Contents summary 7 Introduction 8 Contents overview 13 Language terminology 20 Phonetic alphabet 30 1 Verbs 32 1 irregular verbs 34 2 active verb tenses 38 3 progressive structures 40 4 non-progressive verbs 41 5 progressive with always, etc 43 6 perfect structures 43 7 subjects, objects and complements 44 8 verbs with two objects 45 9 verbs with both active and passive meanings 47 10 verb + object + complement 48 11 linking verbs 49 12 two-part verbs 50 13 two-part verbs 51 14 verbs of movement 52 15 verb + verb 52 16 verb + verb 53 2 Be, have and do 55 17 be 56 18 be 56 19 be with auxiliary do 56 20 there is 57 21 have 59 22 have 59 23 have 60 24 have (got) 61 25 be and have 62 26 do 63 27 do 64 28 do 65 29 do so/it/that 65 3 Present Tenses 67 30 simple present 68 31 simple present 68 32 present progressive 70 33 stories, commentaries and instructions 71 34 present tenses 72 4 Talking about the Future 74 35 going to 76 36 present progressive for future 77 37 simple present for future 78 38 will 79 39 will, going to and present progressive 80 40 future perfect 82 41 future progressive 83 42 be to + infinitive 84 43 future in the past 85 5 Past and Perfect Tenses 86 44 simple past 88 45 past progressive 90 46 past verb form with present or future meaning 92 47 present perfect 93 48 present perfect or past? 95 49 present perfect or past 97 50 present perfect progressive 100 51 present perfect simple or progressive? 102 52 present perfect or present? 103 53 past perfect 103 54 past perfect 105 55 past perfect progressive 106 56 This is the first/last ..., etc 107 6 Passives 108 57 passive structures and verb forms 110 58 by + agent 111 59 passive modal structures 112 60 get as passive auxiliary 112 61 verbs with two objects in the passive 112 62 verbs with prepositions in the passive 113 63 It was thought that ... 114 64 He is believed to be ... 115 65 He was considered a genius. 116 66 My suitcase is packed. 116 67 When do we use passive structures? 117 7 Modal Auxiliary Verbs 118 68 modals 120 69 deduction (deciding that something is certain) 121 70 deduction (deciding that something is probable) 123 71 chances 123 72 may and might 125 73 strong obligation 126 74 strong obligation 128 75 have (got) to and must 128 76 weaker obligation 129 77 weaker obligation 130 78 expectations 131 79 willingness 131 80 instructions and requests 132 81 permission 133 82 ability 135 83 ability 137 84 can and could with see, hear, etc 138 85 be able to 138 86 typical behaviour 139 87 typical behaviour 140 8 Infinitives, -ing forms and Past Participles 142 88 infinitives 144 89 infinitives 144 90 use of perfect infinitives 145 91 infinitives without to 146 92 infinitive as subject or complement 147 93 -ing forms 148 94 -ing form as subject, object or complement 149 95 infinitive or -ing form? 150 96 participles 151 9 Infinitives, -ing forms and Past Participles after Nouns, Verbs, etc 154 97 infinitives after verbs 156 98 verb + object + infinitive 156 99 try and ..., go and ..., etc 157 100 -ing forms after verbs 158 101 infinitives after adjectives 159 102 infinitives after nouns and pronouns 160 103 -ing forms after nouns and adjectives 162 104 -ing forms after prepositions 163 105 infinitives or -ing forms 164 106 active and passive infinitive with similar meaning 168 107 causative structures with make 169 108 causative and similar structures with get 169 109 causative and similar structures with have 170 110 hear, see, etc + object + verb form 171 10 Infinitives, -ing forms and Past Participles 173 111 infinitives after question words 174 112 infinitive of purpose 174 113 for ... to ... 175 114 infinitives 178 115 participle clauses 178 11 Nouns and Noun Phrases; Agreement 182 116 spelling of plurals 184 117 irregular and special plurals 185 118 pronunciation of plurals 188 119 countable and uncountable nouns 189 120 countable and uncountable nouns 192 121 piece- and group-words 194 122 noun + complement 195 123 possessives 195 124 nouns in combination 196 125 nouns in combination 198 126 classifying expressions 201 127 classifying expressions with 's 202 128 singular expressions with plural verbs 203 129 plural expressions with singular verbs 204 130 mixed singular and plural 205 131 distributive plural 208 132 turning verbs into nouns 209 12 Determiners 210 133 articles 212 134 articles 212 135 articles 213 136 more about the 214 137 more about a/an 216 138 no article with plural and uncountable nouns 218 139 the difference between some/any and no article 219 140 talking in general 220 141 the 221 142 special rules and exceptions 222 143 possessive determiners 227 144 this and that 228 145 this/that and it 230 13 Determiners 232 146 all 234 147 all (of) with noun phrases and pronouns 234 148 all with the verb 235 149 all, everybody/everyone and everything 236 150 all and whole 236 151 every (one) 237 152 every and all 239 153 each 239 154 each and every 240 155 both 241 156 either 242 157 neither 243 158 some 243 159 any 245 160 any = 'it doesn't matter who/which/what' 247 161 some and any 247 162 any and every 248 163 no, none and not a/any 248 164 no one and none 249 165 much and many 250 166 more 251 167 most 252 168 (a) little and (a) few 252 169 less and fewer 254 170 least and fewest 254 171 enough 255 172 quantifying expressions 256 14 Pronouns 258 173 personal pronouns 260 174 personal pronouns 262 175 singular they 264 176 possessive pronouns 265 177 a friend of mine, etc 265 178 reflexive pronouns 266 179 reciprocal pronouns 267 180 somebody, someone, anybody, anyone, etc 268 181 one, you and they 270 182 one (substitute word) 271 15 Adjectives 273 183 adjectives 274 184 order of adjectives 275 185 adjectives with and 276 186 adjectives after nouns and pronouns 277 187 adjectives 278 188 adjectives without nouns 279 189 gradable and non-gradable adjectives 280 190 measurements 280 191 pronunciation of aged, naked, etc 281 192 What can follow an adjective? 281 16 Adverbs and Adverbials 282 193 adverbs of manner and adjectives 284 194 adverbs or adjectives 285 195 adverb particles 288 196 position of adverbials 289 197 connecting and comment adverbials 290 198 indefinite frequency, certainty and completeness 291 199 focusing adverbials 292 200 mid-position 292 201 manner, place and time 294 202 adverbials modifying adverbials 295 17 Comparison 296 203 as ... as; as much/many as 298 204 comparative and superlative adjectives 300 205 comparative and superlative adverbs 302 206 using comparatives and superlatives 302 207 much older, by far the oldest, etc 304 208 comparison 305 18 Prepositions 308 209 prepositions at the ends of clauses 310 210 prepositions before conjunctions 312 211 -ing forms and infinitives 313 212 prepositions before particular words and expressions 313 213 prepositions after particular words and expressions 314 214 expressions without prepositions 319 19 Basic Clause Types 322 215 sentence structure 324 216 questions 325 217 negative structures 327 218 negative questions 328 219 negative structures with think, hope, seem, etc 330 220 multiple negatives 331 221 ambiguous negatives 332 222 non-affirmative words 333 223 exclamations 334 224 imperatives 335 225 let introducing imperatives 336 20 Conjunctions, Sentences and Clauses 338 226 putting things together 340 227 not ... or; not ... nor; and not 341 228 emphatic coordination 341 229 subordinate clauses 343 230 who, which, what, etc after prepositions 345 231 tense simplification in subordinate clauses 345 232 subjunctive 347 21 Relative Clauses 349 233 relatives 350 234 identifying and non-identifying clauses 351 235 whose 353 236 what 354 237 relatives 354 22 If 360 238 ordinary structures 362 239 special structures with past tenses and would 362 240 if I were you 363 241 unreal past situations 364 242 if only 364 243 if ... will 365 244 other points 366 245 other structures found in spoken English 368 246 other words and expressions with similar uses 369 247 unless 369 248 in case and if 370 23 Other Adverbial Clauses 371 249 after 372 250 before 372 251 as, when and while 373 252 whoever, whatever, etc 375 253 no matter who, etc 377 254 whether ... or ... 378 255 as and though 378 256 than- and as-clauses 378 24 Noun Clauses, Direct and Indirect Speech 380 257 direct speech 382 258 indirect speech 382 259 indirect speech 383 260 indirect speech 385 261 whether and if 386 262 indirect speech 387 263 indirect speech 388 264 that-clauses 390 265 leaving out that 393 266 interrogative (question-word) clauses 394 25 Information Structure 395 267 information structure 396 268 preparatory it 398 269 preparatory it 399 270 inversion 400 271 inversion 401 272 fronting 402 273 cleft sentences 403 274 cleft sentences 404 275 ellipsis (leaving words out) 406 276 ellipsis with and, but and or 408 277 ellipsis at the beginning of a sentence 409 278 ellipsis in noun phrases 410 279 ellipsis after auxiliary verbs 411 280 ellipsis 412 26 Written Texts 414 281 formality 416 282 pronouns and other proforms 417 283 linking with conjunctions and adverbials 418 284 discourse markers in writing 420 285 reading complicated structures 424 286 paragraphs 428 287 repetition 429 288 academic writing 431 289 correspondence 433 290 correspondence 435 291 abbreviated styles 437 292 headlines 439 293 punctuation 449 294 punctuation 450 295 punctuation 451 296 punctuation 451 297 punctuation 454 298 punctuation 454 27 Speech and Spoken Exchanges 455 299 spoken sentence structure 456 300 avoiding repetition 457 301 discourse markers in speech 458 302 declarative questions 462 303 rhetorical questions 462 304 echo questions 463 305 question tags 464 306 question tags 465 307 reply questions 467 308 short answers 468 309 so am I, neither do they, etc 468 310 politeness 469 311 politeness 470 312 politeness 472 313 pronunciation 472 314 pronunciation 475 315 pronunciation 477 28 Varieties of English 480 316 standard English and dialects 482 317 correctness 484 318 changes in English 486 319 American and British English 488 320 other varieties of English 493 29 Vocabulary Areas 499 321 nationalities, countries and regions 500 322 numbers 502 323 talking about age 508 324 dates 508 325 telling the time 509 326 names and titles 510 327 names 512 328 gender (references to males and females) 513 329 'social' language 514 330 meals 518 331 telephoning 519 332 idioms, collocations and formulaic expressions 520 333 formal and informal vocabulary 522 334 slang 523 335 discriminatory and offensive language 524 30 Word Formation and Spelling 526 336 abbreviations 528 337 contractions 531 338 prefixes and suffixes 534 339 -ic and -ical 540 340 apostrophes 541 341 capital letters 541 342 hyphens 542 343 -ise and -ize 543 344 -able and -ible 544 345 -ly 544 346 final e 545 347 doubling final consonants 545 348 y and i 547 349 ch and tch, k and ck 547 350 ie and ei 548 351 spelling and pronunciation 548 31 Word Problems from A to Z 551 352 about and on 552 353 about to 552 354 above and over 552 355 accept and agree 553 356 according to 553 357 across, over and through 553 358 actual(ly) 554 359 afraid 555 360 after 555 361 after all 556 362 ago 556 363 alike 557 364 all right and alright 557 365 allow, permit and let 557 366 almost and nearly; practically 558 367 alone, lonely, lonesome and lone 559 368 along 559 369 also, as well and too 560 370 alternate(ly) and alternative(ly) 560 371 although, though, but and however 561 372 altogether and all together 562 373 any and no 562 374 appear 562 375 arise and rise 563 376 (a)round and about 564 377 as, because, since and for 564 378 as if and as though; like 565 379 as long as 566 380 as such 566 381 as usual 566 382 as well as 567 383 ask 567 384 at, on and in 568 385 at/in and to 570 386 at, on and in 571 387 at all 572 388 at first and first 573 389 (a)wake and (a)waken 573 390 back (adverb) and again 574 391 bath and bathe 575 392 beat and win 576 393 because 576 394 become, get, go, grow, etc 577 395 been meaning 'come' or 'gone' 579 396 before 579 397 before (preposition) and in front of 580 398 begin and start 580 399 below, under, underneath and beneath 581 400 beside and besides 582 401 bet 582 402 better 583 403 between and among 583 404 big, large and great 584 405 birthday and date of birth 585 406 (a) bit 585 407 born and borne 585 408 borrow and lend 586 409 bring and take 586 410 bring up and educate 587 411 Britain, the United Kingdom, the British Isles and England 587 412 broad and wide 588 413 but meaning 'except' 588 414 by 589 415 by and near 590 416 by (method, agent) and with (tools, etc) 590 417 call 590 418 can't help 591 419 care 591 420 city and town 592 421 classic and classical 592 422 close and shut 592 423 cloth and clothes 593 424 come and go 593 425 comic and comical 594 426 complement and compliment (noun and verb) 594 427 continual(ly) and continuous(ly) 595 428 contrary 595 429 control 595 430 country 596 431 dare 596 432 dead, died and death 597 433 different 597 434 disinterested 598 435 do 598 436 doubt 599 437 dress 599 438 drown 600 439 due to and owing to 600 440 during and for 601 441 during and in 601 442 east and eastern, north and northern, etc 601 443 economic and economical 602 444 efficient and effective 602 445 elder and eldest 603 446 electric and electrical 603 447 else 603 448 end and finish 604 449 enjoy 605 450 enough 605 451 especial(ly) and special(ly) 606 452 even 607 453 eventual(ly) 608 454 ever 608 455 ever so, ever such 609 456 except and except for 609 457 expect, hope, wait and look forward 610 458 experiment and experience 612 459 explain 613 460 fairly, quite, rather and pretty 613 461 far and a long way 614 462 farther and further 614 463 feel 615 464 female and feminine; male and masculine 616 465 finally, at last, in the end and at the end 616 466 finished 617 467 fit and suit 618 468 for 618 469 for, since, in and from 619 470 forget and leave 620 471 fun and funny 620 472 get 621 473 get and go 622 474 give with action nouns 623 475 go/come for a ... 623 476 go/come ...ing 624 477 gone with be 624 478 half 625 479 happen to ... 625 480 hardly, scarcely and no sooner 626 481 hear and listen (to) 626 482 hear, see, etc with that-clause 627 483 help 627 484 here and there 627 485 high and tall 628 486 hire, rent and let 628 487 historic and historical 629 488 holiday and holidays 629 489 home 629 490 hope 630 491 hopefully 630 492 how 630 493 how and what ... like? 632 494 ill and sick 632 495 immediately, the moment, etc 633 496 in and into, on and onto 633 497 indifferent 634 498 in spite of 635 499 indeed 635 500 instead and instead of 635 501 its and it's 636 502 it's time 636 503 just 637 504 know 638 505 last, the last, the latest 639 506 later and in 640 507 lay and lie 641 508 learn 641 509 left 642 510 lesser 642 511 lest 642 512 let 642 513 life 643 514 like 643 515 like and as 645 516 likely 646 517 long and (for) a long time 647 518 look 648 519 lose and loose 649 520 loudly and aloud 649 521 magic and magical 650 522 make 650 523 marry and divorce 650 524 the matter (with) 651 525 maybe and perhaps 651 526 mean 651 527 means 652 528 mind 653 529 miss 653 530 name 654 531 near (to) 655 532 need 655 533 next and the next; nearest 657 534 no doubt 658 535 no more, not any more, no longer, not any longer 658 536 not and no 659 537 nought, zero, nil, etc 659 538 now (that) 659 539 nowadays 660 540 of course 660 541 often 660 542 once 661 543 once 661 544 one of ... 661 545 only 662 546 open 662 547 opportunity and possibility 663 548 opposite (adjective) 663 549 opposite, facing and in front of 663 550 other(s) and another 664 551 out of 665 552 own 666 553 part 666 554 place 667 555 play and game 667 556 please and thank you 667 557 point of view 668 558 politic and political 669 559 politics and policy 669 560 prefer 669 561 presently 670 562 price and prize 670 563 principal and principle 670 564 quite 671 565 rather 672 566 rather 672 567 reason 674 568 remind and remember 674 569 (the) rest 675 570 road and street 675 571 (the) same 675 572 say and tell 676 573 school 677 574 see 677 575 see, look (at) and watch 678 576 seem 679 577 sensible and sensitive 681 578 shade and shadow 681 579 since 681 580 small and little 682 581 smell 683 582 so 683 583 so (conjunction) and then 684 584 so (degree adverb) 684 585 so and not with hope, believe, etc 685 586 so with say and tell 686 587 so much and so many 687 588 so that and in order that 687 589 so-and-so; so-so 688 590 some time, sometime and sometimes 688 591 soon, early and quickly 689 592 sort of, kind of and type of 689 593 sound 690 594 speak and talk 690 595 still, yet and already 691 596 such 693 597 such and so 694 598 suggest 695 599 suppose, supposing and what if 696 600 surely 696 601 sympathetic 697 602 take 697 603 taste 698 604 thankful and grateful 698 605 there 699 606 think 699 607 through 700 608 time 701 609 tonight 702 610 too 702 611 too much and too many 704 612 travel, journey, trip and voyage 704 613 until 705 614 up, down 706 615 (be) used to 707 616 very and very much 707 617 wait 708 618 want 709 619 -ward(s) 709 620 way 710 621 welcome 711 622 well 711 623 when and if 712 624 where (to) 712 625 which, what and who 712 626 who and whom 713 627 who ever, what ever, etc 714 628 whose 714 629 whose and who's 715 630 why and why not 715 631 will and want 716 632 wish 716 633 with 718 634 worth 719 635 yes and no 720 Index 722