1678
Look. See Gaze
Loomie, Leo S., 1610
Lépez, M. I., 1052
Lopez-Ballesteros y de Torres, Luis, 175
Lopez-Corvo, Rafael E., 1833
Lorand, Sandor, 242, 329, 764, 991-992
LOrdinaire du psychanalyste, 1552
Lorenz, Karl, 115, 528, 799
Lorenz, Konrad, 1739
Los Angeles Psychoanalytic Institute,
Simmel and, 1611-1612
Los Angeles Psychoanalytic Society and
Institute, 1660
Los Angeles Psychoanalytic Society/
Institute, 992-993
Loss. See Mourning; Object loss
“Loss of Reality in Neurosis and Psychosis”
(Freud), 22, 1234, 1404
Lost object. See Mourning; Object loss
Lothane, Zvi, 1546
Love, 994-995
Eros and, 513
fascination and, 555-556
genital, 670-671
hatred and, 729
jealousy and, 885
links of, 995-996
narcissism and, 1105
narcissism of minor differences and, 1109
passion and, 1243
schizophrenia and, 310
state of being in, 1656
therapeutic alliance and, 1740
transference and, 77, 513, 1785-1786
Love Against Hate (Menninger), 1045
“Love for the Mother and Mother Love”
(Balint-Szekely-Kovacs), 149
Love-Hate-Knowledge links, 995-996
Love/hate opposition, 995
depressive position and, 396
fantasy and, 552
INTERNATIONAL Dictionary oF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Nein on, 326, 375, 396
melancholia and, 1038
negative therapeutic reaction and,
1126, 1782
Oedipus complex and, 1187
orality and, 1203 :
subject of the unconscious and, 1675
Love Is Not Enough: A Treatment of
Emotionally Disturbed Children
(Bettelheim), 173, 502-503
Love object, renunciation of, 2
Love trauma, 1656
Loveland, Ruth, 960
Lover's censure, 1170
Lovesick (film), 293
Loving, Hating, and Living Well
(Greenson), 703
Low, Barbara, 371, 417, 801, 996-997,
1151, 1291
Lowenfeld, Henry, 1825
Léwenfeld, Leopold, 1136
Lowenstein, Rudolph M.. See Loewenstein,
Rudolph M.
LSD, 55
“Lucy R.” case, 495, 997-998, 1086, 1488
Ludwig, Ernst, 1838
Luke, Helen M., 986
Luquet, Pierre
Congres des psychanalystes de langue
fran¢aise des pays romans and, 331,
1625, 1628
Leuba and, 963
Portuguese psychoanalysis and, 1297
on silence, 1610
Societe psychanalytique de Paris and, 1627
Luquet-Parat, Catherine J., 576, 578
Luria, Alexander, 1518
Lussana, Pierandrea, 879
Lussier, André, 243, 245, 1621
Lustgarten, Siegmund, 1836, 1838
Lustprinzip. See Pleasure principle
Lutz, Jacob, 824, 827
Luzes, Pedro, 1296, 1297
Lyotard, Jean-Francois, 241, 1271
Lyra, M. T., 215, 217
Maberino de Prego, Vida, 1829
Mabille, Pierre, 1395
Macbeth (Shakespeare), 1597
MacCurdy, John, 1849
Mach, Ernst, 704, 732, 1378, 1550, 1852
MacLeod, Alastair, 242, 243
Macrostructures, 1576
eP=eeMene ,ee ~es
PieigeONe,),e _—
ahehaseaeareeee e ee
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Maeder, Alphonse E., 999-1000
Annee psychologique, L’- and, 89
Archives de psychologie, Les and, 116, 302
Pfister and, 1260
on Schreber case, 1546
Swedish psychoanalysis and, 189
Swiss psychoanalysis and, 1702
Magic Mountain, The (Mann), 1008
Magical thinking, 1000
animistic thought and, 85
archaic and, 112
contact and, 339
fundamental rule and, 657
omnipotence of thoughts and, 1189
taboo and, 1724
See also Superstition
Magnan, Valentin, 143, 381, 412, 757,
827, 1528
Magnetism. See Animal magnetism
Magritte, René, 1618
Mahler, Gustav, 1000-1001, 1847
Mahler-Schoénberger, Margaret, 1001-1003
on adolescence, 28
on autism, 136, 139, 503, 1001
Bak and, 147
Blos and, 197
boundary violations and, 209
Burrow and, 237
Canadian psychoanalysis and, 244
on developmental processes, 1330
on ego, 467
Hungarian School and, 764
on id, 779
on identity, 794
on individuation, 811, 815, 1598
on infantile psychosis, 824, 825
Journal of the American Psychoanalytic
Association, 897
Katan-Rosenberg and, 908
on lack of differentiation, 932
on negative hallucination, 1125
New York Psychoanalytic Institute/Society
and, 1148
object relations theory and, 1176
on paranoia, 1228
photograph of, II:pl.25
on pregenital stage, 1186
Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, The
and, 1382
on purified-pleasure-ego, 1423
on self, 1582
on self-mutilation, 1573
on separation anxiety, 102
structural theories and, 1666
on symbiosis, 1705-1706
on tics, 1756
on unconscious fantasies, 1818
Mahoney, Patrick J., 245
Maiello, Suzanne, 896
Mailloux, Father Noél, 242
Main, Mary, 126, 822
Main, Thomas Forrest, 601, 699,
1003-1004, 1728
Maison verte de Paris, 428
Major, René
Cahiers Confrontation, Les and, 240
Confrontation and, 314, 327, 328, 612
Societe psychanalytique de Paris and, 1627
Viderman and, 1835
Malamoud, Charles, 241
Malandrin, Marie-Helene, 428
Maldavsky, D., 419
Male, Pierre, 1004-1005
on adolescence, 27
child analysis and, 610
Claude and, 305
Ey and, 539
Held and, 731
Lacan and, 929
Loewenstein and, 989
Malewski, Jan, 1292
Malinowski, Bronislaw Kaspar, 1005-1006
ethnopsychoanalysis and, 527
on Oedipus complex, 1186
Reich, Wilhelm and, 1461
Roheim and, 1005, 1510
Mallet, Jean, 1273, 1275
Malomar Lund Edelweiss, Father, 217
Man a Machine (La Mettrie), 143
Man Against Himself (Menninger), 1045
Man for Himself (Fromm), 651
Manchen, Anna, 1529, 1530
Mandalas, 812
“Mangeur de réves, Le” (Lenormand), 607
Mania, 1006-1007
acute episodes of, 21
manic defenses and, 396, 1007
melancholia and, 1082
self-representation and, 1578
Manic defenses, 396, 1007, 1036
Manic-depressive disorders
acute psychoses and, 21
cocaine addiction and, 308
dipsomania and, 413
introjection and, 870
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
melancholia and, 1038
neuroses and, 1139
superego and, 1690
Manifest dream elements, 437, 438, 442,
947, 948, 1007-1008
ego states and, 489
f
secondary revision and, 1007, 1559
thought and, 1747
Mann, Thomas, 50, 673, 674, 1008-1009,
1387, 1889
Mannheim, Hermann, 684
Mannoni, Dominique-Octave, 1009-1010
Centre de formation et de recherches
psychanalytiques and, 612, 1009,
1010, 1084
Confrontation and, 327
Fanon and, 549
French psychoanalysis and, 612, 613
Groddeck and, 706
Psychanalyse, La and, 1348
Psyché and, 1009, 1350
Mannoni-Van der Spoel, Maud, 1010-1011
on autism, 137
Centre de formation et de recherches
psychanalytiques and, 612, 1009,
1010, 1084
child analysis and, 610
Confrontation and, 327
Dolto-Marette and, 427
Ecole experimentale de Bonneuil and, 456
Espace analytique, L’ and, 611, 612,
1010, 1084
French psychoanalysis and, 612, 613
on infantile psychosis, 826
on pass, 1243
Psychanalyse, La and, 1348
Manquant, Marcel, 1014
Manquant, Mrs. Marcel, 1014
Man's Search for Meaning (Frankl), 615
Manta, Neves, 214
Manuel alphabetique de psychiatrie
(Porot), 1098
Manuel de psychiatrie (Ey, Bernard, and
Brisset), 540
Manzano, Juan, 1701
Mapelli, James, 247
Marcano, Serapio, 567
Marcé, Louis-Victor, 91, 1298, 1421
Marcinowski, Johannes, 674,
1011-1012, 1411
Marcondes, Durval Bellegarde, 1012-1013
Brazilian psychoanalysis and, 214, 215, 216,
217, 919, 1012-1013, 1295
Franco da Rocha and, 614-615, 1012
2135
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Marcuse, Herbert, 31, 1013
Austrian psychoanalysis and, 134
on capitalism, 1632
French psychoanalysis and, 612
Marxism and, 1013, 1018
philosophy and, 1271
on politics, 1293
Marcuse, L., 1703
Marechal, J., 157
Marette, Francoise. See Dolto-Marette,
Francoise
Marette, Philippe, 934
Mariategui, José Carlos, 1253, 1832
Marie, Pierre, 106, 1529
Marinescu, Gheorghe, 1511
Mario and the Magician (Mann), 1009
Maritain, Jacques, 363, 1152
Markovic, Aleksandr, 1884
Markuszewicz, Roman, 1292
Marmor, Judd, 993
Marnie (film), 293
Marquez, J. A., 315
Marr, Wilhelm, 1437
Marseilles, Walter, 919
Martin, I. H., 131
Martin, R., 131
Martinet, Andre, 1153
Martinican psychoanalysis, 1013-1015
Martinique. See Martinican psychoanalysis
Martins, Cyro, 215, 216, 566, 1015, 1015
Martins, Mario, 215, 216, 217, 1015
Martins, Zaira. See Bittencourt de
Martins, Zaira
Marty, Pierre, 1015-1017
on actual vs. defense neuroses, 20
on allergies, 47, 48
on anxiety neurosis, 1137
on asthma, 124
Bouvet and, 211, 1016
on character, 270, 273-27
on disintegration anxieties, 418
on disorganization, 420—421, 1460
on essential depression, 523
on excitation, 534
on fixation, 588
on fusion/defusion, 659
on mentalization, 1046
on operational thinking, 1198—1199
on organodynamic current, 1392
on preconscious, 1300—1301
on psychic causality, 1354
on psychic energy, 1356
2136
on psychosomatic limit, 1409-1410
on psychosomatics, 610, 1016, 1198, 1407,
1408, 1409
Schlumberger and, 1016, 1542
Societe psychanalytique de Paris and,
1016, 1626
on stranger anxiety, 1664
on work of the negative, 1130
Marui, Kiyoyasu, 887, 921
Marxism, 1017-1018
Adler and, 1643
Adorno and, 31, 1018
on alienation, 43, 44
Althusser and, 53
Austrian psychoanalysis and, 134
Bernfeld and, 169, 1017
Bleger and, 193
Caruso and, 249
Deleuze/Guattari and, 98
Detski Dom and, 402
Fenichel and, 579
French psychoanalysis and, 612
Fromm and, 651, 1017
Gross and, 708
on ideology, 795-796
Lacan and, 611, 1018
Marcuse and, 1013, 1018
Morgenthaler and, 1074
philosophy and, 1271
politics and, 1293
Politzer and, 1294
Rittmeister and, 1505
surrealism and, 1695
Weltanschauung and, 1855
Masciangelo, Pier Mario, 1701
Masculine protest, 1018-1019
castration complex and, 252
narcissism and, 1105
penis envy and, 1246
primary narcissism and, 1110
rejection of femininity and, 575, 1018
Masculinity/femininity, 1019-1020
activity/passivity and, 16, 17, 576, 1020
animus/anima and, 86-87
bisexuality and, 186-187, 1019
castration complex and, 252
container-contained and, 340
feminist views of psychoanalysis and,
576, 5
gender identity and, 668-669, 1020
homosexuality and, 757
hbido and, 1594
See also Femininity
Masks of Love and Life (Sachs), 1524
Masochism, 1020-1022
active technique and, 16
activity/passivity and, 17, 1021
aggression and, 33 :
alcoholism and, 41
anal-sadistic stage and, 74, 518, 1021
anorexia nervosa and, 91
Bergler on, 153
character and, 271
conflict and, 326
death instinct and, 371, 372, 512
desexualization and, 399
Deutsch-Rosenbach on, 405
dismantling and, 420
Enriquez-Joly on, 506
Eros and, 513
erotogenic, 517-518, 1021, 1022, 1125,
1130, 1315-1316, 1475
ethics and, 526
feminine, 572, 576, 1021, 1022, 1258
fundamental rule and, 657
fusion/defusion and, 659
guilt and, 717, 1022
melancholia and, 1039
Nacht on, 1101
negative therapeutic reaction and, 1126
orality and, 1202
orgasm and, 1210
paranoia and, 1230
perversion and, 1258
sadism and, 1020, 1021, 1022, 1315,
1525-1526
self-mutilation and, 1572
self-punishment and, 1577
skin and, 1612, 1613
subject's castration and, 1676
suffering and, 1684
turning around and, 1806-1807, 1808
See also Moral masochism; Sadomasochism
Masochisme mortifére et Masochisme gardien
de la vie (Rosenberg), 1807
Masotta, Oscar, 1638
Mass Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego
(Freud), 1293
Mass Psychology of Fascism, The (Reich),
1018, 1022-1023, 1461
Massachusetts Institute of Psychoanalysis
(MIP), 208
Masserman, Jules, 58
Massiére, Jacqueline, 1350
Masson, André, 1696 ,
INTERNATIONAL Dictionary oF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Masson, Jeffrey, 735, 1143
Master/slave dialectic, 43-44
Mastery, 1023-1026
breastfeeding and, 221
cruelty and, 354, 355, 917, 1025
dipsomania and, 412, 413
erotogenic zones and, 519
knowledge instinct and, 917, 1025
mirror stage and, 1058, 1059
music and, 1088
patient physical position and, 541-542
sadism and, 1024, 1025, 1526
Masturbation, 1026-1027
activity/passivity and, 17
addiction and, 23
adolescence and, 27, 29
Bornstein on, 205
dipsomania and, 412
dream symbolism and, 441
Eckstein case and, 454
feces and, 564
female sexuality and, 1635
jouissance and, 894
knowledge instinct and, 1747
mastery and, 1025
orgasm and, 1209
prohibition of, 1332
rituals and, 1503
sexual theories of children and, 1591
superego and, 205, 1026
tics and, 1756
Matecki, Wladislaw, 1292
Maternal, 1027-1028, 1092
Maternal care, 136, 1028-1030
See also Environment; Good-enough
mother; Mother-infant bond
Maternal reverie, capacity for, 52, 127-128,
1030-1031, 1169, 1317, 1340
Maternality, 1298
Matheme, 1031-1032
Mathieu, Michel, 162
Mathieu, Pierre, 864
Mathilde case, 1032-1033
Matic, Vojin, 1885
Matrix, 601
Matte-Blanco, Ignacio, 1033
Chilean psychoanalysis and, 284, 285
Federacion psicoanalitica de América latina
and, 565
Italian psychoanalysis and, 881
on unconscious, 1816
Matter and Memory (Bergson), 1042, 1043,
1351
Maturation, 1033-1034, 1757
Maturational Processes and the Facilitating
Environment, The (Winnicott), 1107
Mauco, Georges, 1034-1035
Berge and, 161
Centre psychopédagogique Claude-
Bernard and, 265, 559, 609
Clark-Williams and, 304
Laforgue and, 934
Psyché and, 1350
Societe fran¢aise de psychanalyse and, 1619
Maudsley, Henry, 131, 695
Mauger, Jacques, 245
Maurey, Gilbert, 415
Maurois, André, 1350, 1387
Maurras, Charles, 661, 1283, 1624
Mauss, Marcel, 153, 1000, 1631
May, Rollo, 181, 1445
Maylan, Charles E., 1891
MBTI (Myers-Briggs Type Indicator), 1396
McCarthyism, 511
McDougall, Joyce
on alcoholism, 42
on anti-analysand, 75
on anxiety neurosis, 1137
on bulimia, 233
feminist views of psychoanalysis and,
576, 578
French psychoanalysis and, 613
Inconscient, L’ and, 807
on indications/contraindications for
psychoanalysis, 809
on infantile psychosis, 828
Lebovici and, 955
on perversion, 1256
Schlumberger and, 1542
Société psychanalytique de Paris and,
1626, 1628
McDougall, William, 696
McFarlane, Donald, 1529
Mead, George Herbert, 1567
Mead, Margaret, 1035-1036
Devereux and, 410
Fromm and, 651
on Oedipus complex, 1186
U.S. psychoanalysis and, 1825
Wolfenstein and, 1870
Meaning, 1584
“Médecine ou philosophie?”
(Politzer), 1294
Mediation, 43, 44, 78
Mediator figures, 30
Meédications psychologiques, Les (Janet), 886
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
Medicine and psychoanalysis
Allgemeine Arztliche Gesellschaft fiir
Psychotherapie and, 49
American Psychoanalytic Association and,
61, 62—63, 856, 858-859
analyzability and, 81
Balint groups and, 147-148
Belgian psychoanalysis and, 157
Boston Psychoanalytic Society/Institute
and, 207, 208
Brazilian psychoanalysis and, 217
British Psycho-Analytical Society and,
229-230
British psychoanalysis and, 696
Cénac on, 261
Clark-Williams trial and, 304, 609, 1034
Ecole experimentale de Bonneuil and, 456
Ey on, 539
German psychoanalysis and, 678-679
hysteria and, 773
lay analysis and, 950-951
payment for treatment and, 1069
See also Lay analysis
“Medusa’s Head” (Freud), 556, 990
Megalomania, 1036-1037
borderline conditions and, 203
heroic self and, 740-741
mania and, 1006
narcissism and, 1106
Mehler, Anati, 1086
Mehler, Jacqueline Amati, 859
Meier, Carl A., 80
Meissner, William W., 1314
Melancholia, 1037-1039, 1082-1083
abandonment and, 3
Abraham, Karl on, 6, 1037, 1038,
1039, 1082
acute episodes of, 21
ambivalence and, 21, 57, 1038, 1082
anal eroticism and, 514
anality and, 72
anorexia nervosa and, 91
anxiety and, 100
coprophilia and, 346
death instinct and, 372
ego and, 465
internal objects and, 849-850
mania and, 1006
megalomania and, 1036
mourning and, 21, 394, 1037-1038
narcissism and, 1106
object loss and, 994, 1037-1038
oral-sadistic stage and, 1038, 1082, 1203
2137
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
self-punishment and, 1577
self-representation and, 1578
social feeling and, 1618
suicide and, 1687
ulcerative colitis and, 1813
See also Depression
“Melancholia and Obsessional Neurosis”
(Abraham), 1038
Melancholic depression. See Melancholia
Melancholy (Botero), 1618
Mello Filho, J., 216
Melman, Charles
on alcoholism, 42
Association Freudienne internationale
and, 1084
Centre d’études et de recherches
freudiennes and, 1083
on dipsomania, 413
Ecole de la Cause freudienne and, 455
Ecole freudienne de Paris and, 458
Meltzer, Donald
on adhesive identification, 24, 137
on anality, 72
Argentinian psychoanalysis and, 118
on autism, 137, 138, 139
child analysis and, 1732, 1733, 1783
on dismantling, 419
on fantasy, 552
on hatred, 729
on infantile psychosis, 825
Italian psychoanalysis and, 879, 880
on Love-Hate-Knowledge links, 996
Portuguese psychoanalysis and, 1297
on postnatal depression, 1297
on pregenital stage, 1186
on psychotic defenses, 1414
on reparation, 1472
Simmel and, 1612
on splitting of the object, 1642
structural theories and, 1666, 1666
on sucking, 1682
Melville, Herman, 1087
Memoir of the Future, A (Bion), 184,
1039-1040
Memoire sur la découverte du magnétisme
animal (Mesmer), 84
Memoirs of My Nervous Illness (Schreber).
See Schreber case
Memoirs oft he future, 1039-1040
Memories, 1040-1042
reminiscences, 1470-1471
screen memories, 26, 702, 1040, 1042,
1467, 1555-1556
2138
See also Memory
Memories, Dreams, and Reflections
(Jung), 902
Memory, 1042-1043
constructions and, 335-338
cryptomnesia, 356-357, 591-592
dream-like, 439
Enriquez-Joly on, 506-507
fantasy and, 554
Greenacre on, 702
historical reality and, 748
“Note upon the ‘Mystic Writing Pad’, A”
on, 1063-1064, 1160, 1340
remembering, 1467-1468
See also Amnesia; Memories; Mnemic
traces
Memory chains, 1040
Memory traces. See Mnemic traces
Menahem, Ruth, 1309, 1500, 1629
Menaker, Esther, 1445
Mendel, Gérard, 611, 612, 731, 1629, 1632
Mendes, Henrique, 215
Mendilaharsu, Carlos, 1829
Mendonca Uchéa, Darcy, 214, 216, 566
Mendoza, Josefina, 1052
Meng, Heinrich, 1044
Federn, Paul and, 568
Fromm-Reichmann and, 652
German psychoanalysis and, 675, 940
Goethe Prize and, 687, 1044
Psyche and, 1350
Rivista di pscioanalisi and, 1508
Schneider and, 1544
Sigmund Freud Institute and, 1602
Swiss psychoanalysis and, 1703
Zeitschrift fiir psychoanalytische Padagogik
and, 1886
Menninger, Karl A., 1045-1046
on abstinence, 8
Brunswick and, 233
Devereux and, 409
Ellenberger and, 497
Kosawa and, 921-922
Menninger Clinic and, 1044
photograph of, II:p1.26
San Francisco Psychoanalytic Society and
Institute and, 1529
on self-mutilation, 1572
Menninger, Will, 1529
Menninger Clinic, 1044-1045, 1268, 1661
Menschik-Bendele, J., 135
Menstruation, 1616
Mentalization, 18, 69, 274, 1046
Menzerath, Paul, 116
Mercier, Charles, 696
Merger transference. See Fusion transference
Meringer, Rudolf, 981
Merleau-Ponty, Maurice, 1046-1047
Colloque sur I’ inconscient and, 314, 610
Dalbiez and, 363 j
French psychoanalysis and, 613
on phenomenology, 1047, 1266
philosophy and, 1271
Politzer and, 1294
Mesmer, Franz, 84, 497, 713
Metamorphoses of the Soul and its Symbols
(Jung), 1766
Metaphor, 1047-1048
Arlow on, 119
cathexis and, 260
contact and, 339
displacement and, 422
formations of the unconscious and, 598
Freud’s use of, 260, 324, 367-368
linguistics and, 982
Sharpe on, 1600
signifier/signified and, 1606
signifying chain and, 1607
subject’s desire and, 1677
“symptoms and, 1718
Metaphysics, 1640
“Metapsychological Supplement to the
Theory of Dreams, A” (Freud), 1048-1049
on amentia, 58
on day’s residues, 368
on hallucinatory wish-fulfillment, 1866
myth of origins and, 1092
on negative hallucination, 1124, 1477
on reality testing, 1451
on regression, 1116, 1460
on sleep/wakefulness, 1614
on somnambulism, 1636
Meétapsychologie du sens (Widlécher), 13
Metapsychology, 1049-1050
agency and, 33
amnesia and, 65
anticathexes and, 94
Aulagnier-Spairani on, 130
bipolar self and, 185
Bowlby on, 212
censorship and, 262
character and, 269
claustrophobia and, 306
compulsion and, 322
constructions and, 335
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
conversion and, 345
deferred action and, 380
dependence and, 392
discharge and, 417
Ego and the Id, The and, 470
emotions and, 501
empathy and, 502
on excitation, 533
experience of satisfaction and, 536
Favreau on, 562
fundamental rule and, 656, 657
fusion/defusion and, 659
hallucinatory and, 722
hypnoid states and, 768
id and, 779-780
idealized parental imago and, 784
incompleteness and, 805
“Instincts and Their Vicissitudes” on, 838
interpretation and, 863
intersubjective/intrasubjective dichotomy
and, 867
It and, 201
lay analysis and, 1432
Marty on, 1016
mnemic traces and, 1065
myth of origins and, 1092
mythomania and, 1098
narcissistic injury and, 1112
neurophysiology and, 213
operational thinking and, 1198
orgasm and, 1209
pairs of opposites and, 1220-1221
perception-consciousness system and, 1248
perversion and, 1257-1259
phantom and, 1265-1266
philosophy and, 1270
on preconscious, 1300-1301
psychic causality and, 1354
psychic energy and, 1355
psychic representative and, 1358
psychoanalytic research and, 1379
psychobiography and, 1388
puberty and, 1421
“Remembering, Repeating and Working-
Through” and, 1469
repetition compulsion and, 1475
representation and, 780, 781
repression and, 1479-1480, 1483-1484
Rubinstein on, 1517
Schultz-Hencke on, 1547
self-object and, 1575
self psychology and, 1576
semiology and, 1380-1381
stages and, 1652
structural theories and, 1666
sublimation and, 1679
substitute formations and, 1681
superego and, 1691
suppression and, 1694
symbolization and, 442
termination of treatment and, 77
twinship transference and, 1810
unconscious and, 1820-1821
as Witch, 1868
work of the negative and, 1129
See also Dynamic point of view; Economic
point of view; Topographical point of
view
“Metapsychology” (Freud), 323, 786, 805,
838, 1257
“Metapsychology of Pleasure, The”
(Saussure), 1536
“Méthode psychanalyse et les “Abwehr-
Neuropsychosen’ de Freud” (Claude), 304
Méthode psychoanalytique, La
(Saussure), 1536
Metter des parents, Le (Berge), 162
Metonymy, 1050-1051
condensation and, 324
contact and, 339
demand and, 388
displacement and, 422
formations of the unconscious and, 598
linguistics and, 982
object a and, 1173
signifier/signified and, 1606
signifying chain and, 1607
subject’s desire and, 1677
Meétraux, Alfred, 1774
Mette, Alexander, 677
Metz, Christian, 294, 295
Mexican psychoanalysis, 651, 1051-1052
Mexican Psychoanalytic Association. See
Asociacion psicoanalitica mexicana
“Mexican War Hieroglyphs” (Balint-
Szekely-Kovacs), 149
Meyer, Adolf F., 1052-1053
Brill and, 227
Burghdlzli Asylum and, 236
Burrow and, 237
Freud U.S. visit and, 1822
Frink and, 649
Greenacre and, 702
Hartmann and, 727
Japanese psychoanalysis and, 887
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
photograph of, II:pl.27
Schilder and, 1538
on schizophrenia, 1053, 1540
Thompson and, 1745
Washington Psychoanalytic Society
and, 1849
Meyer, J. E., 91
Meyer-Palmedo, Ingeborg, 1669-1670
Meyerson, Ignace, 887, 1053-1054, 1677
Meynert, Theodor, 637, 1054-1055, 1837
on amentia, 57-58, 1054
Freud’s autobiography and, 139
Kantianism and, 905
Mathilde case and, 1032
Mezzan, Renato, 216
Michaux, Henri, 157
Michaux, Léon, 824
Michelangelo, 107, 985, 1079, 1659, 1842
Michigan Association for
Psychoanalysis, 1658
Microstructures, 1576
Midlife crisis, 30, 1055, 1055-1056
Mieres de Pizzolanti, Gloria, 1829
Mijolla, Alain de
on alcoholism, 42
on cinema, 295
Confrontation and, 327
on Goethe, 687
on heroic self, 739
on identification, 790
on identification fantasies, 791
on individual, 811
on intergenerational phenomena, 846
International Association of the History of
Psychoanalysis and, 851
on phantom, 1266
on primal fantasies, 1308
on psychoanalytic treatment, 1729
on secrets, 1560
Société francaise de psychanalyse and, 1619
Société psychanalytique de Paris and,
1628, 1629
Mijolla-Mellor, Sophie de
on certainty, 266
on cinema, 294
on drives, 447
on ideology, 795, 796
on jokes, 890
on knowledge instinct, 918
on parricide, 1239
on passion, 1244
on pleasure in thinking, 1289
on Quatrieme Groupe, 1430
2139
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
on sense/nonsense, 1585
on thought identity, 1749
Topique and, 1759
on truth, 1805
on uncanny, 1816
on work, 1876
Mikota, Vaclav, 361
Milieu therapy, 172
Military, 711, 1458
Milk. See Breastieeding
Mill, John Stuart, 223, 1290, 1873
Miller, Emanuel, 684
Miller, Jacques-alain
Brazilian psychoanalysis and, 217
Champ Freudien, Le and, 611
Ecole de la Cause freudienne and, 455, 612
Ecole freudienne de Paris and, 458, 612
Ecrits (Lacan) and, 460, 612
Italian psychoanalysis and, $80
Lacan and, 931
Lacan seminars and, 1583
Omnicar? and, 458, 1211
Scilicet and, 1552
Spanish psychoanalysis and, 1638
student protests (1968) and, 612
Miller, Jean Baker, 577
Miller, Judith, 455
Millet, Jack, 852
Millet, Kate, 576
Milner, Jean Claude, 327, 982
Milner, Marion, 937
Mind, 1348
Mind and Its Disorders (Stoddart), 696
“Mind and its Relation to the Psyche-Soma”
(Winnicott), 688
Minde, Klaus, 1304
Minkowska-Brokman, Francoise, 261, 1056
Minkowski, Eugéne, 1056-1057
arrest of, 261
Colloque sur I’ inconscient and, 314,
315, 610
Evolution psychiatrique, L’ and, 532,
539, 1283
French psychoanalysis and, 607-608
Minkowska-Brokman and, 1056
on mythomania, 1098
on phenomenology, 1057, 1267
Minkowski, Jeanine, 261
Minotaure, 1695
Minutes of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society,
1057-1058
MIP (Massachusetts Institute of
Psychoanalysis), 208
2140
Miracle grec, Le (Saussure), 1536
Miro, Joan, 1695
Miro Quesada, Oscar, 1253
Mirror stage, 1058-1059
child analysis and, 280
ego and, 467
ethology and, 528
Tand, 775-776
ideal ego and, 481
identification and, 775, 790, 1107
identificatory project and, 793
infant development and, 815
infantile psychosis and, 826
Land R schemas and, 927
lack of being and, 1848
narcissism and, 1107
optical schema and, 1201
pictogram and, 1286
self-image and, 1572
Shakespeare and, 1598
visual and, 1840-1841
“Murror Stage” (Lacan), 798, 813, 1578
on self-consciousness, 1569
Mirror transference, 52, 1059-1060,
1115, 1580
Mirroring, 601
Mirski, Joseph, 1292
Mischung/Entmischung. See Fusion/defusion
Misés, Roger
child analysis and, 280, 610
on infantile psychosis, 825
on phobias, 1276
on prepsychosis, 1306
Missenard, André, 610, 947
Mitchell, Juliet, 328, 576
Mitchell, Stephen, 1176
Mitrani, Judith, 125
Mitscherlich, Alexander, 1060-1061
German psychoanalysis and, 677, 679, 1060
Marxism and, 1018
Psyche and, 1351
Sigmund Freud Institute and, 1602
Swedish psychoanalysis and, 1699
Swiss psychoanalysis and, 1703
Mitscherlich-Nielson, Margarete, 131
677, 1351
Mnemic image, 1677
>
Mnemic symbols, 58, 179, 345, 1041,
1061-1062
Mnemic traces, 1062-1065
amnesia and, 64
biological bedrock and, 182
character and, 272
collective psychology and, 312
consciousness and, 334, 1063-1064, 1065
constructions and, 338
day’s residues, 367-368.
deferred action and, 379, 380, 1064
Development of Psycho-Analysis on, 407
experience of satisfaction and, 536
fear and, 563
id and, 778
ideational representative and, 786
infantile amnesia and, 820
lifting of amnesia and, 976
maternal and, 1027
memories and, 1041
mentalization and, 1046
mnemic symbols, 58, 179, 345, 1041,
1061—1062
myth of origins and, 1093
representation and, 781
wishes and, 1867
word-presentations and, 1874
working over and, 1878
See also Day’s residues; Mnemic symbols
Mobius, August Ferdinand, 225
Mobius, Paul Julius, 1657
Mobius strip, 1667, 1761, 1814
Modelli psicoanalitici: Mito, Passione,
Memoria (Corrao), 347
Modern conflict theory, 1065-1067
Modern Treatment of Nervous and Mental
Diseases, The (Jelliffe and White), 889
Modesty, 1067
Moebius, Paul J., 1587
Moi-peau. See Skin-ego
Mois chez les filles, Un (Choisy), 290
Moll, Albert, 757, 965, 967
Mom, Jorge Mario, 118, 1067-1068
“Moments d'une psychanalyse” (Jouve and
Reverchon-Jouve), 898, 1493
Momogliano, Nissim, 881
Monakow, Constantin von, 195
Moncy, René de, 82, 1698-1699, 1831
Monette, Lise, 245
Money, 1068-1069
anal eroticism and, 514, 519
erotogenic zones and, 519
feces and, 564
sublimation and, 1679
Money, John, 668
Money-Kyrle, Roger Earle, 696, 697,
1069-1070, 1338
Monism, 20, 975, 1070-1071, 1106
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Moniz, Egas, 1295-1296
Monjauze, M., 42
Monod, Mireille, 78
Monroe, Marilyn, 644, 1503
Montagner, Hubert, 1618
Montaigne, Michel de, 1026
Montessori, Maria, 131
Montgrain, Noél, 245
Montrelay, Michéle
Confrontation and, 327
Ecole freudienne de Paris and, 458
on female sexuality, 365, 574
feminist views of psychoanalysis and, 577
Peraldi and, 1247
Morais, Deodato de, 214, 1295
Moral anxiety, 1690, 1691
Moral ego, 1596
Moral masochism, 1021-1022, 1071-1072
death instinct and, 372, 1072
Eros and, 513
erotogenicity and, 521
guilt and, 717, 1022, 1071
sadomasochism and, 1527
self-punishment and, 1577
superego and, 1071, 1072, 1691
Morane, George, 1732
Moreau de Tours, Jacques, 386, 827
Moreau de Tours, Jean-Jacques, 1672
Moreigne, Jean-Paul, 1430
Moreira, Julian, 213, 214, 1295
Morel, Bénédict-augustin, 1178
Morel, Ferdinand, 1620
Moreno, Jacob Levy, 1072-1073
analytic psychodrama and, 78
on group psychotherapies, 713, 1072, 1371
Kestemberg-Hassin and, 911
Lebovici and, 954
Moreno Robles, Alfonso, 1052
Morgan, Christiana, 1087
Morgenstern, Sophie, 1610
Morgenstern-Kabatschnik, Sophie,
1073-1074
child analysis and, 280, 1073
death of, 608
Dolto-Marette and, 427, 1073, 1346
Heuyer and, 744
Rivista di pscioanalisi and, 1508
Morgenthaler, Fritz, 1060, 1074, 1703
Morichau-Beauchant, Pierre Ernest René,
196, 607, 1074-1075
Moritz-Freud, Maria, 634-635
Moro, Marie-Rose, 1775, 1849
Moroccan psychoanalysis, 1154, 1155
Morpurgo, Enzo, 880
Morra, Mauro, 879
Morselli, Enrico, 878, 1075-1076
“Mort d’CEdipe, La” (Bloch), 196
Morton, Richard, 91
Mosbacher, Eric, 802
Moscovici, Marie, 124, 1078, 1628
Moscovici, Serge, 611, 1322, 1632
Moscow Psychoanalytic Institute, 1639
Moscow Psychoanalytic Society, 1520,
1543, 1881
Mose (Szondi), 1722
Moser-van Sulzer-Wart, Fanny Louise,
1076-1077
See also “Emmy von N.” case
Moses, 1595
Moses (Michelangelo), 107, 985, 1079, 1842
Moses, Raphael, 877
Moses and Monotheism (Freud), 1077-1079
anthropology and, 93
applied psychoanalysis and, 107, 108
on castration complex, 251
collective psychology and, 311
on complemental series, 318
on compromise formations, 321
on cultural transmission, 357
definition of psychoanalysis and, 1365
on ethics, 525-526
on femininity, 574
on historical truth, 749-750
on history, 750
Imago and, 802
Judaism and, 899-900
Loewenstein on, 291
on mnemic traces, 1064
on myth of origins, 1321
mythology and, 1096
on negation, 1123
on politics, 1293
on primitive, 1319
on psychic causality, 1354
publication of, 641
on racism/anti-Semitism, 1438
on repression, 1491, 1492
sexuation and, 1595
sociology and, 1632
on superego, 1690
on taboo, 1723
on totemism, 1769
on visual, 1840
Zweig, Arnold and, 1890
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
Moses-Hrushevski, Rina, 877
“Moses of Michelangelo, The” (Freud), 985,
1079, 1842
Most Dangerous Game, The (film), 294
Mother
abandonment and, 2-3
Ajase complex and, 39, 922
alcoholism and, 41
allergies and, 48
amae and, 56
anal-sadistic stage and, 73
anality and, 72
anxiety and, 99, 102
archaic, 112-113
capacity to be alone and, 247
counter-Oedipus and, 349
dead mother complex, 368-369
female sexuality and, 571, 573, 574
feminist views of psychoanalysis and,
577, 578
good-enough mother, 546, 688
jouissance and, 895
masculine protest and, 1019
maternal care and, 1028—1030
myth of origins and, 552
perversion and, 1255
phallic, 573, 1261-1262, 1263-1264
projective identification and, 51, 52,
121, 306
as prostitute, 342
See also Breastfeeding; Mother-infant bond;
Object relations; Oedipus complex
Mother goddess, 1079-1080
Mother-infant bond
affect and, 1176
Bowlby on, 211-212
Brunswick on, 232—233
Burrow on, 237
censoring the lover in her and, 262
certainty and, 266
children’s play and, 283
clinging instinct and, 307
deprivation and, 397
ego and, 476
ego damage and, 475
ethology and, 528
false self and, 546
father and, 1346
good-enough mother and, 546, 688
handling and, 724-725, 843
holding and, 369, 607, 754, 843, 1582
Tand, 775
illusion and, 797—798
2141
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
individuation and, 811
infans stage and, 812-814
infant observation and, 818
lover's censure and, 1170
maternal care and, 1028-1030
narcissism and, 1107
object and, 1170, 1171
object relations and, 843
passion and, 1244
postnatal depression and, 1297
primary love and, 1315
Rank on, 232
reverie and, 52, 127—128, 1030-1031, 1169,
1317, 1340
sense/nonsense and, 1584
skin-ego and, 1613
thought-thinking apparatus and, 1750
transference and, 1144
weaning and, 1851
Winnicott on, 1862
Zetzel-Rosenberg on, 1887-1888
See also Breast; Breastfeeding; Symbiosis
Motherhood, 1237, 1851
See also Breastfeeding; Mother-infant bond
Parenthood
Motherhood and Sexuality (Langer), 941
“Motives of Paranoiac Crime” (Lacan), 929
Mots el les choses, Les (Foucault), 459
Mouchet, Enrique, 116
Mounier, Emmanuel, 363
Mourning, 1080-1082
abandonment and, 2, 3
acting out and, 11
adolescence and, 28, 29
Certeau on, 266—267
cocaine addiction and, 308
coprophilia and, 346
dead mother complex and, 368-369
depression and, 394, 1081
dreams of, 1083
internal objects and, 849-850
melancholia and, 21, 394, 1037-1038
“On Transience” on, 1195-1196
oral-sadistic stage and, 1203
Racamier on, 1436
self-object and, 1574
vs. Separation, 3
time and, 1757
transmuting internalization and, 1798
war Casualties and, 697
wish for a baby and, 1864
Wolfenstein on, 1870
2142
work of the negative and, 1129
See also Mourning disorder
“Mourning and Its Relation to Manic
States” (Klein), 850, 994
“Mourning and Melancholia” (Freud),
1082-1083
on abandonment, 3
on anal eroticism, 514
on anality, 72
on cultural transmission, 357
on decathexis, 374
on depression, 394
on ego ideal, 1106
on identification, 787-788
internal objects and, 849-850
on introjection, 869
on mania, 1006, 1007
on melancholia, 21, 1037, 1038
on memories, 1041
on mourning, 1080
on narcissistic withdrawal, 1116
on object loss, 994
on oral eroticism, 516
on orality, 1202
on pain, 1281
Schreber case and, 1546
on secondary narcissism, 1111
on self-hatred, 1571
on Shakespeare, 1598
on suffering, 1684
on work, 1876
Mourning disorder, 6-7
Moury, Raoul, 426
“Mouth, Hand and Ego-Integration”
(Hoffer), 752
Mouvement du cout Freudien, 612, 1084
Mouvement Freudien Internationale, 880
Mouvements individuels de vie et de mort,
Les (Marty), 421, 523, 1016
Mr. Deeds Goes to Town (film), 292
.
“M[]re et l'enfant dans les psychoses du
postpartum” (Racamier), 1422
“Mrs. C” case, 1532
Miiller, Christian, 1557, 1701
Miller, F. von, 198
Miuller-Braunschweig, Carl, 1084-1085
Abraham, Karl and, 5
Berliner Psychoanalytische Poliklinik
and, 675
German psychoanalysis and, 677
Goring Institute and, 406, 676, 1085
Karl Abraham Institute and, 166
Kemper, Werner Walther and, 910
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Kemper and, 214
Nazi Germany and, 406, 675, 676,
689, 1085
Schultz-Hencke and, 1547
splits in psychoanalysis and, 1644
Multi-referential analysis, 603
Multidisciplinary interactions, 108-109,
300-301, 309
Multilingualism, 1085-1086
Multiple personalities, 1646
Multzer, D., 1330
Mulvey, Laura, 294, 295
Munier, Alexandre, 1629
Munro, Lois, 131
Minsterberg, Hugo, 295
Miinsterberger, Werner, 1510
Murder of the father. See Myth of origins;
Parricide
Murray, Henry A., 511, 1087, 1395, 1445
Murray, Jessie, 684, 685, 1599
Musatti, Cesare, 1087-1088
Italian psychoanalysis and, 878, 880, 881,
1088, 1199, 1800
Rivista di pscioanalisi and, 1508
Servadio and, 1586
Tomasi and, 1758
Music, 1088-1089
Deutsch and, 404
nostalgia and, 1159
Walter and, 1847
Mussolini, Benito, 879
Mutative interpretation, 1089-1090
Muthmann, Arthur, 674
Mutilation. See Self-mutilation
Mutism, 1852
Mutual analysis, 581, 1090-1091
M’Uzan, Michel de
on allergies, 48
Bouvet and, 211
Gressot and, 703
Inconscient, L’ and, 807
on latent dream thoughts, 947
Marty and, 1016
on operational thinking, 1198
on psychosomatics, 610, 1407, 1409
Revue francaise de psychanalyse and, 1499
Viderman and, 1835
My Analysis with Freud (Kardiner), 907
My Farewell from the Yellow House
(Hollos), 765
“My Relationship with Psychoanalysis”
(Mann), 1009
Myers, Frederick W. H,
amae mama
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
British psychoanalysis and, 695
Flournoy, Théodore and, 592
Fliigel and, 593
Studies on Hysteria and, 1670
on subconscious, 1672
on telepathy, 1181
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), 1396
Mynard, Jacques, 327
Mysteries of a Soul, The. See Secrets of a Soul,
The
Mysterium Conjuncionis (Jung), 902
Mystic writing pad, 1042, 1158-1159,
1613, 1757
Mysticism, 1091
anagogical interpretation and, 71
Freud-Jung split and, 1643
jouissance and, 895-896
oceanic feeling and, 1091, 1181
paranoia and, 1230
Rolland on, 1511
Silberer and, 1608
Myth ofo rigins, 1091-1093, 1238, 1279—
1280, 1321-1322
castration complex and, 251
dipsomania and, 413
Dostoyevsky and, 431-432
family and, 547
fantasy and, 552
father complex and, 557
Ferenczi and, 1739
Group Psychology and the Analysis of the
Ego on, 712, 713, 1321
identification and, 789
Oedipus complex and, 1184, 1322
ontogenesis and, 1197
organic repression and, 1207, 1208
otherness and, 1214
phylogenesis and, 1278
racism/anti-Semitism and, 1438
superego and, 1690
taboo and, 1723
totemism and, 1768
transgression and, 1792
Wednesday Society and, 667
See also Parricide; Phylogenesis
Myth of the Birth of the Hero, The (Rank),
185, 1077, 1093-1094
Myth of the hero, 1094-1095
“Myth of the Unconscious Mind, The”
(Shaw-Bolton), 696
“Mythe de l’antipsychanalyse, Le”
(Politzer), 1294
“Mythical Representations of the Anima,
The” (Jung-Rauschenbach), 903-904
Mythology, 1095-1098, 1099-1100
archaic mother and, 113
archetypes and, 115
Arlow on, 120
bisexuality and, 186
death and, 370
Deleuze/Guattari on, 98
double and, 435
dream interpretation and, 865
dreams and, 443, 1099
femininity and, 573
Freud on, 107, 1095-1097, 1099,
1739-1740
Greek psychoanalysis and, 701
hero and, 1094-1095
heroic identification and, 739
latent dream thoughts and, 947
literature and, 986
pregnancy fantasy and, 1303
primal fantasies and, 1096, 1308
psyche and, 1348
Rank on, 443, 1093-1094, 1095
reversal into the opposite and, 1495
theme of three in, 1739-1740
typical dreams and, 1811
Mythomania, 1098-1099
Nabokov, Vladimir, 493
Nachin, Claude, 846, 1266
Nacht, Sacha Emanoel, 1101-1103
Aubry Weiss and, 128
Belgian psychoanalysis and, 157
Bonaparte and, 200
Bouvet and, 210
CCTP and, 264
Cénac and, 261
Centre de diagnostic et de traitements
psychanalytiques and, 609-610
Claude and, 305, 1101
Congres des psychanalystes de langue
francaise des pays romans and, 330-331
on cure, 359
on death instinct, 372
Diatkine and, 410, 1102
Favez and, 560
Favreau and, 561, 1102
Ferenczi and, 328, 1103
French psychoanalysis and, 608, 609-610
French psychoanalytic establishment split
(1953) and, 560, 609, 929, 1102, 1644
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
Held and, 731, 1102
on indications/contraindications for
psychoanalysis, 809
Institut de psychanalyse de Paris and, 609,
955, 1004
on lay analysis, 951
Lebovici and, 954, 1102 ;
Loewenstein and, 989, 1101, 1103
Marty and, 1016
Nazi Germany and, 1557-1558
on neutrality, 1144
Nodet and, 1152
on psychogenesis, 610
Racamier and, 1102, 1435
Schlumberger and, 1541
Société francaise de psychanalyse and, 1618
Société psychanalytique de Paris and, 1101,
1102, 1624, 1625-1626, 1629, 1630
on tact, 1725
on termination of treatment, 1737, 1738
on training analysis, 1770
Viderman and, 1834-1835
Nachtraglichkeit. See Deferred action
Nacke, Paul, 1105, 1190, 1525
Nesgaard, Sigurd, 390, 391, 1698
Nagler, Shmuel, 877
Naissance du psychanalyse, de Mesmer a
Freud (Chertok and Saussure), 277
Nakedness dreams, 1103-1104, 1810
Name-of-the-Father, 1104
fatherhood and, 558
foreclosure and, 595-596, 1487
imaginary identification/symbolic
identification and, 798
infantile psychosis and, 826
metaphor and, 1048
metonymy and, 1050
myth of origins and, 1092
parade of signifiers and, 1225
phobias and, 1275
psychoses, 1404
Real, Symbolic, and Imaginary father
and, 1452
Real and, 1453
signifier/signified and, 1607
signifying chain and, 1607
Nameless dread, 90
Namnun, Alfredo, 1051
Nancy, Jean-Luc, 241, 327, 1271
Nancy school, 144, 170, 1685
Nannum, Alfredo, 1833
Napoleon Bonaparte, 795, 1402
Narcissism, 1104-1109
2143
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
abandonment and, 2-3
action-thought and, 13, 14
activity/passivity and, 17
adolescence and, 29, 30
aggression and, 34
alcoholism and, 41
allergies and, 48
alter ego and, 52
anality and, 73
Andreas-Salomé on, 84, 1106, 1107
animus/anima and, 87
antinarcissism and, 97, 1114
Balint on, 97, 148-149, 151, 1111
bipolar self and, 185
borderline conditions and, 202, 203
cathexis and, 260
character and, 271
civilization and, 299
creativity and, 14
cruelty and, 355
dead mother complex and, 369
delusions and, 386
dependence and, 392
depersonalization and, 393
depression and, 394
deprivation and, 397
desexualization and, 399
dipsomania and, 413
disavowal and, 416-417
disintegration products and, 419
double and, 429, 434-435
ego and, 463, 465
ego ideal and, 479
ego-instincts and, 483
ego interests and, 484
erotogenic zones and, 519
ethics and, 526
fetishism and, 583
fragmentation and, 605
free energy/bound energy and, 617-618
gifts and, 682
grandiose self and, 691
guilt and, 717
heroic self and, 740
homosexuality and, 757
Horney-Danielson on, 1141
humor and, 762, 763
ideal ego and, 481
idealized parental imago and, 784
idealizing transference and, 785
identification and, 788, 1105, 1107, 1111
identity and, 795, 1324
2144
infantile neurosis and, 821
infantile omnipotence and, 822, 1106
introjection and, 869-870
Kohut on, 278-279
Lampl-de Groot on, 938-939
magical thinking and, 1000
megalomania and, 1036
monism and, 1070
narcissistic injury and, 1112-1113
narcissistic withdrawal, 1116-1117
object-choice and, 70, 1105-1106, 1175
object relations and, 1107, 1171
oceanic feeling and, 296
omnipotence of thoughts and, 1189
oral stage and, 1205
paranoia and, 1228
paranoid-schizoid position and, 1233
patient physical position and, 541
penis envy and, 570
pleasure in thinking and, 1289
psychoanalytic nosography and, 1375
puberty and, 1420
racism/anti-Semitism and, 1438
reverie and, 555
rituals and, 1504
Roheim on, 1510
Rosenfeld, Herbert on, 1106-1107, 1515
Sadger on, 1525
sadism and, 1526
secondary, 1110-1111
self and, 1580
self-image and, 1571
self-mutilation and, 1573
self-object and, 1574
self-preservation and, 1674
self psychology on, 1576
silence and, 1611
skin and, 1612
sleep/wakefulness and, 1614
social feeling and, 1618
stages and, 1652
state of being in love and, 1656
subject of the unconscious and, 1675
sublimation and, 1679
suicide and, 1686
superego and, 1691
symbiosis and, 1706
taboo and, 1724
tics and, 1756
transference hatred and, 1782
transsexualism and, 1799
trauma and, 1801-1802
twinship transference and, 1810
ulcerative colitis and, 1813
visual and, 1840-1841
wish for a baby and, 1864
work of the negative and, 1130
See also Primary narcissism
Narcissism: Psychoanalytic Essays
(Grunberger), 33
“Narcissism in the Structure of the Ego”
(Federn), 568
Narcissism of minor differences, 1109-1110
Narcissistic defenses, 1111-1112
Narcissistic elation, 1112
“Narcissistic Evaluation of Excretory
Processes in Dreams and Neuroses, The”
(Abraham), 517
Narcissistic injury, 1112-1113, 1114
Narcissistic neuroses, 21, 464,
1113-1114, 1139
Narcissistic personality disorders, 2, 1117
Narcissistic rage, 1113, 1114-1115, 1228
Narcissistic transference, 1115-1116
idealizing transference and, 785
Kohut on, 920, 1115-1116
self-object and, 1574
self psychology on, 1576
twinship transference and, 1810
Narcissistic withdrawal, 1116-1117
Narcissus, 27, 429, 1096, 1112
Narco-analysis, 1117-1118
Narjani, A. E.. See Bonaparte, Marie Léon
Narrative of a Child Analysis (Klein), 1501
Narzissmus als Doppelrichtung (Andreas-
Salome), 84
Nasio, Nelba, 428
Natahi, Okba, 1156
Nathan, Tobie, 527, 1775
National Association for the Welfare of
Children in Hospital, 1509
National Psychological Association for
Psychoanalysis (NPAP), 1118, 1146, 1644
“Nature and Function of Phantasy, The”
(Isaacs), 873-874
“Nature of the Child's Tie to his Mother,
The” (Bowlby), 212
“Nature of the Therapeutic Action of
Psycho-Analysis, The” (Strachey), 1663
Naturphilosophie, 673, 674, 686
Nazi Doctors, The (Lifton), 1393
Nazi Germany, 1557-1558
AAGP and, 49
analytical psychology and, 79
anti-Semitism and, 1437, 1438
Aubry Weiss and, 128
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Austrian psychoanalysis and, 133,
135, 1858
Belgian psychoanalysis and, 157
Berliner Psychoanalytische Poliklinik
and, 164
Berliner Psychoanalytisches Institut
and, 166
Bernfeld and, 169
Bettelheim and, 172, 173
Bibring and, 176
Bibring-Lehner and, 177
Bjerre on, 189
Blos and, 196
Boehm and, 164, 198, 199, 406, 675, 676,
689, 852
Bonaparte and, 200
Boston Psychoanalytic Society/Institute
and, 207
British psychoanalysis and, 228, 343, 697
Burlingham and, 236
Caruso and, 248
Chertok and, 276
Claude and, 305
Czech psychoanalysis and, 361
Delay and, 382
Dutch psychoanalysis and, 1133, 1200
Erikson on, 282
Fenichel and, 579
former Yugoslavian psychoanalysis
and, 1884
French psychoanalysis and, 608
Freud, Anna and, 619
Freud family escape from, 133, 235, 343,
608, 621, 622, 626, 631, 641, 893, 899
Freud’s Gestapo comment and, 681-682
Freud’s views on Judaism and, 899-900
Friedlander-Frankl and, 646
Friedlander on, 750
Gardiner and, 664
German psychoanalysis and, 675-676, 679,
852, 1602
G6ring and, 689
Goring Institute and, 406
Groddeck and, 705
Happel and, 725
Hartmann and, 727
H.D. and, 430
Held and, 731
Hellman Noach and, 734
Hilferding-Honigsberg and, 746
history and, 750
Hitschmann and, 752
Hollos and, 756
Hungarian psychoanalysis and, 766
Hungarian School and, 764
International Psychoanalytical Association
and, 856, 858
Internationale Zeitschrift fiir Psychoanalyse
and, 860-861
Internationaler Psychoanalytischer Verlag
and, 801, 803, 862
Isakower and, 874
Jacobson and, 676, 883
Japanese psychoanalysis and, 887
Jones and, 893
Jung and, 902
Katan-Rosenberg and, 908
Kemper, Werner Walther and, 910
Kohut and, 919
Kraus and, 923
Kris and, 924
Kris-Rie and, 925
Laforgue and, 934, 963, 1401, 1625
Lamp] and, 939
Lamp]l-de Groot and, 938
Landauer and, 940
Lebovici and, 954
Lehrinstitut der Wiener
psychoanalytischen Vereinigung and, 959
Loewenstein on, 291
Mahler-Schonberger and, 1001
Mann on, 1009
Marcuse and, 1013
Menninger and, 1045
Mexican psychoanalysis and, 1051
Mitscherlich and, 1060-1061
Money-Kyrle on, 1070
Morgenstern-Kabatschnik and, 1073
Miiller-Braunschweig and, 406, 675, 676,
689, 1085
New York Psychoanalytic Institute/Society
and, 1148
Norwegian psychoanalysis and, 1157
Pappenheim and, 1224
Psyche and, 1351
psychohistory and, 1393
Pyschoanalytische Bewegung, Die and,
1387-1388
Reich and, 675-676, 1018,
1022-1023, 1461
Reik and, 1463
Rickman and, 1501—1502
Rittmeister and, 1505, 1506
Rolland and, 1511
Romanian psychoanalysis and, 1511
Sadger and, 1524, 1525
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
Sainte-anne Hospital and, 1528
Saussure, Raymond de and, 1536
Schultz-Hencke and, 406, 676, 852, 1547
Secret Committee and, 1562
Simmel and, 1611
Société psychanalytique de Paris and,
1624-1625 -
Sokolnicka-Kutner and, 1633
Spielrein and, 1518, 1639
splits in psychoanalysis and, 1644
Sterba and, 172, 1659
Studienausgabe, 1670
Swedish psychoanalysis and, 1699
Szondi and, 1721
U.S. psychoanalysis and, 1529, 1824
Viderman and, 1834
Wiener psychoanalytische Vereinigung
and, 1857-1858
Winterstein and, 1858, 1863
Zweig, Arnold and, 1889
Zweig, Stefan and, 1891
Nederlandsche vereeniging voor psychoanalysise,
498, 1132-1133, 1200
Need for causality, 1118-1120
Need for punishment, 37, 38, 1120-1121,
1126, 1577-1578
Needs, 1575
Negation, 1121-1122, 1122-1123
binding/unbinding and, 180
contradiction and, 341
defenses and, 375
myth of origins and, 1093
work of the negative and, 1129
“Negation” (Freud), 1122-1123
on binding/unbinding, 180, 219
on death instinct, 372
on ego, 465
on experience of satisfaction, 536
on femininity, 573
on hatred, 729
on infant development, 814
on internal/external reality, 847
on myth of origins, 1092
on negation, 1121
on phobias, 1275
on primal, 1286
publication of, 641
on purified-pleasure-ego, 1423
Real and, 1453
on representation, 782
on reversal into the opposite, 1495
on Shakespeare, 1598
on Thing, 1743
2145
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
on thought, 1746
on work of the negative, 1129
on working-through, 1880
Negative, work of, 1129-1130, 1560,
1822, 1876
Negative capability, 1123-1124
Negative hallucination, 1124-1125,
1130, 1477
Negative therapeutic reaction, 1125-1127,
1469-1470
cure and, 359
pain and, 1219
selfpunishment and, 1577
transference hatred and, 1782
work of the negative and, 1130
Negative transference, 77, 1127-1129, 1777,
1781-1782
Nel-Dumouchel, Colette, 45, 46
Nelson, Marie Colemand, 1380
Nemes, Livia, 766
Neo-catharsis, 1464-1465
Neo-Freudian movement, 651
Neopsychanalyse (Schultz~-Hencke), 1131
Neopsychoanalysis, 1130-1131, 1547
German psychoanalysis and, 676, 677,
678, 679
individual psychology and, 26
Miller-Braunschweig and, 1085
Neosexualities, 1256, 1259
Neri, Claudio, 709-710
Nervous Anxiety States and their Treatment
(Stekel), 1131-1132
Netherlands. See Dutch psychoanalysis
Neue Quellen (Andreas-Salomé), 83
Neumann, Ernst, 79
Neurasthenia, 19, 306, 1135, 1135, 1822
“Neurasthenia and “Anxiety Neurosis™. See
“Detaching a Syndrome of Anxiety
Neurosis from Neurasthenia”
Neuro-psychoses of defense, 1138
“Neuro-Psychoses of Defense, The”
(Freud), 19, 1138, 1646
on conversion, 345
on decathexis, 374
on defense mechanisms, 376
on ego, 461—462
on excitation, 533
on guilt, 716, 717
on isolation, 875
on mnemic symbols, 1061
on obsessional neurosis, 1179
on phobic neurosis, 1276
on psychoses, 1404
2146
on psychotic defenses, 1413
on quantitative/qualitative
dimensions, 1427
on repression, 1483, 1485
Studies on Hysteria and, 1671
on substitute formations, 1680, 1681
Neurobiology, 59, 1064
Neurophysiology
archetypes and, 115
automatism and, 143
brain, 212-213
British psychoanalysis and, 695
Briicke and, 231
facilitation and, 542-543
Meynert on, 1054
mnemic traces and, 1062
nonverbal communication and, 1153
USS. psychoanalysis and, 59
Neuroses, 1138-1140
actual vs. defense, 19—20, 231, 326, 345,
420, 1138-1139
anal-sadistic stage and, 74
anxiety, 19, 420, 1135-1137, 1681
autoplastic behavior and, 144
Bergler on, 152—153, 163
body image and, 197
change and, 268
character and, 271, 273-274
Charcot on, 287, 735
choice of neurosis, 287—289, 345, 435
civilization and, 299
complemental series and, 318
complexes and, 319
as developmental disorders, 408
encopresis and, 504
Eros and, 512
erotogenic zones and, 518
ethics and, 525
fate neurosis, 544, 556-557
flight into illness and, 590
forgetting and, 596
gaze and, 990
Horney-Danielson on, 759
incompleteness and, 805
infantile, 75-76, 820-821, 1140
inferiority feelings and, 832
introjection and, 869, 871
mmemic traces and, 1063
narcissistic, 21, 464, 1113-1114, 1139
neuro-psychoses of defense and, 1138
neurotica, 1142—1143
omnipotence of thoughts and, 1189
Other and, 1213
perversion and, 326, 1255
phobic, 19, 306, 1276
process and, 1328
psychosis/neurosis distinction, 1414-1416
rationalization and, 1448
representation and, 781
seduction theory and, 669-670, 735,
1142-1143
self psychology on, 1576
symptoms and, 1715
trauma and, 1801
See also Obsessional neurosis; Traumatic
neuroses
Neurosis and Human Growth (Horney), 759,
1140-1141
“Neurosis and Psychosis” (Freud), 21, 22,
465, 1048, 1139, 1234
Neurotic Constitution, The (Adler), 25,
831, 832
Neurotic defenses, 1141-1142
“Neurotic Mechanisms in Jealousy,
Paranoia, and Homosexuality” (Freud).
See “Some Neurotic Mechanisms in
Jealousy, Paranoia, and Homosexuality”
Neurotic Personality of Our Time, The
(Horney), 759
Neurotica, 1142-1143
See also Seduction theory
Neutrality, 339, 531, 1143-1144
Neutralization, 473
Nevrose @abandon, La (Guex), 2, 715
“Nevrose de caractére et mentalisation”
(Fain), 270, 274
Nevroses de guerre et Traumatisme psychique
(Simmel), 586
Nevroses de Idées fixes (Janet), 886
New Fields of Psychoanalysis (Levy), 1825
New Foundations for Psychoanalysis
(Laplanche), 1566
New German-English Psychoanalytical
Vocabulary, A (Strachey), 1654, 1664
New Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis
(Freud), 1144-1146
on ambivalence, 57
on anality, 72
on anxiety, 563
on anxiety dreams, 103
on automatism, 143
on castration complex, 254
on change, 268
on character, 269, 273
on cultural transmission, 357
on culture, 641
INTERNATIONAL Dictionary oF PSYCHOANALYSIS
or
c-ed
ls
ee
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
on death instinct, 372
on ego, 466
on ego ideal, 479, 1106
on ego-instincts, 483
on feces, 564
on female sexuality, 571, 1753
Hirschfeld, Elfriede and, 747
on identification, 789
on incompleteness, 805-806
on instinctual impulse, 840
on intergenerational phenomena, 845
Kosawa and, 922
on Marxism, 1017
on masculinity/femininity, 572, 1019
on orality, 1202
on phallic mother, 1263
on politics, 1293
on psychic apparatus, 1351, 1352
on psychic causality, 1354
on psychic structure, 1358-1359
on punishment dreams, 1422
on repetition compulsion, 1475
on repression, 1479, 1487, 1491
on subject, 1673
on telepathy, 1735
on Weltanschauung, 1146, 1854
on wish-fulfillment, 1865
New Language for Psychoanalysis, A
(Schafer), 13
New Ways in Psychoanalysis (Horney), 759
New Ways to the Understanding of Youth
(Hug-Hellmuth), 762
New York Freudian Society, 1146-1147
New York Psychoanalytic Institute/Society,
1147-1148
American Academy of Psychoanalysis
and, 58
American Psychoanalytic Association
and, 61
Bak and, 146
Brill and, 227, 1147
Eissler-Selke and, 492
Geleerd and, 668
Greenacre and, 702
Hartmann and, 728
Horney and, 1644
Horney-Danielson and, 1558, 1824
Isakower and, 874
Kardiner and, 906
Lehrman and, 960
Loewenstein and, 988
Lorand and, 991
Rado and, 1441
Reich, Annie and, 1461
Reik and, 1463
Saussure, Raymond de and, 1536
Schilder and, 1538
Schur and, 1548
Stone and, 1661
U.S. psychoanalysis and, 1823, 1824
Wittels and, 1869
Neyraut, Michel
Confrontation and, 327
Inconscient, L’ and, 807
on logic, 990
Martinican psychoanalysis and, 1014
on mythomania, 1098
Societé psychanalytique de Paris and, 1628
on transference, 422-423
Viderman and, 1835, 1836
Neyraut-Sutterman, Marie-Thérése, 48
Nicolaidis, Graziella, 1096, 1097, 1701
Nicolaidis, Nicos, 372-373, 1096, 1097,
1701
Nicoll, Morris, 1457
Niederland, William G., 1060, 1546
Nield, Janet, 131, 132
Nielsen, Nils, 391
Nieto, Marta, 1829
Nietzsche, Friedrich, 1271
Andreas-Salomé and, 83
on civilization, 298
cryptomnesia and, 356
Groddeck and, 705
Groddeck on, 201
Gross and, 707
id and, 777
on individuation, 811
philosophy and, 1270
on self-consciousness, 1569
Zweig, Arnold and, 1889-1890
Night terrors, 1149, 1231, 1636
Nightmare Alley (film), 293
Nightmares, 102-103, 1149-1150
Nihilism, 1855
Nikolic, S., 1884
Nin, Anais, 46, 1150-1151, 1443
1984 (Orwell), 111
Nineteen-Nineteen (film), 293, 294
Nipple. See Breast as good/bad object;
Breastfeeding; Sucking
Nirvana principle, 1151-1152, 1325
constancy principle and, 1151, 1323
death instinct and, 371, 1151, 1152
desexualization and, 399
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PsyCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
discharge and, 417
erotogenic masochism and, 517
excitation and, 534
pleasure principle and, 1151, 1291
protective shield and, 1341
quantitative/qualitative dimensions
and, 1428 ‘
Nishizono, Masahisa, 887
Nitzschke, Bernd, 1608, 1751
Nizan, Paul, 37, 935
No and Yes: On the Genesis of Human
Communication (Spitz), 1641
Nocturnal enuresis, 1636
Nodet, Charles-Henri, 156, 305, 1152-1153
Nodier, Charles, 1624
Noizet, Joseph, 85, 973
Nominalism, 1270
Non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep,
1614, 1636
Non-selectivity, 127, 250
Non-transmission, 1560
Nondelusional psychoses. See Blank
psychoses
Nonidentity, 31
Nonintegration, 843-844
Nonsense, 1584-1585
Nonverbal communication, 152,
1153-1154, 1732-1733
Nordisk Psykoanalytisk Samfund, 1698
Norell, Margit, 1699
Normality and Pathology in Childhood,
Assessments of Development (Anna Freud),
537, 619, 1387
North African psychoanalysis, 1154-1156
North by Northwest (film), 294
Norwegian psychoanalysis, 1156-1158
Nosography. See Psychoanalytic nosography
Nostalgia, 3, 526, 1158-1159
“Note on the Prehistory of the Technique of
Analysis” (Freud), 356, 616
“Note on the Unconscious in Psycho-
Analysis, A” (Freud), 1662
“Note upon the ‘Mystic Writing Pad’, A”
(Freud), 1042, 1063-1064, 1159-1160,
1340, 1819
“Notes on an unusual form of perversion”
(Glover), 686
“Notes on Dream Interpretation”
(Freud), 443
“Notes on Infant Observation in Psycho-
Analytic Training” (Bick), 817, 818
“Notes on Some Schizoid Mechanisms”
(Klein), 418
“Notes on Symbol Formation” (Segal), 1708
2147
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
“Notes on the Psycho-Analytical
Investigation and Treatment of Manic-
Depressive Insanity and Allied
Conditions” (Abraham), 21
“Notes upon a Case of Obsessional
Neurosis”. See “Rat Man” case
Nothnagel, Hermann, 567, 843, 1837
Nourrisson, la mere et le psychanalyste, Le
(Lebovici and Stoléru), 955
Nousiainen, Tapio, 584
“Nouveaux développements sur
Yhallucination négative et la
representation” (Duparc), 1125
Nouvelle Revue de psychanalyse, 124, 611,
913, 1162-116316,1 7
Nouvelle Revue frangaise, 1634
Noy, Pinchas, 877
NPAP (National Psychological Association
for Psychoanalysis), 1118, 1146, 1644
Nuclear complex, 1163-1164
See also Oedipus complex
Nudity dreams. See Nakedness dreams
Nuevos Aportaciones al psicoandlisis de los
suenios (Garma), 666
Numinous, 115, 1164-1165, 1165
Nunberg, Hermann, 1165-1166
Argentinian psychoanalysis and, 117
Bibring-Lehner and, 177
Burgholzli Asylum and, 180
on character, 273
on depersonalization, 393
on ego, 476—477
ego psychology and, 476
Federn, Paul and, 568
Flournoy, Henri and, 591
Foulkes and, 601
on heroic self, 739
Hoffer and, 752
on ideal ego, 481
Lehrinstitut der Wiener
psychoanalytischen Vereinigung, 959
photograph of, II:pl.28
Polish psychoanalysis and, 1291
Reich, Annie and, 1461
Swiss psychoanalysis and, 1700, 1702
on training analysis, 1769
Vienna Ambulatorium and, 959
Waelder and, 1845
Wiener psychoanalytische Vereinigung
and, 1857
Nunes, Portella, 216
Nunez, Carlos, 284
Nuovi orientamenti nella psicoanalisi
(Fornari), 598
2148
Nursing mother. See Breastfeeding
Nyugat, 765
0
Oberdorf, Clarence, 393
Oberholzer, Emil, 1167-1168
Brun and, 231
Burgholzli Asylum and, 236
Pfister and, 1167, 1260
Sarasin and, 1534
Swiss psychoanalysis and, 1513, 1549, 1550,
1700, 1703
Oberholzer, Mira, 1513, 1700
Oberndorf, Clarence, 207—208
Obholzer, Karin, 665
Object, 1168-1172
anaclitic depression and, 70
autoeroticism and, 141
signifiers and, 1605
splitting of, 1642, 1645, 1648-1649
structuralism and, 1668
See also Cathexis; Object-choice; Object
loss; Object relations
Object, change of, 1174-1175,
1185-1186, 1736
See also Female sexuality; Penis envy
Object, choice of. See Object-choice
Object a, 323, 994, 1172-1174
Object-cathexis. See Cathexis
Object-choice, 1168, 1174-1175
allergic object relationship and, 47
anaclitic depression and, 70
autoeroticism and, 141
bisexuality and, 187, 1175
character and, 269
genital stage and, 672
homosexuality and, 1389-1390
love and, 994—995
melancholia and, 1038
narcissism and, 70, 1105-1106, 1175
Object-libido. See Ego-libido/object-libido
Object loss, 993-994
abandonment and, 2, 3
acting out and, 11
anality and, 72
anorexia nervosa and, 91, 92
anxiety and, 99, 101, 102
autism and, 1809
boredom and, 203
breakdown and, 218
cathexis and, 260
decathexis and, 374
depression and, 394
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
deprivation and, 397
ego and, 464
fear and, 563
feces and, 564
guilt and, 716
identification and, 787-788
internal objects and, 849
lack of being and, 1847-1848
mastery and, 1023-1024
maternal and, 1027
megalomania and, 1036—1037
melancholia and, 994, 1037-1038
metonymy and, 1050
mourning and, 21, 849
orality and, 1202
pain and, 1219, 1281
subject’s desire and, 1677
Thing and, 1743
trauma and, 1801—1802
ulcerative colitis and, 1813
work of the negative and, 1129
See also Mourning
Object phobias, 127
Object-presentations, 12
Object-presenting, 843
“Object Relation Theory of the Personality,
An” (Fairbairn), 545
Object relations
aggression and, 34
anal eroticism and, 515
anorexia nervosa and, 92
Bleger and, 194
Bouvet on, 211, 1170
British psychoanalysis and, 697
conflict and, 326
dead mother complex and, 369
depersonalization and, 393
depressive position and, 396
ego and, 465, 467
emotions and, 501
family and, 547, 548
feminist views of psychoanalysis and, 577
Ferenczi on, 581
genital love and, 671
heroic self and, 740
id and, 779
infantile sexuality and, 1753-1754
Kernberg on, 1171-1172
masturbation and, 1026
melancholia and, 1038
mother-infant bond and, 843
mourning and, 697
Oe
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
narcissism and, 1107, 1171
ontogenesis and, 1198
orality and, 1202
organization and, 1209
phobias and, 1275
primary love and, 1315
psychic causality and, 1354
quasi-independence/transitional stage
and, 1429
tenderness and, 1736
thing-presentations and, 1743
transitional phenomena and, 1794,
1795, 1796
work of the negative and, 1130
Object Relations (Lacan), 553, 1452, 1453
Object relations theory, 1175-1177
antilibidinal ego and, 96
birth trauma and, 1803
change and, 268
drives and, 447, 1176, 1177
ego psychology and, 487
Fairbairn and, 546, 1176
feminist views of psychoanalysis and, 576
Japanese psychoanalysis and, 888
Kardiner and, 906
object a and, 1173
Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, The
and, 1382
Sandier and, 1176, 1533
subject’s castration and, 1676
U.S. psychoanalysis and, 1826
Winnicott and, 1176, 1862
Objectalizing function, 1171
Obras Completas (Freud) (Biblioteca Nueva
de Madrid), 175
O’Brien, D., 131
“Observation of Infants in a Set Situation,
The” (Winnicott), 688, 817
Observations and Analyses Drawn from
Analytical Practice (Freud), 1246
“Observations on Transference-Love”
(Freud), 7, 350, 1244, 1785
Obsessional neurosis, 735, 1179-1180
activity/passivity and, 16-17
anal-sadistic stage and, 74, 211
animistic thought and, 86
Bouvet on, 211
compromise formations and, 321
compulsion and, 323, 1180
coprophilia and, 346
death and, 370
as defense neurosis, 19
demand and, 388
as developmental disorder, 408
doubt and, 435
infantile psychosis and, 828
instinctual impulse and, 839
isolation and, 875-876
libido and, 969
melancholia and, 1037
neurotic defenses and, 1141-1142
omnipotence of thoughts and, 1189
phobias and, 1274
“Rat Man” case and, 821, 1178, 1179
religion and, 660
rituals and, 1503, 1504
sadomasochism and, 1527
seduction theory and, 1755
self-punishment and, 1577
substitute formations and, 1681
taboo and, 1724
turning around and, 1808
undoing and, 1180, 1821-1822
“Wolf Man” case and, 649
Obsessions, 1177-1179
action vs. thought in, 18
compulsion and, 322, 1178
vs. delusions, 385
dismantling and, 419
doubt and, 435-436
psychic structure and, 1359
“Rat Man” case and, 1161
See also Obsessional neurosis
“Obsessions and Phobias: Their Psychical
Mechanism and Their Aetiology” (Freud),
322, 1274, 1680
Obsessions et les Impulsions, Les (Pitres and
Régis), 1272, 1459
“Obsessive Actions and Religious Practices”
(Freud), 107, 311, 716, 717, 839, 1466,
1503, 1632, 1723
Obstructive object, 121
Occultism, 640, 1145, 1180-1181, 1735
Oceanic feeling, 265, 296, 660, 899,
1181-1182, 1511
Freud’s self-analysis and, 425
jouissance and, 895
mysticism and, 1091, 1181
narcissism and, 296
Ochonisky, Jean, 1573
Ocnophilic behavior, 149
Odette, case of, 110-111
Odgen, Thomas, on self, 1568
Odier, Charles, 1182-1183
Archives de psychologie, Les and, 302
Baudouin and, 154
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
Carcamo and, 117, 247
Congres des psychanalystes de langue
francaise des pays romans and, 329
Dubal and, 450
Flournoy, Henri and, 591
Gressot and, 703
Guex and, 715 ’
Nodet and, 1152
Psyché and, 1350
Revue francaise de psychanalyse and, 1182,
1497, 1498
Saussure, Raymond de and, 1536
Sechehaye and, 1556
Société psychanalytique de Paris founding
and, 608
Swiss psychoanalysis and, 1620, 1700, 1703
Oedipus, 27, 1093, 1393, 1712
See also Oedipus complex
Oedipus and Hamlet (Jones), 893
Oedipus and the Devil (Roper), 1393
Oedipus complex, 1183-1187, 1593, 1635
abandonment and, 2
Abraham, Nicolas on, 7
adolescence and, 26, 28, 29
aggression and, 34, 35
allergic object relationship and, 47
ambivalence and, 57
animus/anima and, 87
anthropology and, 93
anxiety and, 100, 101
archaic mother and, 112, 113
basic assumptions and, 151
biological bedrock and, 182
bisexuality and, 187
blank psychoses and, 191
borderline conditions and, 202
breast as good/bad object and, 219
castration anxiety and, 101
castration complex and, 252-253, 254
censoring the lover in her and, 262, 1174
Chinese psychoanalysis and, 285
claustrophobia and, 306
collective psychology and, 311
combined parent figure and, 316
conflict and, 326
counter-Oedipus and, 348-349
cultural transmission and, 357
cultural variations in, 59
dead mother complex and, 369
Deleuze/Guattari on, 98
depression and, 395
depressive position and, 396
2149
Wate L gp: er: Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Dento~Waretoen , [347
Gremsan4mhg ,44 2
sani, DES TER SES, LITA BIST—EISE
smuprsssand, Wt
Resang& FSS
sSwgemest amd,
ani} comanc> amd, Ss, Lesh
Sai seni and, S70, 571, 373, 576
Semin wews of psychoanalysis and, 378
Ssiismand,
ent SSF anaivesand, 425, 551
@antai love am, 67 T
ant am TW
muitamé 5 TIG-7IT
qumesswnity and, [Sy
TASES En, RIF
mes ang, RA
Teitvadin amd, F7
SHAME wrest ame, FITS SZ
anne ani, SS]
Santas am, WS
Soren gs<cfuanaives and, S27
lant E stemasamé, 27-923
ater Fema amd, TES, te
wut te Father and, SS]
iihdina: Gseepment and, 965
Gnimuwsar on, 10>
dartncer Tyctwanaives amd, 1014
TRIES ES Deustire amd, RAT
mye Ge rem ame, DR 1527
Trycinness ami, LMG, TOs
Namen Sartter amd, 2 de
mms ame, DSR Ps
TaWweWSs am, 1ST
Tanna, LOT
TTS Bre < ma =
TSS SI ane, LS, DS
TUS Fe,
— en >
TESST SIGS Ewe na
TEtithm. NT
2>¢+ >>
prohibition and, 1332
psychogenic blindness and, 1393
“Rat Man” case and, 1161, 1184
rescue fantasies and, 1487-1488
“Richard” case and, 1500-1501
rivalry and, 1506
sadomasochism and, 1527
secrets and, 1561
self psychology on, 1576
sense/nonsense and, 1584
sexual difference recognition and, 1588
Shakespeare and, 1597
signifiers and, 1605
sociology and, 1632
stages and, 1651
stammering and, 1653
Stoller on, 1660
subject’s desire and, 1678
superego and, 471, 1690, 1691
symbolic and, 1710
symptoms and, 1718
totemism and, 1768
transference neuroses and, 1786
transgression and, 1792
unconscious fantasies and, 1817
violence instinct and, 1839
wish for a baby and, 1864
Oedipus conflict. See Oedipus complex
Oedipus Rex (Sophocles), 1593
Oedipus the King (Sophocles), 107, 985
Ogden, Thomas, 849, 850, 1339
Oblmeier, Dieter, 1602
Okonogi, Keigo, 39, 887, 888
Olagaray, Jorge, 285
Olender, Maurice, 1628
Olfactory theory, 1207
Olivares, Juan Antonio, 1832
Oliveira, Walderedo Ismael de, 214, 215,
216, 217
Ombredane, André, 157
Omnipotence
borderline conditions and, 202-203
ideal ego and, 481
infantile, 822-823, 1106, 1189
megalomania and, 1036, 1037
transitional phenomena and, 1797
Omanipotence of thoughts, 1189-1190
amplification and, 68
animistic thought and, 85, 86, 1189
projective identification and, 1339
rituals and, 1504
taboo and, 1724
thought and, 1748
uncanny and, 1815
On Adolescence: A Psychoanalytic
Interpretation (Blos), 196—197
On Aphasia (Freud)
on attention, 127 e
Deuticke and, 403
on internal/external reality, 847
Jackson and, 539
on memory, 1042
on multilingualism, 1086
publication of, 802
on representation, 781
on word-presentations, 1873
“On Arrogance” (Bion), 51, 121
“On beginning the treatment” (Freud), 422,
541, 616, 664, 835, 1068, 1384
On Countertransference (Heimann), 1440
“On Dreams” (Freud), 1190, 1302
“On Forced Phantasies” (Ferenczi), 95-96
On Hate in Love Relationships: The
Narcissism of Minor Differences Revisited
(Gabbard), 1109
On Jung, Carl Gustav and, 660, 1467
“On Narcissism: An Introduction” (Freud),
1190-1192
on alteration of the ego, 468
on autoeroticism, 141
on castration complex, 252
collective psychology and, 311
on conflict, 326
on dementia, 389
on drives, 445
on ego, 463
on ego ideal, 479
on Eros, 513
on erotogenicity, 519-520
on female sexuality, 573
First World War and, 585
Freud-Jung split and, 639
on functional phenomenon, 654—655
on heroic self, 739
on homosexuality, 757
on hypochondria, 770
on ideal ego, 481
on infant development, 814
Jahrbuch der Psychoanalyse and, 884
on libido, 484-485, 968
on masculinity/femininity, 1400
on monism, 1071
“Mourning and Melancholia” and, 1082
on narcissism, 1104-1105, 1106
on narcissistic withdrawal, 1116
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
on object-choice, 1175
on omnipotence of thoughts, 1189
on organ pleasure, 1205
on paraphrenia, 1234
on penis envy, 1246
on primary narcissism, 1110
on psychoses, 1404
on racism/anti-Semitism, 1438
on secondary narcissism, 1110-1111
on self-consciousness, 1570
on self-esteem, 1570
on Shakespeare, 1598
on Silberer, 1608
on superego, 471, 1690
on turning around, 1807
On Not Being Able to Paint (Blackett-
Milner), 190
“On Parapraxes in Korsakov Psychosis”
(Hartmann), 727
“On Psychic Causality” (Lacan), 929
“On Psychoanalysis” (Freud), 130
“On Psychoanalysis. Sexuality in the
Neuroses” (Aragao de Souza Pinto), 213
“On Psychotherapy” (Freud), 1411
“On Repression” (Balint-Szekely-
Kovacs), 149
“On Repression” (Freud), 1281
“On the Grounds for Detaching a Particular
Syndrome from Neurasthenia under the
Description “Anxiety Neurosis”. See
“Detaching a Syndrome of Anxiety
Neurosis from Neurasthenia”
“On the History of the Psychoanalytic
Movement” (Freud), 1192-1193
on “Anna O.” case, 88
on Chilean psychoanalysis, 284
on complexes, 319
Delgado and, 385
Freud-Jung split and, 639, 1191, 1192-1193
on Hesnard and Régis, 741
on hypnoid states, 768
Jahrbuch der Psychoanalyse and, 884
on Marcinowski, 1011
on Morichau-Beauchant, 1075
on Psychanalyse des névroses et des
psychoses, La, 1361
on repression, 1482, 1485
on Revista de psiquiatria y disciplinas
conexas, 1497
on Studies on Hysteria, 1671-1672
on Swedish psychoanalysis, 1697
“On the Incapacity to Bear Depression”
(Zetzel-Rosenberg), 1888
“On the Mechanism of Sleep and
Dreaming” (Alvarez de Toledo), 55
“On the Nature and Function of Phantasy”
(Isaacs-Sutherland), 552, 801
On the Nightmare (Jones), 893, 1150
“On the Origin of the ‘Influencing Machine’
in Schizophrenia” (Tausk), 971, 1106,
1193-1194, 1727
“On the Psychic Mechanisms of Hysterical
Phenomena” (Freud and Breuer), 225,
384, 768, 1689-1690, 1826
On the Psychoanalysis of War Neuroses
(Simmel), 1612
“On the Psychology and Pathology of So-
Called Occult Phenomena” (Jung), 356
“On the Psychotherapies, for the Practicing
Physician” (Balint), 149
“On the Sexual Theories of Children”
(Freud), 1194-1195
on castration complex, 251
on disavowal, 415
on fantasy, 551
on female sexuality, 574
on infantile sexual curiosity, 1590
on knowledge instinct, 917
on penis envy, 1245-1246
on primal scene, 1310
on secrets, 1560
on thought, 1746
“On the Universal Tendency to Debasement
in the Sphere of Love” (Freud), 252, 342,
346, 995, 1319, 1597-1598, 1616
“On Transformations of Instinct as
Exemplified in Anal Erotism” (Freud),
252, 514-515, 682, 1069
“On Transience” (Freud), 1080, 1081,
1195-1196
Onanism. See Masturbation
One Dimensional Man (Marcuse), 1013
One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest (film), 292
Ontogenesis, 297, 1196-1198
archaic and, 112
maternal reverie and, 1030-1031
phylogenesis and, 1196, 1197, 1277, 1278
Operational thinking, 1198-1199, 1409
Operative thinking. See Operational
thinking
Opere (writings of Sigmund Freud), 1199
Ophelia, 27
Ophuijsen, Johan H. W. Van. See Van
Ophuijsen, Johan H. W.
OPLF (Organisation psychanalytique de
langue frangaise), 129
Oppenheimer, Agnes, 447, 830, 1785
Oppenheimer, Hermann, 1803
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
Oppenheimer, Robert, 1529
Opposites. See Pairs of opposites
Optical schema, 1200-1202, 1840-1841
Oraison, Abby Marc, 156
Oral dependence, 392
Oral eroticism, 515-516
Oral fixation, 41, 91, 394
Oral-sadistic stage, 1203-1204
Abraham, Karl on, 6, 1038, 1082,
1114, 1203
activity/passivity and, 17
anal eroticism and, 515
breastfeeding and, 220, 221
cruelty and, 355
identification and, 787
melancholia and, 1038, 1082, 1203
narcissistic neuroses and, 1114
sadism and, 1525
“vagina dentata” fantasy and, 1831
weaning and, 1851-1852
Oral stage, 1204-1205
Abraham, Karl on, 6, 57, 516, 1203,
1204-1205
activity/passivity and, 17
ambivalence and, 57
t
erotogenic masochism and, 517, 518
oral eroticism and, 516
wish for a baby and, 1864
See also Cannibalistic stage; Oral-sadistic
stage
Orality, 1202-1203
ambivalence and, 57, 1202
Bergler on, 153
bulimia and, 233
conflict and, 326
demand and, 388
pregnancy fantasy and, 1302
See also Oral-sadistic stage; Oral stage
Orchard, William, 132
Ordalia, 1686
Ordre psychosomatique, L’ (Marty),
421, 1016
Orestes, 27
Organ pleasure, 1205-1206
Organic dysfunctions, 22
Organic psychoses, 1206
Organic repression, 1206-1208
Organicism, 37, 539
Organisation psychanalytique de langue
francaise (OPLF), 129
Organization, 1208-1209
castration complex and, 254
ethology and, 528
2151
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
genital stage and, 672
psychosexual development and, 1407
Organization of Independent Medically
Qualified Analysts, 1657
Organizer principle, 1664
Organodynamic current, 1392
Organogenesis. See Psychogenesis/
organogenesis
Orgasm, 26, 1209-1210, 1594
Orgone energy, 1210-1211
Orientations des idées médicales
(Orientations of medical ideas)
(Allendy), 46
Origin of Species, The (Darwin), 366
Original narcissism. See Primary narcissism
Origins of Love and Hate, The (Suttie),
1457-1458
Origins of Psycho-Analysis, The (Freud), 802
“Origins of the Fetishistic Plaything of
Sexual Perversions, The” (Meltzer), 419
Ornicar?, 458, 611, 1211, 1552
Orphism, 1097
Ort, Douglass W., 1529
Ortega y Gasset, José, 175, 1637
Orwell, George, 44, 111
O’Shaughnessy, Edna, 132
Osipov, Nikolai, 1518
Osofsky, Joy, 888
Ossipoy, Nikolai Legrafovitch, 360, 432,
1211-1212, 1411
Osterreichische Arbeitskreise fiir
Psychanalyse, 134
Ostow, Mortimer, 877
Ostwald, Wilhelm, 1070
“Othello” (Green), 1669
Other, the, 930, 1212-1214
alienation and, 43-44
autohistorization and, 142
Big Other, 53, 1202
Certeau on, 266
demand and, 388
ego and, 465
erotogenicity and, 521
ethics and, 526
fantasy and, 554
foreclosure and, 595
Graph ofD esire and, 693-695, 895
hatred and, 729
hysteria and, 773
ideational representation, 785
imaginary and, 799
Land R schemas and, 927
listening and, 984
2152
mirror stage and, 1058-1059
optical schema and, 1200, 1201-1202
phallus and, 1264-1265
repetition compulsion and, 1475
signifiers and, 1605
splitting of the subject and, 1649
subject and, 1673
subject of the drive and, 1674
subject of the unconscious and, 1675
subject’s castration and, 1676
subject’s desire and, 1678
unary trait and, 1814
Other, The (Bahr), 1215
“Other Side of Psychoanalysis, The”
(Lacan), 601-602, 931
Otherness, 1214-1215, 1271, 1774
Other’s object, 1186
Ottalagano, Cesar Augusto, 1832
Otto, Rudolf, 1164
Ouaknin, Marc-alain, 241
“Our Adult World and Its Roots in Infancy”
(Klein), 1567
Our Inner Conflicts (Horney), 759
Oury, Jean, 1765, 1766
“Outline of Psychoanalysis, An” (Freud),
1215-1216
on acting out, 11
on adaptation, 22
on agency, 33
alcoholism and, 42
on attention, 127
on binding/unbinding, 180
on breastfeeding, 221
on compulsion, 322, 323
on dreams of convenience, 344
on ego, 466
on genital stage, 672
on internal/external reality, 848
on latent/manifest dream elements,
947, 1007
on libido, 969, 970
on life instinct, 975
on lifting of repression, 1486
on myth of origins, 1092
on perception-consciousness system, 1248
on pregenital organization, 1302
on psychic apparatus, 1351
on psychic causality, 1354
on scientific nature of psychoanalysis, 1550
on seduction theory, 1564
on splitting of the ego, 1647-1648
on sucking, 1682
on therapeutic alliance, 1740
on word-presentations, 1873
on working-through, 1880
Over-interpretation, 1217
Overdetermination, 325, 1216-1217
Ovesey, Lionel, 907
Oxford Group, 999
Oxford ruling, 1550
P
Pabst, Georg Wilhelm, 674, 1365,
1523, 1562
Pacella, Bernard L., 1600
Pache, Francis, 1640
Pacheco de Almeida Prado, Mario, 215
Pages, Max, 1632
Pailthorpe, Grace, 684
Pain, 1219-1220, 1280-1281
pleasure principle and, 1290
“Project for a Scientific Psychology, A” on,
1219, 1280, 1333
self-mutilation and, 1573
skin and, 1613
Pairing, as basic assumption, 151, 709, 711
Pairs of opposites, 3—4, 1020,
1220-1221, 1495
See also Dualism
See also specific pairs
Paiva, Miller de, 216
Pakesch, Eric, 135
Pakesch, Peter, 136
Palacio, Paco, 1701
Palacio Espasa, Francisco, 1039
Palmade, Guy, 1632
Palmstierna, Vera, 1698
Palo Alto group, 1720-1721
Palos, Elma, 209, 747
Pankejeff, Serguei, 1221-1222
See also “Wolf Man” case
Pankow, Gisela, 1222-1223, 1348,
1404, 1538
Pansexualism, 1593
Pansexualismo na doutrina de Freud, O
(Franco da Rocha), 614
Pantophobia, 1273-1274
Pappadis, Thomas, 279
Pappenheim, Bertha, 338, 1223-1225
See also “Anna O.” case
Paracelsus, 46
Parade of signifiers, 1225
Paradigmatic axis, 1606
Paradox, 433-434, 1127, 1225-1226, 1720
“Paradoxes des schizophrénes”
(Racamier), 1226
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Paradoxical (REM) sleep, 1614
Paranoia, 1226-1231
creativity and, 352
Enriquez-Joly on, 506
homosexuality and, 757, 1227,
1229-1230, 1231
hypochondria and, 770-771
identification and, 790
Kraepelin on, 36-37
Lacan on, 37-38
megalomania and, 1036
melancholia and, 1037
passage to the act and, 18-19
psychoses and, 1403-1404
Schreber case and, 1227, 1229, 1230, 1545
social feeling and, 1618
splitting of the ego and, 1227, 1647
Paranoid position, 396, 1231-1232, 1326
See also Paranoid-schizoid position
Paranoid psychosis, 1232
Paranoid-schizoid position, 1233-1234
adhesive identification and, 24
anal eroticism and, 515
anxiety and, 100-101
archaic and, 112, 113
bizarre object and, 188
Bleger on, 194
defense mechanisms and, 375
disintegration anxieties and, 418
emotions and, 501
Fairbairn on, 697
helplessness and, 734
infant observation and, 816
infantile psychosis and, 826
introjection and, 870
paradox and, 1226
paranoid position and, 1231
paranoid psychosis and, 1232
projective identification and, 1233, 1338
selected facts and, 1566
splitting and, 1646
splitting of the object and, 1642
stammering and, 1653
thought-thinking apparatus and, 1750
Paranormal phenomena, 112, 640, 1145,
1180-1181, 1586, 1816, 1854
See also Telepathy; Uncanny, the
Paraphasia, 1615
Paraphrenia, 1234-1235
delusions and, 386
hypochondria and, 770
paranoid psychosis and, 1232
psychoses and, 1403
secondary narcissism and, 1110
Parapraxes, 1235-1236
conflict and, 325
constructions and, 338
forgetting as, 596, 597
language and, 942
symptoms and, 1715
See also Slips of the tongue
Parasitic relations, 1464
Parat, Catherine, 327, 671, 1174-1175, 1789
Parcheminey, Georges, 1236-1237
Bouvet and, 210, 1236
Clark-Williams trial and, 304
Congres des psychanalystes de langue
frangaise des pays romans and, 329, 330
Delay and, 383, 1236
French psychoanalysis and, 608
Loewenstein and, 989, 1236
Schlumberger and, 1541
Societe psychanalytique de Paris and,
1236, 1623
Parent-infant psychotherapy, 1382, 1784
Parenthood, 160, 1237-1238, 1304-1305
Parenthood and Social Reproduction
(Goody), 1237
Parenthood as a Developmental Phase
(Benedek), 160
Parin, Paul, 1060, 1703
Paris Psychoanalytic Society. See Société
psychanalytique de Paris
Parkin, Alan, 244
Parmenides, 313, 1070
Paroxysmality theory, 1722
Parres, Ramon, 1051
Parricide, 431-432, 526, 1238-1239
castration complex and, 251
family and, 547
fantasy and, 552
identification and, 789
Moses and Monotheism on, 1077, 1078
myth of origins and, 1091-1092
phobias and, 1274
See also Myth of origins
Parsons, Talcott, 31, 1087, 1825
Part, Arturo, 284
Part-objects, 1168
castration complex and, 252
internal objects and, 850
melancholia and, 1038, 1039
paranoia and, 1228
self-mutilation and, 1573
sexuality and, 1594
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
splitting of the object and, 1649
transference and, 1783
See also Object loss
Partial drives, 1239-1241, 1257-1258,
1332, 1506
“Participation mystique”, 1337-1338, 1779
Pasche, Francis Léopold Philippe,
1241-1242
on antinarcissism, 97, 1114
Congres des psychanalystes de langue
francaise des pays romans and, 330
on counter-Oedipus, 348
on excitation, 534
French psychoanalysis and, 609
Granoff and, 692
Inconscient, L’ and, 807
Leuba and, 963, 1242
Marty and, 1016
on moral masochism, 1072
on narcissism, 1111, 1114
on paradox, 1226
Racamier and, 1435
on repetition compulsion, 534
Société psychanalytique de Paris and,
1626, 1628
Pass, the, 458, 1242-1243, 1251
Ecole de psychanalyse Sigmund Freud
and, 456
Ecole Lacanienne de psychanalyse
and, 1084
Leclaire on, 957
Quatriéme Groupe and, 1430
training analysis and, 1770
Passage aT acte. See Passage to the act
Passage a Tacte (film), 292, 294
Passage to the act, 10, 18-19, 1390
Passeron, René, 1696
Passion, 386, 1243-1244
Passivity. See Activity/passivity
Pathologie d limagination et de émotivite
(Dupré), 1098
“Paths of Psychoanalytic therapy, The”
(Freud), 586
Patio, 178
“Paul” (Schlumberger), 1542
Paul, Jean, 673, 891, 1857
Paula, Aloysio de, 214
Pauli, Wolfgang, 1720
Pauluan, Liliana, 285
Paumelle, Philippe
Association de santé mentale and, 610,
911, 955
Diatkine and, 410
2153
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Kestemberg-Hassin and, 911
Racamier and, 1435
Pavlov, Ivan, 286, 414, 678
Payment for treatment, 1068-1069, 1732
Payne, Sylvia May, 1245
Blackett-Milner and, 190
British Psycho-Analytical Society and, 228,
343, S44, 1245
Controversial Discussions and, 343, 344,
697, 1245
on femininity, 577
Glover, James and, 685, 1245
Rycroft and, 1520
Strachey-Sargent and, 1664
Tavistock Clinic and, 1728
Paz, Octavio, 241
Pazmany-Peter University Medical
School, 1721
Pept.-Cs. system. See Perceptionconsciousness
(Pept.-Cs.) system
Peale, Norman Vincent, 193
Pedersen, Stefi, 1698
Pedophilia, 1595
Peeping Tom (film), 294
Pena, Saul, 566, 1253-1254
Penis, 1676
breastfeeding and, 220
disavowal and, 415-416
as good/bad object, 219, 418
See also Castration anxiety; Castration
complex; Penis envy; Phallus
Penis envy, 570, 573, 1245-1246, 1635
aphanisis and, 105
biological bedrock and, 182, 254
castration complex and, 252, 253,
24, 1246
death instinct and, 508
disavowal and, 415
feminist views of psychoanalysis and,
576, 578
fetishism and, 582
object-choice and, 1174
Oedipus complex and, 1185, 1246
Perrier on, 574
phallic stage and, 1263
pregnancy fantasy and, 1302
primary narcissism and, 1110
rejection of femininity and, 575
sexual difference recognition and, 1594
termination of treatment and, 1738
wish for a baby and, 571, 1864
Pensee opératoire, La (Marty and M’Uzan),
1016
2154
Penser, Le: Du Moi-peau au Moi-pensant
(Anzieu), 1341
Penthesilea (Kleist), 1656
Peraldi, Francois, 245, 864, 1247-1248
Perception
consciousness and, 333, 334
dismantling and, 419-420 :
estrangement and, 524
mmnemic traces and, 1062, 1063
mystic writing pad and, 1159-1160
perception-consciousness system and,
1248-1249
representation and, 781
surrealism and, 1696
Perception-consciousness (Pcpt.-Cs.)
system, 1248-1249
Perceptual identity, 536, 1249-1250
Pereda, Alberto, 566, 1829
Pereira Anavitarte, Juan, 1829
Perelberg, Rosine, 577
Perestrello, Danilo, 1250
Brazilian psychoanalysis and, 214, 215,
216, 1250
Carcamo and, 248
Perestrello, Marialzira, 214, 215,
216-217, 248
Peret, Benjamin, 1695-1696
Perez Pastorini, Valentin, 1828
Perez Sanchez, Manuel, 933, 1638
Perfectionism, 1141
Perls, Fritz, 1200
Pernambucan, Ulisses, 214
Perotti, Nicola, 330
Perret, William, 449
Perrier, Francois, 1250-1251
on alcoholism, 42
Aulagnier-Spairani and, 129
Bloc, Le—Notes de la psychanalyse and, 195
Bouvet and, 211, 1251
on claustrophobia, 306
Colloque sur I’ inconscient and, 314, 610
Confrontation and, 327
Ecole freudienne de Paris and, 457,
458, 1251
on female sexuality, 574
French psychoanalysis and, 613
French psychoanalytic establishment split
(1953) and, 692, 1251
French psychoanalytic establishment split
(1964) and, 611, 957, 1251, 1645
Inconscient, L’ and, 807
on pass, 1242, 1243, 1251
on perversion, 1259
Psychanalyse, La and, 1348
on psychogenesis, 610
Quatriéme Groupe and, 611, 807, 1251,
1429-1430, 1645
Societe francaise de psychanalyse and, 1619
Perron, Roger i
on developmental processes, 1330
on genital love, 671 :
on libidinal stages, 967
on phylogenesis, 1278
psychological tests and, 1395
on psychology and psychoanalysis, 1398
on psychosexual development, 1406, 1407
on representation, 782
Societe psychanalytique de Paris and, 1629
on working over, 1878
Perron-Borelli, Michéle
on fantasy, 552-553
on genital love, 671
on libidinal stages, 967
on psychosexual development, 1406, 1407
on representation, 782
Societe psychanalytique de Paris and, 1627,
1630, 1631
on specific actions, 1639
on stages, 1652
on working over, 1878
Perrotti, Nicola, 1251-1252
Corrao and, 347
Italian psychoanalysis and, 878, 879, 881,
1251, 1854
Psyché and, 1350
Rivista di pscioanalisi and, 1508
Servadio and, 1586
Tomasi and, 1758
Weiss and, 1251, 1854
Perse, J., 506
Persecution, 1252-1253
anxiety and, 100, 826, 1039
guilt and, 718
phobias and, 1275
See also Paranoia
Person, Ethel, 576
Persona, 1596
Persona (film), 294
Personality, 32, 37, 38, 334, 350
Personality in Nature, Culture, and Society
(Murray and Kluckhohn), 1087
“Personification in the play of children”
(Klein), 1648
Perspectives de la psychanalyse (Ferenczi and
Rank), 1729
Pertejo, J., 1637
INTERNATIONAL Dictionary oF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Peruvian psychoanalysis, 384—385, 1253—
1255, 1496-1497, 1831-1832
Peruvian Psychoanalytic Society, 1254
Pervasive developmental disorders, 828
Perversion, 1255-1259
alienation and, 44
amphimixia and, 66
Bak on, 147
component instincts and, 1752
dismantling and, 419
Fornari on, 598
gaze and, 990
mastery and, 1024
neuroses and, 326
psychosis/neurosis distinction and,
1415-1416
splitting and, 1646
Stoller on, 1660
voyeurism, 17, 1021, 1675, 1807, 1808,
1842-1843
See also Exhibitionism; Fetishism;
Masochism; Polymorphous perversity;
Sadism
Perversion (Stoller), 1660
Peterfreund, Emanuel, 1517
Petersen, P. C., 390
Peterson, Frederick, 227
Petitot, Jean, 327
Peto, Andrew, 131, 393
Petot, Jean-Michel, 112, 653, 1326
Pfeifer, Zsigmond, 765, 766
Pfister, Oskar Robert, 1259-1261
altruism and, 53
Danish psychoanalysis and, 390
Delgado and, 385
Ellenberger and, 497, 1260
Future of an Illusion, The and, 660, 1260
Hirschfeld, Elfriede and, 747
Institut Jean-Jacques Rousseau and, 302
lay analysis and, 1644
Oberholzer and, 1167, 1260
photograph of, III:pl.2
Piaget and, 1260, 1282
on religion, 1467
Schneider and, 1260, 1544
on sublimation, 1679
Swedish psychoanalysis and, 1698
Swiss psychoanalysis and, 1260, 1513, 1549,
1550, 1700, 1702, 1703
Zeitschrift fiir psychoanalytische Padagogik
and, 1886
Zulliger and, 1260, 1888
Phallic mother, 573, 1261-1262, 1263-1264
“Phallic Phase and its Disturbances in
Young Girls, The” (Bibring-Lehner), 177
Phallic stage, 1262-1263
castration anxiety and, 101
conflict and, 326
disavowal and, 415
erotogenic masochism and, 518
female sexuality and, 570, 1263
genital stage and, 672
“Little Hans” case and, 75
object-choice and, 1174
pregenital organization and, 1302
urethral eroticism and, 517
Phallic woman, 1263-1264
See also Phallic mother
Phallus, 1264-1265
castration complex and, 252
female sexuality and, 365, 570-571, 578,
1185-1186, 1265
feminist views of psychoanalysis and, 578
gaze and, 990
jouissance and, 895
masculinity/femininity and, 1019-1020
modesty and, 1067
Name-of-the-Father and, 1104
perversion and, 1258
sexual difference recognition and,
1588, 1589
sexuation and, 1595
subject’s castration and, 1676-1677
subject’s desire and, 1678
symbolic and, 1264, 1710
symptoms and, 1718
See also Penis
Phantasie. See Fantasy; Reverie
Phantom, 1265-1266, 1560
Phantom ofL iberty, The (Bunuel), 1067
Phenomenology, 1266-1268
amnesia and, 64, 65
Fédida and, 569
intersubjective/intrasubjective dichotomy
and, 867
lack of differentiation and, 933
lifting of amnesia and, 976, 977
Merleau-Ponty on, 1047, 1266
Minkowski on, 1057, 1267
Pankow and, 1222
Phenomenology of Perception (Merleau-
Ponty), 1047
Phenothiazine, 1540
Philadelphia Association, 699
Philippe case, 110
Philippines. See Filipino psychoanalysis
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
Philippson Bible, 624, 1269
Philips, Frank, 214, 217, 919
Philipson, T., 390
Phillips, A. R., 131
Philobatism, 149, 152
Philosophy, 1269-1272
Favez-Boutonier and, 559
French psychoanalysis and, 613
monism, 1070
thought identity and, 1749
Weltanschauung and, 1855
See also Phenomenology
See also specific philosophers
Phobia, 1678
Phobia of impulsive acts, 1272-1273
Phobias
active technique and, 15
in children, 1273-1276
claustrophobia, 306
counterphobic phenomena and, 349
delusions and, 385
desexualization and, 398
obsessions and, 1178
phobia of impulsive acts, 1272-1273
phobic neurosis and, 19, 306, 1276
Phobic neurosis, 19, 306, 1276
Phobic signifier, 1275, 1276
Phylogenesis, 1277-1279
archaic and, 111-112, 113, 358
cultural transmission and, 357-358
Darwinism and, 366—367, 1277
developmental processes and, 1330
externalization-internalization and, 537
fantasy and, 551
fatherhood and, 558
Ferenczi on, 1278, 1738-1739
history and, 750
internal/external reality and, 848
latency period and, 946
mnemic traces and, 1064
mythology and, 1095-1096
Oedipus complex and, 1184
ontogenesis and, 1196, 1197, 1277, 1278
organic repression and, 1206, 1208
primal and, 1312
primal fantasies and, 1308
primal repression and, 1309
primitive and, 1319
See also Myth of origins
Phylogenetic Fantasy, A: Overview of the
Transference Neuroses (Freud), 1278,
1279-1280
2155
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Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Schur on, 1549
scientific nature of psychoanalysis
and, 1551
self-preservation and, 1575
suffering and, 1684
transgression and, 1792-1793
turning around and, 1807
Pleasure/unpleasure principle. See Pleasure
principle
Ploétz, Alfred, 1437
Plosa, Isabel, 1829
Plotinus, 1352
PM. See Psychic masochism
Poe, Edgar Allan, 200, 927, 974, 1669
Poetry. See Literature
Poincaré, Henri
catastrophe theory and, 256
Le Bon and, 953
on selected facts, 1123-1124, 1566, 1750
on thought-thinking apparatus, 1750
Poincaré, Raymond, 953
Point de capiton, 1607
Poisson, Jacques. See Allendy-Nel-
Dumouchel, Yvonne
Poland. See Polish psychoanalysis
Polarities. See Activity/passivity
Polish psychoanalysis, 888, 1291,
1291-1293
Polish Society for the Development of
Psychoanalysis, 1292
Politics, 1293-1294
belief and, 159
Bullitt and, 234—235
International Psychoanalytical Association
and, 858
Rolland and, 1511
Silberstein and, 1609-1610
Weltanschauung and, 1855
“Politics of Experience, The” (Laing and
Esterson), 699
Politzer, Georges, 1294
French psychoanalysis and, 609
philosophy and, 1271
on psychic apparatus, 1352
on scientific nature of psychoanalysis, 704
Pollaiolo circle, 347
Pollitzer, Georges, 1047
Pollock, George, 278, 279
Polymorphous perversity, 1593, 1753
amnesia and, 64
drives and, 445
genital stage and, 672
libidinal development and, 965
metapsychology and, 1257
ontogenesis and, 1197
partial drives and, 1240
sublimation and, 1679
“Polysexuality” (Peraldi), 1247
Pontalis, Jean-Bertrand
on cinema, 294-295
Confrontation and, 327
Connaissance de linconscient and, 611
on contact, 338-339
on drives, 447
French psychoanalysis and, 613
French psychoanalytic establishment split
(1964) and, 122
on Freud, The Secret Passion, 645
Groddeck and, 706
group analysis and, 610, 710, 1371
“Homme au magnétophone, L” and, 612
Khan and, 913
on negative therapeutic reaction, 1126
Nouvelle Revue de psychanalyse and, 124,
611, 913, 1162, 1163
on pain, 1219
on primal fantasies, 848, 1307, 1308
on psychosexual development, 1407
Société fran¢aise de psychanalyse and, 1619
Société psychanalytique de Paris and, 1628
on suffering, 1684
surrealism and, 1696
See also Language of Psychoanalysis, The
Pontes, Gernandes, 216
Popescu-Sibiu, Ion, 1511
Popper, Karl
definition of psychoanalysis and, 1364
on epistemology, 1370
philosophy and, 1271
on psychic causality, 1354
on psychoanalytic research, 1378
Rubinstein and, 1517
Popper-Lynkeus, Josef, 356, 1869
Porge, Erik, 1084
Porot, Antoine, 1098, 1155
Portella Nunes, Eustachio, 566
Portillo, R. del, 1637
Porto-Carrero, Julio Pires, 214, 1295
Portrait métapsychologique de la haine
(Assoun), 729
Portugal. See Portuguese psychoanalysis
Portuguese psychoanalysis, 1295-1297
Portuguese Psychoanalytic Society,
1296-1297
Portuguese Review of Psychoanalysis, 1297
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
Posicion y objeto en la obra del Melanie Klein
(Baranger), 150
“Position du probléme de l’adaptation
réciproque entre la société et les
psychismes exceptionnels” (Pichon), 1283
Positivism, 401, 1378, 1468, 1550-1551
Post Card, The, 328 r
Postnatal depression, 1297-1298
Postpartum depression. See Postnatal
depression
Postpartum psychoses. See Puerperal
psychoses
Posttraumatic stress disorders, 1804, 1849
Postural scheme, 1571
Potamianou, Anna, 700, 701
Potapova, Victoria, 1519
Potentiality, 505
Potter, Howard, 824
Potzl, Otto, 1298-1299, 1846
Pouillon, Jean, 1162
Power, will to, 483
See also Mastery
Practice and Theory of Individual Psychology,
The (Adier), 25, 1618
Prado de Oliveira, Luiz Eduardo, 1230
Prados, Miguel, 242
Praeger, Norbert, 1292
Pragier, Georges, 1330, 1628
Pratt, Js bi 3
Pre-oedipal stage
acting out and, 11
Brunswick on, 232-233
female sexuality and, 576, 578
paranoia and, 1228
passage to the act and, 18
Simmel on, 1612
Précis de psychiatrie (Régis), 223, 1459
Precocious appearance, 47
Preconception, 323, 1299-1300, 1451-1452
Preconscious, the, 1300-1301
Burrow on, 237
consciousness and, 333
derivatives of the repressed and, 1481
forgetting and, 596, 597
hypercathexis and, 767
insight and, 837
perception-consciousness system and, 1248
primary/secondary processes and, 1318
protective shield and, 1340
secondary revision and, 1559
somnambulism and, 1636
subject’s desire and, 1677
sudden involuntary ideas and, 1683
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Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Principles of Psychoanalysis
(Nunberg), 1165
Prinzhorn, Hanz, 1624
Privacy oft he Self, The (Khan),
913, 1580
Privation, 418, 653, 1326-1327
“Problem of the Animus, The” (Jung-
Rauschenbach), 903-904
“Problem of the End of Analysis, The”
(Ferenczi), 494
“Problem of the Genesis of Psychical
Conflict, The” (Waelder), 1845
Problemas del campo psicoanalitico
(Baranger and Baranger), 150
“Problématique du Psycho-Somatige, La”
(Parcheminey), 1236
Probleme de la destinée, Le (The problem of
destiny) (Allendy), 46
Problems of Mysticism and Its Symbolism
(Silberer), 1608
Problems of Neurosis: A Book of case Histories
(Adler), 1618
Process, 1327-1329
Processes of development, 1329-1331
Prochiantz, Alain, 183
Progress and Revolution (Waelder), 1845
“Progress in Analytic Technique”
(Ferenczi), 1465
Progressive neutralization, 1331
Prohibition, 1331-1332
“Project for a Scientific Psychology, A”
(Freud), 1332-1334
on act/action, 9
on adaptation, 22
on attention, 127
on binding/unbinding, 179
on compulsion, 322
on constancy principle, 1151, 1322
on displacement, 421
on dreams, 436
on Eckstein case, 454
on ego, 462
ego psychology and, 486
on experience of satisfaction, 536
on facilitation, 543
on free energy/bound energy, 617, 618
on hallucinatory wish-fulfillment, 1865
on helplessness, 734
on hypercathexis, 767
on illusion, 796
on incompleteness, 805
on inertia principle, 1324
on internal/external reality, 847
on jokes, 890
Jokes and their Relation to the Unconscious
and, 891
on lies, 971
on maternal, 1027
on memories, 1040
on memory, 1042
on mnemic symbols, 1061, 1062
on mnemic traces, 1062, 1063, 1064
on mythology, 1096
neurophysiology and, 59, 213
on pain, 1219, 1280, 1333
on perception-consciousness system, 1248
on perceptual identity, 1249
on pleasure principle, 1325, 1332-1333
on primary identification, 1313
on primary object, 1317
on primary/secondary processes,
1317, 1328
on primitive, 1319
on protective shield, 1340
on proton-pseudos, 1342
on psi system, 1345
on psychic causality, 1353
on psychic energy, 1355
on psychic representative, 1358
on psychology and psychoanalysis, 1397
on quantitative/ qualitative
dimensions, 1427
on reality principle, 1450
on representation and, 781—782
on screen memories, 1555
on self-preservation, 1575
on specific actions, 1638
structural theories and, 1666
on sum of excitation, 1689
on symbolism, 1706-1707
on systems, 32—33
on Thing, 1743
on thought, 1746-1747
on topographical point of view, 1760
on unconscious, 1818
on word-presentations, 1873
on working over, 1878
Projection, 1334-1337
allergies and, 47, 48
altruism and, 54
animistic thought and, 85-86
animus/anima and, 87
certainty and, 265
critical theory and, 31
envy and, 509
estrangement and, 524
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
internal objects and, 850
“participation mystique” and, 1337-1338
persecution and, 1252-1253
phobias and, 1275
psychological tests and, 1395
psychotic defenses and, 1413 ,
self and, 1579
splitting of the object and, 1642
symptom-formation and, 1717
symptoms and, 1715
Projective duplication, 1198
Projective identification, 1338-1340
aggression and, 34
alpha function and, 51, 52
anality and, 72, 1338
archaic mother and, 113
arrogance and, 121
asthma and, 124
beta-elements and, 171
bizarre object and, 188
breastfeeding and, 221
claustrophobia and, 306
container-contained and, 340
counter-transference and, 350
disavowal and, 417
female sexuality and, 577
hallucinosis and, 722-723
heroic self and, 739-740
infantile psychosis and, 826
internal objects and, 850
introjection and, 869-870
negative capability and, 1123-1124
nonverbal communication and, 1154
paranoid-schizoid position and, 1233, 1338
“participation mystique” and, 1779
projection and, 1336
psychotic defenses and, 1414
purified-pleasure-ego and, 1423
selected facts and, 953, 1123-1124, 1750
splitting of the object and, 1642
thought-thinking apparatus and, 1750
Tomasi on, 1758-1759
transference and, 1783
Weiss on, 1854
work of the negative and, 1129
Prometheus, 299, 348, 1241, 1368
Propaganda, 924-925
Prophylaxis, 19
“Proposal for a Regulating Institution for
Psychoanalysts, A” (Leclaire), 957
Prospero and Caliban: The Psychology of
Colonization (Mannoni), 1009
2159
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Prostitute, mother as, 342
Protective Shell in Children and Adults, The
(Tustin), 138
Protective shield, 1340-1342
excitation and, 533
Freud on, 174, 533, 1340, 1341
maternal and, 1027
mnemic traces and, 1062
pain and, 1219
Proto-mental phenomena, 711
Proto-thoughts, 1343
Protocols of the Elders of Zion, 1438
Proton-pseudos, 1313, 1333, 1342
Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph, 1437
Proust, Marcel, 875, 986
Provotelle, R., 304
Prunes, Celestino, 215, 216, 1015
Pseudomaturity, 72
Pseudos, 1555
Psi system, 1345
Psicanalise na Educacao, A (Morais), 214
Psicanalist, La (Morselli), 1076
Psiche, 879, 881, 1252
Psicioanalisis de los suefios (Garma). See
Psychoanalysis of Dreams
Psicoanalisi, 879
Psicoanalisis (Peru), 1254
Psicoanalisis (Venezuela), 1833
“Psicoanialisis, ciencia problematica”
(Ortega y Gasset), 1637
Psicoanalisis y dialéctica materialista
(Bleger), 194
Psicoterapia, 116
Psiquicio y Naturaleza humana, Lo (Matte-
Blanco), 284
Psiquismo fetal, El (Rascovsky), 1447
Psychanalyse: Ratsel des Unbewussten (film),
IlI:pl.1
Psychanalyse, doctrine et application, La
(Psychoanalysis: theory and application)
(Allendy), 46
Psychanalyse, La, 610, 935, 1347-1348, 1619
“Psychanalyse, La: Son image et son public”
(Moscovici), 611
Psychanalyse, La (Delgado), 384
Psychanalyse a I université, 124
Psychanalyse al école, La (Zulliger), 1888
Psychanalyse @aujourd hui, La
(Nacht), 1626
Psychanalyse des névroses et des psychoses, La
(Régis and Hesnard), 134, 607, 741, 1345,
1360-1362, 1459
Psychanalyse du diable, La (Dubal), 450
2160
Psychanalyse et anthropologie
(Bonaparte), 200
Psychanalyse et apocalypse, 241
Psychanalyse et biologie (Bonaparte), 200
Psychanalyse et connaissance (Dubal), 450
Psychanalyse et les névroses, La (Allendy &
Laforgue), 46, 305, 934, 1345-1346
Psychanalyse et Pediatrie (Dolto-Marette),
1346-1347
Psychanalyse infantile Symbolisme et valeur
clinique des créations imaginatives chez
enfant (Morgenstern-Kabatschnik), 1073
Psychanalyse pour la Personne (Caruso), 249
Psychanalyse précoce, La (Diatkine), 411
Psychanalyste sans divan, Le (Racamier
et al.), 1435
Psychanalystes, 314
Psychasthenia, 322, 1179
Psyche, 1348-1349, 1650, 1665, 1680
Psyché, revue internationale de psychanalyse
et des sciences de Thomme, 290, 1349-1350
Berge and, 161, 1350
Favez-Boutonier and, 559, 1350
French psychoanalysis and, 609
Hesnard and, 742, 1350
Laforgue and, 934
Mannoni and, 1009, 1350
Psyche and Eros, 1608
Psyche. Zeitschrift fiir Psychanalyse und ihr
Anwendungen, 679, 1018,-1061
Psychiatre, son “fou” et la psychanalyse
(Mannoni), 456
Psychiatric Interview, The (Sullivan), 1689
Psychiatrie de P enfant, La. See Journal de la
psychanalyse de Tle nfant
“Psychiatrie et psychanalyse: L’apport de la
psychanalyse a la psychiatrie”
(Cenac), 261
Psychiatrist and the Dying Patient, The
(Eissler), 490
Psychiatry, 1688
Psychiatry and Anti-Psychiatry
(Cooper), 699
Psychic apparatus, 1351-1353, 1379
Psychic birth, 185
Psychic body, 540
Psychic causality, 1353-1355, 1719
Psychic energy, 1355-1356
cathexis and, 259, 260
Freud-Jung split and, 1105
psychic apparatus and, 1352
working over and, 1878
See also Free energy/bound energy
Psychic envelopes, 739, 1020
Psychic fossilization, 1560
Psychic masochism, 153
Psychic pain. See Pain
Psychic reality, 439, 1356-1358, 1819
Psychic representative, 1358, 1433
Psychic structure, 1358-1359
Psychic temporality, 1359-1360, 1757
“Psychical, or Mental, Treatment” (Freud),
556, 1124, 1353
“Psychical Mechanism of Forgetfulness,
The” (Freud), 596, 1351
Psychische Bedingtheit und psychoanalytische
Behandlung organischer Leiden
(Groddeck), 705
Psycho-Analysis: A Brief Account of the
Freudian Theory (Low), 997
“Psycho-Analysis” (Freud), 321, 489, 531
Psycho-Analysis and Faith: The Letters of
Sigmund Freud and Oskar Pfister, 1601
“Psycho-Analysis and Telepathy” (Freud),
747, 1181, 1735
“Psycho-Analysis and the Establishment of
the Facts in Legal Proceedings” (Freud),
107, 319, 616, 1560
“Psycho-Analytic Contribution to
Aesthetics, A” (Segal), 1708
“Psycho-Analytic Notes on an
Autobiographical Account of a Case of
» Paranoia (Dementia Paranoides)”
(Freud). See Schreber case
“Psycho-Analytic Play Technique, The”
(Klein), 1501
“Psycho-Analytic View of Psychogenic
Disturbance of Vision, The” (Freud),
482—483, 1392, 1575
Psycho-Analytical Process, The
(Meltzer), 1783
Psycho-sociology, 1632
Psychoanalyse (Belgium), 158
Psychoanalyse der Gesamtpersénlichkeit
(Psychoanalysis of the toal personality)
(Alexander), 42—43
“Psychoanalyse Freuds, Die” (Bleuler), 195
Psychoanalyse und ihre Anwendungen
(Simmel), 1612
Psychoanalyse und Logik (Hermann), 737
Psychoanalyse und Synthese der Existenz
(Caruso), 134
Psychoanalysis, 1362-1366
Psychoanalysis, 1380
Psychoanalysis
defined, 1362-1365
purpose of, 20
“Psychoanalysis” (Janet), 886
Psychoanalysis and Culture (Lorand), 991
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Psychoanalysis and Feminism (Mitchell), 576
“Psychoanalysis and Pedagogy” (Ferenczi),
580, 971
Psychoanalysis and Politics (Money-
Kyrle), 1070
“Psychoanalysis and Telepathy”
(Servadio), 1586
“Psychoanalysis Applied to Education”
(Porto-Carrero), 1295
“Psychoanalysis in Its Relations with Child
Psychology” (Piaget), 1282
Psychoanalysis of Children, The (Klein), 4,
74, 281, 1366
Psychoanalysis of Dreams (Garma), 666,
1366-1367
Psychoanalysis of Fire, The (Bachelard), 145,
1367-1368
“Psychoanalysis of Primitive Cultural
Types” (Roheim), 1510
“Psychoanalysis of the Family” (Flugel), 697
Psychoanalysis of the Prostitute (Choisy), 290
“Psychoanalysis of the Psychoanalytic
Frame” (Bleger), 606
Psychoanalysis of War, The (Fornari), 598
Psychoanalyst role, 1368-1369
abstinence rule, 7-8, 11, 1385, 1786
analysand and, 74-75
analysand aspiration to, 77, 122
analytical psychology on, 79
anticipatory ideas and, 95-96
attention and, 127, 128
benevolence and, 8, 531, 1144
boredom and, 203
boundary violations and, 209-210
change and, 268
child analysis and, 1733
contact and, 338-339
contradiction and, 341
direct analysis and, 414
evenly-suspended attention and, 530-531,
655, 1299, 1368, 1384
Ferenczi on, 160, 268
Filipino psychoanalysis and, 1268
listening and, 984
mutative interpretation and, 1089-1090
neutrality and, 339, 531, 1143-1144
non-selectivity, 127
preconception and, 1299
relaxation psychotherapy and, 1466
tact and, 1725-1726, 1729
therapeutic alliance and, 1732, 1733,
1740-1741
See also Counter-transference;
Psychoanalytic treatment; Transference
Psychoanalytic Approach to Juvenile
Delinquency, The (Friedlander-
Frankl), 646
Psychoanalytic Association of France. See
Association psychanalytique de France
“Psychoanalytic classification of character
pathology, A” (Kernberg), 270, 273
Psychoanalytic Consortium, 58, 59
Psychoanalytic Dialogue: The Letters of
Sigmund Freud and Karl Abraham, A, 1601
Psychoanalytic Education in the United States
(Ross and Lewin), 1516
Psychoanalytic epistemology, 1369-1371
Psychoanalytic family therapy, 1371-1372
Psychoanalytic filiations, 1372-1374
Psychoanalytic Institute, 1557
Psychoanalytic Institute of New England
(PINE), 208
Psychoanalytic Institute of Northern
California, 1531
Psychoanalytic Method and the Doctrine of
Freud (Dalbiez), 363, 539
Psychoanalytic nosography, 1374-1375
Psychoanalytic Quarterly, The,
1377-1378, 1498
Psychoanalytic research, 1378-1379
Psychoanalytic Review, The, 889, 1379-1380
Psychoanalytic Revolution, The: The Life and
Work of Sigmund Freud, 611
Psychoanalytic semiology, 1380-1381
Psychoanalytic Situation: An Examination of
Its Development and Essential Nature, The
(Stone), 1661
Psychoanalytic Studies of the Personality
(Fairbairn), 545
Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, The, 492,
728, 925, 1381-1383
“Psychoanalytic Theory and the Mind-Body
Problem” (Rubinstein), 1517
Psychoanalytic Theory of Neurosis, The
(Fenichel), 270, 579, 1383
Psychoanalytic Training and Research
Center. See Centre de formation et de
recherches psychanalytiques
Psychoanalytic Training Institute (Berlin), 6
Psychoanalytic treatment, 1383-1386,
1728-1731
active technique, 8, 15-16, 407, 581, 607,
640, 923, 1729
acute psychoses and, 22
allergies and, 48
in analytical psychology, 79
analyzability and, 81, 1787
basic fault and, 152
capacity to be alone and, 246
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
change and, 257, 267-268
constructions and, 335-338
cure and, 358-359, 1385, 1777, 1787 -
definition of psychoanalysis and, 1363
derivatives of the repressed and, 1484
directed daydreams and, 414-415, 1494
dream interpretation, 438-439
dream-like memory and, 439
ego psychology and, 487
elasticity and, 494, 581
ethics and, 525
face-to-face situation and, 541-542, 1412
fantasy and, 554
frame of, 606-607, 1405, 1412, 1732
grid and, 704, 705
guilt and, 718
holding and, 754
id and, 779
identification and, 790
identification fantasies and, 791
incompleteness and, 805-806
indications/contraindications for, 808-809
initial interview and, 834-836
insight and, 836-837
lifting of repression and, 1486-1487
“Lines of Advance in Psycho-Analytic
Therapy” on, 979-980
Marty on, 1016
mastery and, 1024
memories and, 1041-1042
multilingualism and, 1086
Nacht on, 1102-1103
negative therapeutic reaction and, 359,
1125-1127, 1219, 1469-1470
over-interpretation and, 1217
patient physical position in, 541-542,
835, 990
payment for, 1068-1069, 1732
psychotherapy and, 1411-1413
Rank on, 1445
“Recommendations to Physicians
Practicing Psychoanalysis” on, 127, 531,
1068, 1181, 1456-1457, 1490, 1729
regression and, 160
relaxation principle/neo-catharsis and,
1464-1465
repetition compulsion and, 1475
representation and, 782-783
repression and, 1479-1480
resolution oft he transference, 1490-1491
silence and, 1610-1611
transgression and, 1791
vertex and, 1833-1834
2161
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
working-off mechanisms and, 1877
See also Child analysis; Free association;
Interpretation; Lay analysis;
Psychoanalyst role; “Remembering,
Repeating and Working-Through”;
Resistance; Termination of treatment
“Psychoanalytic Treatment of Narcissistic
Personality Disorders, The” (Kohut), 605,
785, 920, 1059, 1574
Psychoanalytical Treatment of Children, The
(Anna Freud), 833, 1386-1387
Psychoanalyticky sbornik, 361
Psychoanalytische Method, Die
(Pfister), 1260
Psychoanalytische Volksbuch, Das (Federn
and Meng), 568, 1044
Psychoanalyzing (Leclaire), 957
Psychobiography, 1388-1389, 1402, 1743—
1745, 1841
Psychobiology: A Science of Man
(Meyer), 1053
Psychodermatology, 1613
Psychodiagnostics (Rorschach), 1513
Psychodrama
Aberastury’s use of, 5
analytic psychodrama, 77-79
cathartic method and, 258
French psychoanalysis and, 610
Kestemberg-Hassin on, 911
Moreno on, 1072
Psychodrame psychanalytique, Le
(Kestemberg-Hassin and Jeammet), 911
“Psychogenesis of a Case of Homosexuality
in a Woman, The” (Freud), 757, 817,
1389-1391
Psychogenesis/organogenesis, 1391-1392
Psychogenic blindness, 1392-1393
Psychogeny, Lacan on, 37
Psychohistory, 511, 986, 1293, 1393-1394
Psychohistory Review, The, 1394
“Psychological Analysis of the Causes of
War, A” (Money-Kyrle), 1070
“Psychological Aspects of International
Affairs, The” (Waelder), 1845
Psychological Aspects of War and Peace
(Waelder), 1845
Psychological Birth of the Human Infant, The
(Mahler-Schénberger), 1002
Psychological tests, 1087, 1394-1395, 1398
Psychological types, 1395-1397
Psychological Types (Jung), 86, 812,
902, 1396
Psychologie (Algeria), 1155
“Psychologie, La” (Piaget), 1669
Psychologie Collective, 1537
2162
Psychologie de la Colonisation
(Mannoni), 549
“Psychologie de la Vie Quotidienne”
(Chentrier), 276
Psychologie des Foules (Le Bon), 556, 1685
Psychologie des Siiglings (Bernfeld), 169
“Psychologie génétique et psychanalyse”
(Saussure), 1536
Psychologie vom empirischen Standpunkt
(Brentano), 222
Psychologies des réves éveillés, La
(Varendonck), 157
Psychology and psychoanalysis, 62-63,
1397-1398
Psychology of Anti-Semitism, The
(Hermann), 737
Psychology of Dementia Praecox (Jung), 902,
1398-1399
Psychology of Insanity, The (Hart), 696
Psychology of Nationhood, The (Strachey),
1664
“Psychology of the Individual” symposium
(Brussels, 1954), 134
Psychology of the Transference, The (Jung),
902, 177
“Psychology of the Unconscious, The”
(Jung), 1337, 1399-1400
Psychology of Women, The. A Psychoanalytic
Interpretation (Deutsch-Rosenbach), 405,
1400-1401
Psychoneuroses. See Neurosés; Transference
neuroses
“Psychopathic Characters on the Stage”
(Freud), 351, 985, 1215
Psychopathologie de T échec (Laforgue), 544,
934, 1401-1402
Psychopathologie du bébé, La (Lebovici and
Weil-Halpern), 955
Psychopathology of Everyday Life, The
(Freud), 1402-1403, 1551, 1686
on Bernays-Freud, Minna, 168
on castration complex, 251
Claude on, 304
cryptomnesia and, 356-357
on deja vu, 381
on estrangement, 524
on forgetting, 596
on illusion, 796
Jankeleévitch and, 887
on language, 942
on masochism, 1021
on negative hallucination, 1124
on parapraxes, 1235
publication of, 638
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
on Revista de psiquiatria y disciplinas
conexas, 1497
on Schiller, 1539
on slips of the tongue, 1615
on time, 1757
on wishes, 1867 5
Psychopharmacology, 1528, 1540
Psychoses, 1403-1405
acute, 21—22
anal-sadistic stage and, 74
arrogance and, 121
attacks on linking and, 983-984
autoeroticism and, 141
autoplastic behavior and, 144
blank, 191-192
body image and, 197-198
constructions and, 338
counter-transference and, 350
death instinct and, 373
as developmental disorders, 408
differential diagnosis, 36—37
disintegration anxieties and, 418
ego states and, 489
Federn, Paul on, 487-488, 568
fetishism and, 583
forgetting and, 596
Garma on, 665
gaze and, 990
hallucinatory wish-fulfillment and, 1866
hallucinosis and, 722-723
infantile, 823-827
internal/external reality and, 847
introjection and, 871 §
Katan on, 907
Lacan on, 36-38, 192, 1404, 1405
memory and, 1043
narcissism and, 1105, 1106
narcissistic neuroses and, 1113
need for causality and, 1119
negative hallucination and, 1124-1125 {
obsessional neurosis and, 1180
organic, 1206 :
panic and, 1416
perversion and, 1258
pictogram and, 1285
primal and, 1313
primitive agony and, 1320
protective shield and, 1341-1342
psychic structure and, 1359
psychic temporality and, 1360
psychoanalytic nosography and, 1375
psychosis/neurosis distinction, 1414-1416
ee
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
psychotic potential and, 1417-1418
puerperal, 1421-1422
Racamier on, 1421-1422, 1435-1436
Rosenfeld, Herbert on, 1514
self-representation and, 1578
sense/nonsense and, 1585
signifier/signified and, 1606
suicide and, 1687
symptoms and, 1715
time and, 1758
transference and, 487, 568, 1405, 1419
Psychosexual development, 79, 326,
1405-1407
See also Infantile sexuality; Libidinal
development
See also specific stages
Psychosexuelle Differenz der Hysterie und der
Dementia Préaicox (Psychosexual
Differences between Hysteria and
Dementia Praecox) (Abraham), 6
“Psychosis and Child Care” (Winnicott),
1287
Psychosis/neurosis distinction, 1414-1416
Psychosomatic economy, 420
Psychosomatic limit, 1409-1410
Psychosomatic Medicine, 43
Psychosomatic School of Paris. See Ecole
psychosomatique de Paris
Psychosomatics, 1407-1409
actual vs. defense neuroses and, 20
Alexander, Franz Gabriel on, 43, 208,
1408-1409
allergic object relationship and, 47
allergies and, 47
asthma and, 124, 125
body image and, 198
Boston Psychoanalytic Society/Institute
and, 208
Chicago Psychoanalytic Institute and, 278
conflict and, 326
conversion and, 345, 1409
excitation and, 534
French psychoanalysis and, 610
instincts and, 838
Jelliffe on, 889
Marty on, 610, 1016, 1198, 1407,
1408, 1409
mentalization and, 1046
narcissistic neuroses and, 1114
operational thinking and, 1198
Perestrello, Danilo and, 1250
state of being in love and, 1656
ulcerative colitis and, 1813-1814
Psychoterapia, 1411
Psychoterapja (Croatia), 1884
Psychothérapie de adolescent (Male), 1004
“Psychothérapie des schizophrenes, La”
(Perrier), 1251
Psychothérapie et Psychanalyse (Held), 731
Psychothérapies, Les (Berge), 162
Psychotherapy, 1411-1413
Control-Mastery Theory and, 1532
face-to-face situation and, 541, 1412
relaxation and, 1465-1466
See also Psychodrama
Psychotic anxiety, 90
Psychotic defenses, 1413-1414
Psychotic panic, 722, 1416
Psychotic part of the personality,
1416-1417
Psychotic potential, 1416-1419
Psychotic States (Rosenfeld), 1515
Psychotic transference, 1419
Psychotropic drugs, 1117
Psyke, 188
Psykoanalytisk Samfund (Denmark), 1698
Pszichoanalizis, mint modszer
(Hermann), 737
Puberty, 1419-1421
adolescence and, 26
alcoholism and, 41
proton-pseudos and, 1342
seduction theory and, 1420, 1592
suicide and, 1687
See also Adolescence
Pubic hair, 574
Puerperal psychoses, 1421-1422,
1435-1436, 1618
Pujol, René, 122
Punishment, need for, 1120-1121, 1126,
1577-1578
Punishment dreams, 1422-1423, 1577
Puppet therapy, 1442
Purified-pleasure-ego, 850, 1423
“Purloined Letter, The” (Poe), 1669
Purposive idea, 1424
Pursued (film), 293
Putnam, James Jackson, 1424-1425
American Psychoanalytic Association and,
207, 227, 1425, 1823
Boston Psychoanalytic Society/Institute
and, 206-207
photograph of, III:p1.3
on sublimation, 1679
U.S. psychoanalysis and, 1822, 1823
Putnam, Marian C., 208, 1444, 1809
Putnam Children’s Center, 208
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
Puységur, Armand de, 84-85
Pyschoanalytische Bewegung, Die, 861,
1387-1388
Pythagoras, 381, 1348
Q
Qualitative dynamics, 727 *
Quantitative/qualitative dimensions,
1427-1429
Quantum physics, 401, 1064
Quasi-independence/transitional stage,
1429
Quatrieme Groupe (Fourth Group)
(OPLF), 1429-1431
Aulagnier-Spairani and, 129, 529, 611, 807,
1429, 1430, 1645
Confrontation and, 327
Enriquez-Joly and, 506
fourth analysis and, 602-604, 611
Inconscient, L’ and, 807
Perrier and, 611, 807, 1251, 1429-1430,
1645
Smirnoff and, 1617
Société psychanalytique de Paris and, 1626
supervised analysis and, 1693
Topique and, 529, 807, 1430, 1759
“Quelques apercus sur l’exspression du
sentiment de culpabilité dans les réves
des enfants” (Morgenstern-
Kabatschnik), 1073
Qu est-ce que la suggestion? (Baudouin),
1431-1432
Question of Lay Analysis, The (Freud), 951,
1432-1433
Confrontation and, 328
on definition of psychoanalysis, 1364
on female sexuality, 365
Future of an Illusion, The and, 660
on multidisciplinary interactions, 108
on psychic apparatus, 1352
publication of, 802
Reik and, 1432, 1463
splits in psychoanalysis and, 1644
on U.S. psychoanalysis, 1823
on “wild analysis”, 1861
“Question of the Psychological Types, The”
(Jung), 538
Questionamos, 216
Quijada, Herman, 315, 1832
Quinidoz, Daniele, 1701
Quinidoz, Jean-Michel, 1701
Quiniou, Yolaine, 1304
Quota of affect, 786, 1428, 1433-1434, 1875
2163
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
R
Rabain, Jean-Francois, 1476, 1500
Rabanal, César Rodriguez, 1254
Rabaud, Etienne, 424
Racamier, Paul-Claude, 1435-1436
on ambivalence, 57
Congres des psychanalystes de langue
francaise des pays romans and, 330-331
on delusions, 385
on hermeneutics, 738
on incest, 804
on infantile psychosis, 825
Nacht and, 1102, 1435
on paradox, 434, 1225, 1226
on parenthood, 1237
on postnatal depression, 1298
on psychogenesis, 610
on psychoses, 1421-1422, 1435-1436
on tenderness, 1736
on weaning, 1852
Racine, Yves, 1766
Racism, 1436-1437
cinema and, 294
Fanon on, 549—550
Kardiner on, 907
Mauco on, 1035
narcissism of minor differences and, 1109
Racker, Heinrich, 1439-1440
Argentinian psychoanalysis and,
117-118, 119
Brazilian psychoanalysis and, 911, 1015
on change, 268
on counter-transference, 1440, 1778
on empathy, 502
Kemper, Werner Walther and, 910
Radin, Paul, 1321
Rado, Sandor, 1440-1442
Abraham, Karl and, 5
on addiction, 23
on alcoholism, 42
American Academy of Psychoanalysis
and, 58
Berliner Psychoanalytische Poliklinik, 675
Berliner Psychoanalytisches Institut
and, 166
Burrow and, 238
Croatian psychoanalysis and, 1884
on dipsomania, 413
Fenichel and, 579, 1441
Ferenczi and, 329
Happel and, 725
Hartmann and, 727, 1441
2164
Heimann and, 730
Hungarian psychoanalysis and, 580, 765
Hungarian School and, 764
International Federation of Psychoanalytic
Societies and, 852
Internationale Zeitschrift fur Psychoanalyse
and, 860, 1441
Kardiner and, 906, 907
on melancholia, 1039
New York Psychoanalytic Institute/Society
and, 1147, 1823
Schultz-Hencke and, 1547
U.S. psychoanalysis and, 1825
Raffalovitch, Marc-andré, 743
Raimbault, Emile, 1442
Raimbault, Ginette, 129, 1243, 1442
Rajka, Theodor, 1446
Rajka, Tibor, 766
Rallo Romero, José, 1296
Rambert, Madeleine, 1442-1443, 1701
Ramirez, Santiago, 566, 1051, 1052
Ramos, Arthur, 214
Ramuz, Charles Ferdinand, 561
Rand, Nicholas, 1765
Ranefeld, Johannes, 135
Rangell, Leo, 131, 857, 992, 1137
Rank, Otto, 1444-1446
anaclitic depression and, 70
anthropology and, 93
on applied psychoanalysis, 108
on birth, 185
on birth dreams, 186
on birth trauma, 124, 253, 641, 833, 834,
1802-1803
on castration complex, 254
definition of psychoanalysis and, 1363
Deuticke and, 404
Development of Psycho-Analysis, 407, 580—
581, 979-980
on double, 429, 434, 1106, 1815
on dreams, 443
First World War and, 586
Gesammelte Schriften and, 680
Heller and, 732
Imago and, 107, 800, 802, 1445
Inhibitions, Symptoms, and Anxiety and,
833, 834
International Psychoanalytical Association
and, 854, 1445
Internationale Zeitschrift fiir Psychoanalyse
and, 860
Internationaler Psychoanalytischer Verlag
and, 49, 861, 1445
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Jankélévitch and, 887
Jones on, 651
Kantianism and, 905
Kardiner and, 906
Laforgue and, 933
“Lines of Advance in Psycho-Analytic
Therapy” and, 979-980
on melancholia, 1082
Minutes of the Vienna Psychoanalytic
Society and, 1057-1058
Moses and Monotheism and, 1077
on mother-infant bond, 232
on mythology, 443, 1093-1094, 1095
on narcissism, 1190-1191
on neutrality, 1144
Nin and, 1150, 1443
Nunberg and, 1165
photograph of, III:pl.4,9
on prehistory, 1303
on psychic causality, 1354
on psychoanalytic treatment, 1384, 1729
Psychoterapia and, 1411
psychotherapy and, 1412
Rank-Minzer and, 1443
on repression, 1485
Sachs and, 1523
-Schmidt, Vera and, 1544
Secret Committee and, 1445, 1561, 1562
on signal anxiety, 1604
Sokolnicka and, 1633
splits in psychoanalysis and, 1643
Sterba and, 1658
on termination of treatment, 1738
on training analysis, 1769
on transference, 407
on visual arts, 1842
Weininger and, 1587
Wiener psychoanalytische Vereinigung
and, 1444, 1857
Wilbur and, 1859-1860
Rank-Minzer, Beata, 207, 208, 1443-1444
Ranschburg, Paul, 1721
Raoul-Duval, Anne, 1297
Rapaport, Daniéle, 764
Rapaport, David, 1446-1447
cognitivism and, 309
on ego autonomy, 474
ego psychology and, 466
On ego states, 488
Hartmann and, 488
Rubinstein and, 1517
Rapaport, Samuel, 1446
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Raphael-Leff, Joan, 577
Rappard, Philippe, 1766
Rascovsky, Arnaldo, 1447-1448
Alvarez de Toledo and, 55
Argentinian psychoanalysis and, 117, 118,
1447-1448
Colombian psychoanalysis and, 315
Federacion psicoanalitica de América latina
and, 566
Martins, Cyro and, 1015
Pichon-Riviére and, 1284
Revista de psicoanalisis, 1496
Rascovsky, Matilde, 55, 1447
Rasmussen, Elisabeth Goode, 666
Rassial, Jean-Jacques, 1421
“Rat Man” case, 944-945, 1160-1162
ambivalence and, 56
archeological metaphors and, 114
case history process and, 250
cathartic method and, 258
compulsion and, 322
constructions and, 336
delusions and, 791
developmental disorders and, 408
doubt and, 435
Fluss and, 595
frame of psychoanalytic treatment and, 639
identification and, 787
infantile neurosis and, 821
inferiority feelings and, 831
instinctual impulse and, 840
intellectualization and, 844
International Psychoanalytical Association
and, 854
isolation and, 875-876
mastery and, 1025
negation and, 1121
nuclear complex and, 1164
obsessional neurosis and, 821, 1178, 1179
Oedipus complex and, 1161, 1184
omnipotence of thoughts and, 1189,
1339, 1748
“On the Sexual Theories of Children”
and, 1195
on organic repression, 1207
patient physical position and, 541
premonitory dreams and, 1305
projective identification and, 1339
psychoanalytic treatment and, 1384, 1729
sadism and, 1525
sadomasochism and, 1527
screen memories and, 1555
sense of smell and, 1616
Silberstein and, 1609
stages and, 1652
structuralism and, 1669
symbolism and, 1712
therapeutic alliance and, 1740
undoing and, 1822
Rathbun, C., 1640
Rationalization, 368-369, 892, 1448, 1559
Ray, Man, 1695
Ray, Robert B., 296
Raymond, Fulgence, 304, 886
Rayner, Eric, 1816
Reaction-formations, 1448-1450
alcoholism and, 41
anticathexes and, 94, 1449
desexualization and, 398
negative transference and, 1127
rivalry and, 1507
sublimation and, 1449, 1679
substitute formations and, 1449, 1681
turning around and, 1806
urethral eroticism and, 517
Reading “Capital” (Althusser), 53
Real, Symbolic, and Imaginary father,
1452-1453
Real, the, 1453-1455
death instinct and, 372
ethology and, 528
Ferenczi and, 1739
internal/external reality and, 848
privation and, 1327
See also Borromean knot
Real father, 1452
Real trauma, 318, 1455
Realangst. See Realistic anxiety
“Realidad exterior y los instintos en la
esquizofrenia” (Garma), 666
“Réalisation de désir et de symbolisme dans
le conte” (Riklin), 443
Realistic anxiety, 102, 447, 563
“Realitat und das Es in der Schizophrenie,
Die” (Garma), 665
Reality ego. See Pleasure ego/reality ego
Reality principle, 1325-1326, 1450
act/action and, 9
Bion on, 952
conflict and, 326
conscious processes and, 333
death instinct and, 371
ego and, 464
ego-instincts and, 483
experience of satisfaction and, 536
frustration and, 653
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
hallucinatory wish-fulfillment and,
1450, 1866
historical reality and, 748
humor and, 763
hypercathexis and, 767
identity and, 795
mythology and, 1095 ,
pleasure principle and, 1291, 1450
primary/secondary processes and, 1318
projection and, 1336
representation and, 551
self-preservation and, 1575
transgression and, 1792-1793
transitional phenomena and, 1794
Reality testing, 1450-1451
depressive position and, 396
dreams and, 1048
experience of satisfaction and, 536
groups and, 710
illusion and, 797, 798
object loss and, 99
truth and, 1804
Realization, 1451-1452
“Realization symbolique, La” (Sechehaye),
1709-1710
Reassurance, 1274
Rebus, 942
Recalled memory, 439
Rechardt, Eero, 584
Reciprocal paths of influence, 1455-1456
Recognition, 53
“Recommendations to Physicians Practicing
Psychoanalysis” (Freud), 1068,
1456-1457, 1729
on attention, 127, 531
on resolution of the transference, 1490
on telepathy, 1181, 1457
Reconstruction, 169, 336-337
See also Constructions
Redlich, Emil, 843
Rée, Paul, 83
Rees, John Rawlings, 1457-1458
British psychoanalysis and, 699
Main and, 1003
Psyché and, 1350
Tavistock Clinic and, 1457-1458, 1728
Refente, 1649
“Reflections on the Concept of Mathesis”
(Desanti), 1552
Reflexes, 307, 1324, 1736
“Reéflexions sur la Valeur Scientifique et
Morale de la Psychanalyse” (Ey), 363, 539
Refoulement, Le (Le Guen), 1479, 1480, 1481
2165
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Regis, Emmanuel Jean-Baptiste Joseph,
1458-1459
Breton and, 223
on claustrophobia, 306
French psychoanalysis and, 607
Hesnard and, 741
on phobias, 1272, 1273
Psychanalyse des névroses et des psychoses,
La, 134, 607, 741, 1345, 1360-1362, 1459
Regression, 1459-1460
addiction and, 23
alcoholism and, 41
allergies and, 48
amphimixia and, 66-67
analytical psychology on, 79
anorexia nervosa and, 91
basic fault and, 152
benign/malignant, 160-161
character and, 273
choice of neurosis and, 288
disorganization and, 420, 421
ego states and, 489
exhibitionism and, 535
false self and, 547
Ferenczi on, 160, 581, 1739
fetishism and, 583
fixation and, 588, 1460
groups and, 710
identification and, 788
imago and, 800
libido and, 968, 1460
maternal and, 1028
maternality and, 1298
narcissistic withdrawal and, 1116, 1117
neurotic defenses and, 1142
obsessional neurosis and, 1179
psychic temporality and, 1360
psychoses and, 1404
Czech psychoanalysis and, 360, 361
Dosuzkov and, 432
Jacobson and, 883
Journal of the American Psychoanalytic
Association, 897
on termination of treatment, 1737
Reich, Wilhelm, 1461-1462
Argentinian psychoanalysis and, 117
Berliner Psychoanalytisches Institut
and, 166
Bernfeld on, 169
Brazilian psychoanalysis and, 217
on character, 270, 271, 272, 273
Danish psychoanalysis and, 390, 391
Dubal and, 450
French psychoanalysis and, 612
Fromm and, 651
on indications/contraindications for
psychoanalysis, 809
Lehrinstitut der Wiener
psychoanalytischen Vereinigung, 959
Marxism and, 1017-1018, 1023
Nazi Germany and, 675-676, 1018, 1022—
1023, 1461
Norwegian psychoanalysis and, 1157
on orgasm, 1210
on orgone energy, 1210-1211
photograph of, III:p1.5
on politics, 1293
on psychic causality, 1354
on psychic energy, 1352
on psychoanalytic treatment, 1729
Rado and, 1441
Reich, Annie and, 1461
on relaxation principle/neo-catharsis, 1465
on resistance, 487
Russian/Soviet psychoanalysis and,
1518-1519
Reiff, Philip, 1826
Reik, Theodor, 1462-1463
Abraham, Karl and, 5, 1462, 1463
anthropology and, 93
on applied psychoanalysis, 108
Belgian psychoanalysis and, 157
Berliner Psychoanalytisches Institut
and, 166
Burlingham and, 236
Dostoyevsky and, 432
on dreams, 443
Dutch psychoanalysis and, 1133
Eissler-Selke and, 492
on evenly-suspended attention, 531
Garma and, 117, 665
Heimann and, 730
Heller and, 732
on identification, 788
on Jokes and their Relation to the
Unconscious, 892
lay analysis and, 951, 1118, 1432,
1463, 1558
Minutes of the Vienna Psychoanalytic
Society and, 1058
on music, 1088
on mythology, 443, 1093
National Psychological Association for
~ Psychoanalysis and, 1118, 1146
on paranormal phenomena, 1181
on parenthood, 1237
photograph of, III:pl.5
Psychoanalysis and, 1380
Psychoterapia and, 1411
on religion, 899
on Shakespeare, 1597
splits in psychoanalysis and, 1643-1644
USS. psychoanalysis and, 1824
Vienna Ambulatorium and, 959
repetition and, 1473 on silence, 1610 Reinach, Salomon, 1000
Rejection, 101, 394-395, 1286
“Relation d’emprise, La” (Dorey), 1024
“Relation of Beating Fantasies to a
Daydream, The” (Anna Freud), 1258
Relations between the Ego and the
Unconscious, The (Jung), 812
Relations model, 1464
Relaxation principle/neo-catharsis, 15, 16,
407, 1464-1465
Relaxation psychotherapy, 1465-1466
Religion, 1466-1467
animistic thought and, 86
archetypes and, 115
Arlow on, 119
representability and, 1477 sociology and, 1632
rituals and, 1504
sleep/wakefulness and, 1614
stages and, 1652
suicide and, 1687
symbolic realization and, 1709
true/false self and, 1582
weaning and, 1852
Winnicott on, 1460, 1709, 1862
“Regression et instinct de mort” (Marty),
420-421
“Regressions impossibles, Les?”
(Aisenstein), 1460
Reich, Annie, 1460-1461
splits in psychoanalysis and, 1643
Sterba and, 1659
Swedish psychoanalysis and, 1698
on termination of treatment, 1737
Vienna Ambulatorium and, 959
Vienna Seminar on Sexology and, 176
Wiener psychoanalytische Vereinigung
and, 1857, 1858
Zeitschrift fiir psychoanalytische Padagogik
and, 1886
Reichenbach, Hans, 169
Reichenstein, Eva, 285
Reider, Norman, 1529, 1530
2166 INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Austrian psychoanalysis and, 134
Beirnaert and, 156
belief and, 158, 159
bisexuality and, 186
Brentano and, 223
certainty and, 265-266
Choisy and, 290
Civilization and Its Discontents on, 296, 297
collective psychology and, 312
dualism and, 448
ethics and, 525-526
Freud’s self-analysis and, 425
Future of an Illusion, The on, 660-661
illusion and, 797
Indian psychoanalysis and, 808
jouissance and, 1104
Jung on, 660, 1399, 1467
Lacan and, 930
Marxism and, 1017
Moses and Monotheism on, 1077-1078
mother goddess, 1079-1080
mysticism and, 1091
myth of origins and, 1092
numinous and, 1165
oceanic feeling and, 265, 296, 425, 660, 899,
1181-1182, 1511
projection and, 1337
Schreber case and, 1376
totemism and, 1768-1769
Weltanschauung and, 1855
Religions of the Semites, The (Smith),
1097, 1321
Religious belief, 1691
Religious reality, 1718
REM (paradoxical) sleep, 1614
“Remarks about the Formation of the Self”
(Kohut), 605
“Remarks on the Theory and Practice of
Dream-Interpretation” (Freud), 1475
Remembering, 10, 1467-1468
“Remembering. Repeating and Working-
Through” (Freud), 5, 10, 1469-1470
on fundamental rule, 656-657
on infantile amnesia, 820
on lifting of amnesia, 977
on memories, 1041
on memory, 1043
on repetition, 1473
on resistance, 1488-1489
on screen memories, 1555
on silence, 1610
on termination of treatment, 76
on transference, 422
on transference neuroses, 1786
on working-through, 1879, 1880
Reminiscences, 1470-1471
Reminiscences of a Viennese Psychoanalyst
(Sterba), 1659
Remus, Jose, 1051, 1052
Renaud, André, 246
Reparation, 1471-1472
Repetition, 1472-1474
acting out and, 10, 267
amnesia and, 65
children’s play and, 283
constructions and, 338
cure and, 359
Development of Psycho-Analysis on, 407
protective shield and, 1341
psychic temporality and, 1360
Real and, 1454
rivalry and, 1507
symbolic and, 1710
time and, 1757
transference and, 1469, 1777
traumatic neuroses and, 1804
Repetition compulsion, 1474-1476
activity/passivity and, 17
death instinct and, 371, 1474-1475
dreams and, 437
dualism and, 449
ego and, 464
excitation and, 534
Fairbairn on, 546
Fort-da game and, 599-600
identity and, 795
mnemic traces and, 1064
negative transference and, 1127
punishment dreams and, 1422-1423
reality principle and, 1450
Schur on, 1549
suffering and, 1684
“Repetition in Analysis Worse than Original
Trauma” (Ferenczi), 1726
Repetitive dreams, 1476
“Reply to Criticisms of My Paper on
Anxiety Neuroses, A” (Freud), 1136
Répond, A., Guex and, 714-715
Repond, Andre, 1700
“Report on a Method of Eliciting and
Observing Certain Symbolic
Hallucination-Phenomena”
(Silberer), 1608
Repriisentant. See Representation
Representability, 78, 437, 441, 442,
1476-1477
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
Representation, 780-783
act/action and, 9
action-presentations and, 12-13
aphasia and, 106
compulsion and, 322
condensation and, 324, 325
conscious processes and, 333
creativity and, 352
cultural transmission and, 358
day’s residues and, 367
death and, 369, 370
deferred action and, 380
dreams and, 437, 438, 441, 442
experience of satisfaction and, 536
fantasy and, 551, 554, 782
functional phenomenon and, 654
hallucinatory and, 722
hysterical paralysis and, 774
ideational, 785-786, 841, 989
ideology and, 796
infans stage and, 813
instinctual, 786, 841
object aand, 1173
pain and, 1220
pictogram, 221, 785, 813, 1285-1287,
1312-1313, 1841
primal and, 1311-1312
primary/secondary processes and,
1318-1319
prohibition and, 1331
quantitative/qualitative dimensions
and, 1428
repression and, 1482-1483
symptoms and, 1715
unconscious fantasies and, 1817
visual and, 1840-1841
work of the negative and, 1129
working over and, 1877-1878
working-through and, 1880
Representation of affect, 1477-1478
Repressed, derivatives of the, 1478-1479,
1481, 1484, 1491
See also Return of the repressed
Repressed, the, 1478-1481
return of, 321, 325, 1478, 1481, 1491-1492
See also Repression
Repressed memories, 1689
Repression, 1481-1485
activity/passivity and, 17
adolescence and, 28
alcoholism and, 42
alpha-elements and, 50
amnesia and, 63, 64, 65
2167
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
anti-Semitism, 291
anticathexes and, 94, 1309, 1478,
1482, 1492
antilibidinal ego and, 96
Aulagnier-Spairani on, 111
automatism and, 143
bisexuality and, 186
censorship and, 262-263
character and, 269
condemning judgments and, 900-901
conflict and, 325
consciousness and, 333
constructions and, 335
contradiction and, 341
dead mother complex and, 369
decathexis and, 374
defense mechanisms and, 377
defense neuroses and, 19
defenses and, 374, 375
deferred action and, 380
deja vu and, 382
Deleuze/Guattari on, 98
depression and, 395
derivatives of the repressed and, 1478—
1479, 1481, 1484, 1491
desexualization and, 398-399
doubt and, 435
dreams and, 436, 437
drives and, 446
dynamic point of view and, 451
ego and, 463, 464
erotogenic zones and, 518
feminist views of psychoanalysis and, 578
flight into illness and, 590
forgetting and, 596, 597
fundamental rule and, 656
German romanticism and, 673
history and, 750
hysteria and, 773
id and, 778
imago and, 800
incest and, 804
infantile amnesia and, 819
lifting of, 976, 977, 1486-1487
memory and, 1043
myth of origins and, 1092-1093
negation and, 1122-1123
negative hallucination and, 1124
neurotic defenses and, 114]
organic, 1206-1208
paranoia and, 1229-1231
perception-consciousness system and, 1249
2168
persecution and, 1252-1253
phobias and, 1273
primal, 1050, 1308-1309, 1308-1310,
1483, 1485
primary narcissism and, 1110
“Project for a Scientific Psychology, A”
on, 1332
rivalry and, 1506
scotomization and, 1554
seduction theory and, 1592
sense of smell and, 1616
shame and, 1599
signifying chain and, 1607
splitting and, 1646, 1650
splitting of the object and, 1642
subject and, 1673
suppression and, 1693-1694
symbolic equation and, 1708
symptom-formation and, 1717
symptoms and, 1715
transgression and, 1792
translation and, 1797
word association and, 1872
work and, 1875
work of the negative and, 1129
working-through and, 1879
See also Reaction-formations
“Repression” (Freud), 1485-1486
action-presentations and, 12
on adaptation, 22-
on defenses, 375
on derivatives of the repressed, 1481, 1484
on instinctual representative, 841
on neurotic defenses, 1142
on psychic representative, 1358
on quantitative/ qualitative
dimensions, 1428
on representation, 781
on repression, 1478-1479, 1483, 1484
on return of the repressed, 1492
on substitute formations, 1681
Reproduction of Mothering: Psychoanalysis
and the Sociology of Gender
(Chodorow), 577
Repudiation, 1487
Requet, A., 450
Rescue fantasies, 1487-1488
Research. See Psychoanalytic research
Research instinct. See Knowledge instinct
Resistance, 1488-1490
acting out and, 10
censorship and, 262, 263
change and, 267, 268
character and, 269
character neurosis and, 273
child analysis and, 1733
death instinct and, 371
Development of Psycho-Analysis on, 407
“Dora” case and, 1384 :
doubt and, 435
ego and, 464
ego psychology and, 487
“Elisabeth von R.” case and, 496, 1488
ethics and, 525
failure neurosis and, 544
fundamental rule and, 656-657
group psychotherapies and, 714
id and, 778-779
interpretation and, 862, 863
latent/manifest dream elements and, 1008
repression and, 1479
sadomasochism and, 1527
therapeutic alliance and, 1740
transference and, 1488, 1777
transgression and, 1792
working-through and, 1489, 1879, 1880
Resistance dans I analyse, La (Favez), 561
Resnik, Salomén, 118
Resolution of the transference, 1490-1491
Resonance, 601
Restoration of the Self, The (Kohut), 13, 185,
318, 691, 784, 1060, 1324, 1574, 1576
Retardation, mental, 1572
Return of the repressed, 321, 325, 1478,
1481, 1491-1492
See also Parapraxes; Repressed, derivatives
of the
“Réve, illusion et connaissance”
(Diatkine), 411
Reve-éveillé en Psychothérapie, Le
(Desoille), 400
Reverchon-Jouve, Blanche, 887, 898, 930,
1492-1493, 1619, 1634
Reverdy, Pierre, 223
Reverie, 554-555, 1493-1494
attention and, 127-128
Bion on, 5, 52, 127-128, 184, 1030-1031,
1169, 1317
boredom and, 203
capacity for, 52, 127-128, 1030-1031,
1169, 1317, 1340
heroic self and, 739
infantile psychosis and, 826
negative capability and, 1124
projective identification and, 52
protective shield and, 1340
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Reversal into the opposite, 1494-1495
activity/passivity and, 17
death instinct and, 372
sleep and, 1614
turning around and, 1494, 1495,
1807-1808
Reversed perspective, 184
Réves et leur Interprétation psychanalytique,
Les (Dreams and their psychoanalytic
interpretation) (Allendy), 46
Revesz, Erzsébet, 765
Reévesz, Géza, 737
Revesz, Laszlo, 766
Réveurs éveillés (Borel), 205
Review of Psychoanalytic Teaching.
SeeZeitschrift fiir psychoanalytische
Padagogik
Revista Brasileira de Psicandalise, 919, 1012,
1015
Revista de la Sociedad Colombiana de
Psicoanalisis, 315
Revista de psicanalise de Porto Alegre, 217
Revista de psicoanalisis, 117, 248, 1447, 1496
Revista de psiquiatria y disciplinas conexas, 1,
384, 1253, 1496-1497, 1832
Revista Latinoamericana de
Psicoanalisis, 567
Revista psicanalitica, 217
Revista uruguaya de psicoanalisis, 150
Révolte contre le pere, La (Mendel), 612
Révolution surréaliste, La, 1695
Revue belge de psychanalyse, 158
Revue de Geneve, 1620
Revue de médicine psychosomatique, 277
Revue de pédagogie psychanalytique (Review
of Psychanalytic Pedagogy), 36
Revue francaise de psychanalyse, 608,
1497-1500
Bonaparte and, 200, 934, 988, 1497,
1498, 1499
Claude and, 305, 1497-1498
French psychoanalysis and, 609
Hesnard and, 200, 742, 934, 1497, 1498
Kestemberg-Hassin and, 911
Laforgue and, 200, 934, 1497, 1498
Loewenstein and, 988, 1498
Odier and, 1182, 1497, 1498
Pichon and, 200, 1283, 1497, 1498
Psyche and, 1350
recent role of, 613
Saussure, Raymond de and, 1536
Schlumberger and, 1541
Second World War and, 1557
Société psychanalytique de Paris and, 1497,
1498, 1499, 1624, 1625, 1630
surrealism and, 1695
Swiss psychoanalysis and, 1700
Revue International de psychopathologie, 569
Rey, Henri, 1507
Rey, Jean Carlos, 1828, 1829
Rey, Jean-Michel, 692
Rey de Castro, Alvaro, 1254
Reyes, Baltazar, 1268
Reynolds, P. Guy, 131
Rhode-Dachser, Christa, 678
Rhythmic behavior, 1573
Ribas, D., 419
Ribot, Théodule, 1672
on doubt, 435
Janet and, 885
Le Bon and, 953
on memory, 1042
on self-consciousness, 1569
Ricciardi von Platen, Alice, 880
Richard, Gustave, 449, 1556
Richard, Héleéne, 1247
Richard, Henri, 245
“Richard” case, 1276, 1500-1501
Richard Sterba: The Collected Papers, 1659
Richards, Angela, 681, 1137, 1199, 1654,
1669-1670
Richards, Arnold, 897
Richet, Charles, 768
Richman, John, 601
Richter, Horst-Eberhard, 677, 1602
Rickert, Heinrich, 1547
Rickman, John, 1501-1502
Bion and, 183, 1502
British psychoanalysis and, 699, 1501
on group analysis, 709
International Journal of Psychoanalysis, The
and, 593, 853
Jones and, 893, 1655
Khan and, 913
Second World War and, 1558
Tavistock Clinic and, 1728
Ricoeur, Paul
Colloque sur l’ inconscient and, 315, 610
Dalbiez and, 364
on epistemology, 1371
French psychoanalysis and, 611
on hermeneutics, 738
Lacan and, 459
philosophy and, 1271
Riddle of the Sphinx, The (Roheim), 1510
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
Rie, Oskar, 667, 916, 924, 1502-1503
Rieder, Ines, 1391
Riemann, Fritz, 1131
Riesenberg, Ruth, 284, 285
Rigaud, A., 42
“Righophobie, Die” (Perrotti), 1251
Riklin, Franz, 180, 320, 443, 1260,
1534, 1702
Rilke, Rainer Maria, 586, 674, 1195
Rimbaud, Arthur, 1695
“Ring of Polycrates, The” (Schiller), 1539
Rioch, David, 1688
Rioch, Janet, 1688, 1746
Risk-taking, 1686
Rites. See Rituals
Rittmeister, John, 1557
Rittmeister, John Friedrich Karl, 406, 676,
689, 910, 1505-1506
Rituals, 1503-1505, 1504, 1724
Ritvo, Samuel, 205
Rivalry, 1506-1507
Rivers, William Halse, 696, 1501
Riviere, Jacques, 1634
Riviere-Hodgson Verrall, Joan, 1507-1508
Australian psychoanalysis and, 130
British psychoanalysis and, 696, 697
Controversial Discussions and, 343, 697
on dependence, 392
on femininity, 577
International Journal of Psychoanalysis, The
and, 229, 593, 1507
Isaacs-Sutherland and, 873, 1507
Jones and, 893, 1507, 1655
on negative therapeutic reaction, 1126
Psychanalyse, La and, 1348
Standard Edition and, 1655, 1663
Winnicott and, 1507, 1861
Zetzel-Rosenberg and, 1887
Rivista di pscioanalisi, 663, 878, 879, 881,
1508, 1854
Rizzo, Francis, 690
Roazen, Paul, 642, 1608, 1727
Robant, Claude, 807
Robert, Francois, 124
Robert, Marthe, 611, 871, 900
Robertson, George, 696
Robertson, James, 1508-1509, 1728
Robin, Gilbert, 204, 205, 305, 329
Robinson, Shalom, 877
Roboz, V., 131
Roch, Michel, 703
Roch-Meyerhof, Etiennette, 1701
Roche, Jean-Francois, 1572
2169
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Rocking, 1573
Rodker, John, 801
Rodrigue, Emilio, 117, 217
Rodriguez, Diego, 1052
RogCearlr, 7s59,, 14 45
Roheim, Geza, 1509-1510
anthropology and, 93, 1000, 15091510
on dreams, 443
ethnopsychoanalysis and, 527
Ferenczi and, 580, 1509
Hungarian psychoanalysis and, 765,
766, 1510
Hungarian School and, 764
Kovacs-Prosznitz and, 923, 1509
lay analysis and, 1558
Lorand and, 991
Malinowski and, 1005, 1510
on myth of origins, 1321
on mythology, 443, 1094, 1099
on Oedipus complex, 1186
on otherness, 1774
on prehistory, 1303
sociology and, 1632
Rojas, Nerio, 116
Role-actualization, 1339
Rolla, Edgardo, 118
Rolland, Romain Edme Paul-Fimile,
1510-1512
“Disturbance of Memory on the Acropolis,
A” and, 424-425, 638, 1182, 1511
on Future of an Illusion, The, 296, 660
German romanticism and, 674
on religion, 265, 296, 1091,
1181-1182, 1511
Schiff and, 1537
Zweig, Stefan and, 1890
Romanian psychoanalysis, 1512
Romanian Psychoanalytic Society, 1512
Romanticism. See German romanticism
“Rome Report” (Lacan), 930
Romeo and Juliet, adolescence and, 27
Romm, May, 992, 1529
Rondepierre, André, 1083
Roots of Crime, The (Glover), 684
Roper, Lindal, 1393
Rorschach, Hermann, 1394, 1398,
1512-1513
Minkowska-Brokman and, 1056
Oberholzer and, 1167
Pfister and, 1260
photograph of, III:pl.7
Swiss psychoanalysis and, 1703
Rosanes, Ignaz, 1836
2170
Rosen, John N,, 414, 1404
Rosenberg, Benno
on dismantling, 420
on fusion/defusion, 658, 659
Kestemberg-Hassin and, 911-912
on lite instinct, 975
on masochism, 1022, 1315-1316
on sadism, 1526
on turning around, 1807
Rosenfeld, David, 138, 896, 1806
Rosenfeld, Eva Marie, 1513-1514
Blos and, 196
Hietzing Schule and, 236, 510, 745, 1513
Tegel clinic and, 1734
Rosenfeld, Herbert Alexander, 1514-1515
on addiction, 23
on alcoholism, 42
Argentinian psychoanalysis and, 118
on envy, 508
on infantile psychosis, 824
Italian psychoanalysis and, 879
Los Angeles Psychoanalytic Society/
Institute and, 992
on narcissism, 1106-1107, 1515
on paranoia, 1231
on paranoid-schizoid position, 1233
on projective identification, 1338
on psychotic transference, 1419
Riviere-Hodgson Verrall and, 1507
Rosenkétter, Lutz, 1351
Rosenthal, Tatiana, 674, 1515-1516, 1518
Rosenzweig, Saul, 1395
Rosolato, Guy
Cahiers Confrontation, Les and, 241
on cinema, 294
on displacement, 422
Ecole freudienne de Paris and, 457, 458
on exhibitionism, 535
on experience of satisfaction, 536
French psychoanalysis and, 613
Inconscient, L’ and, 807
on intergenerational phenomena, 846
on nonverbal communication, 1154
Nouvelle Revue de psychanalyse and, 1162
on perversion, 1259
Psychanalyse, La and, 1348
on psychogenesis, 610
on repetition, 1474
surrealism and, 1696
Ross, Helen, 724, 1516-1517
Ross, Nathaniel, 897, 898
Roth, Marcel, 1701
Rothfield, Rose, 131
Rotter, Lilian, 765, 766
Rouart, Julien, 539, 1152
Roublef, Iréne, 458, 807
Rouchy, Jean-Claude, 1632
Roudinesco, Elisabeth, 327, 742
Rouget, Gilbert, 1774 i
Rousillon, René, 1226, 1412, 1674
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 354, 544, 1021,
1158, 1159
Rousseau-Dujardin, Jacqueline, 611
Roussillon, René, 1126, 1170, 1412, 1413
Roustang, Francois, 266
Collége des Psychanalystes and, 314, 1835
Confrontation and, 327
on evenly-suspended attention, 531
Groddeck and, 706
Incenscient, and, 807
Viderman and, 1835
Roux, Marie-Lise, 1466, 1499
Roux, Wilhelm, 1197
Roxo, Henrique, 214
Royal Hungarian Institute for
Psychopathology and Psychotherapy, 1721
Royaume intermédiaire, Le (Gressot), 703
Royce, Josiah, 1424
Rubinstein, Benjamin B., 1517-1518
Ruddick, Bruce, 242, 243
Rudhart, Jean, 1095
Rudolfer, Noemy, 215
Ruhs, August, 135
Ruiz, Ma Teresa, 1637
Ruiz-Castillo, José, 175
Rule of abstinence. See Abstinence
Rules of Sociological Method
(Durkheim), 1631
Rumination, 844, 918
Russell, Bertrand, grid and, 704
Russian Psychoanalytic Association,
1S19, 1544
Russian/Soviet psychoanalysis, 1518-1520
analytic psychodrama and, 78
Chertok and, 277
Chinese psychoanalysis and, 286
Detski Dom and, 402—403, 1515
Ossipov and, 1212
Psychoterapia and, 1411
Spielrein and, 1639
Wulff and, 1518, 1519, 1881
Rycroft, Charles Frederick, 937, 1520-1521
N)
Saba, Umberto, 1853
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Sabato, Ernesto, 247
Sacher-Masoch, Leopold von, 1020, 1024
Sachs, Hanns, 1523-1524
Alexander, Franz Gabriel and, 42, 1523
American Imago and, 60, 801, 803
Balint and, 148, 1523
Balint-Szekely-Kovacs and, 149
Berliner Psychoanalytisches Institut and,
165, 166, 1523 ,
Bernfeld and, 169
Boston Psychoanalytic Society/Institute
and, 207
British Psycho-Analytical Society and, 228
cinema and, 293, 295
Delgado and, 385
Deutsche Psycoanalytische Gesellschaft
and, 675
Dutch psychoanalysis and, 1132-1133
First World War and, 586
Fromm and, 651, 1523
Fromm-Reichmann and, 652
Groddeck and, 706
Happel and, 725
H.D. and, 430
Heimann and, 730
Imago and, 107, 800, 802, 1445
International Psychoanalytical Association
and, 854
Loewenstein and, 988, 1523
Low and, 997
Meng and, 1044
Miiller-Braunschweig and, 1085
Payne and, 1245
photographs of, III-p1.8,9
Psychoterapia and, 1411
Sarasin and, 1534
Secret Committee and, 1561, 1562
Secrets of a Soul, The and, 1562, 1563
on Shakespeare, 1597
Sharpe and, 1599
Société psychanalytique de Paris and, 1624
training analysis and, 1769
Van Ophuijsen and, 1200
on visual arts, 1842
Wiener psychoanalytische Vereinigung
and, 1858
Wilbur and, 1860
Sachvorstellungen. See Thing-presentations
Sadger, Isidor Isaak, 1524-1525
on applied psychoanalysis, 107
on homosexuality, 757, 1524-1525
Hug-Hellmuth and, 761
Vienna Ambulatorium and, 959
Sadism, 1525-1526
activity/passivity and, 17, 1021
aggression and, 33
allergies and, 48
ambivalence and, 56
anal-sadistic stage and, 74, 1525
anality and, 72
anorexia nervosa and, 91
archaic mother and, 112
breastfeeding and, 221
compulsion and, 322
conflict and, 326
cruelty and, 355
death instinct and, 371, 1526
dismantling and, 420
fusion/defusion and, 659
hatred and, 729
jouissance and, 894
libido and, 969
masochism and, 1020, 1021, 1022, 1315,
1525-1526
mastery and, 1024, 1025, 1526
melancholia and, 1082
need for punishment and, 1120
object-choice and, 1174
orality and, 1202
phobias and, 1274-1275
self-punishment and, 1577
skin and, 1612, 1613
turning around and, 1806-1807, 1808
urethral eroticism and, 517
See also Anal-sadistic stage; Oral-sadistic
stage; Sadomasochism
Sadomasochism, 1526-1527
anal-sadistic stage and, 73
dernand and, 388
dipsomania and, 413
pain and, 1281
subject of the unconscious and, 1675
See also Masochism; Sadism
Safouan, Moustapha, 327, 1348, 1542
Saint-Jean, André, 864
Saint-Louis Augustin, Mrs. Raymond, 1014
Saint-Simon, Henri de, 1631
Sainte-anne Hospital, 1527-1528
Bonaparte and, 200
Borel and, 204
Claude and, 304—305
Congrés des psychanalystes de langue
francaise des pays romans and, 329
Delay and, 382
Evolution psychiatrique, L’ and, 1283
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
Ey and, 539
Inconscient, L’ and, 807
Lacan and, 929, 930, 1583
narco-analysis and, 1117
Psychanalyse et les névroses, La and, 1346
Schiff and, 1537
Schlumberger and, 1541
Sokolnicka-Kutner and, 1634
Sakellaropoulos, Pangiotis, 700
Salles, M., 1052
Salpetriere Hospital, La, 1528-1529
Bernheim on, 170
Charcot and, 275, 1528-1529
Claude and, 304
hysteria and, 772
Smirnoff and, 1617
Sameroff, A. J., 454
Samiksa, the Journal of the Indian
Psychoanalytical Society, 808
Sampson, Harold, 1532
Samson, Father Henri, 246
San Francisco Institute and Society for
Psychoanalysis and Psychotherapy, 1531
+
San Francisco Psychoanalytic
Foundation, 1532
San Francisco Psychoanalytic Society, 1612
San Francisco Psychoanalytic Society and
Institute, 1529-1532
San Francisco Psychotherapy Research
Group, 1532-1533
Sandler, Anne-Marie, 132, 230, 877,
1533, 1732
Sandler, Joseph, 1533-1534
British Psycho-Analytical Society and, 230
child analysis and, 697, 1732
on Counter-transference, 1368
on evenly-suspended attention, 531
Freud Professorship and, 230
history of psychoanalysis and, 613
on identification, 790
International Journal of Psychoanalysis, The
and, 853, 1533
International Psychoanalytical Association
and, 857, 859
Israeli psychoanalysis and, 877
Japanese psychoanalysis and, 888
object relations theory and, 1176, 1533
on primary identification, 1314
on projective identification, 1339
Tavistock Clinic and, 1728
therapeutic alliance and, 1741
Sandman, The (Hoffmann), 1393
Sandplay, 14
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Deieuame Guar an, 38-99
eoremamtd,s 3 8S
Gimect amaieamsd,s 41 4
Jssmmeyrater amientes and 413
deuhincd amed 4 33
Feder, Paul on, 487, 568, IO
infin, SLITS
Ramgen, LK ISSIR LO
OureamaToanay Bocroomaay oF Psvesaanalysis
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Khan on, 913
Meyer on, 1053, 1540
paranoid-schizoid position and, 1233
paraphrenia and, 1234
Passage to the act and, 18
psychoses and, 1403
Rosenfeld, Herbert on, 1514-1515
scotomization and, 1553-1554
Searles on, 309-310
secondary narcissism and, 1110
self-mutilation and, 1572
self-representation and, 1578
social feeling and, 1618
splitting and, 389, 1647
stages and, 1652
symbolic realization and, 1556, 1709-1710
symptom-formation and, 1717
systems and, 1720
transference and, 310
word-presentations and, 1874
Schjelderup, Harald, 1156, 1157, 1260, 1698
Schjelderup, Kristin, 1260
Schkolnik, Fanny, 1829
“Schlagenphantasie und Tagtraum” (Anna
Freud), 83
Schleiermacher, Friedrich, 181, 673
Schlemihl de Chamisso, Peter, 1597
Schlick, Moritz, 169, 1070
Schloss Tegel. See Tegel clinic
Schlumberger, Marc, 1541-1542
Centre psychopédagogique Claude-
Bernard and, 265
Chertok and, 277
Delay and, 383
Favreau and, 561
Granoff and, 692
Kestemberg-Hassin and, 911
Marty and, 1016, 1542
Racamier and, 1435
Schmideberg, Walter, 166, 284, 430
Schmideberg-Klein, Melitta, 284, 343,
1542-1543, 1738
Schmidt, Gérard, 508
Schmidt, Otto, 402, 1518, 1519, 1543
Schmidt, Vera Federovna, 402, 1461, 1518,
1543-1544, 1544
Schmidt, Vladimir (“Volik”), 1544
Schmiergeld, Adolf, 304
Schneider, Ernst, 302, 1260, 1544-1545,
1702, 1886
Schneider, Michel, 1163, 1628
Schneider, Monique, 195, 574, 1271
Schneider, Pierre-Bernard, 1701
Schnitzler, Arthur, 732, 1132
Schoen, Alberto, 881
Scholastique freudienne, La (Debray-
Ritzen), 612
Scholz-Strasser, Inge, 136
School of the Freudian Cause. See Ecole de
la Cause freudienne
School phobias, 1275
Schopenhauer, Arthur, 313, 497, 811, 905,
1271, 1485
See also Kantianism
Schotte, Jacques, 158, 1348
Schottlaender, Felix, 677, 1061, 1351
Schreber, Daniel Paul, 141, 1545-1547
See also Schreber case
Schreber case, 1375-1377, 1545-1546
choice of neurosis and, 288
collective psychology and, 311
decathexis and, 374
dementia and, 389
depersonalization and, 393
drives and, 445-446
dualism and, 1070
ego and, 462
ego-instincts and, 483
fixation and, 588
foreclosure and, 595-596
friendship and, 647
homosexuality and, 757, 1227, 1229, 1230,
1232, 1377, 1545, 1546, 1587
hypochondria and, 770-771
identification and, 790
inferiority feelings and, 831
Katan on, 907
masochism and, 1021
megalomania and, 1036
narcissism and, 1105, 1113
paranoia and, 1227, 1229, 1230, 1545
paranoid psychosis and, 1232
paraphrenia and, 1234
persecution and, 1252
pregnancy fantasy and, 1302
projection and, 1335
psychic causality and, 1354
psychoses and, 1404
psychosis/neurosis distinction and, 1415
rationalization and, 1448
Real and, 1453
stages and, 1652
symptom-formation and, 1717
totemism and, 1768
Schreck. See Fright
Schilein, Johannes, 136
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
Schulman, Martin, 1380
Schulte, R. W., 677
Schultz, Johannes H., 678, 1465
Schultz-Hencke, Harald Julius Alfred
Carl-Ludwig, 677, 1547-1548, 1644
Berliner Psychoanalytische Poliklinik
and, 164 hi
German psychoanalysis and, 676, 678, 679
Goring Institute and, 406, 676, 1547
Kemper, Werner Walther and, 910
Miiller-Braunschweig and, 1085
Nazi Germany and, 406, 676, 852, 1547
neopsychoanalysis and, 676, 679, 1130—
1131, 1547, 1644
Psyche and, 1351
Swedish psychoanalysis and, 1698
Schulze-Boysen, Harro, 1506
Schur, Helen, 233
Schur, Max, 296, 641, 1548-1549
Brunswick and, 232, 233, 1548
on coprophilia, 346
Freud biography by, 627-628, 642
Journal of the American Psychoanalytic
Association and, 897
on primary anxiety, 90
Wiener psychoanalytische Vereinigung
and, 1548, 1858
Schiissler, G., 135
Schuster, Peter, 133, 1858
Schwaber, Paul, 898
Schwartz, Murray, 1597
Schweizerische Arztgeselleschaft fiir
Psychoanalyse, 1549-1550
Schweninger, Ernst, 777
Schwidder, Werner, 677, 678, 852, 1131
Science and Method (Poincaré), 1566
Science de ’homme, 611
Scientia, 300
Scientific nature of psychoanalysis,
1550-1552
American Academy of Psychoanalysis
and, 59
Bachelard on, 145
Bernfeld on, 169
Binswanger on, 181
Briicke and, 230-231
catastrophe theory, 256
child analysis and, 1731
definition of psychoanalysis and, 1364
determinism and, 401
epistemology and, 1370
Freud, Anna on, 472
grid and, 704
2173
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
hard scientific nature of psychoanalysis,
726-727
Judaism and, 899
multidisciplinary interactions, 108-109,
300-301, 309
philosophy and, 1270, 1271
remembering and, 1468
research and, 1378
selected facts and, 1566-1567
Scilicet, 611, 1552-1553
Scolni, Flora, 117
Scope of Child Analysis, The
(Smirnoff), 1617
Scopophilia, 541, 829, 1025, 1553, 1843
Scoptoophilia. See Scopophilia
Scoptophobia, 433
Scotomization, 416, 933, 1284, 1553-1554
Scott, W. Clifford M., 243, 245, 853
Screen dreams, 1614
Screen-identifications, 791
Screen memories, 26, 702, 1040, 1042, 1467,
1555-1556
“Screen Memories” (Freud), 169, 551, 594,
632, 1555, 1609
Scritti (Gaddini), 663
SE. See Superego
Searle, Nina, 685, 696, 697
Searles, Harold F., 309-310
Bigras and, 178
Development of Psycho-Analysis and, 407
Ferenczi and, 328
on ideational representation, 786
on negative therapeutic reaction, 1126
Nouvelle Revue de psychanalyse and, 1163
on schizophrenia, 1540
Sebek, M., 361
Sechehaye, Marguerite A., 1404, 1556-1557,
1700, 1709-1710
Second individuation process, 197
Second Manifesto of Surrealism
(Breton), 1695
Second topography. See Structural theory
Second World War, 1557-1558
abandonment and, 2
Boston Psychoanalytic Society/Institute
and, 208
cinema and, 292
Congres des psychanalystes de langue
francaise des pays romans and, 330
French psychoanalysis and, 608
Imago Publishing Company and, 802
Main and, 1003
New York Psychoanalytic Institute/ Society
and, 1147-1148
2174
Société psychanalytique de Paris and, 1625
Storfer and, 1659, 1662
Swiss psychoanalysis and, 1701
Tavistock Clinic and, 1728
Winnicott and, 1861
Secondary gain, 590, 664, 1385, 1635, 1740
Secondary narcissism, 1110-1111
Secondary revision, 437, 438, 441-442,
1558-1560
anticipatory ideas and, 95
evenly-suspended attention and, 530-531
jokes and, 890
manifest dream elements and, 1007, 1559
Secret Beyond the Door (film), 293
Secret Committee, The, 1561-1562
Abraham and, 5, 1561
Eitingon and, 493, 1561
Freud-Jung split and, 640, 854, 1193, 1561
International Psychoanalytical Association
and, 854, 1561, 1562
photograph of, III:pl.9
psychoanalytic filiations and, 1373
Rank and, 1445, 1561, 1562
Secret of the Totem, The (Lang), 1320
Secrets, 6, 358, 1560-1561
Secrets of a Soul, The (film), 293, 294, 295,
1365, 1523, 1562-1563
Sedat, Jacques, 314, 957, 1251, 1835
Seduction, 1563-1565
activity/passivity and, 16-17
anaclisis and, 69
breastfeeding and, 221
deferred action and, 378
general theory of, 669-670, 1197, 1204,
1342, 1566
introjection and, 870
scenes of, 1061-1062, 1563, 1565-1566
Seduction scenes, 1061-1062, 1563,
1565-1566
Seduction theory, 669-670, 735, 1183-1184,
1563, 1754-1755
amnesia and, 65
childhood and, 280
choice of neurosis and, 287-288
conversion and, 345
developmental processes and, 1329
Eissler on, 490-491
family and, 547
homosexuality and, 757
memories and, 1040
mnemic symbols and, 1061-1062
mnemic traces and, 1063, 1064
neuroses and, 669-670, 735, 1142-1143
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
psychic reality and, 1357
puberty and, 1420, 1592
real trauma and, 1455
stages and, 1652
trauma and, 1801 :
Seele und Leben (Schilder), 1538
Seelensucher, Der: ein psychoanalytische
roman (Groddeck), 706
Segal, Hanna
Argentinian psychoanalysis and, 118
child analysis and, 1732, 1733
on infantile psychosis, 825
Italian psychoanalysis and, 879, 880
Journal de la psychanalyse de I enfant
and, 896
on lack of differentiation, 933
on melancholia, 1039
Money-Kyrle and, 1070
on neuroses, 1139
on paranoid-schizoid position, 1233
on phobias, 1276
Polish psychoanalysis and, 1292
on psychotic transference, 1419
on reparation, 1472
Riviere-Hodgson Verrall and, 1507
on symbolic equation, 1708-1709
on symbolization, 1713
on “vagina dentata” fantasy, 1831
on visual arts, 1842
Segal, Perry, 244
Segalla, Rosemary, 1851
Segantini, Giovanni, 1841
Seglas, Jules, 143
Seguin, Carlos Alberto, 1253
Seif, Leonhard, 689, 1011
Seitter, Walter, 135
Seitz, Philip, 1331
Selbst. See Self
“Selbst, Das” (Réheim), 1510
Selbstanalyse. See Self-analysis
Selected facts, 953, 1123-1 124,
1566-1567, 1750
“Selected Problems of Self Psychological
Theory” (Kohut), 1574, 1787-1788
Self, 1567-1568, 1579-1580
disintegration products and, 419
ego and, 467, 477
identity and, 1324
Klein on, 467
narcissistic transference and, 1115
pictogram and, 1286
primary identification and, 1314
true/false, 1581-1583 .
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
See also False self
Self (analytical psychology), 1580-1581
as archetype, 115, 1581
compensation and, 317
ego and, 469-470
individuation and, 812
unconscious and, 1400
Self-analysis, 985, 1568, 1769
See also Freud’s self-analysis
Self-analysis (Horney), 759
Self and the Object World, The
(Jacobson), 883
Self-consciousness, 50, 1569-1570
Self-esteem, 1038, 1227, 1570, 1687
Self-hatred, 41, 1126, 1570-1571, 1588
Self-identification, 52
Self-image, 238, 1571-1572
Self-mutilation, 1572-1574, 1687
Self-object, 1574-1575, 1595
amae and, 56
compensatory structures and, 317
disintegration products, 419
ego boundaries and, 474
sexualization and, 1595
Self-preservation, 1575-1576
aggression and, 34
anaclisis and, 68-69, 521
conflict and, 326
drives and, 446
ego functions and, 478
ego-instincts and, 482
erotogenic zones and, 518, 520, 521
hatred and, 729
life instinct and, 975
masochism and, 1022
narcissism and, 1105, 1674
primary need and, 1316
suicide and, 1688
tenderness and, 1736
“Self-Preservation and the Death Instinct
(Simmel), 1612
Self psychology, 1576-1577
action-thought and, 14
analytical psychology and, 1581
Bettelheim on, 173, 503
bipolar self and, 185
ego and, 467, 477
Fairbairn and, 546
fragmentation and, 605
identity and, 795
Los Angeles Psychoanalytic Society/
Institute and, 993
»
narcissistic injury and, 1113
self-image and, 1572
true/false self and, 1582
Self-punishment, 37, 38, 1577-1578
See also Punishment, need for
Self-representation, 883, 1578-1579
Self-sabotage, 27
Self-soothing behaviors, 420, 1341
Self-state dreams, 1579
Selfobject. See Self-object
Selye, Hans, 125
“Semeologie des obsessions et idées fixes”
(Pitres and Régis), 1459
Seminaires psychanalytiques de Paris, 612
“Seminar on the Purloined Letter”
(Lacan), 328
Seminars (Lacan), 192, 1583-1584
See also specific seminars
Semiology, 1716
Semiology. See Psychoanalytic semiology
Semiophysics: a sketch (Thom), 256
Semiotics, 295-296
Sens de la psychanalyse, Le (Pasche), 1242
Sense and Non-Sense of Revolt, The
(Kristeva), 1303
Sense/nonsense, 1584-1586
Separation
abandonment and, 3
asthma and, 124
Bowlby on, 212
love and, 994-995
Mahler-Schonberger on, 1002
vs. mourning, 3
object a and, 1173
paranoia and, 1228
See also Individuation
Separation anxiety, 102, 105-106, 1664—
1665, 1682
Serbian psychoanalysis, 1884-1885
Serbski, Vladimir P., 1411, 1518
Sergent, Emile, 744
Serlin, Carlo, 864
Servadio, Emilio, 1586-1587
Congres des psychanalystes de langue
francaise des pays romans and, 330
Gaddini and, 663
Indian psychoanalysis and, 807
Italian psychoanalysis and, 878, 879, 881
Psyché and, 1350
Rivista di pscioanalisi and, 1508
Tomasi and, 1758
Weiss and, 1854
Sesser, Miguel, 1828
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
Setting, 606
Seulin, Christian, 1476
Seven (film), 292
Seven-Percent Solution, The (film), 293
Seven Sermons to the Dead (Jung), 811
“Seventeenth-Century Demonological
Neurosis, A” (Freud), 1587, 1774
Seventh Heaven (film), 293, 294
Severn, Elizabeth, 328, 1465
Sex and Character (Weininger), 1587-1588,
1852, 1853
Sex and Gender (Stoller), 1660
Sex and Repression in Savage Society
(Malinowski), 1005
Sex and the Single Girl (film), 293
Sex reassignment, 1799
Sexual abuse. See Seduction; Seduction
theory
Sexual difference recognition,
1588-1589, 1594
See also Castration anxiety; Oedipus
complex; Penis envy
Sexual drives, 1589-1590, 1752
anaclisis and, 68—69
biological bedrock and, 182
conflict and, 326
ego-instincts and, 445, 482, 483
erotogenic zones and, 518
groups and, 712
imaginary and, 799
life instinct and, 975, 1589
overview of, 444-445
self-preservation and, 1575
subject and, 1674
subject of the drive and, 1674
“Sexual Enlightenment Of Children, The”
(Freud), 1590
Sexual etiology theory, 1670
Sexual excitement, 1660
Sexual Excitement (Stoller), 1660
Sexual instincts. See Sexual drives
Sexual inversion, 1685
Sexual Life (Physiology and Pathology)
(Moniz), 1296
Sexual Life of Savages in Northwestern
Melanesia, The (Malinowski), 1005
Sexual Politics (Millet), 576
Sexual Revolution, The, toward a Self-
Governing Character Structure
(Reich), 1018
Sexual States of Mind (Meltzer), 419
Sexual Struggle of the Young, The
(Reich), 1461
Sexual theories of children, 1590-1592
2175
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
genital stage and, 672
Oedipus complex and, 1185
truth and, 1805
“vagina dentata” fantasy and, 1831
visual and, 1841
Sexual traumas, 1592-1593
See also Seduction theory; Trauma
Sexualité d aujourd hui, La (Berge), 162
Sexuality, 1593-1595
actual vs. defense neuroses and, 19, 20
adolescence and, 26
aggression and, 33
alcoholism and, 41
animal magnetism and, 85
anorexia nervosa and, 91
anxiety and, 99
aphanisis, 105-106
basic assumptions and, 151
belief and, 159
boundary violations and, 209, 210
cultural changes in, 60-61
defenses and, 374
deferred action and, 379-381
Eros and, 512-513
intellectualization and, 844
literature and, 987
Merleau-Ponty on, 1047
nightmares and, 1149
“On the Sexual Theories of Children” on,
1194-1195
“Project for a Scientific Psychology, A” on,
1333-1334
specific actions and, 1638
See also Drives; Libidinal development;
Sexual drives
“Sexuality in the Aetiology of the Neuroses”
(Freud), 19, 41, 412, 525, 653, 1353
Sexualization, 398, 1595
Sexuation, 1031, 1588-1589, 1595-1596
Sha8d12,o 15w96-,159 7
Shakespeare, William, 107, 1597-1598,
1600, 1739
Shamanism, 921
Shame, 1067, 1598-159916,8 0
Shapiro, Kenneth, 1396
Shapiro, Theodore, 897
Sharpe, Ella Freeman, 1599-1600
British psychoanalysis and, 697
Controversial Discussions and, 343
344, 697
Glover, Edward and, 684
Glover, James and, 685, 696
Hamlet and Oedipus and, 723
>
2176
Khan and, 913
Rycroft and, 1520
on silence, 1610
Sheehan-Dare, Helen, 284
Shell and the Kernel, The (Abraham and
Torok), 7, 1265-1266, 1765
Shell shock. See War neuroses
Shengold, Leonard, 515
Shentoub, Salem A.
on alcoholism, 42
Lebovici and, 954
Nacht and, 1102
on self-mutilation, 1572
Société psychanalytique de Paris and, 1626
Sheppard-Pratt Hospital (Maryland), 1688
Sherman, Murray, 1380
Sherozia, A. E., 277
Shields, Clarence, 237
Shlossberg, Teodoro, 117
Shoah. See Holocaust
Shock Corridor (film), 292
Shope, Robert, 1517
“Short Account of Psycho-Analysis, A”
(Freud), 385, 415, 674, 1503-1504
“Short Study of the Development of the
Ego, Based on an Analysis of Mental
Problems, A” (Abraham), 516
“Short Study of the Development of the
Libido, Viewed in the Light of Mental
Disorders, A” (Abraham), 5-6, 270, 288,
869, 1106
Sibony, Daniel, 1156
“Sich Anklammern und Auf-SuchGehen”
(Hermann), 307
Sidhoum, Mohand A. Ait, 1155
Sidis, Boris, 1822
Sif, Smiljka, 1155
Sigmund Freud: His Family and Colleagues,
1928-1947 (film), 1603
Sigmund Freud: His Life in Pictures and
Words (Freud and Grubrich-Simitis), 623
Sigmund Freud: His Life in Pictures and
Words (Grubrich-Simitis), 1601
Sigmund Freud: His Personality, His
Teaching, His School (Wittels), 1869
Sigmund Freud: Life and Work (Jones), 611,
642, 643, 644, 651, 893, 973-974, 973-974
Sigmund Freud: Man and Father
(Freud), 626
Sigmund Freud Archives, 490, 491, 642,
1600-1601
Sigmund Freud as Consultant (Weiss), 1854
Sigmund Freud Copyrights Limited,
1601-1602
Sigmund Freud Gesellschaft. See Sigmund
Freud Society
Sigmund Freud Institute (Frankfurt), 677,
1061, 1602-1603
Sigmund Freud Museum (Berggasse 19,
Vienna), III:pl.10, 136, 163, 958,
1603, 1859
Sigmund Freud Society, 133, 136, 163, 1859
Sigmund Freud s Mission (Fromm), 651
Signal anxiety, 99, 1604
Arlow on, 119
castration complex and, 251
guilt and, 718
helplessness and, 734
protective shield and, 1341
quota of affect and, 1433
specific actions and, 1639
suppression and, 1694
Significance of Psychoanalysis for the Mental
Sciences, The (Sachs), 1523
“Significance of Sequences of Vowels, The”
(Freud), 1723
Signifier/signified, 1606-1607
displacement and, 422
fantasy and, 554
foreclosure and, 595
letter and, 961-962
sense/nonsense and, 1584
slips of the tongue and, 1615-1616
thing-presentations and, 1742
Signifiers, 1604-1606
cinema and, 294
formula of, 1031
music and, 1089
nightmares and, 1150
parade of, 1225
phallus as, 1264-1265
philosophy and, 1270
phobias and, 1275, 1276
psychic causality and, 1354
splitting of the subject and, 1649
subject and, 1673
subject of the drive and, 1674
subject’s castration and, 1676
substitution of, 1047, 1048
symptoms and, 1718
topology and, 1761
unary trait and, 1814
See also Signifier/signified
Signifying chain, 1354, 1607
Signs, 864, 1380
Siksou, Joyceline, 1304
Silberberg, M. D., 131 .
INTERNATIONAL DicTioNaRY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Silberer, Herbert, 1608-1609
on alchemy, 40
on anagogical interpretation, 71
on functional phenomenon, 654-655
on representability, 1477
Silberstein, Eduard, 565, 1609-1610,
1836, 1838
Silence, 119, 1610-1611
Silence, The (film), 294
Silence of the Lambs, The (film), 292
“Silence of the Mother, The, or: Twenty
Years Later” (Lombard), 1611
Silent zones, 41
Silveira, Nise da, 217
Silverberg, William, 1745
Simatos, Christian, 458, 1084
Simbiosis y ambigiiedad (Bleger), 194
Simenauer, Erich, 229
Simmel, Ernst, 1611-1612
Abraham, Karl and, 5, 6, 1611
on anti-Semitism, 291
Berliner Psychoanalytische Poliklinik and,
164, 493, 675
Berliner Psychoanalytisches Institut and,
165, 166, 1611
Bernfeld and, 169
Deutsche Psycoanalytische Gesellschaft
and, 675
Eitingon and, 493
First World War and, 586
Freud’s medical treatment and, 640
Groddeck and, 706
on indications/contraindications for
psychoanalysis, 809
Kemper, Werner Walther and, 910
“Lines of Advance in Psycho-Analytic
Therapy” and, 980
Nazi Germany and, 676, 1045
on payment for treatment, 1069
on psychoanalytic treatment, 1729
on relaxation principle/neo-catharsis, 1465
Rosenfeld, Eva Marie and, 1514
San Francisco Psychoanalytic Society and
Institute and, 1529
Tegel clinic and, 1734, 1881
Urbantschitsch and, 1828
USS. psychoanalysis and, 992
on war neuroses, 1848
Simmel, Georg, 1631
Simon, Herbert, 308
Simon, Janine, 280, 411
Simon, Thédore, 460
Simonsen, Hjgrdis, 1157, 1158
Sinthome, 1719
See also Symptoms
Sirk, Douglas, 294
Sisyphos (Bernfeld), 169
Situation phobias, 1273
Situazione psicoanalitica come campo
bipersonale, La (Baranger), 150
Sizkova, A., 361
Sjéstrand, Wilhelm, 1699
Sketches in Psychosomatic Medicine
(Velliffe), 889
Skhiri, Taoufik, 1155
Skin, 1612-1613
adhesive identification and, 24
autoeroticism and, 141
Bick on, 178, 221, 815, 1170, 1613
body image and, 197
breastfeeding and, 221
cruelty and, 354
infant observation and, 816
mastery and, 1025
tenderness and, 1736
See also Adhesive identification
Skin-ego, 104-105, 1613-1614
adhesive identification and, 24
Bick and, 178
body image and, 197
dream screen and, 441
ego and, 465
heroic identification and, 739
infant observation and, 816
maternal and, 1028
object and, 1170
protective shield and, 1341
psychic envelopes and, 739
self-consciousness and, 1569
tenderness and, 1736
Skin-Ego, The (Anzieu), 1569
See also Skin-ego
Slavery, 1437
Sleep, 1048, 1677
Isakower phenomenon and, 440, 441,
874-875
night terrors and, 1149, 1231, 1636
somnambulism, 84-85, 1636-1637
wakefulness and, 1614-1615
“Sleep, the Mouth and the Dream Screen’
(Lewin), 440
Sleepwalking. See Somnambulism
Slipp, Samuel, American Academy of
Psychoanalysis and, 59
Slips of the tongue, 942, 1402-1403,
1615-1616
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
>
INDEX
condensation and, 325
conflict and, 325
linguistics and, 981
substitute formations and, 1681
See also Parapraxes
Slochower, Harry, 60
Slow sleep, 1614, 1636
Smadja, Claude, 420, 1341
Smelianski, Anna, 876
Smell, sense of, 1616
Smirnoff, Victor Nikolaievitch, 1617
Association psychanalytique de France and,
122, 123, 1617
child analysis and, 610
Documents et Débats and, 426
French psychoanalytic establishment split
(1964) and, 122, 1617
Nouvelle Revue de psychanalyse and, 1162
Societe francaise de psychanalyse and, 1619
Smith, W. Robertson, 1097, 1321, 1768
Snake Pit, The (film), 293
Snejnevsky, Paval, 1520
“So-Called Good Hysteric, The” (Zetzel-
Rosenberg), 1888
Sobre psicologia y psicoterapia de cierto
estados angustiosos (Greve Schlegel), 284
Sobres de Souza, Decio, 215, 217
Socarras, José Francisco, 315
Social action, 31
Social change, 450, 549-550
Social constructionism, 115
Social Darwinism, 367, 1278
Social Development of Young Children
(Isaacs), 873
Social feeling, 1617-1618
Social Interest: A Challenge to Mankind
(Adler), 1018
Social link, 1632
Social psychiatry, 238
Social work, 37
Sociedad Colombiana de Psicoanalisis, 315
Sociedad Espanola de psicoanalisis, 1637
Sociedad Luso-Espanol de
psicoanalisis, 1637
Sociedad Psicoanalitica Mexicana,
International Federation of Psychoanalytic
Societies and, 852
Sociedade brasiliera de psicanilise, 214,
1012, 1250, 1295
Sociedade brasiliera de psicologia
analitica, 217
Sociedade brasiliera de psicoterapia de
grupo, 217
Sociedade de psicologia clinica, 217
2007
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Societa Psicoanalitica Italiana (SPI), 878,
879-881
Corrao and, 347-348
Fornari and, 598
Gaddini and, 663
Levi Bianchini and, 963
Musatti and, 1088
Rivista di pscioanalisi and, 663, 878, 879,
881, 1508, 1854
Servadio and, 1586
Weiss and, 1854
Société Belge de Psychanalyse (Belgische
Vereniging voor Psychoanalyse), 157-158
Société Belge de Psychologie Analytique
(SBPA), 158
Société de psychanalyse Freudienne,
612, 1084
Société de Psychothérapie Nazie, Claude
and, 305
Societe francaise de médicine
psychosomatique, 277
Société francaise de psychanalyse (SEP),
1618-1620
Association psychanalytique de France and,
12 23
Berge and, 161, 162, 1619
child analysis and, 610
dissolution of, 123, 1348
Favez and, 561
founding of, 427, 455, 560, 609, 930,
1618-1619
Granoff and, 692, 1619
Lagache and, 427, 935, 1618-1619
Psychanalyse, La and, 1347
Quatrieme Groupe and, 1430
Revue francaise de psychanalyse and, 1499
See also French psychoanalytic
establishment split (1953)
Société psychanalytique de Genéve, 1620
Société psychanalytique de Montréal, 241—
242, 243, 245, 1620-1623
Société psychanalytique de Paris (Paris
Psychoanalytic Society), 38, 46,
1623-1631
Belgian psychoanalysis and, 157, 158
Berge and, 161, 162
Berman and, 166-167
Bernfeld and, 169
Bonaparte and, 199-200, 608, 988, 1623,
1624, 1626, 1629, 1630
Borel and, 204
Bouvet and, 210
Canadian psychoanalysis and, 242, 243
Carcamo and, 247
2178
CCTP and, 264
Cénac and, 261, 1630
Chentrier and, 276
Chertok and, 277
child analysis and, 610
Chilean psychoanalysis and, 284
College de Psychanalystes and, 314
Confrontation and, 327
Congrés des psychanalystes de langue
frangaise des pays romans and, 330
Diatkine and, 410, 411, 1625, 1628, 1630
Evolution psychiatrique, LV’ and, 532,
539, 1623
Ey and, 539
Favez and, 560
Favez-Boutonier and, 559
founding of, 199-200, 591, 608, 988, 1236
Granoff and, 692
Greek psychoanalysis and, 498, 700, 1885
Held and, 731, 1626
Hesnard and, 742, 1619, 1623, 1624
Jury and, 904
Kestemberg-Hassin and, 911, 1626
Lacan membership, 608, 929
Laforgue and, 199, 934, 988, 1236, 1623,
1624, 1625
Laurent-Lucas-Championniére-Maugé
and, 948
Lebovici and, 954-955, 1625, 1626,
1627, 1630
Male and, 1004
Marty and, 1016, 1626
Nacht and, 1101, 1102, 1624, 1625-1626,
1629, 1630
Nodet and, 1152
Parcheminey and, 1236, 1623
Portuguese psychoanalysis and, 1297
on psychoanalyst role, 1368-1369
Racamier and, 1435
recent role of, 612-613
relaxation psychotherapy and, 1465
Reverchon-Jouve and, 1493
Revue frangaise de psychanalyse and, 1497,
1498, 1499, 1624, 1625, 1630
Saussure, Raymond de and, 608,
1497, 1536
Schiff and, 1537
Schlumberger and, 1541
Sokolnicka-Kutner and, 1292, 1634
Spitz and, 1625, 1641
supervised analysis and, 1693
Swiss psychoanalysis and, 1700
Torok and, 1764
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
training analysis and, 1770
Viderman and, 1626, 1627, 1628, 1835
See also Institut de psychanalyse de Paris
Société Suisse de Psychanalyse. See Swiss
Psychoanalytic Society
Society for Free Psychoanalytic Research.
See Verein fiir Freie Psychoanalytische
Forschung
Society for Individual Psychology. See
Verein fiir Individualpyschologie
Society for Psychical Research, 1662
Society of Analytical Psychology
(London), 80
Sociobiology, archetypes and, 115
Sociology, 1631-1633
Fenichel and, 579
Fromm and, 651
magical thinking and, 1000
Sociometry, 1072
analytic psychodrama and, 78
Sociopsychoanalysis, 1631
See also Sociology
Sogni @ oro (film), 293
Sokolik, Zbigniew, 1292
Sokolnicka-Kutner, Eugénie, 1633-1634
Boehm and, 198, 1633
child analysis and, 1731
Claude and, 304-305
Congres des psychanalystes de langue
frangaise des pays romans and, 329
French psychoanalysis and, 607, 608
Heuyer and, 304-305, 744
Laforgue and, 933
Morgenstern-Kabatschnik and, 1073
Pichon and, 1283, 1292, 1634
Polish psychoanalysis and, 1292
Reverchon-Jouve and, 1493
Schiff and, 1537
Société psychanalytique de Paris and,
1623, 1624
Société psychanalytique de Paris founding
and, 199, 988
Soler, Colette, 1638
Solidarity International Experimental
Home. See Detski Dom
Solis, Hernan, 1052
Solitude, 3, 246-247
Solms-Rédelheim, Wilhelm, Austrian
psychoanalysis and, 133, 1858
Solnit, Albert, Israeli psychoanalysis
and, 877
Somalcoholosis, 413
Somatic compliance, 1634-1635
actual vs. defense neuroses and, 20
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
discharge and, 418
Somatisation, psychanalyse et science du
vivant (Green), 1410
Somatization, 1408
disorganization and, 420—421
excitation and, 534
pain and, 1220
passage to the act and, 18
reciprocal paths of influence and, 1456
Schur on, 1548
See also Psychosomatics
Somatognosia, 1571
Somatopsyche, 1571
Sombart, Werner, 1437
“Some Additional Notes on Dream-
Interpretation as a Whole” (Freud),
747, 1422
“Some Aspects of the Analysis of a
Schizophrenic” (Segal), 1708
“Some Character-types Met with in Psycho-
Analytic Work” (Freud), 269, 272, 1239
“Some General Remarks on Hysterical
Attacks” (Freud), 1495, 1680
“Some Neurotic Mechanisms in Jealousy,
Paranoia, and Homosexuality” (Freud),
38, 376-377, 549, 1506
“Some Points for a Comparative Study of
Organic and Hysterical Motor Paralyses”
(Freud), 773-774, 1875
“Some Practical Aspects of Psychoanalytic
Treatment” (Jones), 130
“Some Psychical Consequences of the
Anatomical Distinction between the
Sexes” (Freud)
on castration complex, 253
on disavowal, 416
on female sexuality, 570
on gender identity, 668
on negative hallucination, 1125
on penis envy, 1245
publication of, 641
“Some Reflections on Schoolboy
Psychology” (Freud), 26, 1836
“Some Theoretical Conclusions Regarding
the Emotional Life of the Infant” (Klein),
1127-1128
“Some Variations in Ego-Feeling”
(Federn), 568
Sommeil et les Réves, Le (Delboeuf), 384
Somnambulism, 84—85, 1636-1637
Sonneck, G., 135
Sophocles, 107, 984, 985, 986, 1238, 1593
Soulairac, André, 1572
Soulé, Michel
child analysis and, 280, 610, 613, 955, 1732
on developmental disorders, 408
on encopresis, 504
on enuresis, 508
on hospitalism, 760
on prematurity, 1304
on self-consciousness, 1569
Soupault, Philippe, Allendy-Nel-
Dumouchel on, 45
Sources, excitation and, 534
Southern California Psychoanalytic Society/
Institute, 992, 993
Southwood, Harry, 131, 132
Soviet Union. See Russian/Soviet
psychoanalysis
Soziale Aspekte der Psychanalyse
(Caruso), 249
Spanish psychoanalysis, 1637-1638
Spatula game, 1651
“Special Type of Choice of Object Made
by Men, A” (Freud), 252, 342, 1183,
1487, 1593
Specific actions, 1638-1639
Specific reaction, 1638
Specular relation, 53
Specularization, 1840
Speer, Ernst, 678
Spektrum, 1698
Spellbound (film), 292, 293, 1365
Spencer, Herbert, 85, 539
Sperber, Hans, 981, 1707
Sperling, Melitta, 48, 1794, 1814
SPI. See Societa Psicoanalitica Italiana
Spiegelzauber (Roheim), 1509-1510
Spielrein, Sabina, 8, 1639-1640, 1702
Claparede and, 302
Detski Dom and, 402
Institut Jean-Jacques Rousseau and, 302
Jung and, 639, 747
Piaget and, 1282
Russian/Soviet psychoanalysis and,
1518, 1519
Sechehaye and, 1556
Swiss psychoanalysis and, 1620
Zeitschrift fiir psychoanalytische Padagogik
and, 1886
Spinoza, Baruch, 1271, 1640-1641
Althusser and, 53
Andreas-Salomé and, 83, 84
Breuer and, 224
on determinism, 401
on doubt, 435
Freud’s self-analysis and, 425
Goethe and, 686
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
on oceanic feeling, 1181
pleasure in thinking and, 1289
Rolland and, 1511
Spira, Marcelle, 1536, 1701
Gressot and, 703
Portuguese psychoanalysis and, 1297
Spirit of Geometry, The (Magritte), 1618
Spiritualism, 356, 1181
Spitteler, Carl, 800, 801, 802, 1523
Spitz, René Arpad, 1641-1642, 1706
on abandonment, 2
on allergic object relationship, 47
on anaclitic depression, 70—71, 760
Brazilian psychoanalysis and, 1012
Canadian psychoanalysis and, 242
on child analysis, 280
on clinging instinct, 307, 737
Congres des psychanalystes de langue
frangaise des pays romans and, 330
Czech psychoanalysis and, 361
on defenses, 375
on developmental processes, 1330
Dolto-Marette and, 427
on eight-month anxiety, 1186
ethology, 528
on fear, 563
French psychoanalysis and, 508
German psychoanalysis and, 1060
on hospitalism, 70, 760
Hungarian School and, 764
on infant development, 814
on infant observation, 817
International Federation of Psychoanalytic
Societies and, 852
Lebovici and, 955
on masturbation, 1026
on maternal care, 1029
on maturation, 1034
Nazi Germany and, 1557
on oral stage, 1204
on phobias, 1275, 1276
on primary identification, 1314
Psyche and, 1350
Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, The
and, 1382
on repetition, 1474
Sechehaye and, 1557
Second World War and, 1557
on social feeling, 1618
Société psychanalytique de Paris and,
1625, 1641
stages and, 1652
on stranger anxiety, 1664
2179
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
on sucking, 1682
Swiss psychoanalysis and, 1701
Tegel clinic and, 1734
on uncanny, 1816
Split ego. See Splitting of the ego
Split object. See Splitting of the object
Splits in psychoanalysis, 25-26, 1643-1645
See also French psychoanalytic
establishment split (1953); French
psychoanalytic establishment split
(1964); Quatriéme Groupe
Splitting, 1645-1646
allergies and, 48
amnesia and, 64
anaclisis and, 69
attacks on linking and, 984
bizarre object and, 188
borderline conditions and, 202
castration complex and, 254
consciousness and, 334
disintegration anxieties and, 418
fetishism and, 582-583
internal objects and, 850
metapsychology and, 1049
of the object, 1642
pictogram and, 1286-1287
Rosenfeld, Herbert on, 1514-1515
schizophrenia and, 389, 1647
vertical/horizontal, 1650
work of the negative and, 1129, 1130
See also Breast as good/bad object; Splitting
of the ego
Splitting (Stoller), 1660
Splitting of the ego, 466, 1645, 1647, 1659
disavowal and, 415, 416
internal objects and, 850
paranoia and, 1227, 1647
paranoid-schizoid position and, 1233, 1338
psychoses and, 1404
purified-pleasure-ego and, 1423
scotomization and, 1554
self and, 1579
voyeurism and, 1843
See also Projective identification
“Splitting of the Ego in the Process of
Defense, The” (Freud), 415, 582, 641,
1354, 1647-1648, 1665
Splitting of the object, 1642-1643, 1645,
1648-1649
Splitting of the personality, 1672
Splitting of the subject, 1649-1650
Althusser on, 53
Spock, Benjamin, 1851
2180
SPP. See Société psychanalytique de Paris
Springer-Kremser, Marianne, Austrian
psychoanalysis and, 135
Springthorpe, John William, Australian
psychoanalysis and, 130
Squiggle game, 1650-1651
Staabs, Gertrude von, 1395
Stability
death instinct and, 371
discharge and, 417
dualism and, 449
pleasure principle and, 174
“Stade du miroir, Le” (Lacan), 608
Staff, Clement, Psychoanalysis and, 1380
Stages, 966-967, 1184-1185, 1651-1653
See also Libidinal development
See also specific stages
“Stages in the Development of the Sense of
Reality” (Ferenczi), 288
Stages of Life, The (Jung), 1055
Stajner-Popovic, Tamara, 1885
Stammering, 1653-1654
Standard Edition of the Complete
Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud,
1654-1656, 1662-1663, 1664
on anaclisis, 68, 698, 753-754
on anticathexes, 94
International Psychoanalytical Association
and, 1558, 1663
“Standards and Principles of Psychoanalytic
Education” (APA); 62
Starcke, August, Dutch psychoanalysis and,
1132, 1676
State of being in love, 1656
Statut de Paffect dans la psychothérapie des
démences (Grosclaude), 390
Staub, Hugo, 43, 1734
Steele, Bernard, 934
Stegmann, Arnold Georg, 674
Stegmann, Margarete, 674
Steimback, M., 1637
Stein, Conrad
Bloc, Le—Notes de la psychanalyse and, 195
College des Psychanalystes and, 314, 1835
Colloque sur I’ inconscient and, 314,
315, 610
Confrontation and, 327
on ethics, 526
Etudes Freudiennes and, 528, 613, 807
on female sexuality, 574
French psychoanalysis and, 613
Inconscient, L and, 129-130, 611, 806,
807, 1835
on infantile psychosis, 825
Interprétation and, 864
Schlumberger and, 1542
Société psychanalytique de Paris and,
1626, 1628
on training analysis, 1770
Viderman and, 1835
Stein, Franz, 652
Stein, Ruth, 877
Steiner, Maximilian, 959
Steiner, Riccardo, 698, 739-741, 1233
Stekel, Wilhelm, 638, 1643, 1656-1658
Adler, Alfred and, 25
on anxiety, 1131-1132
on anxiety neurosis, 1136—1137
>
on applied psychoanalysis, 108
on cryptomnesia, 356
Greenson and, 702
Gross and, 708
International Psychoanalytical Association
and, 854, 860
neopsychoanalysis and, 1131
on ontogenesis, 1197
Psychoterapia and, 1411
psychotherapy and, 1411
Silberer and, 1608
Wittels and, 1869
Zentralblatt fiir Psychoanalyse and, 884,
1887
Stellung-da. See Representability
Stengel, Erwin
Lehrinstitut der Wiener
psychoanalytischen Vereinigung and, 959
on multilingualism, 1086
Stengers, Isabelle, 277, 1628, 1774
Stephanotos, Gerosimos, Greek
psychoanalysis and, 701
Stephen, Adrian Leslie
Bloomsbury Group and, 695
International Journal of Psychoanalysis, The
and, 853
Stephen, Karen
Bloomsbury Group and, 695
Tavistock Clinic and, 1728
Sterba, Richard F.,, 1658-1659
Argentinian psychoanalysis and, 117
Bettelheim and, 172
on Bibring, 176
Canadian psychoanalysis and, 242
Eissler-Selke and, 492
Happel and, 725
Japanese psychoanalysis and, 887, 921
Langer and, 941
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Lehrinstitut der Wiener
psychoanalytischen Vereinigung and, 959
on therapeutic alliance, 1741, 1789
Waelder and, 1845
Walter and, 1847
Wiener psychoanalytische Vereinigung
and, 1857
Zeitschrift fiir psychoanalytische Padagogik
and, 1886
Sterba-Radanowicz-Hartmann, Editha,
1658, 1659
Canadian psychoanalysis and, 242
Happel and, 725
Lehrinstitut der Wiener
psychoanalytischen Vereinigung and, 959
Vienna Ambulatorium and, 959
Zeitschrift fiir psychoanalytische Padagogik
and, 1886
Stern, Alfred K., Chicago Psychoanalytic
Institute and, 278
Stern, Anne-Lise, Aubry Weiss and, 129
Stern, Daniel N.
on biotrauma, 90
on developmental processes, 1330
on early interactions, 454
on infant development, 815
on infantile neurosis, 822
on intersubjective/intrasubjective
dichotomy, 867
on lack of differentiation, 932, 933
Lebovici and, 955
on maternal care, 1029
on music, 1089
on nonverbal communication, 1154
on object, 1170
on pregenital stage, 1186
Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, The
and, 1382
on puerperal psychoses, 1422
on secrets, 1560-1561
on self, 1567
on true/false self, 1582
on unconscious fantasies, 1818
Stevenson, Robert Louis, 429
Stittelman, Lucette, Martinican
psychoanalysis and, 1014
Stittelman, Pierre, Martinican
psychoanalysis and, 1014
Stocker, Helene, German psychoanalysis
and, 675
Stoddart, Henry Butter, British
psychoanalysis and, 696
Stoléru, Serge, Lebovici and, 955
Stoller, Robert J., 1659-1660
on gender identity, 668-669, 757, 1324
Nouvelle Revue de psychanalyse and, 1163
on perversion, 1256
on transsexualism, 1799
on voyeurism, 1843
Stolorow, Robert
on prereflective unconscious, 1307
on unvalidated unconscious, 1827
Stolorow, Robert D., on self, 1567
Stone, Leo, III:pl.11, 1660-1661, 1885
Storer, Adolf Josef, Internationaler
Psychoanalytischer Verlag and, 861
Storfer, Adolf Josef, 1659, 1661-1662
Almanach der Psychoanalyse and, 49-50
Gesammelte Schriften and, 680
Pyschoanalytische Bewegung, Die and, 1387
Secrets of a Soul, The and, 1562
Stork, Helene, 1775
Stork, Jochen, Journal de la psychanalyse de
Penfant and, 896
Storungen der Liebesfahigkeit beim Weibe,
Die (Kemper), 910
Storungen des Trieb- und Affektlebens
(Stekel), 1657
“Stottern eine psychoneurose und seine
Behandlung durch die Psychanalyse”
(Eder), 461
Strachey, James Beaumont, 1654-1655,
1662-1663, 1669-1670
Bettelheim on, 173
Bloomsbury Group and, 695
British psychoanalysis and, 696-697
Burke and, 214
Controversial Discussions and, 343, 344, 697
on disavowal, 415
on drives, 444, 446
on empathy, 502
on evenly-suspended attention, 531
Hogarth Press and, 753
Imago Publishing Company and, 802
International Journal of Psychoanalysis, The
and, 229, 853
Internationaler Psychoanalytischer Verlag
and, 861
Jones and, 893
Lanzer and, 944
on libido, 969
Matte-Blanco and, 1033
on maturation, 1034
on mutative interpretation, 1089-1090
photograph of, III:pl.13
on primary identification, 1314
> on “Project for a Scientific Psychology, A’,
1333, 1334
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
on resolution of the transference, 1491
Sigmund Freud: Life and Work and, 974
on socopophilia, 1553
Spanish psychoanalysis and, 1637
on time, 1757
Winnicott and, 1861
Strachey, Lytton, 695, 1662
Strachey-Sargent, Alix, 1654-1655, 1662—
1663, 1663-1664
Bloomsbury Group and, 695
Hogarth Press and, 753
Inhibitions, Symptoms, and Anxiety
and, 833
Jones and, 893
Klein and, 697, 914
photograph of, III:pl.12
> “Stradanie i tvortchestvo v Dostoievskoni’
(Rosenthal), 1515
Strange situation, 125, 822
Stranger anxiety, 563, 1664-1665
Stranger’s-face phobia, 1664
Strata. See Stratification
Stratification, 111, 112, 1665-1666
Straus, Erwin, 1267
Strauss, David Friedrich, 1511
Strauss, Marianne, 1465
Stricker, Salomon, 1838
Strindberg, August, 1697
“Striving for Autonomy and Regressive
Object Relationship, The” (Spock), 1851
Strohmayer, Wilhelm, German
psychoanalysis and, 674
Stromme, Irgens, 1698
Strotzka, Hans, Austrian psychoanalysis
and, 133, 135
Strozier, Charles B., Chicago Psychoanalytic
Institute and, 278, 279
Structural anthropology, 1604
“Structural Forms of the Feminine Psyche”
(Wolff), 1872
Structural Stability and Morphogenesis
(Thom), 256
Structural theories, 1666-1668
See also Structural theory
Structural theory, 476, 777-778, 1049
activity/passivity and, 17
agency and, 33
cathexis and, 260
censorship and, 263
change and, 267
character and, 269, 270
collective psychology and, 311
conflict and, 326
2181
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
defenses and, 375
Ego and the Id, The on, 470-471
ego psychology and, 486
Freud, Anna on, 472
fusion/defusion and, 659
latent/manifest dream elements and, 1008
modern conflict theory and, 1065, 1066
New Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis
on, 1145
object relations theory on, 1177
operational thinking and, 1198
orality and, 1202
Other and, 1212-1213
progressive neutralization and, 1331
prohibition and, 1332
psychic apparatus and, 1351
psychic causality and, 1354
repression and, 1482
Schur on, 1548
self-hatred and, 1571
self-preservation and, 1576
topographical point of view and, 1760
U.S. psychoanalysis and, 1825, 1826
See also Metapsychology
Structural truth, 1468
Structuralism, 1668-1669
Deleuze/Guattari and, 98
French psychoanalysis and, 610
perversion and, 1258-1259
Structuration dynamique dans la
schizophrenie (Pankow), 1222
Structure, 1666
Stuchlik, Jaroslav, Czech psychoanalysis
and, 360
Student of Prague, The, 429
Student protests (1960s), 612, 699, 931
Studien iiber Hysterie (Bleuler), 194
Studienausgabe (Freud), 1669-1670
Studiengesellschaft fiir praktische
Psychologie, 678
Studies in a Dying Colonialism (Fanon), 550
“Studies in the Prehistory of
Psychoanalysis” (Andersson), 82
Studies in Word Association (ung), 1779
Studies on Hysteria (Freud and Breuer), 87,
1670-1672, 1672, 1714, 1716
on adolescence, 26, 28
on amnesia, 63
archeological metaphors in, 114
on belief, 158
Bernheim on, 170
Breuer and, 225
“Cacilie M.” case, 239
2182
case histories in, 250
on cathexis, 259
on censorship, 262
on change, 267
cinema and, 293
on complexes, 319
on compulsion, 322
on creativity, 352
on cure, 358-359
on Darwinism, 366
on daydreams, 555, 1493-1494
Delboeuf and, 384
Deuticke and, 403
on developmental disorders, 408
on developmental processes, 1329
on “Elisabeth von R.” case, 495-496
on “Emmy von N~* case, 499-500,
1076-1077
on ethics, 525
on facilitation, $43
on fantasy, 550
on free association, 616
on fright, 648
on heredity of acquired characters, 736
on hypnoid states, 768
on indications/contraindications for
psychoanalysis, S0S—809
on “Katharina” case, 26, 909
on “Lucy R* case, 495, 997-998
on memory, 1041-1042
on mnemic symbols, 1061
on mnemic traces, 1064
on modesty, 1067
on negative transference, 1127
on Oedipus complex, 1183-1184
on orgasm, 1209
on overdetermination, 1216
on pain, 1280
on phylogenesis, 1277
on pleasure principle, 1290
on primal scene, 1310
on prohibition, 1331
on psychic energy, 1355
on psychoanalyst role, 74
psychoanalytic nosography and, 1374
on psychoanalytic treatment, 1384
on psychosomatic limit, 1410
on puberty, 1420
on quantitative/ qualitative
dimensions, 1427
on religion, 1466
on repetition, 1472
on repression, 1482
on resistance, 1488
on seduction scenes, 1565
on stratification, 1665
on tics, 1756
on transference relationship, 1788
on unconscious, 1818
on wishes, 1867
on work, 1875
on working over, 1878
See also “Anna O.” case
Study of Organ Inferiority and its
Psychological Compensation, A (Adler), 25
Study of Psychopathology, A (Lapuz), 1268
Stupidity, arrogance and, 121
Stuttering, Eder on, 461
Subconsious, 1672-1673
Subject, 1673-1674
castration of, 1676-1677
incompleteness and, 806
philosophy and, 1271
signifiers and, 1605
truth and, 1805
Subject of the drive, 1674-1675
Subject of the unconscious, 1675-1676
Subjectification, 1656, 1674
Subject’s castration, 1676-1677
Subject’s desire, 1677-1678
Sublation, 1674
Sublimation, 1678-1680
anal eroticism and, 514
Bornstein on, 205
character and, 269
civilization and, 298, 299
defenses and, 375
desexualization and, 399
directed daydreams and, 414
on drives, 447
ego and, 463, 464
ego ideal and, 480
fatherhood and, 558
Freud’s self-analysis and, 425
friendship and, 647
identification with the aggressor and, 792
incest and, 804
latency period and, 945
mastery instinct and, 917
neurotic defenses and, 1142
pleasure in thinking and, 1289
reaction-formations and, 1449, 1679
reciprocal paths of influence and, 1456
reparation and, 1471-1472
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
repetition and, 1474
rituals and, 1505
sexual theories of children and, 1591
sexuality and, 1594
Sharpe on, 1599
thought and, 1747
unconscious fantasies and, 1817
urethral eroticism and, 517
work and, 1876
Substitute formations, 1680-1681
displacement and, 422
metaphor and, 1047, 1048
reaction-formations and, 1449, 1681
“Subversion of the Subject and the Dialectic
of Desire in the Freudian Unconscious,
The” (Lacan), 554, 693, 895
Sucking, 1681-1683
Abraham, Karl on, 6, 1682
anaclisis and, 1682, 1752-1753
autoeroticism and, 141, 1681-1682
erotogenic zones and, 518
oral eroticism and, 515
orality and, 1202, 1203, 1204
self-preservation and, 1575
See also Breast; Breastfeeding
Suckling. See Breastfeeding
Sudden involuntary ideas, 1683
Suddenly, Last Summer (film), 293
Suffering, 1683-1684
Sugar, Nikola, 1884-1885
Suggestibility, 1684
Suggestion, 1684-1686
autosuggestion, 144
Baudouin on, 1431-1432
Bernheim on, 170
cure and, 358
fundamental rule and, 655
Liebeault on, 973
lies and, 971
transference and, 1776
Suggestion and Autosuggestion (Baudouin),
155, 1432
Suicidal behavior, 1686-1687
Suicide, 1687-1688
Bettelheim and, 173
megalomania and, 1036
melancholia and, 1082
paranoia and, 1230
Association for the Advancement of
Psychoanalysis and, 1558
Brazilian psychoanalysis and, 215
Chinese psychoanalysis and, 286
on consensual validation, 419
definition of psychoanalysis and, 1364
Fromm and, 651
Fromm-Reichmann and, 652
Horney-Danielson and, 759
object relations theory and, 1176
photograph of, II:pl.14
on schizophrenia, 1540
Swedish psychoanalysis and, 1699
Thompson and, 1745, 1746
Washington Psychoanalytic Society and,
1849, 1850
Sulloway, Frank
on biological bedrock, 183
Freud biography by, 642, 1197
Sum of excitation, 1689-1690
Suomen Psykoanalyytinen Yhdisytts, 584
Superego, 1610, 1678, 1690-1692
alcoholism and, 41
allergies and, 48
altruism and, 54
antilibidinal ego and, 96, 97
anxiety and, 100
archaic and, 111, 112
archaic mother and, 113
“as if” personality and, 122
Bergler on, 153
Bornstein on, 205
breast as good/bad object and, 219
castration complex and, 254—255
censorship and, 263
character and, 269, 274
Civilization and Its Discontents on, 297
cruelty and, 355
cultural transmission and, 357
death instinct and, 372, 1691
delusions and, 386
depression and, 394
early Oedipus complex and, 1188
ego and, 465, 1690
Ego and the Id, The on, 471, 479
ego ideal and, 479-480, 1106
ethics and, 525, 526
failure neurosis and, 544
INDEX
guilt and, 297, 471, 716-718
humor and, 762-763
id and, 778
idealization and, 783
identification and, 789
identification with the aggressor and,
792-793 4
imago and, 801
incest and, 1594
internal objects and, 849-850
jouissance and, 895
Klein on, 915
latency period and, 946
masturbation and, 205, 1026
melancholia and, 1038
modesty and, 1067
moral masochism and, 1071, 1072, 1691
narcissistic neuroses and, 1113-1114
object-choice and, 1174
paranoid position and, 1231
penis envy and, 1246
pleasure ego/reality ego and, 1288
projective identification and, 121
punishment dreams and, 1422
religion and, 297
repression and, 1479
self-hatred and, 1571
self-punishment and, 1577
sucking and, 1682
symptoms and, 1715
See also Structural theory
Superego anxiety, death and, 370
Superiority, masculine protest and, 1018
Supersession, 1674
Superstition
animistic thought and, 86
belief and, 158
death and, 370
déja vu and, 381
repetition and, 1473
Supervised (control) analysis, 602-604,
1692-1693
Suppressed Madness of Sane Men, The
(Blackett-Milner), 190
Suppression, 1693-1694
Sur, 116
“Sur le mouvement psychoanalytique”
(Maeder), 89
“Sur les Traitements Psychotherapiques
father and, 526
fatherhood and, 558
female sexuality and, 1636
fusion/defusion and, 658
Courts d’Inspiration Freudienne chez les
Enfants” (Parcheminey and Pichon), 1236
“Sur l’israélisme de Freud” (Hesnard), 742
Suréna, Guillaume, 1014
passage to the act and, 1390
self-punishment and, 1577
See also Suicidal behavior
Sullivan, Harry Stack, 1688-1689
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS 2183
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Surin, Jean-Joseph, 266
Surplus repression, 1018
Surrealism, 1695-1696
Breton and, 223-224
Choisy on, 290
Embirikos and, 498
Held and, 731
literature and, 987
Martinican psychoanalysis and, 1014
Societé psychanalytique de Paris and, 1624
Surrealist Manifesto (Breton), 224, 290, 1695
Surviving and Other Essays
(Bettelheim), 173
Survivor guilt, failure neurosis and, 544
Suspended attention, 127
Sutherland, John D.
British psychoanalysis and, 699
International Journal of Psychoanalysis, The
and, 853
Laing and, 937
Tavistock Clinic and, 1728
Suttie, Ian, 1457-1458
Svenska Psykoanalytiska Forenung (Swedish
Psychoanalytic Society), 82, 1698-1699
Svevo, Italo, 1853
Pyschoanalytische Bewegung, Die and, 1387
Swales, Peter, on “Cacilie M.” case, 239, 240
Swastika, 1023
Sweden, 188-189
Swedish psychoanalysis, 1697-1700
Andersson and, 81-83
Jekels and, 888
Swedish Psychoanalytic Society. See Svenska
Psykoanalytiska Férenung
Swedish Society for Holistic Psychotherapy
and Psychoanalysis, 1699
Swift and Carroll (Greenacre), 702
Swiss Medical Society for Psychoanalysis,
1549-1550, 1644
Swiss psychoanalysis
Claparéde and, 302
Flournoy, Henri and, 591
French-speaking, 1700-1702
German-speaking, 1702-1704
Gressot and, 703
Pfister and, 1260, 1513, 1549, 1550, 1700,
1702, 1703
Societe psychanalytique de Genéve
and, 1620
See also Swiss Psychoanalytic Society
Swiss Psychoanalytic Society (SGPsa),
1700, 1703
Brun and, 231
2184
Chilean psychoanalysis and, 284
Claparéde and, 302
Flournoy, Henri and, 591
Gressot and, 703
Oberholzer and, 1167
Pfister and, 1260, 1513
Rambert and, 1442
Rorschach and, 1513
Sarasin and, 1534
Saussure, Raymond de and, 1536
Schneider and, 1544
Schweizerische Arztgeselleschaft fiir
Psychoanalyse and, 1549-1550
Second World War and, 1557
Spanish psychoanalysis and, 1637
Switzerland (French-speaking),
449-450, 608
See also Swiss psychoanalysis
Switzerland (German-speaking)
Meng and, 1044
See also Swiss psychoanalysis
Swoboda, Hermann, 667, 1587, 1704-1705
Sydenham, Thomas, 1414
Sydow, Eckhard von, 198
Symbiosis, 1705-1706
Benedek on, 160
Bion on, 1464, 1706
individuation and, $11
infantile psychosis and, 825, 826
Mahler-Schénberger on, 1001
self-mutilation and, 1573
Symbiotic relation. See Symbiosis
Symbolic, the, 1710-1711
death instinct and, 372
Ferenczi and, 1739
Fort-da game and, 600, 927
L and R schemas and, 927
phallus and, 1264, 1710
Real and, 1453
See also Borromean knot
Symbolic castration, 428
Symbolic equation, 1708-1709, 1711
Symbolic father, 1452
See also Name-of-the-Father
Symbolic identification. See Imaginary
identification/symbolic identification
Symbolic mother, 1452-1453
Symbolic order, 1139, 1327
See also Symbolic, the
Symbolic realization, 1556, 1709-1710
Symbolic Wounds: Puberty Rites and the
Envious Male (Bettelheim), 173
“Symbolique, l'imaginaire et le réel, L”
(Lacan), 1453
Symbolism, 1706-1708, 1711-1712
alcoholism and, 41
analytical psychology and, 79, 80
archaic and, 112 y
Blackett-Milner on, 190
breastfeeding and, 220
Caruso and, 249
death and, 370
dreams and, 437, 441-442, 1559,
1798, 1811
feminist views of psychoanalysis and, 578
individuation and, 812
Jung on, 864
representation and, 782
Symbolization, 1712-1714
act/action and, 9
anagogical interpretation and, 71
anxiety and, 101
autism and, 137
“Cacilie M.> case and, 240
dementia and, 389
dream symbolism and, 441, 442, 654-655
encopresis and, 504
ethology and, 528
female sexuality and, 365
frame of psychoanalytic treatment and, 606
functional phenomenon and, 654
object and, 1170, 1171
phallus and, 365
primitive words and, 4
Real and, 1454
representation and, 782
somatic compliance and, 1635
suffering and, 1684
Symptom-formation, 1716-1718
flight into illness and, 590
reciprocal paths of influence and, 1456
repression and, 1491-1492
reversal into the opposite and, 1495
Symptoms, 1714-1715
condensation and, 325
conflict and, 325
inhibition and, 832, 833
Lacan on, 38, 1454, 1718-1719
See also Symptom-formation
Synchronicity, 1029, 1719-1720
“Synchronicity: An Acausal connecting
principle” (Jung), 1720
Syntagmatic axis, 1606
Synthesis, 1672
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Systems, 32-33, 1297, 1371, 1720-1721
Szasz, Thomas, 277
Székacs, Istvan, 766
Székely, Béla, 116-117
Szekely, Edith, 1698
Szekely, Lajos, 1698
Szondi, Leopold, II:pl.15, 1395, 1721-1722
Szondi Institute, 1721
Szondi Society, 1721
Szondiana (Szondi), 1722
Szwec, Gerard, 48, 420, 1341
T
Taboo, 85, 434, 1504, 1723-1724
“Taboo of Virginity, The” (Freud), 342-343,
1724-1725
on castration complex, 251, 252
on fascination, 556
on narcissism of minor differences, 1109
on taboo, 1724
Tact, 1725-1726, 1729
Tadmor, Gad, 877
Tagtraum-Traumdichtung (Andreas-Salomé
and Anna Freud), 83
Taguieff, Pierre-andré, 1436-1437
Tahka, Veikko, 584
Taine, Hippolyte, 1569
Tallaferro, Alberto, 117
Tames, Ruben, 1052
Tamez Morales, Alejandro, 566
Tamm, Alfhild, 584, 1157, 1698, 1699
Tandler, Julius, 1432
Tannenbaum, Samuel, 1608
Tantum, Digby, 699
Taoism, 921
Tarde, Gabriel de, 1685
Tartarin de Tarascon (Daudet), 1098
TAT (Thematic Apperception Test), 1087,
1395, 1398
“Taucher, Der” (Schiller), 1539
Tausk, Viktor, 1726-1727
on alcoholism, 41, 42
Andreas-Salomé and, 83
Eder and, 460
on ego boundaries, 474
epistemology and, 1370
on lies, 971
on narcissism, 1106, 1111
Nunberg and, 1165
Roazen on, 642
on schizophrenia, 1193-1194
on splitting, 1647
on training analysis, 1769
Tautermann, P., 361
Tavistock Clinic, 1727-1728
analytic psychodrama and, 78
Balint groups and, 147
Bick and, 177, 1728
British Psycho-Analytical Society and,
230, 1502
British psychoanalysis and, 698, 699, 700
child analysis and, 1732
Italian psychoanalysis and, 880
Journal de la psychanalyse de T enfant
and, 896
Raimbault, Emile and, 1442
Rees and, 1457-1458, 1728
Robertson and, 1509
Tustin and, 1809
Wittkower and, 1728, 1870
Tchertok, Lejb. See Chertok, Léon
Teaching of Dynamic Psychiatry, The
(Bibring-Lehner), 177
Tears, allergies and, 47, 48
Technik der Individualpsychologie, Die
(Adler), 25
Technik der Psychanalyse (Rank), 1729
Technique. See Child analysis;
Psychoanalytic treatment
Technique and Practice of Psychoanalysis,
The (Greenson), 703
Technique of Analytical Psychotherapy
(Stekel), 1657
Technique of Psycho-Analysis, The
(Glover), 684
Tegel clinic, 1734, 1881
Teilhard de Chardin, Pierre, 290, 609,
1350, 1739
Telepathy, 112, 1180-1181, 1457, 1735
Temple, Nicholas, 1727
Tempo psicanalitico, 217
Temporality. See Time
Temps modernes, Les, 612, 1009
Temps vécu, Le (Minkowski), 532, 1057
“Tendance convergente de la regression
narcissique, La” (Botella and
Botella), 1116
Tenderness, 1735-1737
“Termination of Analysis” (Ferenczi), 1737
Termination of treatment, 76-77, 1385,
1737-1738
active technique and, 16
frame of psychoanalytic treatment and,
606-607
“Lines of Advance in Psycho-Analytic
Therapy” and, 979-980
Real and, 1454
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
weaning and, 1852
“Wolf Man” case and, 76, 650, 979, 1738
working-through and, 1880
Terr, Lenore, 1382
Terror. See Fright
Teruel, Guillermo, 1832, 1833
Texte: Psychoanalyse, Asthetik, ;
Kulturkritik, 135
Thackeray, William, 224
Thalassa, 766
Thalassa: A Theory of Genitality (Ferenczi),
66-67, 113, 447, 581, 1738-1739
Thanatos. See Death instinct
Theiler, Pauline, 1609
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), 1087,
1395, 1398
“Theme of the Three Caskets, The” (Freud),
1080, 1610, 1739-1740
Thenon, Jorge, 116
Théorie et Pratique du Réve-éveillé
(Desoille), 400
Theory of Psychoanalytic Technique
(Menninger), 1045
“Theory of Symbolism, The” (Jones), 655,
893, 1608, 1707
“Theory of the parent-infant relationship,
The” (Schur), 1549
“Theory of the Parent-Infant Relationship,
The” (Winnicott), 813
Theory of Thinking, A (Bion), 50, 51, 121,
171, 1566-1567, 1749
Therapeutic alliance, 1740-1741, 1888
child analysis and, 1732, 1733, 1783-1784
transference relationship and, 1789
See also Counter-transference;
Psychoanalyst role; Transference
Therapeutic Experience and Its Setting, The
(Stone), 1661
Therapeutic Group Analysis (Foulkes),
601, 709
Thibaudet, Albert, 424
Thiesson, Gaston, 196
Thing, the, 1743, 1814
Thing-presentations, 106, 847, 1741-1743,
1873, 1874
Thinking, Feeling and Being (Matte-Blanco),
284, 1033
Third area, 1650
This, Bernard, 428, 984
This, Claude, 428
Thom, Rene, 241, 256, 1055
Thoma, Helmut, 1520
Thomas, Madeleine, 1395
Thomas Woodrow Wilson, Twenty-eighth
President of the United States. A
2185
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Psychological Study (Freud and Bullitt),
234, 235, 311, 485, 750, 1293,
1743-1745, 1856
Thompson, Clara M., 1745-1746
American Academy of Psychoanalysis
and, 58
Association for the Advancement of
Psychoanalysis and, 1558, 1745-1746
Ferenczi and, 59, 329
Fromm and, 651
Horney-Danielson and, 759
Stone and, 1661
Sullivan and, 1688
Tavistock Clinic and, 1728
Washington Psychoanalytic Society and,
1849, 1850
Thompson, Francis, 1599
Thought, 44, 332, 1746-1748
Thought identity, 536, 1249, 1748-1749
Thought-thinking apparatus, 1749-1750
Thought vs. action, 18
“Thoughts for the Times on War and
Death” (Freud), 639, 1750-1751
on altruism, 53
on character formation, 272
First World War and, 586
on instinctual impulse, 840
on knowledge instinct, 918
on mourning, 1080
on racism/anti-Semitism, 1438
on reaction-formations, 1449
“Why War?” and, 1856
“Three Areas of the Mind, The”
(Balint), 151
Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality
(Freud), 1751-1755
on activity/passivity, 17
on adolescence, 26
on aggression, 33
on amnesia, 63-64, 819-820, 820
on anaclisis, 68
on anal eroticism, 514
on anality, 72
on autoeroticism, 141
Balint and, 1314
on biological bedrock, 182
on castration complex, 251, 252
on character, 269, 272
childhood and, 280
on choice of neurosis, 288
on conflict, 326
on constitution, 334
on coprophilia, 346
2186
on cruelty, 354
on drives, 445, 446
on ego, 463
on ego-libido/object-libido, 485
on Eros, 512-513
on erotogenic masochism, 517
on erotogenic zones, 1205-1206
on erotogenicity, 520
on exhibitionism, 535
Fackel, Die and, 924
on fascination, 556
on feces, 564
on fetishism, 582, 1485, 1616
on fixation, 588
on heterosexuality, 743-744
on homosexuality, 757, 758
on idealization, 783
on identification, 787
on incest, 804
on infant development, 814
on infantile sexual curiosity, 1590
on infantile sexuality, 1593
on instinctual impulse, 840
on knowledge instinct, 917, 918
on libidinal development, 965
on libidinal stages, 967
on libido, 967, 968, 970
“Little Hans” case and, 75
Male and, 1004
on masculinity/femininity, 572, 1019
on masochism, 1021
on mastery, 1023, 1025
on masturbation, 1026
on narcissism, 1105
on object-choice, 1174
on object loss, 993-994
on ontogenesis, 1197
on oral eroticism, 516
on oral-sadistic stage, 1203
on orality, 1202
on organic repression, 1207
on organization, 1208
on orgasm, 1209
on otherness, 1214
on pairs of opposites, 1220
on partial drives, 1240
on perversion, 1255, 1257
on pleasure principle, 1290-1291
on pregnancy fantasy, 1302
on primary need, 1316
on psychic representative, 1358
on psychosexual development, 1405—1406
INTERNATIONAL DicTioNaRY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
on psychosomatic limit, 1410
on puberty, 1420
publication of, 638, 802
on reaction-formations, 1449
on reciprocal paths of influence, 1456
on regression, 1460 :
on repression, 1483
on rituals, 1503
on sadism, 1525
on sadomasochism, 1527
on screen memories, 1555
on seduction scenes, 1565-1566
on seduction theory, 1564
on sense of smell, 1616
on sexual drives, 1589
on shame, 1599
on signal anxiety, 1604
on skin, 1612
on thought, 1746
on thumbsucking, 1681
on trauma, 328
on urethral eroticism, 517
on violence instinct, 1839
on voyeurism, 1843
on work, 1876
Three Faces of Eve, The (film), 293
Thrills and Regression (Balint), 148, 160
Thumbsucking. See Sucking
Tics, 1755-1756
Tieck Prize, 1663
Time, 1756-1758
autohistorization and, 142
deferred action and, 377-381
historical truth and, 749
history and, 751
psychic temporality, 1359-1360, 1757
See also Termination of treatment
Tinbergen, Nikolaas, 799
Tisseron, Serge, 846, 1266
Tissot, Samuel Auguste David, 1026
Titchener, Edward Bradford, 502, 871, 1822
To Have or to Be? (Fromm), 651
Tom, Rene, 1739
Toman, Edward, 308
Tomasi di Palma di Lampedusa-Wolff
Somersee, Alessandra, 347, 879, 1758.
1758-1759
Tonic dialogue, 1465-1466
Topique, 529, 611, 1759-1760
Aulagnier-Spairani and, 130, 807, 1759
Enriquez-Joly and, 507
Perrier and, 1251
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Quatri¢me Groupe and, 529, 807,
1430, 1759
Topographical point of view, 640,
1049, 1760
aggression and, 34
collective psychology and, 311
ego psychology and, 486-487
fixation and, 588
on humor, 762-763
ideational representative and, 786
identification and, 788
incompleteness and, 805
lack of differentiation and, 932-933
mania and, 1006
modern conflict theory and, 1065, 1066
negation and, 1123
neuroses and, 1138
Other and, 1212-1213
perception-consciousness system and, 1248
preconscious and, 1300
primary/secondary processes and,
1318-1319
psychic apparatus and, 1351
psychic energy and, 1355
puberty and, 1421
reality principle and, 1450
regression and, 1460
repression and, 1483
resistance and, 1488
rituals and, 1504
seduction theory and, 670
taboo and, 1724
See also Metapsychology; Structural theory
Topology, 1760-1764, 1814
Topology and Time (Lacan), 931
Torasi, Lydia, 1155
Torngren, Per Henrik, 1698
Torok, Maria, 1764-1765
Abraham, Nicolas and, 6, 1764-1765
Cahiers Confrontation, Les and, 241
Confrontation and, 327
on cultural transmission, 358
feminist views of psychoanalysis and,
576, 578
on intergenerational phenomena, 846
on internal objects, 850
on introjection, 870
on object loss, 994
on phantom, 1265-1266
on secrets, 1560
on wish for a baby, 1864
Toronto Psychoanalytic Society, 1622
Torres, A., 1833
Torrubia, Horace, 1766
Torus, 1762-1763, 1814
Tosquelles, Franc¢ois, 1765-1766
Tostain, René, 129
Totem and Taboo (Freud), 1766-1767
on act/action, 9
on ambivalence, 56
on animistic thought, 85-86
anthropology and, 93
applied psychoanalysis and, 107
Balint and, 1314
on castration complex, 251
on collective psychology, 311
on contact, 338, 339
on cultural transmission, 357
on Darwinism, 366
definition of psychoanalysis and, 1365
on developmental processes, 1330
on estrangement, 524
on ethics, 526
on family romance, 549
on fantasy, 551, 552
on father, 1452
on father complex, 557
Group Psychology and the Analysis of the
Ego and, 712
on heredity of acquired characters, 736
on history, 750
on identification, 787
Imago and, 802
on incest, 804
on individual, 810
Jankelévitch and, 887
Jung and, 639
“Little Arpad” case and, 988
on magical thinking, 1000
on melancholia, 1083
on myth of origins, 1091-1092, 1238,
1321-1322, 1438
on mythology, 1096-1097
on narcissism, 1105
on Oedipus complex, 1184
on omnipotence of thoughts, 1189
on organic repression, 1207, 1208
on otherness, 1214
on parenthood, 1237
on parricide, 1078
philosophy and, 1270
on phylogenesis, 1277-1278
on politics, 1293
on primitive, 1319
on primitive horde, 1320, 1321
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
on prohibition, 1332
on projection, 1335
publication of, 640, 732
Putnam and, 1425
on religion, 1855
on rituals, 1503, 1504
sexuation and, 1595
sociology and, 1632
on suicide, 1687
on superego, 471, 1690
on taboo, 1723-1724
on thought, 1746
on totemism, 1769
on transcultural perspectives, 1775
on transgression, 1792
on uncanny, 1815
Totemism, 1768-1769
collective psychology and, 311
dipsomania and, 413
double and, 434
“Little Arpad” case and, 988, 1768
mythology and, 1097
oral-sadistic stage and, 1203
substitute formations and, 1680
taboo and, 1723
Touching. See Contact
Toulouse, Edouard, 1350, 1528, 1537
Tourette, Gilles de la, 331
Tourneur, Zacharie, 104
Toussenel, Alphonse, 1437
Toward a Theory of Schizophrenia (Bateson,
Jackson, Haley, and Weakland), 433
Toward the African Revolution (Fanon), 550
Toward the Preparation of a Metapsychology
(Freud), 732
Toxological theory, 42
Trace, 1605
Tragheit. See Inertia principle
Traill, Lorna, 131
Training analysis, 1430, 1457, 1627, 1769-
1771, 1771-1772
“Training Analysis and Control Analysis”
(Kovacs-Prosznitz), 923
Training of the psychoanalyst, 1771-1774
American Psychoanalytic Association and,
61-62
Association psychanalytique de France
and, 123
Balint groups, 147-148, 149, 700,
1003, 1442
British Psycho-Analytical Society and,
228-229
Canadian psychoanalysis and, 243
2187
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
European institutes, 61
fourth analysis, 602-604, 611
Hungarian School and, 146-147, 148, 764,
766, 923
infant observation and, 818
International Psychoanalytical Association
and, 855-856, 857
Kovacs-Prosznitz on, 923
Lacan and, 613, 1430
psychoanalytic filiations and, 1372-1374
psychosis/neurosis distinction and, 1415
Quatriéme Groupe and, 1430-1431
Real and, 1453
Ross on, 1516
second fundamental rule and, 655
supervised (control) analysis, 602-604,
1692-1693
training analysis, 1430, 1457, 1627,
1769-1772
“wild analysis” and, 1860-1861
See also Lay analysis; Pass, the; Training
analysis
Traité de psychiatrie de T enfant et de
adolescent (Lebovici, Diatkine, and
Soulé), 408, 532, 539-540, 744, 955
Traité de psychopathologie
(Minkowski), 1057
Traité des hallucinations (Ey), 540
“Traitement psychanalytique du caractére,
Le” (Ferenczi), 273
Trajectoire du réve, 1695
Tran Duc Thao, 53
Trance, 160, 1774
Trans, 245
Transactional analysis, 568
Transcendence of the Ego, The (Sartre),
1534-1535
Transcendent function, 14, 317
“Transcendent Function, The” (Jung), 14
Transcultural perspectives, 1774-1776, 1870
“Transfer paradoxal” (Anzieu), 1226
Transference, 1384, 1776-1778
abstinence and, 8, 1786
acting out and, 10, 11, 657, 1786
Aichhorn on, 36
alchemy and, 40
allergies and, 48
alter ego and, 52
amplification and, 68
analysand and, 75
analytical psychology on, 79, 80,
1779-1780
“Anna O.” case and, 88, 89, 225, 1787
Anzieu on, 104
2188
archaic mother and, 113
Arlow on, 120
arrogance and, 121
attachment and, 126
autism and, 137
Balint groups on, 147
belief and, 159
Bigras on, 178-179
bipolar self and, 185
Breton on, 224
cathartic method and, 258
change and, 267
child analysis and, 279, 1386-1387, 1732,
1733, 1782-1784, 1782-1784
Claude on, 305
complexes and, 321
conscious processes and, 333
container-contained and, 340
cruelty and, 354
dead mother complex and, 368
death instinct and, 371
dependence and, 392
depression and, 368, 1780-1782
Development of Psycho-Analysis on, 407
displacement and, 422423
dreams and, 439
ethics and, 525
femininity and, 573
Freud’s self-analysis and, 425
fundamental rule and, 656, 657
Gattel and, 667
gifts and, 682, 683
group psychotherapies and, 714
Guex on, 715
Hirschfeld, Elfriede and, 747
hypochondria and, 770
idealizing, 542, 785, 1116, 1580
identification and, 790
indications/contraindications for
psychoanalysis and, 809
interpretation and, 862, 863
introjection and, 871
invariant and, 872
Kemper, Werner Walther on, 910
latent/manifest dream elements and, 1008
lateral, 422-423, 1777
love and, 77, 513
mirror transference, 52, 1059-1060,
1115, 1580
mother and, 577
mutative interpretation and, 1089—1090
Nacht on, 1103
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
narcissistic, 785, 920, 1115-1116, 1574,
1576, 1810
need for causality and, 1119
negative, 77, 1127-1128, 1777, 1781-1782
object relations theory and, 1177
oceanic feeling and, 1182
pairs of opposites and, 1220
paradox and, 1226
paranormal phenomena and, 1181
patient physical position and, 541
primary love and, 1315
projective identification and, 1338, 1339
psychoanalytic semiology and, 1380
psychoses and, 487, 568, 1405, 1419
psychotherapy and, 1412
psychotic, 1419
“Rat Man” case and, 821
remembering and, 1468
_
repetition and, 1469
resistance and, 1488, 1777
resolution of, 1490-1491
Schlumberger on, 1542
Schur and, 628
Searles on, 310
a|
sexuality and, 1594
on sexuation, 1595
Silberer on, 1608 |
subject of the unconscious and, 1676
termination of treatment and, 77
transference relationship and, 1788-1789
translation and, 1797
twinship, 52, 1060, 1115-1116, 1580, 1810
unconscious fantasies and, 120
violence and, 178-179
See also Transference neuroses
“Transference” (Freud), 95
Transference (Lacan), 554, 1201
Transference and Countertransference
(Racker), 1778-1779
Transference and Its Context (Stone), 1661
Transference depression, 368, 1780-1781,
1781-1782
Transference hatred, 1781-1782
Transference love, 77, 513, 1785-1786
‘Transference neuroses, 1140, 1385, 1777,
1786-1787
actual vs. defense neuroses and, 20, 1139
change and, 268
child analysis and, 1732
dualism and, 448
ethics and, 525
Nacht on, 1103
patient physical position and, 542
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
phobias and, 1274
repetition and, 1473
therapeutic alliance and, 1741
Transference of creativity, 1787-1788
Transference psychoses, 1514
Transference relationship, 1788-1790
Transfert paradoxal (Anzieu), 434
Transformation and Symbolism of the Libido
(Jung), 968
Transformational object, 30, 1170-1171
Transformations, 1790-1791
hallucinosis and, 722, 723
ideational representative and, 786
invariant and, 871-872
Transformations: Change from Learning to
Growth (Bion), 704, 871, 995, 1030,
1791, 1833
Transgenerational phenomena
Abraham, Nicolas on, 7
Benedek on, 160
counter-Oedipus and, 349
cultural transmission and, 357-358
family romance and, 548
identification and, 789-790
identification fantasies and, 791
intergenerational phenomena and,
845, 846
ontogenesis and, 1197
prematurity and, 1305
Transgression, 524, 657, 1037, 1791-1793
Transience, 1195-1196
Transitional analysis, 1614
Transitional objects. See Transitional
phenomena
“Transitional objects and the process
of individuation” (Gaddini and
Gaddini), 663
“Transitional Objects and Transitional
Phenomena” (Winnicott), 1793,
1795, 1796
Transitional phenomena, 698,
1793-1797, 1862
addiction and, 23
Blackett-Milner on, 190
children’s play and, 283
infantile omnipotence and, 823
object a and, 1173
object and, 1169
primary object and, 1317
psychosomatic limit and, 1410
reparation and, 1472
Shakespeare and, 1598
splitting of the object and, 1642
Transitional space. See Transitional
phenomena
Translation, 379, 862, 1797-1798
Transmission of the inert, 1560
Transmuting internalization, 1798
Transsexualism, 669, 1578, 1660, 1798-1800
Transvestism, 1546, 1799
“Tratamiento psicoanalitico de un caso de
neurosis compulsiva” (Psychoanalytic
treatment of a case of compulsive
neurosis) (A. Z.), 1
Tratato mayor del psicoanalisis de los suefiose
(Garma), 666
Trattato di psicoanalisi (Musatti),
1088, 1800
Traum und seine Bedeutung, Die
(Kemper), 910
Trauma, 1800-1802
Abraham, Nicolas on, 7
amnesia and, 64
choice of neurosis and, 287—288
complemental series and, 318
Control-Mastery Theory and, 1532
cultural transmission and, 358
deferred action and, 379-381
family and, 547-548
Ferenczi on, 328-329, 581
fixation and, 588
fright and, 648
helplessness and, 734
paranoia and, 1227
pleasure in thinking and, 1289
protective shield and, 1341
Psychoanalytic Study of the Child,
The on, 1382
real, 318, 1455
Real and, 1454
termination of treatment and, 76
war neuroses and, 1848
See also Birth trauma; Seduction theory
Trauma ofB irth, The (Rank), 833, 861, 1445,
1643, 1729, 1738, 1802-1803
Traumatic neuroses, 1803-1804
fixation and, 588
fright and, 563
Kardiner on, 907
reminiscences and, 1471
repetition compulsion and, 1474
Travail du deuil, Le (Lagache), 936
Treatment. See Child analysis; Children,
treatment of; Psychoanalytic treatment
Treatment duration. See Termination of
treatment
Tremblais-Dupré, Théreése, Male and, 1004
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
Trends in Psycho-Analysis (Brierley), 226
Trennung der Liebenden, Die (Caruso), 249
Trevarthen, C., on nonverbal
communication, 1153
Trial by ordeal, 1686
Triandafillidis, Alexandra, 1688
Triangulation. See Oedipus complex
Tribute to Freud (H.D.), 429
Tribute to the World (H.D.), 431
TRIEB, 217
Trieben. See Drives
Triebpathologie (Szondi), 1722
Triebpathologie II (Szondi), 1722
Triebtheorie. See Instinct theory
Trilling, Diana, 1503
Trilling, Lionel, 1825
Trimestre psychanalytique, Le, 1084
Tristes Tropiques (Lévi-Strauss), 93
Triumph of the Therapeutic, The (Reiff), 1826
Troisier, H., 1500
Trombetta, Carlo, 302
Tronick, Edward, 1382
Trotsky, Leon, 1519
Trousseau, Armand, 106, 120
Truants from Life (Bettelheim), 173
True self, 1581-1582
Triimpell, Adolf, 1671
Truth, 65, 140, 1804-1806
See also Historical truth
Tube-ego, 1806
Tuckett, David, 853
Tuke, Hack, 769
Tunisian psychoanalysis, 1155-1156
Tuovinen, Matti, 584
Turner, Julia, 684, 685
Turning around, 1806-1808
reversal into the opposite and, 1494, 1495,
1807-1808
Turquet, Pierre M., 24, 692, 816
Tustin, Frances, 1808-1810
on autism, 137, 138, 139, 420, 1809
on birth trauma, 1803
on black holes, 189-190, 218
on developmental processes, 1330
on dismantling, 420
on helplessness, 734
on infantile psychosis, 825
Journal de la psychanalyse de f enfant
and, 896
on lack of differentiation, 932
on negative hallucination, 1125
on pregenital stage, 1186
2189
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
on self-mutilation, 1573
on skin, 815
on splitting of the object, 1642
structural theories and, 1666
on sucking, 1682
on tube-ego, 1806
Twelfth Night (Shakespeare), 1598
“Twenty-four Hours in the Life of a
Woman” (Zweig), 432
Twins, double and, 435
Twins: A Study of Three Pairs of Identical
Twins (Burlingham), 802
Twinship transference, 52, 1060, 1115-1116,
1580, 1810
“Two Analyses of Mr. Z, The” (Kohut),
920, 1107
“Two Lies Told by Children” (Freud),
746, 971
“Two Principles of Mental Functioning,
The”. See “Formulations on the Two
Principles of Mental Functioning”
Tyler, Edward Burnett, 85, 1000
“Types of Onset of Neurosis” (Freud), 653
Typical dreams, 185-186, 344-345, 441,
533, 1103, 1810-1811
Tyson, Alan, 753, 1521, 1654
Tyson, Phyllis, 897
Tyson, Robert, 860
Tzavaras, Athanase, 701
Tzavaras, Helene, 701
U
“Uber Coitus im Kindesalter” (Stekel), 1657
“Uber das Unbewesste und seine Inhalte”
(Jung), 313
Uber das Wesen der Hypnose (Schilder), 1538
“Uber den Gegensinn der Urworte”
(Abel), 4
“Uber die Psychogenese von
Organst6rungen und ihre
psychoanalystische Behandlung”
(Simmel) , 1612
“Uber einen Typus der Pseudoaffektivitat
(‘Als ob’)” (Deutsch), 972
“Uber latent, negative Ubertragung”
(Sterba), 1659
Uber psychopathische Mi nderwertigkeiten
(Gross), 707-708
“Uberlegungen zum Begriff der
Verdrangung” (Laforgue), 1554
Ubersetzung. See Translation
Uchoa, Darcy M., 566
Ulcerative colitis, 1813-1814
Ulriksen de Vinar, Maren, 1829
Ulysses (Joyce), 986
2190
Unary trait, 1761, 1814-1815
Unbinding. See Binding/unbinding of the
instincts
Uncanny, the
certainty and, 265
double and, 429, 434, 1815
femininity and, 573
German romanticism and, 673
maternal and, 1028
premonitory dreams and, 1305
psychogenic blindness and, 1393
racism/anti-Semitism and, 1437, 1438
“Uncanny, The” (Freud), 341, 351,
1815-1816
on depersonalization, 393
on double, 429, 434, 1106
on estrangement, 524
on fascination, 556
on narcissism, 1106
on racism/anti-Semitism, 1438
on repetition, 1473
on Schiller, 1539
on secrets, 1560
Uncertainty, doubt and, 435
Unconscious Today: Essays in Honor of Max
Schur, The, 1548
Unconscious, symptoms and, 1715
Unconscious, derivatives of. See Repressed,
derivatives of the
Unconscious, the, 1818-1820
active imagination and, 14
amnesia and, 64, 65
analytical psychology on, 79, 80
animistic thought and, 86
breastfeeding and, 221-222
character and, 272
collective unconscious and, 313
Colloque sur I’ inconscient and, 314-315
compensation and, 317
complexes and, 320
conflict and, 326
contact-barrier and, 339-340
contradiction and, 341
counter-transference and, 350
defenses and, 374
determinism and, 401
directed daydreams and, 414
double and, 434
dreams and, 438-439
ego and, 469
Ego and the Id, The on, 470
ego psychology and, 486
extroversion/introversion and, 538
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
female sexuality and, 571
feminist views of psychoanalysis and, 577
forgetting and, 596, 597
formations of, 597-598
guilt and, 717-718, 781
id and, 778 ;
ideational representative and, 786
individuation and, 812
as infinite sets, 1816
intergenerational phenomena and, 846
Jung on, 1400
Kantianism and, 905
Land R schemas and, 927
latent dream thoughts and, 947
logic and, 989
Matte-Blanco on, 1033
melancholia and, 21
memory and, 1040, 1041, 1063
multidisciplinary interactions and, 109
myth of origins and, 1092
Nazi Germany and, 1023
Nodet on, 1152-1153
object relations theory and, 1176
partial drives and, 1241
perversion and, 1255
philosophy and, 1271
politics and, 1293
preconscious and, 1300
prereflective, 1307
primary/secondary processes and, 1318
projection and, 1337
psyche and, 1348, 1349
psychic reality and, 1356-1357
purpose of psychoanalysis and, 20
remembering and, 1467-1468
repression and, 1478, 1482, 1485, 1487
Searles on, 310
seduction theory and, 669, 670
sexualization and, 399
subject of, 1675-1676
taboo and, 1724
time and, 1757
transgression and, 1792
unvalidated, 1827
See also Repression
“Unconscious, The” (Freud), 1820-1821
action-presentations and, 12, 13
on anticathexes, 94
on binding/unbinding, 179
on consciousness, 333
on derivatives of the repressed, 1481
on free energy/bound.energy, 617
es
—————
a
Ni= gahg
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
on hypercathexis, 767
on ideational representation, 785, 786
on language, 943
Matte-Blanco on, 1033
on paraphrenia, 1234
on preconscious, 1300
on primary/secondary processes, 1318
on psychic representative, 1358
on representation, 781
on repression, 1484
on substitute formations, 1681
suppression and, 1694
on thing-presentations, 1741-1742
Unconscious as Infinite Sets, The: An Essay in
Bi-logic (Matte-Blanco), 284, 1033, 1816
Unconscious concepts, 1817
Unconscious fantasies, 115, 119-120, 1312,
1817-1818
Unconscious Motives of War, The
(Strachey), 1664
Understanding Human Nature (Adler), 25,
1019
Understanding Your Family (Grinstein and
Sterba), 1658
Undoing, 1180, 1821-1822, 1821-1822
Unebévue, L’, 1084
Unfulfilled mourning, 1560
Ungeschehenmachten. See Undoing
Unheimlichkeit. See Uncanny, the
Union of Psychoanalysts and
Psychologists, 1034
Unitarianism, 1425
United Kingdom Council for
Psychotherapy, 698
Univers contestationnatre, L’ (Grunberger
and Chasseguet-Smirgel), 612
Universal quantifier, 1595
University of Vienna, 1659, 1837-1838
Unpleasure, 729, 1066, 1315, 1826-1827
Unpleasure principle. See Pleasure principle
Unthinkable anxiety, 90, 1320
Unvalidated unconscious, 1827
Uomo Delinquente, L (Lombroso), 353
Urbantschitsch, Rudolf von,
1827-1828, 1869
Urethral eroticism, 516-517, 1679
Urges, 323
Urinary retention, 66
Urination, 66, 507-508, 1347, 1367
Urphnomen, 687
Urribarri, Rodolfo, 946
Urtubey, Luisa de, 1610
Uruguay Psychoanalytic Association,
55, 1829
Uruguayan psychoanalysis, 55, 1828-1830
Urverdréangung. See Primal repression
U.S. psychoanalysis, 1822-1826
Brunswick and, 232
cinema and, 292
Filipino psychoanalysis and, 1268
Frink and, 648, 649
Japanese psychoanalysis and, 887
Jones and, 696
Klein and, 992-993, 1888
Kohut and, 920
Los Angeles Psychoanalytic Society/
Institute and, 992-993
Menninger Clinic and, 1044-1045
New York Psychoanalytic Institute/Society
and, 1147
Psychoanalytic Quarterly, The and,
1377-1378
Second World War and, 1558
Washington Psychoanalytic Society and,
1849-1851
See also American Psychoanalytic
Association; Chicago Psychoanalytic
Institute
“Use of an Object and Relating Through
Identifications, The” (Winnicott), 1796
Uses of Enchantment, The: The Meaning and
Importance of Fairy Tales (Bettelheim),
173, 986
Utilitarianism (Mill), 1290
Utraquism, 66
Uznadze, Dmitri, 1519
V
Vacher de Lapouge, Georges, 1437
Vacillation, 1605
Vackova, B., 361
Vadilieva, Nima, 1520
“Vagina dentata” fantasy, 1831
Vaginal eroticism, 66, 574
Valabrega, Jean-Paul, 77
Aulagnier-Spairani and, 129
Ecole freudienne de Paris and, 457, 458, 611
on excitation, 534
on fourth analysis, 603
French psychoanalysis and, 613
on incompleteness, 805
Inconscient, L’ and, 807
on latent dream thoughts, 947
on mythology, 1099
on pass, 1243, 1251
on psychosomatics, 610, 1409
Quatrieme Groupe and, 611, 807,
1429-1430, 1645
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
on somatic compliance, 1635
Topique and, 1759
on working-through, 1880
Valdizan, Hermilio, 1, 384, 1253, 1496,
1497, 1831-1832
Valéry, Paul, 223, 953
“Value of Psychoanalysis, The” (Porto-
Carrero), 1295
Values, 159
Vampirism, 138, 220
Van Bockstaele, Jacques, 1632
Van Bockstaele, Maria, 1632
Van der Heide, Carel, 1610
Van der Leeuw, Pieter Jacob, 857, 958, 1133
Van des Walls, H. G., 330
Van Eeden, Frederik, 1685
Van Emden, Jan Egbert Gustaaf, 498-499,
1132, 1133
Van Merlen, Thérése Jacobs, 157
Van Ophuijsen, Johan H. W., 1200
Dutch psychoanalysis and, 1133, 1200
Flournoy, Henri and, 591
Secret Committee and, 1562
Swiss psychoanalysis and, 1549, 1700, 1702
Vanggaard, Thorkil, 391
Varendonck, Julien, 157
Varias, Rudolfo, 1268
Vaysse, Jean-Marie, 1271
Vel (forced choice), 44
Veldman, Franz, 339
Venezuelan psychoanalysis, 1832-1833
Verbrecher und seine Richter, Der (The
Criminal, the judge, and the Public: A
Psychological Analysis) (Alexander &
Staub), 43
Verdichtung. See Condensation
Verdiglione, Armando, 880
Verdrdngung. See Repression
“Verdrangung und Skotomisation”
(Laforgue), 1554
Verein fiir Freie Psychoanalytische
Forschung, 25, 1857
Verein fiir Individualpyschologie, 25, 1857
Vergote, Antoine, 158
Verleugnung. See Denial; Disavowal
Vermorel, Henri, 1499
Verneinung. See Negation
Versagung. See Frustration; Privation
Verschiebung. See Displacement
Vertex, 1833-1834
Vertigo, 1365
Verwahrloste Jungend (Wayward Youth)
(Aichhorn), 2, 36
2191
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Verwerfung. See Foreclosure
Veszy-Wagner, Lilla, 680
Viderman, Serge, 1834-1836
on anticipatory ideas, 96
Cahiers Confrontation, Les and, 241
on change, 268
College des Psychanalystes and, 314, 1835
Confrontation and, 327, 1835
on constructions, 335, 337
on developmental processes, 1330
Enriquez-Joly and, 506
on history, 751
Inconscient, LV’ and, 807, 1835
on internal/external reality, 848
on memory, 1043
Revue francaise de psychanalyse and, 1499
Société psychanalytique de Paris and, 1626,
1627, 1628, 1835
on truth, 1805
Vie et la Mort des instincts, La
(Hesnard), 742
“Vie mentale, La” (Lacan), 459
Vienna, University of, 1837-1838
Vienna Ambulatorium, 568, 958-959
Vienna General Hospital, 1837
Vienna Psychoanalytic Association, 36
Vienna Psychoanalytic Society. See Wiener
psychoanalytische Vereinigung
Vienna Seminar on Sexology, 176
Vienna Working Group on Depth
Psychology. See Wiener Arbeitskreise fiir
Tiefenpsychologie
Vietnam War, 208
Vietnamese psychoanalysis, 78
Vikar, Gyérgy, 766
Villar, A., 315
Vinar, Marcelo, 567, 1829
Vincent, Jean-Didier, 183
Vindreau, Christine, 234
Violence
vs. aggression, 33-34
Bigras on, 178-179
envy and, 509
instinct of, 1838-1839
Klein on, 509
Violence et la vie, La (Bergeret), 1359
Violence fondamentale, La (Bergeret), 1839
Violence instinct, 1838-1839
Violence of Interpretation, The: From
Pictogram to Statement (Castoriadis-
Aulagnier), 130, 613, 1839-1840
on ideational representation, 785
on identificatory project, 793
2192
on infans stage, 813
on pictogram, 1286, 1287, 1312
on psychotic potential, 1418
on sense/nonsense, 1584
Virag, Teréz, 766
Virginal anxiety, 1136
Virginity, 342-343, 1725
Virilio, Paul, 241
Vischer, Robert, 502
Vischer, Theodor, 891
Visual, the, 1840-1841
Visual arts, 985, 1841-1842
Anzieu and, 105
applied psychoanalysis and, 107-108
Arlow on, 119
Blackett-Milner and, 190
illusion and, 797
“Moses of Michelangelo, The’, 985,
1079, 1842
Sigmund Freud Society and, 136
Weltanschauung and, 1855
Wolfenstein on, 1870
Vital Balance, The (Menninger), 1045
Vital fluids, 41
Vlad, Constantin, 1511
Vocabulaire de la psychanalyse (Laplanche
and Pontalis). See Language of
Psychoanalysis, The
Vocabulary, 3-4
Vogt, O., 678
Vogt, Ragnar, 1156
Voice, 1173
Voigt, Diana, 1391
Voitel, Karl H., 675
Volney, Constantin- Francois, 795
Von Freund Toszeghy, Anton, 645
Freud and, 174, 586, 639, 645
Hungarian psychoanalysis and, 765
Internationaler Psychoanalytischer Verlag
and, 861
Von Lieben, Anna. See “Cacilie M.” case
Vorlesungen iiber Physiologie (Briicke), 231
Vorstellung. See Representation
Vorstellungsmechanik, 82
Voss, Hans, 1832
Voyeurism, 17, 1021, 1675, 1807, 1808,
1842-1843
Vulpian, Alfred, 106
Vuoristo, Gunvor, 584
Vyrouboy, Nikolai A., 1411
W
Waal, Nic, 1157, 1158
Waelder, Robert, 1845-1846
Boston Psychoanalytic Society/Institute
and, 207
Czech psychoanalysis and, 361
on ego functions, 478
Filipino psychoanalysis and, 1268
Foulkes and, 601
Gesammelte Schriften and, 680
Hartmann and, 727
Journal of the American Psychoanalytic
Association, 897
U.S. psychoanalysis and, 1825
Waelder-Hall, Jenny
Boston Psychoanalytic Society/Institute
and, 207
on identification with the aggressor, 792
Lehrinstitut der Wiener
psychoanalytischen Vereinigung and, 959
Washington Psychoanalytic Society and,
1849, 1850, 1851
Wagner, Richard, 1437
Wagner-Jauregg, Julius, 1836, 1846
Burrow and, 237
Deutsch-Rosenbach and, 404-405
Freud, Anna and, 619
Isakower and, 874
Lampl-de Groot and, 938
Landauer and, 940
Nunberg and, 1165
photograph of, III:pl.16
Potzl and, 1299
“Rat Man” case and, 1161
Schilder and, 1538
Tausk and, 1726
Wahl, Francois, 459
Wahle, Richard, 1836
Wahn und Erkenntnis (Schilder), 1538
Wakefulness/sleep, 1614-1615
Walewska, Katarzyna, 1292
Walker, Janet, 294
Wallerstein, Robert, 858, 859, 888, 1412,
1530-1532
Wallon, Henri
on act/action, 9
on early interactions, 451
Male and, 1004
on mirror stage, 1058, 1107
on self-image, 1571
Viderman and, 1835
Walter, Bruno, 1847
Wangh, Martin, 877, 1597
Wanke, Georg, 674
Want of being. See Lack of being
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
= ———
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
War
Bion and, 183
civilization and, 299
disillusionment and, 1750-1751
Fornari on, 598
Freud on, 1855-1856
Money-Kyrle on, 1070
War, Sadism, and Pacifism (Glover), 684
War and Children (Freud and
Burlingham), 960
War neuroses, 1848-1849
British psychoanalysis and, 696, 697
German psychoanalysis and, 674-675
Hungarian psychoanalysis and, 765
Israeli psychoanalysis and, 877
Kardiner on, 906-907
New York Psychoanalytic Institute/Society
and, 1147-1148
Tavistock Clinic and, 1727
Tosquelles and, 1765
trauma and, 1801
U.S. psychoanalysis and, 61
Wagner-Jauregg on, 1846
War-shock (Eder), 460-461
Warburg, Otto, 160
Warda, Wolfgang, 674
Warren, Howard C., 1553
Washington Psychoanalytic Society, 1688,
1849-1851
Waterhouse, I., 131
Watermann, August, 675, 676, 725, 1133
Watterson, Donald, 244
Watzlawick, Paul, 433, 980, 1720
Weakland, John H., 433
Weaning, 1346-1347, 1406, 1594,
1851-1852
See also Breast; Breastfeeding
Weber, Guido, 1545
Weber, Max, 159, 660, 708, 1631
Weber, Samuel, 241
Wednesday Society, 638
Berggasse 19, Wien IX and, 162
Graf, Max and, 690
Heller and, 732
Rie and, 1503
Rosenthal and, 1515
transference and, 667
Wiener psychoanalytische Vereinigung
and, 1857
Wittels and, 1868
Weigert-Vowinkel, Edith, 852, 1734
Weil, Eva, 1629
Weil-Halpern, Fran¢oise, 955
Weininger, Otto, 1587-1588, 1704,
1852-1853
Weinshel, Edward M., 169, 858, 1530, 1532
Weinstein, S., 1052
Weismann, August, 371
Weiss, Daniel, 900
Weiss, Edoardo, 495, 1853-1854
on death instinct, 372, 1854
Federn, Paul and, 568
Italian psychoanalysis and, 495, 878, 879,
963, 1508, 1853
on libido, 969
Musatti and, 1088
Opere and, 1199
Perrotti and, 1251, 1854
Rivista di pscioanalisi and, 1508
Servadio and, 1586
Tomasi and, 1758
Weiss, Ilona. See “Elisabeth von R.” case
Weiss, Joseph, 1532
Weiss, Naomi, 877
Weissenberg, Siegfried, 504
Weissman, Stephen, 1610
Weizmann, Chaim, 461
Weizsacker-Hoss, Kate, 1222
Welldon, Estela V., 1259
Weller, Gertrud, 1085
Weltanschauung, 1854-1855
animistic thought and, 85-86
illusion and, 797
Kantianism and, 905
need for causality and, 1119
New Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis
on, 1146, 1854
Wencelblat, Matilde, 117
Wencelblat, Simon, 117
Werneck, Luiz L., 215
Wernicke, Carl, 106, 212, 707, 1042
West Indian psychoanalysis. See Martinican
psychoanalysis
Westphal, Karl Friedrich, 322, 1272, 1273
Wetterstrand, Otto, 188
Weygandt, Wilhelm, 824
When Spring Comes (Khan), 913
Whitaker, Carl, 1445
White, William Alanson, 889, 1379, 1540,
1688, 1745, 1849
Whiting, Carlos D’Andurrain, 284, 566
Whole-object love, 218
“Why War?” (Freud) (Letter to Einstein),
372, 447, 641, 879, 1097, 1855-1857
“Widening scope of indications for
psychoanalysis, The” (Stone), 1661
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
Widerspruchlosigkeit. See Contradiction
Widlécher, Daniel
on act/action, 9
on action-presentations, 13
on borderline conditions, 202
on change, 267, 268
on economic point of view, 459
on emotions, 501
French psychoanalysis and, 613
French psychoanalytic establishment split
(1964) and, 123
on internal/external reality, 848
International Psychoanalytical Association
and, 613
on latent dream thoughts, 947
Psychanalyse, La and, 1348
on psychic representative, 1358
on psychic structure, 1359
Revue International de psychopathologie
and, 569
Smimoff and, 1617
Societe francaise de psychanalyse and, 1619
Société psychanalytique de Paris and,
1627, 1630
Venezuelan psychoanalysis and, 1833
Wiene, R., 292
Wiener Arbeitskreise fiir Psychanalyse,
135-136
Wiener Arbeitskreise fiir Tiefenpsychologie,
134, 135, 248, 852
See also Wiener Arbeitskreise fiir
Psychanalyse
Wiener Cottage Sanatorium, 1828, 1869
Wiener-Lehrman, Lynne, 960
Wiener psychoanalytische Vereinigung
(WPV), 1857-1859
Andreas-Salomé and, 83
Austrian psychoanalysis and, 132-133, 134
Bibring-Lehner and, 176-177
Caruso and, 248
Croatian psychoanalysis and, 1884
Federn, Paul and, 568
Fenichel and, 579
Freud, Anna and, 619
Hartmann and, 727
Hilferding-Honigsberg and, 746
Hug-Hellmuth and, 761
International Psychoanalytical Association
and, 854
Isakower and, 874
Jekels and, 888
Laforgue and, 933
Lehrinstitut and, 959
2193
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
minutes of, 1057-1058
Potzl and, 1299
Rank and, 1444, 1857
Reik and, 1462-1463
Rie and, 1503
Sadger and, 1525
Schilder and, 1538
Schur and, 1548, 1858
Silberer and, 1608
Sokolnicka-Kutner and, 1633
Spitz and, 1641
Stekel and, 1657
Sterba and, 1659
Sterba-Radanowicz-Hartmann, Editha
and, 1658
Storfer and, 1662
supervised analysis and, 1692
Swedish psychoanalysis and, 1698
Urbantschitsch and, 1828
Vienna Ambulatorium and, 958-959
Waelder and, 1845
Winterstein and, 1858, 1863
Wittels and, 1869
Wulff and, 1881
Wilbern, D., 1597
Wilbur, George B., 60, 1859, 1859-1860
“Wild analysis”
AAGP and, 49
abstinence and, 8
Berliner Psychoanalytisches Institut
and, 165
International Psychoanalytical Association
and, 639, 855
Porto-Carrero and, 1295
“Wild’ Psycho-Analysis” (Freud), 61, 855,
1860-1861
Wilde, Oscar, 429
Wilgowicz, Pérel, 846, 1439, 1629
Wilhelm, Richard, 902, 1720
William Alanson White Institute, 1688
William Alanson White Psychoanalytic
Society, 852, 1746, 1850
William of Ockham, 1270
Williams, Frankwood, 1377
Williams, Paul, 853
Willis, Thomas, 1414
Wilson, C. Philip, 1728
Wilson, Paul, 1497, 1832
Wilson, Philip C., 48
Wilson, Woodrow, 234, 235, 311, 750,
1743-1745
Windholz, Emanuel, 1529
Windholz, Eugen, 360, 361, 1212
2194
Winer, Jerome, 279
Winicott, Donald W., 1557
Winn, Roy Coupland, 130, 131
Winnicott, Donald Woods, 1861-1863
on abandonment, 2, 3
on addiction, 23
on adolescence, 26
American Psychoanalytic Association
and, 992
Anzieu and, 104
on autism, 136
Bettelheim and, 503
Bigras and, 178
Blackett-Milner and, 190, 191
Brazilian psychoanalysis and, 217
on breakdown, 218, 1420
on breastfeeding, 221
British psychoanalysis and, 697
on bulimia, 233
on capacity to be alone, 246
on castration complex, 254
on change, 268
child analysis and, 280, 698,
1731-1732, 1733
on childhood, 280
on children’s play, 283
Chodorow and, 577
on collective unconscious, 313
on compulsion, 323
on consciousness, 334
Controversial Discussions and, 697
on creativity, 351, 352
on cruelty, 355
on deferred action, 380
definition of psychoanalysis and, 1363
on demand, 388
on dependence, 392
deprivation and, 397
Development of Psycho-Analysis and, 407
on developmental processes, 1330
on disintegration anxieties, 418
on false self, 72, 122, 138, 546-547, 850,
972, 1579, 1580, 1581-1582
on family, 548
family therapy and, 1372
on father, 1346
feminist views of psychoanalysis and, 577
Finnish psychoanalysis and, 584
on Fort-da game, 600
on frame of psychoanalytic treatment, 606
Gaddini and, 663
on gaze, 990
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
on good-enough mother, 688
on hallucinatory wish-fulfillment, 1867
on handling, 724-725, 843
on hatred, 729
Hellman 'Noach and, 733 f
on holding, 369, 607, 754, 843, 1582
on id, 779
on illusion, 797-798
on infans stage, 812-813
on infant development, 814, 815
on infant observation, 817
on infantile omnipotence, 823
on infantile psychosis, 825, 826
on integration, 843-844
on intergenerational phenomena, 846
on internal/external reality, 848
on internal objects, 849, 850
on intersubjective/intrasubjective
dichotomy, 867
Israeli psychoanalysis and, 878
Italian psychoanalysis and, 879
on jokes, 890
Khan and, 913
Klein and, 510
on lack of differentiation, 932
Lainé and, 937
Laing and, 937
Lampl-de Groot and, 938
Lebovici and, 955
on maternal, 1028
on maternal care, 1029
on maternality, 1298
on maturation, 1034
on mutual analysis, 1090
on narcissism, 1107
on narcissistic withdrawal, 1116
on negative therapeutic reaction,
1126-1127
Nouvelle Revue de psychanalyse and, 1163
on object, 1169, 1170
on object a, 1173
object relations theory and, 1176, 1862
on omnipotence of thoughts, 1189
photograph of, III:pl.18
on pictogram, 1287
on pleasure principle, 1291
on pregenital stage, 1186
on primary identification, 1314
on primary object, 1317
on primitive agony, 1320
on projection, 1336
on protective shield, 1340, 1342
iiai
aeaaaLeee aeee
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
on psychosomatic limit, 1410
on puberty, 1420
on puerperal psychoses, 1422
Racamier and, 1436
on reality testing, 1451
on regression, 1460, 1709, 1862
on reparation, 1472
on representation, 782
Riviere-Hodgson Verrall and, 1507, 1861
Rycroft and, 1521
Schilder and, 1538
Sechehaye and, 1557
on secrets, 1561
on self, 1567
on self-consciousness, 1569
on self-image, 1571-1572
on sexuality, 1594
on Shakespeare, 1598
on silence, 1610
on splitting, 1646
on splitting of the object, 1642
on squiggle game, 1650
structural theories and, 1666
on suffering, 1684
Suttie and, 1457
Swedish psychoanalysis and, 1699
on symbiosis, 1706
on symbolization, 1713, 1714
on transference depression, 1780
on transference hatred, 1782
on unthinkable anxiety, 90
on visual arts, 1842
on work of the negative, 1130
Zetzel-Rosenberg and, 1887-1888
Winnik, Heinz, 877
Winternitz-Freud, Pauline Regine, 635
Winternitz-Freud, Rosi, 635
Winterstein, Alfred Freiherr von, 133, 163,
732, 1858, 1863-1864
Wirth, Louis, 1632
Wise, Ursula. See Isaacs-Sutherland, Susan
Wisel, Adam, 1292
Wish for a baby, 252, 253, 571, 1864
Wish-fulfillment, 1864-1865
action-presentations and, 12
day’s residues and, 367
dreams and, 436—437, 438, 442, 1083
fantasy and, 550, 551
flight into illness and, 590
hypocritical dreams and, 771-772
illusion and, 796
“Trma’s injection” dream and, 873
nightmares and, 1149
psychic reality and, 1357
punishment dreams and, 1422
rituals and, 1504
See also Desire; Hallucinatory wishfulfillment
Wish to be an analyst, 77, 122
Wishes, 1867-1868
Wissenschaft, 1550
Wisstrieb. See Knowledge instinct
Wit. See Humor; Jokes
Witch metapsychology, 1868
Wittels, Fritz, 1868-1869
on applied psychoanalysis, 108
on death instinct, 372
Fackel, Die and, 543, 924
Freud biography by, 642, 1869
photograph of, III:pl.17
prehistory and, 1303
Schilder and, 1538
Urbantschitsch and, 1828, 1869
Wiener psychoanalytische Vereinigung
and, 1858
Wittgenstein, Ludwig
action-language and, 12
on epistemology, 1370
grid and, 704
on hermeneutics, 738
philosophy and, 1271
on psychic causality, 1354
Wittkower, Eric, 242, 1728, 1869-1870
Witze, 673, 682, 762
Wolf, Alexander, 601
Wolf, Ernest, 279
Wolf, Werner, 1765
Wolf Man, 60 Years Later, The
(Obholzer), 665
Wolf-Man by the Wolf-Man, The
(Gardiner), 665
“Wolf Man” case, 649-650, 1221
activity/passivity and, 17
aggression and, 34
anxiety dreams and, 102, 103
Brunswick and, 233, 649, 1221
castration complex and, 252, 253, 650
constructions and, 336
Darwinism and, 366
deferred action and, 378, 380
déja vu and, 381, 382
depersonalization and, 393
developmental disorders and, 408
developmental processes and, 1329
disavowal and, 415, 416, 1121
INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
INDEX
dream’s navel and, 443
fantasy and, 551, 552, 553
feces and, 564
Freud-Jung split and, 639
Gardiner and, 665
gifts and, 683
Hirschfeld, Elfriede and, 747
identification and, 787
infantile neurosis and, 821
infantile sexual curiosity and, 829
inferiority feelings and, 831
latent dream thoughts and, 948
letter and, 961
masturbation and, 1026
memories and, 1041
multilingualism and, 1086
narcissism and, 1105-1106
negative hallucination and, 1125
neuroses and, 1139
Oedipus complex and, 1184
payment for treatment and, 1069
phobias and, 1274
pleasure in thinking and, 1289
primal fantasies and, 1307
primal scene and, 336, 639, 650, 821, 829,
1310, 1565-1566
psychology and psychoanalysis and, 1397
psychoses and, 1404
Real and, 1453
repetitive dreams and, 1476
repudiation and, 1487
reversal into the opposite and, 1494
rumination and, 918
sadism and, 1525
symptom-formation and, 1717
termination of treatment and, 76, 650,
979, 1738
thought and, 1747
unconscious concepts and, 1817
Wiener Cottage Sanatorium and, 1828
Wolf Man’s Last Years, The (Gardiner), 665
Wolf Man’s Magic Word, The (Abraham), 7
Wolf-Somersee, Alessandra. See Tomasi di
Palma di Lampedusa-Wolff Somersee,
Alessandra
Wolfe, Theodore, 1462
Wolfenstein, Martha, 1870-1871
Wolff, Antonia Anna, 1871-1872
Wolff, Christian, 448, 1070, 1349
Wolffheim, Nelly, 1886
Wolowicz, Leopold, 1292
Women
civilization and, 299
2195
INDEX
Volume 1, pp. 1-662; Volume 2, pp. 663-1344; Volume 3, pp. 1345-1892
Deutsch-Rosenbach on, 405
jouissance and, 895
phobias and, 306
See also Female sexuality; Femininity;
Feminist views of psychoanalysis; Mother
Woolf, Leonard, 695, 698, 753-754
Woolf, Virginia, 698, 753
Word association, 319, 1872-1873
Word-presentations, 106, 1318, 1840,
1873-1875
fundamental rule and, 656
thing-presentations and, 1742, 1874
Work, 1875-1877
Work (W) group, 151, 710-711
Work of the negative, 1129-1130, 1560,
1822, 1876
Working-off mechanisms, 1877
Working over, 1877-1879
Working-through, 1385, 1879-1880
conscious processes and, 333
counter-transference and, 350
frame of psychoanalytic treatment and, 607
humor and, 763
memories and, 1041
memory and, 1043
negation and, 1123
resistance and, 1489, 1879, 1880
World Association of Psychoanalysis, 217,
455, 539
World Health Organization (WHO), 129,
828, 1138, 1276
World War I. See First World War
World War II. See Second World War
Worter und ihre Schicksale (Storfer), 1662
Wotan (Jung), 902
Wretched of the Earth, The (Fanon), 550
Wride, Fanny, 131
Written on the Wind (film), 294
Wulff, Mosche, 1881
German psychoanalysis and, 674
Israeli psychoanalysis and, 876, 877
Psychoterapia and, 1411
Russian/Soviet psychoanalysis and, 1518,
1519, 1881
Tegel clinic and, 1734, 1881
Wundt, Wilhelm M., 85, 319, 720
Wunsch, 1677
Y
Yalom, Irving, 1445
Yamamura, Michio, 887
2196
Yanitskaia, Elisaveta, 1543
Yayhaoui, Abdesselam, 1156
Yearning. See Wishes
Yeltsin, Boris, 1520
Yerushalmi, Yosef Hayim, 900
Yongin, 285
Yorke, Clifford, 1382
Young Abe Lincoln (film), 292
Young Children in Wartime (Freud and
Burlingham-Tiffany), 619
Young Girls Diary, A (Hug-Hellmuth), 761—
762, 1883
Young Man Luther (Erikson), 511, 1393
Yuan, Teresa, 287
Yugoslavian psychoanalysis. See Former
Yugoslavian psychoanalysis
Z
Zac, Joel, 118, 566
Zalkind, Aron, 403
Zaltzman, Nathalie, 327
Zamora, Carolina, 1637
Zapparoli, Giovanni Carlo, 880
Zappert, Julius, 843
Zavitzianos, Georges, 242, 245, 700, 701,
1885-1886
Zeilinger, G. FE, 135
Zeitschrift fiir Analytische Psychologie, 80
Zeitschrift fiir Individualpsychologie, 25
Zeitschrift fiir psychoanalytische Piidagogik,
568, 861, 1044, 1544, 1886, 1888-1889
Zeitschrift fiir psychoanalytische Theorie und
Praxis, 679
Zelig (film), 47
Zeligs, Meyer A., 1610
Zentralblatt fiir Psychoanalyse, 1887
Abraham and, 5
on Chilean psychoanalysis, 284
International Psychoanalytical Association
and, 854
Internationale Zeitschrift fiir Psychoanalyse
and, 860
Marcinowski and, 1011
Stekel and, 25, 884, 1657, 1887
Zentralblatt fiir Psychotherapie, 49
Zentralinstitut fiir psychogene
Erkrankungen, 164-165, 1547
Zeremoniell. See Rituals
Zetzel-Rosenberg, Elizabeth, 1887-1888
on analyzability, 81
on anxiety neurosis, 1137
International Psychoanalytical Association
and, 857
on therapeutic alliance, 1741, 1789, 1888
Zeus, 348
Zilboorg, Gregory, 1377
Zimmermann, David, 216, 566, 1833
Zionism, 460
Zizek, Slavoj, 987
Zulliger, Hans, 1888-1889
Pfister and, 1260, 1888
Schneider and, 1544
Swiss psychoanalysis and, 1550, 1702, 1703
Zeitschrift fiir psychoanalytische Padagogik
and, 1886
Zum Kampf um die Psychanalyse (Pfister),
1260
Zum Typus Weib (Andreas-Salomé), 84
“Zur Frage der Sexualaufklarung” (Annie
Reich), 1461
Zur Menschenkenntnis: Ein
psypsychoanalytischer Wegweiser fiir den
Umgang mit sich selbst und anderen
(Sachs), 1523
Zur Psychopathologie der Revolution: die
Vaterlose Gesellschaft (Federn), 568
Zur Psychopathologie des Alltagslebens. See
Psychopathology of Everyday Life, The
“Zur Sonderstellung des Vatermordes”
* (Storfer), 1661
“Zur Uberwindung der kulturellen Krise”
(Gross), 708
Zurich School, 79, 1282
See also Jung, Carl Gustav
Zwang. See Compulsion
Zwangneurose. See Obsessional neurosis
Zweig, Arnold, 1889-1890
Freud, Ernst and, 622
Freud, Oliver and, 631-632
Pyschoanalytische Bewegung, Die and, 1387
surrealism and, 1695
Zweig, Stefan, 1890-1891
Almanach der Psychoanalyse and, 50
Argentinian psychoanalysis and, 116
death of, 726
Freud on, 432
Goethe Prize and, 687
Happel and, 726
Pyschoanalytische Bewegung, Die and, 1387
Reverchon-Jouve and, 1493
surrealism and, 1696
Zygouris, Radmila, 1552
INTERNATIONAL DicTIONARY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS

a ‘

3 9191 90114655
In the more than 100 years since Sigmund Freuu mst usverupeu psyCnoanalysis,
practitioners as well as artists and writers around the world have built upon his
revolutionary understanding of the formation of personality. The international nature
of the field has engendered differences in understanding and emphasis. In addition,
divergent schools of thought and, in some cases, completely new forms of
psychotherapy have risen out of Freud’s original work in psychoanalysis.
International Dictionary of Psychoanalysis breaks new ground in psychoanalytic
reference by offering an inclusive, non-partisan analysis and history of the discipline,
showing the links between psychoanalysis and the ideas and circumstances that
led to its creation. The Dictionary contains 1569 signed entries by 463 practitioners
and academics. Over 900 theoretical and clinical concepts are represented from
all schools of psychoanalytic thought. Freudian, Kleinian, Lacanian, and Jungian
ideologies are explored throughout the text. Also included are 360 biographies of
psychoanalysts from around the world and 170 articles on their most important
works. Country profiles explore the history of psychoanalysis in nearly 50 nations
from Europe and North America to Southeast Asia. Other articles examine the
relationship of psychoanalysis to such fields as literature, film, Marxism, and
religion.
International Dictionary of Psychoanalysis, a translation of Dictionnaire International
de la Psychanalyse, expands the original French edition with new entries on the
major psychoanalytic institutes and societies in the United States, new biographies,
and new conceptual entries. This edition includes a chronology and a thematic
outline that categorizes entries under broad subject areas. The work is fully indexed,
and appendices include a table of concepts and notions in six languages (English,
French, German, Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese), a lengthy general bibliography,
and a bibliography devoted to Freud’s works.
Alain de Mijolla is the founder and president of the International Association for
the History of Psychoanalysis. A neuropsychiatrist and practicing psychoanalyst,
Dr. de Mijolla is also a member of the International Psychoanalytical Association
(IPA) and the Société psychanalytique de Paris and serves on the IPA’s Conceptual
and Empirical Research Committee. |
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