वेदveda [obj. vid_1] m. connaissance, science; parole sacrée, connaissance révélée | phil. le Veda ou «Savoir», ensemble de textes sacrés comprenant le Ṛgveda, le Sāmaveda, les deux Yajurveda et l'Atharvaveda | math. symb. le nombre quatre — v. [11] pr. (vedāpayati) faire connaître. trayovedāetaivavāgevargvedaḥmanoyajurvedaḥprāṇaḥsāmavedaḥ [BU.] Il y a trois Védas: le Ṛgveda est parole, le Yajurveda est esprit et le Sāmaveda est souffle. ••
From M. Monier-Williams, Skt-Eng Dic. 1899 (Fanfoyan 2018)
veda 2., m. (fr. √3. vid) finding, obtaining, acquisition (see su-v°) ; property, goods ĀśvGṛ. ► p. 1017b
veda 4., m. N. of a pupil of Āyoda MBh. ; ► p. 1018a
veḍa, n. a kind of coarse sandal (= sāndra-vicchinna-candana) L. ; ► p. 1014a
veḍā, f. (also written beḍā) a boat L. (cf. veṭī). ► p. 1014a
vedá 3., m. (perhaps connected with √1. ve, to weave or bind together) a tuft or bunch of strong grass (Kuśa or Muñja) made into a broom (and used for sweeping, making up the sacrificial fire &c., in rites) AV. MS. Br. ŚrS. Mn. ► p. 1017c
veda 1., m. (fr. √1. vid q.v.) knowledge, true or sacred knowledge or lore, knowledge of ritual RV. AitBr. ; N. of certain celebrated works which constitute the basis of the first period of the Hindū religion (these works were primarily three, viz. 1. the Ṛig-veda, 2. the Yajur-veda [of which there are, however, two divisions see taittirīya-saṃhitā, vājasaneyi-saṃhitā], 3. the Sāma-veda ► p. 1015b; these three works are sometimes called collectively trayī, “the triple Vidyā” or “threefold knowledge,” but the Ṛig-veda is really the only original work of the three, and much the most ancient [the oldest of its hymns being assigned by some who rely on certain astronomical calculations to a period between 4000 and 2500 B.C., before the settlement of the Āryans in India; and by others who adopt a different reckoning to a period between 1400 and 1000 B.C., when the Āryans had settled down in the Panjāb]; subsequently a fourth Veda was added, called the Atharva-veda, which was probably not completely accepted till after Manu, as his law-book often speaks of the three Vedas-calling them trayam brahma sanātanam, “the triple eternal Veda,” but only once [xi, 33] mentions the revelation made to Atharvan and Aṅgiras, without, however, calling it by the later name of Atharva-veda; each of the four Vedas has two distinct parts, viz. 1. Mantra, i.e. words of prayer and adoration often addressed either to fire or to some form of the sun or to some form of the air, sky, wind &c., and praying for health, wealth, long life, cattle, offspring, victory, and even forgiveness of sins, and 2. Brāhmaṇa, consisting of Vidhi and Artha-vāda, i.e. directions for the detail of the ceremonies at which the Mantras were to be used and explanations of the legends &c. connected with the Mantras [see brāhmaṇa, vidhi], both these portions being termed śruti, revelation orally communicated by the Deity, and heard but not composed or written down by men [cf. IW. 24 &c.] , although it is certain that both Mantras and Brāhmaṇas were compositions spread over a considerable period, much of the latter being comparatively modern; as the Vedas are properly three, so the Mantras are properly of three forms, 1. Ṛic, which are verses of praise in metre, and intended for loud recitation; 2. Yajus, which are in prose, and intended for recitation in a lower tone at sacrifices; 3. Sāman, which are in metre, and intended for chanting at the Soma or Moon-plant ceremonies, the Mantras of the fourth or Atharva-veda having no special name; but it must be borne in mind that the Yajur and Sāma-veda hymns, especially the latter, besides their own Mantras, borrow largely from the Ṛig-veda; the Yajur-veda and Sāma-veda being in fact not so much collections of prayers and hymns as special prayer- and hymn-books intended as manuals for the Adhvaryu and Udgātṛi priests respectively [see yajur-veda, sāma-veda]; the Atharva-veda, on the other hand, is, like the Ṛig-veda, a real collection of original hymns mixed up with incantations, borrowing little from the Ṛig and having no direct relation to sacrifices, but supposed by mere recitation to produce long life, to cure diseases, to effect the ruin of enemies &c.; each of the four Vedas seems to have passed through numerous Śākhās or schools, giving rise to various recensions of the text, though the Ṛig-veda is only preserved in the Śākala recension, while a second recension, that of the Bhāshkalas, is only known by name; a tradition makes Vyāsa the compiler and arranger of the Vedas in their present form: they each have an Index or Anukramaṇī [q.v.], the principal work of this kind being the general Index or Sarvânukramaṇī [q.v.]; out of the Brāhmaṇa portion of the Veda grew two other departments of Vedic literature, sometimes included under the general name Veda, viz. the strings of aphoristic rules, called Sūtras [q.v.], and the mystical treatises on the nature of God and the relation of soul and matter, called Upanishad [q.v.], which were appended to the Āraṇyakas [q.v.], and became the real Veda of thinking Hindūs, leading to the Darśanas or systems of philosophy; in the later literature the name of “fifth Veda” is accorded to the Itihāsas or legendary epic poems and to the Purāṇas, and certain secondary Vedas or Upa-vedas [q.v.] are enumerated; the Vedâṅgas or works serving as limbs [for preserving the integrity] of the Veda are explained under vedâṅga below: the only other works included under the head of Veda being the Pariśishṭas, which supply rules for the ritual omitted in the Sūtras; in the Bṛihad-āraṇyaka Upanishad the Vedas are represented as the breathings of Brahmā, while in some of the Purāṇas the four Vedas are said to have issued out of the four mouths of the four-faced Brahmā and in the Vishṇu-Purāṇa the Veda and Vishṇu are identified) RTL. 7 &c. IW. 5; 24 &c. ; N. of the number “four” VarBṛS. ► p. 1015c Śrutabh. ; feeling, perception ŚBr. ; = vṛtta (v.l. vitta) L. (cf. 2. veda). ► p. 1015c
From 梵汉词汇表
veda 【阳】知识，吠陀。
From 《梵汉词汇表》 梵佛研2018版
【veda】veda
［阳］❶知识。❷ 吠陀，婆罗门教圣典。
例 句
《利论》1.3.1：sāmargyajurvedās trayas trayī | arthavavedetihāsavedau ca vedāḥ | 娑摩吠陀、梨俱吠陀、夜柔吠陀三者，即三吠陀。合阿闼婆吠陀与如是说吠陀，为诸吠陀。
From Apte's Practical Sanskrit-English Dictionary (1957)
वे॑द 1.. m. Wissen, bes. das heilige Wissen, der Veda |
Empfindung.
वेद 2.. m. das Finden ( —°), Habe, Besitz.
वेद॑ 3.. m. Grasbüschel.
वेद4. m. Mannsname.
From Bohtlingk-Sanskrit-Worterbuch-in-kurzerer-Fassung
वेड
*वेड
1)
n. = सान्द्रविच्छिन्नचन्दन.
2)
f. आ Boot , Schiff. PW106923
वेद
वे॑द
m.
1) Verständniss , theologische Kenntniss.
2)
Sg. und
Pl. das heilige Wissen , überliefert in der dreifachen Form der R2k4, Sa7man und Jag4us ; später tritt noch der Atharvaveda binzu. Als fünfter Veda wird das Itiha7sapura7n2a oder Pura7n2a genannt. वेद auch als Bein. Vishn2u's.
3) Bez. der Zahl vier.
4) das Empfinden , Empfindung 34,20.(C2AT.BR.).
5) = वृत्त oder वित्त (Vgl. ^2. वेद) 2). PW107037
वेद
वेद
m.
1) das Finden , Erlangen in सुवे॑द
2) Habe , Besitz. PW107038
वेद
वेद॑
m. ein Büschel starken Grases (Kuc2a , Mun5g4a) , besenförmig gebunden , zum Fegen , Anfachen des Feuers u.s.w. gebraucht MAITR.S.1,4,3. PW107039
वेद
वेद
N.pr.
1)
m. verschiedener Männer.
2)
f. आ eines Flusses. PW107040
From Bohtlingk-and-Roth-Grosses-Petersburger-Worterbuch
वेड
वेड
1)
n. = सान्द्रविच्छिन्नचन्दन RĀǴAN. im ŚKDR.
--
2)
f. वेडा (बेडा) Boot, Schiff H. 877 (वेडी v. l.). HALĀJ. 3, 50.
m. Habe, Besitz: वेदं सवित्रा प्रसूतं मघोनाम् ĀŚV. GṚHJ. 1, 15, 1; vgl. u. 1. वेद 5).
वेद
वेद॑
m. gaṇa उञ्छादि zu P. 6, 1, 160 (करणे). ein Büschel starken Grases (Kuśa, Muńǵa) besenförmig gebunden, zum Fegen, Anfachen des Feuers u. s. w. gebraucht; = यज्ञाङ्ग NĀNĀRTHARATNAM. im ŚKDR. AV. 7, 28, 1. VS. 2, 21. TS. 1, 7, 4, 6. 2, 6, 3, 4. TBR. 3, 3, 7, 2. ŚAT. BR. 1, 3, 1, 11. 9, 2, 1. 16. 22. fgg. KĀṬH. 31, 7. 32, 6. M. 4, 36. ĀŚV. ŚR. 1, 11, 1. °शिरस् 2. °तृणानि 4. 5. 9. °स्तरण 3, 6, 23. KĀTJ. ŚR. 1, 3, 23. 10, 6. 2, 5, 25. मुञ्ज° 26, 2, 10. 5, 15.
वेद
वेद
1)
m. N. pr. eines Ṛshi HARIV. 9573 (वेदगाथों ऽशुमान् die neuere Ausg. st. वेदश्चाथांशुमान् der älteren). ein Schüler Ājoda's MBH. 1, 684.
--
2)
f. आ N. pr. eines Flusses VP. 182, N. 13.
वेद
वेद
vgl. सु°.
From Bohtlingk-Sanskrit-Worterbuch-in-kurzerer-Fassung (sa-de)
वेड
*वेड — 1) n. = सान्द्रविच्छिन्नचन्दन. — 2) f. आ Boot , Schiff. PDF Correction
वेद
1. वे꣫द m. — 1) Verständniss , theologische Kenntniss. — 2) Sg. und Pl. das heilige Wissen , überliefert in der dreifachen Form der Ṛc, Sāman und Yajus ; später tritt noch der Atharvaveda binzu. Als fünfter Veda wird das Itihāsapurāṇa oder Purāṇa genannt. वेद auch als Bein. Viṣṇu's. — 3) Bez. der Zahl vier. — 4) das Empfinden , Empfindung 34,20. (ŚAT. BR.). — 5) = वृत्त oder वित्त (Vgl. ^2. वेद) 2). PDF Correction
वेद
2. वेद m. — 1) das Finden , Erlangen in सुवे꣫द — 2) Habe , Besitz. PDF Correction
वेद
3. वेद꣫ m. ein Büschel starken Grases (Kuśa , Muñja) , besenförmig gebunden , zum Fegen , Anfachen des Feuers u.s.w. gebraucht MAITR. S. 1,4,3. PDF Correction
वेद
4. वेद N.pr. — 1) m. verschiedener Männer. — 2) f. आ eines Flusses. PDF Correction
Veda in the Atharvaveda1 and later2 denotes ‘sacred lore.’ In the plural3 it more definitely refers to the Vedas of the Ṛc, yajus, and sāman. Cf.vidyā.
↑Traya, ‘threefold,’ Śatapatha brāhmaṇa, v. 5, 5, 10; xiii. 4, 3, 3; nirukta, i. 2. 18. 20, etc.
↑ Av. iv. 35, 6; xix. 2, 12; taittirīya Saṃhitā, vii. 5, 11, 2; aitareyabrāhmaṇa, v. 32, 1; vi. 15, 11; taittirīyabrāhmaṇa, iii. 10, 11, 4; Śatapatha brāhmaṇa, xi. 3, 3, 7; xii. 3, 4, 11, etc. In the Brāhmaṇas the word, no doubt, has normally the sense of the extant collections, which appear under their accepted titles, ṛgveda, yajurveda, sāmaveda, in the Āraṇyakas.
Sāma-veda, ‘the veda of the sāman chants,’ is the name of a collection of verses for chanting, often mentioned in the Brāhmaṇas.1 The sāman itself is repeatedly referred to in the Rigveda,2 and the triad Ṛc, yajus, and sāman is common from the Atharvaveda onwards.3 These texts know also the sāma-ga, the ‘Sāman-chanter,’4 who occurs later.5
Foot notes
↑taittirīyabrāhmaṇa, iii. 12, 9, 1; aitareyabrāhmaṇa, v. 32, 1; Śatapatha brāhmaṇa, xi. 5, 8, 3; xii. 3, 4, 9; aitareya Āraṇyaka, iii. 2, 3; Bṛhadāraṇyaka upaniṣad, i. 5, 13 (Mādhyaṃdina = i. 5, 5 kāṇva); ii. 4, 10; iv. 1, 6 (= iv. 1, 2); 5, 11; Chāndogya upaniṣad, i. 3, 7; iii. 3, 1. 2; 15, 7; vii. 1, 2. 4; 2, 1; 7, 1, etc.
↑ i. 62, 2; 107, 2; 164, 24, etc. Cf. Oldenberg, Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft, 38, 439 et seq.
↑ x. 7, 14; xi. 7, 5; Vājasaneyi Saṃhitā, xxxiv. 5, etc.
1. (véda), m., das Finden, Erlangen [von 1. vid], enthalten in su-véda. PDF Correction
वेद
2. véda, m., Kenntniss, Einsicht, Verstand [von 2. vid]. -ena yás … dadā́śa mártas agnáye {639,5}. PDF Correction
From Stchoupak-Sanscrit-French
वेद
१वेद-
m. connaissance, science, not. science sacrée, textes sacrés, Saintes Écritures, Veda (au nombre de 4 ou de 3, cf. अथर्व° ऋग्° यजुर्° साम°);
n. d'un Ṛṣi;
d'un disciple de l'Ṛṣi Āyoda;
-मय-ई- a. qui comporte la science sacrée, etc. °कर्तृ- ag. créateur du Veda, soleil. °कुम्भ- m. n. d'un maītre. °गर्भ- m. Brahma. °गाथ- m. n. d'un Ṛṣi. °गुप्त- m. qui a conservé le V., Kṛṣṇa, fils de Parāçara. °गुह्य- a. v. caché dans le Veda. °चक्षुस्- nt. à qui le Veda sert d'oeil. °ज्ञ- ag. qui connaīt la science sacrée, versé dans le Veda. °तत्त्वार्थ- m. doctrine et sens du V.;
°तत्त्वार्थ-विद्- ag. ou -विद्वांस्- partic. qui connaīt la doctrine et le sens du V. °त्रय- nt. -ई- f. les 3 Veda (ऋग्°, साम°, यजुर्°). °दर्श- m. n. d'un maītre;
-इन्- ag. = °ज्ञ-। °दृष्ट- a. v. prévu, sanctionné par le Veda. °धारण- nt. fait de connaītre le Veda par coeur. °ध्वनि- m. son (de la récitation) du Veda. °निन्दा- f. outrage au Veda, hérésie. °पथ°पथिन्- m. chemin du Veda. °पुण्य- nt. mérite acquis par (la récitation du) Veda. °प्रदान- nt. enseignement du Veda. °प्रवाद- m. ce qui est énoncé dans le Veda. °फल- nt. = °पुण्य-। °बाहु- m. fils de Kṛṣṇa. °बाह्य- a. qui est en dehors du Veda, contraire au Veda. °मातृ- f. (mère du V.) Sarasvatī;
Sāvitrī;
Gāyatrī. °मूल- a. ayant ses racines dans le Veda. °यज्ञ- m. sacrifice prescrit par le Veda. °रहस्य- nt. doctrine secrète, mystique du Veda, les Upaniṣad. °वाद- m. déclaration, précepte du Veda;
-इन्- ag. versé dans le V. °वाह- a. consacré à l'étude du Veda;
-न- ag. qui amène le V., ép. du soleil. °विक्रयिन्- ag. qui vend sa science, qui enseigne le Veda moyennant. salaire. °विद्- ag. = °ज्ञ-;भ्णैआख् °वित्तम- sup. très versé dans le Veda. °विद्या- f. connaissance du Veda;
°विद्याळ्ह्विद्- ag. versé dans la science du Veda;
°विद्या-व्रत-स्नात- a. v. qui a fait ses ablutions (après avoir) terminé ses études védiques et observé ses voeux;
°विद्याधिगम- m. acquisition de la science du Veda. °विद्वांस्- partic. = °ज्ञ-। °वेदाङ्ग-तत्त्व-ज्ञ°वेदाङ्ग-पार-ग- ag. qui a étudié à fond le Veda et le Vedāṅga. °वैनाशिका- (-सिका-) f. n. d'une rivière. °व्यास- m. n. d'un homme. °व्रत- nt. rite accompli au cours des études védiques. °शब्द- m. parole du Veda, verbe sacré. °शाखा- f. école védique. °शास्त्र- nt. doctrine védique. °शिर- m. fils de Kṛçāçva;
°शिरस्- n. d'un Ṛṣi, etc. °श्रुत- m. pl. n. d'une catégorie de dieux. °श्रुति- f. récitation du V.;
texte du V. (aussi -ई-);
n. d'une rivière. °संहिता- f. recueil de textes védiques;
texte intégral du Veda. °संन्यासिक- (-न्यासिन्-) ag. qui a renoncé à l'étude du Veda (et aux oeuvres pies) pour se vouer à la contemplation. °संमित- a. v. conforme au Veda. °सूत्र- nt. Sūtra védique. °स्मृता-ई- f. n. d'une rivière. वेदाङ्ग- nt. traités annexes du Veda (ord. au nombre de 6);
m. n. du soleil. वेदात्मन्- m. Viṣṇu. वेदाधिगम- m. étude, récitation, récapitulation du Veda. वेदाध्ययन- nt. étude du Veda. वेदाध्याक्ष- m. gardien du V., Kṛṣṇa. वेदानध्ययन- nt. fait d'abandonner ou de négliger l'étude du Veda. वेदानुवचन- nt. répétition ou récitation du V. वेदान्त- s. v. वेदाभ्यास- m. répétition continuelle du Veda. वेदार्थ- m. sens du Veda. वेदार्हत्व- nt. fait d'être digne d'étudier le Veda. वेदावाप्ति- f. acquisition de la science du Veda. वेदास्र- a. quadrangulaire. वेदोक्त- a. v. mentionné ou enseigné par le Veda;
वेदोदित- id. वेदोदय- m. n. du soleil. वेदोपग्रहण- nt. addition au Veda. वेदोपनिषद्- f. doctrine mystique du Veda.
वेद
२वेद-
m. touffe d'herbe (kuça, etc.) employée dans les rites.
वेद
३वेद
pft. de 1 ᳲईध्-।
From burnouf
वेद
वेद (1 p. et 3 p. p. de विद्) je sais, il sait, .
वेद
वेद m. (विद्) connaissance, science; glose, commentaire. Le Vêda ou Livre de la science, comprenant le Rig (ऋच्), le Sāma, les deux Yajus et, le plus souvent, l'Atharva. Mètre poètique. Vishnu. वेदकौलेयक m. (कुल; sfx. एय; sfx. अक) Śiva. वेदगर्भ m. Brahmā; brāhmane. वेदगुप्ति f. la conservation et perpétuation du Vêda par les brāhmanes. वेदनिन्दक m. (निन्द्) un impie, un athée; qqf. un buddhiste, un jaena. वेदपारग a. qui a lu tout le Vêda. वेदमातृ f. le gāyatrī. वेदमुख्या f. punaise ailée. वेदरक्षण n. la conservation du Vêda. वेदवाद m. parole du Vêda. वेदवास m. (वस्) brāhmane. वेदविद् a. qui connaīt le Vêda; théologien. वेदव्यास m. np. de Vyāsa, compilateur supposé des hymnes du Vêda. वेदसम्मित a. (सम्; मा) composé d'après le Vêda, conforme au Vêda. वेदाङ्ग m. (अङ्ग) recueil des écrits qui concernent les Vêdas et leur servent de commentaires. वेदादिवर्ण n. (आदि; वर्ण) la première lettre de la science ou du Vêda, c. à d. {@ओं@} ओम्। वेदान्त m. (अन्त) la théologie fondée sur le Vêda et contenue principalement dans les उपनिषद्। वेदान्तकृत् a. (कृ) auteur de la théologie. वेदान्तिन् m. philosophe vêdāntiste, théologien. वेदाभ्यास m. (अभ्यास) étude du Vêda; répétition de la syllabe ओं।
From abhyankara-grammar
वेद
वेद language of the Vedic Literature as contrasted with the term लॊकः; cf. नैव लोके न च वेदे अकारो विवृतोस्ति M. Bh. on Mahesvara Sutra; cf. also रक्षार्थं वेदानामध्येयं व्याकरणम् M. Bh.Ahnika 1. The term वैदिक referring to words found in Vedic language is also frequently used in the Mahabhasya. Panini, how- ever, has used the term छन्दस्, मन्त्र and निगम, and not वेद, out of which the first term छन्दस् is often used; cf. बहुलं छन्दसि P. II. 4.39, 76: III, 2.88; V. 2.122; or छन्दसि च P. V. 1.67, V. 4.142, VI. 3.126. VI. l.34, VII. 1.8, etc.
From Vedic-Index-of-Names-and-Subjects
वेद
वेद
in the Atharvaveda 1) Av. vii. 54, 2; x. 8, 17; xv. 3, 7. and later 2) Traya, ‘threefold,’ Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa, v. 5, 5, 10; xiii. 4, 3, 3; Nirukta, i. 2. 18. 20, etc. denotes ‘sacred lore.’ In the plural 3) Av. iv. 35, 6; xix. 2, 12; Taittirīya Saṃhitā, vii. 5, 11, 2; Aitareya Brāhmaṇa, v. 32, 1; vi. 15, 11; Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa, iii. 10, 11, 4; Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa, xi. 3, 3, 7; xii. 3, 4, 11, etc. In the Brāhmaṇas the word, no doubt, has normally the sense of the extant collections, which appear under their accepted titles, Ṛgveda, Yajurveda, Sāmaveda, in the Āraṇyakas. it more definitely refers to the Vedas of the Ṛc, Yajus, and Sāman. Cf. Vidyā.
veďā, s. beda. Dort über die variierenden Vertretungen im Mittel- und Neuind. [wozu sicher auch bhedahl]; daß alle diese Wörter zusammen mit hodah aus dessen wohl dravid. Quelle kom. men (tamil tam usw.; Burrow, BSOAS 12, 394, DED 76b Nr. 876), bleibt weiterhin fraglich.
Inflections not found in the Chaṭṭha Saṅgāyana corpus, or within processed sandhi compounds are grayed out. They might still occur elsewhere, within compounds or in other versions of the Pāḷi texts.
Did you spot a mistake in the declension table? Something missing? Report it here.
22 words belong to the root family √vid (know)
akovida
adj
unskilled (in); not expert (in); not proficient (in); not a master (of) ✓
Digital Pāḷi Dictionary is a work in progress, made available for testing and feedback purposes.
Add a missing word . Please use this online form to add missing words, especially from Vinaya, commentaries, and other later texts. If you prefer to work offline, here is a spreadsheet to download , fill in and submit.
Correct a mistake . Did you spot a mistake in the dictionary? Please report it. It generally takes less than a minute and your corrections and suggestions help to improve the quality of this dictionary for everyone who uses it.
Get updated. You are using DPD GoldenDict updated on 2024-01-25. Check for an update every full moon uposatha day.
Visit the website. Get more detailed information about installation and upgrades, advanced settings and features.
Help with coding. If you're a coder and would like to support the project, please get in touch.
Help with Pāḷi. If you have Pāḷi grammar skills and would like to assist, please make email contact.
Join the mailing list. Get notified of updates and new features as soon as they become available.
Inflections not found in the Chaṭṭha Saṅgāyana corpus, or within processed sandhi compounds are grayed out. They might still occur elsewhere, within compounds or in other versions of the Pāḷi texts.
Did you spot a mistake in the declension table? Something missing? Report it here.
22 words belong to the root family √vid (know)
akovida
adj
unskilled (in); not expert (in); not proficient (in); not a master (of) ✓
Digital Pāḷi Dictionary is a work in progress, made available for testing and feedback purposes.
Add a missing word . Please use this online form to add missing words, especially from Vinaya, commentaries, and other later texts. If you prefer to work offline, here is a spreadsheet to download , fill in and submit.
Correct a mistake . Did you spot a mistake in the dictionary? Please report it. It generally takes less than a minute and your corrections and suggestions help to improve the quality of this dictionary for everyone who uses it.
Get updated. You are using DPD GoldenDict updated on 2024-01-25. Check for an update every full moon uposatha day.
Visit the website. Get more detailed information about installation and upgrades, advanced settings and features.
Help with coding. If you're a coder and would like to support the project, please get in touch.
Help with Pāḷi. If you have Pāḷi grammar skills and would like to assist, please make email contact.
Join the mailing list. Get notified of updates and new features as soon as they become available.
Inflections not found in the Chaṭṭha Saṅgāyana corpus, or within processed sandhi compounds are grayed out. They might still occur elsewhere, within compounds or in other versions of the Pāḷi texts.
Did you spot a mistake in the declension table? Something missing? Report it here.
22 words belong to the root family √vid (know)
akovida
adj
unskilled (in); not expert (in); not proficient (in); not a master (of) ✓
Digital Pāḷi Dictionary is a work in progress, made available for testing and feedback purposes.
Add a missing word . Please use this online form to add missing words, especially from Vinaya, commentaries, and other later texts. If you prefer to work offline, here is a spreadsheet to download , fill in and submit.
Correct a mistake . Did you spot a mistake in the dictionary? Please report it. It generally takes less than a minute and your corrections and suggestions help to improve the quality of this dictionary for everyone who uses it.
Get updated. You are using DPD GoldenDict updated on 2024-01-25. Check for an update every full moon uposatha day.
Visit the website. Get more detailed information about installation and upgrades, advanced settings and features.
Help with coding. If you're a coder and would like to support the project, please get in touch.
Help with Pāḷi. If you have Pāḷi grammar skills and would like to assist, please make email contact.
Join the mailing list. Get notified of updates and new features as soon as they become available.
(Apte) ṛgveda, yajurveda and sāmaveda, which are collectively called trayī 'the sacred triad'; but a fourth, the atharvaveda, was subsequently added to them.
Inflections not found in the Chaṭṭha Saṅgāyana corpus, or within processed sandhi compounds are grayed out. They might still occur elsewhere, within compounds or in other versions of the Pāḷi texts.
Did you spot a mistake in the declension table? Something missing? Report it here.
22 words belong to the root family √vid (know)
akovida
adj
unskilled (in); not expert (in); not proficient (in); not a master (of) ✓
Digital Pāḷi Dictionary is a work in progress, made available for testing and feedback purposes.
Add a missing word . Please use this online form to add missing words, especially from Vinaya, commentaries, and other later texts. If you prefer to work offline, here is a spreadsheet to download , fill in and submit.
Correct a mistake . Did you spot a mistake in the dictionary? Please report it. It generally takes less than a minute and your corrections and suggestions help to improve the quality of this dictionary for everyone who uses it.
Get updated. You are using DPD GoldenDict updated on 2024-01-25. Check for an update every full moon uposatha day.
Visit the website. Get more detailed information about installation and upgrades, advanced settings and features.
Help with coding. If you're a coder and would like to support the project, please get in touch.
Help with Pāḷi. If you have Pāḷi grammar skills and would like to assist, please make email contact.
Join the mailing list. Get notified of updates and new features as soon as they become available.
veda 5
Digital Pāḷi Dictionary
adj. possessing knowledge; full of understanding [√vid + *a] ✓
Inflections not found in the Chaṭṭha Saṅgāyana corpus, or within processed sandhi compounds are grayed out. They might still occur elsewhere, within compounds or in other versions of the Pāḷi texts.
Did you spot a mistake in the declension table? Something missing? Report it here.
22 words belong to the root family √vid (know)
akovida
adj
unskilled (in); not expert (in); not proficient (in); not a master (of) ✓
Digital Pāḷi Dictionary is a work in progress, made available for testing and feedback purposes.
Add a missing word . Please use this online form to add missing words, especially from Vinaya, commentaries, and other later texts. If you prefer to work offline, here is a spreadsheet to download , fill in and submit.
Correct a mistake . Did you spot a mistake in the dictionary? Please report it. It generally takes less than a minute and your corrections and suggestions help to improve the quality of this dictionary for everyone who uses it.
Get updated. You are using DPD GoldenDict updated on 2024-01-25. Check for an update every full moon uposatha day.
Visit the website. Get more detailed information about installation and upgrades, advanced settings and features.
Help with coding. If you're a coder and would like to support the project, please get in touch.
Help with Pāḷi. If you have Pāḷi grammar skills and would like to assist, please make email contact.
Join the mailing list. Get notified of updates and new features as soon as they become available.
From DPD Grammar
veda
DPD Grammar
pos ⇅
grammar ⇅
word ⇅
noun
masc voc sg
of
veda
noun
in comps
of
veda
noun
nt voc sg
of
veda
adj
masc voc sg
of
veda
adj
nt voc sg
of
veda
adj
in comps
of
veda
noun
masc voc sg
of
vedas
noun
in comps
of
vedas
verb
reflx aor 1st sg
of
vedi
vedā
DPD Grammar
pos ⇅
grammar ⇅
word ⇅
noun
masc nom pl
of
veda
noun
masc instr sg
of
veda
noun
masc abl sg
of
veda
noun
masc voc sg
of
veda
noun
masc voc pl
of
veda
noun
nt nom pl
of
veda
noun
nt instr sg
of
veda
noun
nt abl sg
of
veda
noun
nt voc sg
of
veda
noun
nt voc pl
of
veda
adj
masc nom pl
of
veda
adj
fem nom sg
of
veda
adj
fem nom pl
of
veda
adj
nt nom pl
of
veda
adj
fem acc pl
of
veda
adj
nt acc pl
of
veda
adj
masc instr sg
of
veda
adj
nt instr sg
of
veda
adj
masc abl sg
of
veda
adj
nt abl sg
of
veda
adj
masc voc sg
of
veda
adj
masc voc pl
of
veda
adj
fem voc pl
of
veda
adj
nt voc sg
of
veda
noun
masc nom pl
of
vedas
noun
masc abl sg
of
vedas
noun
masc voc sg
of
vedas
noun
masc voc pl
of
vedas
verb
reflx aor 3rd sg
of
vedi
From PTS
veda
(cp. vediyati & vedanā) (joyful) feeling, religious feeling, enthusiasm awe, emotion, excitement (something like; saṁvega) DN.ii.210 (˚paṭilābha + somanassa-paṭilābha) MN.i.465 (uḷāra); Snp verse 1027 (= pīti Snp-a.585); Ja.ii.336Ja.iii.266. attha-veda + dhamma-veda enthusiasm for the truth (for the letter & the spirit) of Buddha’s teaching MN.i.37; AN.v.329 sq., AN.v.333, AN.v.349, AN.v.352; veda here interpreted as “somanassaṁ” at MN-a.i.173 ■ See also cpd -jāta.
(cp. vedeti & vijjā) (higher) knowledge (as “Buddhist” antithesis to the authority of the “Veda”) insight, revelation, wisdom: that which Bdhgh at MN-a.i.173 defines with “ñāṇa,” and illustrates with vedagū of Snp verse 1059; or refers to at DN-a.i.139 with defn “vidanti etenā ti vedo.” Thus at Snp verse 529 & Snp verse 792 (= vedā vuccanti catūsu maggesu ñāṇaṁ paññā Mnd.93), cp. Snp-a.403 ■ As adj. veda epithet of the Buddha “the knower or the possessor of revelation, at MN.i.386. See also vedagū.
the Veda(s), the brahmanic canon of authorized religious teaching (revelation) & practice otherwise given as “gantha” i.e. “text” at MN-a.i.173 & illustrated with “tiṇṇaṁ vedānaṁ pāragū.” The latter formula is frequent in stock phrase describing the accomplishments of a Brahmin, e.g. at DN.i.88; MN.ii.133; Snp verse 1019; AN.i.163; Dhp-a.iii.361. In the older texts only the 3 Vedas (irubbeda = Rg; yaju˚ & sāma˚) are referred to, whereas later (in the Commentaries) we find the 4 mentioned (athabbana added), e.g. the; three at SN.iv.118; Ja.i.168; Ja.ii.47; Ja.iii.537; Mil.10; Vism.384; the four at DN-a.i.247; Mil.178 ■ Unspecified (sg.): Snp-a.462 As adj. veda “knowing the Vedas” Snp-a.463 (ti˚), cp tevijja ■ The Vedas in this connection are not often mentioned, they are almost identical with the Mantras (see manta) and are often (in Com.) mentioned either jointly with manta or promiscuously, e.g. Pv.18:13 (the Vedas with the 6 aṅgas, i.e. vedāngas, called manta); Snp-a.293 (manta-pāragū + veda-pāragū), Snp-a.322, Snp-a.448.
veda：[m．] religious feeling； knowledge； the brahmanic canon of authorised religious teaching．
◎ PTS P-E Dictionary
Veda
Veda，[fr．vid，or more specifically ved as P．root] 1．（cp．vediyati & vedanā） （joyful） feeling，religious feeling，enthusiasm，awe，emotion，excitement （something like saṁvega） D．II，210 （°paṭilābha+somanassa-paṭilābha）； M．I，465 （uḷāra）； Sn．1027 （=pīti SnA 585）； J．II，336； III，266．attha-veda+dhamma-veda enthusiasm for the truth （for the letter & the spirit） of Buddha’s teaching M．I，37； A．V，329 sq．333，349，352； veda here interpreted as “somanassaṁ” at MA．I，173．-- See also cpd．°jāta．-- 2．（cp．vedeti & vijjā） （higher） knowledge （as “Buddhist” antithesis to the authority of the “Veda”），insight，revelation，wisdom：that which Bdhgh at MA．I，173 defines with “ñāṇa，” and illustrates with vedagū of Sn．1059； or refers to at DA．I，139 with defn “vidanti etenā ti vedo．” Thus at Sn．529 & 792 （=vedā vuccanti catūsu maggesu ñāṇaṁ paññā Nd1 93），cp．SnA 403．-- As adj．veda Ep．of the Buddha “the knower” or the possessor of revelation，at M．I，386．See also vedagū．-- 3．the Veda（s），the brahmanic canon of authorized religious teaching （revelation） & practice； otherwise given as “gantha” i．e．“text” at MA．I，173，& illustrated with “tiṇṇaṁ vedānaṁ pāragū．” The latter formula is frequent in stock phrase describing the accomplishments of a Brahmin，e．g．at D．I，88； M．II，133； Sn．1019； A．I，163； DhA．III，361．In the older texts only the 3 Vedas （irubbeda=Rg； yaju° & sāma°） are referred to，whereas later （in the Commentaries） we find the 4 mentioned （athabbana added），e．g．the three at S．IV，118； J．I，168； II，47； III，537； Miln．10； Vism．384； the four at DA．I，247； Miln．178．-- Unspecified （sg．）：SnA 462．As adj．veda “knowing the Vedas” SnA 463 （ti°），cp．tevijja．-- The Vedas in this connection are not often mentioned，they are almost identical with the Mantras （see manta） and are often （in Com．） mentioned either jointly with manta or promiscuously，e．g．Pv．II，613 （the Vedas with the 6 aṅgas，i．e．vedāṅgas，called manta）； SnA 293 （manta-pāragū+veda-pāragū），322，448．
--antagu “one who has reached the end of knowledge，” i．e．one who has obtained perfection in wisdom Vin．I，3； Sn．463．--gū one who has attained to highest knowledge （said of the Buddha）．Thus different from “tiṇṇaṁ vedānaṁ pāragū，” which is brahmanic．The expln of vedagū is “catūsu maggesu ñāṇaṁ” Nd2 612，& see above 2．-- S．I，141，168； IV，83，206； A II 6； IV，340； Sn．322，458，529，749，846，947，1049，1060； Nd1 93，204，299，431．A peculiar meaning of vedagū is that of “soul” （lit．attainer of wisdom） at Miln．54 & 71．--jāta thrilled，filled with enthusiasm，overcome with awe，excited A．II，63； Sn．995，1023； Kvu 554=Vv 3427 （=jāta-somanassa VvA．156）； J．I，11； Miln．297．--pāragū one who excels in the knowledge of the Vedas，perfected in the Veda SnA 293； cp．above 3．--bandhu one who is familiar with the Vedas SnA 192．（Page 647）
◎ Pali Viet Dictionary
VEDA
VEDA：[m] cảm giác tôn giáo，sự hiểu biết，Phệ Đà Kinh của Bàlamôn giáo --gū [m] người đã được đến bực hiểu biết cao thâm --ntāgū，--pāragū [m] người thông suốt kinh Phệ Đà --jāta [a] đầy sự vui thích
From stardict-dictd_pali-english_Ven_A_P_Buddhadatta-2.4.2
वेद
[m.] religious feeling; knowledge; the brahmanic canon of authorised religious teaching.
From pts_pali
वेद
[fr. vid, or more specifically ved as P. root] 1. (cp. vediyati & vedanā) (joyful) feeling, religious feeling, enthusiasm, awe, emotion, excitement (something like saṃ vega) D II.210 (°paṭilābha+somanassa-paṭilābha); M I.465 (uḷāra); Sn 1027 (=pīti SnA 585); J II.336; III.266. attha-veda+dhamma-veda enthusiasm for the truth (for the letter & the spirit) of Buddha's teaching M I.37; A V.329 sq., 333, 349, 352; veda here interpreted as "somanassaṃ " at MA I.173. – See also cpd. °jāta. – 2. (cp. vedeti & vijjā) (higher) knowledge (as "Buddhist" antithesis to the authority of the "Veda"), insight, revelation, wisdom: that which Bdhgh at MA I.173 defines with "ñāṇa, " and illustrates with vedagū of Sn 1059; or refers to at DA I.139 with def (n) "vidanti etenā ti vedo." Thus at Sn 529 & 792 (=vedā vuccanti catūsu maggesuñāṇaṃ paññā Nd (1) 93), cp. SnA 403. – As adj. veda Ep. of the Buddha "the knower" or the possessor of revelation, at M I.386. See also vedagū. – 3. the Veda(s), the brahmanic canon of authorized religious teaching (revelation) & practice; otherwise given as " gantha " i. e. "text" at MA I.173, & illustrated with "tiṇṇaṃ vedānaṃ pāragū." The latter formula is frequent in stock phrase describing the accomplishments of a Brahmin, e. g. at D I.88; M II.133; Sn 1019; A I.163; DhA III.361. In the older texts only the 3 Vedas (irubbeda=Rg; yaju° & sāma°) are referred to, whereas later (in the Commentaries) we find the 4 mentioned (athabbana added), e. g. the three at S IV.118; J I.168; II.47; III.537; Miln 10; Vism 384; the four at DA I.247; Miln 178. – Unspecified (sg.): SnA 462. As adj. veda "knowing the Vedas" SnA 463 (ti°), cp. tevijja. – The Vedas in this connection are not often mentioned, they are almost identical with the Mantras (see manta) and are often (in Com.) mentioned either jointly with manta or promiscuously, e. g. Pv II.6 (13) (the Vedas with the 6 aṅgas, i. e. vedāṅgas, called manta); SnA 293 (manta-pāragū+veda-pāragū), 322, 448. –antagu "one who has reached the end of knowledge," i. e. one who has obtained perfection in wisdom Vin I.3; Sn 463. –gū one who has attained to highest knowledge (said of the Buddha). Thus different from "tiṇṇaṃ vedānaṃ pāragū, " which is brahmanic. The expl (n) of vedagū is "catūsu maggesuñāṇaṃ " Nd (2) 612, & see above 2. – S I.141, 168; IV.83, 206; A II 6; IV.340; Sn 322, 458, 529, 749, 846, 947, 1049, 1060; Nd (1) 93, 204, 299, 431. A peculiar meaning of vedagū is that of "soul" (lit. attainer of wisdom) at Miln 54 & 71. –jāta thrilled, filled with enthusiasm, overcome with awe, excited A II.63; Sn 995, 1023; Kvu 554=Vv 34 (27) (=jāta-somanassa VvA 156); J I.11; Miln 297. –pāragū one who excels in the knowledge of the Vedas, perfected in the Veda SnA 293; cp. above 3. –bandhu one who is familiar with the Vedas SnA 192.
From pali-en-pa
veda
veda
"m." "religious feeling; knowledge; the brahmanic canon of authorised religious teaching."
From 簡明必應
veda
['veɪdə]
n.吠陀經；吠陀本集（印度最古老的宗教文獻和文學作品的總稱）
(-/49238)
From OED now
Vedan.
Brit./ˈveɪdə/, /ˈviːdə/, U.S./ˈveɪdə/, /ˈvidə/
Forms: Also 1700s Beda; Vidam, Viedam, Vedam.
Etymology: < Sanskrit vēda knowledge, sacred knowledge, sacred book, from the root vid- to know: see witv.1 The α-forms are from the Sanskrit nominative and accusative vēdam, perhaps partly through Tamil. The Urdu form bed (Hindi ved) is also represented in older use by Bead (1698), Beid (1776), and Bede (1789).
One or other of the four ancient sacred books of the Hindus (called the Rig-, Yajur-, Sāma-, and Atharva-vēda); the body of sacred literature contained in these books.
1731 tr. A. Roger Relig. & Manners Braminsi. iv, in tr. Relig. Ceremonies & Customs Several Nations III. 318 The Vedam is the book of the law among these people, and contains all they are to believe or practise.
1763 L. ScraftonRefl. Govt. Indostan (1770) 4 The Bramins say, that Brumma, their law-giver, left them a book, called the Vidam, which contains all his doctrines and institutions.
1766 J. Z. HolwellInteresting Hist. Events: Pt. 1 (ed. 2) 12 The great absurdities and impurities of the Viedam.
1778 R. OrmeHist. Mil. Trans. Brit. Nation II. 5 The Shaster..they assert to be the genuine scripture of Bramah, in preference to the Vidam.
1794 R. J. SulivanView of Nature IV. 295 The Vedams, or texts of scripture, were published by Brahma, together with the Shasters, or commentaries, about six hundred years afterwards.
β. 1776 J. O. Justamond tr. G. T. F. Raynal Philos. Hist. Europeans in Indies I. 33 The Bramin..promised to pardon him on condition that he should swear never to translate the Bedas, or sacred volumes.1789 Asiatick Researches1 340 The first four [parts of knowledge] are the immortal Véda's evidently revealed by God.1808 Asiatic Researches (London ed.) 8 387 It may be here proper to remark, that each Véda consists of two parts, denominated the Mantras and the Bráhmanas; or prayers and precepts.1841 M. ElphinstoneHist. India I. i. iv. 71 The religion taught in the Institutes is derived from the Védas, to which scriptures they refer in every page.1871 S. MateerTravancore 35 Accordingly, as a matter of fact, the Sudras never do read the Sanscrit Vedas.attributive.1841 Penny Cycl. XX. 403/1 In like manner, the Veda-hymns..led to the consideration of the laws of metre.1843 Penny Cycl. XXVI. 171 These various schools of the Veda theology.
1865 S. Baring-GouldBk. Were-wolves x. 176 In ancient Indian Vedaic mythology the upsaras were heavenly damsels who dwelt in the æther, between Earth and Sun.
ancient sacred Hindu book, 1734, from Sanskrit veda, literally "knowledge, understanding," especially "sacred knowledge," from root vid- "to know" (from PIE root *weid- "to see"). The books are the Rig-, Yajur-, Sama-, and Atharva-veda.
It is the hypothetical source of/evidence for its existence is provided by: Sanskrit veda "I know;" Avestan vaeda "I know;" Greek oida, Doric woida "I know," idein "to see;" Old Irish fis "vision," find "white," i.e. "clearly seen," fiuss "knowledge;" Welsh gwyn, Gaulish vindos, Breton gwenn "white;" Gothic, Old Swedish, Old English witan "to know;" Gothic weitan "to see;" English wise, German wissen "to know;" Lithuanian vysti "to see;" Bulgarian vidya "I see;" Polish widzieć "to see," wiedzieć "to know;" Russian videt' "to see," vest' "news," Old Russian vedat' "to know."
"pertaining to traditional Hindu science of medicine," 1917, from Sanskrit Ayurveda "science of life," from ayur "life" (from PIE *oyus-, suffixed form of *oyu- "life everlasting," from variant form of root *aiw- "vital force, life; long life, eternity") + veda "knowledge" (see Veda).
While in English the word science is often seen as meaning only the hard sciences, such as physics, chemistry, biology, in Slovak the word veda covers all scholarly disciplines, including the various social sciences that are sometimes referred to as arts in English.
“veda”, in Slovníkový portál Jazykovedného ústavu Ľ. Štúra SAV [Dictionary portal of the Ľ. Štúr Institute of Linguistics, Slovak Academy of Science] (in Slovak), https://slovnik.juls.savba.sk, 2024
2015 September 25, “Rapaces tiroteadas en la media veda”, in El País[1]:
La media veda es un periodo, que se abre en verano y tiene casi un mes de duración, en el que se permite la caza de ciertas especies, como la paloma torcaz, la tórtola común y la codorniz.
The half-closed season is a period which opens in summer and lasts for about a month in which hunting of particular species is permitted, such as the wood pigeon, the common turtledove, and the quail.
There are four Vedas: the Rigveda, the Yajurveda, the Samaveda and the Atharvaveda.[9][10] Each Veda has four subdivisions – the Samhitas (mantras and benedictions), the Brahmanas (commentaries on and explanation of rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices - Yajnas), the Aranyakas (text on rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices and symbolic-sacrifices), and the Upanishads (texts discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge).[9][11][12] Some scholars add a fifth category – the Upasanas (worship).[13][14] The texts of the Upanishads discuss ideas akin to the heterodox sramana-traditions.[15] The Samhitas and Brahmanas describe about daily rituals and are generally meant for Brahmacharya and Grihastha stages of the Chaturasrama system, while the Aranyakas and Upanishads are meant for the Vānaprastha and Sannyasa stages, respectively.
Vedas are śruti ("what is heard"),[16] distinguishing them from other religious texts, which are called smṛti ("what is remembered"). Hindus consider the Vedas to be apauruṣeya, which means "not of a man, superhuman"[17] and "impersonal, authorless",[18][19][20] revelations of sacred sounds and texts heard by ancient sages after intense meditation.[21][22]
The Vedas have been orally transmitted since the 2nd millennium BCE with the help of elaborate mnemonic techniques.[23][24][25] The mantras, the oldest part of the Vedas, are recited in the modern age for their phonology rather than the semantics, and are considered to be "primordial rhythms of creation", preceding the forms to which they refer.[26] By reciting them the cosmos is regenerated, "by enlivening and nourishing the forms of creation at their base."[26]
The various Indian philosophies and Hindu sects have taken differing positions on the Vedas. Schools of Indian philosophy that acknowledge the importance or primal authority of the Vedas comprise Hindu philosophy specifically and are together classified as the six "orthodox" (āstika) schools.[note 2] However, śramaṇa traditions, such as Charvaka, Ajivika, Buddhism, and Jainism, which did not regard the Vedas as authoritative, are referred to as "heterodox" or "non-orthodox" (nāstika) schools.[15][27]
The Sanskrit word véda "knowledge, wisdom" is derived from the root vid- "to know". This is reconstructed as being derived from the Proto-Indo-European root *weyd-, meaning "see" or "know."[28][29]
The noun is from Proto-Indo-European*weydos, cognate to Greek(ϝ)εἶδος "aspect", "form" . This is not to be confused with the homonymous 1st and 3rd person singular perfect tense véda, cognate to Greek (ϝ)οἶδα ((w)oida) "I know". Root cognates are Greek ἰδέα, English wit, Latinvideō "I see", Russian ве́дать (védat') "to know", etc.[30]
The Sanskrit term veda as a common noun means "knowledge".[28] The term in some contexts, such as hymn 10.93.11 of the Rigveda, means "obtaining or finding wealth, property",[31] while in some others it means "a bunch of grass together" as in a broom or for ritual fire.[32]
The Samhitas (Sanskrit saṃhitā, "collection"), are collections of metric texts ("mantras"). There are four "Vedic" Samhitas: the Rig-Veda, Yajur-Veda, Sama-Veda and Atharva-Veda, most of which are available in several recensions (śākhā). In some contexts, the term Veda is used to refer only to these Samhitas, the collection of mantras. This is the oldest layer of Vedic texts, which were composed between circa 1500–1200 BCE (Rig Veda book 2–9),[note 1] and 1200–900 BCE for the other Samhitas. The Samhitas contain invocations to deities like Indra and Agni, "to secure their benediction for success in battles or for welfare of the clan."[34] The complete corpus of Vedic mantras as collected in Bloomfield's Vedic Concordance (1907) consists of some 89,000 padas (metrical feet), of which 72,000 occur in the four Samhitas.[35]
The Brahmanas are prose texts that comment and explain the solemn rituals as well as expound on their meaning and many connected themes. Each of the Brahmanas is associated with one of the Samhitas or its recensions.[36][37] The oldest dated to about 900 BCE, while the youngest Brahmanas (such as the Shatapatha Brahmana), were complete by about 700 BCE.[38][39] The Brahmanas may either form separate texts or can be partly integrated into the text of the Samhitas. They may also include the Aranyakas and Upanishads.
The Aranyakas, "wilderness texts" or "forest treaties", were composed by people who meditated in the woods as recluses and are the third part of the Vedas. The texts contain discussions and interpretations of ceremonies, from ritualistic to symbolic meta-ritualistic points of view.[40] It is frequently read in secondary literature.
Older Principal Upanishads (Bṛhadāraṇyaka, Chandogya, Kaṭha, Kena, Aitareya, and others),[1][41] composed between 800 BCE and the end of the Vedic period.[42] The Upanishads are largely philosophical works, some in dialogue form. They are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought and its diverse traditions.[43][44] Of the Vedic corpus, they alone are widely known, and the central ideas of the Upanishads are still influential in Hinduism.[43][45]
The texts considered "Vedic" in the sense of "corollaries of the Vedas" are less clearly defined, and may include numerous post-Vedic texts such as the later Upanishads and the Sutra literature, such as Shrauta Sutras and Gryha Sutras, which are smriti texts. Together, the Vedas and these Sutras form part of the Vedic Sanskrit corpus.[1][note 3][note 4]
While production of Brahmanas and Aranyakas ceased with the end of the Vedic period, additional Upanishads were composed after the end of the Vedic period.[46] The Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads, among other things, interpret and discuss the Samhitas in philosophical and metaphorical ways to explore abstract concepts such as the Absolute (Brahman), and the soul or the self (Atman), introducing Vedanta philosophy, one of the major trends of later Hinduism. In other parts, they show evolution of ideas, such as from actual sacrifice to symbolic sacrifice, and of spirituality in the Upanishads. This has inspired later Hindu scholars such as Adi Shankara to classify each Veda into karma-kanda (कर्म खण्ड, action/sacrificial ritual-related sections, the Samhitas and Brahmanas); and jnana-kanda (ज्ञान खण्ड, knowledge/spirituality-related sections, mainly the Upanishads').[47][48][49][50][51][note 5]
Vedas are śruti ("what is heard"),[16] distinguishing them from other religious texts, which are called smṛti ("what is remembered"). This indigenous system of categorization was adopted by Max Müller and, while it is subject to some debate, it is still widely used. As Axel Michaels explains:
These classifications are often not tenable for linguistic and formal reasons: There is not only one collection at any one time, but rather several handed down in separate Vedic schools; Upanişads [...] are sometimes not to be distinguished from Āraṇyakas [...]; Brāhmaṇas contain older strata of language attributed to the Saṃhitās; there are various dialects and locally prominent traditions of the Vedic schools. Nevertheless, it is advisable to stick to the division adopted by Max Müller because it follows the Indian tradition, conveys the historical sequence fairly accurately, and underlies the current editions, translations, and monographs on Vedic literature."[41]
Hindus consider the Vedas to be apauruṣeyā, which means "not of a man, superhuman"[17] and "impersonal, authorless."[18][19][20] The Vedas, for orthodox Indian theologians, are considered revelations seen by ancient sages after intense meditation, and texts that have been more carefully preserved since ancient times.[21][22] In the Hindu Epic Mahabharata, the creation of Vedas is credited to Brahma.[52] The Vedic hymns themselves assert that they were skillfully created by Rishis (sages), after inspired creativity, just as a carpenter builds a chariot.[22][note 6]
The oldest part of the Rig Veda Samhita was orally composed in north-western India (Punjab) between c. 1500 and 1200 BCE,[note 1] while book 10 of the Rig Veda, and the other Samhitas were composed between 1200 and 900 BCE more eastward, between the Yamuna and the Ganges rivers, the heartland of Aryavarta and the Kuru Kingdom (c. 1200 – c. 900 BCE).[54][2][55][56][57] The "circum-Vedic" texts, as well as the redaction of the Samhitas, date to c. 1000–500 BCE.
According to tradition, Vyasa is the compiler of the Vedas, who arranged the four kinds of mantras into four Samhitas (Collections).[58][59]
Chronology, transmission, and interpretation[edit]
The Vedas are among the oldest sacred texts.[60] The bulk of the Rigveda Samhita was composed in the northwestern region (Punjab) of the Indian subcontinent, most likely between c. 1500 and 1200 BCE,[2][54][61] although a wider approximation of c. 1700–1100 BCE has also been given.[62][63][note 1] The other three Samhitas are considered to date from the time of the Kuru Kingdom, approximately c. 1200–900 BCE.[1] The "circum-Vedic" texts, as well as the redaction of the Samhitas, date to c. 1000–500 BCE, resulting in a Vedic period, spanning the mid 2nd to mid 1st millennium BCE, or the Late Bronze Age and the Iron Age.[note 7]
The Vedic period reaches its peak only after the composition of the mantra texts, with the establishment of the various shakhas all over Northern India which annotated the mantra samhitas with Brahmana discussions of their meaning, and reaches its end in the age of Buddha and Panini and the rise of the Mahajanapadas (archaeologically, Northern Black Polished Ware). Michael Witzel gives a time span of c. 1500 to c. 500–400 BCE. Witzel makes special reference to the Near Eastern Mitanni material of the 14th century BCE, the only epigraphic record of Indo-Aryan contemporary to the Rigvedic period. He gives 150 BCE (Patañjali) as a terminus ante quem for all Vedic Sanskrit literature, and 1200 BCE (the early Iron Age) as terminus post quem for the Atharvaveda.[64]
The Vedas were orally transmitted since their composition in the Vedic period for several millennia.[65][23][66] The authoritative transmission[67] of the Vedas is by an oral tradition in a sampradaya from father to son or from teacher (guru) to student (shishya),[66][68][24][69][23] believed to be initiated by the Vedic rishis who heard the primordial sounds.[70] Only this tradition, embodied by a living teacher, can teach the correct pronunciation of the sounds and explain hidden meanings, in a way the "dead and entombed manuscript" cannot do.[68][note 8] As Leela Prasad states, "According to Shankara, the "correct tradition" (sampradaya) has as much authority as the written Shastra," explaining that the tradition "bears the authority to clarify and provide direction in the application of knowledge."[71]
The emphasis in this transmission[note 9] is on the "proper articulation and pronunciation of the Vedic sounds", as prescribed in the Shiksha,[73] the Vedanga (Vedic study) of sound as uttered in a Vedic recitation,[74][75] mastering the texts "literally forward and backward in fully acoustic fashion."[67] Houben and Rath note that the Vedic textual tradition cannot simply be characterized as oral, "since it also depends significantly on a memory culture."[76] The Vedas were preserved with precision with the help of elaborate mnemonic techniques,[23][24][25] such as memorizing the texts in eleven different modes of recitation (pathas),[67] using the alphabet as a mnemotechnical device,[77][78][note 10] "matching physical movements (such as nodding the head) with particular sounds and chanting in a group"[79] and visualizing sounds by using mudras (hand signs).[80] This provided an additional visual confirmation, and also an alternate means to check the reading integrity by the audience, in addition to the audible means.[80] Houben and Rath note that a strong "memory culture" existed in ancient India when texts were transmitted orally, before the advent of writing in the early first millennium CE.[78] According to Staal, criticising the Goody-Watt hypothesis "according to which literacy is more reliable than orality,"[81] this tradition of oral transmission "is closely related to Indian forms of science," and "by far the more remarkable" than the relatively recent tradition of written transmission.[note 11]
While according to Mookerji understanding the meaning (vedarthajnana[84] or artha-bodha[85][note 12]) of the words of the Vedas was part of the Vedic learning,[85] Holdrege and other Indologists[86] have noted that in the transmission of the Samhitas the emphasis is on the phonology of the sounds (śabda) and not on the meaning (artha) of the mantras.[86][87][68] Already at the end of the Vedic period their original meaning had become obscure for "ordinary people,"[87][note 13] and niruktas, etymological compendia, were developed to preserve and clarify the original meaning of many Sanskrit words.[87][89] According to Staal, as referenced by Holdrege, though the mantras may have a discursive meaning, when the mantras are recited in the Vedic rituals "they are disengaged from their original context and are employed in ways that have little or nothing to do with their meaning."[86][note 14] The words of the mantras are "themselves sacred,"[90] and "do not constitute linguistic utterances."[26] Instead, as Klostermaier notes, in their application in Vedic rituals they become magical sounds, "means to an end."[note 15] Holdrege notes that there are scarce commentaries on the meaning of the mantras, in contrast to the number of commentaries on the Brahmanas and Upanishads, but states that the lack of emphasis on the "discursive meaning does not necessarily imply that they are meaningless."[91] In the Brahmanical perspective, the sounds have their own meaning, mantras are considered as "primordial rhythms of creation", preceding the forms to which they refer.[26] By reciting them the cosmos is regenerated, "by enlivening and nourishing the forms of creation at their base. As long as the purity of the sounds is preserved, the recitation of the mantras will be efficacious, irrespective of whether their discursive meaning is understood by human beings."[26][note 16] Frazier further notes that "later Vedic texts sought deeper understanding of the reasons the rituals worked," which indicates that the Brahmin communities considered study to be a "process of understanding."[92]
A literary tradition is traceable in post-Vedic times, after the rise of Buddhism in the Maurya period,[note 17] perhaps earliest in the Kanva recension of the Yajurveda about the 1st century BCE; however oral tradition of transmission remained active.[65]Jack Goody has argued for an earlier literary tradition, concluding that the Vedas bear hallmarks of a literate culture along with oral transmission,[94][95] but Goody's views have been strongly criticised by Falk, Lopez Jr,. and Staal, though they have also found some support.[96][97]
The Vedas were written down only after 500 BCE,[98][65][23] but only the orally transmitted texts are regarded as authoritative, given the emphasis on the exact pronunciation of the sounds.[67] Witzel suggests that attempts to write down the Vedic texts towards the end of 1st millennium BCE were unsuccessful, resulting in smriti rules explicitly forbidding the writing down of the Vedas.[65] Due to the ephemeral nature of the manuscript material (birch bark or palm leaves), surviving manuscripts rarely surpass an age of a few hundred years.[99] The Sampurnanand Sanskrit University has a Rigveda manuscript from the 14th century;[100] however, there are a number of older Veda manuscripts in Nepal that are dated from the 11th century onwards.[101]
The Vedas, Vedic rituals and its ancillary sciences called the Vedangas, were part of the curriculum at ancient universities such as at Taxila, Nalanda and Vikramashila.[102][103][104][105] According to Deshpande, "the tradition of the Sanskrit grammarians also contributed significantly to the preservation and interpretation of Vedic texts."[106]Yāska (4th c. BCE[107]) wrote the Nirukta, which reflects the concerns about the loss of meaning of the mantras,[note 13] while Pāṇinis (4th c. BCE) Aṣṭādhyāyī is the most important surviving text of the Vyākaraṇa traditions. Mimamsa scholar Sayanas (14th c. CE) major Vedartha Prakasha[note 18] is a rare[108] commentary on the Vedas, which is also referred to by contemporary scholars.[109]
Yaska and Sayana, reflecting an ancient understanding, state that the Veda can be interpreted in three ways, giving "the truth about gods, dharma and parabrahman."[110][111][note 19] The pūrva-kāņda (or karma-kanda), the part of the Veda dealing with ritual, gives knowledge of dharma, "which brings us satisfaction." The uttara-kanda (or jnana-kanda),[note 20] the part of the Veda dealing with the knowledge of the absolute, gives knowledge of Parabrahma, "which fulfills all of our desires."[112] According to Holdrege, for the exponents of karma-kandha the Veda is to be "inscribed in the minds and hearts of men" by memorization and recitation, while for the exponents of the jnana-kanda and meditation the Vedas express a transcendental reality which can be approached with mystical means.[113]
Holdrege notes that in Vedic learning "priority has been given to recitation over interpretation" of the Samhitas.[108] Galewicz states that Sayana, a Mimamsa scholar,[114][115][116] "thinks of the Veda as something to be trained and mastered to be put into practical ritual use," noticing that "it is not the meaning of the mantras that is most essential [...] but rather the perfect mastering of their sound form."[117] According to Galewicz, Sayana saw the purpose (artha) of the Veda as the "artha of carrying out sacrifice," giving precedence to the Yajurveda.[114] For Sayana, whether the mantras had meaning depended on the context of their practical usage.[117] This conception of the Veda, as a repertoire to be mastered and performed, takes precedence over the internal meaning or "autonomous message of the hymns."[118] Most Śrauta rituals are not performed in the modern era, and those that are, are rare.[119]
Mukherjee notes that the Rigveda, and Sayana's commentary, contain passages criticizing as fruitless mere recitation of the Ŗik (words) without understanding their inner meaning or essence, the knowledge of dharma and Parabrahman.[120] Mukherjee concludes that in the Rigvedic education of the mantras "the contemplation and comprehension of their meaning was considered as more important and vital to education than their mere mechanical repetition and correct pronunciation."[121] Mookei refers to Sayana as stating that "the mastery of texts, akshara-praptī, is followed by artha-bodha, perception of their meaning."[85][note 12] Mukherjee explains that the Vedic knowledge was first perceived by the rishis and munis. Only the perfect language of the Vedas, as in contrast to ordinary speech, can reveal these truths, which were preserved by committing them to memory.[123] According to Mukherjee, while these truths are imparted to the student by the memorized texts,[124] "the realization of Truth" and the knowledge of paramatman as revealed to the rishis is the real aim of Vedic learning, and not the mere recitation of texts.[125] The supreme knowledge of the Absolute, para Brahman-jnana, the knowledge of rta and satya, can be obtained by taking vows of silence and obedience[126] sense-restraint, dhyana, the practice of tapas (austerities),[111] and discussing the Vedanta.[126][note 21]
The four Vedas were transmitted in various śākhās (branches, schools).[128][129] Each school likely represented an ancient community of a particular area, or kingdom.[129] Each school followed its own canon. Multiple recensions are known for each of the Vedas.[128] Thus, states Witzel as well as Renou, in the 2nd millennium BCE, there was likely no canon of one broadly accepted Vedic texts, no Vedic “Scripture”, but only a canon of various texts accepted by each school. Some of these texts have survived, most lost or yet to be found. Rigveda that survives in modern times, for example, is in only one extremely well preserved school of Śåkalya, from a region called Videha, in modern north Bihar, south of Nepal.[130] The Vedic canon in its entirety consists of texts from all the various Vedic schools taken together.[129]
There were Vedic schools that believed in polytheism in which numerous gods had different natural functions, henotheistic beliefs where only one god was worshipped but others were thought to exist, monotheistic beliefs in a single god, agnosticism, and monistic beliefs where "there is an absolute reality that goes beyond the gods and that includes or transcends everything that exists."[131]Indra, Agni, and Yama were popular subjects of worship by polytheist organizations.[131]
Each of the four Vedas were shared by the numerous schools, but revised, interpolated and adapted locally, in and after the Vedic period, giving rise to various recensions of the text. Some texts were revised into the modern era, raising significant debate on parts of the text which are believed to have been corrupted at a later date.[132][133] The Vedas each have an Index or Anukramani, the principal work of this kind being the general Index or Sarvānukramaṇī.[134][135]
Prodigious energy was expended by ancient Indian culture in ensuring that these texts were transmitted from generation to generation with inordinate fidelity.[136] For example, memorization of the sacred Vedas included up to eleven forms of recitation of the same text. The texts were subsequently "proof-read" by comparing the different recited versions. Forms of recitation included the jaṭā-pāṭha (literally "mesh recitation") in which every two adjacent words in the text were first recited in their original order, then repeated in the reverse order, and finally repeated in the original order.[137] That these methods have been effective, is attested to by the preservation of the most ancient Indian religious text, the Rigveda, as redacted into a single text during the Brahmana period, without any variant readings within that school.[137]
The Vedas were orally transmitted by memorization, and were written down only after 500 BCE,[98][65][23] All printed editions of the Vedas that survive in the modern times are likely the version existing in about the 16th century CE.[138]
Of these, the first three were the principal original division, also called "trayī vidyā"; that is, "the triple science" of reciting hymns (Rigveda), performing sacrifices (Yajurveda), and chanting songs (Samaveda).[140][141] The Rig Veda most likely was composed between c. 1500 BCE and 1200 BCE.[note 1] Witzel notes that it is the Vedic period itself, where incipient lists divide the Vedic texts into three (trayī) or four branches: Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva.[129]
Each Veda has been subclassified into four major text types – the Samhitas (mantras and benedictions), the Aranyakas (text on rituals, ceremonies such as newborn baby's rites of passage, coming of age, marriages, retirement and cremation, sacrifices and symbolic sacrifices), the Brahmanas (commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices), and the Upanishads (text discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge).[9][11][12] The Upasanas (short ritual worship-related sections) are considered by some scholars[13][14] as the fifth part. Witzel notes that the rituals, rites and ceremonies described in these ancient texts reconstruct to a large degree the Indo-European marriage rituals observed in a region spanning the Indian subcontinent, Persia and the European area, and some greater details are found in the Vedic era texts such as the Grhya Sūtras.[142]
Only one version of the Rigveda is known to have survived into the modern era.[130] Several different versions of the Sama Veda and the Atharva Veda are known, and many different versions of the Yajur Veda have been found in different parts of South Asia.[143]
The texts of the Upanishads discuss ideas akin to the heterodox sramana-traditions.[15]
Who really knows?
Who can here proclaim it?
Whence, whence this creation sprang?
Gods came later, after the creation of this universe.
Who then knows whence it has arisen?
Whether God's will created it, or whether He was mute;
Only He who is its overseer in highest heaven knows,
He only knows, or perhaps He does not know.
The books were composed by poets from different priestly groups over a period of several centuries between c. 1500 and 1200 BCE,[note 1] (the early Vedic period) in the Punjab (Sapta Sindhu) region of the northwest Indian subcontinent. According to Michael Witzel, the initial codification of the Rigveda took place at the end of the Rigvedic period at c. 1200 BCE, in the early Kuru kingdom.[148]
The Rigveda is structured based on clear principles. The Veda begins with a small book addressed to Agni, Indra, Soma and other gods, all arranged according to decreasing total number of hymns in each deity collection; for each deity series, the hymns progress from longer to shorter ones, but the number of hymns per book increases. Finally, the meter too is systematically arranged from jagati and tristubh to anustubh and gayatri as the text progresses.[129]
The rituals became increasingly complex over time, and the king's association with them strengthened both the position of the Brahmans and the kings.[149] The Rajasuya rituals, performed with the coronation of a king, "set in motion [...] cyclical regenerations of the universe."[150] In terms of substance, the nature of hymns shift from praise of deities in early books to Nasadiya Sukta with questions such as, "what is the origin of the universe?, do even gods know the answer?",[144] the virtue of Dāna (charity) in society,[151] and other metaphysical issues in its hymns.[note 22]
There are similarities between the mythology, rituals and linguistics in Rigveda and those found in ancient central Asia, Iranian and Hindukush (Afghanistan) regions.[152]
The Samaveda Samhita[153] consists of 1549 stanzas, taken almost entirely (except for 75 mantras) from the Rigveda.[41][154] While its earliest parts are believed to date from as early as the Rigvedic period, the existing compilation dates from the post-Rigvedic Mantra period of Vedic Sanskrit, between c. 1200 and 1000 BCE or "slightly later," roughly contemporary with the Atharvaveda and the Yajurveda.[154]
The Samaveda samhita has two major parts. The first part includes four melody collections (gāna, गान) and the second part three verse “books” (ārcika, आर्चिक).[154] A melody in the song books corresponds to a verse in the arcika books. Just as in the Rigveda, the early sections of Samaveda typically begin with hymns to Agni and Indra but shift to the abstract. Their meters shift also in a descending order. The songs in the later sections of the Samaveda have the least deviation from the hymns derived from the Rigveda.[154]
In the Samaveda, some of the Rigvedic verses are repeated.[155] Including repetitions, there are a total of 1875 verses numbered in the Samaveda recension translated by Griffith.[156] Two major recensions have survived, the Kauthuma/Ranayaniya and the Jaiminiya. Its purpose was liturgical, and they were the repertoire of the udgātṛ or "singer" priests.[157]
The Yajurveda Samhita consists of prose mantras.[158] It is a compilation of ritual offering formulas that were said by a priest while an individual performed ritual actions such as those before the yajna fire.[158] The core text of the Yajurveda falls within the classical Mantra period of Vedic Sanskrit at the end of the 2nd millennium BCE – younger than the Rigveda, and roughly contemporary with the Atharvaveda, the Rigvedic Khilani, and the Sāmaveda.[159] Witzel dates the Yajurveda hymns to the early Indian Iron Age, after c. 1200 and before 800 BCE.[160] corresponding to the early Kuru Kingdom.[161]
A page from the Taittiriya Samhita, a layer of text within the Yajurveda
The earliest and most ancient layer of Yajurveda samhita includes about 1,875 verses, that are distinct yet borrow and build upon the foundation of verses in Rigveda.[162] Unlike the Samaveda which is almost entirely based on Rigveda mantras and structured as songs, the Yajurveda samhitas are in prose, and they are different from earlier Vedic texts linguistically.[163] The Yajur Veda has been the primary source of information about sacrifices during Vedic times and associated rituals.[164]
There are two major groups of texts in this Veda: the "Black" (Krishna) and the "White" (Shukla). The term "black" implies "the un-arranged, motley collection" of verses in Yajurveda, in contrast to the "white" (well arranged) Yajurveda.[165] The White Yajurveda separates the Samhita from its Brahmana (the Shatapatha Brahmana), the Black Yajurveda intersperses the Samhita with Brahmana commentary. Of the Black Yajurveda, texts from four major schools have survived (Maitrayani, Katha, Kapisthala-Katha, Taittiriya), while of the White Yajurveda, two (Kanva and Madhyandina).[166][167] The youngest layer of Yajurveda text is not related to rituals nor sacrifice, it includes the largest collection of primary Upanishads, influential to various schools of Hindu philosophy.[168][169]
The Artharvaveda Samhita is the text 'belonging to the Atharvan and Angirasa poets. It has about 760 hymns, and about 160 of the hymns are in common with the Rigveda.[170] Most of the verses are metrical, but some sections are in prose.[170] Two different versions of the text – the Paippalāda and the Śaunakīya – have survived into the modern times.[170][171] The Atharvaveda was not considered as a Veda in the Vedic era, and was accepted as a Veda in late 1st millennium BCE.[172][173] It was compiled last,[174] probably around 900 BCE, although some of its material may go back to the time of the Rigveda,[2] or earlier.[170]
The Atharvaveda is sometimes called the "Veda of magical formulas",[175] an epithet declared to be incorrect by other scholars.[176] The Samhita layer of the text likely represents a developing 2nd millennium BCE tradition of magico-religious rites to address superstitious anxiety, spells to remove maladies believed to be caused by demons, and herbs- and nature-derived potions as medicine.[177][178] The text, states Kenneth Zysk, is one of oldest surviving record of the evolutionary practices in religious medicine and reveals the "earliest forms of folk healing of Indo-European antiquity".[179] Many books of the Atharvaveda Samhita are dedicated to rituals without magic, such as to philosophical speculations and to theosophy.[176]
The Atharva veda has been a primary source for information about Vedic culture, the customs and beliefs, the aspirations and frustrations of everyday Vedic life, as well as those associated with kings and governance. The text also includes hymns dealing with the two major rituals of passage – marriage and cremation. The Atharva Veda also dedicates significant portion of the text asking the meaning of a ritual.[180]
Manuscripts of the Vedas are in the Sanskrit language, but in many regional scripts in addition to the Devanagari. Top: Grantha script (Tamil Nadu), Below: Malayalam script (Kerala).
The Brahmanas are commentaries, explanation of proper methods and meaning of Vedic Samhita rituals in the four Vedas.[36] They also incorporate myths, legends and in some cases philosophy.[36][37] Each regional Vedic shakha (school) has its own operating manual-like Brahmana text, most of which have been lost.[181] A total of 19 Brahmana texts have survived into modern times: two associated with the Rigveda, six with the Yajurveda, ten with the Samaveda and one with the Atharvaveda. The oldest dated to about 900 BCE, while the youngest Brahmanas (such as the Shatapatha Brahmana), were complete by about 700 BCE.[38][39] According to Jan Gonda, the final codification of the Brahmanas took place in pre-Buddhist times (ca. 600 BCE).[182]
The substance of the Brahmana text varies with each Veda. For example, the first chapter of the Chandogya Brahmana, one of the oldest Brahmanas, includes eight ritual suktas (hymns) for the ceremony of marriage and rituals at the birth of a child.[183][184] The first hymn is a recitation that accompanies offering a Yajna oblation to Agni (fire) on the occasion of a marriage, and the hymn prays for prosperity of the couple getting married.[183][185] The second hymn wishes for their long life, kind relatives, and a numerous progeny.[183] The third hymn is a mutual marriage pledge, between the bride and groom, by which the two bind themselves to each other. The sixth through last hymns of the first chapter in Chandogya Brahmana are ritual celebrations on the birth of a child and wishes for health, wealth, and prosperity with a profusion of cows and artha.[183] However, these verses are incomplete expositions, and their complete context emerges only with the Samhita layer of text.[186]
The Aranyakas layer of the Vedas include rituals, discussion of symbolic meta-rituals, as well as philosophical speculations.[14][40]
Aranyakas, however, neither are homogeneous in content nor in structure.[40] They are a medley of instructions and ideas, and some include chapters of Upanishads within them. Two theories have been proposed on the origin of the word Aranyakas. One theory holds that these texts were meant to be studied in a forest, while the other holds that the name came from these being the manuals of allegorical interpretation of sacrifices, for those in Vanaprastha (retired, forest-dwelling) stage of their life, according to the historic age-based Ashrama system of human life.[187]
The Upanishads reflect the last composed layer of texts in the Vedas. They are commonly referred to as Vedānta, variously interpreted to mean either the "last chapters, parts of the Vedas" or "the object, the highest purpose of the Veda".[188]
The central concern of the Upanishads are the connections "between parts of the human organism and cosmic realities."[189] The Upanishads intend to create a hierarchy of connected and dependent realities, evoking a sense of unity of "the separate elements of the world and of human experience [compressing] them into a single form."[190] The concepts of Brahman, the Ultimate Reality from which everything arises, and Ātman, the essence of the individual, are central ideas in the Upanishads,[191][192] and knowing the correspondence between Ātman and Brahman as "the fundamental principle which shapes the world" permits the creation of an integrative vision of the whole.[190][192] The Upanishads are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought and its diverse traditions,[43][193] and of the Vedic corpus, they alone are widely known, and the central ideas of the Upanishads have influenced the diverse traditions of Hinduism.[43][194]
Aranyakas are sometimes identified as karma-kanda (ritualistic section), while the Upanishads are identified as jnana-kanda (spirituality section).[48][49][50][note 5] In an alternate classification, the early part of Vedas are called Samhitas and the commentary are called the Brahmanas which together are identified as the ceremonial karma-kanda, while Aranyakas and Upanishads are referred to as the jnana-kanda.[51]
The Vedangas developed towards the end of the vedic period, around or after the middle of the 1st millennium BCE. These auxiliary fields of Vedic studies emerged because the language of the Vedas,[195] composed centuries earlier, became too archaic to the people of that time.[196] The Vedangas were sciences that focused on helping understand and interpret the Vedas that had been composed many centuries earlier.[196]
The six subjects of Vedanga are phonetics (Śikṣā), poetic meter (Chandas), grammar (Vyākaraṇa), etymology and linguistics (Nirukta), rituals and rites of passage (Kalpa), time keeping and astronomy (Jyotiṣa).[197][198][199]
Vedangas developed as ancillary studies for the Vedas, but its insights into meters, structure of sound and language, grammar, linguistic analysis and other subjects influenced post-Vedic studies, arts, culture and various schools of Hindu philosophy.[200][201][202] The Kalpa Vedanga studies, for example, gave rise to the Dharma-sutras, which later expanded into Dharma-shastras.[196][203]
Pariśiṣṭa "supplement, appendix" is the term applied to various ancillary works of Vedic literature, dealing mainly with details of ritual and elaborations of the texts logically and chronologically prior to them: the Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Sutras. Naturally classified with the Veda to which each pertains, Parisista works exist for each of the four Vedas. However, only the literature associated with the Atharvaveda is extensive.
The Āśvalāyana Gṛhya Pariśiṣṭa is a very late text associated with the Rigveda canon.
The Gobhila Gṛhya Pariśiṣṭa is a short metrical text of two chapters, with 113 and 95 verses respectively.
The Kātiya Pariśiṣṭas, ascribed to Kātyāyana, consist of 18 works enumerated self-referentially in the fifth of the series (the Caraṇavyūha) and the Kātyāyana Śrauta Sūtra Pariśiṣṭa.
The KṛṣṇaYajurveda has 3 parisistas The Āpastamba Hautra Pariśiṣṭa, which is also found as the second praśna of the Satyasāḍha Śrauta Sūtra', the Vārāha Śrauta Sūtra Pariśiṣṭa
For the Atharvaveda, there are 79 works, collected as 72 distinctly named parisistas.[204]
The term upaveda ("applied knowledge") is used in traditional literature to designate the subjects of certain technical works.[205][206] Lists of what subjects are included in this class differ among sources.
The Charanavyuha mentions four Upavedas:[207]
Let drama and dance (Nātya, नाट्य) be the fifth vedic scripture. Combined with an epic story, tending to virtue, wealth, joy and spiritual freedom, it must contain the significance of every scripture, and forward every art. Thus, from all the Vedas, Brahma framed the Nātya Veda. From the Rig Veda he drew forth the words, from the Sama Veda the melody, from the Yajur Veda gesture, and from the Atharva Veda the sentiment.
— First chapter of Nātyaśāstra, Abhinaya Darpana [213][214]
"Divya Prabandha", for example Tiruvaymoli, is a term for canonical Tamil texts considered as Vernacular Veda by some South Indian Hindus.[215][216]
The Puranas is a vast genre of encyclopedic Indian literature about a wide range of topics particularly myths, legends and other traditional lore.[218] Several of these texts are named after major Hindu deities such as Vishnu, Shiva and Devi.[219][220] There are 18 Maha Puranas (Great Puranas) and 18 Upa Puranas (Minor Puranas), with over 400,000 verses.[218]
The Puranas have been influential in the Hindu culture.[221][222] They are considered Vaidika (congruent with Vedic literature).[223] The Bhagavata Purana has been among the most celebrated and popular text in the Puranic genre, and is of non-dualistic tenor.[224][225] The Puranic literature wove with the Bhakti movement in India, and both Dvaita and Advaita scholars have commented on the underlying Vedanta themes in the Maha Puranas.[226]
Vedas finds its earliest literary mention in the Sangam literature dated to the 5th century BCE. The Vedas were read by almost every caste in ancient Tamil Nadu. An Indian historian, archaeologist and epigraphist named Ramachandran Nagaswamy mentions that Tamil Nadu was a land of Vedas and a place where everyone knew the Vedas.[227] The Vedas are also considered as a text filled with deep meaning which can be understood only by scholars.[228] The Purananuru mentions that the ancestors of Velir kings where born from the Sacred fire of a Northern sage[229] and the Paṭṭiṉappālai mentions that the four Vedas were chanted by the priests of Ancient Tamilakam,[230] this shows chanting of Vedas and growing sacred fires are part of the Tamil culture.
Vedas are called Maṛai or Vaymoli in parts of South India. Marai literally means "hidden, a secret, mystery". Perumpāṇāṟṟuppaṭai mentions a yupa post (a form of Vedic altar) in the Brahmin village.[231] Vedas are recited by these Brahmins, and even their parrots are mentioned in the poem as those who sing the Vedic hymns. People in these Vedic villages did not eat meat, nor raise fowls. They ate rice, salad leaves boiled in ghee, pickles and vegetables.[232][233] Apart from the Sanskrit Vedas there are other texts like Naalayira Divya Prabandham and Tevaram called as Tamil Veda and Dravida Veda.[234][215]
The various Hindu sects and Indian philosophies have taken differing positions on the authority of the Vedas. Schools of Indian philosophy which acknowledge the authority of the Vedas are classified as "orthodox" (āstika).[note 23] Other śramaṇa traditions, such as Charvaka, Ajivika, Buddhism and Jainism, which did not regard the Vedas as authorities, are referred to as "heterodox" or "non-orthodox" (nāstika) schools.[15][27]
Certain traditions which are often seen as being part of Hinduism also rejected the Vedas. For example, authors of the tantric Vaishnava Sahajiya tradition, like Siddha Mukundadeva, rejected the Vedas' authority.[236] Likewise, some tantric Shaiva Agamas reject the Vedas. The Anandabhairava-tantra for example, states that "the wise man should not elect as his authority the word of the Vedas, which is full of impurity, produces but scanty and transitory fruits and is limited."[237]
Though many religious Hindus implicitly acknowledge the authority of the Vedas, this acknowledgment is often "no more than a declaration that someone considers himself [or herself] a Hindu,"[238][note 24] and "most Indians today pay lip service to the Veda and have no regard for the contents of the text."[239] Some Hindus challenge the authority of the Vedas, thereby implicitly acknowledging its importance to the history of Hinduism, states Lipner.[240]
The study of Sanskrit in the West began in the 17th century. In the early 19th century, Arthur Schopenhauer drew attention to Vedic texts, specifically the Upanishads. The importance of Vedic Sanskrit for Indo-European studies was also recognized in the early 19th century. English translations of the Samhitas were published in the later 19th century, in the Sacred Books of the East series edited by Müller between 1879 and 1910.[244]Ralph T. H. Griffith also presented English translations of the four Samhitas, published 1889 to 1899.
^ abcdefIt is certain that the hymns of the Rig Veda post-date Indo-Iranian separation of ca. 2000 BCE and probably that of the relevant Mitanni documents of c. 1400 BCE. The oldest available text is estimated to be from 1200 BCE. Philological estimates tend to date the bulk of the text to the second half of the second millennium:
Max Müller: "the hymns of the Rig-Veda are said to date from 1500 B.C."[246]
Thomas Oberlies (Die Religion des Rgveda, 1998, p. 158) based on 'cumulative evidence' sets a wide range of 1700–1100 BCE.[62]Oberlies 1998, p. 155 gives an estimate of 1100 BCE for the youngest hymns in book 10.[247]
Witzel 1995, p. 4 mentions c. 1500–1200 BCE. According to Witzel 1997, p. 263, the whole Rig Vedic period may have lasted from c. 1900 BCE to c. 1200 BCE: "the bulk of the RV represents only 5 or 6 generations of kings (and of the contemporary poets)24 of the Pūru and Bharata tribes. It contains little else before and after this “snapshot” view of contemporary Rgvedic history, as reported by these contemporary “tape recordings.” On the other hand, the whole Rgvedic period may have lasted even up to 700 years, from the infiltration of the Indo-Aryans into the subcontinent, c. 1900 B.C. (at the utmost, the time of collapse of the Indus civilization), up to c. 1200 B.C., the time of the introduction of iron which is first mentioned in the clearly post-vedic hymns of the Atharvaveda."
^Elisa Freschi (2012): "The Vedas are not deontic authorities in absolute sense and may be disobeyed, but are recognized as a deontological epistemic authority by a Hindu orthodox school."Freschi 2012, p. 62 This differentiation between epistemic and deontic authority is true for all Indian religions.
^For a table of all Vedic texts see Witzel 2003, pp. 100–101.
^The Vedic Sanskrit corpus is incorporated in A Vedic Word Concordance (Vaidika-Padānukrama-Koṣa) prepared from 1930 under Vishva Bandhu, and published in five volumes in 1935–1965. Its scope extends to about 400 texts, including the entire Vedic Sanskrit corpus besides some "sub-Vedic" texts. Volume I: Samhitas, Volume II: Brahmanas and Aranyakas, Volume III: Upanishads, Volume IV: Vedangas; A revised edition, extending to about 1800 pages, was published in 1973–1976.
^ abEdward Roer (Translator), Shankara's Introduction at Google Books to Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad at pp. 1–5: "The Vedas are divided in two parts, the first is the karma-kanda, the ceremonial part, also (called) purva-kanda, and treats on ceremonies; the second part is the jnana kanda, the part which contains knowledge, also named uttara-kanda or posterior part, and unfolds the knowledge of Brahma or the universal soul."
^"As a skilled craftsman makes a car, a singer I, Mighty One! this hymn for thee have fashioned. If thou, O Agni, God, accept it gladly, may we obtain thereby the heavenly Waters". – Rigveda 5.2.11, Translated by Ralph T.H. Griffith[53]
^Gavin Flood sums up mainstream estimates, according to which the Rigveda was compiled from as early as 1500 BCE over a period of several centuries.[2]
^Broo 2016, p. 92 quotes Harold G. Coward and K. Kunjunni Raja.
^Of the complete Veda, by pāțha-śālā (priestly schools), as distinguished from the transmission in the pūjā, the daily services.[72]
^Several authors refer to the Chinese Buddhist Monk I-Tsing, who visited India in the 7th century to retrieve Buddhist texts and gave examples of mnemonic techniques used in India:[77] "In India there are two traditional ways in which one can attain great intellectual power. Firstly by repeatedly committing to memory the intellect is developed; secondly the alphabet fixes (to) one's ideas. By this way, after a practice of ten days or a month, a student feels his thoughts rise like a fountain, and can commit to memory whatever he has heard once."[78][77]
^Staal: [this tradition of oral transmission is] "by far the more remarkable [than the relatively recent tradition of written transmission], not merely because it is characteristically Indian and unlike anything we find elsewhere, but also because it has led to scientific discoveries that are of enduring interest and from which the contemporary West still has much to learn." Schiffman (2012, p. 171), quoting Staal (1986, p. 27) Staal argued that the ancient Indian grammarians, especially Pāṇini, had completely mastered methods of linguistic theory not rediscovered again until the 1950s and the applications of modern mathematical logic to linguistics by Noam Chomsky. (Chomsky himself has said that the first generative grammar in the modern sense was Panini's grammar).[82] These early Indian methods allowed the construction of discrete, potentially infinite generative systems. Remarkably, these early linguistic systems were codified orally, though writing was then used to develop them in some way. The formal basis for Panini's methods involved the use of "auxiliary" markers, rediscovered in the 1930s by the logician Emil Post.[83]
^ abArtha may also mean "goal, purpose or essence," depending on the context.[122]
^ abKlostermaier 2007, p. 55: "Kautas, a teacher mentioned in the Nirukta by Yāska (ca. 500 BCE), a work devoted to an etymology of Vedic words that were no longer understood by ordinary people, held that the word of the Veda was no longer perceived as meaningful "normal" speech but as a fixed sequence of sounds, whose meaning was obscure beyond recovery."
The tenth through twelfth volumes of the first Prapathaka of the Chandogya Upanishad (800-600 BCE) describe a legend about priests and it criticizes how they go about reciting verses and singing hymns without any idea what they mean or the divine principle they signify.[88]
^According to Holdrege, srotriyas (a group of male Brahmin reciters who are masters of sruti[67]) "frequently do not understand what they recite" when reciting the Samhitas, merely preserving the sound of the text.[86]
^Klostermaier: "Brahman, derived from the root bŗh = to grow, to become great, was originally identical with the Vedic word, that makes people prosper: words were the pricipan means to approach the gods who dwelled in a different sphere. It was not a big step from this notion of "reified speech-act" to that "of the speech-act being looked at implicitly and explicitly as a means to an end." Klostermaier 2007, p. 55 quotes Deshpande 1990, p. 4.
^Coward 2008, p. 114: "For the Mimamsa the ultimate reality is nothing other than the eternal words of the Vedas. They did not accept the existence of a single supreme creator god, who might have composed the Veda. According to the Mimamsa, gods named in the Vedas have no existence apart from the mantras that speak their names. The power of the gods, then, is nothing other than the power of the mantras that name them."
^The early Buddhist texts are also generally believed to be of oral tradition, with the first Pali Canon written many centuries after the death of the Buddha.[93]
^Literally, "the meaning of the Vedas made manifest."
^Mookerji also refers to the Uśanā smriti (81-2), which "states that mastery of mere text of Veda is to be followed up by its meaning" by discussing the Vedanta.[126] where-after they were able to engage in doscourses on the Vedas.[127][92]
^For example, Hymn 1.164.34, "What is the ultimate limit of the earth?", "What is the center of the universe?", "What is the semen of the cosmic horse?", "What is the ultimate source of human speech?" Hymn 1.164.34, "Who gave blood, soul, spirit to the earth?", "How could the unstructured universe give origin to this structured world?" Hymn 1.164.5, "Where does the sun hide in the night?", "Where do gods live?" Hymn 1.164.6, "What, where is the unborn support for the born universe?"; Hymn 1.164.20 (a hymn that is widely cited in the Upanishads as the parable of the Body and the Soul): "Two birds with fair wings, inseparable companions; Have found refuge in the same sheltering tree. One incessantly eats from the fig tree; the other, not eating, just looks on."; Sources: (a) Antonio de Nicholas (2003), Meditations Through the Rig Veda: Four-Dimensional Man, ISBN978-0-595-26925-9, pp. 64–69; Jan Gonda, A History of Indian Literature: Veda and Upanishads, Volume 1, Part 1, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN978-3-447-01603-2, pp. 134–135; Rigveda Book 1, Hymn 164 Wikisource
^Elisa Freschi (2012): "The Vedas are not deontic authorities in absolute sense and may be disobeyed, but are recognized as a deontological epistemic authority by a Hindu orthodox school."[235] This differentiation between epistemic and deontic authority is true for all Indian religions.
^Lipner quotes Brockington (1981), The sacred tread, p.5.
^ abcGavin Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, ISBN978-0-521-43878-0, pp. 35–39
^Bloomfield, M. The Atharvaveda and the Gopatha-Brahmana, (Grundriss der Indo-Arischen Philologie und Altertumskunde II.1.b.) Strassburg 1899; Gonda, J. A history of Indian literature: I.1 Vedic literature (Samhitas and Brahmanas); I.2 The Ritual Sutras. Wiesbaden 1975, 1977
^ abA Bhattacharya (2006), Hindu Dharma: Introduction to Scriptures and Theology, ISBN978-0-595-38455-6, pp. 8–14; George M. Williams (2003), Handbook of Hindu Mythology, Oxford University Press, ISBN978-0-19-533261-2, p. 285
^ abJan Gonda (1975), Vedic Literature: (Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN978-3-447-01603-2
^according to ISKCON, Hindu Sacred TextsArchived 26 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine, "Hindus themselves often use the term to describe anything connected to the Vedas and their corollaries (e.g. Vedic culture)."
^ abcdWendy Doniger (1990), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, ISBN978-0-226-61847-0, pp. 2–3; Quote: "The Upanishads supply the basis of later Hindu philosophy; they alone of the Vedic corpus are widely known and quoted by most well-educated Hindus, and their central ideas have also become a part of the spiritual arsenal of rank-and-file Hindus."
^Wiman Dissanayake (1993), Self as Body in Asian Theory and Practice (Editors: Thomas P. Kasulis et al.), State University of New York Press, ISBN978-0-7914-1080-6, p. 39; Quote: "The Upanishads form the foundations of Hindu philosophical thought and the central theme of the Upanishads is the identity of Atman and Brahman, or the inner self and the cosmic self."; Michael McDowell and Nathan Brown (2009), World Religions, Penguin, ISBN978-1-59257-846-7, pp. 208–210
^Patrick Olivelle (2014), The Early Upanisads, Oxford University Press, ISBN978-0-19-535242-9, p. 3; Quote: "Even though theoretically the whole of vedic corpus is accepted as revealed truth [shruti], in reality it is the Upanishads that have continued to influence the life and thought of the various religious traditions that we have come to call Hindu. Upanishads are the scriptures par excellence of Hinduism".
^Walton, Linda (2015). "Educational institutions" in The Cambridge World History Vol. 5. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 122. ISBN978-0-521-19074-9.
^Sukumar Dutt (1988) [1962]. Buddhist Monks And Monasteries of India: Their History And Contribution To Indian Culture. George Allen and Unwin Ltd, London. ISBN81-208-0498-8. pp. 332–333
^See:
• Sanskrit English Dictionary University of Kloen, Germany (2009)
• Karl Potter (1998), Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 4, ISBN81-208-0310-8, Motilal Banarsidass, pp 610 (note 17)
^Original text translated in English: The Rig Veda, Mandala 10, Hymn 117, Ralph T.H. Griffith (Translator); C Chatterjee (1995), Values in the Indian Ethos: An Overview, Journal of Human Values, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 3–12
^For 1875 total verses, see the numbering given in Ralph T. H. Griffith. Griffith's introduction mentions the recension history for his text. Repetitions may be found by consulting the cross-index in Griffith pp. 491–499.
^Alex Wayman (1997), Untying the Knots in Buddhism, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN978-81-208-1321-2, pp. 52–53
^"The latest of the four Vedas, the Atharva-Veda, is, as we have seen, largely composed of magical texts and charms, but here and there we find cosmological hymns which anticipate the Upanishads, – hymns to Skambha, the 'Support', who is seen as the first principle which is both the material and efficient cause of the universe, to Prāna, the 'Breath of Life', to Vāc, the 'Word', and so on." Zaehner 1966, p. vii.
^Laurie Patton (2004), Veda and Upanishad, in The Hindu World (Editors: Sushil Mittal and Gene Thursby), Routledge, ISBN0-415-21527-7, p. 38
^ abJan Gonda (1975), Vedic Literature: Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas, Vol 1, Fasc. 1, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN978-3-447-01603-2, pp. 277–280, Quote: "It would be incorrect to describe the Atharvaveda Samhita as a collection of magical formulas".
^On magic spells and charms, such as those to gain better health: Atharva Veda 2.32 Bhaishagykni, Charm to secure perfect health Maurice Bloomfield (Translator), Sacred Books of the East, Vol. 42, Oxford University Press; see also chapters 3.11, 3.31, 4.10, 5.30, 19.26; On finding a good husband: Atharva Veda 4.2.36 Strijaratani Maurice Bloomfield (Translator), Sacred Books of the East, Vol. 42, Oxford University Press; Atharvaveda dedicates over 30 chapters to love relationships, sexuality and for conceiving a child, see e.g. chapters 1.14, 2.30, 3.25, 6.60, 6.78, 6.82, 6.130–6.132; On peaceful social and family relationships: Atharva Veda 6.3.30 Maurice Bloomfield (Translator), Sacred Books of the East, Vol. 42, Oxford University Press;
^Kenneth Zysk (1993), Religious Medicine: The History and Evolution of Indian Medicine, Routledge, ISBN978-1-56000-076-1, pp. x–xii
^ abPT Raju (1985), Structural Depths of Indian Thought, State University of New York Press, ISBN978-0-88706-139-4, pp. 35–36
^Wiman Dissanayake (1993), Self as Body in Asian Theory and Practice (Editors: Thomas P. Kasulis et al), State University of New York Press, ISBN978-0-7914-1080-6, p. 39; Quote: "The Upanishads form the foundations of Hindu philosophical thought and the central theme of the Upanishads is the identity of Atman and Brahman, or the inner self and the cosmic self."; Michael McDowell and Nathan Brown (2009), World Religions, Penguin, ISBN978-1-59257-846-7, pp. 208–210
^Patrick Olivelle (2014), The Early Upanisads, Oxford University Press, ISBN978-0-19-535242-9, p. 3; Quote: "Even though theoretically the whole of vedic corpus is accepted as revealed truth [shruti], in reality it is the Upanishads that have continued to influence the life and thought of the various religious traditions that we have come to call Hindu. Upanishads are the scriptures par excellence of Hinduism".
^Coormaraswamy and Duggirala (1917). The Mirror of Gesture. Harvard University Press. pp. 2–4.
^ abJohn Carman (1989), The Tamil Veda: Pillan's Interpretation of the Tiruvaymoli, University of Chicago Press, ISBN978-0-226-09305-5, pp. 259–261
^Vasudha Narayanan (1994), The Vernacular Veda: Revelation, Recitation, and Ritual, University of South Carolina Press, ISBN978-0-87249-965-2, pp. 43, 117–119
^Axel Michaels (2004), Hinduism: Past and Present, Princeton University Press, p.18; see also Julius Lipner (2012), Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, Routledge, p.77; and Brian K. Smith (2008), Hinduism, p.101, in Jacob Neusner (ed.), Sacred Texts and Authority, Wipf and Stock Publishers.
^Muhammad Khalid Masud (2000). Travellers in Faith: Studies of the Tablīghī Jamāʻat as a Transnational Islamic Movement for Faith Renewal. BRILL. p. 50. ISBN978-90-04-11622-1.
^Nagappa 2011, p. 283 ("It is said that the Varna system [...] Sanatan Hindu").
^Müller, Friedrich Max (author) & Stone, Jon R. (author, editor) (2002). The essential Max Müller: on language, mythology, and religion. Illustrated edition. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN978-0-312-29309-3. Source: [1] (accessed: Friday May 7, 2010), p. 44
Anthony, David W. (2007), The Horse The Wheel And Language. How Bronze-Age Riders From the Eurasian Steppes Shaped The Modern World, Princeton University Press
Bartley, Christ (2001), "Shankara", in Leaman, Oliver (ed.), Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy, Routledge, ISBN978-0-4151-7281-3
Bhattacharya, Ashim (2006), Hindu Dharma: Introduction to Scriptures and Theology, iUniverse, ISBN978-0-595-38455-6
Broo, Mans (2016), "Rites of Burial and Immersion: Hindu Ritual practices on Disposing of Sacred Texts in Vrindavan", in Myrvold, Kristina (ed.), The Death of Sacred Texts: Ritual Disposal and Renovation of Texts in World Religions, Routledge
Buswell, Robert E.; Lopez, Donald S. Jr., eds. (2013), "Nālandā", The Princeton dictionary of Buddhism, Princeton: Princeton University Press, ISBN978-1-4008-4805-8
Collins, Randall (2009), The Sociology of Philosophies, Harvard University Press
Filliozat, Pierre-Sylvain (2004), "Ancient Sanskrit Mathematics: An Oral Tradition and a Written Literature", in Chemla, Karine; Cohen, Robert S.; Renn, Jürgen; et al. (eds.), History of Science, History of Text (Boston Series in the Philosophy of Science), Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 137–157, doi:10.1007/1-4020-2321-9_7, ISBN978-1-4020-2320-0
Freschi, Elisa (2012), Duty, Language and Exegesis in Prabhakara Mimamsa, Brill, ISBN978-90-04-22260-1
Galewicz, Cezary (2004), "Changing Canons: What did Sayana think he commented upon", in Balcerowicz, Piotr; Mejor, Marek (eds.), Essays in Indian Philosophy, Religion and Literature, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers
Galewicz, Cezary (2011), "Why Should the Flower of Dharma be Invisible? Sayana's Vision of the Unity of the Veda", in Squarcini, Federico (ed.), Boundaries, Dynamics and Construction of Traditions in South Asia, Anthem Press
Goody (1987), The interface between the written and the oral, Cambridge University Press
Griffiths, Paul J. (1999), Religious Reading: The Place of Reading in the Practice of Religion, Oxford University Press
Hexam, Irving (2011), Understanding World Religions: An Interdisciplinary Approach, Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press, ISBN978-0-310-31448-6
Holdrege, Barbara A. (1995), Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture, SUNY Press, ISBN978-0-7914-1640-2
Holdrege, Barbara A. (1996), Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture, SUNY Press, ISBN978-0-7914-1639-6
Holdrege, Barbara A. (2012), Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture, SUNY Press, ISBN978-1-4384-0695-4
Holdrege, Barbara A. (2012b), "Veda and Torah: The Word Embodied in scripture", in Goodman, Hananya (ed.), Between Jerusalem and Benares : comparative studies in Judaism and Hinduism, SUNY Press, ISBN978-1-4384-0437-0
Jackson, W.J (2016), Vijayanagara Voices: Exploring South Indian History and Hindu Literature, Routledge
Kumar, Jay (2014), "Ayurveda and Early Indian Medicine", in Johnston, Lucas F.; Bauman, Whitney (eds.), Science and Religion: One Planet, Many Possibilities, Routledge
Klostermaier, Klaus (1994), A Survey of Hinduism (second ed.), State University of New York Press, ISBN978-0-7914-2109-3
Klostermaier, Klaus (2007), A Survey of Hinduism (third ed.), State University of New York Press, ISBN978-0-7914-7082-4
Knapp, Stephen (2005), The Heart of Hinduism: The Eastern Path to Freedom, Empowerment and Illumination, iUniverse, ISBN978-0-595-35075-9
MacDonell, Arthur Anthony (2004). A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN978-81-208-2000-5.
Mahadevan, T.M.P (1952), Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan; Ardeshir Ruttonji Wadia; Dhirendra Mohan Datta (eds.), History of Philosophy, Eastern and Western, George Allen & Unwin, OCLC929704391
Michaels, Axel (2004), Hinduism: Past and Present, Princeton University Press, ISBN978-0-691-08953-9
Olson, David R.; Cole, Michael (2013), Technology, Literacy, and the Evolution of Society: Implications of the Work of Jack Goody, Psychology Press
Pollock, Sheldon (2011), Squarcini, Federico (ed.), Boundaries, Dynamics and Construction of Traditions in South Asia, Anthem, ISBN978-0-85728-430-3
Prasad, Leela (2007), Poetics of conduct : oral narrative and moral being in a South Indian town, New York: Columbia University Press, ISBN978-0-231-13921-2
Prasad, R.U.S. (2020), The Rig-Vedic and Post-Rig-Vedic Polity (1500 BCE-500 BCE), Vernon Press
Rath, Saraju (2012), Aspects of Manuscript Culture in South India, Leiden: Brill, ISBN978-90-04-21900-7
Scharfe, Hartmut (2002), Handbook of Oriental Studies, Brill Academic, ISBN978-90-04-12556-8
Schiffman, Harold (2012), Linguistic Culture and Language Policy, Routledge
Sharma, D. (2011), Classical Indian Philosophy: A Reader, Columbia University Press
Singh, Upinder (2008), A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century, Pearson Education India
Staal, Frits (1986), The Fidelity of Oral Tradition and the Origins of Science, Mededelingen der Koninklijke Nederlandse Academie voor Wetenschappen, North Holland Publishing Company
Smith, Brian K. (1992), "Canonical Authority and Social Classification: Veda and 'Varṇa' in Ancient Indian Texts", History of Religions, 32 (2): 103–125, doi:10.1086/463320, JSTOR1062753, S2CID162276531
Gonda, J. (1975), Vedic Literature: Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas, vol. 1, Veda and Upanishads, Wiesnaden: Harrassowitz: A History of Indian literature, ISBN978-3-447-01603-2.
Santucci, J.A. (1976), "An Outline of Vedic Literature", Scholars Press for the American Academy of Religion.
Shrava, S. (1977), A Comprehensive History of Vedic Literature – Brahmana and Aranyaka Works, Pranava Prakashan.
Bandhu, Vishva; Dev, Bhim (1963), Bhaskaran Nair, S. (ed.), Vaidika-Padānukrama-Koṣa: A Vedic Word-Concordance, Hoshiarpur: Vishveshvaranand Vedic Research Institute.
Griffiths, Arlo (2004), Houben, Jan E.M. (ed.), The Vedas : texts, language & ritual: proceedings of the Third International Vedic Workshop, Leiden 2002, Groningen : Forsten: Groningen Oriental Studies 20, ISBN90-6980-149-3.
