<1> Indo-European Roots **-ā-** (Oldest form *-eh-, colored to *-ahr-, contracted to *-ā-. Also appears as *-a, from zero-grade *-h2 especially in composite forms *-ya and *-wa.) Suffix forming abstract or collective nouns, and marking the feminine gender in most adjectives ending in *-o-. It ultimately appears in the following English suffixes: a. cy, from Latin -tia, abstract suffix (<*-ti-ā; *-ti-, abstract suffix, see -ti-); b. (i) -BRY, -Y², from Latin -ia, abstract suffix; (ii) -IA¹, from Greek -ia, abstract suffix. Both (i) and (ii) from Indo-European compound abstract suffix *-id-; C. -ESS, from Greek -issa, feminine suffix (not productive until Late Greek), from composite suffix *-ikya. [Not in Pokorny.] **ab(e)l-** Apple. 1. APPLE, from Old English æppel. 2. DAPPLE-GRAY, from Old Norse *apall, apple (in apalgrăr, dapple-gray). Both 1 and 2 from Germanic *ap(a)laz. [Pokorny abel- 1.] **ad-** To, near, at. 1a. AT1; ATONE, TWIT, from Old English æt, near, by, at; b. ADO, from Old Norse at. Both a and b from Germanic *at. 2. AD-, -AD; ADJUVANT, AID, AMOUNT, PARAMOUNT, from Latin ad, ad-, to, toward. 3. Celtic *ad-, to, at, in compounds (see bher-1, sed-1). 4. Suffixed zero-grade form *ad-ilo-. a. TILL?; UNTIL, from Old Norse til, to, toward, from Germanic noun *tilam, end, limit, goal (compare Old High German noun zil, end, goal). b. TILL¹, from Old English tilian, to strive, work, from denominative Germanic verb *tilöjan, *tilējan, from *tilam (see above). [Pokorny 1. ad-3.] **adheso-** Adze, possibly a culture word circulating in late Proto-Indo-European dialectal times. ADZE, from Old English adesa. [Not in Pokorny; compare Hittite ates-, a kind of ax.] **ag-¹** To drive, draw, move. (Oldest form *h₁ag-.) 1а. ACT, ACTIVE, ACTOR, ACTUAL, ACTUARY, ACTUATE, AGENDUM, AGENT, AGILE, AGITATE; ALLEGE, AMBAGE, AMBIGUOUS, ASSAY, CACHE, COAGULUM, COGENT, ESSAY, EXACT, EXACTA, EXAMINE, EXIGENT, EXIGUOUS, INTRANSIGENT, REDACT, RETROACTIVE, SQUAT, TRANSACT, from Latin agere, to do, act, drive, conduct, lead, weigh. b. also from this root, when used as the second member of compound nouns, is Latin denominative and deadjectival suffix -igāre, abstracted and generalized from such denominative verbs as remigare, to row, derived from remex, remig-, oarsman, compound of remus, oar + *-ag-s, noun suffix: FUMIGATE, FUSTIGATE, LEVIGATE, LITIGATE, NAVIGATE, OBJURGATE, PRODIGAL, VARIEGATE; C. formed in the same manner as the foregoing, although the details are obscure, is the Latin denominative and deadjectival suffix -igare, with lengthening of -i-: CASTIGATE, FATIGABLE, FATIGUE, INDEPATIGABLE, INVESTIGATE. 2. -AGOGUE, AGONY; ANAGOGE, ANTAGONIZE, CHORAGUS, DEMAGOGUE, EPACT, GLUCAGON, HYPNAGOGIC, MYSTAGOGUE, PEDAGOGUE, PROTAGONIST, STRATAGEM, SYNAGOGUE, from Greek agein, to drive, lead, weigh. 3. Suffixed form *ag-to-. AMBASSADOR, EMBASSAGE, EMBASSY, from Latin ambactus, servant, from Celtic *amb(i)-ag-to-, "one who goes around" (*ambi, around; see ambhi). 4. Suffixed form *ag-ti-, whence adjective *ag-ty-o-, "weighty." AXIOM; AXIOLOGY, CHRONAXIE, from Greek axios, worth, worthy, of like value, weighing as much. 5. Possibly suffixed form *ag-ro-, driving, pursuing, grabbing. PELLAGRA, PODAGRA, from Greek agră, a seizing. 6. O-grade suffixed form *og-mo-, furrow, track, metaphorically "incised line." OGHAM, from Old Irish Ogma (from Celtic *Ogmios), name of a Celtic god and traditional inventor of the ogham alphabet. [Pokorny aĝ- 4.] See also derivative agro-. **ag-²** To speak. (Oldest form *h₂eg-, colored to *h₂aĝ-.) Suffixed zero-grade form *ag-yo-. 1. ADAGE, from Latin adagium, saying, proverb, "a speaking to" (ad-, to; see ad-). 2. PRODIGY, from Latin prodigium, a portent, "a foretelling" (prod-, variant of pro-, before; see per¹). [Pokorny ēĝ- 290.] **ag-es-** Fault, guilt. ACHE, from Old English acan, to ache (perhaps < "to cause mental pain"). [Pokorny agos-8.] **agh-**¹ To be depressed, be afraid. 1. Suffixed form *agh-lo-. AIL, from Old English eglan, eglian, to trouble, afflict. 2. Suffixed form *agh-es-. AWE, from Old Norse agi, fright, ultimately from Germanic *agiz-. [Pokorny agh-7.) **agh-²** A day (considered as a span of time). (Oldest form *agh-.) 1. DAY; DAISY, TODAY, from Old English dæg, day. 2. LANDTAG, from Old High German tag, day. 3. DAWN, from Old English denominative dagian, to dawn. 1-3 all from Germanic *dagaz (with initial d- of obscure origin), day. (Pokorny ǎĝher-7.] **agro-** Field. (Oldest form *h₁agro-; probably originally a derivative of *h₁ag-, to drive ["place where cattle are driven"]; see ag-1.) 1. ACRE, from Old English æcer, field, acre, from Germanic *akraz. 2. AGRARIAN; AGRICULTURE, PEREGRINE, PILGRIM, from Latin ager (genitive agri), earlier *agros, district, property, field. 3. AGRIA, AGRO-; AGROSTOLOGY, ONAGER, STAVESACRE, from Greek agros, field, and agrios, wild. [In Pokorny aĝ- 4.] **agw(e)sī-** Ax. Axl, from Old English ex, ax, from Germanic *akusjō-. [Pokorny agu(e)si 9.] **agwh-no-** Lamb. 1. YEAN, from Old English čanian, to bring forth young, from Germanic *aunõn, denominative from *aunaz, lamb. 2. AGNUS DEI, from Latin agnus, lamb. [Pokorny agth-no-s 9.] **ai-**¹ To give, allot. 1. Suffixed extended form *ai-t-yā-. ETIOLOGY, from Greek aitia, cause, responsibility. 2. Suffixed form *ai-ta-. DIET¹, DIET2, from Greek diaitan, to treat. (Pokorny 3. ai- 10.] **ai-²** To burn. (Oldest form *h₂ei-, colored to *h₂ai-.) I. Basic form *ai-. 1. Suffixed form *ai-mo-. EMBER, from Old English amerge, ember, from Germanic compound *aim-uzjon-, ashes, from *aima-, ashes (*uzjō, to burn; see eus-). 2. Probably suffixed form *ai-lo-. ANNEAL, from Old English al, fire, from Germanic *ail- (though this has also been taken from *aidh-lo- with irregular loss of dental, from extended form *aidh- in II below). II. Extended form *ai-dh-. 1. Suffixed form *aidh-sto-. OAST, from Old English āst, kiln, from Germanic *aistaz. 2. Suffixed form *aidh-t-, a. Further suffixed form *aidh-t-o-. ESTIVAL, ESTIVATE, from Latin aestās (syncopated from *aestotās), heat, summer; b. further suffixed form *aidh-t-u-. ESTUARY, from Latin aestus, <2> heat, swell, surge, tide. 3. Suffixed form *aidh-i-. AEDILE; EDIFICE, EDIFY, from Latin aedēs, building, house (< "hearth"). 4. Suffixed form *aidh-er-. AETHER, ETHER, from Greek aither, air. 5. Suffixed form *aidh-nā-. ETNA, from Latin Aetna, borrowed from a form *aith-na ("the fiery one") in an indigenous language of Sicily. [Pokorny ai-dh-11.] **aig-** Goat. (Oldest form *aig-.) ABGIS, from Greek aigis, goatskin (emblem of Athena), from aix, goat. [Pokorny aiĝ-, 3. aig- 13.] **aik-**¹ To be master of, possess. (Oldest form *h₂eik-, colored to *h₂aik-.) 1. OUGHT¹, OWE, from Old English āgan, to possess, from Germanic *aigan, to possess. 2a. own, from Old English agen, one's own. a. EIGENSTATE, EIGENVALUE, EIGENVECTOR, from Old High German eigan, one's own. Both a and b from Germanic participial form *aigana-, possessed, owned. 3. FRAUGHT, FREIGHT, from Middle Low German and Middle Dutch vrecht, vracht, "earnings,” hire for a ship, freight, from Germanic prefixed form *fra-aihtiz, absolute possession, property (*fra-, intensive prefix; see per¹). 4. Reduplicated zero-grade (perfect) form *ae-aik-, remade to *ai-aik- (> *ik-). GANESH, from Sanskrit işțe, he rules over. (Pokorny ēik- 298.] **aik-**² To strike. (Oldest form *h₂eik-, colored to *h₂aik- (see in Greek aikhme, spear), with reduplicated zero stem h₂i-hzik-, becomin *ik-). ICTUS, from Latin icere, to strike. [Pokorny đik- 15.] **aim-** Copy. (Oldest form *h₂eim-, colored to *h₂aim-.) 1. Suffixed full-grade form *aim-olo-. EMULATE, EMULOUS, from Latin aemulus, emulous. 2. Zero-grade form *aim-. a. IMITATE; INIMITABLE, from Latin imitāre, to imitate, from suffixed form *im-eto-; b. IMAGE, IMAGINE, IMAGO, from Latin imāgō, image. [Not in Pokorny; compare Hittite himma-, ritual substitute.] **ais-** To wish, desire. (Oldest form *heis-, colored to *h₂ais-.) Suffixed form *ais-sk-. ASK, from Old English āscian, acsian, to ask, seek, from Germanic *aiskōn. [Pokorny 1. ais- 16.] **aiw-** Also ayu-. Vital force, life, long life, eternity; also "endowed with the acme of vital force, young." (Oldest forms *heiw-, *h₂eyu-, colored to *h₂aiw-, *h₂ayu-.) 1a. NO¹, from Old English ā, ever; b. AUGHT¹, from Old English awiht, auht, anything, "ever a creature"; с. EVER; EVERY, NEVER, from Old English æfre (second element obscure), ever; d. AYE2; NAY, from Old Norse ei, ever. a, c, and d all from extended Germanic form *aiwi; b from Germanic *aiwi + *wihti, "ever a thing, anything" (*wihti-, thing; see wekti-). 2. Suffixed form *aiw-ā-. ECHT, from Middle Low German echte, true, legitimate, akin to Old High German čohaft, according to custom, from éohaft, from ewa, custom, right (< "what is eternal, what endures") + -haft, having, possessing (see kap-). 3a. Suffixed form *aiw-o-. COEVAL, LONGEVITY, MEDIEVAL, PRIMEVAL, from Latin aevum, age, eternity; b. further suffixed form *aiwo-tă(ti)-. AGE; COETANEOUS, from Latin aetās (stem aetati-), age; c. further suffixed form *aiwo-t-erno-. ETERNAL, ETERNE, ETERNITY; SEMPITERNAL, from Latin aeternus, eternal. 4. Suffixed form *aiw-en-. EON, from Greek aiōn, age, vital force. 5. Zero-grade form "yu- (earlier *ayu-) in compound *ayu-gia-es-, "having a vigorous life" (*gia-es-, life; see geia-1). HYGIENE, from Greek hugiēs, healthy. 6. 0-grade form *oyu- (earlier *h₂oyu-). a. UTOPIA, from Greek ou, not, variant of ouk, probably from a pre-Greek phrase *(ne) oyu (k"id), "(not on your) life" (*ne, not, and *k"id, indefinite pronoun used as emphasizing particle; see ne and kwo-); b. AYURVEDA, from Sanskrit āyuḥ, life, health, from suffixed form *oyu-s-. [Pokorny aiu- 17.] See also derivative yeu-. Language and Culture Note Most of the derivatives of the root aiw- have to do with its primary meaning "vital force, life everlasting, eternity." Thus for example Sanskrit has a noun, ayu, with exactly that meaning, which goes back to an Indo-European noun *oyu, "life everlasting"; and the zero-grade of this noun, *yu-, could form an adjective, *yu-aon-, "having life force, youthful, that is the source of Latin iuvenis and English young (see yeu-). However, the direct Greek descendant of *oyu is very unexpected- the conjunction ouk(i) or ou, "not" (a word ultimately showing up in English utopia). To understand how a word for "life everlasting" came to mean "not" one must imagine a pre-Greek colloquial phrase *ne oyu kid, meaning roughly "not on your life, not ever" (with *ne, "not," and *k*id, an intensifying particle). Essentially, *oyu kwid just strengthened the force of the negative *ne. In the histories of many languages, words that are used to strengthen negative expressions often come to be understood as having negative force themselves; and when this happens, the original negative word may be dropped as superfluous. This is precisely what happened with *ne oyu kwid: the literal meaning of the phrase *oyu kid was lost and it was reinterpreted as simply meaning "not." The *ne was then dropped, and after various sound changes had run their course in the prehistory of Greek, *oyu kid became ouk(i) or ou. In modern French, the word pas "not" has a very similar history: it originated in the phrase ne...pas, which once meant "not a step," that is, "not at all, with pas strengthening the negative word ne. Eventually pas became interpreted as a negative itself, as in the phrase pas mal, "not bad." **ak-** Sharp. (Oldest form *h₂ek-, colored to *h₂ak-.) 1. Suffixed form *ak-yā-. a. EDGE; SELVAGE, from Old English ecg, sharp side, from Germanic *agjo; b. EGG2, from Old Norse eggja, to incite, goad, from Germanic *agjan. 2. Suffixed form *ak-u-. a. EAR2, from Old English æhher, ear, spike, ear of grain, from Germanic *ahuz-; b. ACICULA, ACUITY, ACULEATE, ACUMEN, ACUPUNCTURE, ACUTE, AGLET, AGUE, EGLANTINE, from Latin acus, needle; C. ACEROSE, from Latin acus, chaff. 3. Suffixed form *ak-i-. ACIDANTHERA, from Greek akis, needle. 4. Suffixed form *ak-men-, stone, sharp stone used as a tool, with metathetic variant *ka-men-, with variants: a. *ka-mer-. (i) HAMMER, from Old English hamor, hammer; (ii) HAMERKOP, from Middle Dutch hamer, hammer. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *hamaraz, hammer. b. *ke-men- (probable variant). HEAVEN, from Old English heofon, hefn, heaven, from Germanic *hibin-, "the stony vault of heaven," dissimilated form of *himin-. 5. Suffixed form *ak-ona-, independently created in: a. AWN, from Old Norse ögn, ear of grain, and Old English agen, ear of grain, from Germanic *aganō; and b. PARAGON, from Greek akone, whetstone. 6. Perhaps suffixed form *ak-en-i- (although the details of the formation remain obscure). ANACONDA, from Sanskrit aśanih, missile, thunderbolt. 7. Suffixed lengthened form *āk-ri-. ACERATE, ACRID, ACRIMONY, EAGER¹; CARVACROL, VINEGAR, from Latin ācer, sharp, bitter. 8. Suffixed form *ak-ri- (in further suffixed Proto-Italic form akritho-, although the details of the formation are obscure): ACERBIC, EXACERBATE, from Latin acerbus, bitter, sharp, tart. 9. Suffixed (stative) form *ak-é-. ACID, from Latin acere, to be sharp. 10. Suffixed form *ak-eto-. ACETABULUM, ACETIC, ACETUM; ESTER, from Latin acētum, vinegar. 11. Suffixed form *ak-mā-. ACME, ACNE, from Greek akmē, point. 12. Suffixed form *ak-ro-. ACRO-; ACROBAT, ACROMION, from Greek akros, topmost. 13. Perhaps suffixed form *ak-t- in Greek aktīs (stem aktīn-), ray; see nekw-t-. 14. Suffixed o-grade form *ok-su-. AMPHIOXUS, OXALIS, OXYGEN, OXYTONE, OXYURIASIS, PAROXYSM, from Greek oxus, sharp, sour. [Pokorny 2. ak- 18, 3. kem- 556.] **aks-** Axis. (Oldest form *aks-.) 1. Suffixed form *aks-lo-. AXLE, from Old Norse öxull, axle, from Germanic <3> *ahsulaz. 2. Suffixed form *aks-i-. a. AXIS; ROTAXANE, from Latin axis, axle, pivot; b. AXILLA, from Latin axilla, armpit (< "axis point of the arm and shoulder"). 3. Suffixed form *aks-lā. AILERON, AISLE, ALA, ALAR, ALARY, ALATE, ALULA; ALIFORM, from Latin āla (< *axla), wing, upper arm (see axilla in 2. b. for semantic transition). 4. Suffixed form *aks-on-. ΑΧΟΝ, AXONEME; AXOPLASM, from Greek axōn, axis. [In Pokorny ağ- 4.] **akw-ā-** Water. 1a. AIT; ISLAND, from Old English ig, ieg, island; b. ORKNEY ISLANDS, from Old Norse Orkneyjar, "seal islands" (orkn, seal), from Old Norse ey, island (also in other place names in -ey such as GUERNSEY, JERSEY); C. SCANDINAVIA, from Latin Scandināvia, name of a large island in northern Europe, earlier Scatināvia (as recorded by Pliny the Elder), perhaps from Germanic compound *Skathinaujo, perhaps to be interpreted as "danger island" (*skathi-, harm; see skēt-), since the Germanic peoples living to the south may have considered the Scandinavian peninsula, bounded on the Atlantic to the west and the Baltic to the east, to be an island. a-c all from Germanic *aujō, "thing on the water," from *agwjō. 2. ETON, from Old English *Eatün (> early Middle English Eitun), "town on the river (Thames)," from ea, water, river, from Germanic *ahwō. 3. AQUA, AQUARELLE, AQUARIUM, AQUATIC, AQUI-, EWER, GOUACHE; AGUA FRESCA, AGUARDIENTE, AQUAMARINE, AQUATINT, AQUAVIT, AQUEDUCT, SEWER¹, from Latin aqua, water. [Pokorny akvā- 23.] **al-**¹ Beyond. (Oldest form probably *h₂el-, colored to *h₂al-.) 1. O-grade form *ol- (earlier *h₂ol-), "beyond," a. Compound forms *ol-se-, *ol-so- (*so-, pronominal stem; see SO-). ALARM, ALERT, ALFRESCO, ALLIGATOR, EL NIÑO, HOOPLA, LAGNIAPPE, LANGUE D'OIL, LARIAT, VOILÀ, from Latin ille (feminine illa, neuter Illud), "yonder," that, from Archaic Latin ollus; b. suffixed forms *ol-s, *ol-tero-. OUTRÉ, ULTERIOR, ULTIMATE, ULTRA-, UTTERANCE?, from Latin uls, *ulter, ultra, beyond. 2. Suffixed form *al-tero-, "other of two." a. ALTER, ALTERCATE, ALTERITY, ALTERNATE, ALTRUISM; SUBALTERN, from Latin alter, other, other of two; b. ADULTERATE, ADULTERINE, ADULTERY, from Latin adulterare, to commit adultery with, pollute, probably from the phrase ad alterum, "(approaching) another (unlawfully)" (ad, to; see ad-); c. variant suffixed form *an-tero-, "other (of two)." OTHER, from Old English ōther, from Germanic *anthara-. 3. Suffixed form *al-eno-. ARANYAKA, from Sanskrit arana-, foreign. 4. Extended form *alyo-, "other of more than two." a. (i) BLSE; ELDRITCH, from Old English el-, elles, else, otherwise, from Germanic *aljaz (with adverbial suffix); (ii) ALSACE, ALSATIA, from Old High German *Alisāzzo, Eli-sāzzo, "inhabitant of the other (bank of the Rhine)" (> Medieval Latin Alisatia, Alsatia > French Alsace), from Germanic *alja-, *ali-, other (Old High German -sāzzo, "one who sits," inhabitant; see sed-1); b. ALIAS, ALIEN; ALIBI, ALIQUOT, HIDALGO, from Latin alius, other of more than two; C. ALLO-; ALLEGORY, ALLELOMORPH, ALLELOPATHY, MORPHALLAXIS, PARALLAX, PARALLEL, TROPHALLAXIS, from Greek allos, other. (Pokorny 1. al- 24, 2. an 37.] **al-**² To wander. 1. Compound *ambh(i)-al-a- (see ambhi). 2. EXILE, from Latin exsul, exul, wanderer, exile (ex-, out; see eghs). [Pokorny 3. dl- 27.] **al-**³ To grow, nourish. I. Suffixed (participial) form *al-to-, "grown." 1a. ALDERMAN, OLD, from Old English eald, ald, old; b. ELDRED (personal name), from Old English Ealdred, "old in counsel" (-red, from red, counsel; see rē-); c. ELDER', from Old English (comparative) ieldra, eldra, older, elder; d. ELDEST, from Old English (superlative) ieldesta, eldesta, eldest; e. Germanic compound *wer-ald-, "age of man" (see wi-ro-). a-e all from Germanic *alda-. 2. ALT, ALTO, HAUGHTY, HAWSER; ALTIMETER, ALTIPLANO, ALTITUDE, ALTOCUMULUS, ALTOSTRATUS, ENHANCE, EXALT, HAUTBOY, from Latin altus, high ("grown tall"), deep. II. Suffixed form *al-mo-. ALMA MATER, from Latin almus, nurturing, nourishing. III. Suffixed form *al-o-. ADOLESCENT, ADULT, ALIBLE, ALIMENT, ALIMONY, ALTRICIAL, ALUMNUS; COALESCE, from Latin alere, to nourish, and alumnus, fosterling, step-child, originally a participle of alere ("being nourished," < *al-o-mno-). IV. Suffixed (causative) form *ol-eye-. ABOLISH, from Latin abolère, to retard the growth of, abolish (ab-, from; see apo-). V. Compound form *pro-al- (pro-, forth; see per¹). PROLETARIAN, PROLIFEROUS, PROLIFIC, from Latin prōlēs, offspring. VI. Extended form *aldh-. ALTHEA, from Greek althein, althainein, to get well. [Pokorny 2. al- 26.] **al-**⁴ To grind, mill. Suffixed form *al-euro-. ALEURONE, from Greek aleuron, meal, flour. [Pokorny 5. al- 28.] **al-**⁵ All. Germanic and Celtic root. 1. Suffixed form *al-na-. a. ALL; ALBEIT, ALREADY, ALSO, ALTHOUGH, ALWAYS, AS, from Old English all, eall, eal-, al-, all; b. ALTHING, from Old Norse allr, all. Both a and b from Germanic *allaz, 2. Germanic *ala-, all, in compound *Ala-manniz (see man-1). [In Pokorny 1. al- 24.] **albho-** White. 1. Possibly Germanic *albiz, *albaz, elf, if meaning "white ghostly apparition." a. ELF, from Old English ælf, elf, also in such personal names as: (i) ALFRED, from Old English Alfred, "elf counsel" (ræd, counsel; see rē-); (ii) OLIVER, from Old English Elfhere, "elf army" (here, army; see koro-); b. OAF from Old Norse alfr, elf; C. ERL-KING, from Danish elv, elf; d. (i) AUBREY (personal name), from Old High German Alberich (> French Auberi), "ruler of elves" (-rih, -rich, ruler; see reg-1); (ii) OBERON, from Old French Auberon, from a source akin to Old High German Alberich. Both (i) and (ii) from Old High German *alb, elf. 2. ELFIN, from Old English -elfen, elf, possibly from Germanic *albinjō. 3. ABELE, ALB, ALBEDO, ALBESCENT, ALBINO, ALBITE, ALBUM, ALBUMEN, AUBADE, AUBURN; DAUB, from Latin albus, white. [Pokorny albho- 30.] **algwh-** To earn, be worth. Greek, Indo-Iranian, and Hittite root. (Oldest form *h₂eigh-, colored to *h₂algwh-.) 1. ARHAT, from Sanskrit arhati, he is worthy. 2. ALPHEUS (river name), from Greek Alpheus, from alphanein, to yield a return. [Pokorny algsh- 32.] **alu-** In words related to sorcery, magic, possession, and intoxication. Perhaps related to al-2. Suffixed form *alu-t-, ALE, from Old English ealu, from Germanic *aluth-. [Pokorny alu- 33.] **am-** Various nursery words. Latin and Celtic root. 1. AMAH, from Medieval Latin amma, mother. 2. Suffixed form *am-os-. AMORETTO, AMOUR; ENAMOR, PARAMOUR, from Latin amor, love. 3. Suffixed form *am-a-. AMATEUR, AMATIVE, AMATORY; INAMORATA, from Latin amare, to love. 4. AMICABLE, AMIGO, AMITY; ENEMY, INIMICAL, from Latin amicus, friend. 5. AUNT, from Latin amita, aunt. [In Pokorny am(m)a 36.] **ambhi** Also mbhi. Around. Probably derived from *ant-bhi, "from both sides" (see ant-). 1. Reduced form *bhi. a. BY¹; ABAPT, BUT, from Old English bi, bi, be, by; b. BE-, from Old English be-, on all sides, be-, also intensive prefix; C. BELEAGUER, from Middle Dutch bie, by; d. BIVOUAC, from Old High German bi, by, at. a-d all from Germanic *bi, *bi- (intensive prefix). 2а. ЕMBER DAY, from Old English ymbe, around; b. OMBUDSMAN, from Old Norse um(b), about, around; C. UMLAUT, from Old High German umbi, around. a-c all from Germanic *umbi. 3a. AMBI-, from Latin ambi-, around, about; b. ALLEY¹, ALLEY-OOP, AMBULANCE, AMBULATE, ANDANTE; FUNAMBULIST, PERAMBULATE, PREAMBLE, from Latin ambulare, to go about, walk (*ambh(i)-al-a-; *-al-, to <4> wander, go; see al-2). 4. AMPHI-, from Greek amphi, around, about. 5. Celtic *ambi, around, in compound *amb(i)-ag-to- (see ag-1). [Pokorny ambhi 34.] **ambhō** Both. 1. Reduced form *bhō. Both, from Old Norse badhir, both (< *bai thaiz, "both the"; *thaiz, plural third person pronoun; see to-), from Germanic *bā. 2. Full form *ambhō. a. AMBSACE, from Latin ambo, both; b. AMPHOTERIC, from Greek ampho, both. [In Pokorny ambhi 34.] **āmer-** Day. Suffixed form *amer-a-. EPHEMERAL, HEMERALOPIA, HEMEROCALLIS, from Greek hēmeră, day. [Pokorny amer- 35.] **ams-** Black; blackbird (original color meaning found only in Hittite). (Oldest form *h₂ems-, colored to *h₂ams-, with variant [metathesized] form *h₂mes-.) 1. Suffixed form *ams-ol-. OUZBL, from Old English ōsle, blackbird, from West Germanic *amslōn-. 2. Form *(a)mes-. Suffixed forms *mes-ola-, *mes-olo-. MERLE, MERLON, MERLOT, from Latin merula, merulus, merle, blackbird. [Pokorny ames- 35.] **an-**¹ On. I. Extended form *ana. 1a. ON; ACKNOWLEDGE, ALIKE, from Old English an, on, a, on, and prefixed on-; b. ALOFT, AMISS, from Old Norse ā, in, on; c. ANLAGE, ANSCHLUSS, from Old High German ana-, on; d. ONSLAUGHT, from Middle Dutch aen, on. a-d all from Germanic *ana, *ano. 2. ANA2, ANA-, from Greek ana, on, up, at the rate of. II. Variant form *no. NAPRAPATHY, from Old Church Slavonic na, in, on, to, from Slavic *na. [Pokorny 4. an 39.] **an-**² Old woman, ancestor (nursery word). ANILE, from Latin anus, old woman. [Pokorny 1. an- 36.] **an-**³ To pour, draw water. (Oldest form *h₂en-, colored to *h₂an..) Suffixed form *an-tlo-. ANTLIA, from Greek antlos, bilge water, bucket. [In Pokorny 1. sem- 901.] **andh-** Bloom. Suffixed form *andh-es-. ANTHEMION, ANTHER, ANTHESIS, ANTHO-; ACIDANTHERA, AGAPANTHUS, CHRYSANTHEMUM, DIANTHUS, EXANTHEMA, HYDRANTH, MONANTHOUS, STROPHANTHIN, from Greek anthos, flower. [Pokorny andh- 40.] **andho-** Blind, dark. Perhaps suffixed o-grade form *ondh-ro-. UMBEL, UMBRA, UMBRELLA; ADUMBRATE, SOMBER, SOMBRERO, from Latin umbra, shadow. [Pokorny andho-41.] **anǝ-** To breathe. (Oldest form *h₂enh-, colored to *h₂anh.) 1. Suffixed form *ana-mo-. a. ANIMA, ANIMADVERT, ANIMAL, ANIMATE, ANIMATO, ANIMISM, ANIMOSITY, ANIMUS; EQUANIMITY, LONGANIMITY, MAGNANIMOUS, PUSILLANIMOUS, UNANIMOUS, from Latin animus, reason, mind, spirit, and anima, soul, spirit, life, breath; b. ANEMO-, ANEMONE, from Greek anemos, wind. 2. Suffixed form *ana-tyo-. ENID (personal name), from Middle Welsh eneit, soul. [Pokorny 3. an(a)- 38.] **anat-** Duck. (Oldest form *h₂enant-, colored to *h₂anhat-.) 1. SOLAN, from Old Norse önd, duck, from Germanic *anud-. 2. GOOSANDER, perhaps a compound of goose (see ghans-) + -ander, an element of uncertain origin but possibly akin to Old Norse önd and Old High German anut, duck. [Pokorny anət- 41.] **anətā-** Doorjamb. ANTA, from Latin antae (plural), a pair of pillars on the opposite sides of a door. [Pokorny anətā 42.] **[angelos** Messenger. Greek noun, possibly akin to Greek angaros, mounted courier, both from an unknown Oriental source. Sanskrit ajira-, swift, traditional epithet of dutah, messenger, may be relevant. 1. ANGEL, ANGELICA, ANGELUS; ARCHANGEL, EVANGEL, from Greek angelos, messenger. 2. ANGARIA, ANGARY, from Greek angaros, mounted courier.] **angh-** Tight, painfully constricted, painful. (Oldest form *angh.) 1. AGNAIL, HANGNAIL, from Old English ang-nægl, "painful spike (in the flesh), corn, excrescence (nægl, spike; see nogh-), from Germanic *ang-, compressed, hard, painful. 2. Suffixed form *angh- os-. ANGER, from Old Norse angr, sorrow, grief, from Germanic *angaz. 3. Suffixed form *angh-os-ti-, ANGST¹, from Old High German angust, anxiety, from Germanic *angusti-. 4. ANXIOUS, from Latin angere, to strangle, torment. 5. Suffixed form *angh-os-to-. ANGUISH, from Latin angustus, narrow. 6. QUINSY, from Greek ankhein, to squeeze, embrace. 7. ANGINA, from Greek ankhone, a strangling. (Pokorny anĝh- 42.] **angwhi-** See ogwhi-. [Pokorny ang (h)i- 43.] **ank-** Also ang-. To bend. (Oldest forms *h₂enk-, *h₂eng-, colored to *h₂ank-, *h₂ang-.) 1. Suffixed form *ank-ulo-. a. (1) ANGLE¹, from Old English angel, fishhook; (ii) ENGLAND, from Old English Englaland, "land of the Angles," from Engle, the Angles (< the shape of their original homeland, the Angul district of Schleswig); (iii) ANGLE, from Latin Anglī, the Angles. (i) and probably (ii) and (iii) from Germanic *ang-ul-; b. ANKYLOSIS; ANCYLOSTOMIASIS, from Greek anku-los, crooked, bent. 2. ANCHOR, from Greek ankurā, anchor. 3. ANCON, from Greek ankōn, elbow. 4. Suffixed o-grade form *onk-o-. a. UNCINARIA, UNCINATE, UNCUS; UNCIPORM, from Latin uncus, hooked, bent; b. ONCIDIUM; ONCHOCERCIASIS, from Greek onkos, barb, hook. 5. Variant form *ang-. a. ANKLE, from Old English ancleow and Old Norse *ankula, ankle, both from Germanic *ankulaz; b. suffixed form *ang-olo-. ANGLE?, from Latin angulus, angle, corner. [Pokorny 2. ank- 45.] **āno-** Ring. 1. ANUS; ANILINGUS, ANOSCOPE, from Latin ānus, ring, anus. 2. ANNULAR, ANNULET, ANNULUS, from Latin diminutive annulus, ring, signet ring. 3. AGNOLOTTI, from Latin diminutive anellus, little ring, finger ring. [Pokorny ano-47.] **ans-** Loop, handle. ANSATE, from Latin ânsa, handle. [Pokorny ansa 48.] **ansu-** Spirit. (Oldest form *h₂ensu- [colored to *h₂an-su-] or *h₂onsu-; probably a derivative of the verbal root *h₂ens-, to give birth.) 1a. Old English ōs, god, in personal names: (i) OSCAR, from Old English Osgar, "god's spear" (gar, spear; see ghaiso-); (ii) OSWALD, from Old English Osweald, "god's power" (weald, power; see wal-); b. AESIR; ASGARD, from Old Norse āss, god; c. Old High German ans-, god, in personal name Ansehelm (see kel-2). a-c all from Germanic *ansu-. 2. Suffixed zero-grade form *nsu-ro-. AHURA MAZDA, ORMAZD, from Avestan ahura-, spirit, lord, from Indo-Iranian *asuras. [Pokorny ansu-48.] **ant-** Front, forehead. (Oldest form *h₂ent-, colored to *h₂ant-.) I. Inflected form (locative singular) *anti, "against," with derivatives meaning "in front of," "before"; also "end." 1. UN-2; ALONG, from Old English and-, indicating opposition, from Germanic *andi- and *anda-. 2. END, from Old English ende, end, from Germanic *andjaz. 3. ANCIENT, ANTE, ANTE-, ANTERIOR; ADVANCE, ADVANTAGE, VANGUARD, from Latin ante, before, in front of, against. 4. ANTI-; ENANTIOMER, ENANTIOMORPH, from Greek anti, against, and enantios, opposite. 5. Compound form *anti-ako-, "appearing before, having prior aspect" (*ak"-, appearance; see okw-). ANTIC, ANTIQUE, from Latin antiquus, former, antique. 6. Reduced form *ņti-. a. UNTIL, from Old Norse und, until, unto; b. ELOPE, from Middle Dutch ont-, away from. Both a and b from Germanic *und-. 7. Variant form *anto-. VBDANTA, from Sanskrit antah, end. II. Probable inflected form (ablative plural) *ant-bhi, "from both sides," whence *ambhi, around. See ambhi-. [Pokorny ant-s 48.] **ap-**¹ To take, reach. (Oldest form *h₂ep-, colored to *h₂ap-.) 1. APT, APTITUDE, ARTILLERY, ATTITUDE; INEPT, from Latin apere, to attach, join, tie to. 2. ADEPT, <5> from Latin apisci, to attain. 3. APEX, from Latin apex, top, summit (< "something reached"). 4. Prefixed form *ko-ap- (*ko-, together; see kom). CABALETTA, COPULA, COPULATE, COUPLE, from Latin cõpula, bond, tie, link. 5. AMENT, from Latin ammentum, āmentum, thong, strap, perhaps <*ap-mentum, "something tied." [Pokorny 1. ap- 50.] **ap-**² Water. (Oldest form *h₂ep-, colored to *h₂ap-.) 1a. JULEP, from Persian ab, water. b. PUNJAB, from Persian Panjab, "five waters, (land of) five rivers" (panj, five; see penke). Both a and b from Iranian *ap-, water. 2. Zero-grade *ap-. DHIVEHI, from Sanskrit dvipah, island, from earlier *dvi-ap-o-, "having water on two sides" (*dvi-, two; see dwo-). [Pokorny 2. ap- 51.] Language and Culture Note Proto-Indo-European sometimes had two words for the same thing, one of animate gender, and one of inanimate gender. For example, it had two words for "water," ap-2 (animate) and *wod-r (inanimate; see wed-1). The former is reflected for example in Sanskrit āpah, "waters," and the latter in Hittite watar, Greek hudor, and English water. Proto-Indo-European also had two words for "fire," egni- (animate) and paǝwr (inanimate). The former underlies Sanskrit agnih and Latin ignis, and the latter Hittite pahhur, Greek pûr, and English fire. It is believed that the neuter-gender terms referred to water or fire as a substance, while the animate (gendered) terms were used when water or fire was conceived of as an active, living force. **āpero-** Shore. Perhaps a derivative of ap-2. Suffixed form *aper-yo-. EPEIRIC SEA, EPEIROGENY, from Greek ēpeiros, land, mainland, continent. [Pokorny apero- 53.] **apo-** Also ap-. Off, away. 1a. OF, OFF, OFFAL, from Old English of, af, off; b. EBB, from Old English ebba, low tide; C. ABLAUT, from Old High German aba, off, away from; d. AFT; ABAFT, from Old English æftan, behind, from Germanic *aftan-. ad all from Germanic *af. 2. AB-1, from Latin ab, ab-, away from. 3. APO-, from Greek apo, away from, from. 4. Suffixed (comparative) form *ap(o)-tero-. AFTER, from Old English æfter, after, behind, from Germanic *aftar-. 5. Suffixed form *ap-t-is-. EFTSOONS, from Old English eft, again, from Germanic *aftiz. 6. Suffixed form *apu-ko-. AWKWARD, from Old Norse öfugr, turned backward, from Germanic *afuga-. 7. Basic form *apo. Iranian *apa, back, away, after, in (comparative) *apara-, back farther (see dānu-). 8. Possible variant root form *po(s), on, in. a. POGROM, from Russian po, at, by, next to; b. POST-, POSTERIOR; POSTMORTEM, PREPOSTEROUS, PUISNE, PUNY, from Latin post, behind, back, afterward; c. APPOSITE, APPOSITION, APROPOS, COMPONENT, COMPOSE, COMPOSITE, COMPOSITION, COMPOST, COMPOTE, COMPOUND¹, CONTRAPPOSTO, DEPONE, DEPOSIT, DISPOSE, EXPONENT, EXPOSE, EXPOUND, IMPOSE, IMPOST¹, IMPOST2, INTERPOSE, JUXTAPOSE, OPPOSE, POSITION, POSITIVE, POST2, POST³, POSTICHE, POSTURE, PREPOSITION¹, PROPOSE, PROVOST, PUNT³, REPOSIT, SUPPOSE, TRANSPOSE, from Latinpōnere, to put, place, from *po-s(i)nere (sinere, to leave, let; of obscure origin). (Pokorny apo- 53.] **apsā-** Aspen. ASPEN, from Old English æspe, aspen, from Germanic *aspōn-. [Pokorny apsā 55.] **ar-** To fit together. (Oldest form *h₂ar-.) 1. Suffixed form *ar-mo-. a. ARM¹, from Old English earm, arm, from Germanic *armaz; b. AMBRY, ARM, ARMADA, ARMADILLO, ARMATURE, ARMOIRE, ARMY; ALARM, DISARM, GENDARME, from Latin arma, tools, arms; c. ARMILLARY SPHERE, from Latin armus, upper arm. 2. Suffixed form *ar-smo-. HARMONY, from Greek harmos, joint, shoulder. 3. Suffixed form *ar-ti-. a. ART¹, ARTISAN, ARTIST; INERT, INERTIA, from Latin ars (stem art-), art, skill, craft; b. further suffixed form *ar-ti-o-. ARTIODACTYL, from Greek artios, fitting, even. 4. Suffixed form *ar-tu-. ARTICLE, from Latin artus, joint. 5. Suffixed form *ar-to-. COARCTATE, from Latin artus, tight. 6. Suffixed form *ar-dhro-. ARTHRO-; ANARTHROUS, DIARTHROSIS, DYSARTHRIA, ENARTHROSIS, SYN- ARTHROSIS, from Greek arthron, joint. 7. Suffixed (superlative) form *ar-isto-. ARISTOCRACY, from Greek aristos, best (< "most fitting"). [Pokorny 1. ar- 55.] **arǝ-** To plow. (Oldest form *h₂erh, colored to *h₂arh-.) ARABLE, from Latin arare, to plow. [Pokorny ar(a)- 62.] **arg-** To shine; white; the shining or white metal, silver. (Oldest form *h₂(e)rg-, colored to *h₂(a)rg-.) 1. Suffixed form *arg-ent-. ARGENT, ARGENTINE, SELEGILINE, from Latin argentum, silver. 2. Suffixed form *arg-i-l(1)-. ARGIL, from Greek argillos, white clay. 3. Suffixed form *arg-u-ro-. LITHARGE, PYRARGYRITE, from Greek arguros, silver. 4. Suffixed form *arg-i-n-. ARGININE, from Greek arginoeis, brilliant, bright-shining. 5. Suffixed form *arg-u-, brilliant, clear. ARGUE, from Latin denominative arguere, to make clear, demonstrate (< *argu-yo-). 6. Further suffixed form *arg-u-no-. ARJUNA, from Sanskrit Arjunah, Arjuna, from arjuna-, white, silvery. 7. Suffixed zero-grade form *arg-ro-, becoming *arg-ro-. AGRIMONY, possibly from Greek argos, white (<*argros). [Pokorny ar(e)-8-64.] **ark-** To hold, contain, guard. (Oldest form *h₂erk-, colored to *h₂ark-.) 1. ARCANE, ARK, from Latin arca, chest, box. 2. COERCE, EXERCISE, from Latin arcere, to enclose, confine, contain, ward off. 3. AUTARKY, from Greek arkein, to ward off, suffice. [Pokorny areq-65.] **[arkhein** To begin, rule, command. Greek verb of unknown origin, but showing archaic Indo-European features like alternation arkh-: o-grade orkh-, with derivatives arkhē, rule, beginning, and arkhos, ruler. ARCH-, -ARCH, ARCHAEO-, ARCHAIC, ARCHI-, ARCHIVE, ARCHON, -ARCHY; AUTARCHY, EXARCH, MENARCHE.] **arku-** Bow and arrow (uncertain which, perhaps both as a unit). 1. ARROW, from Old English ar(e)we, earh, and Old Norse *arw-, arrow, from Germanic *arhwō. 2. ARC, ARCADE, ARCH¹, ARCHER; ARBALEST, ARCHIVOLT, ARCIFORM, ARCUATE, from Latin arcus, bow. [Pokorny arqu- 67.] **[aryo-** Self-designation of the Indo-Iranians. Perhaps a derivative of ar-. 1. ARYAN, from Sanskrit ārya-, patriot. 2. IRAN, from Middle Persian Eran (Šahr), (land) of the Iranians, genitive plural of Er, an Iranian, from Old Persian āriya-, compatriot. [Pokorny ario-67.]] **as-** To burn, glow. (Oldest form *h₂es-, colored to *h₂as-.) 1. Extended form *asg-. a. ASH¹, from Old English æsce, asce, ash. b. POTASSIUM, from Old English æsce, asce, ash, from Middle Dutch asche, ash. Both a and b from Germanic *askōn-, ash. 2. Suffixed form *ās-a-. Ara, from Latin āra, altar, hearth. 3. Suffixed (stative) form *ās-e-. a. ARID, from Latin āridus, dry, parched, from ārēre, to be dry; b. ARDENT, ARDOR, ARSON, from Latin ardere, to burn, be on fire, from aridus, parched. C. CARNE ASADA, from Latin assus, roasted, from *ārs(s)us, a secondary past participle formation (as if *ard-to-) from ardere, to burn. 4. Extended form *asd-. a. ZAMIA, from Greek azein, to dry; b. AZALEA, from Greek azaleos, dry. [Pokorny 45-68.] **[asinus** Ass. Latin noun, akin to Greek onos, ass, probably ultimately from the same source as Sumerian anše, ass. 1. ASININE, ASS¹, BASEL, from Latin asinus, ass. 2. ONAGER, from Greek onos, ass.] **asp-** To cut. (Oldest form *h₂esp-, colored to *h₂asp-.) 1. Suffixed form *asp-ro- or *asp-ero-. ASPERATE, ASPERITY, DIAPER, EXASPERATE, from Latin asper, jagged, rough, harsh. 2. Possibly suffixed form *aspi-d- in Greek aspis, aspid-, shield (< "a cutting, a hide," <6> shields originally being made of hide stretched over a frame), Egyptian cobra (< "snake with a shield-like hood"): ASP, ASPIDISTRA. [Not in Pokorny; compare Hittite hasp-, to cut.] **at-** To go; with Germanic and Latin derivatives meaning a year (conceived as "the period gone through, the revolving year"). Suffixed form *at-no-. ANNALS, ANNUAL, ANNUITY; ANNIVERSARY, BIENNIUM, DECENNIUM, MILLENNIUM, PERENNIAL, QUADRENNIUM, QUINCEAÑERA, QUINDECENNIAL, QUINQUENNIUM, SEPTENNIAL, SEXENNIAL, SUPERANNUATED, TRIENNIUM, VICENNIAL, from Latin annus, year. [Pokorny at-69.] **at-al-** Race, family. Compound root, probably related to Greek atallein, to foster, and to Tocharian A ātäl, man. Compounded from *at(i)-, over, beyond, super-, and al-3, to nourish, but a separate word in Indo-European, perhaps "noble fosterling." 1. ATHELING, from Old English ætheling, prince. 2a. AUDREY (personal name); TAWDRY, from Old English æthelthryth, "noble might" (thryth, might); b. ETHELRED (personal name), from Old English æthelred, "noble counsel" (ræd, counsel; see ré-). Both a and b from Old English æthele, noble. 3. EDELWEISS, from Old High German edili, noble, from Germanic suffixed form *ath(a)l-ja-. 4. Old High German adal, (noble) lineage, in personal names: a. ADELAIDE, ALICE, from Old High German Adalhaid (> Old French Aliz) "nobility" (-heit, -haid, -hood; see (s)kai-1); b. ADOLPH, from Old High German Athalwolf, Adulf, "noble wolf" (wolf, wolf; see wjkwo-). 1-4 all from Germanic *athala-. [In Pokorny atos 71.] **āter-** Fire. 1. Suffixed zero-grade form *atr-o-. ATRA-BILIOUS, from Latin ater (feminine ātra), black (< "blackened by fire"). 2. Suffixed zero-grade form *atr-yo-. ATRIUM, from Latin atrium, forecourt, hall, atrium (perhaps originally the place where the smoke from the hearth escaped through a hole in the roof). 3. Compound shortened zero-grade form *atro-ak"-, "black-looking" (*ak"-, "looking"; see okw-). ATROCIOUS, from Latin atrox, frightful. 4. Basic form *āter; ZIRCON, from Old Persian *atar, fire (stem aç- attested in month name Açiyādiya, "(month) of fire-worship"), from Indo-Iranian *atar: 5. Possibly, but obscurely related to this root is Sanskrit atharvā, atharvan-, priest (-van-, possessive suffix): ATHARVA-VEDA. [Pokorny at(e)r-69.] **atto-** Father (nursery word). Possibly Latin atta, father: ATAVISM. [In Pokorny atos 71.] **au-**¹ Pronominal base appearing in particles and adverbs. 1. Suffixed form *au-ge possibly in Germanic *auke (but this is perhaps better referred to aug-1). EKE2, from Old English eac, *ēc, also. 2. Suffixed form *au-ti. OssIA, from Latin aut, or. [Pokorny 4. au- 73.] **au-**² Off, away. 1. UKASE, from Russian ukazat', to indicate, give orders, from Old Russian u-, away. 2. AVATAR, from Sanskrit ava, off, down. 3. Suffixed form *au-tyo-. a. OTIOSE, from Latin ōtium, spare time, leisure (< "absence of work, being off"), from earlier *autium, with o- for au- influenced by negotium, business (see below). b. NEGOTIATE, from Latin negotium, business, from earlier *neg-autium ("no absence of work"; neg-, not; see ne), from *autium (see above). 4. Perhaps Latin autumnus, autumn (see temǝ-). [Pokorny 3. au- 72.] **au-**³ To weave. (Oldest form *h₂eu-, colored to *h₂au-.) Extended form *wedh- (< earlier *h₂wedh-). 1. WEED², from Old English *wād, *wæde, garment, cloth, from Germanic *wēdā. 2. WATTLE, from Old English watel, watul, wattle, from Germanic *wadlaz. [Pokorny 5. αμ - 75.] **au-**⁴ To perceive. (Oldest form *hau-.) Compound forms *au-dh-, *awis-dh-, "to place perception" (*dh-, to place; see dhē-). 1. Suffixed form *awisdh-yo- or *audh-yo-. AUDIBLE, AUDIENCE, AUDILE, AUDIO-, AUDIT, AUDITION, AUDITOR, AUDITORIUM, AUDITORY, OYEZ; OBEY, SUBAUDITION, from Latin audire, to hear. 2. AESTHETIC; ANESTHESIA, from Greek aisthanesthai, to feel. [Pokorny 8. au- 78.] **aug-**¹ To increase. (Oldest form *h₂eug-, colored to *h₂aug-, with variant [metathesized] form *h₂weg-.) 1. EKE¹, from Old English ēacan, ēcan, to increase; b. NICKNAME, from Old English ēaca, an addition. Both a and b from Germanic *aukan; c. possibly Germanic imperative *auke, "increase, add," perhaps the source of the particle *auke, also (but this is usually referred to au-¹). 2. Variant form *(a) weg-, extended to *wegs- (o-grade *wogs-). a. WAX2; WOODWAXEN, from Old English weaxan, to grow, from Germanic *wahsan; b. WAIST, from Old English *wæst, growth, hence perhaps waist, size, from Germanic *wahs-tu-. 3. Form *aug-e-. AUCTION, AUGEND, AUGMENT, AUTHOR, AUTHORIZE, from Latin augere, to increase. 4. AUGUR; INAUGURATE, from Latin augur, diviner (< "he who obtains favorable presage" < "divine favor, increase"). 5. AUGUST, from Latin augustus, majestic, august. 6. Suffixed form *aug-s-. a. AUXILIARY, from Latin auxilium, aid, support, assistance; b. AUXIN, AUXESIS, from Greek auxein, auxanein, to increase. [Pokorny aueg- 84.] **aug-**² To shine. Suffixed form *aug-a-. AUGITE, from Greek augė, light, ray. [Pokorny aug- 87.] **aukw-** Cooking pot. 1. OVEN, from Old English ofen, furnace, oven, from Germanic *ufna-, from Germanic suffixed form *uhw-na-. 2. Suffixed form *auk-slā-. OLLA, from Latin aulla, olla, olla, pot, jar. [Pokorny auq*(h)-88.] **aulo-** Hole, cavity. 1. Variant (metathesized) form *alwo-. ALVEOLUS, from Latin alvus, belly, stomach. 2. Basic form *aulo-. CAROL, HYDRAULIC, from Greek aulos, pipe, flute, hollow tube. [Pokorny au-lo-s 88.] **aus-**¹ To shine (said especially of the dawn). (Oldest form *haus- or [less likely] *h₂eus- [colored to *h₂aus-]; perhaps an extension of au-4.) 1a. EAST, from Old English east, east (< "the direction of the sunrise"); b. OSTMARK, from Old High German ōstan, east. Both a and b from Germanic *aust-, 2a. EASTERN, from Old English easterne, eastern; b. AUSTRIA, from German Österreich (> New Latin Austria), "eastern kingdom," from Old High German ōstar, eastern; C. OSTROGOTH, from Late Latin ostro-, eastern. ac all from Germanic *austra-. 3. EASTER, from Old English eastre, Easter, from Germanic *austrōn-, dawn. 4. Possibly in Latin auster, the south wind, formally identical to the Germanic forms in 2 and 3, but the semantics are unclear: AUSTRAL, AUSTRO-1. 5. Probably suffixed form *ausōs-, dawn, also Indo-European goddess of the dawn. a. AURORA, from Latin aurōra, dawn; b. BO-, EOS; EOSIN, from Greek ēōs (< *āwōs < *ausōs), dawn. [Pokorny ayes- 86.] **aus-**² Gold. Root found in Latin, Baltic, Tocharian, and possibly Armenian. Connection with aus-¹ likely. Suffixed form *aus-o-. AUREATE, AUREOLE, AURIC; AURIFEROUS, DARIOLE, DORY², EYRIR, MOIDORE, OR³, ÖRE, ORIFLAMME, ORIOLE, ORMOLU, OROIDE, ORPHREY, ORPIMENT, from Latin aurum, gold. [In Pokorny aues-86.] **aus-**³ To draw water. (Oldest form *h₂eus-, colored to *h₂aus-.) Suffixed form *aus-yo-. HAUSTELLUM, HAUSTORIUM; EXHAUST, from Latin haurire, to draw up. [Pokorny aus- 90.] **aus-**⁴ Ear. (Oldest forms *h₂eus-, colored to *h₂aus-, and o-grade *h₂ous-.) 1. Suffixed o-grade form *ous-en-. EAR¹, from Old English eare, ear, from Germanic *auzōn-. 2. Suffixed form *aus-i-. AURAL¹, AURICLE; AURIFORM, ORCHIL, ORMER, from Latin auris, ear. 3. AUSCULTATION, SCOUT¹, from Latin auscultăre, to listen to (< *aus-klit-a-; *aus- + *kli-to-, inclined; see okw-). 4. Oldest form *h₂us- developing in Greek as *aus-, altered to *ous-, after *ok"-, eye. a. Suffixed <7> form *ous-os (appearing as Greek nominative and accusative singular form ous, ear), with further suffixed form *ous-s-nt (with zero-grade of the suffix *-os-), simplified to *ous-nt, becoming *dat-, contracted in Greek to ōt-, stem of ous. OTIC, OTO-; MYOSOTIS, PAROTID GLAND, from Greek ous (stem ōt-), ear. 5. Basic form *ous- in Greek compound *lag-ous- (see slēg-), whence, with accented possessive suffix -o-, *lag-ō-o-, "having floppy ears," becoming Greek lagōs, lagos, hare. [Pokorny 2. ōus- 785.] **awi-** Bird. (Oldest form *h₂ewi-, colored to *h₂awi-.) L. 1. AVIAN, AVIARY, AVIATION; AVICULTURE, AVIPAUNA, BUSTARD, OCARINA, OSPREY, OSTRICH, from Latin avis, bird. 2. Compound *awi-spek-, "observer of birds" (*spek-, to see; see spek-). AUSPICE, from Latin auspex, augur. II. A possible derivative is the Indo-European word for egg, *ōwyo-, *ōyyo- (< suffixed lengthened o-grade form *h₂ōw-yo-). 1a. COCKNEY, from Old English æg, egg; b. EGG¹, from Old Norse egg, egg. Both a and b from Germanic *ajja(m). 2. OVAL, OVARY, OVATE, OVI-, OVOLO, OVULE, OVUM, from Latin ōvum, egg. 3. OO-; AVGOLEMONO, from Greek õion, egg. 4. CAVIAR, from a source akin to Middle Persian khāyak, egg, from Old Iranian *āvyaka-, diminutive of *āvya-, egg. [Pokorny auei- 86, 0(u)i-om 783.] **awo-** An adult male relative other than one's father. 1. ATAVISM, from Latin avus, grandfather. 2. AVUNCULAR, UNCLE, from Latin avunculus, maternal uncle. 3. AYAH, from Latin avia, grandmother. [Pokorny auo-ς 89.] **ayer-** Day, morning. 1a. EARLY, ERE, OR², from Old English ær, before; b. or², from Old Norse år, before. Both a and b from Germanic *airiz. 2. ERST, from Old English ærest, earliest, from Germanic (superlative) *airista-. [Pokorny djer- 12.] **ayes-** A metal, copper or bronze. 1. AENEOUS, ERA, from Latin aes, bronze, money. 2. ESTIMATE, from Latin aestimare, to estimate, perhaps from a denominative verb from a pre-Latin compound *ais-tomos, "one who cuts the bronze," in reference to the pieces cut from metal ingots used as payment (*tomos, a cutting; see term-). [Pokorny ajos- 15.] **badyo-** Yellow, brown. A western Indo-European word. BAY³, from Latin badius, chestnut-brown (used only of horses). (Pokorny badios 92.] **bak-** Staff used for support. 1. Probably Middle Dutch pegge (> Middle English pegge), pin, peg: PEG. 2. BACILLUS, BACULUM, BAGUETTE, BAIL, BAILEY; BACULIFORM, DEBACLE, IMBECILE, from Latin baculum, rod, walking stick. 3. BACTERIUM; CORYNEBACTERIUM, from Greek baktron, staff. (Pokorny bak- 93.] **band-** A drop. Possibly Irish bainne, milk: BONNYCLABBER. [Pokorny band-95.] **[bassus** Low. Late Latin adjective (> Medieval Latin bassus, Old French bas, and Middle English bas), possibly from Oscan. BASE2, BASS2, BASSO; ABASE, BASRELIEF, BASSET HORN, BASSET HOUND, DEBASE.] **[bat-** Yawning. Latin root of unknown origin; probably imitative. 1a. BAY, BEVEL; ABASH, ABEYANCE, from Old French ba(y)er, to yawn, gape; b. BADINAGE, from Provençal badar, to yawn. Both a and b from Latin *batāre, to yawn, gape. 2. BAY, from Old French (a)baiier, to bay, from Vulgar Latin *abbaiāre, possibly from Latin *batāre.] **bel-** Strong. 1. Suffixed o-grade form *bol-iyo-. BOLSHEVIK, from Russian bolshot, large. 2. Prefixed form *de-bel-i-, "without strength" (de-, privative prefix; see de-). DEBILITATE, DEBILITY, from Latin debilis, weak. [Pokorny 2. bel- 96.] **bend-** Protruding point. Possible root, found only Celtic and Germanic. 1. PEN², from Old English penn, pen for cattle, from Germanic *pannja-, "structure of stakes." 2. POND, POUND³; IMPOUND, PINFOLD, from Old English pund- (> Middle English pound) in pund- fald, enclosure for stray animals, possibly from Germanic *pund-. 3. PINTLE, from Old English pintel, penis, from Germanic *pin-. [Pokorny bend- 96.] **beu-** Also bheu-. Probably imitative root, appearing in words loosely associated with the notion "to swell." 1. Basic form *beu-. 1a. Pock, from Old English pocc, pustule; b. POACH¹, POCKET, POKE, POUCH, PUCKER, from Old French po(u)che and Old North French poke, bag. Both a and b from Germanic *puk-. 2. PUFF, from Old English pyffan, to blow out. 3. POUT2, from Old English -pute, "fish with large head" (in æle-pûte, eelpout). 4a. BILL), BILLET¹, BOLA, BOULE2, BOWL2, BULL2, BULLA, BULLATB, BULLET, BULLETIN; BOULEVERSEMENT, from Latin bulla, bubble, round object, amulet (> Old French boule and Spanish bola, ball); b. BOIL¹, BOUILLON, BUDGE¹, BULLION, BULLY; BOUILLABAISSE, EBULLIENCE, GARBOIL, PARBOIL, from Latin denominative verb bullire, to bubble, boil (> French bouiller). 5. Possibly Latin bucca, cheek (> Old French boucle, buckle, curl, and Spanish boca, mouth): BOCACCIO, BOUCLÉ, BUCCAL, BUCKLE¹, BUCKLE AMUSE-BOUCHE, DEBOUCH, DISEMBOGUE, EMBOUCHURE. 6. BUBO, from Greek boubon, groin, swollen gland. II. Variant form *bheu- with various Germanic derivatives. 1. BUCKBOARD, from Old English būc, belly, pitcher, from Germanic *bůkaz, belly. 2. TREBUCHET, from Frankish *būk (> Old French buc), trunk of the body. 3. BOIL2, from Old English byl(e), pustule, from West Germanic *būljō(n-). 4. BOAST', from Middle English bost, a bragging, from a source akin to German dialectal baustern, to swell. [Pokorny 2. b(e)u- 98.] **bhā-**¹ To shine. (Oldest form *bheh2-, colored to *bhah-, contracted to *bhā-.) 1. Suffixed zero-grade form *bha-w-. a. BEACON, from Old English beac(e)n, beacon; b. BECKON, from Old English becnan, biecnan, to make a sign, beckon, from Germanic denominative *bauknjan; C. BUOY, from Old French boue, buoy, ac all from Germanic *baukna-, beacon, signal. 2. Perhaps Germanic *basjam, *bazjam, berry (< "bright-colored fruit"). a. BERRY; MULBERRY, from Old English berie, berige, berry, and Old High German beri, berry, from Germanic *bazjōn-, remade from *baz- jam; b. FRAMBESIA, from Old French framboise, raspberry, alteration of Frankish *brām-besi, "bramble berry," from Germanic *basjam. 3a. BANDO-LEER, from Spanish banda, sash; b. BANDERILLA, BANDEROLE, BANNER, BANNERET, BANNERET2, from Late Latin bandum, banner, standard. Both a and b from Germanic *bandwa-, "identifying sign," banner, standard, sash, also "company united under a (particular) banner." 4. Suffixed zero-grade form *bha-w-es-. PHOS-, PHOT, PHOTO-; PHOSPHORUS, from Greek phôs (stem phōt-), light. 5. Suffixed zero-grade form *bha-w-. PHAËTHON, from Greek phaeithein, to shine, burn. 6. Extended and suffixed zero-grade form *bha-n-yo-. FANTASY, PANT, -PHANE, PHANTASM, PHANTOM, PHASE, PHENO-, PHENOMENON; DIAPHANOUS, EMPHASIS, EPIPHANY, HIEROPHANT, PHANERITIC, PHANEROGAM, PHANEROZOIC, PHANTASMAGORIA, PHOSPHENE, SYCOPHANT, THEOPHANY, TIFFANY, from Greek phai-nein, "to bring to light" cause to appear, show, and phainesthai (passive), "to be brought to light," appear, with zero-grade noun phasis (*bha-ti-), an appearance. [Pokorny 1. bhā- 104.) **bhā-**² To speak. (Oldest form *bheh₂, colored to *bhah2-, contracted to *bhā-.) 1. FABLE, FABLIAU, FABULOUS, FADO, FAIRY, FANDANGO, FATE, FAY²; AFFABLE, FANTOCCINI, INEFFABLE, INFANT, INFANTRY, PREFACE, from Latin fārī, to speak. 2. -PHASIA; APOPHASIS, PROPHET, from Greek phanai, to speak. 3a. BAN¹, from Old English bannan, to summon, proclaim, and Old Norse banna, to prohibit, curse; b. BANAL, BANNS; ABANDON, from Old French ban, feudal jurisdiction, summons to military service, proclamation, Old French bandon, power, and Old English gebann, <8> proclamation; C. BANISH, from Old French banir, to banish; d. CONTRABAND, from Late Latin bannus, bannum, proclamation; e. BANDIT, from Italian bandire, to muster, band together (< "to have been summoned"). a-e all from Germanic suffixed form *ban-wan, *bannan, to speak publicly (used of particular kinds of proclamation in feudal or prefeudal custom; "to proclaim under penalty, summon to the levy, declare outlaw"). 4. Suffixed form *bhā-ni-. a. BOON¹, from Old Norse bōn, prayer, request; b. BEB¹, perhaps from Old English ben, prayer, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse bon, prayer. Both a and b from Germanic *bōni-. 5. Suffixed form *bhā-mā-. a. FAME, FAMOUS; DEFAME, INFAMOUS, from Latin fāma, talk, reputation, fame; b. EUPHEMISM, POLYPHEMUS, from Greek phēmē, saying, speech. 6. Suffixed o-grade form *bhō-nā-. PHONE2, -PHONE, PHONEME, PHONETIC, PHONO-, -PHONY; ANTHEM, ANTIPHON, APHONIA, CACOPHONOUS, EUPHONY, SYMPHONY, from Greek phônē, voice, sound, and (denominative) phonein, to speak. 7. Suffixed zero-grade form *bha-to-. CONFESS, PROFESS, from Latin fatēri, to acknowledge, admit. 8. BLAME, BLASPHEME, from Greek blasphēmos, blasphemous, perhaps from *mls-bhā-mo-, "speaking evil" (*mls-, evil; see mel-5). [Pokorny 2. bhā- 105.] **bha-bhā-** Broad bean. 1. FAVA BEAN, FAVELA, from Latin faba, broad bean. 2. Variant form *bha-un-. BEAN, from Old English bean, broad bean, bean of any kind, from Germanic *baunō. 3. Possible suffixed form *bha-ko-. PHACOEMULSIFICATION, from Greek phakos, lentil. 4. Variant form *bha-bho-. BUPKIS, from a Slavic source such as Polish bób; akin to Russian bob, bean, both from Slavic *bobů. (Pokorny bhabhā 106.] **bhad-** Good. 1. BETTER, from Old English betera, better, from Germanic (comparative) *batizō. 2. BEST, from Old English bet(e)st, best, from Germanic (superlative) *batista-. 3. воот², from Old English bōt, remedy, aid, from Germanic *bōtō. 4. BATTEN¹, ultimately from Old Norse batna, to improve, from Germanic *batnan, to become better. (Pokorny bhad- 106.] **bhag-** To share out, apportion, also to get a share. 1. -PHAGE, -PHAGIA, PHAGO-, -PHAGOUS; ESOPHAGUS, from Greek phagein, to eat (< "to have a share of food"). 2. PORGY, from Greek phagros, whetstone ("eater, that eats metal"), also a name for the sea bream, from Greek suffixed form *phag-ro-. 3a. Slavic *bogů, god, in Czech boh, god, in personal name Bohuslav (see kleu-); b. NEBBISH, from a Slavic source akin to Czech neboh, poor, unfortunate, from Common Slavic *ne-bogů, poor ("un-endowed"). 4. PAGODA; BHAGAVAD-GITA, from Sanskrit bhagah, good fortune. 5. BHAKTI, from Sanskrit bhajati, he apportions. 6. Extended form *bhags-. BAKSHEESH, BUCKSHEE, from Persian bakhshidan, to give, from Old Iranian *bakhsh (Avestan bakhsh-). [Pokorny 1. bhag- 107.] **bhāghu-** Arm. (Oldest form *bhāghu-.) BOUGH, from Old English bōg, bôh, bough, from Germanic *bāguz. [Pokorny bhāghú-s (misprint for bhāĝhú-s) 108.] **bhāgo-** Beech tree. 1а. воок, from Old English bộc, written document, composition; b. BUCKWHEAT, from Middle Dutch boek, beech; C. BOKMÅL, from Norwegian bok, book. a-c all from Germanic *bōkō, beech, also "beech staff for carving runes on" (an early Germanic writing device). 2. BEECH, from Old English bece, beech, from Germanic *bōkjön-. [Pokorny bhāgó-s 107.] **bhardh-ā-** Beard. 1. BEARD, from Old English beard, beard, from Germanic *bardaz. 2. HALBERD, from Old High German barta, beard, ax, from Germanic *bardō, beard, also hatchet, broadax. 3. BARB¹, BARBEL, BARBELLATE, BARBER, BARBETTE, BARBICEL, BARBULE, BARBUT, BICHON; REBARBATIVE, from Latin barba, beard. [Pokorny bhardhā 110.] **bhars-**¹ Also bhors-. Projection, bristle, point. I. Suffixed o-grade form *bhors-o-. BASS¹, from Old English bærs, perch, bass (a fish that has a spiny dorsal fin), from Germanic *barsaz. II. Zero-grade form *bhrs-. 1. BUR¹, from Middle English burre, bur, from a Scandinavian source akin to Swedish borre, bur, from Germanic *burz-. 2. Suffixed from *bhrs-dh-. BRAD, from Old Norse broddr, spike, from Germanic *bruzdaz, point, needle. 3. Suffixed zero-grade form *bhrs-ti-. a. BRISTLE, from Old English byrst (> Middle English bristel), bristle, from Germanic *bursti-; b. FASTIGIATE, FASTIGIUM, from Latin fastigium, summit, top, extremity. 4. Possibly suffixed form *bhrs-tu-. FASTIDIOUS, from Latin fastus, fastidium, disdain (from the notion of prickliness). 5. Suffixed form *bhrs-tio-. BORSCHT, from Russian borshch, cow parsnip (from its sharp leaves). [Pokorny bhar- 108.] **bhars-**² Barley. Probably from bhars-¹, from its appearance. 1a. BARN, from Old English bere, barley, from Germanic *bariz-; b. BARLEY, from Old English bærlic, barley-like, of barley, from Germanic *barz-. 2. FARINA, FARINACEOUS, FARRAGINOUS, FARRAGO, FARRO, from Latin far (stem farr-), emmer. [Pokorny bhares- 111.] **bhasko-** Band, bundle. 1. FASCES, FASCICLE, FASCINE, FASCISM, from Latin fascis, bundle (as of rods, twigs, or straw), also crowd of people. 2. FAJITA, FASCIA, FESS¹, from Latin fascia, band, bandage. 3. Possibly Latin fascinum, fascinus, an amulet in the shape of a phallus, hence a bewitching: FASCINATE. [Pokorny bhasko-111.] **bhau-** To strike. (Oldest form *bheh₂u-, colored to *bhah₂u-, contracted to *bhau-, with variant [me- tath-esized] form *bheuh2-, whence zero-grade *bhuh2-, contracted to *bhū-.) I. Germanic extended form *baut-. 1. BEAT, from Old English beatan, to beat, from Germanic *bautan. 2. BEETLE³; BATTLEDORE, from Old English byti, hammer, mallet, from Germanic *bautilaz, hammer. 3. BASTE³, probably from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse beysta, to beat, denominative from Germanic *baut-sti-. 4. BUTTOCK, from Old English diminutive buttuc, end, strip of land, from Germanic *būtaz. Sa. HALIBUT, from Middle Dutch butte, flat-fish; b. TURBOT, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Swedish but, flatfish. Both a and b from Ger-manic *butt-, name for a flatfish. 6. BOUTON, BUTT¹, BUTTON, BUTTRESS; ABUT, REBUT, SACKBUT, from Old French bo(u)ter, to strike, push, from Germanic *but-tan. II. Zero-grade variant form *bhū-. 1. Suffixed form *bhū-t-ā-. a. CONFUTE, from Latin confūtāre, to check, suppress, restrain (com-, intensive prefix; see kom); b. REFUTE, from Latin refutare, to drive back, rebut (re-, back; see re-). 2. Possibly reduced suffixed form *bhu-tu- (*bhau-). FOOTLE; CLAFOUTI, from Latin futuere, to have intercourse with (a woman). (Pokorny 1. bhau- 112.] **bhē-** To warm. (Contracted from earlier *bheh,-.) 1. Suffixed zero-grade form *bha-to-. BATH, BATHE, from Old English bath, a bath, and its denominative bathian, to bathe. 2. Extended zero-grade form *bhag-. a. BAKE, from Old English bacan, to bake; b. ZWIEBACK, from Old High German bakan, bakkan, to bake. Both a and b from Germanic *bakan, to bake. [Pokorny bhē- 113.] **bhedh-** To dig. O-grade form *bhodh-. 1. BED, from Old English bed(d), bed, from Germanic *badjam, garden plot, also sleeping place. 2. FOSSA, FOSSE, POSSIL, FOSSORIAL, from Latin fodere, to dig. [Pokorny 1. bhedh-113.] **bheg-** To break. Possibly in various Germanic forms. Akin to bhreg-. 1a. BANG¹, probably from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse banga, to hammer; <9> b. BUNGLE, possibly from a Scandinavian source akin to Swedish dialectal bangla, to work inefficiently. Both a and b from Germanic nasalized form *bang-. 2a. BENCH, from Old English benc, bench; b. BANK, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Danish banke, sandbank; C. BANK2, BANTLING, BUNCO; BANKRUPT, from Old High German banc, bank, bench, money-changer's table (> Italian banca); d. BANK³, from Old French banc, bench; e. BANQUETTE, from Provençal banca, bench; f. BANQUET, from Old Italian banco, bench. a-f all from Germanic nasalized forms *bankiz and *bankōn-, bank of earth (possibly < "feature where the contour of the ground is broken," escarpment, riverbank, possibly also associated with "manmade earthwork"), later also bench, table. 3. BHANG, from Sanskrit bhangah, ("pounded") hemp, seen by some as the same word as bhanga-, breaking, pounding, from nasalized form *bheng-. [Pokorny bheg- 114.] **bhegw-** To run. 1. O-grade form *bhog"-. BECK², from Old Norse bekkr, a stream, from Germanic *bak-jaz, a stream. 2. -PHOBE, -PHOBIA, from Greek phebesthai, to fear, and derived o-grade noun phobos, fear. [Pokorny bheg-116.] **bhei-** A bee. BEE¹, from Old English beo, a bee, from Germanic suffixed form *biōn-. [Pokorny bhei-116.] **bheid-** To split; with Germanic derivatives referring to biting (hence also to eating and to hunting) and woodworking. 1a. BEETLE¹, BITE, from Old English bitan, to bite; b. TSIMMES, from Old High German bizan, bizzan, to bite. Both a and b from Germanic *bitan. 2. Zero-grade form *bhid-. a. BIT², from Old English bite, a bite, sting, from Germanic *bitiz; b. (i) BIT¹, from Old English bita, a piece bitten off, morsel; (ii) BITT, from a Germanic source akin to Old Norse biti, bit, crossbeam; (iii) PIZZA, from Italian pizza, pizza, from a Germanic source akin to Old High German bizzo, pizzo, bite, morsel. (i)-(iii) all from Germanic *biton-; c. suffixed form *bhid-ro-. BITTER, from Old English bit(t)er, "biting,” sharp, bitter. 3. O-grade form *bhoid-. a. BAIT¹, from Old Norse beita (verb), to hunt with dogs, and beita (noun), pasture, food; b. ABET, from Old French beter, to harass with dogs. Both a and b from Germanic *baitjan. 4. BATEAU, BOAT; BOATSWAIN, from Old English bat, boat, from Germanic *bait-, a boat (< "dugout canoe" or "split planking"). 5. GIBLETS, from Old French gibiez, hunting, game, from Germanic *ga-baiti- (*ga-, collective prefix; see kom). 6. Nasalized zero-grade form *bhi-n-d-. -FID, PISSI-, PISSILE, FISSION, FISSURE, VENT2, from Latin findere, to split (past participle fissus < suffixed zero-grade form *bhid-to-). (Pokorny bheid- 116.] **bheidh-** To trust. 1. Probably Germanic *bidan, to await (< "to await trustingly, expect, trust"). ABIDE, ABODE, from Old English bidan, to wait, stay. 2. FIANCÉ, FIDUCIAL, FIDUCIARY; AFFIANCE, AFFIANT, AFFIDAVIT, CONFIDANT, CONFIDE, CONFIDENT, DEFIANCE, DEFY, DIFFIDENT, from Latin fidere, to trust, confide, and fidus, faithful. 3. Suffixed o-grade form *bhoidh-es-. FEDERAL, FEDERATE; CONFEDERATE, from Latin foedus (stem foeder-), treaty, league. 4. Zero-grade form *bhidh-. FAITH, FAY, FEALTY, FIDEISM, FIDELITY; INFIDEL, PERFIDY, from Latin fidës, faith, trust. [Pokorny 1. bheidh-117.] Language and Culture Note The root bheidh-, "to trust," whose English derivatives include faith, fidelity, and confererate, is noteworthy in that its descendants in several of the Indo-European daughter languages refer specifically to the mutual trust on which covenants and social contracts must stand in order to be binding. Latin, for example, gets the general word for "trust," fidës, as well as the word for "treaty," foedus, from this root. In Greek, various derivatives of the root appear together with the noun (pro)xenia, "guest-friendship, hospitality," and related words, as in phrases translating "I trust in hospitality"; the guest-host relationship was a covenant of central importance between strangers in ancient Indo-European societies (see the note at ghos-ti-). Finally, and perhaps most interestingly, is an obscure word from Northern Albanian customary law referring to a pledge given by the family of a murdered man to the family of the murderer that they would refrain for a time from blood-feud. This pledge or truce, called besë, is a fundamental expression of the social contract, and comes from *bhidh-tyā-, a suffixed zero-grade form of bheidh-. **bheiǝ-** To strike. (Oldest form *bheihz-.) 1. BILL², from Old English bile, bird's beak, possibly from Germanic suffixed form *bili-. 2. BILL³, from Old English bil(l), sharp weapon, from Germanic suffixed form *bilja-. 3. BOHEMIA, BOHEMIAN, from Latin Boihaemum, "home of the Boii," from Boii, "fighters," Celtic tribe that originally inhabited the region (-haemum, home, from Germanic; see tkei-). [Pokorny bhei(a)- 117.) **bheigw-** To shine. An uncertain but plausible root. O-grade form *bhoig"-. PHOEBE, PHOEBE, PHOEBUS, from Greek phoibos, shining. (Pokorny bheigs- 118.) **bhel-**¹ To shine, flash, burn; shining white and various bright colors. I. Suffixed full-grade form *bhel-o-. 1a. BELUGA, from Russian belyi, white; b. Old Church Slavonic belŭ, white, ultimately in Serbo-Croatian compound Beograd (see gher-1). Both a and b from Slavic *belŭ; C. BELTANE, from Scottish Gaelic bealltainn, from Old Irish beltaine, "fire of Bel" (ten, tene, fire; see tep-), from Bel, name of a pagan Irish deity akin to the Gaulish divine name Belenos, from Celtic *bel-o-, bright. 2. PHALAROPE, from Greek phalaros, having a white spot. 2. PHALAENOPSIS, from Greek phallaina, moth (<*"white creature"). II. Extended root *bhleh₁-, contracted to *bhle-. 1. Suffixed form *bhle-wo-. BLUE, from Old French bleu, blue, from Germanic *blēwaz, blue. 2. Suffixed zero-grade form *bhja-wo-. FLAVESCENT, FLAVO-; FLAVIN, FLAVONE, FLAVOPROTEIN, from Latin flāvus, golden or reddish yellow. III. Various extended Germanic forms. 1. BLEACH, from Old English blæcan, to bleach, from Germanic *blaikjan, to make white. 2. BLEAK¹, from Old Norse bleikr, shining, white, from Germanic *blaika-, shining, white. 3. BLITZKRIEG, from Old High German blēcchazzen, to flash, lighten, from Germanic *blikkat-jan. 4a. BLAZE¹, from Old English blæse, torch, bright fire; b. BLESBOK, from Middle Dutch bles, white spot; C. BLEMISH, from Old French ble(s)mir, to make pale. a-c all from Germanic *blas-, shining, white. 5a. BLIND; BLINDFOLD, PURBLIND, from Old English blind, blind, from Germanic *blinda-, blind (< "cloudy"); b. BLENDE, from Old High German blentan, to blind, deceive, from Germanic *blandjan, to blind (perhaps < "to make cloudy, deceive"); C. BLEND, from Old Norse blanda, to mix, from Germanic *blandan, to mix (< "to make cloudy"); d. BLOND, from Old French blond, blond, from Frankish *blund-, from Germanic *blunda-. 6a. BLENCH¹, from Old English blencan, to deceive; b. BLANCH, BLANK, BLANKET; BLANCMANGE, PINOT BLANC from Old French blanc, white. Both a and b from Germanic *blenk-, *blank-, to shine, dazzle, blind. 7. BLUSH, from Old English blyscan, to glow red, from Germanic *blisk-, to shine, burn. IV. Extended root *bhleg-, to shine, flash, burn. 1. O-grade form bhlog-. BLACK, from Old English blæc, black, from Germanic *blakaz, burned. 2. Zero-grade form *bhlg-. a. FULGENT, FULGURATE; EFFULGENT, FOUDROYANT, REFULGENT, from Latin fulgere, to flash, shine, and fulgur, lightning; b. FULMINATE, from Latin fulmen (< *fulg-men), lightning, thunderbolt. 3a. FLAGRANT; CONFLAGRANT, CONFLAGRATION, DEFLAGRATE, from Latin flagrare, to blaze; b. CHAMISE, FLAMBÉ, FLAMBEAU, FLAMBOYANT, FLAME, FLAMINGO, FLAMMABLE; INFLAME, from Latin flamma (< <10> *flag-ma), a flame. 4. PHLEGM, PHLEGMATIC, PHLEGETHON, from Greek phlegein, to burn. 5. O-grade form *bhlog-. PHLOGISTON, PHLOX; PHLOGOPITE, from Greek phlox, a flame, also a wallflower. [Pokorny 1. bhel- 118, bheleg- 124, bhleu-(k)- 159.] **bhel-**² To blow, swell; with derivatives referring to various round objects and to the notion of tumescent masculinity. 1. Zero-grade form bhl-. a. BOWL¹, from Old English bolla, pot, bowl; b. BOLE, from Old Norse bolr, tree trunk; C. BULK, from Old Norse bulki, cargo (< "rolled-up load"); d. BOULEVARD, BULWARK, from Middle High German bole, beam, plank; e. BOLL, from Middle Dutch bolle, round object; f. BILTONG, from Middle Dutch bille, buttock; g. BOULDER, from a Scandinavian source akin to Swedish bullersten, "rounded stone," boulder, from *buller-, "round object." a-g all from Germanic *bul-. 2. Suffixed zero-grade form *bhl-n-. a. BULL¹, from Old Norse boli, bull, from Germanic *bullon-; b. BULLOCK, from Old English bulluc, bull, from Germanic *bulluka-; C. PHALLUS; ITHYPHALLIC, from Greek phallos, phallus; d. possibly Latin fullo, a fuller: FULL2; REFOULEMENT. 3. O-grade form *bhol-. a. BOLLIX, BOLLOCK, from Old English beallucas, testicles; b. BALL¹, from Old English *beall, ball; C. BILBERRY, probably from a Scandinavian source akin to Danish bolle, round roll; d. BALLOON, BALLOT, BALLOTTEMENT, from Italian dialectal balla, ball; e. PALL-MALL, from Italian palla, ball; f. BALE¹, from Old French bale, rolled-up bundle; g. FOOSBALL, from Old High German ball. a-g all from Germanic *ball-. 4. Possibly suffixed o-grade form *bhol-to-. a. BOLD, from Old English bald, beald, bold; b. BAWD, from Old Saxon bald, bold; c. Old High German bald, bold, in personal names: (i) ARCHIBALD, from Old High German Erchanbald, "genuine bold" (erchan, genuine; see arg-); (ii) LEOPOLD, from Old High German Leutpald, Liutbald, "bold among the people" (liut, people; see leudh-2); d. BALDER, from Old Norse ballr, baldr, brave. a-d all from Germanic *baltha-, bold. 5. Suffixed o-grade form *bhol-n-. FILS², POLLICLE, FOLLY, FOOL, from Latin follis, bellows, inflated ball. 6. Possibly Greek phal(1) aina, whale: BALEEN. 7. Conceivably from this root (but more likely unrelated) is Greek phellos, cork, cork oak: PHELLEM; PHELLODERM, PHELLOGEN. [Pokorny 3. bhel- 120.] See also derivatives bhel-3, bhelgh-, bhlei-, and bhleu-. **bhel-**³ To thrive, bloom. Possibly from bhel-2. I. Suffixed o-grade form *bhol-yo-, leaf. 1. FOIL2, FOLIAGE, FOLIO, FOLIUM; CINQUEFOIL, DEFOLIATE, EXFOLIATE, FEUILLETON, MILFOIL, PERFOLIATE, PORTFOLIO, TREFOIL, from Latin folium, leaf. 2a. -PHYLL, PHYLLO-, -PHYLLOUS; ANTHOPHYLLITE, CHERVIL, GILLYFLOWER, PODOPHYLLIN, from Greek phullon, leaf; b. PHYLLIS (personal name), from Greek phullis, leaf. II. Extended form *bhlē- (contracted from earlier *bhleh₁-). 1. O-grade form *bhlō-. a. Suffixed form *bhlō-w-. BLOW³, from Old English blōwan, to flower, from Germanic *blō-w-; b. (i) BLOOM', from Old Norse blom, blomi, flower, blossom; (ii) BLOOM², from Old English blōma, a hammered ingot of iron (semantic development obscure). Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic suffixed form *blō-mōn-; C. BLOSSOM, from Old English blōstm, blõstma, flower, blossom, from Germanic suffixed form *blā-s-; d. FERRET, FLORA, FLORA, FLORAL, FLORET, FLORIATED, FLORID, FLORIN, FLORIST, -FLOROUS, FLOUR, FLOURISH, FLOWER; CAULIFLOWER, DEFLOWER, EPFLORESCE, ENFLEURAGE, FLORIGEN, MILLEFIORI GLASS, MILLEFLEUR, from Latin flōs (stem flor-), flower, from Italic suffixed form *flō-s-; e. suffixed form *bhlō-to-, possibly in the meaning "swell, gush, spurt" in Germanic *blōdam, blood. (i) BLOOD, from Old English blod, blood; (ii) BLEED, from Old English *bleēdan, to bleed, from Germanic denominative *blōdjan; (iii) BLESS, from Old English bloedsian, blētsian, to consecrate, from Germanic *blōdison, to treat or hallow with blood. 2. EMBLEMENTS, from Medieval Latin blādum, bladium, produce of the land, grain, from Germanic suffixed form *ble-da-. 3. Suffixed zero-grade form *bhla-to-. BLADE, from Old English blæd, leaf, blade, from Germanic *bladaz. [Pokorny 4. bhel- 122.] **bhel-**⁴ To cry out, yell. 1a. BELL2, from Old English bellan, to bellow, bark, roar, from Germanic *bellan; b. BELL¹, from Old English belle, a bell; C. BELLOW, perhaps from Old English belgan, to be enraged, and bylgan, to bellow; d. BAWL, from Middle English baulen, to howl, from a Scandinavian source akin to Icelandic baula, to low, a-d all from Germanic *bell-. 2. BELCH, from Old English bealcan, *bealcian, to utter, belch forth, perhaps from Germanic *bell-. [Pokorny 6. bhel- 123.] See also extended root bhle-1. **bheld-** To knock, strike. Zero-grade form *bhld-. BOLT¹, from Old English bolt, heavy arrow, bolt, from Germanic *bulta-, missile. [Pokorny bheld- 124.] **bhelg-** Also bhelk-. A plank, beam. 1. O-grade form *bholg-. a. BALK, from Old English balc(a), ridge; b. DEBAUCH, from Old French bauch, beam; с. BALCONY, from Old Italian balcone, scaffold. a-c all from Germanic *balkon-. 2. Suffixed zero-grade variant form *bhik-yo-. FULCRUM, from Latin fulcire, to prop up, support. 3. Possibly Greek phalanx, beam, finger bone, line of battle: PHALANGE, PHALANX. [Pokorny 5. bhel- 122.] **bhelgh-** To swell. (Oldest form *bhelĝh-; extension of bhel-2.) 1. O-grade form *bholgh-. BELLOWS, BELLY, from Old English bel(i)g, bælig, bag, bellows, from Germanic *balgiz. 2. Zero-grade form *bhigh-. a. BILLOW, from Old Norse bylgja, a wave, from Germanic *bulgjan; b. BOLSTER, from Old English bolster, cushion, from Germanic *bulgstraz. 3. O-grade form *bholgh-. a. FIR BOLG, IMBOLC, from Old Irish bolc, bolg, bag; b. BUDGET, BULGE, from Latin bulga, leather sack, of Gaulish origin. Both a and b from Celtic *bolg-. [Pokorny bhelĝh- 125.] **bhel-u-** To harm. O-grade form *bhol-u-. BALE2, from Old English bealo, b(e)alu, harm, ruin, bale, from Germanic *balwaz. [Pokorny bheleu- 125.) **bhendh-** To bind. 1a. BIND; WOODBINE, from Old English bindan, to bind; b. BINDLESTIFF, from Old High German binten, to bind. Both a and b from Germanic *bindan. 2. BANDANNA, from Sanskrit band-hati, he ties. 3. O-grade form *bhondh-. a. BEND², from Old English bend, band, and Old French bende, band, from Germanic *bandjō; b. BEND¹, from Old English bendan, to bend, from Germanic *bandjan; C. (i) BAND¹, BOND, from Old Norse band, band, fetter; (ii) GUM BAND, from Old High German band, band; (iii) BAND¹, from Old French bande, bond, tie, link. (i)-(iii) all from Germanic *bandam; (iv) RIBBON, from Old French ruban, ribbon, perhaps from Germanic *bandam (first element unclear). ac all from Germanic *band-. 4. Suffixed form *bhondh-o-. BUND¹; CUMMERBUND, from Avestan banda-, bond, fetter. 5. Zero-grade form *bhņdh-. a. BUND², from Middle High German bunt, league; b. BUNDLE, from Middle Dutch bondel, sheaf of papers, bundle. Both a and b from Germanic *bund-. [Pokorny bhendh-127.] **bhengh-** Thick, fat. (Oldest form *bhenĝh-.) Suffixed zero-grade form *bhngh-u-. 1. PACHYCEPHALOSAUR, PACHYDERM, PACHYSANDRA, PACHYTENE, from Greek pakhus, thick, fat. 2. BAHUVRIHI, from Sanskrit bahu-, much. [Pokorny bhenĝh- 127.] **bher-**¹ To carry; also to bear children. 1a. (i) BEAR¹, from Old English beran, to carry; (ii) FORBEAR¹, from Old English forberan, to bear, endure (for-, for-; see per¹). Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *beran; b. BIER, from Old English bēr, bær, bier, and Old French biere, bier, both from Germanic *bērō; C. BORE³, from Old Norse bāra, wave, billow, from Germanic *bēr-. 2a. BAIRN, from Old English bearn, child, from Ger- <11> manic *barnam; b. BARROW¹, from Old English bearwe, basket, wheelbarrow, from Germanic *barwōn-. 3. Zero-grade form *bhr-, becoming Germanic *bur-, a. BURLY, from Old English *borlic, excellent, exalted (< "borne up"); b. BURDEN', from Old English byr- then, burden, from Germanic *burthinja-; C. BIRTH, from a source akin to Old Norse burdhr, birth, from Germanic *burthiz; d. BIRR¹, from Old Norse byrr, favorable wind, perhaps from Germanic *burja-. 4. Compound root *bhrenk-, to bring (<*bher- + *enk-, to bring; see nek-3). BRING, from Old English bringan, to bring, from Germanic *brengan. 5. -FER, FERTILE; AFFERENT, CIRCUMFERENCE, CONFER, DEFER, DEFER, DIFFER, EFFERENT, INFER, OFFER, PREFER, PROFFER, REFER, SUFFER, TRANSFER, VOCIFERATE, from Latin ferre, to carry. 6. Celtic *ber-. a. INVERNESS, after Inverness, from Scottish Gaelic Ionarnis, Inbhirnis, "mouth of the river Ness," from Old Irish in(d)ber, "a carrying in," estuary, from Celtic *endo-ber-o- (endo-, in; see en); b. ABERDEEN, from Scottish Gaelic, "mouth of the Don river," from aber, mouth (of a river), from Celtic *ad-ber-o- (*ad-, to; see ad-). 7. Prefixed and suffixed zero-grade form *pro-bhr-o-, "something brought before one" (*pro-, before; see per¹). OPPROBRIUM, from Latin probrum, a reproach. 8. Possibly suffixed zero-grade form *bhr-tu- in Latin words having to do with chance (? < "a bringing, that which is brought"). a. POR-TUITOUS, from Latin fortuitus, happening by chance; b. FORTUNA, FORTUNE, from Latin fortūna, chance, good luck, fortune, and Fortūna, goddess of good fortune. 9. Probably lengthened o-grade form *bhōr-. PERRET¹, FURTIVE, FURUNCLE; PURUNCULOSIS, from Latin für, thief. 10. FERETORY, -PHORE, -PHORESIS, -PHOROUS; AMPHORA, ANAPHORA, DIAPHORESIS, EUPHORIA, METAPHOR, PERIPHERY, PHEROMONE, TELPHER, TOCOPHEROL, from Greek phe- rein, to carry, with o-grade noun phoros, a carrying. 11. PARAPHERNALIA, from Greek pherne, dowry ("something brought by a bride"). 12. BERIBERI, SAMBAL, from Sanskrit bharati, he carries, brings. [Pokorny 1. bher- 128.] **bher-**² Also bherǝ-. To cut, pierce, bore. 1. BORE¹, from Old English borian, to bore, from Germanic *burōn. 2. BARROW³, from Old English bearg, barg, castrated pig, from Germanic suffixed form *barugaz. 3. BURIN, from French burin, perhaps from Germanic *bor-. 4. Suffixed o-grade form *bhor-a-. FORAMEN; PERFORATE, from Latin forāre, to pierce, bore. 5. Perhaps Greek pharunx, throat (< "a cutting, cleft, passage"): PHARYNX. 6. DUKHOBOR, from Russian borot', to overcome, from Slavic *bor-, to fight, overcome (also in Russian personal name BORIS). [Pokorny 3. bher- 133.] See also extension bhreu-. **bher-**³ Bright, brown. 1. Suffixed variant form *bhrū-no-. a. BROWN, from Old English brūn, brown; b. BRUIN, from Middle Dutch bruun; C. BRUNO (personal name), from Old High German Bruno, from brun, brown; d. BRUNET, BURNET, BURNISH, from Old French brun, shining, brown. and all from Germanic *brūna-, brown. 2. Reduplicated form *bhibhru-, *bhebhru-, "the brown animal," beaver. BEAVER¹, from Old English be(o)for, beaver, from Germanic *bebruz. 3a. BEAR2, from Old English bera, bear; b. BERNARD (personal name), from German Bernhard, "bold bear," from Old High German bero, bear (hart, hard, stern, bold; see kar-1). Both a and b from Germanic *bero, "the brown animal," bear. 4. Perhaps Old Norse ber-serkr, berserker, if originally meaning "he who wears a bear skin" and akin to Old Norse björn, bear, from Germanic *bernuz, bear (serkr, shirt): BERSERK, BERSERKER. Alternatively, the first part of Old Norse ber-serkr has been derived from Old Norse berr, bare (see bhoso-). [Pokorny 5. bher- 136.] **bher-**⁴ To cook, bake. 1. Extended root form *bhrig-. FRICANDEAU, FRICASSEE, FRISÉ, FRIT, FRITTATA, FRITTER, FRIZZ¹, FRY¹; CUCHIFRITO, SOFRITO, SOFFRITTO, from Latin frigere, to roast, fry. 2. Perhaps variant root form *bhreig (oldest form bhreiĝ-). BIRYANI, from Persian biryān, roasted, akin to birištan, birēz-, to roast, from Middle Persian brištan, brez-. [Pokorny 6. bher- 137.] **bherdh-** To cut. 1. Zero-grade form *bhrdh-. а. BOARD; STARBOARD, from Old English bord, board; b. SMORGASBORD, from Old Norse bordh, board, table; c BORDELLO, BORDER, from Old French borde, hut, and bort, border. a-c all from Germanic *burdam, plank, board, table. 2. Possibly Latin forfex, a pair of scissors: FORFICATE. [Pokorny bheredh- 138.] **bherǝg-** To shine; bright, white. (Oldest form *bherh.-.) 1а. BRIGHT, from Old English beorht, bright; b. Old High German beraht, bright, in personal names (where it is often reduced to ber(h)t): (i) ALBERT, from Old High German Adalbert, "noble bright" (adal, noble; see at-al-); (ii) BERTHA, from Old High German Beratha, "the bright one"; (iii) GILBERT, from Old High German Giselberht, "bright hostage" (gisel, pledge, hostage); (iv) HERBERT, from Old High German Heriberht, "bright army" (heri, army; see koro-); (v) Old High German Hrōdebert (see kar-2); с. Слм-EMBERT, after Camembert (French village), from Medieval Latin Campus Maimberti, "field of Maimbert" (personal name), from West Germanic *Magin-berht-, "bright with strength" (*magin-, strength, from Germanic *maginam; see magh-1). ac from Germanic *berhta-, bright. 2. "The white tree," the birch (also the ash). a. BIRCH, BIRK, from Old English birc(e), birch, from Germanic *birkjōn-; b. probably suffixed zero-grade form *bhrag-s-. FRAXINELLA, from Latin fraxinus, ash tree. (Pokorny bheraĝ- 139.] **bherǝk-** To shine, glitter. A by-form of bherǝg-. (Oldest form *bherhk-.) Variant form *bhrek-, possible root of various Germanic forms. 1. BRAID; UPBRAID, from Old English bregdan, to move quickly, weave, throw, braid, from Germanic *bregdan, to move jerkily (< "to shimmer"). 2. BRIDLE, from Old English bridel, bridle, from derivative West Germanic *brigdila-, bridle (referring to the movements of a horse's head). 3. BRAE, from Old Norse brā, eyelash, from Germanic *brēhwō, eyelid, eyelash. 4. BREAM¹, from Old French bre(s) me, from West Germanic *bresmo, a bream, from Germanic *breh(w)an, to shine. [Pokorny bherǝk- 141.] **[bherg-** To make noise. Hypothetical base of Germanic strong verb *berkan. BARK¹, BIRKIE, from Old English beorcan, to bark, from Germanic *berkan. [Pokorny bhereg- 138.]] **bhergh-**¹ To hide, protect. (Oldest form *bhergh-.) 1a. Germanic compound *h(w)als-berg- (see kwel-1); b. Germanic compound *sker-berg- (see (s)ker-1). Both a and b from Germanic *bergan, to protect. 2. Zero-grade form *bhigh-. a. BURY, from Old English byrgan, to bury, from Germanic *burgjan; b. BURIAL, from Old English byrgels, burial, from Germanic derivative *burgisli-. 3a. BORROW, from Old English borgian, to borrow, from Germanic *borgen, to pledge, lend, borrow; b. BARGAIN, from Old French bargaignier, to haggle, from Germanic derivative *borganjan. [Pokorny bherĝh- 145.] **bhergh-**² High; with derivatives referring to hills and hill-forts. (Oldest form *bhergh-.) 1a. BARROW², from Old English beorg, hill; b. ICEBERG, from Middle Dutch bergh, mountain; C. BERGSCHRUND, INSELBERG, from Old High German berg, mountain; d. Germanic compound *harja-bergaz (see koro-). ad all from Germanic *bergaz, hill, mountain. 2. BELFRY, from Old French berfroi, tower, from Germanic compound *berg-frithu-, "high place of safety," tower (*frithu-, peace, safety; see pri-). 3. Zero-grade form *bhrgh-. a. BOROUGH, BURG, from Old English burg, burh, byrig, (fortified) town, also becoming the Modern English suffix-bury in place names such as CANTERBURY; b. BURGOMASTER, from Middle Dutch burch, town; c. <12> BOURG, BOURGEOIS, BURGESS, BURGLAR; FAUBOURG, from Late Latin burgus, fortified place, and Old French burg, borough; d. BURGHER, from Old High German burgāri, townsman, from Germanic compound *burg-waron-, "city protector" (*warōn-, protector; see wer-5). a-d all from Germanic *burgs, hill-fort. 4. Suffixed zero-grade form *bhigh-nt-, high, mighty. a. BURGUNDY, from Medieval Latin Burgundia, akin to Late Latin Burgundiōnēs, "highlanders" or "mighty ones" (Germanic tribal name), from Germanic *burgund-; b. BRIDGET (personal name), from Old Irish Brigit, name of a goddess, from Celtic *Briganti. 5. Possibly suffixed zero-grade form *bhigh-to-. FORCE, FORT, FORTALICE, FORTE, FORTE, FORTIS, FORTISSIMO, FORTITUDE, FORTRESS; COMFORT, DEFORCE, EFFORT, ENFORCE, FORTIFY, PANFORTE, PIANOFORTE, REINFORCE, from Latin fortis, strong (but this is also possibly from dher-2). [Pokorny bhereĝh- 140.] **bhers-** Quick. FESTINATE, from Latin festinare, to hasten, probably from festinus (< *fers-ti-), quick, in a hurry. [Pokorny bheres- 143.] **bhes-**¹ To rub. 1. Zero-grade form *bhs-amadho- (in Greek psamathos, sand), with unclear suffix, reduced to *samadho- (in Greek amathos, sand, and in Germanic). SAND, from Old English sand, from Germanic *sam(a)dam, *sandam. 2. Suffixed extended zero-grade form *(bh)sa-dhlo-. SABULOUS, from Latin sabulum, coarse sand. 3. Perhaps suffixed zero-grade form *bhs-a-. a. PALIMPSEST, from Greek psên, to rub, scrape (but more likely of uncertain origin); b. PSEPHOLOGY, from Greek psēphos, ballot, pebble (but more likely of uncertain origin). 4. Perhaps suffixed zero-grade form *bhs-ilo-. EPSILON, PSILOMELANE, UPSILON, from Greek psilos, smooth, simple (but more likely of uncertain origin). (Pokorny 1. bhes- 145.] **bhes-**² To breathe. Probably imitative. Zero-grade form *bhs-. PSYCHE¹, PSYCHIC, PSYCHO-; METEMPSYCHOSIS, from Greek psūkhē, spirit, soul, from psūkhein (<*bhs-ū-kh-), to breathe. [Pokorny 2. bhes- 146.] **bheudh-** To be aware, to make aware. 1a. BID, from Old English beodan, to proclaim; b. FORBID, from Old English forbeodan, to forbid; C. VERBOTEN, from Old High German farbiotan, to forbid. a-c all from Germanic *(for)beudan (*for, before; see per¹). 2. BODE', from Old English bodian, to announce, from boda, messenger, from Germanic *budon-. 3. BEADLE, from Old English bydel, herald, messenger, and Old High German butil, herald, both from Germanic *budilaz, herald. 4. OMBUDSMAN, from Old Norse bodh, command, from Germanic *budam. 5. BUDDHA²; BODHISATTVA, BODHI TREE, BO TREE, from Sanskrit bodhati, he awakes, is enlightened, becomes aware, and bodhih, perfect knowledge. (Pokorny bheudh- 150.] **bheuǝ-** Also bheu-. To be, exist, grow. I. Extended forms *bhwiy(o)-, *bhwi-. 1. BE; FOREBEAR, from Old English beon, to be, from Germanic *biju, I am, will be. 2. FIAT, from Latin fieri, to become. 3. Possibly suffixed form *bhwi-lyo-, seen by some as the source of Latin filius, son, but this is more likely from dhe(i)-. II. Lengthened o-grade form *bhōw-. 1. BONDAGE, BOUND; BUSTLE, HUSBAND, from Old Norse bùa, to live, prepare, and būask, to make oneself ready (-sk, reflexive suffix; see s(w)e-). 2. BAUHAUS, from Old High German buan, to dwell. 3. воотн, from Middle English bothe, market stall, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Danish both, dwelling, stall. 1-3 all from Germanic *bōwan. III. Zero-grade form *bhu-, 1a. BUILD, from Old English byldan, to build, from bold, dwelling, house, from Germanic *buthlam; b. BOODLE, from Middle Dutch bōdel, riches, property, from alternate Germanic form *bōthlam. 2. PHYSIC, PHYSICS, PHYSIO-, PHYSIQUE, -PHYTE, PHYTO-, PHYTON; APOPHYSIS, DIAPHYSIS, DIPHYODONT, EPIPHYSIS, EUPHUISM, HYPOPHYSIS, IMP, MONOPHYSITE, NEOPHYTE, PERIPHYTON, SYMPHYSIS, TRACHEOPHYTE, from Greek phuein, to bring forth, make grow, phutos, phuton, a plant, and phusis, growth, nature. 3. Suffixed form *bhu-tā-. a. EISTEDDFOD, from Welsh bod, to be; b. BOTHY, from Old Irish both, a hut. 4. Suffixed form *bhu-tu-. FUTURE, from Latin futū- rus, "that is to be," future. IV. Zero-grade form *bhū- (< *bhua-). 1a. BOWER¹, from Old English būr, "dwelling space," bower, room; b. NEIGHBOR, from Old English gebür, dweller (ge-, collective prefix; see kom); c. BOER, BOOR, from Middle Dutch gheboer, ghebuer, peasant. ac all from Germanic *būram, dweller, especially farmer. 2. BYRE, from Old English byre, stall, hut, from Germanic *būrjam, dwelling. 3. BYLAW, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse bŷr, settlement, from Germanic *būwi-. 4. Suffixed form *bhū-lo-. PHYLE, PHYLETIC, PHYLUM; PHYLOGENY, from Greek phūlon, tribe, class, race, and phūlē, tribe, clan. V. Zero-grade reduced suffixal form *-bhw-, in Latin compounds. 1. Latin dubius, doubtful, and dubitare, to doubt, from *du-bhw-io- (see dwo-). 2. Latin probus, upright, from *pro-bhw-o-, "growing well or straightforward" (see per¹). 3. Latin superbus, superior, proud, from *super-bhw-o-, "being above" (see uper). VI. Possibly Germanic *baumaz (and *bagmaz), tree (? < "growing thing"). 1. BEAM, from Old English beam, tree, beam. 2. воом², from Middle Dutch boom, tree. 3. BUMPKIN¹, BUMPKIN?, from Flemish boom, tree. [Pokorny bheu- 146.] **bheug-**¹ To flee. 1. Zero-grade form *bhug-. FUGACIOUS, FUGITIVE; CENTRIFUGAL, FEVERFEW, REFUGE, RE- FUGIUM, SUBTERFUGE, from Latin fugere, to flee. 2. Suffixed zero-grade form *bhug-a-. a. -FUGE, FUGUE; FEBRIFUGE, from Latin fuga, flight, and derived verb fugăre, to drive away; b. APOPHYGE, from Greek phuge, flight. (Pokorny 1. bheug- 152.] **bheug-**² To enjoy. Nasalized zero-grade form *bhu-n-g-. FUNCTION, FUNGIBLE, DEFUNCT, PERFUNCTORY, from Latin fungi, to discharge, perform. [Pokorny 4. bheug- 153.] **bheug-**³ To bend; with derivatives referring to bent, pliable, or curved objects. I. Variant form *bheugh- in Germanic *beug-. 1a. BEE2, from Old English beag, a ring; b. BAGEL, from Old High German boug, a ring. Both a and b from Germanic *baugaz. 2a. BOW³; AKIMBO, from Old English boga, a bow, arch; b. Germanic compound *elino-bugon- (see el-1); C. Bow¹, from a source akin to Middle Low German boog, bow of a boat; d. BOWLINE, BOWSPRIT, from Middle Low German bōch, bow of a boat. a-d all from Germanic *bugōn-. 3. Bow², BUX-ом, from Old English būgan, to bend, from Germanic būgan. 4. BAIL³, from Middle English beil, a handle, perhaps from Old English *bēgel or from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Swedish *böghil, both from Germanic *baugil-. 5. BIGHT, from Old English byht, a bend, angle, from Germanic *buhtiz. II. BOG, from Scottish and Irish Gaelic bog, soft, from Celtic *buggo-, "flexible." [Pokorny 3. bheug- 152.] **bhlād-** To worship. Suffixed form *bhlad-(s)men-. FLAMEN, from Latin flamen, priest (of a particular deity). [In Pokorny bhlag-men-154.] **bhlāg-** To strike. (Oldest form *bhleh₂g-, colored to *bhlahg-; zero-grade *bhlag- from *bhlh28-.) 1. BAT², from Middle English bakke, probably from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Swedish (natt-)backa, (night) bat, perhaps from a form *blacka continued in Icelandic (ledhr-)blaka, "(leather-) flutterer," bat, from Germanic *blak-. 2. FLAGELLATE, FLAGELLUM, FLAIL, FLOG, from Latin flagrum, a whip (diminutive flagellum, little whip). 3. PLAGITIOUS, from Latin flagitare, to demand importunately. [Pokorny bhlaĝ- 154.] <13> **bhlē-**¹ To howl. (Probably contracted from earlier *bhleh₁-, extended from bhel-4.) 1a. BLEAT, from Old English blætan, to bleat; b. BLARE, from Middle English bleren, to roar. Both a and b from Germanic *ble-. 2. FEEBLE, from Latin flere, to weep. [Pokorny bhlē- 154.] **bhlē-**² To blow. (Contracted from earlier *bhleh,-, or possibly lengthened grade *bhleh₂- from alternative root *bhleh. Possibly identical to bhel-3 II *bhle- above.) 1. BLOW¹, from Old English blawan, to blow, from Germanic suffixed form *ble-w-. 2a. BLADDER, from Old English blædre, blister, bladder; b. BLATHER, from Old Norse bladhra (noun), bladder, and bladhra (verb), to prattle. Both a and b from Germanic suffixed form *blēdram, "something blown up." За. BLAST, from Old English blæst, a blowing, blast; b. ISINGLASS, from Middle Dutch blas(e), a bladder; c. BLASÉ, BLAZE³, from Middle Dutch blasen, to blow up, swell. a-c all from Germanic extended form *blēs-. 4. Zero-grade form *bhla- (> *bhlā-). FLABELLUM, FLAGEOLET, FLATULENT, FLATUS, FLAVOR; AFFLATUS, CONFLATE, DEFLATE, INFLATE, INSUFFLATE, SOUFFLÉ, from Latin flare, to blow. [In Pokorny 3. bhel- 120.] **bhlei-** To blow, swell. Extension of bhel-2. 1. BLAIN, from Old English blegen, a boil, blister, from Germanic *blajjinōn-, a swelling. 2. Perhaps in the Germanic source of Old French blestre, a blister (akin to Old Norse blāstr, blister, and Middle Dutch blyster, blister): BLISTER. (Pokorny 2. bhlei- 156.] **bhleu-** To swell, well up, overflow. Extension of bhel-2. 1. Possibly Germanic *blaut-. BLOAT, from Old Norse blautr, soft, wet. 2. Extended form *bhleug"-. FLUCTUATE, FLUENT, FLUID, FLUME, FLUOR, FLUORO-, FLUSH², FLUVIAL, FLUX; AFFLUENT, CONFLUENT, EFFLUENT, EFFLUVIUM, EFFLUX, FLUORIDE, FLUVIOMARINE, INFLUENCE, INFLUENZA, INFLUX, MELLIFLUOUS, REFLUX, SOLIFLUCTION, SUPERFLUOUS, from Latin fluere, to flow, and -ftuus, flowing. 3. Zero-grade form *bhlu-. PHLYCTENA, from Greek phiūein, phlūzein, to boil over. 4. Possibly Greek phloos, phloios, tree bark (< "swelling with growth"): PHLOEM. (Pokorny bhleu- 158.] **bhlig-** To strike, AFFLICT, CONFLICT, INFLICT, PROFLIGATE, from Latin fligere, to strike. [Pokorny bhlig- 160.] **bhoso-** Naked. 1. BARE¹, from Old English bær, bare. 2. BALLAST, from Old Swedish and Old Danish bar, bare. Both 1 and 2 from Germanic *baza-. 3. Perhaps Old Norse berserkr, berserker, if originally meaning "he who fights nude" (that is, "he who has nakedness for his shirt" and making reference to the fact that ancient European warriors often fought nude), from berr, bare (serkr, shirt): BERSERK, BERSERKER. Alternatively, the first part of Old Norse berserkr has been derived from the Germanic word for "bear" (see bher-). [Pokorny bhoso-s 163.] **bhrag-** To smell. 1. BRACH, from Old High German bracc(h)o, dog that hunts game by scent, from Germanic *brak-. 2. Suffixed form *bhrag-ro-. FLAIR, FRAGRANT, from Latin fragrâre, to smell. [Pokorny bhrag-163.] **bhrāgh-men-** Form, ritual form. (Oldest form *bhragh-men-.) BRAHMA¹, BRAHMAN, BRAHMΙΝ, from Sanskrit brahma (stem brahman-), prayer, ritual formulation, and derivative brahmā (stem brahmān-), priest ("the one of the prayer"). [Pokorny bhlagh-men- 154.] **bhrāter-** Brother, male agnate. 1a. BROTHER, from Old English brōthor, brother; b. BULLY¹, from Middle Dutch broeder, brother. Both a and b from Germanic *brothar. 2. FRA, FRATERNAL, FRATERNITY, FRATERNIZE, FRIAR; CONFRERE, FRATRICIDE, from Latin frater, brother. 3. PHRATRY, from Greek phrāter, fellow member of a clan. 4. PAL, from Sanskrit bhrātā (stem bhrātar-), brother. [Pokorny bhrāter-163.] **bhreg-** To break. 1a. BREAK, from Old English brecan, to break; b. BREACH, from Old English brēc, a breaking; C. BRASH², BRECCIA, from Italian breccia, breccia, rubble, breach in a wall, from Old High German *brehha, from brehhan, to break; d. BRAY², from Old French breier, to break; e. BRIOCHE, from Old French brier, dialectal variant of broyer, to knead. a-e all from Germanic *brekan. 2. BRACKEN, BRAKE, from Middle English brake(n), bracken, probably from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse *brakni, undergrowth; b. BRAKES, from Middle Low German brake, thicket. Both a and b from Germanic *brak-, bushes (< "that which impedes motion"). 3. BRAKE2, from Middle Low German brake, flax brake, from Germanic *brāk-, crushing instruments. 4. Nasalized zero-grade form *bhr-n-g-. FRACTAL, FRACTED, FRACTION, FRACTIOUS, FRACTURE, FRAGILE, FRAGMENT, FRAIL¹, FRANGIBLE; ANFRACTUOUS, CHAMFER, DEFRAY, DIFFRACTION, INFRACT, INFRANGIBLE, INFRINGE, IRREFRANGIBLE, OSSIFRAGE, REFRACT, REFRAIN2, REFRINGENT, SASSAFRAS, SAXIFRAGE, SEPTIFRAGAL, from Latin frangere, to break. 5a. SUFFRAGAN, SUFFRAGE, from Latin suffragium, the right to vote, from suffragari, to vote for (?< "to use a broken piece of tile as a ballot"); b. IRREFRAGABLE, from Latin refrāgāri, to vote against. [Pokorny 1. bhreĝ- 165 (but & not on good evidence).] **bhreiǝ-** To cut, break. Zero-grade *bhri- (< *bhrihx-). 1. Possibly Latin fricăre (> French frotter), to rub: FRAY, FRICATIVE, FRICTION, FROTTAGE; AFFRICATE, DENTIFRICE. 2. Possibly Latin friāre, to crumble: FRIABLE. 3. BRISANCE; DEBRIS, from Vulgar Latin *brīsāre (> Old French brisier, to break), of Celtic origin. [Pokorny bhrēi- 166.] **bhrekw-** To cram together. 1. Probably Latin frequens, frequent, crowded: FREQUENT. 2. Suffixed zero-grade form *bhrk-yo-. a. FARCE, FARCI, FARCY; INFARCT, from Latin farcire, to cram, stuff; b. DIAPHRAGM, PHRAGMITES, from Greek phrassein, to fence in, enclose, block up. [Pokorny bharek- 110.] **bhrem-**¹ To growl. 1. FREMITUS, from Latin fremere, to growl, roar. 2. Perhaps o-grade variant form *brom-. BRONTOSAUR, from Greek bronte, thunder. [Pokorny 2. bherem-142.] **bhrem-**² To project; a point, spike; an edge. 1a. BROOM, from Old English brom, broom; b. BRAMBLE, from Old English diminutive bremel, bræmbel, bramble. Both a and b from Germanic *brēma-, name of prickly shrubs. 2a. BRIM, from Middle English brimme, edge; b. BERM, from Middle Dutch berme, barm, edge of a dike. Both a and b from Germanic *berm-, *brem-. [Pokorny 1. bherem-142.] **bhres-** To burst. BURST, from Old English berstan, to burst, from Germanic *brest-. [Pokorny bhres-169.] **bhreu-** Also bhreuǝ-. To cut, break up. Extension of bher-2. I. Basic form *bhreu-. 1. Suffixed form *bhreu-d-. BRITTLE, from Middle English britel, brittle, from Germanic *brutila-, brittle, from *breutan, to break up. 2. Suffixed form *bhreu-t-. BROTHEL, from Old English breothan, to deteriorate, from Germanic *breuthan, to be broken up. II. Extended zero-grade form *bhrūs- (< *bhruas-). 1. BRUISE, partly from Old English brysan, to crush, pound (from Germanic *brūsjan) and partly from Old North French bruisier, to crush (from Gaulish *brūs-). 2. Suffixed zero-grade form *bhrus-to-, FRUSTULE, FRUSTUM, from Latin frustum, piece. [Pokorny 1. bhrều- 169, 2. bhreu-s-171.] **bhreuǝ-** Also bhreu-. To boil, bubble, effervesce, burn; with derivatives referring to cooking and brewing. (Oldest form *bhreuh,-; variant [metathesized] form *bhreh₁u-.) I. 1. BREW, from Old English breowan, to brew, from Germanic *breuwan, to brew. 2. BREAD, from Old English bread, piece of food, bread, from Ger- <14> manic *braudam, (cooked) food, (leavened) bread. 3a. BROTH, from Old English broth, broth; b. BREWIS, BROIL2; EMBROIL, IMBROGLIO, from Vulgar Latin *brodum, broth. Both a and b from Germanic *brudam, broth. II. Variant form *bhre- (contracted from earlier *bhreh₁-). Germanic extended form *bred- in verb *brēdan, to warm. 1a. BROOD, from Old English bröd, offspring, brood; b. BREED, from Old English brēdan, to beget or cherish offspring, breed, from Germanic denominative *brōdjan, to rear young. Both a and b from Germanic derivative *brōd-ō, "a warming" hatching, rearing of young. 2a. BRATWURST, SAUERBRATEN, from Old High German brat, brato, roast meat; b. BRAWN, from Old French braon, meat. Both a and b from Germanic derivative *brēd-on-, roast flesh. III. Variant form *bhres-. 1. BRAISE, BRAZE2, BRAZIER?, BREEZE, BRESAOLA, from Old French brese, burning coal, ember. 2. BRACIOLA, from Italian dialectal brasa, burning coal. Both 1 and 2 from Germanic *bres-. IV. Reduced form *bher-, especially in derivatives referring to fermentation. 1a. Suffixed form *bher-men-, yeast. BARM, BARMY, from Old English beorma, yeast, from Germanic *bermon-; b. further suffixed form *bhermen-to-. FERMENT, from Latin fermentum, yeast. 2. Extended form *bherw-. FERVENT, FERVID, FERVOR; DEFERVESCENCE, EFFERVESCE, from Latin fervērs, to be boiling or fermenting. V. As a very archaic word for a spring. 1. Suffixed zero-grade form *bhru-n(e)n-. BOURN¹, BURN2, from Old English burn, burna, spring, stream, from Germanic *brunnōn-. 2. Suffixed form *bhrew-r. PHREATIC, from Greek phrear, spring. [Pokorny bh(e)reu- 143, 2. bher- 132.] **bhreus-** To swell. 1. Suffixed form *bhreus-t-. BREAST, from Old English brēost, breast, from Germanic *breustam, "swelling," breast. 2. Suffixed zero-grade form *bhrus-t-. BROWSE, from Old French broust, brost, shoot, twig, from Germanic *brust-, bud, shoot. 3. Suffixed zero-grade form *bhrus-k-. BRISKET, from Middle English brusket, breast of an animal, probably from a Scandinavian source akin to Danish brusk, cartilage (since the brisket of livestock includes or lies over masses of cartilage). (Pokorny 1. bhreu-s- 170.] **bhrū-** Eyebrow. (Contracted from *bhruhx-.) 1. BROW, from Old English brū-, eyebrow, eyelid, eyelash, from Germanic *brūs. 2. Possibly in the sense of a beam of wood, and perhaps a log bridge. BRIDGE¹, from Old English brycg(e), bridge, from Germanic *brugjō (with cognates in Celtic and Slavic). (Pokorny 1. bhrū- 172, 2. bhrū- 173.] **bhrūg-** Agricultural produce; also to enjoy (results, produce). Italic and Germanic root. 1a. BROOK2, from Old English brūcan, to enjoy, use. b. GEBRAUCHSMUSIK, from Old High German brūhhan, brūhhen, to enjoy. Both a and b from Germanic *brūkan, to enjoy 2. FRUGAL; FRUGIVOROUS, from Latin früx (stem früg-), fruit. 3. Suffixed form *bhrūg-wo-. FRUIT, FRUITION, FRUMENTACEOUS, FRUMENTY; FRUCTIFY, INFRUCTESCENCE, from Latin frui, to enjoy, with derivatives frümentum (< *früg-smentom), grain, produce, and frūctus, enjoyment, produce, results. [Pokorny bhrug-173.] **bhudh-** Also budh-. Bottom, base. (The precise pre-forms of the words listed below are obscure.) 1. вот-том, from Old English botm, bottom, from Germanic *butmaz. 2. BUMBOAT, from Middle Dutch bodem, (ship's) bottom, from Germanic *buthmaz. 3. FOND², FOUND¹, FOUNDER, FUND, FUNDAMENT, FUNDUS; LATIFUNDIUM, PROFOUND, from Latin fundus, bottom, base. 4. Suffixed variant form *budh-o-. ABYSS, from Greek buthos, bussos, bottom of the sea. [Pokorny bhudh-m(e)n 174.] Compare dheub-. **bhugo-** Male animal of various kinds; stag, ram, he-goat. (Oldest form *bhuĝo-.) 1a. BUCK¹, from Old English buc, bucca, stag, he-goat; b. BLESBOK, BONTEBOK, SPRINGBOK, STEENBOK, from Middle Dutch boc, bok, buck; C. GEMSBOK, from Old High German boc, buck. ac all from Germanic *bukkaz (possibly borrowed from the Celtic form in 2 below). 2. BUTCHER, from Old French boc, buck, from Celtic *bukkos, he-goat. [Pokorny bhňĝo-s 174.) **[brāk-** Trousers. A northern European word, found only in Celtic and Germanic. 1. BREECH, BREEKS, BROGUE¹, from Old English brūc (plural brēc), from Germanic *brōk-. 2. BRACKET, BRAIL, from Latin brāca, trousers (plural brācae), from Gaulish *brāka.] **[bursa** Skin, hide. Greek noun of unknown origin. BOLSON, BOURSE, BURSA, BURSAR, BURSE, PURSE; DISBURSE, REIMBURSE, SPORRAN.] **[busk-** A bush. Germanic root, possibly connected with bheua-. 1. ROOIBOS, from Middle Dutch bosch, woods, forest. 2. BOSCAGE, BOUQUET, from Old French bosc, forest. 3. BUSH¹; HAUTBOY, OBOE, from Old French bois, wood. 4. BUSK¹, from Italian busco, splinter. 5. BOSQUET, from Old Italian bosco, wood. 6. AMBUSCADE, AMBUSH, from Late Latin buscus, forest.] **[carcer** Enclosure, prison, barrier. Latin noun, probably borrowed from an unidentified source. 1. INCARCERATB, from Latin carcer (representing reduplicated form *kar-kr-o-). 2. CANCEL, CHANCEL, CHANCELLOR, from Latin cancer, lattice (representing a dissimilated form *kankro-).] **[caupō** Small trader. Latin noun of unknown origin, borrowed early into Germanic. CHEAP; CHAP², CHAPMAN, from Old English ceap, trade, from Germanic *kaupōn-.] **dā-** To divide. (Oldest form *deh₂-, colored to *dah2", contracted to *dā-.) I. Suffixed form *dā-mo-, perhaps "division of society." DEME, DEMOS, DEMOTIC; DEMAGOGUE, DEMIURGE, DEMOCRACY, DEMOGRAPHY, ENDEMIC, EPIDEMIC, PANDEMIC, from Greek dēmos, people, land. II. Extended form *dai- (contracted from earlier *dahzi-, colored from oldest form *deh₂i-), with zero-grade *dī- (< *dia-, metathesized from *dai-). 1. Root form *dai-. GEODESY, from Greek daiesthai, to divide. 2. Suffixed form *dai-mon-, divider, provider. DAIMON, DEMON, from Greek daimon, divinity. 3. Suffixed zero-grade form *di-ti-. a. TIDE¹; EVENTIDE, from Old English tid, time, season; b. TIDE?, from Old English denominative tidan, to happen (< "to occur in time"); C. TIDING, from Old Norse tidhr, occurring; d. YAHRZEIT, ZEITGEBER, ZEITGEIST, from Old High German zit, time. ad all from Germanic *tīdiz, division of time. 4. Suffixed zero-grade form *di-mon-. TIME, from Old English tima, time, period, from Germanic *timon-. [Pokorny da: da- 175.) See also extension dail-. **dail-** To divide. Northern Indo-European root extended from *da(a)i- (see dā-). 1. DEAL¹, from Old English dælan, to share, from Germanic *dailjan. 2a. DOLE¹, from Old English dal, portion, lot, from Germanic *dailaz. 3. ORDEAL, from Old English ordal, trial by ordeal, from Germanic prefixed form *uz-dailjam, "a portioning out," judgment (*uz-, out; see ud-). 4. FIRKIN, from Middle Dutch deel, part, from Germanic *dailiz. (In Pokorny da : də- 175.] **daiwer-** Husband's brother. LEVIRATE, from Latin lēvir, husband's brother (probably a dialect borrowing). [Pokorny daiyēr 179.] **dakru-** Tear. (Oldest form *dahru-.) 1a. TEAR², from Old English tear, tehher, tear; b. TRAIN OIL, from Middle Dutch trane, tear, drop. Both a and b from Germanic *tahr-, *tagr-. 2. Suffixed form *dakru-mā-. LACHRYMAL, from Latin lacrima (Archaic Latin dacruma), tear. [Pokorny dakru- 179.] <15> **dan-** Low ground. Germanic root. 1. **DEN**, from Old English denn, lair of a wild beast, from suffixed form **dan-jam**. 2. Possibly Old English Dene, the Danes, and Old Norse Danr, Dane: **DANE**, **DANISH**; **DANELAW**. [In Pokorny 2. dhen- 249.] **dānu-** River. 1. **Don** (river in Scotland), from Old English Dōn, from Celtic. 2. **DANUBE**, from Latin Dānuvius, from Celtic suffixed form **dānu(w)-yo-**. 3a. **Don** (river in Russia), from Russian Don, from an Iranian source akin to Ossetic don, river; b. **DNIEPER**, from Russian Dnepr, from Scythian **dānu apara**, "river in the rear, farther river" (*apara*, farther; see **apo**); C. **DNIESTER**, from Russian Dnestr, from Scythian **dānu nazdya** "nearer river, river in front" (*nazdya-, nearer). a-c all from Iranian **dānu-**, river. [Pokorny dā- 175.] **dap-** To apportion (in exchange). Suffixed form **dap-no-**. **DAMAGE**, **DAMN**; **CONDEMN**, **INDEMNIFY**, **INDEMNITY**, from Latin damnum, damage entailing liability (for reparation), harm. [In Pokorny da: da- 175.] **Language and Culture Note** Derivatives of the root **dap-** (which yields such English words as **damage** and **damn**) furnish a useful window on the nature of reciprocal exchange relationships, which were central to the ancient Indo-European peoples. In their societies, and in Proto-Indo-European society itself, a gift entailed a countergift, and an act causing damage entailed the payment of recompense. The root **dap-** embodies the notion of apportionment in a reciprocal exchange relationship of either sort. In Latin, the word damnum, from a suffixed form **dap-no-**, meant "damage entailing liability." Its Old Irish cognate, dúan (also from **dap-no-**), however, meant "poem." How the same Indo-European form can come to mean "damage entailing liability" in one language and "poem" in another makes perfect sense in light of the relationship obtaining between the Indo-European poet and his patron (typically a king): the poet sang the patron's fame, and in return the patron bestowed largesse on the poet. The relationship was vital to both parties: the king's livelihood depended on the poet's singing his praises (in Ireland, for example, a "king without poets" was proverbial for "nothing"), and the poet lived off the largesse bestowed by the king. The poem therefore was a vehicle of this reciprocal exchange relationship; it was a gift entailing a countergift just as surely as damages entail reparation. **de-** Demonstrative stem, base of prepositions and adverbs. 1. Form **do** (possibly instrumental). a. (i) **TO**, **TOO**, from Old English tō, to; (ii) **TSIMMES**, from Old High German zuo, ze, to; (iii) **TATTOO¹**, from Middle Dutch toe, to, shut. (i)-(iii) all from Germanic **to**; b. Italic **do** in compound **kām-do** (see **kwo-**). 2. Form **dē** (possibly instrumental), perhaps source of forms meaning "from, out of." a. **DE-**, from Latin dē, de-, from; b. **DETERIORATE**, from Latin deterior, worse, from suffixed form **de-tero-**; c. compound **de-bel-i-** (see **bel-**); d. Celtic **di**, from, in compound **eks-di-sedo-** (see **sed-¹**). [Pokorny de- 181.] **dē-** To bind. (Contracted from earlier **deh₁-**.) **DESMID**; **ANADEM**, **ASYNDETON**, **DIADEM**, **PLASMODESMA**, **SYNDESMOSIS**, **SYNDETIC**, from Greek dein, to bind. [Pokorny dē- 183.] **deigh-** Insect. (Oldest form **deiĝh-**.) Possibly Germanic **tik-ō**, **tikk-ō**. **TICK²**, from Middle English teke, tick. [Pokorny deiĝh- 187.] **deik-** Also **deig-**. To show, pronounce solemnly; also in derivatives referring to the directing of words or objects. (Oldest forms **deik-**, **deiĝ-**.) I. Variant **deig-**. 1. O-grade form **doig-**. a. **TEACH**, from Old English tæcan, to show, instruct, from Germanic **taikjan**, to show; b. (i) **TOKEN**, from Old English tācen, tācn, sign, mark; (ii) **BETOKEN**, from Old English tācnian, to signify; (iii) **TETCHY**, from Gothic taikns, sign; (iv) **TACHISME**, from Old French tache, teche, mark, stain. (i)-(iv) all from Germanic **taiknam**. 2. Zero-grade form **dig-**. **DIGIT**, from Latin digitus, finger (<"pointer," "indicator"). II. Basic form **deik-**. 1. Possibly o-grade form **doik-**. **TOE**, from Old English tā, tāhe, toe, from Germanic **taihwō**. 2. Basic form **deik-**. **DICTATE**, **DICTION**, **DICTUM**, **DITTO**, **DITTY**; **ADDICT**, **BENEDICTION**, **CONDITION**, **CONTRADICT**, **EDICT**, **FATIDIC**, **HERB BENNET**, **INDICT**, **INDICTION**, **INDITE**, **INTERDICT**, **JURIDICAL**, **JURISDICTION**, **MALEDICT**, **MALISON**, **PREDICT**, **VALEDICTION**, **VERDICT**, **VERIDICAL**, **VOIR DIRE**, from Latin dīcere, to say, tell. 3. Suffixed zero-grade form **dik-ā-**. **ABDICATE**, **DEDICATE**, **PREACH**, **PREDICAMENT**, **PREDICATE**, from Latin dicāre, to proclaim. 4. Agential suffix **-dik-**. a. **INDEX**, **INDICATE**, from Latin index, indicator, forefinger (in-, toward; see **en**); b. **JUDGE**, **JUDICIAL**; **PREJUDICE**, from Latin iūdex (< **yewes-dik-**), judge, "one who shows or pronounces the law" (iūs, law; see **yewes-**); C. **VENDETTA**, **VINDICATE**; **AVENGE**, **REVENGE**, from Latin vindex (first element obscure), surety, claimant, avenger. 5. **DEICTIC**, **DEIXIS**; **APODICTIC**, **PARADIGM**, **POLICY²**, from Greek deiknunai, to show, and noun deigma (*deik-mn*), sample, pattern. 6. Zero-grade form **dik-**. **DISK**; **DICTYOSOME**, from suffixed form **dik-skos**, from Greek dikein, to throw (< "to direct an object"). 7. Form **dikā-**. **DICAST**; **SYNDIC**, **THEODICY**, from Greek dikē, justice, right, court case. [Pokorny deik- 188.] **dek-¹** To take, accept. (Oldest form **dek-**.) 1. Suffixed (stative) form **dek-ē-**. **DECENT**, from Latin decēre, to be fitting (< "to be acceptable"). 2. Suffixed (causative) o-grade form **dok-eye-**. a. **DOCENT**, **DOCILE**, **DOCTOR**, **DOCTRINE**, **DOCUMENT**, from Latin docēre, to teach (< "to cause to accept"); b. **DOGMA**, **DOGMATIC**; **CHIONODOXA**, **DOCETISM**, **DOXOLOGY**, **HETERODOX**, **ORTHODOX**, **PARADOX**, from Greek dokein, to appear, seem, think (< "to cause to accept or be accepted"). 3. Suffixed form **dek-es-**. a. **DÉCOR**, **DECORATE**, from Latin decus, grace, ornament; b. **DECOROUS**, from Latin decor, seemliness, elegance, beauty. 4. Suffixed form **dek-no-**. **DAINTY**, **DEIGN**, **DIGNITY**; **CONDIGN**, **DIGNIFY**, **DISDAIN**, **INDIGN**, **INDIGNANT**, **INDIGNATION**, from Latin dignus, worthy, deserving, fitting. 5. Reduplicated form **di-dk-ske-**. **DISCIPLE**, **DISCIPLINE**, from Latin discere, to learn. 6. **DOWEL**, **PANDECT**, **SYNECDOCHE**, from Greek dekhesthai, to accept. 7. Suffixed o-grade form **dok-o-**. **DIPLODOCUS**, from Greek dokos, beam, support. [Pokorny 1. dek- 189.] **dek-²** Referring to such things as a fringe, lock of hair, horsetail. (Oldest form **dek-**.) 1. Suffixed o-grade form **dok-lo-**. **TAIL¹**, from Old English tæg(e)l, tail, from Germanic **taglaz**. 2. Perhaps Germanic **tag-**. a. **TAG¹**, from Middle English tagge, pendent piece, from a Scandinavian source akin to Swedish tagg, prickle; b. **SHAKO**, from Middle High German zacke, nail (> German **Zacken**, point); C. **TACHE**, **TACK¹**, from Old French tache, fastening, nail. [Pokorny 2. dek- 191.] **dekm** Ten. (Oldest form **dekm**.) I. Basic form **dekm**. 1a. **TEN**, from Old English tīen, ten; b. Old Norse tjān, ten, in compound āttjān (see **oktō(u)**). Both a and b from Germanic **tehun**. 2. **EIGHTEEN**, **FIFTEEN**, **FOURTEEN**, **NINETEEN**, **SEVENTEEN**, **SIXTEEN**, **THIRTEEN**, from Old English suffix **-tēne**, **-tīne**, **-tȳne**, ten, -teen, from Germanic **tehan**. 3. **DECI-**, **DECIMAL**, **DECIMATE**, **DECUPLE**, **DECURION**, **DICKER**, **DIME**; **DECEMBER**, **DECEMVIR**, **DECENNARY**, **DECENNIUM**, **DECUSSATE**, **DOZEN**, **DUODECIMAL**, **OCTODECIMO**, **SEXTODECIMO**, from Latin decem, ten. 4. **DENARIUS**, **DENARY**, **DENIER**, **DINAR**, from irregular Latin distributive dēnī, by tens, ten each (formed by analogy with nōnī, nine each). 5. **DEAN**, **DECA-**, **DECADE**, **DOYEN**; **DECAGON**, **DEC- ALOGUE**, **DODECAGON**, from Greek deka, ten. <16> II. Germanic **tigu-**, ten, decad (of uncertain formation, as though < **deku-**), in compound **twegentig** (see **dwō-**). III. Ordinal number **dekmto-**. **TENTH**, **TITHE**, from Old English tēogotha, tēotha, tenth, from Germanic **teguntha-**. IV. Suffixed zero-grade form **-dkm-tā**, reduced to **-kmtā**, and lengthened o-grade form **-dkom-tā**, reduced to **-kontā**. 1. **NONAGENARIAN**, **OCTOGENARIAN**, **SEPTUAGINT**, **SEXAGENARY**, from Latin **-gintā**, ten times. 2. **PENTECOST**, from Greek **-konta**, ten times. V. Suffixed zero-grade form **dkm-tom**, hundred, reduced to **kmtom**. 1. **HUNDRED**, from Old English hundred, from dialectal North and West Germanic **hund(a)-rada-** (*-rada-*, from Germanic **radam**, number; see **ar-**), from Germanic **hundam**, hundred. 2. Germanic compound **thūs-hundi**, "swollen hundred," thousand (see **teuə-²**). 3. **CENT**, **CENTAL**, **CENTAVO**, **CENTENARIAN**, **CENTENARY**, **CENTESIMAL**, **CENTI-**, **CENTIME**, **CENTNER**, **CENTUM**, **CENTURY**, **QINDARKA**; **CENTENNIAL**, **CINQUECENTO**, **PERCENT**, **QUATTROCENTO**, **SEICENTO**, **SEN²**, **SENITI**, **SEXCENTENARY**, **TRECENTO**, from Latin centum, hundred. 4. **HECATOMB**, **HECTO-**, from Greek hekaton, a hundred (? dissimilated from **hem-katon**, one hundred; **hem-**, one; see **sem-¹**). 5. **SATEM**, from Avestan satam, hundred. [Pokorny dekm 191.] See also **wīkṁtī**. **deks-** Right (opposite left); hence, south (from the viewpoint of one facing east). (Oldest form **dels-**.) Suffixed form **deks(i)-tero-**. **DESTRIER**, **DEXTER**, **DEXTERITY**, **DEXTRO-**; **AMBIDEXTROUS**, from Latin dexter, right, on the right side. [In Pokorny 1. dek- 189.] Compare **ner-¹**. **del-¹** Long. I. Probably extended and suffixed zero-grade form **dlon-gho-**. 1a. **LONG**; **ALONG**, **LONGSHORE**, from Old English lang, long, long; b. **LANGLAUF**, from Old High German lang, long; c. **BELONG**, from Old English gelang, along; d. **LONG²**, from Old English denominative langian, to grow longer, yearn for, from Germanic **langōn**; e. **LINGER**, from Old English lengan, to prolong (possibly influenced by Old Norse lengja, to lengthen), from Germanic **langjan**, to make long; f. **LOMBARD**, from Latin compound Longobardus, Langobardus (with Germanic ethnic name **Bardi**). a-f all from Germanic **langaz**, long. 2a. **LENGTH**, from Old English lengthu, length; b. **LENT**, from Old English lengten, lencten, spring, Lent, from West Germanic **langitinaz**, lengthening of day. Both a and b from Germanic abstract noun **langithō**. 3. **LING¹**, from Middle English lenge, ling, ling, from a Low German source akin to Dutch lenghe, linghe, "long one," from Germanic **langin-**. 4. **LONGERON**, **LONGITUDE**, **LOUNGE**; **ELOIGN**, **ELONGATE**, **LONGEVITY**, **LUNGE**, **OBLONG**, **PROLONG**, **PURLOIN**, from Latin longus, long. II. Possibly suffixed variant form **dlā-gho-**. **DOLICHOCEPHALIC**, **DOLICHOCRANIAL**, from Greek dolikhos, long. [Pokorny 5. del- 196.] **del-²** To recount, count. O-grade form **dol-**. 1. **TELL¹**, from Old English tellan, to count, recount, from Germanic **taljan**. 2. **TALL**, from Old English getæl, quick, ready, from West Germanic **(ge-)tala-**. 3a. **TALE**, from Old English talu, story; b. **TAAL²**, from Middle Dutch tāle, speech, language. Both a and b from Germanic **talō**. 4. **TALK**, from Middle English talken, to talk, from a source probably akin to Old English denominative talian, to tell, relate. 5. Perhaps Greek dolos, ruse, snare: **DOLERITE**, **SEDULOUS**. [Pokorny 1. del- 193.] **del(ə)-** To split, carve, cut. 1. Suffixed form **del-to-**. **TILT²**, from Old English teld, awning, tent, from Germanic **teldam**, "thing spread out." 2. **TILLER³**, from Old English telgor, telgra, twig, branch, from Germanic extended form **telg-**. 3. Perhaps suffixed o-grade form **dol-ē-**. **DOLE²**, **DOLOR**; **CONDOLE**, **INDOLENT**, from Latin dolēre, to suffer (? < "to be beaten"). 4. Suffixed o-grade form **dol-ā-**. **DOLABRIFORM**, from Latin dolāre, to chisel, hew (derivative dolābra, a heavy chopping tool). [Pokorny 3. del- 194.] **dem-** House, household. 1. Suffixed o-grade form **dom-o-**, **dom-u-**, house. a. **DOME**, **DOMESTIC**, **DOMICILE**; **MAJOR-DOMO**, from Latin domus, house; b. suffixed form **dom-o-no-**. **DAME**, **DAN²**, **DANGER**, **DOM**, **DOMAIN**, **DOMAINE**, **DOMINATE**, **DOMINICAL**, **DOMINIE**, **DOMINION**, **DOMINO¹**, **DOMINO**, **DON¹**, **DONNA**, **DUNGEON**; **BELLADONNA**, **DUENDE**, **MADAM**, **MADAME**, **MADEMOISELLE**, **MADONNA**, **PREDOMINATE**, from Latin dominus, master of a household (feminine domina). 2. Possibly suffixed lengthened-grade form **dom-n**. **DOME**, from Greek dōma, house. 3. Compound **dems-pot-**, "house-master" (*-pot-*, powerful; see **poti-**). **DESPOT**, from Greek despotēs, master, lord. 4. Root form **dem(h₂)-**, to build (possibly a separate root). a. **TIMBER**, from Old English timber, building material, lumber, from Germanic **timram**; b. **TOFT**, from Old Norse topt, homestead, from Germanic **tumftō**. [Pokorny dem- 198.] **demə-** To constrain, force, especially to break in (horses). (Oldest form **demh₂-**.) 1. Suffixed o-grade form **dom(ə)-o-**. **TAME**, from Old English tam, domesticated, from Germanic **tama-**. 2. O-grade form **domə-**. **DAUNT**; **INDOMITABLE**, from Latin domāre, to tame, subdue. 3. Zero-grade form **dmə-**. **ADAMANT**, **DIAMOND**, from Greek daman, to tame (> adamās, unconquerable, from **n-dmə-nt-**). [Pokorny (demə-) 199.] **denk-** To bite. (Oldest form **denk-**.) 1. **TOUGH**, from Old English tōh, tenacious, sticky (< "holding fast"), from Germanic **tanhu-**. 2. **TONGS**, from Old English tang(e), tong(e), pincers, tongs, from Germanic **tangō**. 3. **TANG¹**, from Middle English tonge, tange, point, tang, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse tangi, a point, sting, from Germanic **tang-**. 4. **ZINC**, from Old High German zinko, spike, prong, from Germanic **teng-**. [Pokorny denk- 201.] **dens-¹** To use mental force. Reduplicated and suffixed zero-grade form **di-dns-sko-**. **DIDACTIC**; **AUTODIDACT**, from Greek didaskein, to teach. [Pokorny 1. dens- 201.] **dens-²** Dense, thick. 1. Suffixed form **dens-o-** or **dus-o-**. **DENSE**; **CONDENSE**, from Latin dēnsus, thick. 2. Suffixed zero-grade form **dņs-u-**. **DASYURE**, from Greek dasus, hairy, shaggy. [Pokorny 2. dens- 202.] **dent-** Tooth. (Originally **h₁d-ent-**, "biting," present participle of **hed-**, to eat, in the earlier meaning "to bite"; see **ed-**.) 1. O-grade form **(ə)dont-**. a. **TOOTH**, from Old English tōth, tooth, from Germanic **tanthuz**; b. **-ODON**, **-ODONT**, **ODONTO-**; **CERATODUS**, **MASTODON**, from Greek odōn, odous, tooth. 2. Zero-grade form **dnt-**. **TUSK¹**, from Old English tūsc, tūx, canine tooth, from Germanic **tunth-sk-**. 3. Full-grade form **dent-**. **DENTAL**, **DENTATE**, **DENTI-**, **DENTICLE**, **DENTIST**; **DANDELION**, **EDENTATE**, **EDENTULOUS**, **INDENT¹**, **INDENTURE**, **TRIDENT**, from Latin dēns (stem dent-), tooth. [In Pokorny ed- 287.] **deph-** To stamp. Uncertain root form. 1. Suffixed form **deph-s-ter-**. **DIPHTHERIA**, from Greek diphtherā, prepared hide, leather (used to write on). 2. **LETTER**, **LITERAL**, **LITERARY**, **LITERATIM**; **ALLITERATE**, **ALLITERATION**, **ILLITERATE**, **OBLITERATE**, **TRANSLITERATE**, from Latin littera, litera, letter (possibly borrowed from Greek diphtherā in the sense of "tablet" via Etruscan). [Pokorny deph- 203.] **der-¹** Assumed base of roots meaning "to run, walk, step." 1. Zero-grade form **dr-** in extended Germanic form **tred-**. a. **TREAD**, **TREADLE**, from Old English tredan, to step; b. **TRADE**, from Middle Low German trāde, course, track. 2. Extended form **dreb-**. a. **TRAP¹**, from Old English træppe, treppe, snare; b. **TRAP³**, from from Middle Low German trappe, stair; c. **WENTLETRAP**, from Middle Dutch trappe, stair; d. <17> **ENTRAP**, from Old French trap(p)e, snare; e. **TRIP**, from Middle Dutch trippen, to stamp, trample. a-e all from Germanic **trep-**, "something on or into which one steps." 3a. **TRAMP**, from Middle Low German trampen, to stamp, tread; b. **TRAMPOLINE**, from Italian trampoli, stilts. a and b from nasalized Germanic root **tremp-**. 4. **TROT**, from Old French troter, to trot, from Germanic **trott-**, expressive derivative of **tred-**. 5. Extended zero-grade form **drā-** possibly in reduplicated Germanic form **ti-trǝ-**. **TEETER**, from Old Norse titra, to tremble. 6. Root form **drem-** in suffixed o-grade form **drom-o-**. a. **-DROME**, **DROMOND**, **-DROMOUS**; **ANADROMOUS**, **LOXODROME**, **PALINDROME**, **PRODROME**, from Greek dromos, a running, race, racecourse; b. **DROMEDARY**, from Greek dromas, running. [Pokorny 3. (der-) 204.] **der-²** To split, peel, flay; with derivatives referring to skin and leather. 1. **TEAR¹**, from Old English teran, to tear, from Germanic **teran**. 2. **TART¹**, from Old English teart, sharp, severe, from Germanic **ter-t-**. 3. Suffixed zero-grade form **dr-tom**, "something separated or discarded." **TURD**, from Old English tord, turd, from Germanic **turdam**, turd. 4. Reduplicated form **dedr-u-**. **TETTER**, from Old English tet(e)r, eruption, skin disease. 5. Suffixed form **der-mņ**. **-DERM**, **DERMA**, **-DERMA**, **DERMATO-**; **EPIDERMIS**, from Greek derma, skin. 6. **DAHL**, **DALIT**, **DHURRIE**, from Sanskrit darāti, he splits. [Pokorny 4. der- 206.] **derbh-** To wind, compress. Zero-grade form **drbh-**. 1. **TURF**, from Old English turf, slab of sod or peat. 2. **TURBARY**, from Medieval Latin turba, turf. Both 1 and 2 from Germanic **turb-**. [Pokorny derbh- 211.] **derə-** To work. (Oldest form **derh₂-**, with variant [metathesized] root form **dreh₂-**, colored to **drāh₂-**, contracted to **drā-**.) Variant form **drā-**. **DRAMA**, **DRASTIC**, from Greek drān, to do. [Pokorny derə- 212.] **dergh-** To grasp. 1. Perhaps Germanic **targ-** in Old French targe, shield: **TARGE**, **TARGET**. 2. Perhaps zero-grade **dṛgh-**. **DIRHAM**, **DRACHMA**, from Greek drassesthai, to grab (> drakhmē, "handful," drachma). [Pokorny dergh- 212.] **derk-** To see. (Oldest form **derk-**.) Suffixed zero-grade form **drk-on(t)-**. **DRAGON**, **DRAGOON**, **DRAKE²**, **RANKLE**, **TARRAGON**, from Greek drakōn, serpent, dragon (< "monster with the evil eye"). [Pokorny derk- 213.] **deru-** Also **dreu-**. To be firm, solid, steadfast; hence specialized senses "wood," "tree," and derivatives referring to objects made of wood. 1. Suffixed variant form **drew-o-**. a. **TREE**, from Old English trēow, tree, from Germanic **trewam**; b. **TRUCE**, from Old English trēow, pledge, from Germanic **treuwō**. 2. Variant form **dreu-**. a. **TRUE**, from Old English trēowe, firm, true; b. **TROW**, from Old English trēowian, trūwian, to trust; c. **TRIG¹**, from Old Norse tryggr, firm, true; d. **TROTH**, **TRUTH**; **BETROTH**, from Old English trēowth, faith, loyalty, truth, from Germanic abstract noun **treuwithō**; e. **TRUST**, from Old Norse traust, confidence, firmness, from Germanic abstract noun **traustam**; f. **TRYST**, from Old French triste, waiting place (< "place where one waits trustingly"), probably from a source akin to Old Norse denominative treysta, to trust, make firm. a-f all from Germanic **treuwaz**. 3. Variant form **drou-**. **TRAY**, from Old English treg, trīg, wooden board, from Germanic **traujam**. 4. Suffixed zero-grade form **dru-ko-**. a. **TROUGH**, from Old English trog, wooden vessel, tray; b. **TRUG**, from Old Norse trog, trough. Both a and b from Germanic **trugaz**. 5. Suffixed zero-grade form **dru-mo-**. a. **TRIM**, from Old English trum, firm, strong; b. **SHELTER**, from Old English truma, troop. Both a and b from Germanic **trum-**. 6. Variant form **derw-**. **TAR¹**, from Old English te(o)ru, resin, pitch (obtained from the pine tree), from Germanic **terw-**. 7. Lengthened zero-grade form **drū-**. **DRUPE**, **DRYAD**; **DRYOPITHECUS**, **GERMANDER**, **HAMADRYAD**, from Greek drūs, oak. 8. Reduplicated form **der-drew-**, dissimilated with suffix in **der-drew-on**. **DENDRO-**, **DENDRON**; **PHILODENDRON**, **RHODODENDRON**, from Greek dendron, tree. 9. **DRUID**, from Latin druidēs, druids, probably from Celtic compound **dru-wid-**, "strong seer" (*wid-*, seeing; see **weid-**), member of the Celtic priestly caste (compare Old Irish druī, druid). 10. O-grade form **doru-**. **DEODAR**, from Sanskrit dāru, wood, timber. [Pokorny deru- 214.] **des-** Enemy, foreigner, slave. Possible root, found only in Indo-Iranian and Greek. Suffixed o-grade form **dos-elo-** (feminine **dos-elā-**). **DOULA**, **DULOSIS**; **HIERODULE**, from Greek doulos (feminine doulē), slave (oldest Mycenaean Greek form doelos, doela). [Not in Pokorny; compare Sanskrit dāsaḥ, enemy (< **dos-o-**).] **deu-¹** To lack, be wanting. 1. Possibly suffixed form **deu-s-**. a. **TIRE¹**, from Old English tēorian, tyrian, to fail, tire (< "to fall behind"), from Germanic **teuzōn**; b. **DEONTOLOGY**, from Greek dein, to lack, want. 2. Suffixed form **deu-tero-**. **DEUTERO-**; **DEUTERAGONIST**, **DEUTERIUM**, **DEUTERONOMY**, from Greek deuteros, "missing," next, second. 3. Suffixed zero-grade form **dus-**, combining form of **dew-es-**, "a lack", treated separately under **dus-**. [Pokorny 3. deu- 219.] **deu-²** To do, perform, show favor, revere. 1. Suffixed zero-grade form **dw-eno-**. a. **BONBON**, **BONITO**, **BONNY**, **BONUS**, **BOON²**, **BOUNTY**; **BONANZA**, **BONHOMIE**, **DEBONAIR**, from Latin bonus, good (< "useful, efficient, working"); b. adverbial form **dw-enē**. **BENEDICTION**, **BENEFACTION**, **BENEFACTOR**, **BENEFIC**, **BENEFICENCE**, **BENEFIT**, **BENEVOLENT**, **BENIGN**, **BEN TROVATO**, **HERB BENNET**, from Latin bene, well; c. diminutive form **dw-en-elo-**. **BEAU**, **BEAUTY**, **BELLE**; **BELDAM**, **BELLADONNA**, **BELVEDERE**, **EMBELLISH**, from Latin bellus, handsome, pretty, fine. 2. Possibly suffixed zero-grade form **dw-eye-**. **BEATITUDE**; **BEATIFIC**, **BEATIFY**, from Latin beāre, to make blessed. 3. Possible (but unlikely for formal and semantic reasons) suffixed zero-grade form **du-nā-**. **DYNAMIC**, **DYNAMITE**, **DYNAST**, **DYNASTY**; **AERODYNE**, from Greek dunasthai, to be able. [Pokorny 2. (deu-) 218.] **deuə-** Long (in duration). (Oldest form **deuh₂-**, with metathesized variant form **dweh₂-**, colored to **dwah₂-**, contracted to **dwā-**.) Suffixed zero-grade form **du-ro-** (< **duə-ro-**). **DOUR**, **DURABLE**, **DURAMEN**, **DURANCE**, **DURATION**, **DURESS**, **DURING**, **DURUM**; **DURAIN**, **DURA MATER**, **ENDURE**, **INDURATE**, **OBDURATE**, **PERDURABLE**, **THERMODURIC**, from Latin dūrus, hard (< "long-lasting, enduring") with derived verb dūrāre, to last. **deuk-** To lead. 1a. **TUG**; **WANTON**, from Old English tēon, to pull, draw, lead; b. **ZUGUNRUHE**, **ZUGZWANG**, from Old High German ziohan, to pull. Both a and b from Germanic **teuhan**. 2. Suffixed zero-grade form **duk-ə-**. **TOW¹**, **TAUT**, from Old English togian, to draw, drag, from Germanic **tugōn**. 3. Suffixed o-grade form **douk-eyo-**. **TIE**, from Old English **tīegan**, tīgan, to bind. 4. Suffixed o-grade form **douk-mo-**. **TEAM**, from Old English tēam, descendant, family, race, brood, team, from Germanic **tau(h)maz**. 5. **TEEM¹**, from Old English tēman, tīeman, to beget, from Germanic denominative **tau(h)mjan**. 6. Basic form **deuk-**. **DOGE**, **DOUCHE**, **DUCAL**, **DUCAT**, **DUCE**, **DUCHESS**, **DUCHY**, **DUCT**, **DUCTILE**, **DUKE**; **ABDUCENS**, **ABDUCT**, **ADDUCE**, **AQUEDUCT**, **CIRCUMDUCTION**, **CON³**, **CONDOTTIERE**, **CONDUCE**, **CONDUCT**, **DEDUCE**, **DEDUCT**, **EDUCE**, **ENDUE**, **INDUCE**, **INTRODUCE**, **PRODUCE**, **REDOUBT**, **REDUCE**, **SEDUCTION**, **SUBDUCTION**, **SUBDUE**, **TRADUCE**, **TRANSDUCER**, from Latin dūcere, to lead (past participle ductus < suffixed zero-grade form **duk-to-**). 7. Suffixed zero-grade form **duk-ā-**. **EDUCATE**, from Latin ēducāre, to lead out, bring up (ē- < ex-, out; see **eghs**). (Pokorny deuk- 220.) <18> **dhabh-** To fit together. 1. **DAFT**, **DEFT**, from Old English gedæfte, mild, gentle, from Germanic **dab-**, to be fitting, in participial adjective **gadafta-**, fitting, becoming (*ga-*, collective prefix; see **kom**). 2. Probably suffixed form **dhabh-ro-**. **FABRIC**, **FABRICATE**, **FORGE¹**, from Latin faber, artisan (< "he who fits together"). [Pokorny 2. dhabh- 233.] **dhal-** To bloom. 1. Suffixed form **dhal-yo-**. **THALIA**, **THALLUS**; **PROTHALLUS**, from Greek thallein, to flourish (> thallos, a shoot). 2. Suffixed o-grade form **dhol-isko-**. **DULSE**, from Old Irish duilesc, a type of alga, dulse. [Pokorny dhai- 234.] **dhē-** To set, put. (Contracted from earlier **dheh₁-**.) I. Basic form **dhē-**. 1. Suffixed form **dhē-ti-**, "thing laid down or done, law, deed." **DEED**; **INDEED**, from Old English dæd, doing, deed, from Germanic **dēdiz**. 2. Suffixed form **dhē-k-**. **THECA**, **TICK³**; **AMPHITHECIUM**, **APOTHECARY**, **APOTHECIUM**, **BIBLIOTHECA**, **BODEGA**, **BOUTIQUE**, **CLEISTOTHECIUM**, **ENDOTHECIUM**, **PERITHECIUM**, from Greek thēkē, receptacle. 3. Basic form **dhē-**. **BARD²**, **PURDAH**, from Old Persian dā-, to place. 4. Suffixed form **dhē-to-**, set down, created, in Old Iranian compound **khvatō-dāta-** (see **s(w)e-**). 5. Reduplicated form **dhe-dhē-**. **SAṂHITĀ**, **SANDHI**, from Sanskrit dadhāti, he places (past participle -hita-, from suffixed zero-grade **dhə-to-**). II. O-grade form **dhō-**. 1. **DO¹**; **FORDO**, from Old English dōn, to do, from Germanic **dōn**. 2. Suffixed o-grade form **dhō-men-**. **ABDOMEN**, from Latin abdōmen, belly, abdomen, perhaps "part placed away, concealed part" (ab-, away; see **apo**). 3. Suffixed o-grade form **dhō-mo-**. a. **DOOM**, from Old English dōm, judgment (< "thing set or put down"); b. **-DOM**, from Old English -dōm, abstract suffix indicating state, condition, or power; c. Old Norse -dōmr, condition, in compound hōrðōmr (see **kā-**); d. (i) **Duma**, from Russian duma, thought, council, Duma; (ii) **DUMKA**, from Ukranian duma, thought, narrative poem. Both (i) and (ii) from a Germanic source akin to Gothic dōms, judgment; e. **DEEM**, from Old English dēman, to judge, from Germanic denominative **dōmjan**. a-e all from Germanic **dōmaz**. III. Zero-grade form **dhə-**. 1a. Prefixed form **kom-dhə-**. **ABSCOND**, **INCONDITE**, **RECONDITE**, **SCONCE²**, from Latin condere, to put together, establish, preserve (*kom*, together; see **kom**); b. prefixed and suffixed form **kom-dh(ə)-yo-**. **CONDIMENT**, **SALMAGUNDI**, from Latin condīre, to season, flavor; c. compound **kred-dhə-** (see **kerd-¹**); d. compound suffixed form **grə-dh(ə)-o-** (see **gwerə-³**); e. compound suffixed forms **werə-dh(ə)-o-** and **wrə-dh(ə)-o-** (see **werə-³**). 2. Suffixed zero-grade form **dhə-k-** (perhaps zero-grade of **dhē-k-** in I. 2. above). a. **-FACIENT**, **FACT**, **FACTION**, **-FACTION**, **FACTITIOUS**, **FACTITIVE**, **FACTOR**, **FACTORY**, **FAENA**, **FASHION**, **FEASIBLE**, **FEAT¹**, **FEATURE**, **FETISH**, **-FIC**, **-FY**, **HACIENDA**; **AFFAIR**, **AFFECT¹**, **AFFECT²**, **AFFECTION**, **AMPLIFY**, **ARTIFACT**, **ARTIFICE**, **BEATIFIC**, **BENEFACTION**, **BENEFIC**, **BENEFICE**, **BENEFICENCE**, **BENEFIT**, **CHAFE**, **COMFIT**, **CONFECT**, **CONFETTI**, **COUNTERFEIT**, **DEFEASANCE**, **DEFEAT**, **DEFECT**, **DEFICIENT**, **DISCOMFIT**, **EDIFICE**, **EDIFY**, **EFFECT**, **EFFICACIOUS**, **EFFICIENT**, **FACSIMILE**, **FACTOTUM**, **FECKLESS**, **FORFEIT**, **INFECT**, **JUSTIFY**, **MALEFACTOR**, **MALFEASANCE**, **MANUFACTURE**, **MISFEASANCE**, **MODIFY**, **MOLLIFY**, **NIDIFY**, **NOTIFY**, **NULLIFY**, **OFFICINAL**, **ORIFICE**, **PERFECT**, **PETRIFY**, **PLUPERFECT**, **PONTIFEX**, **PREFECT**, **PROFICIENT**, **PROFIT**, **PUTREFY**, **QUALIFY**, **RAREFY**, **RECTIFY**, **REFECT**, **REFECTORY**, **RUBEFACIENT**, **SACRIFICE**, **SATISFY**, **SPINIFEX**, **SUFFICE**, **SUFFICIENT**, **SURFEIT**, **TUBIFEX**, **TUMEFACIENT**, **VIVIFY**, from Latin facere (< **fak-yo-**), to do, make, and Latin combining form -fex (< **-fak-s**), "maker"; b. **FAÇADE**, **FACE**, **FACET**, **FACIAL**, **FACIES**; **DEFACE**, **EFFACE**, **SURFACE**, from Latin derivative faciēs, shape, face (< "form imposed on something"); c. **OFFICE**, from Latin compound officium (< **opi-fici-om**), service, duty, business, performance of work (*opi-*, work; see **op-¹**); d. further suffixed form **dhə-k-li-**. **FACILE**, **FACILITATE**, **FACULTY**, **DIFFICULTY**, from Latin facilis (< Archaic Latin facul), feasible, easy. 3. Suffixed zero-grade form **dhə-s-** (probably identical with zero-grade of **dhēs-**). **NEFARIOUS**, from Latin fās, divine law, right. 4. **MULTIPARIOUS**, **OMNIFARIOUS**, from Latin **-fāriam**, adverbial suffix, as in bifāriam, in two places, parts, double, from **dwi-dh(ə)-**, "making two" (*dwi-*, two; see **dwō-**). 5. Reduplicated form **dhi-dhə-**. **THESIS**, **THETIC**; **ANATHEMA**, **ANTITHESIS**, **DIATHESIS**, **EPENTHESIS**, **EPITHET**, **HYPOTHECATE**, **HYPOTHESIS**, **METATHESIS**, **PARENTHESIS**, **PROSTHESIS**, **PROTHESIS**, **SYNTHESIS**, from Greek tithenai, to put, with zero-grade noun thesis (*dhə-ti-*), a placing, and verbal adjective thetos (*dhə-to-*), placed. 6. Suffixed zero-grade form **dhə-my**. **THEMATIC**, **THEME**; **SPELEOTHEM**, from Greek thema, that which is placed or laid down, proposition, pile. 7. Reduced form **dh-** in compound **au-dh-** (see **au-⁴**). [Pokorny 2. dhē- 235.] **dheb-** Dense, firm, compressed. **DAPPER**, from Middle Dutch and Middle Low German dapper, heavy, strong; later quick, nimble, from Germanic suffixed form **dap-ra-**. [Pokorny dheb- 239.] **dhegʷh-** To burn, warm. 1. Suffixed o-grade (causative) form **dhogʷh-eyo-**. **FOMENT**, **FOMITE**, from Latin fovēre, to warm, cherish, foment. 2. Suffixed basic form **dheghʷ-rā-**. **TEPHRA**, from Greek tephra, ash. [Pokorny dhegʷh- 240.] **dhē(i)-** To suck. (Contracted from earlier **dheh₁(i)-**.) I. Unextended form **dhē-**. 1. Suffixed form **dhē-mnā-**. **FEMALE**, **FEME**, **FEMININE**; **EFFEMINATE**, from Latin fēmina, woman (< "she who suckles"). 2. Suffixed form **dhē-to-**. **FAWN**, **FETAL**, **FETUS**; **EFFETE**, **FETICIDE**, **SUPERFETATE**, from Latin fētus, pregnancy, childbearing, offspring, with adjective fētus, fēta, pregnant. 3. Suffixed form **dhē-kwondo-**. **FECUND**, from Latin fēcundus, fruitful. 4. Suffixed form **dhē-no-**. **FENNEL**, **FINOCHIO**; **FENUGREEK**, **SAINFOIN**, from Latin fēnum, faenum, hay (< "produce"). 5. Suffixed form **dhē-lo-**. **FELLATIO**, from Latin fēlāre, fellāre, to suck. 6. Suffixed form **dhē-l-īk-**. **FELICITATE**, **FELICITY**; **FELICIFIC**, **INFELICITY**, from Latin fēlix, fruitful, fertile, lucky, happy. 7. Suffixed form **dhē-lā-**. **ENDOTHELIUM**, **EPITHELIUM**, **MESOTHELIUM**, from Greek thēlē, nipple. 8. Suffixed form **dhē-l-u-**. **THEELIN**, from Greek thēlus, female. II. Extended form **dhei-**, with zero-grade **dhī-** (< **dhiə-**, metathesized from **dhəi-**). Probably suffixed form **dhī-lyo-** (< **dhiə-lyo-**). **FILIAL**, **FILIATION**, **FILS¹**; **AFFILIATE**, **HIDALGO**, from Latin fīlius, son, and fīlia, daughter (but these are conceivably from the root **bheuə-**). (Pokorny dhē(i)- 241.) **dheiə-** To see, look. (Oldest form **dheih₂-**, with variant [metathesized] form **dhyeh₂-**, colored to **dhyāh₂-**, contracted to **dhyā-**.) 1. Suffixed variant form **dhyā-mn**. **SEMANTIC**, **SEMATIC**; **POLYSEMOUS**, **SEMAPHORE**, **SEMASIOLOGY**, **SEMEME**, **SEMIOCHEMICAL**, **SEMIOLOGY**, **SEMIOTIC**, from Greek sēma (stem sēmat-) and sēmeion, sign. 2. **ZEN**; **ZAZEN**, from Sanskrit dhyāti, he meditates (< "observes mentally"). [Pokorny dheiə- 243.] **dheigh-** To form, build. (Oldest form **dheigh-**.) 1. **DAIRY**, from Old English dǣge, bread kneader, from Germanic **daigjōn-**. 2. Zero-grade form **dhigh-**. **LADY**, from Old English compound hlǣfdige, mistress of a household (< "bread kneader"; hlāf, bread, loaf), from Germanic **dig-**. 3. Suffixed o-grade form **dhoigh-o-**. a. **DOUGH**, from Old English dāg, dough; b. **TEIGLACH**, from Old High German teic, dough. Both a and b from Germanic **daigaz**; c. **PARADISE**, from Avestan daēzā-, wall (originally made of clay or mud bricks). 4. Suffixed zero-grade form **dhigh-ūrā-**. **FIGURE**, **FIGURINE**; **CONFIGURE**, **DISFIGURE**, **PREFIGURE**, **TRANSFIGURE**, from Latin figūra, form, shape. 5. Nasalized zero-grade form **dhi-n-gh-**. **FAINÉANT**, <19> **FAINT**, **FEIGN**, **FEINT**, **FICTILE**, **FICTION**, **FIGMENT**; **EFFIGY**, from Latin fingere, to shape. 6. Probable nasalized zero-grade form **dhi-n-g(h)-**. **THIGMOTAXIS**, **THIXOTROPY**, from Greek thinganein, to touch. [Pokorny dheiĝh- 244.] **dhel-** A hollow. 1. **DELL**, from Old English dell, valley, from Germanic **daljō**. 2a. **DALE**, from Old English dæl, valley; b. **NEANDERTHAL**, **THALWEG**, from Old High German tal, valley (also in Modern German Neandert(h)al, valley of the Neander River). Both a and b from Germanic **dalam**, valley. 3. **DALLES**, from Old Norse dæla, wooden gutter on a ship, from Germanic **del-**. [Pokorny 1. dhel- 245.] **dhelbh-** To dig, excavate. **DELVE**, from Old English delfan, to dig, from Germanic **delban**. (Pokorny dhelbh- 246.] **dhembh-** To bury. Suffixed zero-grade forms **dhmbh-o-** and **dhmbh-ā-**. 1. **CENOTAPH**, **EPITAPH**, **TAPHONOMY**, from Greek taphos (< **thaphos**) and taphē, tomb. 2. **DAKHMA**, from Avestan daxma- (< **daθma-**), dakhma (< **"tomb"**). [Pokorny (dhembh-) 248.] **dhen-¹** To run, flow. Suffixed o-grade form **dhon-ti-**. **FONT¹**, **FONTANEL**, **FOUNTAIN**, from Latin fōns (stem font-), spring, fountain. [Pokorny 1. dhen- 249.] **dhen-²** Palm of the hand. Suffixed form **dhen-ṛ**. **THENAR**, from Greek thenar, palm of the hand. [Pokorny 2. dhen- 249.] **dher-¹** To make muddy; darkness. Assumed base of various suffixed and extended root forms. 1. Suffixed form **dher-g-**. **DARK**, from Old English deorc, dark, from Germanic **derka-**. 2. Suffixed zero-grade form **dhr-egh-**. a. **DROSS**, from Old English drōs, dregs, from Germanic suffixed form **drah-sta-**; b. **DREG**, from Old Norse dregg, dregs, from Germanic **dragjō**. 3. Suffixed extended zero-grade form **dhrā-bh-**. a. **DRIVEL**, from Old English dreflian, to drivel; b. **DRAB²**, from a Celtic source probably akin to Middle Irish drab, dregs; c. **DRABBLE**, from Middle English drabelen, to draggle, from a Low German source akin to Low German drabbelen, to paddle in water or mire, draggle. a and b and probably c from Germanic **drab-**. 4. Suffixed extended zero-grade form **dhrā-gh-** (oldest form **dhrh₂-gh-**). a. **ATARACTIC**, from Greek tarassein (Attic tarattein), to confuse, disturb; b. **TRACHEA**, **TRACHOMA**, **TRACHYTE**, from Greek trakhus, rough. [Pokorny 1. dher- 251.] **dher-²** To hold firmly, support. 1. Suffixed form **dher-mo-**. **FARM**, **FERMATA**, **FIRM¹**, **FIRM²**, **FIRMAMENT**; **AFFIRM**, **CONFIRM**, **FURL**, **INFIRM**, **INFIRMARY**, from Latin firmus, firm, strong. 2. Perhaps extended form **dhergh-**, seen by some as the source of Latin fortis, strong, but this is more likely from **bhergh-²**. 3. Suffixed zero-grade form **dhr-ono-**. **THRONE**, from Greek thronos, seat, throne (< "support"). 4. Suffixed form **dher-mņ**. **DHARMA**, from Sanskrit dharma, statute, law (< "that which is established firmly"). 5. Suffixed form **dher-eno-**. **DHARNA**, from Prakrit dhāraṇā, a holding firm. 6. Suffixed o-grade form **dhor-o-**. **CHURIDAR**, **SIRDAR**, **TAHSILDAR**, **ZAMINDAR**, from Iranian dāra-, holding, whence Persian -dār. 7. Suffixed o-grade form **dhor-eyo-**. **DARIUS**, from Old Persian dāraya-va(h)uš, "holding firm the good," from dāraya-, to hold firm, uphold (va(h)uš, good; see **wesu-**). [Pokorny 2. dher- 252.] **dher-³** To drone, murmur, buzz. Assumed base of extended zero-grade form **dhrēn-**. 1. **DRONE¹**, from Old English drān, dræn, male honeybee, from Germanic **drēn-**. 2. **THRENODY**, from Greek thrēnos, dirge, lament. [Pokorny 3. dher- 255.] **dhers-** To venture, be bold. O-grade form **dhors-** and zero-grade form **dhṛs-**. **DARE**, **DURST**, from Old English dearr and durst, first and third person singular present and past indicative of durran, to venture, respectively from Germanic **dars-** and **durz-**. [Pokorny dhers- 259.] **dhēs-** Root of words in religious concepts. (Contracted from earlier **dheh₁s-**; possibly an extension of **dheh₁-**, to put, set; see **dhē-**.) 1. Suffixed form **dhēs-yā-**. **FAIR²**, **FERIA**, from Latin fēriae (< Archaic Latin fēsiae), holidays. 2. Suffixed form **dhēs-to-**. **FEAST**, **FEST**, **FESTAL**, **FESTIVAL**, **FESTIVE**, **FESTOON**, **FETE**, **FIESTA**; **OKTOBERFEST**, from Latin fēstus, festive. 3. Suffixed zero-grade form **dhas-no-**. **FANATIC**; **PROFANE**, from Latin fānum, temple. 4. Suffixed zero-grade form **dhǝs-o-**. **THEO-**; **APOTHEOSIS**, **ATHEISM**, **ENTHUSIASM**, **HENOTHEISM**, **PANTHEON**, **POLYTHEISM**, **TIFFANY**, from Greek theos (< **thes-os**), god, also in personal names: a. **DOROTHY**, **THEODORE**, from Greek Dōrothea and Theodōros, both meaning "gift of god" (dōron, gift; see **dō-**); b. **TIMOTHY**, from Greek Timotheos, "honoring god" (tīmē, honor; see **kʷeiə-¹**). [Pokorny dhēs- 259.] **dheu-¹** Also **dheuə-**. The base of a wide variety of derivatives meaning "to rise in a cloud," as dust, vapor, or smoke, and related to semantic notions of breath, various color adjectives, and forms denoting defective perception or wits. I. Zero-grade form **dhū-** (< **dhuə-**). 1. Suffixed form **dhū-mo-**, smoke. a. **FUMAROLE**, **FUMATORIUM**, **FUMATORY**, **FUME**; **FUMARIC ACID**, **FUMIGATE**, **FUMITORY**, **FUNKY¹**, **PERFUME**, **SFUMATO**, from Latin fūmus, smoke; b. **-THYMIA**; **ENTHYMEME**, from Greek thūmos, soul, spirit; c. **THYME**, from Greek thūmon, thumos, thyme (< "plant having a strong smell"). 2. Suffixed form **dhū-li-**. **FULIGINOUS**, from Latin fūlīgō, soot. II. Extended form **dheus-**. 1. Possibly Germanic **dus-**. a. **DIZZY**, from Old English dysig, foolish (< "stupefied," "confused"); b. **DOZE**, probably from a Scandinavian source akin to Danish døse, to make drowsy. 2. Suffixed form **dheus-o-**. a. **DEER**; **WILDERNESS**, from Old English dēor, animal; b. **REINDEER**, from Old Norse dȳr, animal, deer. Both a and b from Germanic **deuzam**, breathing creature, animal (for the semantics compare Latin animal from anima, breath, spirit). 3. Suffixed o-grade form **dhous-o-**. **DUKHOBOR**, from Russian dukh, breath, spirit, from Slavic **dukhŭ**. 4. Variant form **dhwes-** in nasalized form **dhwens-**, zero-grade **dhuns-**. a. (i) **DUST**, from Old English dūst, dust, from Germanic suffixed form **duns-taz**; (ii) **DOWN²**, **DUVET**, **DUVETYN**; **EIDERDOWN**, from Old Norse dūnn, bird's down (< "fine like dust"). Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic **duns-**, dust, meal; b. suffixed form **dh(w)es-es-** in Greek further suffixed form **th(w)es-es-yon**. **THIO-**, **THION-**, from Greek theion, brimstone, sulfur. 5. Zero-grade form **dhus-**. **THUJA**, **THURIBLE**; **THURIFER**, from Greek thuos, burnt sacrifice, incense (> Latin thūs, incense), and thuia, sandarac. 6. Suffixed zero-grade form **dhus-ko-**. a. **DUSK**, from Old English dox, twilight, from Germanic **duskaz**; b. **FUSCOUS**; **OBFUSCATE**, **SUBFUSC**, from Latin fuscus, dark, dusky. 7. Suffixed zero-grade form **dhus-no-**. a. **DUN¹**, from Old English dun(n), dark-brown, from Welsh dwn, dull brown color; b. **DUNCAN** (personal name), from Irish Gaelic Donnchadh, "brown head" (ceann, head, from Old Irish cenn), from Middle Irish donn, brown (also appearing in other personal names beginning Dun-). III. Extended form **dheubh-**. 1. Zero-grade form **dhubh-**. **TYPHUS**; **ÉTOUFFÉE**, **STEW**, **STOVE**, **TYPHLOSOLE**, from Greek tūphein (< **thuphein**), to make smoke, and tuphlos, blind. 2. Basic form **dheubh-**, "beclouded in the senses" (but perhaps a separate root), in suffixed o-grade form **dhoubh-o-**. a. **DEAF**, from Old English dēaf, deaf, from Germanic **dauba-**; b. (i) **DUMB**, from Old English dumb, dumb; (ii) **DUMMKOPF**, from Old High German tumm, tumb, dumb. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic **dumba-**, from nasalized form **dhu-m-bho-**; c. **DOVE¹**, from Old English **dūfe**, dove (< "dark-colored bird"), built on Germanic **dūbon-**. <20> IV. Extended zero-grade forms. 1. Form **dhwel-**. a. **DWELL**, from Old English dwellan, to deceive (but influenced in sense by cognate Old Norse dvelja, to tarry), from Germanic **dwelan**, to go or lead astray; b. (i) **DOLDRUMS**, from Old English dol, dull; (ii) **DOLT**, **DULL**, from Middle Low German dul, dull. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic **dula-**. 2. Perhaps Old English docce, dock (< "dark-colored plant"): **DOCK¹**. 3. Perhaps Irish dúd, pipe: **DUDEEN**. [Pokorny 4. dheu- 261.] **dheu-²** To flow. 1. **DEW**, from Old English dēaw, dew. 2. **SUNDEW**, from Middle Dutch dau, dew. 3. Germanic compound **melith-dauwaz** (see **melit-**). 1-3 all from Germanic **dauwaz**, dew. [Pokorny 1. dheu- 259.] **dheu-³** Also **dheuə-** (oldest form **dheuh₂-**). To die. 1. Suffixed o-grade form **dhou-to-**. **DEAD**, from Old English dēad, dead, from Germanic **dauda-**. 2. Suffixed o-grade form **dhou-tu-**. **DEATH**, from Old English dēath, death, from Germanic **dauthuz**. 3. Suffixed o-grade form **dhow-yo-**. **DIE¹**, from Old Norse deyja, to die. 4. Extended zero-grade form **dhuəi-**, metathesized to **dhwiə-**, contracted to **dhwi-**, whence suffixed form **dhwi-no-**. **DWINDLE**, from Old English dwīnan, to diminish, languish, from Germanic **dwīnan**. [Pokorny 2. dheu- 260.] Compare **dheuə-**. **dheub-** Also **dheubh-**. Deep, hollow. 1. **DEEP**, **DEPTH**, from Old English dēop, deep, from Germanic **deupa-**. 2. **DIP**, from Old English dyppan, to immerse, dip, from Germanic expressive denominative **duppjan**. 3. Parallel root form **dheubh-**. **DIVE¹**, from Old English dȳfan, to dip, and dūfan, to sink, dive, from Germanic verb **dūbjan**, from **deub-**, **dub-**. 4. Suffixed parallel root form **dhubh-(o)n-**, with expressive variants. **PYTHON**, **TYPHON**, from Greek Pūthōn and Tuphōn, mythical monsters, from **dhub(h)-n-** and **b(h)ud(h)-n-**, which already in Indo-European were doublets by inversion, referring to "bottom," "foundation," "depths," and the mythological monsters that inhabited them. 5. Suffixed zero-grade form **dhub(h)-no-** in Celtic **dubno-**, world (< "earth, ground" < "bottom"). **DONALD** (personal name), from Old Irish Domnall, from Celtic **dubno-walos**, "ruler of the world" (*walos*, ruler; see **wal-**). [Pokorny dheu-b- 267.] Compare **bhudh-**. **dheubh-** Wedge, peg, plug. 1. **DUB¹**, from Old English dubbian, to tap, strike (with a sword). 2. **DUB²**, from Low German dubben, to hit. 3. **DOWEL**, from Middle Low German dōvel, peg, from Germanic diminutive **dub-ila-**. 1-3 all from Germanic **dub-**. [Pokorny dheubh- 268.] **dheuə-** To close, finish, come full circle. (Oldest form **dheuh₂-**; perhaps related to or identical with **dheu-³**, to die.) 1. Suffixed zero-grade form **dhu-no-** (< **dhuə-no-**), enclosed, fortified place; hill-fort. a. (i) **DOWN¹**, **DOWN³**, from Old English dūn, hill (also becoming Modern English -don in such place-names as **WIMBLEDON**); (ii) **DUNE**, from Middle Dutch dūne, sandy hill. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic **dūnaz**, possibly from **dhū-no-**; b. Celtic **dūnon**, hill, hill-fort. (i) **LYON**, from Gallo-Latin Lugudūnum, "fort of Lug" (Lug, Celtic deity); (ii) **VERDUN**, from Gallo-Latin Virodūnum, "fort of men" (viro-, man, from Celtic wiros; see **wi-ro-**); (iii) **TOWN**, from Old English tūn, enclosed place, homestead, village, from Germanic **tūnaz**, fortified place, borrowed from Celtic **dūnon**. 2. Suffixed form **dhu-nes-** (< **dhuə-nes-**). **FUNERAL**, from Latin fūnus, funeral. [In Pokorny 4. dheu- 261.] **dheugh-** To produce something of utility. 1. **DOUGHTY**, from Old English dyhtig, dohtig, strong (< "productive"), from Germanic extended form **duht-**. 2. Suffixed form **dheugh-os-**. **HEPTATEUCH**, **HEXATEUCH**, **PENTATEUCH**, from Greek teukhos (< **theukhos**), gear, anything produced, tool, container, scroll. [Pokorny dheugh- 271.] **dhghem-** Earth. (Oldest form **dhghem-**.) 1. Suffixed zero-grade form **(dh)ghm-on-**, "earthling." **BRIDEGROOM**, from Old English guma, man, from Germanic **gumōn-**. 2. O-grade form **dh(e)ghom-**. **CHTHONIC**; **ALLOCHTHON**, **AUTOCHTHON**, from Greek khthōn, earth. 3. Zero-grade form **(dh)ghm-**. **CHAMAEPHYTE**, **CHAMELEON**, **CHAMOMILE**, **GERMANDER**, from Greek khamai, on the ground. 4. Suffixed o-grade form **(dh)ghom-o-**. **HUMBLE**, **HUMILIATE**, **HUMILITY**, **HUMUS¹**; **EXHUME**, **INHUME**, **TRANSHUMANCE**, from Latin humus, earth. 5. Suffixed o-grade form **(dh)ghom-on-**, "earthling." a. **HOMAGE**, **HOMBRE¹**, **HOMINID**, **HOMININ**, **HOMO¹**, **HOMUNCULUS**, **OMBRE**, **OMERTÀ**; **BONHOMIE**, **HOMICIDE**, from Latin homō, human being, man; b. **HUMAN**, **HUMANE**, from Latin hūmānus, human, kind, humane (in part from **dhghem-**). 6. Suffixed form **(dh)ghem-yā-**. **CHERNOZEM**, **SIEROZEM**, **ZEMSTVO**, from Old Russian zemi, land, earth. 7. Full-grade form **(dh)ghem-**. **ZAMINDAR**, from Persian zamīn, earth, land. [Pokorny ghdem- 414.] **Language and Culture Note** We normally think of **earthling** as a word useful for distinguishing humans from invading Martians or other extraterrestrials. Words meaning "earthling" have been around for millennia, however, and in Indo-European distinguish humans from gods-celestial beings of a different sort. The root **dhghem-** "earth" furnished the base for a number of words meaning "human being" in the daughter languages. The locative case form, **dhgh(e)mon**, "on the earth," could be made into a noun, **dhgh(e)mon**, "one that is on the earth, earthling, human being." In Latin this became homō (stem homin-, Archaic Latin hemōn-), "man, human being," where the consonant cluster **dhgh** was simplified to h. A related form, **dhghm-ōn**, **(dh)ghm-on-**, became Old English guma, "man," a word that survives today (in rather hidden form) as the second element of **bridegroom**, literally "man of the bride," altered from Middle English bridegome by folk-etymology. The contrast inherent in **dhgh(e)mon** between earthlings and gods is preserved quite clearly in a newly-discovered Gaulish inscription which contains a compound word teuokhtonion, "belonging to gods (and) humans," where teuo- (phonetically dewo-) means "god" (see **dyeu-**) and -khtonion (phonetically ghdonion) means "humans." **dhghū-** Fish. (Oldest form **dhghū-**.) **ICHTHYO-**, from Greek ikhthūs, fish. [Pokorny ĝhdhū- 416.] **dhgh(y)es-** Yesterday. (Oldest form **dhgh(y)es-**. Originally an archaic compound dhgh(y)es, "on this day, of a deictic particle **ghi** derived from the pronominal stem **gho-** and a noun dyes, day, derived from the root **dyeu-**.) Suffixed (comparative) form **(dh)ghes-ter-**. **YESTER-**, **YESTERDAY**, from Old English geostran, giestran, "yester-," from Germanic **ges-ter-**. [Pokorny ĝhdhés 416.] **dhgʷhei-** To perish, die away. Zero-grade form **dhgʷhi-**. 1. Suffixed form **dhgʷhi-n-wo-**. **PHTHISIS**, from Greek phthīnein, to die away. 2. Suffixed form **dhgʷhi-yo-**. **KHAPRA BEETLE**, from Sanskrit kṣiyate, he perishes, and causative kṣāpayati, he destroys. [Pokorny ghdei(ə)- 487.] **dhgʷher-** To flow, move forcefully, with derivatives referring to ruin and destruction. Perhaps Greek phtheir, louse (if from phtheirein, to scatter, sweep off course, destroy, from suffixed form **dhgʷher-**): **PHTHIRIASIS**. [Pokorny gehder- 487.] **dhigʷ-** To stick, fix. 1a. **DIKE**, **DITCH**, from Old English dīc, trench, moat; b. **DIG**, from Middle English diggen, to dig, from a source perhaps akin to Old French digue, trench. Both a and b from Germanic **dīk-**. 2. **FIBULA**, **FICHU**, **FINCA**, **FISHGIG**, **FIX**, **FIXATE**, **FIXITY**, **FIXTURE**; **AFFIX**, **ANTEFIX**, **CRUCIFY**, **INFIBULATE**, <21> **INFIX**, **MICROFICHE**, **PREFIX**, **SUFFIX**, **TRANSFIX**, from Latin fīgere, to fasten, fix, and from fībula, clasp (shortened from **fīvibula**, from fīvere, archaic variant of fīgere). [Pokorny dhēigʷ- 243.] **-dhlo-** See **-tro-**. **dhragh-** To draw, drag on the ground. Rhyming variant of **tragh-**. 1a. **DRAW**, from Old English dragan, to draw, pull; b. **DRAG**, from Old Norse draga, to draw, pull (or Old English dragan); c. **DRAY**, from Old English dræge, dragnet; d. **DRAFT**, from Middle English draught, a pull, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse **drahtr**, drāttr, act of drawing. a-d all from Germanic **dragan**, to draw, pull. 2. **DROSHKY**, from Russian drogi, a wagon. (Pokorny dheragh- 257.] See also variant form **dhreg-**. **dhreg-** To draw, glide. Variant form of **dhragh-**. (Oldest form **dhreĝ-**.) 1. **DRINK**, from Old English drincan, to drink, from nasalized Germanic form **drenkan**, to draw into the mouth, drink. 2. **DRENCH**, from Old English drencan, to soak, from nasalized o-grade Germanic causative form **drankjan**, "to cause to drink." 3. **DROWN**, from a Scandinavian or late Old English source similar to Old Norse drukkna, to drown, from Germanic zero-grade suffixed form **drunk-nōn**. [Pokorny dhreĝ- 273.] **dhregh-** To run. 1. **TROCHANTER**, **TROCHE**, **TROCHEE**; **TROCHOPHORE**, from Greek trekhein (< **threkhein**), to run. and **dhur-o-** (neuter). **DOOR**, from Old English duru, door (feminine, originally plural), and dor, door (neuter), respectively from Germanic **durunz** and **duram**. 2. Suffixed o-grade form **dhwor-ans** (accusative plural). **FAROUCHE**, **FOREIGN**, **VICAR FORANE**, from Latin forās, (toward) out of doors, outside. 3. Suffixed o-grade form **dhwor-ois** (locative plural). **FOREST**; **AFFOREST**, **FAUBOURG**, **FORECLOSE**, **FORFEIT**, from Latin forīs, (being) out of doors. 4. Suffixed o-grade form **dhwor-o-**. **FORENSIC**, **FORUM**, from Latin forum, marketplace (originally the enclosed space around a home). 5. **DARI**; **DURBAR**, from Old Persian duvara-, door, gate. 6. Zero-grade form **dhur-**. **THYROID**; **THYREOPHORAN**, from Greek thura, door. [Pokorny dhuer- 278.] **digh-** A goat. Possibly related (by metathesis) to **gh(a)id-o-**. **TYKE**, from Old Norse tīk, bitch, from Germanic **tikk-** (with expressive consonantism), from **tig-**. [Pokorny digh- 222.] **dlegh-** To engage oneself. European root found in Celtic, Germanic, Slavic, and possibly Latin. 1a. **PLAY**, from Old English plegian, to exercise oneself, play; b. **PLEDGE**; **FRANKPLEDGE**, **REPLEVIN**, from Late Latin plevium (> Old French plevir, to pledge), pledge, guarantee; c. **PLIGHT²**, from Old English pliht, danger, peril, from Germanic derivative noun **plehtiz**. a-c from Germanic **plegan**, probably altered (by dissimilation) <22> and one party receiving or taking. From the point of view of the giver, the action is "giving"; from the point of view of the receiver, the action is "receiving." Thus the descendant of **dō-** in Hittite refers to the same action as its cognates in the other Indo-European languages, just from the point of view of the receiver. It is in fact quite common for roots that refer to types of exchange to have some descendants referring to the one half, and some referring to the other half, of the exchange relationship. Thus the English reflex of **ghabh-** is **give**, while the Irish cognate gaibid means "takes"; German nehmen "take" is cognate with Greek nemein "to apportion out, distribute" (see **nem-**); and compare also English **to loan**, meaning either "to lend" (as in I loaned her the money) or, regionally, "to borrow" (as in I loaned the book from the library). **drem-** To sleep. Suffixed zero-grade form **drm-yo-**. **DORMANT**, **DORMER**, **DORMITORY**, from Latin dormīre, to sleep. [Pokorny drē- 226.] **[dreug-]** Dry. Germanic root. 1. **DROUGHT**, from Old English drūgoth, drūgath, dryness, drought. 2. **DRY**, from Old English drȳge, dry, from Germanic suffixed form **drug-i-**. 3. **DRAIN**, from Old English drēahnian, to strain, drain, from Germanic variant form **draug-**.] **dus-** Bad, evil; mis- (used as a prefix). Derivative of **deu-¹**. 1. **Dys-**, from Greek dus-, bad. 2. **DURGA**, from Sanskrit Durgā, Durga, (short for Durgā Devī, "goddess who is difficult to approach"), from durgā, feminine of durgaḥ, difficult to approach, from dus- (becoming dur- before voiced consonants), bad, difficult (*-ga-*, going, coming; see **gwā-**). [Pokorny dus- 227.] **dwei-** To fear. Original meaning "to be in doubt, be of two minds"; related to **dwō-**. 1. Suffixed form **dwei-ro-**. **DIRE**, from Latin dīrus, fearful, horrible (originally a dialect form). 2. Suffixed form **dwey-eno-**. **DEINONYCHUS**, **DINOSAUR**, **DINOTHERE**, from Greek deinos, fearful, monstrous. 3. Suffixed form **dwei-mo-**. **DEIMOS**, from Greek deimos, fear. [Pokorny duei- 227.] **dwō-** Two. I. Variant form **duwō**. 1a. **TWO**, from Old English twā, two (nominative feminine and neuter); b. **TWAIN**; **TWAYBLADE**, from Old English twēgen, two (nominative and accusative masculine). Both a and b from Germanic **twa**, two. 2. **TWELFTH**, **TWELVE**, from Old English twelf, twelve, and twelfta, twelfth, from Germanic compound **twa-lif-**, "two left (over from ten)," twelve (*-lif-*, left; see **leikʷ-**). II. Adverbial form **dwis** and combining form **dwi-**. 1a. **TWILIGHT**, from Old English twi-, two; b. **ZWIEBACK**, **ZWITTERION**, from Old High German zwi-, twice; c. **TWILL**, from Old English twilic, double, woven of double thread, partial translation of Latin bilix, woven of double thread. a-c all from Germanic **twi-**. 2. **BI-¹**, **BIS**, **BIS-**; **BALANCE**, **BAROUCHE**, **BEZEL**, **BISCUIT**, **BISTORT**, from Latin bis (combining form bi-), twice. 3. **DI-¹**, from Greek dis (combining form di-), twice. 4. **TWIST**, from Old English -twist, divided object, fork, rope, from Germanic **twis**. 5. **TWICE**, from Old English twige, twiga, twice, from Germanic **twiyes**. 6. **TWENTY**, from Old English twentig, twenty, from Germanic compound **twegentig**, "twice ten" (*-tig*, ten; see **dekm**). 7. **TWINE**, from Old English twīn, double thread, from Germanic **twiznaz**, double thread, twisted thread. 8. **BETWEEN**, **BETWIXT**, **TWIXT**, from Old English betwēonum and betweox, betwix, between, from Germanic compounds **bi-twihna** and **bi-twisk**, "at the middle point of two" (bi, at, by; see **ambhi**). 9. Suffixed form **dwis-no-**. a. **TWIN**, from Old English twinn, getwinn, two by two, twin, from Germanic **twisnaz**, double; b. **BI-¹**, **BINAL**, **BINARY**; **COMBINE**, **PINOCHLE**, from Latin bīnī, two by two, two each. 10. Suffixed form **dwi-ko-**. **TWIG¹**, from Old English twigge, a branch, from Germanic **twig(g)a**, a fork. 11. Compound **dwi-plo-**, twofold (*-plo-*, -fold; see **pel-³**). **DIPLO-**, **DIPLOE**, **DIPLOID**, **DIPLOMA**; **ANADIPLOSIS**, **DIPLODOCUS**, from Greek diploos, diplous, twofold. 12. Suffixed reduplicated form **dwi-du-mo-**. **DIDYMIUM**, **DIDYMOUS**; **EPIDIDYMIS**, from Greek didumos, double, twin. 13. Suffixed form **dwi-ghə**. **DICHASIUM**, **DICHO-**, from Greek dikha, in two. 2. **DHIVEHI**, from Sanskrit dvīpaḥ, island (see **ap-²**). III. Inflected form **duwō**. 1. **DEUCE**, **DOZEN**, **DUAL**, **DUET**, **DUO**, **DUO-**; **DUODECIMAL**, **DUUMVIR**, from Latin duo, two. 2. **DUAD**, **DYAD**; **DODECAGON**, **HENDIADYS**, from Greek duo, duō, two. IV. Variant form **du-**. 1. Compound **du-plo-**, twofold (*-plo-*, -fold; see **pel-³**). **DOUBLE**, **DOUBLET**, **DOUBLOON**, **DUPLE**, from Latin duplus, double. 2. Compound **du-plek-**, twofold (*-plek-*, -fold; see **plek-**). **DUPLEX**, **DUPLICATE**, **DUPLICITY**; **CONDUPLICATE**, from Latin duplex, double. 3. Suffixed form **du-bhw-io-**. **DOUBT**, **DUBIOUS**; **REDOUBTABLE**, from Latin dubius, doubtful (< "hesitating between two alternatives"), and dubitāre, to be in doubt. [Pokorny dyo(u) 228.] **dyeu-** To shine (and in many derivatives, "sky, heaven, god"). Zero-grades **dyu-** (before consonants) and **diw-** (before vowels). I. Basic form **dyeu-**, Jove, the name of the god of the bright sky, head of the Indo-European pantheon. 1. **JOVE**, **JOVIAL**; **APOJOVE**, **SANGIOVESE**, from Latin Iovis, Jupiter, or Iov-, stem of Iuppiter, Jupiter. 2. **JULY**, from Latin Jūlius, "descended from Jupiter" (name of a Roman gens), from derivative **iou-il-**. 3. Vocative compound **dyeu-pater**, "O father Jove" (*pater-*, father; see **pater-**). **JUPITER**, from Latin Iuppiter, Iūpiter, head of the Roman pantheon. 4. **DIONE**, **ZEUS**; **DIANTHUS**, **DIOSCURI**, from Greek Zeus (genitive Dios < Diwos), Zeus. II. Noun **deiwos**, god, formed by e-insertion to the zero-grade **diw-** and suffixation of (accented) **-o-**. 1a. **THU**, **TUESDAY**, from Old English Tīw (genitive Tīwes), god of war and sky; b. **TYR**, from Old Norse Tŷr, sky god. Both a and b from Germanic **Tīwaz**. 2. **DEISM**, **DEITY**, **JOSS**; **ADIEU**, **ADIOS**, **DEIFIC**; **DEUS EX MACHINA** from Latin deus, god. 3. **DIVA**, **DIVINE**, from Latin dīvus, divine, god. 4. **DIS**, **DIVES**, from Latin dīves, rich (< "fortunate, blessed, divine"). 5. Suffixed zero-grade form **diw-yo-**, heavenly. **DIANA**, from Latin Diāna, moon goddess. 6. **DEVA**, **DEVI**; **DEODAR**, **DEVANAGARI**, from Sanskrit devaḥ, god, and dēva-, divine. 7. **ASMODEUS**, from Avestan daēuua-, spirit, demon. III. Variant form **dyē-** (< earlier **dyeh₁-**). **DIAL**, **DIARY**, **DISMAL**, **DIURNAL**, **JOURNAL**, **JOURNEY**; **ADJOURN**, **AJOURÉ**, **CIRCADIAN**, **MERIDIAN**, **POSTMERIDIAN**, **QUOTIDIAN**, **SOJOURN**, from Latin diēs, day. IV. Variant form **deiə-** (earlier **deih₂-**). **PSYCHEDELIC**, **ADELGID**, from Greek dēlos (< **deyalos**), clear. V. Suffixed variant form **dye-s-** in **gh-dyes**, "on this day." See **dhgh(y)es-**. [Pokorny 1. dei- 183.] **ē** Adverbial particle. 1a. **OAKUM**, from Old English ā-, ē-, away, off; b. Germanic compound **ē-mait-jon-** (see **mai-¹**). Both a and b from Germanic **ē**. 2a. **ANANDAMIDE**, **ASHRAM**, **KALANCHOE**, **SATYAGRAHA**, from Sanskrit ā-, to; b. **KALA-AZAR**, from Old Persian ā-, to. Both a and b from Indo-Iranian **ā**, **a-**, to. [Pokorny ē 280.] **-ē-** (Contracted from earlier **-eh₁-**.) Verbal suffix forming stative denominative verbs from adjectives, such as **rudh-ē-**, to be red (see **reudh-¹**). [Not in Pokorny.] **ed-** To eat; original meaning "to bite.” (Oldest form **h₂ed-**.) 1a. **EAT**, from Old English etan, to eat; b. **ETCH**, from Old High German ezzen, to feed on, eat; c. **ORT**, from Middle Dutch ēten, to eat; d. (i) **FRET¹**, from Old English fretan, to devour; (ii) **FRASS**, from Old High German frezzan, to devour. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic compound **fra-etan**, to eat up (*fra-*, completely; see **per¹**). a-d all from Germanic **etan**. 2. **EDACIOUS**, **EDIBLE**, **ESCAROLE**, **ESCULENT**, **ESURIENT**; <23> **COMEDO**, **COMESTIBLE**, **OBESE**, from Latin edere, to eat. 3. **PRANDIAL**, from Latin compound prandium, lunch, probably from **prām-(e)d-yo-**, "first meal" (*prām-*, first; see **per¹**). 4. Suffixed form **ed-un-o-**. **JOTUN**, from Old Norse jötunn, giant, Jötun, from Germanic **idunaz** (perhaps *"man-eating giant" or *"immense eater"*). 5. Suffixed form **ed-un-ā-**. **ANODYNE**, **PLEURODYNIA**, from Greek odunē, pain (< "gnawing care"). 6. Suffixed zero-grade form **əd-ti-**. **ALFALFA**, from Old Iranian compound **aspa-sti-**, clover, alfalfa (< "horse fodder"), from **-sti-**, fodder, food (*aspa-*, horse; see **ekwo-**). 7. **SAMOYED**, from Russian **-ed**, eater. [Pokorny ed- 287.] See also derivative **dent-**. **eg** I. Nominative form of the personal pronoun of the first person singular. (Oldest form **eĝ**; for oblique forms see **me-¹**.) 1. **I¹**, from Old English ic, I, from Germanic **ek**. 2. Extended form **egō**. **EGO**, **EGOIST**, **EGOTISM**, from Latin ego, I. [Pokorny eĝ- 291.] **eg-** To lack. Suffixed (stative) form **eg-ē-**. **INDIGENT**, from Latin egēre, to lack, be in want. [Pokorny eg- 290.] **eghero-** Lake. (Oldest form **eĝhero-**.) Possible suffixed variant form **agher-ont-** in Greek Akherōn, a river in Hades: **ACHERON**. [Pokorny eĝhero- 291.] **eghi-** Snake, eel. (Perhaps originally a taboo deformation of **ogʷhi-**.) 1. **ECHINO-**, **ECHINUS**, from Greek ekhīnos, hedgehog (< "snake-eater"); 2. **ECHIDNA**, from Greek ekhidna, snake, viper. Both 1 and 2 from Greek ekhis, snake. See **ogʷhi-**. [Pokorny ang(h)i- 43.] **eghs** Out. (Oldest form **eghs**.) 1. Variant **eks**. a. **Ex¹**, **EX-**; **DEUS EX MACHINA**, from Latin ex, ex-, out of, away from; b. **ECTO-**, **EC-**, **EXO-**, **EXOTERIC**, **EXOTIC**; **EKPYROTIC**, **ELECTUARY**, **LEKVAR**, **SYNECDOCHE**, from Greek ex, ek, out of, from. 2. Suffixed (comparative) variant form **eks-tero-**. a. **ESTRANGE**, **EXTERIOR**, **EXTERNAL**, **EXTRA-**, **STRANGE**, from Latin exter, outward (feminine ablative exterā, extrā, on the outside); b. further suffixed (superlative) form **eks-t(e)r-emo-**. **EXTREME**, **EXTREMUM**, from Latin extrēmus, outermost (*-mo-*, superlative suffix). 3. Suffixed form **eghs-ko-**. **ESCHATOLOGY**, from Greek eskhatos, outermost, last. 4. Celtic **eks-**, out (of), in compound **eks-di-sedo-** (see **sed-¹**). 5. **SAMIZDAT**, from Russian iz, from, out of, from Balto-Slavic **iz**. [Pokorny eĝhs 292.] **egni-** Also **ogni-**. Fire. 1. **IGNEOUS**, **IGNITE**; **GELIGNITE**, **IGNITRON**, from Latin ignis, fire. 2. **AGNI**, from Sanskrit agniḥ, fire. [Pokorny egnis 293.] **egʷh-** To drink. Suffixed lengthened-grade form **egʷh-r-yo-**. 1. **INEBRIATE**, **RYEGRASS**, from Latin ēbrius, drunk. 2. Latin compound sōbrius (see **s(w)e-**). [Not in Pokorny; compare Hittite ekuzi, he drinks, and Greek nēphein, to be sober (< "to not drink," **ne-gʷh-**).] **ei-¹** To go. (Oldest form **h₂ei-**.) 1. Full-grade form **ei-**. a. **ADIT**, **AMBIENT**, **AMBITION**, **CIRCUIT**, **COITUS**, **COMITIA**, **EXIT**, **INTROIT**, **ISSUE**, **OBITUARY**, **PERISH**, **PRAETOR**, **PRETERITE**, **SEDITION**, **SUBITO**, **SUDDEN**, **TRANCE**, **TRANSIENT**, **TRANSIT**, **TRANSITIVE**, from Latin īre, to go (past participle itus < suffixed zero-grade form **i-to-**); b. **ION**; **ANION**, **CATION**, **DYSPROSIUM**, from Greek ienai, to go; c. **RAMAYANA**, from Sanskrit eti, he goes (< Indo-Iranian **ai-ti**), and abstract noun ayanam, a going, way. 2. Suffixed zero-grade form **i-t-**. a. Further suffixed form **i-t-yo-**. **COMMENCE**, **INITIAL**, **INITIATE**, from Latin initium, entrance, beginning (in-, in; see **en**); b. **COUNT²**, **COUNTY**; **CONCOMITANT**, **CONSTABLE**, **VISCOUNT**, from Latin comes (stem comit-), companion (< "one who goes with another"; com-, with; see **kom**). 3. Suffixed form **i-ti-** (see **orbh-**). 4. Suffixed form **i-ter**. **ERRANT**, **EYRE**, **ITINERANT**, **ITINERARY**, from Latin iter, journey. 5. Extended form **yā-** (contracted from earlier **h₁yah₂-**, colored from oldest form **h₂yeh₂-**). Suffixed forms **yā-no-**, **yā-nu-**. a. **JANITOR**, **JANUARY**, **JANUS**, from Latin iānus, archway, and Iānus, god of doors and of the beginning of a year; b. **HINAYANA**, **MAHAYANA**, from Sanskrit yānam, way (in Buddhism, "mode of knowledge," "vehicle"). [Pokorny 1. ei- 293.] **ei-²** Reddish, motley; yellow. Suffixed form **ei-wo-**. **YEW**, from Old English īw, yew, from Germanic **īwaz**, yew. [Pokorny 3. ei- 297.] **eis-¹** In words denoting passion. 1. Suffixed form **eis-ə-**. **IRASCIBLE**, **IRATE**, **IRE**, from Latin īra, anger. 2. Suffixed zero-grade form **is-(ə)ro-**, powerful, holy. **HIERATIC**, **HIERO-**; **HIERARCH**, **HIERARCHY**, **HIERODULE**, **HIEROGLYPHIC**, **HIEROPHANT**, from Greek hieros, "filled with the divine," holy. 3a. **IRON**, from Old English īse(r)n, īren, iron; b. **GISARME**, **SPIEGELEISEN**, from Old High German īsarn, īsan, iron. Both a and b from Germanic **īsarno-**, "holy metal" (possibly from Celtic). 4. Suffixed o-grade form **ois-tro-**, madness. **ESTRUS**; **ESTROGEN**, **ESTRONE**, from Greek oistros, gadfly, goad, anything causing madness. 5. Suffixed form **eis-mo-**. **ASMODEUS**, from Avestan aēšma-, anger. [Pokorny 1. eis- 299.] **eis-²** Ice, frost. 1. **ICE**, from Old English īs, ice. 2. **ICEBERG**, from Middle Dutch ījs, ice. Both 1 and 2 from Germanic **īs**, ice. [Pokorny 2. ei-s- 301.] **ekwo-** Horse. (Oldest form **ekwo-**. Probably to be segmented **ekw-o-**, a suffixed form akin to the lengthened o-grade adjective **ōku-**, swift; see **ōku-**.) 1. **EQUESTRIAN**, **EQUID**, **EQUINE**, **EQUITANT**, **EQUITATION**, **EQUULEUS**; **EQUISETUM**, from Latin equus, horse. 2. **EOHIPPUS**, **HIPPOCAMPUS**, **HIPPOCRENE**, **HIPPODROME**, **HIPPOGRIFF**, **HIPPOPOTAMUS**, from Greek hippos, horse, also in personal names: a. **HIPPOCRATES**, from Greek Hippokratēs, "having the power of a horse" (-kratēs, power; see **kar-¹**); b. **PHILIP**, from Greek Philippos, "lover of horses" (philein, to love). 3. **ALFALFA**, from Old Iranian compound **aspa-sti-**, clover, alfalfa (< "horse fodder"), from **aspa-**, horse (*-sti-*, fodder, food; see **ed-**). [Pokorny ekuo-s 301.] **el-¹** Elbow, forearm. 1. Extended form **el-inā-**, elbow. a. **ELL²**, from Old English eln, forearm, cubit, from Germanic **elinō**; b. **ELBOW**, from Old English elnboga, elbow, from Germanic compound **elino-bugōn-**, "bend of the forearm," elbow (*bugōn-*, bend, bow; see **bheug-³**); c. **ULNA**, from Latin ulna, forearm. 2. Extended o-grade form **ol-enā-**. **UILLEANN PIPE**, from Old Irish uilenn, elbow. 3. Extended lengthened o-grade form **ōl-enā-**. **OLECRANON**, from Greek ōlenē, elbow. 4. Extended basic form **el-in-**. **ARSHIN**, from Old Persian arašn-, ell, from Indo-Iranian **aratn(i)-**, probably from a variant **el-etn-** of **el-in-**. [Pokorny 8. el- 307.] **el-²** Red, brown (forming animal and tree names). 1. Extended form **elmo-**. **ELM**, from Old English elm, elm, from Germanic **elmaz**. 2. Suffixed o-grade form **ol-is-**. **ALDER**, from Old English alor, alder, from Germanic **aluz-** (probably remade from **aliz-**), alder. 3. Possibly Old English ellen, ellærn, the elder: **ELDER²**. 4. Extended o-grade form **olki-**. **ELK**, from Old Norse elgr, elk (akin to Old English eolh, elk), from Germanic **algiz**, elk. 5. Perhaps extended Germanic form **alk-**. **ALCID**, **AUK**, from Old Norse alka, auk. 6. Extended form **elno-**. **HELLEBORE**, from Greek ellos, hellos, fawn. 7. Extended form **eləni-**. **ELAND**, from a Baltic source akin to Lithuanian elnias, deer. [Pokorny 1. el- 302.] **el-³** Eel, worm, snakelike creature. Lengthened grade form in **ēl-o-**. **EEL**, from Old English æl, from Germanic **ælaz**. [Not in Pokorny; compare Latin (attested in a gloss) illa, worm and the second part of Greek enkhelos.] **[elaiā** Olive. Greek noun (oldest form elaiwā) of Mediterranean origin. **LATKE**, **OIL**, **-OLE**, **OLEAGINOUS**, **OLEASTER**, **OLEO-**, **OLIVE**; **AIOLI**, **OLICOOK**, **PETROLEUM**.] <24> **elə-** To go. (Oldest form **elh₁-**.) Suffixed extended form **ela-un-yo-**. **ELASTIC**, **ELATER**, **ELATERITE**; **ELASMOBRANCH**, from Greek elaunein, to drive (<"to cause to go"). [Pokorny 6. el- 306.] **elkes-** Wound. (Oldest form **elk-es-**.) **ULCER**, from Latin ulcus (stem ulcer-), a sore. [Pokorny elkos- (misprint for **elkos-**) 310.] **em-** To take, distribute. 1. **ADEMPTION**, **EXAMPLE**, **EXEMPLARY**, **EXEMPLIFY**, **EXEMPLUM**, **EXEMPT**, **IMPROMPTU**, **PEREMPTORY**, **PREEMPTION**, **PREMIUM**, **PROMPT**, **PRONTO**, **RANSOM**, **REDEEM**, **REDEMPTION**, **SAMPLE**, **VINTAGE**, from Latin emere, to obtain, buy. 2. **SUMPTUARY**, **SUMPTUOUS**; **ASSUME**, **CONSUME**, **PRESUME**, **RESUME**, **SUBSUME**, from Latin sūmere (< **sus(e)m-**), to take, obtain, buy (sus-, variant of sub-, up from under; see **upo**). [Pokorny em- 310.] **en** In. 1a. **IN** (preposition), from Old English in, in; b. **IN¹** (adverb), from Old English inn, into, inne, inside; c. **INN**, from Old English inn, habitation, inn; d. **TSIMMES**, from Old High German in, in; e. **INNER**, from Old English innera, farther in, inner, from Germanic (comparative) **inn(e)ra**; f. (i) **BEN**, from Old English binnan, within; (ii) **BILANDER**, from Middle Dutch binnen, within. Both (i) and (ii) contracted from **be innan**, (be, at; see **ambhi**), from Germanic **innan**. a-f all from Germanic **in**. 2. **EN-¹**, **IN-²**, from Latin in, in-, in, into. 3. **EN-²**; **ENCEPHALIN**, **PARENCHYMA**, **PARENTHESIS**, from Greek en, en-, in. 4. Suffixed form **en-t(e)ro-**. a. **INTRO-**; **INTRODUCE**, **INTROIT**, **INTROMIT**, **INTRORSE**, **INTROSPECT**, from Latin intrō, inward, within; b. **ENTER**, **INTRA-**; **INTRADOS**, from Latin intrā, inside, within; c. **INTERIM**, **INTRINSIC**, from Latin interim, meanwhile, with ablative suffix **-im**, and intrinsecus, on the inside, from int(e)rim + secus, alongside (see **sekʷ-¹**). 5. Suffixed form **en-ter**. **ENTRAILS**, **INTER-**, **INTERIOR**, **INTERN**, **INTERNAL**, from Latin inter, inter-, between, among. 6. **INTIMA**, **INTIMATE¹**, from Latin (superlative) intimus, innermost (*-mo-*, superlative suffix). 7. Extended form **en-do**. a. **INDUSTRY**, from Latin industrius, diligent (Archaic Latin indostruus; **stru-**, to construct; see **sterə-**); b. **INDIGENT**, from Latin indigēre, to be in need (egēre, to be in need). Both a and b from Latin indu-, within, from Archaic Latin endo; c. **ENDO-**, from Greek endon, endo-, within; d. Celtic **endo**, in, in compound **endo-ber-o-** (see **bher-¹**). 8. Suffixed form **en-tos**. a. **DEDANS**, **INTESTINE**, **INTINE**, **INTUSSUSCEPTION**, from Latin intus, within, inside; b. **ENTO-**, from Greek entos, within. 9. Suffixed form **en-tero-**. a. **ENTERIC**, **ENTERO-**, **ENTERON**; **DYSENTERY**, **EXENTERATE**, **MESENTERY**, from Greek enteron, intestine; b. **ATOLL**, perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit antara-, interior. 10. Extended form **ens**. a. **EPISODE**, from Greek eis, into; b. suffixed form **ens-ō**. **ESOTERIC**, **ESOTROPIA**, from Greek esō, within. 11. Possibly suffixed zero-grade form **ņ-dha**. **AND**, from Old English and, and, from Germanic **anda**, **unda**. [Pokorny 1. en 311.] **-en-** (With many variants.) Suffix forming nouns and adjectives. Basis of very common Germanic "weak" nouns in **-ōn-**, such as **hazon-**, hare (see **kas-**). [Not in Pokorny.] **en-es-** Burden. **ONEROUS**, **ONUS**; **EXONERATE**, from Latin onus (stem oner-), burden. [Pokorny enos- 321.] **engʷ-** Groin, internal organ. Suffixed zero-grade form **ņgʷ-en-**. 1. **INGUINAL**, from Latin inguen, groin. 2. **ADENO-**; **LYMPHADENITIS**, **SIALADENITIS**, from Greek adēn, gland, gut. [Pokorny enĝ- 319.] **-eno-** See **-no-**. **-ent-** See **-nt-**. **epi** Also **opi**. Near, at, against. 1. **OB-**, from Latin ob, ob-, before, to, against. 2. **EPI-**, from Greek epi, on, over, at. 3. **OPISTHOBRANCH**, **OPISTHOGNATHOUS**, from Greek opisthen, behind, at the back. 4. Zero-grade form **pi**, on, in Greek piezein (see **sed-¹**). 5. **OBLAST**, from Russian oblast', oblast', from Old Church Slavonic ob, on. 6. Reduced prefixal form **op-** in **op-wer-yo-** (see **wer-⁵**). 7. **DUOPSONY**, **OPSONIN**, from Greek **ops**, extra on the side, with, in noun opson, condiment, cooked food. [Pokorny epi 323.] **er-¹** To move, set in motion. (Oldest form **her-**.) I. Basic form **er-**. 1. Probably Germanic **ar-**, **or-**, to be, exist. **ARE**, **ART²**, from Old English eart and aron, second person singular and plural present of bēon, to be. 2. Perhaps Germanic suffixed form **er-n-os-ti-**. a. **EARNEST¹**, from Old English eornoste, zealous, serious; b. **ERNEST** (personal name), from Old High German ernust, battle, vigor. 3. Uncertain o-grade suffixed form **ori-yo-**. **ORIENT**, **ORIGIN**, **ORIGINAL**; **ABORT**, from Latin orīrī, to arise, appear, be born. 4. Suffixed o-grade form **or-smā-**. **HORMESIS**, **HORMONE**, from Greek hormē, impulse, onrush. II. Enlarged extended form **ərei-s-**. 1. **RISE**; **ARISE**, from Old English rīsan, from Germanic **rīsan**; 2. Suffixed o-grade (causative) form **rois-ye-**. a. **REAR²**, from Old English rǣran, to rear, raise, lift up; b. **RAISE**, from Old Norse reisa, to raise. Both a and b from Germanic **raizjan**. [Pokorny 3. er- 326; ergh- 339.] **er-²** Earth, ground. Extended form **ert-**. 1. **EARTH**, from Old English eorthe, earth. 2. **AARDVARK**, **AARDWOLF**, from Middle Dutch aerde, eerde, earth. Both 1 and 2 from Germanic **erthō**. [Pokorny 4. er- 332.] **erə-¹** To row. (Oldest form **h₂erh₁-**, with variant [metathesized] form **h₁reh₁-**, contracted to **h₁rē-**.) 1. Variant form **rē-**. a. **ROW²**, from Old English rōwan, to row, from Germanic **rō-**; b. suffixed form **rō-tro-**. **RUDDER**, **RUS**, **RUSSIAN**, **RUSSKY**, from Old English rōther and Old Norse rōdhr, steering oar, both from Germanic **rōthrā**, rudder; c. suffixed form **rē-smo-**. **BIREME**, **REMEX**, **TRIREME**, from Latin rēmus, oar. 2. Greek form **erē-** (< **arē-**). **TRIERARCH**, from Greek triērēs, trireme. [Pokorny 1. erə- 338.] **erə-²** To separate. (Earlier **herh₁-**, metathesized from oldest form **h₁erh₁-**, contracted to **h₁arē-**.) 1. Suffixed zero-grade form **rə-ti-**. **RATITE**, from Latin ratis, raft (< "grating," "latticework"). 2. Suffixed form **rē-ti-**. **RÉSEAU**, **RETE**, **RETIARY**, **RETICLE**, **RETICULE**, **RETINA**; **RETIFORM**, from Latin rēte, rētis, a net. 3. Full-grade form **arē-**. **EREMITE**, **HERMIT**; **EREMURUS**, from Greek erēmos, empty, desolate, bereft. [Pokorny 5. er- 332.] **erə-³** To separate, adjoin. (Oldest form **herh₂-**.) 1. Suffixed zero-grade form **rā-ro-** (< **rə-ro-**). **RARE¹**, from Latin rārus, "having intervals between," "full of empty spaces," rare. 2. Probably Greek erasthai, to love (< "be separated from"), with derivatives erasmios, lovely, pleasant (> Latin Erasmus), and erōs, sexual love: **ERASMUS** (personal name), **ERATO**, **EROS**, **EROTIC**; **EROGENOUS**, **EROTOMANIA**, **PEDERAST**. 3. Probably Greek eris, strife, discord: **ERIS**, **ERISTIC**. [Not in Pokorny; compare Old Hittite arhāš, border ("thing that separates"), Old Irish or, border, and Lithuanian ìrti, to be dissolved ("separated").] **erədh-** High. (Oldest form possibly **h₁(e)rh₃dh-**, but the details are obscure.) 1. Suffixed zero-grade form **ṛədh-wo-**. **ARDUOUS**, from Latin arduus, high, steep. 2. **ORTHO-**, **ORTHOTIC**; **ANORTHITE**, from Greek orthos, upright, straight, correct. [Pokorny er(ə)d- 339, uerdh- 1167.] **ergh-** To mount. (Oldest form **h₁ergh-**.) 1. Suffixed o-grade form **orghi-**. a. **ORCHID**, **ORCHIS**, **ORCHITIS**; **ORCHIECTOMY**, from Greek orkhis, testicle; b. perhaps Latin orbis, disc, sphere, and orbita, track made by a wheel (probably from orbis): **ORB**, **ORBICULAR**, **ORBICULATE**, **ORBIT**. 2. Suffixed o-grade form **orgh-eyo-**. **ORCHESTRA**, from Greek orkheisthai, to dance. [Pokorny orĝhi- 782, ergh- 339.] **erkʷ-** To radiate, beam, praise. **RIG-VEDA**, from Sanskrit ṛk (stem ṛc-, ṛk-), "brightness," praise, poem. [Pokorny erkʷ- 340.] **ers-¹** To be in motion. 1. Variant form **res-**. **RACE²**, from Old Norse rās, rushing, from Germanic **rēs-**. <25> 2. Suffixed form **ers-ə-**. **ERR**, **ERRATIC**, **ERRATUM**, **ERRONEOUS**, **ERROR**; **ABERRATION**, from Latin errāre, to wander. 3. Possible zero-grade form **ṛs-i-**. **RISHI**, from Sanskrit ṛṣih, poet, seer. [Pokorny 2. ere-s- 336.] Compare **wers-¹**. **ers-²** To be wet. Derived form **ros-**, dew. 1. **ROSEMARY**, from Latin rōs, dew. 2. Perhaps (but doubtfully) Greek drosos, dew: **DROSERA**; **DROSOPHILA**. 3. Suffixed zero-grade form **ṛs-en-**, man, male (< "that sprinkles or ejects semen"). Old Persian aršan-, man, in compound khshayārshan- (see **tkē-**). [Pokorny 2. ere-s- 336.] Compare **wers-²**. **es-** To be. (Oldest form **h₁es-**.) 1. Athematic first person singular form **es-mi**. **AM**, from Old English eam, eom, am, from Germanic **izm(i)**. 2. Athematic third person singular form **es-ti**. **IS**, from Old English is, is, from Germanic **ist(i)**. 3. Optative stem **sī-** (< **əs-yā-**). **YES**, from Old English gēse, yes, from sie, may it be (so) (gēa, yea; see **i-**), from Germanic **sijai-**. 4. Suffixed zero-grade (participial) form **əs-ont-**, becoming **sont-**, being, existing, hence real, true. a. **SOOTH**, **SOOTHE**, from Old English sōth, true, from Germanic **santhaz**; b. suffixed (collective) zero-grade form **snt-ya-**, "that which is." **SIN¹**, from Old English synn, sin, from Germanic **sun(d)jō**. sin (< "it is true," "the sin is real"); c. **SUTTEE**; **BODHI-SATTVA**, **SATYAGRAHA**, from Sanskrit sat-, sant-, existing, true, virtuous. 5. Basic form **es-**. **ENTITY**, **ESSENCE**; **ABESSIVE**, **ABSENT**, **ADESSIVE**, **ESSIVE**, **IMPROVE**, **INESSIVE**, **INTEREST**, **OSSIA**, **PRESENT¹**, **PRESENT²**, **PROUD**, **QUINTESSENCE**, **REPRESENT**, **STOVER**, from Latin esse, to be. 6. Basic form **es-**. **-ONT**, **ONTO-**; **-BIONT**, **HOMOIOUSIAN**, **PAROUSIA**, **SCHIZONT**, from Greek einai (present participle ont-, being), to be. 7. Suffixed form **es-ti-**. **SWASTIKA**, from Sanskrit svasti, well-being (su-, good; see **(e)su-**). [Pokorny es- 340.] See also derivatives **ēs-**, **(e)su-**. **Language and Culture Note** A glance at the derivatives of **es-** above will reveal one derivative, English **sin**, whose connection to the root's basic meaning of "to be" may seem unclear. The connection makes more sense in light of the way ancient Indo-European peoples confessed to crimes and misdeeds. Hittite texts preserve a phrase used in the Hittite confessional formula, "It is; it (is) being," followed by a verb form meaning "I did (it)." (Compare English "It's true; I did it.") The Hittite word referring to the existence of the transgression or sin ("it (is) being, it (is) true") continues the Indo-European present participle of **es-**, **əs-ont-**, "being, really existing." This same form also became the Latin word for "guilty": the guilty one is the one who says "It is true; I did it.” English **sin**, from Germanic **sunt-jō**, is simply the abstract or collective noun from this utterance: "(the fact of saying) it is so." **ēs-** To sit. Found only in Greek, Indo-Iranian, and Anatolian. (Oldest form **h₁ēs-**, originally lengthened-grade form of **h₂es-**, to be [see **es-**], but a separate verb in Indo-European.) 1. **ĀSANA**, from Sanskrit āsanam, "a sitting," sitting position, from āste, he sits. 2. Suffixed form **ēs-eno-**. **KHAN¹**; **BARBICAN**, **GYMKHANA**, from Middle Persian khān, house, from Iranian **āhanam**, "seat." [Pokorny es- 342.] **-es-** Also **-os-**. Suffix forming abstract nouns from verbs, as in **od-es-**, smell (see **od-¹**). [Not in Pokorny.] **es-en-** Harvest, fall. O-grade form **osn-**. **EARN¹**, from Old English earnian, to serve, gain as wages, from Germanic **aznōn**, to do harvest work, serve, denominative verb from **azno**, harvest (work). [Pokorny esen- 343.] **esōr** Woman. Zero-grade combining form **-sōr**, **-sr-**. 1. Compound **swe-sor-**, "woman of one's own (kin group), sister" (see **swesor-**). 2. Compound **uk-sor-**, "woman who gets accustomed to (her husband's kin group), wife" (see **euk-**). [Not in Pokorny; compare Hittite -(a)šaraš, feminine suffix, and Sanskrit ti-sraḥ, cata-sraḥ, feminine of the numerals for "three" and "four" (with cognate forms in Celtic).] **(e)su-** Good. (Oldest form **h₁(e)su-**; originally suffixed form of **h₁es-**, to be [< "being true, being good"]; see **es-**.) 1. **EU-**, from Greek eu-, well, combining form of eüs, good. 2a. (i) **SWASTIKA**, from Sanskrit svasti, well-being, good luck (-asti, being; see **es-**); (ii) **NAINSOOK**, from Sanskrit sukha-, running easily (said of a chariot), pleasant ("having good axle-holes"; kham, axle-hole). Both (i) and (ii) from Sanskrit su-, good; b. Avestan hu-, good, in compound hupərəthuva- (see **per-²**). c. Perhaps Persian xuš (Modern Iranian Persian xoš), good (see **okʷ-**). a-c from Indo-Iranian **su-**. [Pokorny esu-s 342.] **eti** Above, beyond. 1. **EDDY**, from Old Norse idha, countercurrent, whirlpool, from Germanic **ith-**, a second time, again. 2. **ET CETERA**, from Latin et, and (< "furthermore"). [Pokorny eti 344.] **ētī-** Eider duck. A probable root. **EIDER**, from Old Norse ædhr, eider, from North Germanic **athi**, from Germanic **ēthi**. (Pokorny ētī- 345.] **etmen-** Breath. (Contracted from earlier **eh₁tmen-**.) **ĀTMAN**, from Sanskrit ātmā (stem ātman-), breath, soul. [Pokorny et-men- 345.] **-eto-** See **-to-**. **eu-** To dress. 1. **ENDUE**, **INDUMENT**, from Latin induere, to don (ind-, variant of in-, in, on; see **en**). 2. **EXUVIAE**, from Latin exuere, to doff (ex-, off; see **eghs**). 3. **REDUVIID**, from Latin reduvia, fragment (red-, back, in reverse; see **re-**). [Pokorny 2. eu- 346.] See also extended root **wes-⁴**. **euə-** To leave, abandon, give out, whence nominal derivatives meaning abandoned, lacking, empty. (Oldest form **heuh₂-**, with zero-grade form **h₁uh₂-** becoming **ū-**; variant [metathesized] full-grade form **h₁weh₂-**, colored to **h₁wāh₂-**, contracted to **hwā-**.) 1. Suffixed zero-grade form **wə-no-**. a. **WANE**; **WANTON**, from Old English wanian, to lessen (from Germanic **wanēn**), and wan-, without; b. **WANT**, from Old Norse vanta, to lack, from North Germanic **wanatōn**. 2. Suffixed form **wā-no-**. **VAIN**, **VANITY**, **VAUNT**; **EVANESCE**, **VANISH**, from Latin vānus, empty. 3. Extended form **wāk-**. **VACANT**, **VACATE**, **VACATION**, **VACUITY**, **VACUUM**, **VOID**; **AVOID**, **DEVOID**, **EVACUATE**, from Latin vacāre (variant vocāre), to be empty. 4. Extended and suffixed form **wās-to-**. **WASTE**; **DEVASTATE**, from Latin vāstus, empty, waste. [Pokorny 1. eu- 345.] **euə-dh-r** Udder. Related to **wē-r-**. 1. Suffixed zero-grade form **udh-ṛ** (< **uə-dh-ṛ**). **UDDER**, from Old English ūder, udder, from Germanic **ūdr-**. 2. Suffixed o-grade form **oudh-r**. **EXUBERANT**, **EXUBERATE**, from Latin adjective ūber, fertile, derived from ūber, "breast." [Pokorny eudh- 347.] **euk-** To become accustomed. Zero-grade form **uk-**. 1. Suffixed (feminine) form **uk-sor-**, "she who gets accustomed (to the new household)" after patrilocal marriage (*-sor-*, woman; see **esōr**). **UXORIAL**, **UXORIOUS**; **UXORICIDE**, from Latin uxor, wife. 2. Nasalized form **u-n-k-**. **TWIG²**, from Old Irish tuicim, I understand, "get accustomed to" (< **to-ucc-**; to-, to; see **to-**). [Pokorny euk- 347.] **eus-** To burn. 1. **UREDİNİUM**; **ADUST**, **COMBUSTION**, from Latin ūrere, to burn. 2. Zero-grade form **us-**. **EMBER**, from Old English ǣmyrge, ember, from Germanic compound **aim-uzjōn-**, ashes (*aim-*, ashes, ember; see **ai-²**), from **uzjōn**, to burn. 3. Possibly in the non-Greek source of Greek Euros, the east wind: **EURUS**. [Pokorny eus- 347.] **-eyo-** Verbal suffix forming causatives (transitive) and iteratives (intransitive) from verbal roots, as in **moneyo-**, "to cause to think," warn (see **men-¹**). Usually entails o-grade of the root; becomes **-jan** in Germanic. [Not in Pokorny.] <26> **[ferrum** Iron. Latin noun, possibly borrowed (via Etruscan) from the same obscure source as Old English bræs, brass. 1. **FARRIER**, **FERRI-**, **FERRO-**, **FERROUS**, **FERRUGINOUS**; **FER-DE-LANCE**, from Latin ferrum, iron. 2. **BRASS**, **BRAZEN**, **BRAZIER¹**, from Old English bræs, brass.] **[Frankon-** Frank (member of a Germanic tribe, "javelin"). Germanic root. 1. **FRANC**, **FRANCHISE**, **FRANCO-**, **FRANK²**, **FRANK³**, **FRANKINCENSE**, **FRANKLIN**; **FRANKPLEDGE**, from Frankish **Frank-**, Frank, borrowed into Late Latin as Francus, Frank. 2. **FRENCH**, from Old English frencisc, French, from derivative adjective **frankiska-**, of the Franks. 3. **FRANCE**, from Medieval Latin Francia, land of the Franks.] **[gagina** Also **gagana**. Against. Germanic root. 1. **GAINSAY**, from Old English gegn-, against. 2. **AGAIN**, **AGAINST**, from Old English ongēagn, ongēan, against, back, again, from Germanic **ana-gagina** (*ana-*, toward; see **an-¹**), in the opposite direction. 3. **UNGAINLY**, from Old Norse gegn, straight, direct, helpful. 4. **GEGENSCHEIN**, from Old High German gegin, gagan, against.] **gal-¹** Bald, naked. 1. Suffixed form **gal-wo-**. **CALLOW**, from Old English calu, bare, bald, from Germanic **kalwa-**. 2. **GALYAK**, from Russian golyi, smooth, bald, from Slavic **golŭ**. [Pokorny 1. gal- 349.] **gal-²** To call, shout. 1. **CALL**, from Old Norse kalla, to call, from Germanic expressive form **kall-**. 2. **CLATTER**, from Old English **clatrian**, to clatter, from Germanic **klat-**. 3. Expressive form **gall-**. **GALLINACEOUS**, **GALLINULE**; **PICO DE GALLO**, from Latin gallus, cock (< "the calling bird"; but probably also associated with Gallus, Gallic, as if to mean "the bird of Gaul," the cock being archaeologically attested as an important symbol in the iconography of Roman and pre-Roman Gaul). 4. Suffixed form **gal-so-**. **GLASNOST**, from Old Church Slavonic glasŭ, voice. 5. Reduplicated form **gal-gal-**. **GLAGOLITIC**, from Old Church Slavonic glagolŭ, word. [Pokorny 2. gal- 350.] **gal-³** To be able, have power. **GALLIARD**, from Old French galliart, lively, from Gallo-Roman **galia**, strength, power. [Pokorny 3. gal- 351.] **gar-** To call, cry. Expressive root. 1a. **CARE**, from Old English cearu, care; b. **CHARY**, from Old English cearig, sorrowful, from Germanic adjective **karaga-**, sorrowful. Both a and b from Germanic **karō**, lament, hence grief, care. 2. **SLOGAN**, from Irish Gaelic gairm, shout, cry, call, from Celtic suffixed form **gar-(s)mņ**. 3. Suffixed form (with expressive gemination) **garr-iyo-**. **GARRULOUS**, from Latin garrīre, to chatter. [Pokorny ĝar- 352.] **[garwian** To make, prepare, equip. Germanic verb. 1. **GAR²**, from Old Norse gera, to make, do. 2. Noun form **garwi-**, equipment, adornment. **GARB**, from Italian garbo, grace, elegance of dress, from Germanic. 3. Adjective form **garwa-**, prepared. **YARE**, from Old English gearu, gearo, ready. 4. Noun form **garwin-**. **GEAR**, from Old Norse gervi, equipment, gear.] **gāu-** To rejoice; also to have religious fear or awe. (Oldest form **geh₂u-**, colored to **gah₂u-**, contracted to **gau-** [before consonants] and **gāw-** [before vowels].) 1. Suffixed extended form **gāw-idh-ē-**. **GAUD**, **GAUDY¹**, **GAUDY²**, **JOY**; **ENJOY**, **REJOICE**, from Latin gaudēre, to rejoice. 2. Form (with nasal infix) **ga-n-u-**. **GANOID**, from Greek ganusthai, to rejoice. [Pokorny gāu- 353.] **[gē** Also **gaia**. The earth. Greek noun of unknown origin. **GAEA**, **GEO-**; **APOGEE**, **EPIGEAL**, **GEANTICLINE**, **GEODE**, **GEORGIC**, **HYPOGEAL**, **NEOGAEA**, **PERIGEE**. Also in proper name Geōrgios, from geōrgos, "worker of the earth," farmer (-orgos, worker; see **werg-**): **GEORGE**.] **gei-** To sing. (Contracted from earlier **geh₁i-**, with variant [metathesized] form **h₁eih₁i-**, whence zero-grade **gih₁-**, contracted to **gi-**.) Suffixed zero-grade form **gi-tā-**. **BHAGAVAD-GĪTĀ**, from Sanskrit gītā, song. [Pokorny ge(i)- 355.] **geiə-** To sprout, split, open. (Oldest form **ĝeihx-**.) Zero-grade form **gī-** (< **giə-**). 1. **CHINK¹**, from Old English cīne, cinu, cleft, ravine cut by a stream, from Germanic **kinan**. 2. **SCION**, from Old French cion, shoot, from Frankish **kīþ-**, from Germanic **ki-don-**. 3. Perhaps Germanic **kīdiə-**. **KID**, from Old Norse kidh. [Pokorny ĝei- 355.] **gel-¹** Bright. 1. Extended form **glei-**. a. **CLEAN**, from Old English clǣne, pure, clean; b. **CLEANSE**, from Old English clǣnsian, to purify, cleanse. Both a and b from Germanic **klai-ni-**, bright, pure. 2. Extended zero-grade form **glə-** (oldest form **glh₁-**). Suffixed form **glə-nā-**. **EUGLENA**, from Greek glēnē, eyeball. 3. Old Irish gel, bright, in Irish Gaelic compound Muirgheal (see **mori-**). [Pokorny ĝel- 366.] **gel-²** Cold; to freeze. 1. **CHILL**, from Old English c(i)ele, chill, from Germanic **kaliz**, coldness. 2. **COLD**, from Old English ceald, cold, from Germanic **kalda-**, cold. 3a. **COOL**, from Old English cōl, cold, cool; b. **KEEL³**, from Old English cēlan, to cool, from Germanic **kōljan**, to cool. Both a and b from Germanic **kōl-**, cool. 4. Suffixed form **gel-ā-**. **GELATIN**, **GELATION**, **JELLY**; **CONGEAL**, from Latin gelāre, to freeze. 5. Suffixed form **gel-u-**. **GELID**, from Latin gelū, frost, cold. 6. Probably suffixed zero-grade form **gl-k-**. **GLACÉ**, **GLACIAL**, **GLACIATE**, **GLACIER**, **GLACIS**; **DEMI-GLACE**, **VERGLAS**, from Latin glaciēs, ice. [Pokorny 3. gel(ə)- 365.] **gembh-** Tooth, nail. (Oldest form **gembh-**.) 1. Suffixed o-grade form **gombh-o-**. a. (i) **COMB**, **KAME**, from Old English comb, camb, comb; (ii) **CAM**, from Dutch kam, cog, comb; (iii) **UNKEMPT**, from Old English cemban, to comb, from Germanic denominative **kambjan**, to comb. (i)-(iii) all from Germanic **kambaz**, comb; b. **GOMPHOSIS**, from Greek gomphos, tooth, peg, bolt. 2. Suffixed zero-grade form **gmbh-ōn-**. **OAKUM**, from Old English ā-cumba, part of flax separated in hackling, oakum ("stuff combed off"; ā-, away, off). 3. Perhaps Germanic **kimb-**. **CHIME²**, from Old English cim-, cimb-, rim (only in compounds). 4. Possibly suffixed form **gembh-mə-**. **GEM**, **GEMMA**, **GEMMATE**, **GEMMULE**, from Latin gemma, bud, hence gem. [Pokorny ĝembh- 369.] **gemə-** To marry. (Oldest form **ĝemh₁-**.) Suffixed zero-grade form **gmə-o-**. **GAMETE**, **GAMO-**, **-GAMOUS**, **-GAMY**, from Greek gamos, marriage. [Pokorny ĝem(e)- 369.] **[g(e)n-** To compress into a ball. Hypothetical Indo-European base of a range of Germanic words with initial **kn-** referring to compact, knobby bodies and projections and sharp blows. 1a. **KNAP**, from Middle English knappen, to strike sharply, snap, hence "to have a bite"; b. **KNAPSACK**, from Low German knappen, to bite; c. **KNOP**; **KNAPWEED**, from Old English cnop, knob. a-c all from Germanic **kn-a-pp-**. 2. **KNACKWURST**, from Middle High German knacken, to crack, from Germanic **kn-a-k-**. 3a. **GNARLED**, **KNAR**, from Middle English knarre, knob, from a source akin to Norwegian knart, knot in wood; b. **KNUR**, **KNURL**, from Middle English knor, a swelling. Both a and b from Germanic **kn-a-r-**. 4. **KNOB**, **NUB**, from Middle Low German knobbe, knubbe, knot in wood, knob, from Germanic **kn-u-b-**. 5a. **KNOCK**, from Old English cnocian, to knock; b. **GNOCCHI**, from Italian gnocco, nocchio, knot in wood; c. **KNUCKLE**, from Middle English knokel, knuckle, from a source akin to Middle Low German knökel, knuckle. a-c all from Germanic **kn-u-k-**. 6a. **KNELL**, **KNOLL²**, from Old English cnyllan, to strike; b. **KNOLL¹**, from Old English cnoll, a knoll. Both a and b from Germanic **kn-u-l-**. 7. **KNOBKERRIE**, from Middle Dutch cnoppe, knob, from Germanic **kn-u-p-**. 8a. **KNIT**, from Old English cnyttan, to tie in a knot; b. **KNOT¹**, from Old English cnotta, knot in a cord; c. **KNOUT**, from Old Norse knūtr, knot in cord. a-c all from Germanic **kn-u-t-**. 9. **QUENELLE**, <27> from Old High German knodo, knob, knot (> French quenelle), from Germanic **kn-u-th-**. 10. **KNIFE**, from Old English cnīf, knife, from Germanic **kn-i-b-**. 11. **KNEAD**, from Old English cnedan, to knead, ferment, from Germanic **kn-e-d-**. [Pokorny gen- 370.]] **genə-** Also **gen-**. To give birth, beget; with derivatives referring to aspects and results of procreation and to familial and tribal groups. (Oldest form **ĝenh₁-**.) I. Basic form **genə-**. 1. Suffixed form **genə-es-**. a. **GENDER**, **GENERAL**, **GENERATE**, **GENERATION**, **GENERIC**, **GENEROUS**, **GENRE**, **GENUS**; **CONGENER**, **DEGENERATE**, **ENGENDER**, **MISCEGENATION**, from Latin genus, race, kind; b. **GENE**; **ALLOGENEIC**, **GENEALOGY**, **GENOCIDE**, **GENOTYPE**, **HETEROGENEOUS**, **SYNGENEIC**, from Greek genos and geneā, race, family; c. **-GEN**, **-GENY**; **EPIGENE**, from Greek suffix -genēs, "-born." 2. Suffixed form **gen(ə)-yo-**. a. **GENIAL¹**, **GENIUS**; **CONGENIAL**, from Latin genius, procreative divinity, inborn tutelary spirit, innate quality; b. **ENGINE**, **INGENIOUS**, from Latin ingenium, inborn character (in-, in; see **en**). 3. Suffixed form **genə-ā-**. **INDIGEN**, **INDIGENOUS**, from Latin indigena, born in (a place), indigenous (indu-, within; see **en**). 4. Suffixed form **genə-wo-**. **GENUINE**, **INGENUOUS**, from Latin ingenuus, born in (a place), native, natural, freeborn (in-, in; see **en**). 5. Suffixed form **gen(ə)-men-**. **GERM**, **GERMAN²**, **GERMANE**, **GERMINAL**, **GERMINATE**, from dissimilated Latin germen, shoot, bud, embryo, germ. II. O-grade form **gonə-**, reduced to **gon-** in suffixed form **gon-o-**. 1. **GONAD**, **GONO-**, **-GONY**; **ARCHEGONIUM**, **CARPOGONIUM**, **EPIGONE**, from Greek gonos, child, procreation, seed. 2. **HARIJAN**, from Sanskrit janaḥ, offspring, child, person. III. Zero-grade form **gņə-**. 1. Suffixed form **gņə-yo-**. a. **KIN**; **KINDRED**, from Old English cyn(n), race, family, kin; b. **KING**, from Old English cyning, king, from Germanic **kuningaz**, king. Both a and b from Germanic **kunjam**, family. 2. Suffixed form **gņə-t-**. a. **KIND²**, from Old English cynd, gecynd(e), origin, birth, race, family, kind, from Germanic **kundjaz**, family, race; b. **KIND¹**, from Old English gecynde, natural, native, fitting (ge-, collective prefix; see **kom**), from Germanic **kundi-**, natural, native; c. suffixed form **gņə-ti-**. (i) **GENS**, **GENTEEL**, **GENTILE**, **GENTLE**, **GENTRY**, **JAUNTY**; **GENDARME**, from Latin gēns (stem genti-), race, clan; (ii) **GENESIS**, **-GENESIS**, from Greek genesis, birth, beginning; d. **KINDERGARTEN**, **KRISS KRINGLE**, **WUNDERKIND**, from Old High German kind, child, from Germanic secondary full-grade variant **kentham**; e. suffixed form **gņə-to-**. **JATAKA**, from Sanskrit jāta-, born (verbal adjective of janāte, he is born). 3. Reduplicated form **gi-gn(ə)-**. **GENITAL**, **GENITIVE**, **GENITOR**, **GENITURE**, **GENT¹**, **GINGERLY**; **CONGENITAL**, **PRIMOGENITOR**, **PRIMOGENITURE**, **PROGENITOR**, **PROGENY**, from Latin gignere (past participle genitus), to beget. 4. Reduced form **gn-** in suffixed form **-gn-o-**. **BENIGN**, **MALIGN**, from Latin benignus, good-natured, kindly (bene, well; see **deu-²**), and malignus, evil-natured, malevolent (male, ill; see **mel-⁵**). 5. Zero-grade form **gņə-** becoming **gnā-**. **PREGNANT¹**; **IMPREGNATE**, from Latin praegnās, pregnant (prae-, before; see **per¹**). 6. Suffixed form **gņə-sko-** becoming **gnā-sko-**. **NADA**, **NAIVE**, **NASCENT**, **NATAL**, **NATION**, **NATIVE**, **NATURE**, **NÉE**, **NOËL**; **ADNATE**, **AGNATE**, **COGNATE**, **CONNATE**, **ENATE**, **INNATE**, **NEONATE**, **PUISNE**, **PUNY**, **RENAISSANCE**, from Latin gnāscī, nāscī (past participle gnātus, nātus), to be born. 7. Reduced form **gn-** in Sanskrit compound kṛmi-ja- (see **kʷṛmi-**). [Pokorny 1. ĝen- 373.] **genu-¹** Knee; also angle. (Oldest form **ĝenu-**.) 1. Variant form **gneu-**. a. **KNEE**, from Old English cnēo, knee, from Germanic **knewam**; b. **KNEEL**, from Old English cnēowlian, to kneel, from Germanic **knewljan**. 2. Basic form **genu-**. **GENICULATE**, **GENUFLECT**, from Latin genū, knee. 3. O-grade form **gonu**. **POLYGONUM**, **PYCNOGONID**, from Greek gonu, knee. 4. Suffixed variant form **gōnw-yā-**. **-GON**, **AMBLYGONITE**, **DIAGONAL**, **GONIOMETER**, **ORTHOGONAL**, from Greek gōnia, angle, corner. [Pokorny 1. ĝenu- 380.] **genu-²** Jawbone, chin. (Oldest form **ĝenu-**.) 1. Prevocalic form **genw-**. **CHIN**, from Old English cin(n), chin, from Germanic **kinnuz**. 2. Basic form **genu-**. **GENIAL²**; **GENIOGLOSSUS**, from Greek genus, jaw, chin. 3. Suffixed variant form **gna-dho-**. **GANACHE**, **GNATHAL**, **GNATHIC**, **GNATHOUS**; **AGNATHAN**, **COMPSOGNATHUS**, **CHAETOGNATH**, **GNATHOSTOME**, from Greek gnathos, jaw. 4. Variant form **g(h)enu-**. **HANUMAN**, from Sanskrit hanuḥ, jaw. [Pokorny 2. ĝenu- 381.] **gep(h)-** Also **gebh-**. Jaw, mouth. (Oldest forms **gep(h)-**, **gebh-**.) 1. Probably Germanic **kaf-**, to gnaw, chew. **CHAFF¹**, from Old English ceaf, husks, chaff. 2. **CHAFER**; **COCKCHAFER**, from Old English ceafor, ceafer, beetle, from Germanic **kabraz**, "gnawer." 3. **JOWL¹**, from Old English ceaft, jaw, cheek, from Germanic **kefalaz**. [Pokorny ĝep(h)- 382.] **ger-¹** To gather. (Oldest form **h₂ger-**.) 1. Extended form **grem-**. **CRAM**, from Old English crammian, to stuff, cram, from Germanic **kramm-**. 2. Reduplicated form **gre-g-**. **GREGARIOUS**, **GREIGE**; **AGGREGATE**, **CONGREGATE**, **EGREGIOUS**, **SEGREGATE**, from Latin grex (stem greg-), herd, flock. 3. Basic form **ager-**, with suffixed o-grade form **agor-ā-**. **AGORA**, **AGORAPHOBIA**, **ALLEGORY**, **CATEGORY**, **PANEGYRIC**, from Greek ageirein, to assemble, and aguris, agora, marketplace. [Pokorny 1. ger- 382.] **[g(e)r-²** Curving, crooked; hypothetical Indo-European base for a variety of Germanic words with initial **kr-**. I. Words meaning to bend, curl; bent, crooked, hooked; something bent or hooked. 1a. **AGRAFFE**, **KREPLACH**, from Old High German krāpfo, a hook; b. **GRAPE**, from Old French grape, vine, grape, backformation from graper, to harvest grapes; c. **GRAPNEL**, from Old French grapan, grapnel; d. **GRAPPLE**, from Old French grape, a hook; e. **GRAPPA**, from Italian dialectal grappa, vine stem, brandy. a-e all from Germanic **krappōn-**, a hook, especially one used in harvesting grapes. 2a. **CRUMMIE**, **CRUMPET**, **CRUMPLE**, from Old English crump, crumb, crooked, bent, stooping; b. **KRUMKAKE**, **KRUMMHOLZ**, **KRUMMHORN**, from Old High German krump, curved. Both a and b from Germanic **krumpa-**, **krumba-**. 3. **CRIMP¹**, from Low German krimpen, to wrinkle. 4. **CRAMP²**, from Middle Dutch crampe, hook, and Frankish **kramp**, hook. 5. **CRAMP¹**, from Old French crampe, cramp, from a Germanic source akin to Old High German krampfo, a cramp. 6. **CRIPPLE**, from Old English crypel, a cripple, from Germanic **krupila-**, crippled. 7. **CREEP**, from Old English crēopan, to creep, from Germanic **kreupan**. 8. **CRINGLE**, from Middle Low German krink, a ring. 9. **CRINGE**, from Old English cringan, to yield, from Germanic **krengan**. 10. **CRINKLE**, from Middle English crinkelen, to make kinks in, akin to Middle Dutch crinkelen. 11. **CREEK**, from Old Norse kriki, a bend, nook. 12. **CROOK¹**, **CROOK²**, from Old Norse krōkr, a hook. 13. **CROCHET**, **CROCKET**, **CROQUET**, **CROTCH**, **CROTCHET**, **CROUCH**; **ENCROACH**, from Old French croc, a hook, from Frankish **krōk-**. 14. **CRUTCH**, from Old English crycc, (bent) staff, crutch, from Germanic **krukjō**. 15. **CROSIER**; **LACROSSE**, from Old French crosse, crook. 16. **CRULLER**, **CURL**, from Middle Dutch crulle, curly. 17. **CRANK¹**, from Old English cranc-(stæf), a weaving implement. 18. **CROCK³**, from Middle English crok, an old ewe, from a source akin to Norwegian krake, a sickly beast. 19. **CARP¹**, from Old Norse karpa, to boast. 20. **GROSSULARITE**; **GOOSEBERRY**, from Old French grosele, gooseberry, from a source akin to Middle Dutch kroes, curled. II. Words meaning "a rounded mass, collection; a round object, vessel, container." 1. **CRUMB**, from Old English cruma, a fragment, from West Germanic **krūmōn-**. 2. **CROUP²**, **CROUPIER**, **CRUPPER**, from Old <28> French crope, rump, from a source akin to Frankish **kruppa**, rump. 3. **CROP**, from Old English cropp, cluster, bunch, ear of corn. 4. **GROUP**, from Italian gruppo, an assemblage. 5. **CROCK¹**, from Old English crocc, pot. 6. **CRUSE**, from Middle Dutch crūyse, pot. 7a. **CRIB**, from Old English cribb, manger, from West Germanic **kribjōn-**; b. **CRÈCHE**, from Old French cre(s)che, crib, from a source akin to Frankish **kripja**, cradle, from Germanic **kripja-**. 8. **CRADLE**, from Old English cradol, cradle. 9. **CART**, from Old English cræt and Old Norse kartr, wagon. 10. **CROFT**, from Old English croft, small enclosed field. [Pokorny 3. ger- 385.]] **gerbh-** To scratch. 1. **CARVE**, from Old English ceorfan, to cut, from Germanic **kerban**. 2. **KERF**, from Old English cyrf, a cutting (off), from zero-grade Germanic form **kurbiz**. 3. Variant form **grebh-**. a. **CRAB¹**, from Old English crabba, a crab, from Germanic **krab(b)-**; b. **CRAYFISH**, from Old High German kerbiz, edible crustacean, from Germanic **krabiz-**; c. perhaps Germanic **krab-**. **CRAWL¹**, from Old Norse krafla, to crawl. 4. Zero-grade form **gṛbh-**. a. **GLAMOUR**, **GRAFFITO**, **GRAFT¹**, **GRAM¹**, **-GRAM**, **GRAMMAR**, **-GRAPH**, **-GRAPHER**, **GRAPHIC**, **-GRAPHY**; **AGRAPHA**, **AGRAPHIA**, **ANAGRAM**, **DIAGRAM**, **EPIGRAM**, **EPIGRAPH**, **GRAPHITE**, **ICONOGRAPHY**, **LIPOGRAM**, **PARAGRAPH**, **PARALLELOGRAM**, **PROGRAM**, **PSEUDEPIGRAPHA**, **TETRAGRAMMATON**, **TOPOGRAPHY**, from Greek graphein, to scratch, draw, write, gramma (< **gṛbh-mṇ**), a picture, written letter, piece of writing, and grammē, a line; b. **LANDGRAVE**, **MARGRAVE**, **PALSGRAVE**, from Middle Dutch grāve and Middle Low German grāve, count, from West Germanic **grāfa**, a designation of rank, possibly borrowed from Greek grapheus, scribe. [Pokorny gerebh- 392.] **[gerere** To carry, carry on, act, do. Latin verb of unknown origin. Oldest form **ges-**, past participle gestus. **GERENT**, **GERUND**, **GEST**, **GESTATION**, **GESTICULATE**, **GESTURE**, **JEST**; **ARMIGER**, **BELLIGERENT**, **CONGERIES**, **CONGEST**, **DIGEST**, **EGEST**, **INGEST**, **REGISTER**, **SUGGEST**, **VELIGER**.] **gerə-¹** To grow old. (Oldest form **ĝerh₂-**.) 1. Suffixed lengthened-grade form **gērə-s-**. **AGERATUM**, **GERIATRICS**, from Greek gēras, old age. 2. Suffixed form **gerə-ont-**. **GERONTO-**, from Greek gerōn (stem geront-), old man. [Pokorny ĝer- 390.] **gerə-²** To cry hoarsely; also the name of the crane. (Oldest form **ĝerə₂-**.) I. Words meaning "to cry hoarsely"; also words denoting the crow. 1a. **CROW¹**, from Old English crāwe, a crow; b. **CROW²**, from Old English crāwan, to crow; c. **CRACK**, from Old English cracian, to resound; d. **CRACKNEL**, from Middle Dutch kraken, to crack; e. **CRAKE**, from Old Norse krāka, a crow; f. **CROON**, from Middle Dutch krōnen, to groan, lament. a-f all from Germanic **krē-**. 2. Possibly from this root (but more likely imitative) is Germanic **kur(r)-**. **CUR**, from Middle English curre, cur, akin to Old Norse kurra, to growl. II. Words denoting a crane. 1a. **CRANE**, from Old English cran, crane; b. **CRANBERRY**, from Middle Low German krān, crane. Both a and b from Germanic **kran-**, crane. 2. Extended form **grū-**. **GRUS**; **PEDIGREE**, from Latin grūs, crane. 3. Suffixed zero-grade form **grə-k-**, becoming **grā-k-**. **GRACKLE**, from Latin grāculus, jackdaw. 4. Suffixed extended form **gerə-no-**. **GERANIUM**, from Greek geranos, crane. [Pokorny 2. ger- 383.] **geuə-** To hasten. (Oldest forms **geuh₁-**, **ĝeuh₁-**.) Possibly Germanic **kaurjan**. **SKIJORING**, from Old Norse keyra, to drive. [Pokorny ĝeu- 399.] **g(e)u-lo-** A glowing coal. 1. **COAL**, **COLLIE**, **COLLIER**, from Old English col, a glowing coal, from Germanic **kulam**. 2. **CHOLLA**, from dialectal Old French cholle, round lump, head, probably from Germanic **kulam**, **kolam**. [Pokorny g(e)u-lo- 399.] **geus-** To taste, choose. (Oldest form **ĝeus-**.) 1a. **CHOOSE**, from Old English cēosan, ceōsan, to choose, from Germanic **keusan**; b. **CHOICE**, from a Germanic source akin to Gothic kausjan, to test, taste, from Germanic causative **kausjan**. 2. Zero-grade form **gus-**. **VALKYRIE**, from Old Norse Valkyrja, "chooser of the slain," Valkyrie (valr, the slain; see **welə-²**), from Germanic **kuz-**. 3. **AGEUSIA**, from Greek geuesthai, to taste. 4. Suffixed zero-grade form **gus-tu-**. a. **GUST¹**, **GUSTO**; **RAGOUT**, from Latin gustus, taste; b. Celtic **gustu-**, "strength," in personal names: (i) **ANGUS**, from Old Irish Oengus, "having solitary strength" (oen, one; see **oi-no-**); (ii) **FERGUS**, from Old Irish Fergus, "having the strength of men" (fer, man; see **wi-ro-**). Both (i) and (ii) from Old Irish gus(s), strength. 5. Suffixed zero-grade form **gus-to-**, whence further suffixed (frequentative) form **gus-t-ā-**. **GUSTATION**; **DEGUST**, **DISGUST**, from Latin gustāre, to taste. [Pokorny ĝeus- 399.] **ghabh-** Also **ghebh-**. To give or receive. 1. Form **ghebh-**. a. **GIVE**, from Old English giefan, to give, and Old Norse gefa, to give; b. **FORGIVE**, from Old English forgi(e)fan, to give, give up, leave off (anger), remit, forgive, from Germanic compound **far-geban**, to give away (*far-*, away; see **per¹**); c. **ZEITGEBER**, from Old High German geban, to give. a-c all from Germanic **geban**, to give. 2. Suffixed form **ghebh-ti-**, something given (or received). **GIFT**, from Old Norse gipt, gift, a gift, from Germanic **giftiz**. 3. O-grade form **ghobh-**. **GAVEL²**, from Old English gafol, tribute, tax, debt, from Germanic **gab-ulam**, something paid (or received). 4. Form **ghabh-ē-**. a. **ABLE**, **BINNACLE**, **HABILE**, **HABIT**, **HABITABLE**, **HABITANT**, **HABITAT**; **AVOIRDUPOIS**, **COHABIT**, **EXHIBIT**, **INHABIT**, **INHIBIT**, **MALADY**, **PREBEND**, **PROHIBIT**, **PROVENDER**, from Latin habēre, to hold, possess, have, handle (> habitāre, to dwell); b. **DEBENTURE**, **DEBIT**, **DEBT**, **DEVOIR**, **DUE**, **DUTY**; **ENDEAVOR**, from Latin dēbēre, to owe (dē-, away from; see **de-**). [Pokorny ghabh- 407.] Compare **kap-**. **ghabholo-** A fork, branch of a tree. **JAVELIN**, from Old French javelot, a throwing spear, probably from Celtic **gablakko-**. [Pokorny ghabh(o)lo- 409.] **ghai-** To yawn, gape. (Oldest form **gheh₂i-**, colored to **ghah₂i-**, contracted to **ghai-** [before consonants] and **ghay-** [before vowels].) 1. Variant form **ghyā-** (< **ghyaə-**). a. Nasalized form **ghi-n-ā-**. **YAWN**, from Old English gīnan, gīnian, geonian, to yawn, from Germanic **ginōn**; b. **HIATUS**; **DEHISCE**, from Latin hiāre, to gape, be open. 2. Suffixed variant form **gha-smņ**. **CHASM**; **CHASMOGAMOUS**, from Greek khasma, yawning gulf, chasm. 3. Suffixed variant form **gha-n-yo-**. **ACHENE**, from Greek khainein, to gape. 4. Labial extensions: a. **GAP**, from Old Norse gap, chasm; b. **GAPE**, from Old Norse gapa, to open the mouth; c. **GASP**, from Old Norse geispa, to yawn. 5. **GILL³**, from Old Norse gil, ravine, chasm, from Germanic **gil-**. 6. **GYRFALCON**, **LAMMERGEIER**, from Old High German gīr, vulture, from Germanic **gīr-**, vulture (< "voracious or yawning bird"). [Pokorny 2. ghē- 419.] Compare **ghēu-**. **gh(a)id-o-** A goat. Possibly related (by metathesis) to **digh-**. **GOAT**, from Old English gāt, she-goat, from Germanic **gaitō**. [Pokorny ghaido- 409.] **ghais-** To adhere, hesitate. Suffixed form **ghais-ē-**. **HESITATE**; **ADHERE**, **COHERE**, **INHERE**, from Latin haerēre, to stick, cling. [Pokorny ghais- 410.] **ghaiso-** A stick, spear. 1a. **GORE¹**; **GARFISH**, **GARLIC**, from Old English gār, spear, also in personal names: (i) **EDGAR**, from Old English Eādgar, "happy spear, rich spear" (ēad, happiness, riches); (ii) Old English Ōsgār (see **ansu-**); b. Old High German gēr, spear, in personal names: (i) **GERALD**, from Old High German Gērwald, Gerald, "spear rule" (-wald, power; see **wal-**); (ii) **GERARD**, from Old High German Gērhart, "strong with the spear" (hart, stern, strong; see **kar-¹**); <29> (iii) **GERTRUDE**, from Old High German Gerdrud, "spear strength" (drud, strength); (iv) Old High Ger- man Hrödger (see **kar-2**); c. Germanic compound *nabo-gaizaz (see **nobh-**); ac all from Germanic *gaizaz, spear. 2. **GORE²**, from Old English gāra, corner, point of land, from Germanic *gaizōn-. [Pokorny ĝhaiso- 410 (but palatal *gh not on good evidence).] **ghalgh-** Branch, rod. (Oldest form *ghalgh-.) 1. **GALLOWS**, from Old English g(e)alga, cross, gallows. 2. **GAUGE**, from Old North French gauge, gauge. Both a and b from Germanic *galgon-. [Pokorny ghalg(h)- 411.] **ghans-** Goose. (Oldest form *ghans-.) 1a. **GOOSE**; **GOSHAWK**, from Old English gōs (nominative plural gês), goose; b. **GOSLING**, from Old Norse gas, goose; C. **GUNSEL**, from Old High German gans, goose; d. **GONZO**, from Spanish ganso, goose, from a German- ic source akin to Old High German gans, goose; e. **SMORGASBORD**, from Old Norse gās, goose. a-e all from Germanic *gans- (nominative plural *gansiz). 2. **GANDER**, from Old English ganra, gandra, gander, from Germanic *gan(d)ron-. 3. **GANNET**, from Old English ganot, gannet, from Germanic *ganōtōn-. 4. Suffixed form *ghans-er-. **ANSERINE**; **MERGANSER**, from Latin anser (< *hanser), goose. 5. Basic form *ghans-. **CHENOPOD**, from Greek khēn, goose. [Pokorny ĝhan-s- 412.] **ghazdh-o-** Rod, staff. (Oldest form *ghazdh-o-.) а. **YARD¹**, from Old English gierd, geard, staff, twig, mea- suring rod, from Germanic *gazdjō; b. **GAD²**, from Old Norse gaddr, rod, goad, spike. Both a and b from Germanic *gazdaz. 2. Form *ghazdh-ā-. **HASLET**, **HASTATE**, from Latin hasta, spear. [Pokorny 1. ĝhasto- 412.] **ghé-** To release, let go; (in the middle voice) to be re- leased, go. (Contracted from earlier *gheh₁-.) 1. **GO¹**; **AGO**, **FOREGO¹**, **FORGO**, from Old English gān, to go, from Germanic variant form *gāian. 2. Suffixed form *ghē-ro-. **HEIR**, **HEREDITAMENT**, **HEREDITY**, **HERITAGE**; **INHERIT**, from Latin hērēs, heir (? < "orphan" < "be- reft"). 3, Possibly suffixed o-grade form *ghō-ro-, "empty space." a. **-CHORE**, **HORIATIKI**; **ANCHORITE**, **CHOROGRAPHY**, from Greek khōros, place, country, particular spot; b. **CHORIPETALOUS**, from Greek khōris, khōri, apart, separate. 4. Possible suffixed zero-grade form *ghǝ-t(w)ā-. a. **GAIT**, **GATE²**, from Old Norse gata, path, street; b. **GANTLET**, **GAUNTLET¹**, from Old Swedish gata, lane. Both a and b from Germanic *gatwôn-, a going. 5. Suffixed zero-grade form *ghǝ-no-. **HINAYANA**, from Sanskrit hīna-, in- ferior, verbal adjective of jahāti, he leaves, lets go (< reduplicated *ghe-ghē-ti < *ghe-gheə₁-ti). [Pokorny 1. ghē- 418.] **ghebh-el-** Head. 1. **GABLE**, from Old Norse gafl, gable, from Germanic *gablaz, top of a pitched roof. 2. Form *kephal-, dissimilated from *khephal-. **CEPHALIC**, **CEPHALO-**, **-CEPHALOUS**; **AUTOCEPHALOUS**, **ENCEPHALO-**, **ENKEPHALIN**, **HYDROCEPHALUS**, **PACHY- CEPHALOSAUR**, from Greek kephalē, head. [Pokorny ghebh-el- 423.] **ghedh-** To unite, join, fit. 1. Lengthened o-grade form *ghōdh-. **GOOD**, from Old English gōd, good, from Germanic *gōdaz, "fitting, suitable." 2. **TOGETHER**, from Old English togædere, together (tô, to; see **de-**), from Germanic *gaduri, "in a body." 3. **GATHER**, from Old English gad(e)rian, to gather, from Germanic *gaduron, "to come or bring together." [Pokorny ghedh- 423.] **ghel-1** To propel, prick. (Oldest form *ghei-.) 1. Suf- fixed and extended o-grade form *ghoidh-ā-. **GOAD**, from Old English gād, goad, from Germanic *gaidō, goad, spear. 2. Suffixed form ghei-s- perhaps in nasal- ized zero-grade form *ghi-n-s-. **AHIMSA**, from Sanskrit himsati, he injures. [Pokorny 1. ĝhei- 424.] **ghei-2** Theoretical base (oldest form *ghei-) of *ghyem-, *ghiem-, winter (oldest forms *ghyem-, *ghiem-). 1. Form *ghiem-. **HIEMAL**, from Latin hiems, winter. 2. Suffixed variant form *gheim-ri-no-. **HIBERNACULUM**, **HIBERNATE**, from Latin hībernus, pertaining to winter. 3. O-grade form *ghiom-. **CHIONODOXA**, from Greek khiōn (stem khion-), winter, from earlier *khiōm, *kh- iom-, with -n (< *-m) generalized to the oblique stem from the nominative singular khiōn (< *khiōm with lengthened o-grade). 4. Suffixed zero-grade form *ghim-r-yā, "female animal one year (winter) old." **CHIMERA**, from Greek khimaira, she-goat. 5. Suffixed zero-grade form *ghi-mo-. **HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS**, from Sanskrit himālayah, "abode of snow," from himaḥ, snow (ālayah, abode; see **(s)lei-**). [Pokorny 2. ghei- 425.] **gheis-** Used of the emotion of fear or amazement (original part of speech uncertain). Suffixed o-grade form *ghois-do-. 1. **GHOST**; **AGHAST**, **BARGHEST**, from Old English gāst, ghost. 2. **POLTERGEIST**, **SNOLLY- GOSTER**, **ZEITGEIST**, from Old High German geist, ghost. 3. **GAST**, from Old English gæstan, to scare, from Germanic denominative *gaistjan. 1-3 all from Germanic *gaistaz, a ghost. [Pokorny gheis- (misprint for gheis-) 427.] **ghel-1** To call. 1a. **YELL**, from Old English gellan, giel- lan, to sound, shout; b. **YELR**, from Old English giel- pan, to boast, exult; c. **NIGHTINGALE**, from Old Eng- lish galan, to sing. a-c all from Germanic *gel-, *gal-. 2. Reduplicated form *ghi-ghl-. **CICHLID**, from Greek kikhlē, thrush, later also the name for a kind of wrasse (a sea fish that has bright colors and jagged waving fins, reminiscent of the plumage of a bird). 3. **CELANDINE**, from Greek khelidōn, khelidōn, the swallow. [Pokorny ghel- 428.] **ghel-2** To shine; with derivatives referring to colors, bright materials, gold (probably "yellow metal"), and bile or gall. (Oldest form *ghel-.) I. Words denoting colors. 1. Suffixed form *ghel- wo-. **YELLOW**, from Old English geolu, yellow, from Germanic *gelwa-. 2. Suffixed variant form *ghlō- ro-. **CHLORO-**; **CHLORITE¹**, from Greek khlōros, green, greenish yellow. 3. Suffixed variant form *ghlo-wo-. **CHLOASMA**, from Greek khloos (< *khlo-wo-s), green- ish color. 4. O-grade form *ghol-. **PODZOL**, from Rus- sian zola, ashes (from their color). 5. Suffixed form *ghel-i-. **HARE KRISHNA**, **HARIJAN**, from Sanskrit hari-, tawny yellow. 6. Possibly suffixed zero-grade form *ghl-wo- in Latin fulvus, tawny (with dialectal f- as in fel, gall; see III. 3. below): **FULVOUS**; **GRISEOFULVIN**. II. Words denoting gold. 1. Suffixed zero-grade form *ghl-to-. a. **GOLD**, from Old English gold, gold; b. **GILD¹**, from Old English gyldan, to gild, from Ger- manic denominative verb *gulthjan; c. **GUILDER**, **GULDEN**, from Middle Dutch gulden, golden; d. **GOWAN**, from Middle English gollan, yellow flower, possibly from a source akin to Old Norse gullinn, golden. a-d all from Germanic *gultham, gold. 2. Suffixed o- grade form *ghol-to-. **ZLOTY**, from Polish złoto, gold. 3. Suffixed full-grade form *ghel-no-. **ARSENIC**, from Syriac zarnīkā, orpiment, from Middle Iranian *zarnik-, from Old Iranian *zarna-, golden. III. Words denoting bile. 1. Suffixed o-grade form *ghol-nə-. **GALL¹**, from Old English gealla, gall, from Germanic *gallōn-, bile. 2. Suffixed o-grade form *ghol-ə-. **CHOLE-**, **CHOLER**, **CHOLERA**; **ACHOLIA**, **MELANCHOLY**, from Greek kholē, bile. 3. Suffixed full- grade form *ghel-n-. **FELON²**, from Latin fel, bile (with dialectal f-). IV. A range of Germanic words with initial gl- (where no preforms are given, the words are late cre- ations). 1. **GLEAM**, from Old English glæm, bright light, gleam, from Germanic *glaimiz. 2. **GLIMPSE**, from Middle English glimsen, to glimpse, from a source akin to Middle High German glimsen, to gleam. 3. **GLINT**, from Middle English glent, a glint, and glenten, to shine, from a source akin to Swedish dialectal glinta, to shine. 4. **GLIMMER**, from Middle English glimeren, to glimmer, from a source akin to Swedish glimra, glimmer. 5. **GLITTER**, from Old Norse glitra, to shine. 6. **GLITZ**, from Old High German glīzan, to sparkle. 7. **GLISTEN**, from Old English glisnian, to shine. 8. **GLISTER**, from Middle Dutch glinsteren or Middle Low German glisteren, to shine. 9. **GLASS**, **GLAZE**, **GLAZIER**, from Old English glæs, glass, from Germanic *glasam, glass. 10. **GLARE¹**, from Middle English glaren, to glit- ter, stare, from a source akin to Middle Low German glaren, to glisten, from Germanic *glaz-. 11. **GLOSS¹**, from a source perhaps akin to Icelandic glossi, a spark. 12. **GLANCE**, from Old High German glanz, bright. 13. **GLEG**, from Old Norse glöggr, clear-sighted. 14. **GLAD¹**, from Old English glæd, shining, joyful, from Germanic *glada-. 15. **GLEE**; **GLEEMAN**, from Old English glēo, sport, merriment, from Germanic *gleu- jam. 16a. **GLEED**, from Old English glēd, ember; b. **GLOGG**, from Old Norse glodh, ember. Both a and b from Germanic *glō-di-. 17a. **GLOW**, from Old Eng- lish glōwan, to glow; b. **GLOWER**, from Middle English gloren, to gleam, stare, probably from a source akin to Norwegian dialectal glora, to gleam, stare; C. **GLOAT**, from a source perhaps akin to Old Norse glotta, to smile (scornfully). a-c all from Germanic *glō-. 18. **GLOAMING**, from Old English glōm, twilight, from Germanic *glō-m-. 19. Possibly distantly related to this root is Germanic *glidan, to glide. a. **GLIDE**, from Old English glidan, to slip, glide; b. **GLISSADE**, from Old French glier, to glide; c. **GLITCH**, from Old High German glitan, to glide; d. **GLEDE**, from Old English glida, kite (< "gliding, hovering bird"), from deriva- tive Germanic *glidōn-. 20. **GLIB**, from a source pos- sibly akin to Middle Low German glibberich, slippery. [Pokorny 1. ghel- 429.] <30> **ghel-3** To cut. (Oldest form *ĝhel-.) 1. **GELD¹**, **GELDING**, from Old Norse gelda, to castrate, and geldingr, a castrated animal, from Germanic *galdjan, to castrate. 2. **GILT²**, from Old Norse gyltr, a sow (< "castrated pig"), from Germanic zero-grade *gulti-. [Pokorny 2. ĝhel- 434.] **gheldh-** To pay. Root found only in Germanic and Slavic. 1a. **GELD²**; **DANEGELD**, **WERGELD**, from Old English geld, gield, payment, service; b. **GELT¹**, from Old High German gelt, payment, reward. a and b from Germanic *geldam, payment. 2. **YIELD**, from Old Eng- lish gieldan, to pay, yield, from Germanic *geldan, to pay. 3. **GUILD**, from Old Norse gildi, guild, from Germanic *geldjam, payment, contribution, hence an association founded on contributions, a craftsmen's guild. [Pokorny ghel-tô 436.] **ghelegh-** A metal. (Oldest form *gheleĝh-.) Possible root of Greek khalkos, copper, which, however, is more likely borrowed from an unknown source. **CHALCID**, **CHALCOCITE**; **CHALCOLITHIC**, **CHALCOPYRITE**. [Pokorny ghel()gh- 435.] **ghelǝd-** Hail. (Oldest form *ghelhd-.) Zero-grade form *ghlad-. **CHALAZA**, **CHALAZION**, from Greek khalaza (< *khalad-ya), a hailstone, hard lump, also a small cyst. [Pokorny ghelad- 435.] **ghelū-** Tortoise. Suffixed form *ghel-ōnā-. **CHELONIAN**, from Greek khelōnē, tortoise. [Pokorny ghel-ou- 435.] **ghel-unā-** Jaw. 1. **GILL¹**, from Middle English gile, gill, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse *gil, gill of a fish, from Germanic *geliz. 2. Suffixed variant form *ghel-wo-. **CHEILOSIS**, **CHILOPOD**, from Greek kheilos, lip. [Pokorny ghelună 436.] **[gh(e)n-]** To gnaw. Hypothetical base of various Ger- manic forms beginning with gn-. 1a. **GNAW**, from Old English gnagan, to gnaw; b. **NAG¹**, possibly from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse gnaga, to bite. a and b from Germanic *gnagan. 2. **NOSH**, from Old High German nascon, to nibble, from Germanic *(g)naskōn, from suffixed form *gnag-sk-. 3. Perhaps related is Germanic *gnatt-, "biting insect." **GNAT**, from Old English gnæt, gnat. 4. **NATTER**, from dialec- tal English gnatter, to nibble, natter (preform uncer- tain). [Pokorny ghen- 436.]] **ghend-** Also ghed-. To seize, take. 1a. **GET**, from Old Norse geta, to get; b. **BEGET**, from Old English beg(i)etan, to get, beget, from Germanic compound *bigetan, to acquire (*bi-, intensive prefix; see **am- bhi**); c. **FORGET**, from Old English forg(i)etan, to forget, from Germanic compound *fer-getan, "to lose one's hold," forget (*fer-, prefix denoting rejection; see **per¹**). a-c all from Germanic *getan. 2. **GUESS**, from Middle English gessen, to guess, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Swedish gissa, to guess, from Ger- manic *getison, "to try to get," aim at. 3. Basic form *ghend-. **PREHENSILE**, **PREHENSION**, **PRISON**, **PRIZE**, **PRIZE¹**, **PRY²**; **APPREHEND**, **APPRENTICE**, **APPRISE**, **COMPREHEND**, **COMPRISE**, **EMPRISE**, **ENTERPRISE**, **ENTREPRENEUR**, **IMPRESARIO**, **MISPRISION¹**, **PREGNABLE**, **REPREHEND**, **REPRIEVE**, **REPRISAL**, **REPRISE**, **SURPRISE**, from Latin prehendere, prendere, to get hold of, seize, grasp (pre-, prae-, before; see **per¹**). 4. Form *ghed-. **PREDATORY**, **PREY**, **SPREE**; **DEPREDATE**, **OSPREY**, from Latin praeda, booty (< *prai-heda, "something seized before"; prai-, prae-, before; see **per¹**). [Pokorny gh- end- 437.] **ghengh-** To go, walk. (Oldest form *ghengh-.) 1a. **GANG¹**, from Old English gang, a going; b. **GANGUE**, from Old High German gang, a going. Both a and b from Germanic *gangaz, a going. 2. **GANGLING**, from Old English gangan, to go, from Germanic *gangan. [Pokorny ĝhengh- 438.] **gher-1** To grasp, enclose; with derivatives mean- ing "enclosure." (Oldest form *gher-.) 1. Suffixed zero-grade form *ghr-dh-. a. **GIRD¹**, **GIRT¹**, from Old English gyrdan, to gird, from Germanic *gurdjan; b. **GIRDLE**, from Old English gyrdel, girdle; c. **GIRTH**, from Old Norse gjördh, girdle, girth. 2. Suffixed o- grade forms *ghor-to-, *ghor-dho-, an enclosure. a. Form *ghor-to-. **HORTICULTURE**, **ORTOLAN**, from Latin hortus, garden; b. form *ghor-to- or *ghor-dho-. (i) **YARD²**; **ORCHARD**, from Old English geard, enclosure, garden, yard; (ii) **GARTH**; **ASGARD**, from Old Norse garðr, enclosure, garden, yard; (iii) **KINDERGARTEN**, from Old High German garto, garden; (iv) **GARDEN**, **JARDINIÈRE**, from Old North French gart, garden; (v) **HANGAR**, from Old French hangard, shelter, pos- sibly from Germanic *haimgardaz (*haimaz, home; see **tkei-**); (vi) Germanic compound *midja-gardaz (see **medhyo-**). (i)-(vi) all from Germanic *gardaz; c. form *ghor-dho- in Slavic *gordǔ, citadel, town. (i) Russian gorod, town, city, in names of cities ending in -gorod like **NOVGOROD**, "new city" (novyj, new, from Slavic *novъ; see **newo-**); (ii) Russian -grad, city, in names of cities ending in -grad like **LENINGRAD**, **PETROGRAD**; (iii) **BELGRADE**, from Serbo-Croatian Beograd (earlier Belgrad), "white town" (bel-, beo-, from Old Church Slavonic bělъ, white; see **bhel-1**). Both (ii) and (iii) from Old Church Slavonic gradu, town, city. 3. Suffixed zero-grade form *ghr-dho-. **GADJO**, from Romani gadjo, gadjo, perhaps from Prakrit *gajjha-, domestic (as opposed to itinerant), ultimately from Sanskrit gṛhaḥ, house. 4. Prefixed and suffixed zero-grade form *ko(m)-ghṛ-ti- (*ko(m)-, collective prefix, "together"; see **kom**). **COHORT**, **CORTEGE**, **COURT**, **COURTEOUS**, **COURTESAN**, **COURTESY**, **COURTIER**, **CURTILAGE**, **CURTSY**, from Latin cohors (stem cohort-), enclosed yard, company of soldiers, multitude. 5. Perhaps suffixed o-grade form *ghor-o-. **CAROL**, **CHOIR**, **CHORAL**, **CHORALE**, **CHORIC**, **CHORISTER**, **CHORUS**, **HORA**; **CHORAGUS**, **TERPSICHORE**, from Greek khoros, dancing ground (? perhaps originally a special enclosure for dancing), dance, dramatic cho- rus. [Pokorny 4. ĝher- 442, ĝherdh- 444.] <31> **gher-2** To call out. Extended root *ghred-. **GREET**, from Old English grētan, to speak to, greet, from Germanic *grōtjan. [Pokorny 1. gher- 439.] **[gh(e)r-3]** To shine, glow; gray. Hypothetical base of various Germanic forms beginning with gr-. 1a. **GRAY**, from Old English græg, gray, from Germanic *grēwa-, gray; b. **GREYHOUND**, from Old English grīg-hund, greyhound, probably from Germanic *grēwa-. 2a. **GRISAILLE**, **GRISETTE**, **GRISON**, **GRIZZLE**; **AMBERGRIS**, **PINOT GRIS**, from Old French gris, gray, from Frank- ish *grīs; c. **PINOT GRIGIO**, from Italian grigio, gray, of Germanic origin; c. **GRISEOUS**; **GRISEOFULVIN**, from Medieval Latin griseus, gray, grayish. a-c all from Ger- manic *grisja-, gray. [Pokorny 3. gher- 441.]] **gher-4** To scrape, scratch. Extended zero-grade form *ghr(a)-k-. 1. **CHARACIN**, from Greek kharax, a pointed stake, also a kind of sea bream. 2. **CHARACTER**, **GASH**, from Greek kharassein, to sharpen, notch, carve, cut. [Pokorny 2. gher-439, 2. gher-441.] See also extended root **ghrēu-**. **gher-5** To like, want. (Oldest form *gher-.) 1. Suffixed form *gher-n-. **YEARN**, from Old English giernan, gyr- nan, to strive, desire, yearn, from Germanic *gernjan. 2. Possibly extended form *ghrē-. a. **GREEDY**, from Old English grædig, hungry, covetous, greedy, from Germanic *grēdiga-, hungry, formed from *grēduz, hunger; b. **CATACHRESIS**, **CHRESTOMATHY**, from Greek khrēsthai, to lack, want, use, from khrē, it is necessary. 3. Suffixed zero-grade form *ghṛ-to-. **HORTATIVE**; **EXHORT**, from Latin hortārī, to urge on, encourage (< "to cause to strive or desire"). 4. Suffixed zero-grade form *ghṛ-i-. **CHARISMA**; **EUCHARIST**, from Greek kharis, grace, favor. 5. Suffixed zero-grade form *ghṛ-yo-. **CHERVIL**, from Greek khai- rein, to rejoice, delight in. [Pokorny 1. ĝher- 440.] **ghera-** Gut, entrail. (Oldest form *gherh₂-.) 1. Suf- fixed form *gherə-no-. **YARN**, from Old English gearn, yarn, from Germanic *garnō, string. 2. Suffixed form *gherə-n-. **HERNIA**, from Latin hernia, "protruded viscus," rupture, hernia. 3. Suffixed o-grade form *ghorə-d-. **CHORD**, **CORD**, **CORDON**; **HARPSICHORD**, **HEX- ACHORD**, **TETRACHORD**, from Greek khordē, gut, string. 4. O-grade form *ghorə-. **CHORION**, from Greek khorion, intestinal membrane, afterbirth. 5. Possible suffixed zero-grade form *ghrə-u-. **HARUSPEX**, from Latin haruspex, "he who inspects entrails," diviner (-spex, "he who sees"; see **spek-**), but perhaps borrowed from Etruscan. [Pokorny 5. gher- 443.] **ghers-** To bristle. (Oldest form *ghers-.) 1. Extended zero-grade form *ghṛzd-, prickly plant. a. **GORSE**, from Old English gorst, furze, gorse, from Germanic *gorst-; b. **ORGEAT**, **ORZO**, **HORCHATA**, from Latin hordeum, barley. 2. Lengthened-grade form *ghēr(s)-. **URCHIN**, from Latin hēr, ēr, hedgehog. 3. Suffixed lengthened- grade form *ghēr(s)-ūkā-. **ARUGULA**, **ROCKET²**; **ERUCIC ACID**, from Latin ērūca, cabbage, rocket. 4. Suffixed full-grade form *ghers-tu-, remade to *hirsu- in Latin. **HIRSUTE**, from Latin hirsūtus, bristly, shaggy, hairy. 5. Suffixed full-grade form *ghers-ko-. **HISPID**, from Latin hispidus, bristly, shaggy, prickly (probably a dia- lect borrowing). 6. Suffixed o-grade form *ghors-eyo-. **HORRIBLE**, **HORRID**, **HORROR**; **ABHOR**, **HORRIPILATION**, **ORDURE**, from Latin horrēre, to bristle, shudder, be terrified, look frightful. 7. Suffixed full-grade form *ghers-o-. **CHERSONESE**, from Greek khersos, dry land. [Pokorny ghers- 445.] **ghes-** Hand. (Oldest form *ghes-.) 1. Suffixed form *ghes-ōr, stem *ghes-(e)r-. **CHIRO-**; **CHIRONOMID**, **CHIRURGEON**, **ENCHIRIDION**, **SURGEON**, **SURGERY**, from Greek kheir, hand. 2. Suffixed form *ghes-to-. **PREST²**, **PRESTO**; **IMPREST**, from Latin praestō, at hand, perhaps from prefixed form *prai-ghes-to- (*prai-, before; see **per¹**). [Pokorny 1. ghesor- 447.) **gheslo-** Seen by some as a base for words meaning "thousand." (Oldest form *gheslo-.) 1. Suffixed form *ghesl-yo-. **CHILIAD**, **KILO-**, from Greek khilioi, thou- sand. 2. Compound *sm-gheslo-. **HAZARA**, from Old Iranian *hazahram, thousand (Avestan hazaŋram). 3. **MIL¹**, **MILE**, **MILLENARY**, **MILLESIMAL**, **MILLI-**, **MILLIARY**, **MILLIME**, **MILLION**; **MILFOIL**, **MILLEFIORE GLASS**, **MILLEFLEUR**, **MILLENNIUM**, **MILLEPORE**, **MILLIPEDE**, **PER MIL**, from Latin mīlle, thousand, which has been analyzed as *smi-, "one" + a form *ghsli-, but is of obscure origin. [Pokorny ĝhéslo- 446.] **gheu-** To pour, pour a libation. (Oldest form *gheu-.) I. Extended form *gheud-. 1. Zero-grade form *ghud-. a. **GUT**, from Old English guttas, intestines, from Germanic *gut-. b. **GYTTJA**, from Swedish gyttja, mud, ooze, perhaps from Germanic *gutjōn. 2. Na- salized zero-grade form *ghu-n-d-. **POISON**, **FONDANT**, **FONDUE**, **FONT¹**, **FOUND²**, **FUNNEL**, **FUSE¹**, **FUSILE**, **FUSION**; **AFFUSION**, **CIRCUMFUSE**, **CONFOUND**, **CONFUSE**, **DIFFUSE**, **EFFUSE**, **INFUSE**, **PERFUSE**, **PROFUSE**, **REFUND**, **REFUSE¹**, **REFUSE²**, **SUFFUSE**, **TRANSFUSE**, from Latin fundere, to melt, pour out. II. Extended form *gheus-. 1a. **GUST¹**, from Old Norse gustr, a cold blast of wind, from Germanic suffixed form *gustiz; b. **GUSH**, from Middle English gushen, to gush, perhaps akin to Icelandic gusa, to gush. Both a and b from Germanic zero-grade form *gus-. 2. **GEYSER**, from Old Norse geysa, to gush, from Germanic suffixed o-grade form *gausjan. 3a. Suf- fixed zero-grade form *ghus-mo-. **CHYME**; **ECCHYMOSIS**, from Greek khūmos, juice; b. suffixed zero-grade form *ghus-lo-. **CHYLE**, from Greek khūlos, juice. IV. Basic form *gheu-. 1. **ALCHEMY**, **PARENCHYMA**, from Greek khein (stem khu-), to pour. 2. Suffixed form *gheu-ti-. **FUTILE**, from Latin futilis, "(of a vessel) easily emptied, leaky," hence untrustworthy, useless. 3. O-grade form *ghou-. a. **CHOANOCYTE**, from Greek khoane, funnel. b. **OINOCHOE**, from Greek oinokhoē, oinochoe, from khoē (< *khowa), a pouring (oinos, wine; see **wīn-o-**). 4. Suffixed zero-grade form *ghu- trā. **CHYTRID**, from Greek khutrā, pot. 5. Suffixed zero-grade form *ghu-to-, "poured," perhaps in Ger- manic *gudam, god (but this is traditionally referred to **gheu(ə)-**; see note below.) [Pokorny gheu- 447.] Language and Culture Note The etymolo- gies of basic religious terms are not always straightfor- wardly ascertainable. Such is the case with that most fundamental one in English, god. The English word has exact cognates in all the other Germanic languag- es that allow one to reconstruct a Germanic ancestral form *gudam. Traditionally, this is derived from the root **gheu(ə)-**, "to invoke." But there is an alternative view that derives it instead from the root **gheu-**, "to pour," a root that also occupied a rather prominent role in religious terminology. It was used to refer to making a libation, or pouring a liquid sacrifice, as well as to the action of "pouring" or heaping earth to form a burial mound. Thus, Greek has the phrase khutē gaia, "poured earth," to refer to a burial mound. Greek khutē continues the Indo-European verbal ad- jective *ghu-to-, "poured." If we take the neuter of this, *ghu-tom, and imagine what it would have become in prehistoric Germanic (applying the sound changes that we know occurred from Proto-Indo-European to Germanic), we would in fact get a form *gudam, none other than our reconstructed word for "god." Given the Greek facts, the Germanic form may have referred in the first instance to the spirit immanent in a burial mound. Deriving *gudam from **gheu-** rather than from **gheu(ə)-** would help to explain two odd facts: Germanic *gudam had neuter gender, not masculine (so it may not have referred to a god in the first in- stance), and for technical reasons, we would really ex- pect *gūdam with a long vowel (rather than *gudam) if the word came from the root **gheu(ə)-**. <32> **ghēu-** To yawn, gape. (Oldest form *ghēu-.) 1. **GUM²**, from Old English gōma, palate, jaw, from Germanic suffixed form *gō-mǝ-. 2. Variant form *ghau-. **CHAOS**, **GAS**, from Greek khaos, chasm, empty space, chaos. [Pokorny ghēu- 449.) Compare **ghāi-**. **gheu(ə)-** To call, invoke. (Oldest form *gheu(ə)-.) Suf- fixed zero-grade form *ghu-to-, "the invoked," god. 1. **GOD**, from Old English god, god. 2. **GIDDY**, from Old English gydig, gidig, possessed, insane, from Germanic *gud-iga-, possessed by a god. 3. **GÖTTERDÄMMERUNG**, from Old High German got, god, also in personal name **GODFREY**, from Godafrid, "peace of god" (fridu, peace; see **prī-**). 1-3 all from Germanic *gudam, god (but this is perhaps better referred to **gheu-**, see note there). [Pokorny ĝhau- 413.] **gho-** Base of demonstrative pronouns and deictic pronouns. 1. Suffixed form *ghi-ke, neuter *ghod-ke, with i alternating with o as in other pronouns (-ke, here, deictic particle; see **ko-**). **ENCORE**, **HOCUS PO- CUS**, **LANGUE D'OC**, **LANGUE D'OÏL**, **OCCITAN**, from Latin hic, haec, hoc, this. 2. Deictic particle *gh(i) in compound form *gh-dyes, "on this day, yesterday." See **dhgh(y)es-**. [Pokorny ghe- 417.] **ghō-** Behind, after. (Oldest form *ghō-.) **SASTRUGA**, from Russian za, by, to, from Slavic *za. [Pokorny ghō 451.] **ghos-ti-** Stranger, guest, host; properly "someone with whom one has reciprocal duties of hospital- ity." 1. Basic form *ghos-ti-. a. (i) **GUEST**, from Old Norse gestr, guest; (ii) **GASTARBEITER**, from Old High German gast, guest. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *gastiz; b. **HOST²**, **HOSTILE**, from Latin hostis, enemy (< "stranger"). 2. Compound *ghos-pot-, *ghos-po(d)-, "guest-master," one who symbolizes the relationship of reciprocal obligation (*pot-, master; see **poti-**). **HOSPICE**, **HOSPITABLE**, **HOSPITAL**, **HOSPITALITY**, **HOST¹**, **HOSTAGE**, **HOSTEL**, **HOSTLER**, from Latin hospes (stem hospit-), host, guest, stranger. 3. Suffixed zero-grade form *ghs-en-wo-. **XENIA**, **XENO-**, **XENON**; **AXENIC**, **EUXENITE**, **PYROXENE**, from Greek xenos, guest, host, stranger. [Pokorny ghosti-s 453.] Language and Culture Note The basic meaning of the Indo-European word **ghos-ti-** was "someone with whom one has reciprocal duties of hospitality." In practical terms it referred to strangers in general, as well as to both guests and hosts (both of which words are descended from it). The word **ghos-ti-** was thus the central expression of the guest- host relationship, a mutual exchange relationship highly important to ancient Indo-European society. A guest-friendship was a bond of trust between two people that was accompanied by ritualized gift-giving and created an obligation of mutual hospitality and friendship that, once established, could continue in perpetuity and be renewed years later by the same par- ties or their descendants. The bond created by guest- friendship resembled kinship. A fa- mous example is the story of the Trojan warrior Glaucus and the Greek warrior Diomedes in the Iliad, who agree not to fight one another when they realize that Glaucus's grandfa- ther Bellerophon had been a guest at the home of Dio- medes's grandfather Oeneus many years before. The two warriors instead embrace and exchange armor as a testimony to the guest-friendship still binding their families two generations later. The importance of hospitality is also seen in various Indo-European per- sonal names, like Runic (ancient Germanic) Hlewa- gastiz, "having famous guests," and Lepontic Gaulish Uvamo-kotsis, "having supreme guests": the elements comprising names usually reflect culturally important concepts. Strangers are potential guest-friends but also potential enemies; note that the Latin cognate of English guest, namely hostis, means "enemy." **ghow-ē-** To honor, revere, worship. 1. **GAWK**, from Old Norse gā, to heed, from Germanic *gawōn. 2. **FAVOR**, **FAVORITE**, from Latin favēre, to favor, be favor- able. [Pokorny ghou(e)- 453.] **ghrē-** To grow, become green. (Contracted from *ghreh₁-.) 1. O-grade form *ghrō-. **GROW**, from Old English grōwan, to grow, from Germanic *grō(w)an. 2. Suffixed o-grade form *ghrō-n-yo-. **GREEN**, from Old English grēne, green, from Germanic *grōnja-, green. 3. Suffixed zero-grade form *ghrə-so-. **GRASS**, **GRAZE¹**, from Old English græs, grass, from Germanic *grasam, grass. [Pokorny (ghrē-) 454.] **ghrebh-1** To seize, reach. 1. Zero-grade form *ghṛbh-. **SATYAGRAHA**, from Sanskrit gṛbhṇāti, gṛhṇāti, he seiz- es. 2a. **GRASP**, from Middle English graspen, to grasp; b. **GRAB¹**, from Middle Dutch or Middle Low German grabben, to seize. Both a and b from parallel (imita- tive) Germanic creations with base *grab-, *grap-. [Pokorny 1. ghrebh- 455.] **ghrebh-2** To dig, bury, scratch. 1. O-grade form *ghrobh-. a. (i) **GRAVE³**, **ENGRAVE**, from Old English grafan, to dig, engrave, scratch, carve; (ii) **GRABEN**, from Old High German graban, to dig; (iii) **GRAVLAX**, from Swedish grava, to bury; (iv) **GRAVURE**, from Old French graver, to engrave. (i)-(iv) all from Germanic *graban; b. **GRAVE¹**, from Old English græf, trench, grave, from Germanic *grabam. 2. **GRUB**, from Old English *grybban, to dig, from Germanic *grub(b) jan (with secondary ablaut). 3. **GROOVE**, from Middle Dutch groeve, ditch, from Germanic *grōbā. [Pokorny 2. ghrebh- 455.] **ghredh-** To walk, go. Suffixed zero-grade form *ghṛdh-yo-. 1. **GRESSORIAL**; **AGGRESS**, **CONGRESS**, **DEGRESSION**, **DIGRESS**, **EGRESS**, **INGREDIENT**, **INGRESS**, **INTROGRESSION**, **PLANTIGRADE**, **PROGRESS**, **REGRESS**, **RETROGRADE**, **RETROGRESS**, **TARDIGRADE**, **TRANSGRESS**, from Latin gradī (past participle gressus), to walk, go. 2. **GRADE**, **GRADUAL**, **GRADUATE**, **GREE**; **CENTIGRADE**, **DEGRADE**, **DEGREE**, from Latin gradus (< de- verbative *grad-u-), step, stage, degree, rank. [Pokorny ghredh- 456.] **ghrēi-** To rub. (Oldest form *ghreh₁i-, with variant [metathesized] form *ghreih₁-, whence zero-grade *ghrih₁-, contracted to *ghrī-.) 1. **GRISLY**, from Old English grislic, terrifying, from Germanic *gris-, to frighten (< "to grate on the mind"). 2. **GRIME**, from Middle English grime, grime, from a source akin to Middle Dutch grime, grime, from Germanic *grim-, smear. 3. Extended form *ghris-, **CHRISM**, **CHRIST²**, **CHRISTEN**, **CHRISTIAN**; **CHRISTMAS**, **CREAM**, **KRISS KRINGLE**, from Greek khriein, to anoint. [Pokorny ghrēi- 457.] **ghreib-** To grip. 1. **GRIP¹**, from Old English gripe, grasp, and grīpa, handful, from Germanic *grip-. 2a. **GRIPE**, from Old English grīpan, to grasp; b. **GRIPPE**, from Old French gripper, to seize. Both a and b from Germanic *grīpan. 3. O-grade form *ghroib-. **GROPE**, from Old English grāpian, to feel for, grope, from Ger- manic *graip-. [Pokorny ghreib- 457.] **ghrem-** Angry. 1a. **GRIM**, from Old English grim(m), fierce, severe; b. **GRIMACE**, from Old French grimace, a grimace. Both a and b from Germanic *grimma-. 2. **GRUMBLE**, from Middle English grummen, to grumble, probably akin to Middle Dutch grommen, to mutter angrily, from Germanic *grum-. 3. Suffixed o-grade form *ghrom-o-. **POGROM**, from Russian grom, thun- der. [Pokorny 2. ghrem- 458.] **ghrendh-** To grind. 1. **GRIND**, from Old English grindan, to grind, from Germanic *grindan. 2. **GRIST**, from Old English grist, the action of grinding, from Germanic *grinst-, a grinding. 3. **FRAISE**, **FRENULUM**, **FRENUM**; **REFRAIN¹**, from Latin frendere, to grind. 4. Sometimes but improbably regarded as from this root (in variant form *ghrend-) is Greek khondros, granule, groats, hence cartilage: **CHONDRO-**; **HYPOCHONDRIA**, **MITOCHONDRION**. [Pokorny ghren- 459.] <33> **ghrēu-** To rub, grind. (Oldest form *ghrēu-; exten- sion of **gher-4**.) 1. **GRIT**, from Old English grēot, sand, gravel, from Germanic *greut-. 2. **GROATS**, from Old English grotan, pieces of hulled grain, groats, from Germanic *grut-. 3a. **GROUT**, from Old English grūt, coarse meal; b. **GRUEL**, from Old French gruel, por- ridge. Both a and b from Germanic *grūt-. 4a. **GREAT**, from Old English grēat, coarse, thick, bulky, large; b. **GROAT**, from Middle Dutch grōt, thick. Both a and b from Germanic *grauta-, coarse, thick (< "coarsely ground"). 5. **GRUESOME**, from Middle English grue, horrible, akin to Middle Dutch grūwen, to abhor, from Germanic *grūw-, to recoil from (< "to be offended, be grated on by"). 6. O-grade form *ghro(u)-. a. **RHODOCHROSITE**, from Greek khrōs, skin (< "rough surface"?), hence flesh, complexion, color; b. suffixed form *ghrō-mn. **CHROMA**, **CHROMATIC**, **CHROMATO-**, **CHROME**, **-CHROME**, **CHROMIUM**, **CHROMO-**; **ACHROMATIC**, from Greek khrōma, skin, complexion, color (semantic development as in 6a above). 7. Probably Celtic *graw-. **GRAVEL**, from Old French grave, greve, coarse sand, gravel. 8. Probably Latin *grāu- in con- gruere, to agree (con-, together; see **kom**): **CONGRUENT**. [Pokorny 2. ghrēu- 460.] **ghwer-** Wild beast. (Oldest form *ghwer-.) 1. Suffixed form *ghwer-o-. **FERAL**, **FERINE**, **FIERCE**, from Latin ferus, wild. 2. Compound *ghwero-ak"-, "of wild as- pect" (*-ak"-, "-looking"; see **okw-**). **FEROCIOUS**, from Latin ferōx (stem ferōc-), fierce. 3. Lengthened-grade form *ghwēr-. **TREACLE**; **BALUCHITHERE**, **DINOTHERE**, **EUTHERIAN**, **INDRICOTHERE**, **MEGATHERE**, **THEROPOD**, from Greek thēr, wild beast. [Pokorny ĝhuer- 493.] **gladh-** Smooth. Suffixed form *gladh-ro-. **GLABELLA**, **GLABROUS**, from Latin glaber, smooth, bald. [In Pokorny 1. ĝhel- 429.] **glei-** Clay. 1a. **CLAY**, from Old English clæg, clay, from Germanic *klajjaz, clay; b. probably Medieval Greek glia, gloia, glue: **GLIADIN**; **MESOGLEA**, **NEUROGLIA**, **ZOOGLOEA**; c. **GLEY**, from Russian dialectal gleĭ, clay. 2. Variant root form *gleu-. **GLUE**, **GLUTEN**, **GLUTINOUS**; **AGGLUTINATE**, **CONGLUTINATE**, **DEGLUTINATE**, from Latin glūten, glue. [In Pokorny 1. gel- 357.] **gleibh-** To stay stuck. Possible root found only in Ger- manic and Balto-Slavic (compare Old Church Slavon- ic u-glibnǫ, I got stuck), perhaps ultimately a derivative of **glei-** above. 1. Zero-grade form *glibh-. **CLEAVE²**, from Old English cleofian, from Germanic *klibōjan. 2. Nasalized zero-grade form *gli-n-bh-. **CLIMB**, from Old English climban, from Germanic *klimban (< "to raise oneself by holding on fast"). 3. Probably secondarily derived within Germanic from *klimban (see above) is *klemman, to bind, grip (compare Old English climman, to bind, enclose). **FARKLEMPT**, from Middle High German verklemmen, to grip, clamp, choke up (ver-, intensive prefix, from Germanic *fer-; see **per¹**). [Pokorny gleibh- 363.] **gleubh-** To tear apart, cleave. I. Basic form *gleubh-. 1. **CLEAVE¹**, from Old Eng- lish clēofan, to split, cleave, from Germanic *kleuban. 2. Probably o-grade form *gloubh-. **CLEVER**, from Middle English cliver, nimble, skillful, perhaps akin to East Frisian klüfer, klifer, skillful, and Old Norse kleyfr, easy to split, from Germanic *klaubri-. II. Zero-grade form *glubh-. 1a. **CLOVE²**, from Old English clufu, clove (of garlic); b. **KLOOF**, from Middle Dutch clōve, a cleft; c. **CLEVIS**, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse klofi, a cleft. a-c all from Germanic *klub-, a splitting. 2. **CLEFT**, from Old Eng- lish geclyft, fissure, from Germanic *klufti- (*klub-ti-). 3. **GLYPH**, **GLYPTIC**; **ANAGLYPH**, **HIEROGLYPHIC**, from Greek gluphein, to carve. 4. Suffixed zero-grade form *glubh-mā-. **GLUME**, from Latin glūma, husk of grain. [Pokorny gleubh- 401.] **glōgh-** Thorn, point. (Oldest form *gleh₃gh-, colored to *gloh₃gh-, contracted to *glōgh-.) 1. Suffixed form *glogh-i-. **GLOCHIDIUM**, from Greek glōkhis, barb of an arrow. 2. Suffixed form *glōgh-yā. **GLOSS²**, **GLOSSA**, **GLOSSARY**, **GLOSSATOR**, **GLOTTIS**; **BUGLOSS**, **DIGLOSSIA**, **GENIOGLOSSUS**, **GLOSSOLALIA**, **HETEROGLOSSIA**, **HYOGLOSSUS**, **ISOGLOSS**, **MACROGLOSSIA**, **MICROGLOSSIA**, **POLYGLOT**, **PROGLOTTID**, from Greek glōssa, glōtta, tongue. [Pokorny glōgh- 402.] **gnō-** To know. (Oldest form *ĝneh₃-, colored to *ĝnoh₃-, contracted to *gnō-.) 1. Lengthened-grade form *gnē- (contracted from *ĝneə-). **KNOW**; **KNOWLEDGE**, **ACKNOWLEDGE**, from Old English cnāwan, to know, from Germanic *knē(w)-. 2. Zero-grade form *gnǝ-. a. **CAN²**, **CON²**, **CUNNING**, from Old English cun- nan, to know, know how to, be able to, from Germanic *kunnan (Old English first and third singular can from Germanic *kann, from o-grade *gonǝ-); b. **KEN**, **KENNING**, from Old English cennan, to declare, and Old Norse kenna, to know, name (in a formal poetic meta- phor), from Germanic causative verb *kannjan, to make known; c. (i) **COUTH**; **UNCOUTH**, from Old Eng- lish cūth, known, well-known, usual, excellent, famil- iar; (ii) **CUTHBERT** (personal name), from Old English Cūthbeorht, "famous (and) bright" (beorht, bright; see **bherǝg-**). Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *kuntha-; d. **KITH AND KIN**, from Old English cȳth(the), cȳththu, knowledge, acquaintance, friendship, kinfolk, from Germanic *kunthithō. 3. Suffixed form *gnō-sko-. **NOTICE**, **NOTIFY**, **NOTION**, **NOTORIOUS**; **ACQUAINT**, **COGNITION**, **COGNIZANCE**, **CONNOISSEUR**, **INCOGNITO**, **QUAINT**, **RECOGNIZE**, **RECONNAISSANCE**, **RECONNOITER**, from Latin (g)nōscere, cognōscere, to get to know, get acquainted with. 4. Suffixed form *gnō-ro-. **IGNORANT**, **IGNORE**, from Latin ignōrāre, not to know, to dis- regard (i- for in-, not; see **ne**). 5. Suffixed form *gnō- dhli-. **NOBLE**, from Latin nōbilis, knowable, known, famous, noble. 6. Reduplicated and suffixed form *gi- gnō-sko-. **GNOME²**, **GNOMON**, **GNOSIS**, **GNOSTIC**; **AGNOSIA**, **DIAGNOSIS**, **PATHOGNOMONIC**, **PHYSIOGNOMY**, **PROGNOSIS**, from Greek gignōskein, to know, think, judge (verbal adjective gnōtos, known), with gnōsis (< *gnō-ti-), knowledge, inquiry, and gnōmōn, judge, interpreter. 7. Suffixed zero-grade form *gnǝ-ro-. **NARRATE**, from Latin nārrāre (< *gnarrāre), to tell, relate, from gnārus, knowing, expert. 8. Suffixed zero-grade form *gnǝ-ti-. **ZEND-AVESTA**, from Avestan zainti-, knowledge (remade from earlier *zāti- after zan-, to know). 9. Traditionally but improbably referred here are: a. **NOTE**; **ANNOTATE**, **CONNOTE**, **PROTHONOTARY**, from Latin nota, a mark, note, sign, cipher, shorthand character; b. **NORM**, **NORMA**, **NORMAL**; **ABNORMAL**, **ENORMOUS**, from Latin norma, carpenter's square, rule, pattern, precept, possibly from an Etruscan bor- rowing of Greek gnōmōn, carpenter's square, rule. [Pokorny 2. ĝen- 376.] **gras-** To devour. 1. **CRESS**, from Old English cresse, cærse, cress, from Germanic *krasjō, *krasjon-, fodder. 2. Suffixed form *gras-men-. **GRAMA**, **GRAMINEOUS**, from Latin grāmen, "fodder," grass. 3. Suffixed form *gras-ter-, "the devourer." **GASTRIC**, **GASTRO-**, **GASTRULA**; **EPIGASTRIUM**, from Greek gastēr, stomach, belly (dissimilated from *gras-ter-). 4. Reduplicated form *gar-gr-. **GANGRENE**, from Greek gangraina, gangrene (dissimilated from *gar-gr-). [Pokorny gras- 404.] **[grat-]** Also krat-. To scratch. Germanic root. 1. **SCRATCH**, from Middle Dutch cratsen, to scrape, from Germanic *kratton. 2. **GRATE¹**, from Old French grater, to scrape, from Germanic *grat-. [In Pokorny gred- 405.]] **greut-** To compress, push. 1. **CROWD¹**, from Old Eng- lish crūdan, to press, hasten, from Germanic *krūdan. 2. **CRUD**, **CURD**, from Old English crod, a squeezing. [Pokorny greut- 406.] <34> **grā-no-** Grain. (Oldest form *grā-no-.) 1a. **CORN¹**, from Old English corn, grain; b. **KERNEL**, from Old English derivative noun cyrnel, seed, pip; c. **EINKORN**, from Old High German korn, grain. a-c all from Ger- manic *kornam. 2. **GARNER**, **GARNET¹**, **GRAIN**, **GRAM²**, **GRANADILLA**, **GRANARY**, **GRANGE**, **GRANI-**, **GRANITA**, **GRANITE**, **GRANULE**, **GRENADE**, **GRENADINE**; **FILIGREE**, **GROSGRAIN**, **POMEGRANATE**, from Latin grānum, grain. [In Pokorny ĝer- 390.] **grū-** To grunt. Imitative. 1. **GRUNT**, from Old English grunettan, to grunt, probably akin to grunnian, to grunt, from Germanic *grun-. 2. **GRUDGE**, from Old High German *grunnizōn, from Germanic intensive form *grunnatjan. 3. **GRUNION**, from Latin grunnīre, grundīre, to grunt. [Pokorny grū- 406.] **gwā-** Also gwem- (in 1-4 below). To go, come. (Old- est form *gʷeh₂-, colored to *gʷah₂-, contracted to *gʷā-.) 1a. **COME**, from Old English cuman, to come; b. **WELCOME**, from Old English wilcuma, a welcome guest, and wilcume, the greeting of welcome, from Germanic compound *wil-kumōn-, a desirable guest (*wil-, desirable; see **wel-²**), from *kumon-, he who comes, a guest; c. **BECOME**, from Old English be- cuman, to become, from Germanic compound *bi- kuman, to arrive, come to be (*bi-, intensive prefix; see **ambhi**). a-c all from Germanic *kuman. 2. Suffixed variant form *gʷ(e)m-yo-. **VENIRE**, **VENUE**; **ADVENT**, **ADVENTITIOUS**, **ADVENTURE**, **AVENUE**, **CIRCUMVENT**, **CONTRAVENE**, **CONVENE**, **CONVENIENT**, **CONVENT**, **CONVENTICLE**, **CONVENTION**, **COVEN**, **COVENANT**, **EVENT**, **EVENTUAL**, **INTERVENE**, **INVENT**, **INVENTORY**, **MISADVENTURE**, **PARVENU**, **PREVENIENT**, **PREVENT**, **PROVENANCE**, **PROVENIENCE**, **REVENANT**, **REVENUE**, **SOUVENIR**, **SUBVENTION**, **SUPERVENE**, from Latin venīre, to come. 3. Suffixed zero-grade variant form *gʷm-yo-. **BASE**, **BASIS**; **ABASIA**, **ACROBAT**, **ANABATIC**, **AMPHISBAENA**, **ANABAENA**, **ANABASIS**, **BATOPHOBIA**, **DIABASE**, **DIABETES**, **HYPERBATON**, **KATABATIC**, **STEREOBATE**, **STYLOBATE**, from Greek bainein, to go, walk, step, with basis (< *gʷǝ-ti-, suffixed zero-grade form of *gwā-), a stepping, tread, base, -batos (< *gʷǝ- to-), going, and -batēs (< *gʷə-tā-), agential suffix, "one that goes or treads, one that is based." 4. Suf- fixed lengthened-grade form *gʷēm-yo-. **QUIM**, from Old English gecwēme, fitting, pleasant (< "becoming," compare German bequem, easy, convenient from the same Germanic form with a different prefix), from Germanic *-kwāmja- (ge-, intensive prefix; see **kom**). 5. Suffixed zero-grade form *gʷ(ə)-u- in compound **pres-gú-** (see **per¹**). 6. Basic form *gʷā-. **BEMA**, from Greek bēma, step, seat, raised platform. 7. Basic form *gā- or zero-grade from *gʷm- in Sanskrit compound durgaḥ, difficult to approach. **DURGA**, from Sanskrit Durgā, Durga (short for Durgā Devī, "goddess who is difficult to approach"), from durgā, feminine of durgaḥ, difficult to approach, from dus-, dur-, bad, dif- ficult (see **dus-**) + -ga-, going. 8. Reduplicated form *ge-gā-. **JUGGERNAUT**, from Sanskrit jagat, moving, the world, originally present participle of *jagāti (re- made as jigāti), he goes. [Pokorny gʷā- 463.] **gwābh-1** To dip, sink. (Oldest form *gʷeh₂bh-, colored to *gʷah₂bh-, contracted to *gʷābh-.) Suffixed zero- grade form *gʷəbh-yo-. **BAPTIST**, **BAPTIZE**; **ANABAPTIST**, from Greek baptein, to dip. [Pokorny 1. gʷēbh- 465.] **gwādh-** To sink. (Oldest form *gʷeh₂dh-, colored to *gʷah₂dh-, contracted to *gʷādh-.) 1. Suffixed zero- grade form *gʷədh-u-. **BATHOS**, **BATHY-**, from Greek bathus, deep (> bathos, depth). 2. **BENTHOS**, from Greek benthos, depth, either formed to bathos on anal- ogy with penthos, grief, and pathos, passion, suffer- ing, or it may be from an unrelated root *gʷ(e)ndh-. [Pokorny gʷādh- 465.] **[gwēbh-]** Hypothetical base of some Germanic words associated with the notion of sliminess, and related to the Latin and Slavic words for frog. (Contracted from *gʷeh₁bh-.) 1. **QUACKSALVER**, from Middle Dutch quac-, unguent, liquid. 2. **QUAVER**, from Middle Eng- lish quaven, to tremble, akin to Low German quabbeln, to shake like jelly, tremble. 3. Suffixed o-grade form *gʷōbh-on-. **BUFOTENINE**, from Latin būfō, toad (a dia- lect borrowing). [Pokorny 2. gʷēbh- 466.]] **gweiə-1** Also gwei-. To live. (Oldest form *gʷeih₃-, with variant [metathesized] form *gʷyeh₃-, colored to *gʷyoh₃-, contracted to *gʷyō-.) I. Suffixed zero-grade form *gʷi-wo-, *gī-wo- (< *gʷi(ə)-wo-), living. 1a. **QUICK**; **QUICKSILVER**, from Old English cwic, cwicu, living, alive; b. **COUCH GRASS**, **QUITCH GRASS**, from Old English cwice, couch grass (so named from its rapid growth). Both a and b from Germanic *kwi(k)waz. 2a. (i) **SEMPERVIVUM**, **VIVIFY**, **VIVIPAROUS**, from Latin vīvus, living, alive; (ii) **VIPER**, **WEEVER**, **WYVERN**, from Latin vīpera, vi- per, contracted from *vīvipera, "bearing live young" (since many viper species bear live young, the eggs hatching inside the mother's body), from feminine of earlier *vīvo-paros (-paros, bearing; see **perə-1**); b. **VIAND**, **VICTUAL**, **VIVA**, **VIVACIOUS**, **VIVID**; **CONVIVIAL**, **REVIVE**, **SURVIVE**, from Latin dēnominative vīvere, to live. 3. **AZOTH**, from Middle Persian *zhiwak, alive, from Old Persian *jīvaka-, extension of jīva-, alive. 4. Further suffixed form *gʷi-wo-tā-. **VIABLE**, **VITAL**; **VITAMIN**, from Latin vīta, life. 5. Further suffixed form *gʷi-wo-tūt-. **USQUEBAUGH**, **WHISKEY**, from Old Irish bethu, life. II. Suffixed zero-grade form *gʷiə-o-. **BIO-**, **BIOTA**, **BIOTIC**; **AEROBE**, **AMPHIBIAN**, **ANABIOSIS**, **CENOBITE**, **DENDROBIUM**, **MICROBE**, **RHIZOBIUM**, **SAPROBE**, **SYMBIOSIS**, from Greek bios, life (> biotē, way of life). III. Variant form *gʷyō-. 1. **AZO-**; **DIAZO**, **HYLOZOISM**, **ZOETROPE**, from Greek zoē, life. 2. Suffixed form *gʷyō-yo-. **ZODIAC**, **-ZOIC**, **ZOO-**, **ZOON¹**, **-ZOON**, from Greek zōon, zōion, living being, animal. IV. Compound suffixed zero-grade form **\*yu-gʷiə- es-** (see **aiw-**). V. Possibly Old English cwifer-, nimble: **QUIVER¹**. [Pokorny 3. gʷei- 467.] **gweiə-2** To press down, conquer. **JAIN**, from Sanskrit jayati, he conquers. [Pokorny gʷeiə- 469.] **gwel-** To fly; a wing. 1. Possibly Latin volāre, to fly: **VOLANT**, **VOLATILE**, **VOLE²**, **VOLITANT**, **VOLLEY**. 2. Pos- sibly Sanskrit Garuḍaḥ, Garuda, a winged creature of Hindu myth (compare Sanskrit garut- (< *gʷel-ut-), wing): **GARUDA**. [Not in Pokorny.] **gwelbh-** Womb. 1. Suffixed form *gʷelbh-u-. **DELPHINIUM**, **DOLPHIN**, from Greek delphus, womb, whence delphis, dolphin (referring to its shape). 2. Prefixed and suffixed form *sm-gʷelbh-(e)yo-, "of one womb" (*sm-, one; see **sem-1**). **DIADELPHOUS**, **MONADELPHOUS**, from Greek adelph(e)os, brother, originally adjective meaning "of the same womb" in the recon- structed syntagma *phrātēr adelpheos, uterine brother. [Pokorny gʷelbh- 473.] **gwelə-1** Also gwel-. To throw, reach, with further meaning to pierce. (Oldest form *gʷelh₁-, with variant [metathesized] form *gʷleh₁-, contracted to *gʷlē-.) I. Words denoting to throw, reach. Variant form *gʷlē-, contracted from *gʷleə-. 1. Nasalized zero- grade form *gʷl-n-ə-. a. **BALLISTA**; **AMPHIBOLE**, **ARBALEST**, **ASTROBLEME**, **BOLIDE**, **DEVIL**, **DIABOLICAL**, **EMBOLISM**, **EMBOLY**, **EPIBOLY**, **HYPERBOLA**, **HYPERBOLE**, **METABOLISM**, **PALAVER**, **PARABLE**, **PARABOLA**, **PARLEY**, **PARLIAMENT**, **PARLOR**, **PAROL**, **PAROLE**, **POLARI**, **PROBLEM**, **SYMBOL**, from Greek ballein, to throw (with o-grade *bol- and variant *blē-); b. **BALL³**, **BALLAD**, **BALLET**, **BAYADERE**, from Greek ballizein, to dance. 2. Suffixed o-grade form *gʷol(ə)-ə-. **BOLOMETER**, from Greek bolē, beam, ray. 3. Possible suffixed o-grade form *gʷol(ə)-sə-. **BOULE**, **ABULIA**, from Greek boulē, determination, will (< "throwing forward of the mind"), council. 4. Suffixed full-grade form *gʷelə-mno-. **BELEMNITE**, from Greek belemnon, dart, javelin. <35> II. Words denoting to pierce. 1. Suffixed o-grade form *gʷol-eyo-. a. **QUELL**, from Old English cwellan, to kill, destroy; b. **QUAIL²**, from Middle Dutch quelen, to be ill, suffer. Both a and b from Germanic *kwal- jan. 2. Suffixed zero-grade form *gʷl-yo-. **KILL¹**, from Middle English killen, to kill, perhaps from Old English *cyllan, to kill, from Germanic *kuljan. 3. Suffixed full-grade form *gʷel-onā-. **BELONEPHOBIA**, from Greek belonē, needle. [Pokorny 2. gʷel- 471, 1. gʷel- 470.] **gwelə-2** An acorn. (Oldest form *gʷelh₂-.) 1. Suf- fixed zero-grade form *gʷlā-nd-. **GLAND**, **GLANDERS**, **GLANDULAR**, **GLANS**, from Latin glāns (stem gland-), an acorn. 2. Suffixed zero-grade form *gʷlā-no-. **VALONIA**; **MYROBALAN**, from Greek balanos, acorn, date. [Pokorny 3. gʷel- 472.] **gwelə-3** To swallow. (Oldest form *gʷelə-.) Reduced form *gel-. 1. **JOWL²**, from Middle English cholle, throat, perhaps akin to Old English ceolu, throat, dew- lap, from Germanic *kel-. 2. **KEEL¹**, from Old Norse kjölr, keel, from Germanic *keluz. 3. Suffixed zero- grade form *gul-a-. **GOLIARD**, **GULAR**, **GULES**, **GULLET**, from Latin gula, gullet, throat. 4. Extended (expres- sive) form *glutt-. a. **GLUT**; **DEGLUTITION**, from Latin gluttīre, glūtīre, to swallow; b. **GLUTTON**, from Latin gluttō, a glutton. [In Pokorny 2. gel- 365.] Compare **gwerə-4**. **gwen-** Woman. 1. Suffixed form *gʷen-ā-. a. **QUEAN**, from Old English cwene, woman, prostitute, wife, from Germanic *kwenōn-; b. **BANSHEE**, from Old Irish ben, woman; c. **ZENANA**, from Persian zan, woman. 2. Suf- fixed lengthened-grade form *gʷēn-i-. **QUEEN**, from Old English cwēn, woman, wife, queen, from Ger- manic *kwēniz. 3. Suffixed zero-grade form *gʷn-ā-. **GYNE**, **-GYNE**, **GYNO-**, **-GYNOUS**, **-GYNY**; **GYNECOCRACY**, **GYNECOLOGY**, **GYNOECIUM**, from Greek gunē, woman. [Pokorny gʷenə 473.] **gwerə-1** Mountain. (Oldest form *gʷerh₂-.) a. **BOREAS**, from Greek boreios, "coming from the north" (? < "coming from the mountains of Thrace, north of Greece"), whence Boreas, the north wind. b. **HYPERBOREAN**, from Greek Huperboreioi, Huperboreoi, name of a people living in the far north, variously explained as "they who live beyond the north wind" and "they who live beyond the mountains" (huper-, beyond; see **uper**). Both a and b possibly from o-grade form *gʷorā-. [Pokorny 3. gʷer- 477.] **gwerə-2** Heavy. (Oldest form *gʷerh₂-.) I. Zero-grade form *gʷr̥-. 1. Suffixed form *gʷr̥- wi-. **GRAVE²**, **GRAVID**, **GRAVIMETER**, **GRAVITATE**, **GRAVITY**, **GRIEF**, **GRIEVE**; **AGGRAVATE**, **AGGRIEVE**, from Latin gravis, heavy, weighty. 2. Suffixed form *gʷr̥-u-. a. **BARITE**, **BARIUM**, **BARYON**, **BARYTA**; **BARITONE**, **BARYCENTER**, **BARYSPHERE**, **CHARIVARI**, from Greek barus, heavy; b. **GURU**, from Sanskrit guru-, heavy, venerable. 3. Suffixed form *gʷr̥-es-. **BAR²**, **BARO-**; **CENTROBARIC**, **ISALLOBAR**, **ISOBAR**, from Greek baros, weight. 4. Possibly *gʷrī- in Greek compound **\*u(d)- bri-** (see **ud-**). II. Suffixed extended form *gʷrū-to-. **BRUT**, **BRUTE**, from Latin brūtus, heavy, dull, stupid, brutish. III. Suffixed extended form *gʷri-g-. 1. **BRIO**, from Spanish brio or Provençal briu, vigor, from Celtic *brīg-o-, strength. 2. **BRIG**, **BRIGADE**, **BRIGAND**, **BRIGANTINE**, from Old Italian briga, strife, from Celtic *brīg-ā-, strife. 3. **BLITZKRIEG**, **SITZKRIEG**, from Old High German krēg, chrēg, stubbornness, from Ger- manic *krīg-. IV. Suffixed full-grade form *gʷerə-nā-, millstone. **QUERN**, from Old English cweorn, quern. [Pokorny 2. gʷer- 476.] **gwerə-3** To favor. (Oldest form *gʷerh₂-.) 1. Suffixed zero-grade form *gʷr̥-to-. **GRACE**, **GRATEFUL**, **GRATIFY**, **GRATIS**, **GRATITUDE**, **GRATUITOUS**, **GRATUITY**; **AGREE**, **CONGRATULATE**, **DISGRACE**, **INGRATE**, **INGRATIATE**, **MAUGRE**, from Latin grātus, pleasing, beloved, agree- able, favorable, thankful, with related suffixed forms *grā-ti-, *grā-t-ǝ-, *grā-t-olo-. 2. Compounded zero-grade form *gʷr̥-dh(ə)-o- in Celtic *bardo-, praise poet, who produces and bestows praise poetry as gratification to his patron (*-dh(ə)-, to place, put; see **dhē-**). **BARD¹**, from Welsh bardd and Scottish and Irish Gaelic bard, bard, from Celtic *bardo-. [Pokorny 4. gʷer(ə)- 478.] **gwerə-4** To swallow. (Oldest form *gʷerh₃-.) 1. Possi- bly suffixed extended form *g(w)ro-gh-. a. **CRAW**, from Middle English crawe, craw, possibly from Old English *craga, throat; b. **SCRAG**, from Middle Dutch craghe, throat. Both a and b from Germanic *krag-, throat. 2. Suffixed o-grade form *gʷor-ā-. **VORACIOUS**, **-VOROUS**; **DEVOUR**, from Latin vorāre, to swallow up. 3. Ex- pressive reduplicated form *gʷr̥-g-. **GARGET**, **GORGE**, **GORGET**, **GURGITATION**, **INGURGITATE**, **REGURGITATE**, from Latin gurges, throat, also gulf, whirlpool. 4. Zero-grade form *gʷr̥-, becoming bro- (< *gro-) in Greek. a. Suffixed reduplicated form *gi-g(w)ro-sko-. **HELLEBORE**, from Greek bibroskein, to eat; b. nasal- ized variant form *gʷro-n-kh-. **BRONCHO-**, **BRONCHUS**, from Greek bronkhos, windpipe, throat; c. suffixed form *gʷrō-mp. **THEOBROMINE**, from Greek brōma, food; d. suffixed form *gʷrō-ti-. **ABROSIA**, from Greek brōsis, eating. 5. Perhaps extended zero-grade form *gʷr̥-i-, metathesized to *gʷriə-, contracted to *gʷrī- in suffixed form *gʷrī-wā-, back of the neck; see **gwrī- wā-**. [Pokorny 1. gʷer- 474.] Compare **gwelə-3**. **gwes-** To be extinguished. (This root is attested as such, with no initial s-, in Indo-Iranian, Tocharian, Balto-Slavic, and Germanic. Greek alone shows some forms indicating a root *sges-, but the s- is a Greek innovation and not even found in all dialects of Greek. It is lacking, for example, in the form zeinamen, we extinguish, cited by the 5th century Greek lexicogra- pher Hesychius, from *ges-nā-; compare standard At- tic Greek sbennumen, we extinguish, from pre-Greek *sges-nə-. The American scholar Jay Jasanoff is prob- ably right in seeing the original locus of the variant *sges-, whence Greek sben-, in the zero-grade suf- fixed form *gʷs-e-, with the intransitive aorist suffix *-e-, which would automatically be replaced by *kʷs-e- by voicing assimilation, with subsequent refashioning of the root to restore morphological transparency in relation to forms in which the voiced *gʷ- was pre- served. But the details remain elusive.) **ASBESTOS**, from Greek asbestos, unquenchable, inextinguishable, unslaked lime, from compound *n̥-sbes-to-, from ear- lier *n̥-sges-to-, with root form *sges- seen in Greek sbennunai, to extinguish (n̥-, not, without; see **ne**). [Pokorny gʷes- 479.] **gwet-1** Resin (?). Root found only in Germanic and Celtic. Suffixed form *gʷet-u-. 1. **CUD**, **QUID¹**, from Old English cwudu, cwidu, cudu, resin, mastic gum, "that which is chewed," from Germanic *kwithu-. 2. **BITUMEN**, from Latin bitumen, resin (Gaulish loan- word), from Celtic *betu-, birch, birch resin. [Pokorny 1. gʷet- 480.] **gwet-2** To say, speak. 1. Basic form *gʷet-. **BEQUEATH**, **QUOTH**, from Old English cwethan, to say, speak, from Germanic *kwithan. 2. Suffixed form *gʷet-ti-. **BEQUEST**, from Old English -cwis, will, from Germanic *kwessiz. [Pokorny 2. gʷet- 480.] **gwet-3** Intestine. Suffixed o-grade form *gʷot-olo-. **BOTULINUM**, **BOTULISM**, **BOWEL**; **BOTULIN**, from Latin botulus, intestine, sausage (probably a dialect borrow- ing). [Pokorny gʷet- 481.] **gwhedh-** To ask, pray. 1. Suffixed form *gʷhedh- yo-. **BID**, from Old English biddan, to ask, pray, from Germanic *bidjan, to pray, entreat. 2. **BEAD**, from Old English bed(u), gebed, prayer (ge-, intensive and collective prefix; see **kom**), from Germanic *bidam, entreaty. 3. Suffixed form *gʷhedh-to-. **INFEST**, **MANIFEST**, from Latin -festus, probably in infestus, hostile (< *n-gʷhedh-to-, "inexorable"; *n-, not; see **ne**), and perhaps in manifestus, caught in the act, red-handed (manus, hand; see **man-2**). [Pokorny gʷhedh- 488, 2. bhedh- 114.] <36> **gwhen-** To strike, kill. 1. O-grade form *gʷhon-. a. **BANE**, from Old English bana, slayer, cause of ruin or destruction; b. **AUTOBAHN**, from Middle High Ger- man ban, bane, way, road (< "strike" in a techni- cal sense like "swath"). Both a and b from Germanic suffixed form *ban-ōn-. 2. Suffixed zero-grade form *gʷhn-tyā-. a. **GUN**, from Old Norse gunnr, war; b. **GONFALON**, from Italian gonfalone, standard, from Germanic compound *gund-fanon-, "battle flag" (*fanōn-, flag; see **pan-**). Both a and b from Germanic *gunthjō, war, battle. 3. Suffixed form *gʷhen-do-. a. **DEFEND**, **DEFENSE**, **FENCE**, **FEND**, from Latin dēfendere, to ward off (dē-, away; see **de-**); b. **OFFEND**, **OFFENSE**, from Latin offendere, to strike against, be offensive, offend (ob-, against; see **epi**). 4. Suffixed zero-grade form *gʷhn-tro-. **BEZOAR**, from Persian zahr, poison, from Old Iranian *jathra-. 5. Full-grade form *gʷhen-. **BONZE**, **KALANCHOE**, **SANGHA**, from Sanskrit hanti, he strikes. 6. Possibly suffixed zero-grade form in com- pound **\*perso-gwhn-t-ya** (see **perso-**). [Pokorny 2. gʷhen-(ə)- 491, bhen- 126.] Language and Culture Note We are some- times fortunate to have enough evidence from our ancient texts to recover nuances of usage and mean- ing of reconstructible Proto-Indo-European words. A case in point is furnished by the root **gwhen-** (the source of English defense and offense). This root had the basic meaning "to strike, smite, kill," but the evi- dence of the texts shows it was used specifically of the killing of a monstrous or heroic adversary. It was thus ideally suited to legend and mythology (compare the nuances of English slay). In particular, this verb was the primary verbal vehicle for the central action of the Indo-European dragon-slaying myth, encapsulated in the formula **\*e-gwhen-t ogʷhim**, "he slew the serpent" (*ogʷhim, from *ogʷhis, serpent; see **angʷhi-**). See also note at **terə-2**. **gwher-** To heat, warm. 1. Zero-grade form *gʷhr̥-. a. **BURN¹**, from Old English beornan, byrnan (intransi- tive) and bærnan (transitive), to burn; b. **BRIMSTONE**, from late Old English brynstān, "burning mineral," sulfur (stān, stone; see **stāi-**); c. **BRINDLED**, from Old Norse brenna, to burn. a-c all from Germanic *bren- nan (intransitive) and *brannjan (transitive), formed from *brenw- with nasal suffix and analogical vocal- ism. 2a. **BRAND**, from Old English brand, piece of burning wood, sword; b. **BRANDY**, from Dutch bran- den, to burn, distill; c. **BRANDISH**, from Old French brand, sword; d. **BRANDADE**, from Old Provençal brand, sword. a-d all from Germanic *brandaz, a burning, a flaming torch, hence also a sword. 3. Suf- fixed form *gʷher-m(n)o-. **THERM**, **-THERM**, **THERMO-**, **-THERMY**; **HYPOTHERMIA**, **LOBSTER THERMIDOR**, from Greek thermos, warm, hot, and thermē, heat. 4. O- grade form *gʷhor-. **FORCEPS**, **FORCIPATE**, from Latin forceps, pincers, fire tongs (< "that which holds hot things"; -ceps, agential suffix, "-taker"; see **kap-**). 5. Suffixed o-grade form *gʷhor-no-. a. **FORNAX**, **FURNACE**, **HORNITO**, from Latin furnus, fornus, fornāx, oven; b. probably Latin fornix, arch, vault (< "vaulted brick oven"): **FORNICATE**, **FORNIX**. 6. Suffixed zero- grade form *gʷhr̥-to-, heated, likely source of Sanskrit ghṛtam, ghee, clarified butter: **GHEE**. [Pokorny gʷher- 493, bh(e)reu- 143.] **gwhī-** Thread, tendon. (Oldest form *gʷhih₁-, *gʷhyeh₁-, with zero-grade form contracted to *gʷhī-.) 1. Full- grade form *gʷhyeə-. **ZITA¹**, from Old Iranian *jyā-, bowstring (Avestan jyā-). 2. Suffixed zero-grade form *gʷhī-slo-. **FICELLE**, **FILAMENT**, **FILAR**, **FILARIA**, **FILE¹**, **FILLET**, **FILOSE**, **FILUM**; **DEFILE²**, **ENFILADE**, **FILIFORM**, **FILIGREE**, **FILOPLUME**, **FILOVIRUS**, **PROFILE**, **PURFLE**, from Latin fīlum, thread. [Pokorny gʷheiə- 489.] **gwhrē-** To smell, breathe. (Contracted from ear- lier *gʷhreh₁-.) **BREATH**, **BREATHE**, from Old English bræth, odor, exhalation, from Germanic suffixed form *brē-thaz. [Pokorny gʷhrē- 495.] **gwhren-** To think. 1. **FRANTIC**, **FRENETIC**, **FRENZY**, **-PHRENIA**, **PHRENO-**; **PHRENITIS**, from Greek phrēn, the mind, also heart, midriff, diaphragm. 2. Extend- ed zero-grade root form *gʷhr̥n-d-. **PHRASE**; **HOLOPHRASTIC**, **METAPHRASE**, **PARAPHRASE**, **PERIPHRASIS**, from Greek phrazein, to point out, show. [Pokorny gʷhren- 496.] **gwo-** To feed. (Oldest form *gʷeh₃-, colored to *gʷoh₃-, contracted to *gʷō-.) Suffixed zero-grade form *gʷǝ- sko-. **PROBOSCIS**, from Greek boskein, to feed. [In Pokorny gʷou- 482.] **gʷou-** Ox, bull, cow. Nominative singular form *gʷou-s. 1. **COW¹**, **KINE**; **COWSLIP**, from Old English cū, cȳ, cȳe, cow, from Germanic *kōuz (> *kūz). 2a. **BEEF**, **BOVINE**, **BUGLE¹**, from Latin bōs (stem bov-), ox, bull, cow; b. **BUCCINATOR**, from Latin būcina, horn, trum- pet, from *bou-kanā-, "bellower" (*-kanā-, singer; see **kan-**). 3a. **BOÖTES**, **BOUSTROPHEDON**, **BUCOLIC**, **BUGLOSS**, **BULIMIA**, **BUMELIA**, **BUPRESTID**, **BUTTER**, **BUTYRIC**, from Greek bous, ox, bull, cow; b. **BUFFALO**, from Greek boubalos, buffalo, perhaps from bous. 4. **GAYAL**; **GUAR**, **GURKHA**, **KOUPREY**, **NILGAI**, from Sanskrit gauḥ, go-, cow. 5. Suffixed form *gʷou-no-. **GUNNY**, from Pali goṇa-, ox. 6. Suffixed form *gʷou- ro-. **GAUR**, from Sanskrit gauraḥ, wild ox. 7. Zero- grade suffixed form *gʷw-ā-. **HECATOMB**, from Greek hekatombē, sacrifice of a hundred oxen (hekaton, hun- dred; see **dekm**). [Pokorny gʷou- 482.] **gwres-** Thick, fat. Perhaps Latin grossus, thick (pre- form uncertain): **GROCER**, **GROSCHEN**, **GROSS**, **GROSZ**, **KURUŞ**; **ENGROSS**, **GROSBEAK**, **GROSGRAIN**. [Pokorny gʷretso- 485.] **grī-wā-** Back of the neck. Perhaps a derivative of **gwerə-4**. **HRYVNIA**, from Russian grīva, mane, from Slavic *grīva. [In Pokorny 1. gʷer- 474.] **gyeu-** Also geu-. To chew, eat. (Oldest form *g(y)eu-.) **CHEW**, from Old English cēowan, to chew, from Ger- manic *kewwan. [Pokorny g(j)eu- 400.] **[hlaupan]** To leap. Germanic root. 1a. **LEAP**, from Old English hlēapan, to leap; b. **LAPWING**, from Old English hlēapwince, lapwing (-wince, perhaps "move sideways," akin to Old English wincian, to wink; see **weng-**). 2. **LOPE**, from Old Norse hlaupa, to leap. 3. **INTERLOPER**, **ORLOP**, from Middle Dutch loopen, to leap, run. 4. **GAUNTLET²**, from Middle Low Ger- man lōp, course, running (> Swedish lopp, course). 5. **LANGLAUF**, from Old High German hlouf(f)an, to leap. 6. **GALLOP**, **WALLOP**, from Old Frenchgaloper and Old North French waloper, to gallop. 7. **ELOPE**, from Middle Dutch lōpen, to run.] **[hūlē]** Forest, timber, hence stuff, matter. Greek noun of unknown origin. **-YL**, **YLEM**; **HYLOZOISM**, **METHYLENE**, **PTERYLA**.] **i-** Pronominal stem. 1. **ILK¹**, from Old English ilca, same, from Germanic *is-līk- (*-līk-, like; see **līk-**). 2. **YON**, from Old English geon, that, from Germanic *jaino-, *jeno-. 3a. **YOND**, **YONDER**, from Old English geond, as far as, yonder, from Germanic *jend-; b. **BEYOND**, from Old English geondan, beyond, from Germanic *jendana-. 4. Extended forms *yām, *yāi. **YEA**, **YES**, from Old English gēa, affirmative particle, and gīse, yes (see **es-**), from Germanic *jā, *jai. 5. **YET**, from Old English gīet, gīeta, still (preform uncertain). 6. Relative stem *yo- plus particle. **IF**, from Old Eng- lish gif, if, from Germanic *ja-ba. 7. Basic form *i-, with neuter *id-em. **ID**, **IDEM**, **IDENTICAL**, **IDENTITY**; **IDENTIFY**, from Latin is, he (neuter id, it), and idem, same. 8. Suffixed form *i-tero-. **ITERATE**; **REITERATE**, from Latin iterum, again. 9. Suffixed and extended form *it(ə)-em. **ITEM**, from Latin item, thus, also. 10. Stem *i- plus locatival particle *-dhə-i. **IBIDEM**, from Latin ibīdem, in the same place. 11. Suffixed vari- ant form *e-tero- in compound **\*ke-e-tero-** (see **ko-**). [Pokorny 3. e- 281.] <37> **-(i)ko-** Secondary suffix, forming adjectives. 1. Form *-ko-. **-AC**, from Greek -kos added to nouns in stem -a-. 2. Form *-iko-. a. **-Y¹**, from Old English -ig, ad- jective suffix, from Germanic *-iga-; b. **-IC**, **-ICS**, from Latin -icus and Greek -ikos, adjective suffixes; c. **-AGE**, from Latin compound suffix -āticum (-āt- from -ātus, past participle suffix; see **-to-**). 3. Compound suffix *-enko-, *-nko-. a. **-ING²**, from Old English -ing, adjec- tive suffix, from Germanic *-inga-, *-unga-; b. com- pound Germanic suffix *-linga- (see **-lo-**). 4. Com- pound suffix *-isko- (first element of uncertain origin). a. (i) **-ISH**, from Old English -isc, adjective suffix; (ii) **-ESQUE**, from Italian -esco, from Vulgar Latin *-iscus. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *-iska-; b. **BREWSKY**, **RUSSKY**, from Russian -skiĭ, adjective suffix indicat- ing origin, from Slavic *-iskŭ, also found in Slavic family names such as **DOSTOYEVSKY**, **TCHAIKOVSKY**, **TROTSKY**. [Not in Pokorny.] **-is-to-** Superlative suffix, formed from the zero-grade of the intensive comparative suffix **-yos-** with the ad- dition of **-to-** marking the accomplishment of the no- tion of intensity. **-EST¹**, from Old English -est, superla- tive suffix, from Germanic *-ista-. [Not in Pokorny.] **kā-** To like, desire. (Oldest form *keh₂-, colored to *kah₂-, contracted to *kā-.) 1. Suffixed form *kā-ro-. a. (i) **WHORE**, from Old English hōre; (ii) **WHOREDOM**, from Old Norse compound hōrdōmr (-dōmr, "con- dition"; see **dhē-**). Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *hōraz (feminine *hōrōn-), "one who desires," adulter- er; b. **CARESS**, **CHARITY**, **CHERISH**; **MOTHER CAREY'S CHICKEN**, from Latin cārus, dear. 2. Suffixed form *kā- mo-. **KAMA¹**; **KAMASUTRA**, from Sanskrit kāmaḥ, love, desire. [Pokorny kā- 515.] **kad-** To fall. (Oldest form *kad-.) **CADAVER**, **CADENCE**, **CADENT**, **CADUCOUS**, **CASCADE**, **CASE¹**, **CASUAL**, **CASUALTY**, **CASUIST**, **CHANCE**, **CHUTE**; **ACCIDENT**, **DECAY**, **DECIDUOUS**, **ESCHEAT**, **INCIDENT**, **OCCASION**, **OCCIDENT**, **RECIDIVISM**, from Latin cadere, to fall, die. [Pokorny 1. kad- 516.] **kād-** Sorrow, hatred. (Oldest form *keh₂d-, colored to *kah₂d-, contracted to *kād-.) Suffixed zero-grade form *kəd-i-. 1. **HATRED**, from Old English hete, hate, envy, from Germanic *hatiz. 2. **HATE**, from Old Eng- lish hatian, to hate, from Germanic *hatōn. 3. **HEINOUS**, from Old French haïr, to hate, from Germanic *hatjan. [Pokorny kād- 517.] **kādh-** To shelter, cover. (Oldest form *keh₂dh-, colored to *kah₂dh-, contracted to *kādh-.) 1. Suffixed zero- grade form *hədh-u-. **HAT**, from Old English hæt(t), hat, from Germanic *hattuz, expressive form of *ha- duz. 2. Basic form *kādh-. a. **HOOD¹**, from Old Eng- lish hōd, hood, from Germanic *hōdaz; b. **HEED**, from Old English hēdan, to heed, care for, protect, from Germanic *hōdjan. [Pokorny kadh- 516.] **kə-id-** To strike. (Oldest form *keh₂-id-, colored to *kah₂-id-.) 1. **CAESURA**, **CEMENT**, **CESTUS²**, **CHISEL**, **-CIDE**, **SCISSOR**; **ABSCISE**, **CIRCUMCISE**, **CONCISE**, **DECIDE**, **EXCISE**, **INCISE**, **PRECISE**, from Latin caedere, to cut, strike. 2. **CAELUM**, **CEIL**, **SALLET**, from Latin caelum (? < *caedum), sculptor's chisel. [Pokorny (s) k(h)ai- 917.] **kagh-** To catch, seize; wickerwork, fence. 1a. **HAGGARD**, from Old French hagard, mature falcon caught in wild and thus difficult to train, from dialectal hague, hedge (where the bird was presumably caught); b. **HAW²**; **HAWFINCH**, **HAWTHORN**, from Old English haga, hedge, hawthorn, from Germanic *hagōn-; c. **HEDGE**, from Old English hecg, from Germanic *hagjō. d. (i) **HAG¹,** perhaps short for Old English hægtesse, witch; (ii) **HEX**, from Old High German hagzissa, witch. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *haga-tusjō. (The exact form of compound is uncertain. The second member -tusjō is perhaps akin to Lithuanian dvasià, ghost, and Middle High German getwās, specter, phantom, and the compound perhaps originally referred to beings that would haunt the hedges that defined the outskirts of the settlement.) a-d all from Germanic *hag-, hedge, fence. 2. Suffixed form *kagh-yon-. **CAY**, **KEY²**, **QUAY**, from Old French quai, quay, from Gaulish caio, rampart, retaining wall. 3. Possible variant *kogh-. a. **INCHOATE**, from Latin cohum, strap from yoke to har- ness; b. **COLANDER**, **COULEE**, **COULOIR**, **CULLIS**; **PERCOLATE**, from Latin cōlum, sieve (< wickerwork), and its derivative cōlāre, to filter. [Pokorny kagh- 518.] **kaghlo-** Pebble, hail. **HAIL¹**, from Old English hagol, hægel, hail. [Pokorny kaghlo- 518.] **kai-** Heat. Extended form *kaid-. 1. **HOT**, from Old English hāt, hot, from Germanic *haita-. 2. **HEAT**, from Old English hǣtu, from Germanic *haiti-. [Pokorny kəi- 519.] **kaiko-** One-eyed. **CAECILIAN**, **CAECUM**; **PICHICIEGO**, from Latin caecus, blind. [Pokorny kai-ko- 519.] **kailo-** Whole, uninjured, of good omen. 1a. **HALE²**, **WHOLE**, from Old English hāl, hale, whole; b. **WHOLESOME**, from Old English *hālsum (> Middle English holsom), wholesome; c. **HAIL²**; **WASSAIL**, from Old Norse heill, healthy. a-c all from Germanic *haila-. 2. **HEALTH**, from Old English hǣlth, health, from Ger- manic *hailithō. 3. **HEAL**, from Old English hǣlan, to heal, from Germanic *hailjan. 4a. **HOLY**; **HALIBUT**, **HALIDOM**, **HOLIDAY**, **HOLLYHOCK**, from Old English hālig, holy, sacred; b. **HALLOW**; **ALLHALLOWMAS**, **HALLOWEEN**, from Old English hālgian, to consecrate, bless, from Germanic derivative verb *hailagōn; c. **HELGA**, **HELGE**, **OLEG**, **OLGA** (personal names), from Old Norse Helge (feminine Helga), "holy" (> Russian Oleg, feminine Olga). a-c all from Germanic *haila- ga-. [Pokorny kai-lo- 520.] **kaito-** Forest, uncultivated land. 1. **HEATH**, from Old English hǣth, heath, untilled land, from Germanic *haithiz. 2a. **HEATHEN**, from Old English hǣthen, hea- then, "savage" (< "one inhabiting uncultivated land"); b. **HOYDEN**, from Middle Dutch heiden, heathen. Both a and b from Germanic *haithinaz. [Pokorny kaito- 521.] **kak-** To enable, help. (Oldest form *kak-.) **SHAKTI**, **SIKH**, from Sanskrit śaknoti, he is able, he is strong. [Pokorny kak- 522.] **kakka-** Also kaka-. To defecate. Root imitative of glottal closure during defecation. 1. **CUCKING STOOL**, from Middle English cukken, to defecate, from a source akin to Old Norse *kūka, to defecate. 2. **POPPYCOCK**, from Latin cacāre, to defecate. 3. **CACO-**; **CACODYL**, **CACOËTHES**, **CACOPHONOUS**, **CACOPHONY**, from Greek kakos, bad. [Pokorny kakka- 521.] **kal-1** Cup. 1. Suffixed zero-grade form *kļ-ik-. a. **CALIX**, **CHALICE**; **CALICIVIRUS**, from Latin calix, cup, goblet; b. **KYLIX**, from Greek kulix, cup. 2. Suffixed zero-grade form *kļ-uk-. **CALYX**, from Greek kalux, seed-vessel, cup. [Pokorny 7. kel- 550.] **kal-2** Beautiful. 1. Suffixed form *kal-wo-. **CALLISTO**; **CALOMEL**, **KALEIDOSCOPE**, from Greek kalos, beauti- ful. 2. Suffixed form *kal-yo-. **CALLIGRAPHY**, **CALLIOPE**, **CALLIPYGIAN**, **HEMEROCALLIS**, from Greek kallos, beauty. [Pokorny 2. kal- 524.] **kal-3** Hard. 1. **CALLOSE**, **CALLOUS**, **CALLUS**, from Latin callum, hard skin. 2. **EXCALIBUR**, from Welsh Caled- vwlch (> Medieval Latin Caliburnus), Excalibur, from caled, hard, from Celtic *kal-eto-. [Pokorny 1. kal- 523.] <38> **kamp-** To bend. 1. Suffixed form *kamp-ā-. **GAM²**, **GAMBADO**, **GAMBADO**, **GAMBIT**, **GAMBOL**, **GAMBREL**, **GAMMON³**, **JAMB**, **SCAMPI**, from Greek kampē, a bend- ing, a winding. 2. Suffixed form *kamp-ulo-. **CAMPYLOBACTER**, **CAMPYLOTROPOUS**, from Greek kampulos, bent. [Pokorny kam-p- 525.] Compare **kemb-**. **kan-** To sing. 1. **HEN**, from Old English hen(n), hen, from Germanic *han(e)nī. 2a. **CANOROUS**, **CANT²**, **CANTABILE**, **CANTATA**, **CANTICLE**, **CANTILLATE**, **CANTO**, **CANTOR**, **CANZONE**, **CHANT**, **CHANTEUSE**, **CHANTEY**, **CHANTRY**; **ACCENT**, **CHANTICLEER**, **DESCANT**, **ENCHANT**, **INCANTATION**, **INCENTIVE**, **PRECENTOR**, **RECANT**, from Latin canere, to sing (> cantāre, to sing, frequentative of canere); b. suffixed form *kan-ā-, "singer,” in Latin compound **\*bou-kanā** (see **gʷou-**). 3. **OSCINE**, from Latin oscen, a singing bird used in divination (< *obs- cen, "one that sings before [the augurs]"; ob-, before; see **epi**). 4. Suffixed form *kan-men-. **CHARM**, from Latin carmen, song, poem. [Pokorny kan- 525.] **kand-** Also kend-. To shine. 1. Suffixed (stative) form *kand-ē-. **CANDELABRUM**, **CANDELILLA**, **CANDENT**, **CANDESCENCE**, **CANDID**, **CANDIDA**, **CANDIDATE**, **CANDLE**, **CANDOR**; **INCANDESCE**, from Latin candēre to shine. 2. **INCENDIARY**, **INCENSE¹**, **INCENSE²**; **FRANKINCENSE**, from Latin compound incendere, to set fire to, kindle (in-, in; see **en**), from transitive *candere, to kindle. [Pokorny kand- 526.] **kannabis** Hemp. Late Indo-European word bor- rowed from an unknown source. 1. **HEMP**, from Old English hænep, hænep, hemp, from Germanic *hana- paz. 2. **CANNABIS**, **CANVAS**, from Greek kannabis, hemp. [Not in Pokorny.] **kap-** To grasp. I. Basic form *kap-. 1. **HEDDLE**, from Old Eng- lish hefeld, thread used for weaving, heddle (a device which grasps the thread), from Germanic *haf-. 2. **HAFT**, from Old English hæft, handle, from Germanic *haftjam. 3. Form *kap-o-. **HAVE**; **BEHAVE**, from Old English habban, to have, hold, from Germanic *ha- bai-, *hāben. 4. **HEAVY**, from Old English hefig, heavy, from Germanic *hafiga-, "containing something" having weight. 5. **HAVEN**, from Old English hæfen, a haven, from Germanic *hafnō-, perhaps "place that holds ships." 6. **HAWK¹**, from Old English h(e)afoc, hawk, from Germanic *habukaz. 7. Suffixed form *kap-to-. **ECHT**, from Middle Low German echte, true, legitimate, akin to Old High German ēohaft, accord- ing to custom, from *ēhaft, from ēwa, custom, right (see **aiw-**) + -haft, characterized by, having, possess- ing, (< "possessed by, seized by"), from Germanic haf- tam, caught, captured. 8. Latin combining form -ceps (< *kap-s), "taker" (see **gʷher**, **man-2**, **per¹**). 9. Probably from this root is Germanic *gaf-, the source of Provençal gafar, to seize: **GAFF¹**. II. Suffixed form *kap-yo-. 1. **HEAVE**, **HEFT**, from Old English hebban, to lift, from Germanic *hafjan. 2. **CABLE**, **CACCIATORE**, **CAITIFF**, **CAPABLE**, **CAPACIOUS**, **CAPIAS**, **CAPSTAN**, **CAPTION**, **CAPTIOUS**, **CAPTIVATE**, **CAPTIVE**, **CAPTOR**, **CAPTURE**, **CATCH**, **CATER**, **CHASE¹**, **COP²**, **COPPER²**; **ACCEPT**, **ANTICIPATE**, **CATCHPOLE**, **CONCEIVE**, **DECEIVE**, **EXCEPT**, **INCEPTION**, **INCIPIENT**, **INTERCEPT**, **INTUSSUSCEPTION**, **MUNICIPAL**, **NUNCUPATIVE**, **OCCUPY**, **PARTICIPATE**, **PERCEIVE**, **PRECEPT**, **RECEIVE**, **RECIPE**, **RECOVER**, **RECUPERATE**, **SUSCEPTIBLE**, from Latin capere, to take, seize, catch. III. Lengthened-grade variant form *kōp-. 1a. **BEHOOF**, from Old English behōf, use, profit, need; b. **BEHOOVE**, from Old English behōfian, to have need of. Both a and b from Germanic compound *bi-hōf, "that which binds," requirement, obligation (*bi-, intensive prefix; see **ambhi**), from *hōf-. 2. **COPEPOD**, from Greek kōpē, oar, handle. [Pokorny kap- 527.] Compare **ghabh-**. **kap-ro-** He-goat, buck. Probably derivative of **kap-**, to seize ("the grabby animal"). **CABER**, **CABRILLA**, **CABRIOLET**, **CAPELLA**, **CAPER¹**, **CAPRINE**, **CAPRIOLE**, **CHÈVRE**, **CHEVRON**; **CAPREOMYCIN**, **CAPRIC ACID**, **CAPRICORN**, **CAPRIFIG**, **CAPROIC ACID**, from Latin caper, he-goat, and capra, she-goat. [Pokorny kapro- 529.] **kaput-** Head. 1a. **HEAD**; **BEHEAD**, **FOREHEAD**, from Old English hēafod, head; b. **HETMAN**, from Old High German houbit, head. Both a and b from Ger- manic *haubudam, *haubidam. 2. **BACALAO**, **CADDIE**, **CADET**, **CAPE²**, **CAPITAL¹**, **CAPITALE**, **CAPITATE**, **CAPITATION**, **CAPITELLUM**, **CAPITULATE**, **CAPITULUM**, **CAPO¹**, **CAPO²**, **CAPRICE**, **CAPTAIN**, **CATTLE**, **CAUDILLO**, **CHAPITER**, **CHAPTER**, **CHEF**, **CHIER**, **CHIEFTAIN**, **CORPORAL²**; **ACHIEVE**, **BICEPS**, **DECAPITATE**, **KERCHIEF**, **MISCHIEF**, **OCCIPUT**, **PRECIPITATE**, **RECAPITULATE**, **SINCIPUT**, **TRICEPS**, from Latin caput, head. [Pokorny kap-ut- 529.] **kar-1** Also ker-. Hard. I. Variant form *ker-. 1. Suffixed o-grade form *kor- tu-. a. **HARD**, **HARDLY**, from Old English hard, heard, hard; b. Old High German hart, hard, bold, stern, in personal names: (i) **LEONARD**, from Old High German *Lewenhart (> Old French Leonard), "bold as a lion" (lewo, lion); (ii) **RICHARD**, from Old High Ger- man Rīcohard, "strong in rule” (rīhhi, rule; see **reg-1**); c. **-ARD**, from Germanic *-hart, *-hard, bold, hardy; d. **STANDARD**, from Old French estandard, flag marking a a rallying place, from Frankish compound *standhard (probably < "standing firmly, steadfast"), from *hard, hard (*stand-, from *standan, to stand; see **stā-**); e. **HARDY¹**, from Old French hardir, to make hard. a-e all from Germanic *hardu-. 2. Suffixed zero-grade form *krt-es-, from earlier full-grade form *kret-es-. a. **-CRACY**, from Greek kratos, strength, might, power; b. combining form -kratēs in Greek personal names like **SOCRATES**, from Greek Sōkratēs, "having safe might" (sōs, safe; see **teuə-1**). II. Possiblebasic form *kar- in derivatives referring to things with hard shells. 1. Possibly Latin carīna, keel of a ship, nutshell: **CAREEN**, **CARINA**. 2. Possibly Greek karuon, nut: **KARYO-**; **EUCARYOTE**, **GILLYFLOWER**, **SYNKARYON**. 3. Reduplicated form *kar-kr-o-. **CANCER**, **CANKER**, **CARANGID**, **CHANCRE**, from dissimilated Lat- in cancer, crab, Cancer, constellation Cancer. 4. Suf- fixed form *kar-k-ino-. **CARCINO-**, **CARCINOMA**, from Greek karkinos, cancer, crab. [Pokorny 3. kar- 531.] **kar-2** To praise loudly, extol. Hypothetical base form. 1. Perhaps Germanic *hrōthi- in Old High German hrōd-, fame, in personal names: a. **ROBERT**, from Old High German Hrōdebert (> Old North French Robert), "bright fame" (-bert, bright; see **bherǝg-**); b. **RODERICK**, from Old High German Hrōderīh, "famous rule" (rīhhi, rule; see **reg-1**); c. **ROGER**, from Old High German Hrōdger (> Old North French Roger), "famous spear" (gēr, spear; see **ghaiso-**); d. **ROLAND**, from Old High German Hrōdland, "(having a) famous land" (land, land; see **lendh-2**); e. **RUDOLPH**, from Old High German Hrōdulf, "fame-wolf" (-ulf, from wulf, wolf; see **wļkʷo-**). 2. Perhaps Germanic *hrōm-, praise. **RUMMER**, from Dutch roemen, to praise. 3. Lengthened-grade form *kāru-. **CADUCEUS**, **KERYGMA**, from Greek (Doric) kārux (Attic kērux), herald. [Pokorny 2. kar- 530.] **[karlaz]** Man. Germanic root of uncertain origin. 1. **CHURL**, from Old English ceorl, man, churl. 2. **CARL**, **CAROL²**, **CHARLES**, **KARL** (personal names), from Old High German kar(a)l, man, husband, whence Old French Charles and Medieval Latin Carolus. 3. **CARL**, **CARLINE**, from Old Norse karl, man, freeman. [In Pokorny ĝer- 390.]] **kars-** To card. 1. **CARMINATIVE**, from Latin cārere, carrere, to card wool (> carmen, a card for wool). 2. Perhaps Latin carduus, thistle, artichoke: **CARD²**, **CARDOON**, **CHARD**. [Pokorny kars- 532.] <39> **kas-** Gray. (Oldest form *kas-.) 1a. **HARE**, from Old English hara, hare, from Germanic *hazon-; b. **HASENPFEFFER**, from Old High German haso, rabbit, from Germanic *hason-. 2. Suffixed form *kas-no-. **CANESCENT**, from Latin cānus, white, gray, grayed hair. [Pokorny kas- 533.] **kās-** To order, command. Root of uncertain vocalism, *kēs- or *kōs- also being possible (oldest form *keh₁s-). Suffixed full-grade form *kēǝs-tro-. **SHASTRA**, from Sanskrit śāstram, command, teaching, sacred text. [Pokorny kās-, kas- 533.] **kat-1** Down. 1. Possibly Greek kata, down: **CATA-**. 2. Suffixed form *kat-olo-. **CADELLE**, from Latin catulus, young puppy, young of animals ("dropped"). [Pokorny 2. kat- 534.] **kat-2** To fight. (Oldest form *kat-.) Suffixed form *kat-u-. **KERN¹**, from Old Irish ceithernn, band of sol- diers, probably akin to cath, battle, from Celtic *katu-. [Pokorny kat- 534.] **kau-** To hew, strike. (Oldest form *keh₂u-, colored to *kah₂u-, with zero-grade *kh₂u- metathesized to *kuh₂-, with secondary e-grade *keuh₂-.) 1a. **HEW**, from Old English hēawan, to hew; b. **HAGGIS**, **HAGGLE**; **HACKSAW**, from Old Norse höggva, to cut; c. **HOE**, from Old French houe, a hoe. a-c all from Germanic *hawwan. 2. **HAG²**, from a source akin to Old Norse högg, a gap, a cutting blow, from Germanic *hawwō. 3. **HAY**, from Old English hīeg, hay, cut grass, from Germanic *haujam. 4. Suffixed form *kau-do-. **INCUS**, from Latin cūdere (< *caudere), to strike, beat. [Pokorny kāu- 535.] **kāu-** To burn. (Oldest form *keh₂u-, colored to *kah₂u-, whence *kau- [before consonants] and *kāw- [before vowels].) Suffixed zero-grade form *kəw-yo-. **CALM**, **CAUSTIC**, **CAUTERY**; **ENCAUSTIC**, **HOLOCAUST**, **HYPOCAUST**, **INK**, from Greek kaiein, to burn. [Pokorny 2. kəu- (k misprint for k) 595.] **ked-** To go, yield. 1. Lengthened-grade form *kēd-. **CEASE**, **CEDE**, **CESSION**; **ABSCESS**, **ACCEDE**, **ACCESS**, **ANCESTOR**, **ANTECEDE**, **CONCEDE**, **DECEASE**, **EXCEED**, **INCESSANT**, **INTERCEDE**, **PRECEDE**, **PREDECESSOR**, **PROCEED**, **RECEDE**, **RETROCEDE**, **SECEDE**, **SUCCEED**, from Latin cēdere, to go, withdraw, yield. 2. Prefixed and suffixed form *ne-ked-ti-, "(there is) no drawing back" (*ne-, not; see **ne**). **NECESSARY**, from Latin necesse, in- evitable, unavoidable. [In Pokorny sed- 884.] **keg-** Hook, tooth. 1a. **HAKE**, from Old English haca, hook, akin to Old Norse haki, hook; b. **HARQUEBUS**, from Middle Dutch hake, hook. Both a and b from Germanic *hakan-. 2a. **HOOK**, from Old English hōc, hook; b. **HOOKER¹**, from Middle Dutch hōk, hoec, hook; c. **HAČEK**; **HAKENKREUZ**, from Old High Ger- man hāko, hook. a-c all from Germanic lengthened form *hōka-. 3. **HATCHEL**, **HECKLE**, from Middle Dutch hekel, hatchel, a flax comb with long metal hooklike teeth, from Germanic *hakila-. 4. **HACK¹**, from Old English -haccian, to hack to pieces as with a hooked instrument, from Germanic *hakkōn. [Pokorny keg- 537.] **kei-1** To lie; bed, couch; beloved, dear. (Oldest form *kei-.) I. Basic form *kei-. 1. Suffixed form *kei-wo-. a. **HIND³**, from Old English hīwan, members of a house- hold, from Germanic *hīwa-; b. **HIDE³**, from Old Eng- lish hīgid, hīd, a measure of land (< "household"), from suffixed Germanic form *hīwidō. 2. Suffixed form *kei-wi-. **CITY**, **CIVIC**, **CIVIL**, from Latin cīvis, citizen (< "member of a household"). 3. Suffixed form *kei-liyo-. **CEILIDH**, from Old Irish céle, companion. II. O-grade form *koi-. 1. Suffixed form *koi-nā-. **INCUNABULUM**, from Latin cūnae, a cradle. 2. Suffixed form *koi-m-ǝ-. **CEMETERY**, from Greek koiman, to put to sleep. III. Suffixed zero-grade form *ki-wo-. **SHIVA**, from Sanskrit śiva-, auspicious, dear. [Pokorny 1. kei- 539.] **kei-2** Referring to various adjectives of color. (Old- est form *kei-.) 1. Suffixed o-grade form *koi-ro-. a. (i) **HOAR**; **HOREHOUND**, from Old English hār, gray, hoary; (ii) **HERR**; **HERRENVOLK**, **JUNKER**, from Old High German hēr, worthy, exalted (comparative hēr(i) ro); (iii) **YOUNKER**, from Middle Dutch hēre, master, lord. (i)-(iii) all from Germanic *haira-, "gray-haired," old, venerable, hence master. b. **SIEROZEM**, from Rus- sian seryĭ, gray, from Slavic *sěrŭ. 2. Suffixed zero- grade form *ki-wo-. **HUE¹**, from Old English hīw, hēo, color, appearance, form, from Germanic *hiwam. [Pokorny 2. kei- 540.] **keit-** Bright, shining. 1. Suffixed zero-grade form *kəit-u-. a. **-HOOD**; **GODHEAD**, **MAIDENHEAD**, from Old English -hād, -hǣdu, quality, condition; b. **GEMÜTLICHKEIT**, from Old High German -heit, -haid, quality, condition. Both a and b from Germanic *haiduz, "bright appearance," manner, quality. 2. Suf- fixed zero-grade variant form *ki-t-ro-. **CHEETAH**, **CITRAL**, from Sanskrit citra-, variegated, many-colored. [Pokorny (s)kāi- 916.] **keia-** To set in motion. (Oldest form *keih₂-.) I. Possibly extended o-grade variant from *koid- in Germanic *hait-, to call, summon (but this may be from a separate Indo-European root *kaid-). 1. **HIGHT**, from Old English hātan, to call, summon, or- der, from Germanic *haitan. 2. Suffixed form *koid- ti-. a. **HEST**, from Old English hǣs, a command, bid- ding; b. **BEHEST**, from Old English compound behǣs, a vow, promise, command (be-, intensive prefix; see **ambhi**). Both a and b from Germanic *haissiz, from *hait-ti-. II. Zero-grade form *kiə-. 1. Suffixed iterative form *kiə-eyo-. **CITE**; **EXCITE**, **INCITE**, **OSCITANCY**, **RESUSCITATE**, **SOLICITOUS**, from Latin ciēre (past participle citus), with its frequentative citāre, to set in motion, summon. 2. Suffixed form *kiə-neu-. **KINEMATICS**, **KINESICS**, **-KINESIS**, **KINETIC**; **BRADYKININ**, **CINEMATOGRAPH**, **HYPERKINESIA**, **KINESIOLOGY**, **KINESTHESIA**, **TELEKINESIS**, from Greek kinein, to move. [Pokorny kēi- 538.] **kekw-** Excrement. (Oldest form *kekʷ-.) Suffixed o- grade form *kokʷ-ro-. **COPRO-**, from Greek kopros, dung. [Pokorny kekʷ- 544.] **kel-1** To strike, cut. Hypothetical base of derivatives referring to something broken or cut off; twig, piece of wood. I. Suffixedo-grade form *kol-o-. **COLOBOMA**; **COLOBUS MONKEY**, from Greek kolos, docked, and kolobos, maimed. II. Extended form *keld-. 1. **HILT**, from Old English hilt, hilt, from Germanic *helt-. 2. Zero-grade form *kld-. a. (i) **HOLT**, from Old English holt, wood; (ii) **KRUMMHOLZ**, from Old High German holz, wood. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *hultam; b. **CLADE**; **CLADOCERAN**, **CLADODE**, **CLADOGENESIS**, **CLADOGRAM**, **CLADOPHYLL**, **PHYLLOCLADE**, from Greek kla- dos, branch, shoot. 3. Variant Celtic zero-grade form *klad-. a. **GLADIATE**, **GLADIATOR**, **GLADIOLUS**, **GLAIVE**, from Latin gladius, sword, from Celtic *klad-yo-; b. **CLAYMORE**, from Old Irish claideb, sword, from Celtic *klad-ibo-. 4. O-grade form *kold-. a. **LIMP**, from ob- solete limphalt, lame, probably from Old English lem- phealt, limping, halting (lemp-, hanging loosely), from Germanic *halta-, "with a broken leg"; b. **HALT²**, from Old English healtian, to limp, from Germanic deriva- tive verb *halton. III. Extended form *kelə- (oldest form *kelh₂-). 1. Zero-grade form *klā-, becoming *klā- in Greek. a. **CLAST**, **CLASTIC**; **OSTEOCLAST**, **PLAGIOCLASE**, from Greek klān, to break; b. **CLONE**, from Greek klōn (< *kla-ōn), twig; c. suffixed form *klā-ro-. **CLERK**; **CLEROMANCY**, from Greek klēros, lot, allotment (< "that which is cut off"); d. suffixed form *klā-mə-. **CLEMATIS**, from Greek klēma, twig; e. suffixed form *klā-mo-. **CALAMITY**, from Latin calamitās, injury, damage, loss. 2. O-grade form *kolə-, in suffixed form *kolə-bho-. **COPE¹**, **COUP**, from Greek kolaphos, a blow. IV. Extended form *keldh-. 1. **HILDA** (personal name), from Old English Hild, "battle." 2. **MATILDA**, **MATILDA**, **MAUD** (personal names), from Medieval Latin Matilda (> Old French Mahhild, Mahault, Maud), from Germanic *maht-hildiz, "mighty in bat- tle" (maht, might; see **magh-1**). Both 1 and 2 from Germanic *hildiz, battle. [Pokorny 3. kel- 545.] See also extended root **kleg-**. <40> **kel-2** To cover, conceal, save. (Oldest form *kel-.) I. O-grade form *kol-. 1a. **HELL**, from Old English hell; b. **HEL**, from Old Norse Hel, the underworld, goddess of death. Both a and b from Germanic *haljō, the underworld (< "concealed place"). 2a. **HALL**, from Old English heall, hall; b. **VALHALLA**, from Old Norse höll, hall. Both a and b from Germanic *hallō, covered place, hall. 3. Suffixed form *kol-eyo-. **COLEUS**; **COLEOPTERAN**, **COLEOPTILE**, **COLEORHIZA**, from Greek koleon, koleos, sheath. II. Zero-grade form *kļ-. 1a. **HOLD²**, **HULL**, from Old English hulu, husk, pod (< "that which covers"); b. **HOLE**, from Old English hol, a hollow; c. **HOLLOW**, from Old English holh, hole, hollow; d. **HAUGH**, from Old English healh, secret place, small hollow. a-d all from Germanic *hul-. 2a. **HOLSTER**, from Old High German hulft, covering; b. **HOUSING²**, from Medieval Latin hultia, protective covering. Both a and b from suffixed Germanic form *hulfti-. 3. Extended form *klə- becoming *klā-. **CLANDESTINE**, from Latin clam, in secret. 4. Suffixed variant form *kal-up-yo-. **CALYPSO¹**, **CALYPTRA**; **APOCALYPSE**, **EUCALYPTUS**, from Greek kaluptein, to cover, conceal. III. Full-grade form *kel-. 1a. **HELM²**, from Old English helm, protection, covering; b. Old High Ger- man helm, helmet, in personal names: (i) **ANSELM**, from Old High German Ansehelm (> Medieval Latin Anselmus), "having a divine helmet, having the gods for a helmet" (ans-, god; see **ansu-**); (ii) **WILLIAM**, from Old High German Willahelm, "will-helmet" (willo, will; see **wel-2**); c. **HELMET**, from Middle Eng- lish helmet, helmet, from a source akin to Frankish *helm, helmet. a-c all from Germanic *helmaz, "pro- tective covering." 2. **OCCULT**, from Latin occulere < *ob-kel- (past participle occultus), to cover over (ob-, over; see **epi**). 3. Suffixed form *kel-os-. **COLOR**, from Latin color, color, hue (< "that which covers"). 4. Suf- fixed form *kel-nā-. **CELL**, **CELLA**, **CELLAR**, **CELLARER**; **RATHSKELLER**, from Latin cella, storeroom, chamber. 5. Suffixed form *kel-yo-. **CILIUM**, **SEEL**; **SUPERCILIOUS**, from Latin cilium, lower eyelid. IV. Lengthened-grade form *kēl-. **CONCEAL**, from Latin cēlāre, to hide, from suffixed form *kel-ā-. [Pokorny 4. kel- 553.] See also extended root **klep-**. **kel-3** To drive, set in swift motion. Hypothetical base of various loosely connected derivatives. 1. Extended form *kelt- or *keldh-, possibly in Germanic *haldan, to drive flocks, keep or pasture cattle. a. **HOLD¹**; **BEHOLD**, **UPHOLSTERER**, from Old English healdan, to hold, retain; b. **HALT¹**, from Old High German haltan, to stop, hold back; c. **AVAST**, from Middle Dutch houd- en, to hold. 2. Suffixed form *kel-es-. a. **CELERITY**; **ACCELERATE**, from Latin celer, swift; b. possibly further suffixed form *keles-ri-. **CELEBRATE**, **CELEBRITY**, from Latin celeber, (of a place) much frequented, hence fa- mous. 3. Suffixed zero-grade form *kļ-on-. **CLONUS**, from Greek klonos, turmoil, agitation. [Pokorny 5. kel- 548.] **kel-4** To be prominent; hill. 1. Zero-grade form *kļ-. a. **HILL**, from Old English hyll, hill, from suffixed Ger- manic form *hul-ni-; b. **HOLM**, from Old Norse hōlmr, islet in a bay, meadow, from suffixed Germanic form *hul-maz. 2. Suffixed form *kel-d-. **EXCEL**, from Latin excellere, to raise up, elevate, also to be eminent (ex-, up out of; see **eghs**). 3. O-grade form *kol-. a. **COLOPHON**, from Greek kolophōn, summit; b. suffixed form *kol(u)men-. **CULMINATE**, from Latin culmen, top, summit; c. extended and suffixed form *kol-umnā-. **COLONEL**, **COLONNADE**, **COLONNETTE**, **COLUMN**, from Latin columna, a projecting object, column. [Pokorny 1. kel- 544.] **kel-5** To prick. **HOLLY**; **HOLM OAK**, from Old English hole(g)n, holly (from its spiny leaves), from Germanic *hulin-. [Pokorny 2. kel- 545.] **kel-6** To deceive, trick. Extended form *kelu-, variant *kalu-. 1. **CALUMNY**, **CHALLENGE**, from Latin calvī, to deceive, trick. 2. **CAVIL**, from Latin cavilla (< *calvil- la), a jeering. [Pokorny kēl- 551.] **kelb-** To help. **HELP**, from Old English helpan, to help, from Germanic *helpan. [Pokorny kelb- 554.] **kelə-1** Warm. (Oldest form *kelh₁-, with variant [me- tathesized] form *kleh₁-, contracted to *klē-.) 1. Suf- fixed variant form *klē-wo-. a. **LEE**, from Old English hlēo, hlēow, covering, protection (as from cold); b. **LUKEWARM**, from Old English -hlēow, warm. Both a and b from Germanic *hlēwaz. 2. Suffixed zero-grade form *klǝ-ē-. a. **CALENTURE**, **CHAFE**, **CHAUFFEUR**, **CHOLENT**; **DECALESCENCE**, **INCALESCENT**, **NONCHALANT**, **RECALESCENCE**, **RÉCHAUFFÉ**, from Latin calēre, to be warm; b. **CAULDRON**, **CAUDLE**, **CHOWDER³**; **SCALD¹**, from Latin derivative adjective calidus, warm. 3. Suffixed zero-grade form *klə-os-. **CALORIC**, **CALORIE**; **CALORECEPTOR**, **CALORIFIC**, **CALORIMETER**, **CALORIMETRY**, from Latin calor, heat. [Pokorny 1. kel- 551.] **kelə-2** To shout. (Oldest form *kelh₂-, with variant [metathesized] form *kleh₂-, colored to *klah₂-, con- tracted to *klā-.) I. Variant form *klā-. 1. **LOW²**, from Old English hlōwan, to roar, low, from Germanic *hlō-. 2. Suffixed form *klā-mā-. **CLAIM**, **CLAMANT**, **CLAMOR**; **ACCLAIM**, **DECLAIM**, **EXCLAIM**, **PROCLAIM**, **RECLAIM**, from Latin clāmāre, to call, cry out. II. O-grade form *kolə-. 1. **KEELHAUL**, from Middle Dutch halen, to haul, pull (? < "to call together, sum- mon"). 2. **HALE¹**, **HAUL**; **HALYARD**, from Old French haler, to haul. Both 1 and 2 from Germanic *halōn, to call. III. Zero-grade form *klə- (> *kal-). 1. Suffixed form *kal-yo-. **CONCILIATE**, **COUNCIL**; **RECONCILE**, from Latin concilium, a meeting, gathering (< "a calling together"; con-, together; see **kom**). 2. Suffixed form *kal-end-. **CALENDAR**, **CALENDS**, from Latin kalendae, the calends, the first day of the month, when it was publicly announced on which days the nones and ides of that month would fall. 3. Suffixed form *kal-e-. **ECCLESIA**, **PARACLETE**, from Greek kalein (variant klē-), to call. 4. Suffixed form *kal-ə-. **INTERCALATE**, **NOMENCLATOR**, from Latin calāre, to call, call out. 5. Suf- fixed form *klā-ro- or suffixed variant form *klaə-ro- contracted to *klā-ro-. **CLEAR**, **GLAIR**; **AUFKLÄRUNG**, **CHIAROSCURO**, **CLAIRVOYANT**, **CLARAIN**, **DECLARE**, **ÉCLAIR**, from Latin clārus, bright, clear. IV. Possibly extended zero-grade form *kl(ə)d-, becoming *klad- in suffixed form *klad-ti-. **CLASS**, from Latin classis, summons, division of citizens for military draft, hence army, fleet, also class in general. [Pokorny 6. kel- 548.] **kelp-** To hold, grasp. O-grade form *kolp- in Germanic *halb-. 1. **HELVE**, from Old English hielfe, handle. 2a. **HELM¹**, from Old English helma, rudder; b. **HALBERD**, from Middle High German helm, handle. Both a and b from suffixed Germanic form *halb-ma-. 3. **HALTER¹**, from Old English hælftre, halter, from suffixed Germanic form *half-trǝ-. [In Pokorny 1. (s)kel- 923.] **kem-1** Hornless. (Oldest form *kem-.) 1. **SCANT**, from Old Norse skammr, "hornless," short, from Germanic *skamma-. 2. Suffixed form *kem-tyā-. **HIND²**, from Old English hind, doe, from Germanic *hinthjō. [Pokorny 2. kem- 556.] **kem-2** To compress. **HEM¹**, from Old English *hem(m), a doubling over, a hem, from Germanic *hamjam, a compressing, hence a doubling. [Pokorny 1. kem- 555.] <41> **kemb-** To bend, turn, change, exchange. Zero-grade form *kmb-. 1. **HUMP**, from a Low German source akin to Dutch homp, hump. 2. **CAMBRIDGE**, from Welsh cam, crooked, from suffixed Celtic form *kamb- o-. 3. **CAMBIUM**, **CHANGE**; **EXCHANGE**, **INTERCHANGE**, from Latin cambiāre, to exchange, from suffixed Celtic form *kamb-i-. 4. **CANTEEN**, **CANTON**; **DECANT**, from Latin cantus, iron tire, rim, from Celtic suffixed form *kamb-to- (> *kanto-). [Pokorny (s)kamb- 918, kan- tho- 526.] Compare **kamp-**. **kemə-** To become tired, tire oneself out (oldest form *kemh₂-) with suffixed (iterative) o-grade form komə- eye-. **NOSOCOMIAL**, from Greek komein, to tend, take care of. [Pokorny 4. kem(ə)- 557.] **kems-** To proclaim, speak solemnly. (Oldest form *kems-.) 1. Suffixed form *kems-ē-. **CENSOR**, **CENSUS**; **RECENSION**, from Latin cēnsēre, to judge, assess, estimate, tax. 2. Suffixed form *kems-ti- perhaps in the first member of the compound **\*ke(m)sty-an(d) rā-**, "praise of men" (*-an(d)r-, man, men; see **ner-2**), whence Greek personal name Kessandrā, Kassandrā (which is partly from another root **\*(s)kand-**, **\*(s)kend-**, to shine): **CASSANDRA**. 2. Suffixed o-grade form *koms-o-. **COMEDY**, **ENCOMIUM**, from Greek kōmos, song of praise, athletic victory ode, victory procession, revelry, carousal. [Pokorny kens- 566.] Language and Culture Note In ancient India, the fire-god Agni was sometimes called naraśamsah, "praise of men," because in his role as messenger of the gods he conveyed the praise-formulae offered by poets (the "men") to the gods. The word naraśamsah is a compound of naraḥ, "man" (from **ner-1**), and śaṁsaḥ, "praise" (*kems-o-, from **kems-**). The word śaṁsaḥ has a close relative, śastih (from a form of the reconstructed noun *kems-ti-), also meaning "praise," which occurs in similar contexts. If we take the Indo- European reconstructions for nara- and śasti- and make a compound out of them, **\*kemsti-an(e)r-**, meaning "praise of men," we have what looks exactly like the ancestor of the Greek name Kessandrā, from pre-Greek **\*ke(m)sti-anr-ā**, **\*kestyanra**. (The -ā is the feminine ending.) This is a variant of Kassandrā (Cassandra), the name of the legendary prophetess who was cursed by always being disbelieved. This etymol- ogy of Cassandra's name is not universally accepted, but her gift of prophecy has close links to the world of both divine messenger and the Indo-European poet, one of whose functions was as a seer. (Compare the Sanskrit word kaviḥ, meaning both "poet" and "seer.") **ken-1** To set oneself in motion, arise, make an effort. 1. Suffixed o-grade form *kon-o-. **DEACON**, from Greek diākonos, servant, attendant (dia-, thoroughly). 2. Suffixed lengthened o-grade form *kōn-ā-. **CONATION**, from Latin cōnārī, to endeavor. 3. Variant form *sken-, seen by some in suffixed present *sken-do- in the forms collected under **skend-**. [Pokorny 4. ken- 564.] **ken-2** Fresh, new, young. 1. Suffixed form *ken-t-. **RECENT**, from Latin recēns, young, fresh, new (re-, again; see **re-**). 2. Suffixed zero-grade form *kņ-yo-. **-CENE**; **CAINOTOPHOBIA**, **CENOZOIC**, **KAINITE**, from Greek kainos, new, fresh. [Pokorny 3. ken- 563.] **ken-3** Empty. (Oldest form *ken-.) Suffixed form *ken- wo-. **KENOSIS**; **CENOTAPH**, from Greek kenos, empty. [Pokorny ken- 564.] **[ken-]** Hypothetical base of two similar Germanic roots. 1. Root *hnekk-, neck. a. **NECK**, from Old English hnecca, neck; b. **KNACKER**, from Old Norse hnakkur, saddle, and hnakki, back of the neck. 2. Root *hnukk-, sharp projection, tip. a. **NOCK**, from Middle English nokke, nock, from a source perhaps akin to Middle Dutch nocke, tip of a bow; b. **NOOK**, from Middle English nok, corner, nook, from a Scandina- vian source akin to dialectal Norwegian nok, projec- tion, hook. [Pokorny 1. ken- 558.]] **k(e)nako-** Yellow, golden. **HONEY**, from Old English hunig, honey, from Germanic *hunagam. [Pokorny kanakó- 564.] **keni-** Dust, ashes. 1. **CINERARIUM**, **CINEREOUS**; **INCINERATE**, from Latin cinis, ashes. 2. O-grade form *koni-. **CONIDIUM**; **PNEUMOCONIOSIS**, from Greek ko- nis, koniā, dust. [In Pokorny 2. ken- 559.] **kenk-1** To gird, bind. Variant form *keng-. **CINCH**, **CINCTURE**, **CINGULUM**; **ENCEINTE**, **PRECINCT**, **SHINGLES**, **SUCCINCT**, from Latin cingere, to gird. [Pokorny 1. kenk- 565.] **kenk-2** To suffer from hunger or thirst. Suffixed zero- grade form *kņk-ru-. **HUNGER**, from Old English hungor, hungur, hunger, from Germanic *hungruz. [Pokorny 2. kenk- 565.] **kenk-3** Heel, bend of the knee. 1. **HOCK¹**, from Old English hōh, heel, from Germanic *hanhaz. 2. **HEEL¹**, from Old English hēla, heel, from Germanic *hanhilōn-. [Pokorny 3. kenk- 566.] **kent-** To prick, jab. 1. **CENTER**; **AMNIOCENTESIS**, **DICENTRA**, **ECCENTRIC**, from Greek kentein, to prick. 2. Suffixed form *kent-to-. **CESTUS¹**, from Greek kestos, belt, girdle. 2. Suffixed o-grade form *kont-o-. **HETEROKONT**, from Greek kontos, goad, punting pole. [Pokorny kent- 567.] **ker-1** Horn, head; with derivatives referring to horned animals, horn-shaped objects, and projecting parts. (Oldest form *ker-.) I. Zero-grade form *kṛ- in suffixed form *kṛ-no-. 1. **HORN**, **HORNBEAM**, from Old English horn, horn; 2. **ALPENHORN**, **ALTHORN**, **FLÜGELHORN**, **HORNBLENDE**, from Old High German horn, horn. Both 1 and 2 from Germanic *hurnaz. II. Extended o-grade form *koru-. 1. **CORYMB**, from Greek korumbos, uppermost point (< "head"). 2. **CORYPHAEUS**, from Greek koruphē, head. 3. Suffixed form *koru-do-. **CORYDALIS**, from Greek korudos, crested lark. 4. Suffixed form *koru-nā-. **CORYNEBACTERIUM**, from Greek korunē, club, mace. III. Italic and Celtic blend of (I) **\*kṛ-no-** and (II) **\*koru-** yielding **\*kor-nu-**. **CORN²**, **CORNEA**, **CORNEOUS**, **CORNER**, **CORNET**, **CORNICHON**, **CORNICULATE**, **CORNU**; **BICORNUATE**, **CAPRICORN**, **CORNIFICATION**, **LAMELLICORN**, **LONGICORN**, **TRICORN**, **UNICORN**, from Latin cornū, horn. IV. Extended e-grade form *keru-. 1. Suffixed form *kerw-o-, "having horns." a. **CERVID**, **CERVINE**, **SERVAL**, from Latin cervus, deer; b. **CERVIX**, from Latin cervīx, neck. 2. Suffixed form *keru-do-. a. **HART**, from Old English heorot, hart, stag; b. **HARTEBEEST**, from Middle Dutch hert, deer, hart. Both a and b from Germanic *herutaz. V. Extended zero-grade form *krā- (oldest form *kṛh₂-). 1. **CHARIVARI**; **CHEER**, from Greek karē, karā, head. 2. **CAROTID**, from Greek karoun, to stupefy, be stupefied (< "to feel heavy-headed"). 3. **CARROT**, **CAROTENE**, from Greek karōton, carrot (from its hornlike shape). VI. Suffixed further extended form *krəs-no- (old- est form *kṛhs-no-). 1. **CRANIUM**; **MIGRAINE**, **OLECRANON**, from Greek krānion, skull, upper part of the head. 2. **HORNET**, from Old English hyrnet, hornet, from Germanic *hurznuta-. VII. E-grade further extended form *keras- (oldest form *kerhs-.) 1. **CARAT**, **CERAMBYCID**, **CERASTES**, **KERATO-**; **CERATOPSIAN**, **CHELICERA**, **CLADOCERAN**, **KERATIN**, **MONOCEROS**, **RHINOCEROS**, **TRICERATOPS**, from Greek keras, horn. 2. **SIRDAR**, from Persian sar, head, from Old Iranian *sarah- (Avestan sarah-, head). 3. Suffixed form *keras-ro. **CEREBELLUM**, **CEREBRUM**, **SAVELOY**, from Latin cerebrum, brain. VIII. Extended form *krei-. 1. **REINDEER**, from Old Norse hreinn, reindeer, from Germanic *hraina-. 2. **RINDERPEST**, from Old High German hrind, ox, from Germanic *hrinda-. 3. Possibly extended form *kri-. **CRIOSPHINX**, from Greek krios, ram. [Pokorny 1. ker- 574.] <42> **ker-2** Echoic root, base of various derivatives indicating loud noises or birds. I. Zero-grade form *kṛ-, becoming Germanic *hr-. 1. **RING²**, from Old English hringan, to resound, clink, from Germanic *hringan. 2. **RETCH**, from Old English hræcan, to clear the throat, from Germanic *hraik-. 3. **ROOK²**, from Old English hrōc, rook, from Germanic *hrōkaz, "croaking bird," crow. 4. **RAVEN¹**, from Old English hræfn, raven, from Germanic *hrabnaz, ra- ven. 5. Extended form *krep-. **CREPITATE**, **CREVICE**; **DECREPIT**, **DECREPITATE**, **QUEBRACHO**, from Latin crepāre, to crack, burst, creak. 6. Extended form *kri-. **CRICKET¹**, from Old French criquer, to creak, click, from Germanic *krik-. II. Variant zero-grade form *skr-. 1. **SHRIKE**, from Old English scric, thrush, from Germanic *skrīk-. 2. **SCREAK**, **SCREECH**, from Old Norse skrækja, to shriek, from Germanic *skrēkjan. 3. **SCREAM**, from Middle English scremen, to scream, perhaps from a Scandi- navian source akin to Old Norse scræma, to scream, from Germanic *skrainjan, to shout, shriek. III. O-grade form *kor-. 1. **CORBEL**, **CORBINA**, **CORMORANT**, **CORVID**, **CORVINE**, **CORVUS**, from Latin cor- vus, raven. 2. **CORACOID**, from Greek korax, raven (> korakias, chough). [Pokorny 1. ker- 567.] **ker-3** To grow. (Oldest form *ker-.) 1. Suffixed form *ker-es-. **CEREAL**, **CERES**, from Latin Cerēs, goddess of agriculture, especially the growth of grain. 2. Extend- ed form *krē- (oldest form *kreh₁-). a. Suffixed form *krē-yā-. **CREATE**, **CREATURE**, **CREOLE**, **CRIA**, **GRIOT**; **PROCREATE**, from Latin creāre, to bring forth, create, produce (< "to cause to grow"); b. suffixed form *krē- sko-. **CRESCENDO**, **CRESCENT**, **CREW¹**; **ACCRUE**, **CONCRESCENCE**, **CONCRETE**, **DECREASE**, **EXCRESCENCE**, **INCREASE**, **RECRUIT**, from Latin crēscere, to grow, in- crease. 3. Suffixed o-grade form *kor-wo-, "growing," adolescent. **KORE**, **KOUROS**; **DIOSCURI**, **HYPOCORISM**, from Greek kouros, koros, boy, son, and korē, girl. 4. Compound **\*sm-kēro-**, "of one growth" (*sm-, same, one; see **sem-1**). **SINCERE**, from Latin sincērus, pure, clean. [Pokorny 2. ker- 577.] **ker-4** Heat, fire. 1. Suffixed form *ker-tə-. **HEARTH**, from Old English heorth, hearth, from Germanic *herthō. 2. Zero-grade form *kṛ-. a. **CARBON**, **CARBUNCLE**, from Latin carbō, charcoal, ember; b. ex- tended form *krem-. **CREMATE**, from Latin cremāre, to burn. 3. Possibly suffixed and extended form *kerə- mo-. **CERAMIC**, from Greek keramos, potter's clay, earthenware. 4. Possibly variant extended form *krās-. **CRASH²**, from Russian krasit', to color. [Pokorny 3. ker(ə)- 571.] **ker-5** A kind of cherry. 1. Suffixed zero-grade form *kṛ-no-. **CORNEL**, from Latin cornus, cornel tree. 2. Full-grade form *ker- probably in Greek kerasos, cher- ry: **CHERRY**. [Pokorny 4. ker- 572.] **kerd-1** Heart. (Oldest form *kerd-.) 1. Suffixed form *kerd-en-. **HEART**, from Old English heorte, heart, from Germanic *herton-. 2. Zero-grade form *kṛd-. a. **CORDATE**, **CORDIAL**, **COURAGE**, **QUARRY¹**; **ACCORD**, **CONCORD**, **CORDIFORM**, **DISCORD**, **MISERICORD**, **RECORD**, from Latin cor (stem cord-), heart; b. suffixed form *kṛd-yā-. **CARDIA**, **CARDIAC**, **CARDIO-**; **ENDOCARDIUM**, **EPICARDIUM**, **MEGALOCARDIA**, **MYOCARDIUM**, **PERICARDIUM**, from Greek kardiā, heart, stom- ach, orifice. 3. Possibly *kred-dhə-, "to place trust" (an old religious term; *dhə-, to do, place; see **dhē-**). **CREDENCE**, **CREDIBLE**, **CREDIT**, **CREDO**, **CREDULOUS**, **CREED**, **GRANT**; **MISCREANT**, **RECREANT**, from Latin crēdere, to believe. [Pokorny (kered-) 579.] **kerd-2** Craft. Suffixed form *kerd-ā-. **CAIRD**, from Old Irish cerd, art, artist. [Pokorny 2. kerd- 579.] **kerdh-** Row, herd. (Oldest form *kerdh-.) Suffixed form *kerdh-ā-. **HERD**, from Old English heord, herd, from Germanic *herdō. [Pokorny kerdho- 579.] **kerə-1** To mix, confuse, cook. (Oldest form *kerh₂-, with variant [metathesized] form *kreh₂-, colored to *krah₂-, contracted to *krā-.) 1. Variant form *krā-. a. **UPROAR**, from Middle Low German rōr, motion, from Germanic *hrōr-; b. **RARE²**, from Old English hrēr, lightly boiled, half-cooked, possibly from Germanic *hrōr- (see a). 2. Zero-grade form *krǝ-. a. Suffixed form *krə-ti-. **IDOCRASY**, **IDIOSYNCRASY**; **DYSCRASIA**, from Greek krāsis, a mixing; b. suffixed form *krǝ- ter-. **CRATER**, **KRATER**, from Greek krātēr, mixing ves- sel. [Pokorny kerə- 582.] **kerə-2** To injure, break apart. (Oldest form *kerh₂-.) Suffixed zero-grade form *krə-ye-. **CARIES**, from Latin cariēs, decay, caries. [Pokorny 4. ker- 578.] **kerp-** To gather, pluck, harvest. Variant *karp-. 1. **HARVEST**, from Old English hærfest, harvest, from Germanic *harbistaz. 2. **CARPET**; **EXCERPT**, **SCARCE**, from Latin carpere, to pluck. 3. **-CARP**, **CARPEL**, **CARPO-**, **-CARPOUS**, from Greek karpos, fruit. [In Pokorny 4. sker- 938.] **kers-1** Dark, dirty. 1. Suffixed form *ker(s)-no-. **CHERNOZEM**, from Russian chērnyĭ, black. 2. Suffixed zero- grade form *kṛs-no-. **KRISHNA**, from Sanskrit kṛṣṇa-, black, dark. [Pokorny kers- 583.] **kers-2** To run. (Oldest form *kers-.) Zero-grade form *kṛs-. 1. **CORRAL**, **CORRIDA**, **CORRIDO**, **CORRIDOR**, **CORSAIR**, **COURANTE**, **COURIER**, **COURSE**, **CURRENT**, **CURSIVE**, **CURSOR**, **CURULE**; **CONCOURSE**, **CONCUR**, **DECURRENT**, **DISCOURSE**, **EXCURSION**, **INCUR**, **INTERCOURSE**, **KRAAL**, **OCCUR**, **PARKOUR**, **PERCURRENT**, **PRECURSOR**, **RECOURSE**, **RECUR**, **SUCCOR**, from Latin cur- rere, to run. 2. Suffixed form *kṛs-o-. a. **CAR**, **CAREER**, **CARGO**, **CARICATURE**, **CARIOLE**, **CARK**, **CAROCHE**, **CARRY**, **CHARGE**, **CHARIOT**, **CHARRETTE**; **DISCHARGE**, from Latin carrus, a two-wheeled wagon; b. **CARPENTER**, from Latin carpentum, a two-wheeled carriage. Both a and b from Gaulish carros, a wagon, cart. [Pokorny 2. kers- 583.] **kert-** To turn, entwine. 1. Zero-grade form *kṛt-. a. Suffixed form *kṛt-i-. (i) **HURDLE**, from Old English hyrdel, hurdle, frame; (ii) **HOARDING**, from Old French hourd, fence, hurdle, scaffold. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *hurdiz, wickerwork frame, hurdle; b. suf- fixed form *kṛt-sti-. **HORST**, from Old High German hurst, thicket, horst, from Germanic *hursti-. 2. Per- haps suffixed variant form *krat-i-. **CRATE**, **GRATE²**, **GRATICULE**, **GRID**, **GRIDDLE**, **GRILL**; **GRIDIRON**, from Latin crātis, wickerwork hurdle. [Pokorny kert- 584.] **kes-1** To scratch. 1. Extended zero-grade form *kseu-. **XYSTER**, from Greek xuein, to scrape. 2. Nasalized extended form *ks-n-eu-. a. **SNUG¹**, perhaps from a source akin to Old Norse snöggr, close-cropped, from Germanic *snaww-; b. **NOVACULITE**, from Latin novācula, razor. [Pokorny kes- 585.] **kes-2** To cut. (Oldest form *kes-.) Variant *kas-. 1. Suffixed form *kas-tro-. a. **CASTRATE**, from Latin castrāre, to castrate; b. **ALCAZAR**, **CASTELLAN**, **CASTELLATED**, **CASTLE**, from Latin castrum, fortified place, camp (perhaps "separated place"), borrowed into Old English as ceastre, in place names: (i) **-CHESTER** (in place names such as **WINCHESTER**), from Old English ceaster; (ii) **CHESHIRE**, after Cheshire, English county, from Old English Cestrescīre, "shire of the fort" (scīr, shire); (iii) **LANCASTER**, from Old English Loncastre, "fort on the Lune River" (river in western England). 2. Suffixed form *kas-to-. **CASTE**, **CHASTE**; **CASTIGATE**, **INCEST**, from Latin castus, chaste, pure (< "cut off from or free of faults"). 3. Suffixed (stative) form *kas-ē-. **CARET**, from Latin carēre, "to be cut off from," lack. 4. Extended geminated form *kasso-. **CASHIER²**, **QUASH¹**, <43> **keud-** Magical glory. Suffixed zero-grade form **\*kūd-es-** (replacing **\*keud-es-**). **KUDOS**, from Greek *kūdos*, magical glory. [In Pokorny 1. **keu-** 587.] **keuə-** To swell; vault, hole. (Oldest form **\*keuh₁-**.) I. O-grade form **\*kouə-**. **1.** Basic form **\*kouə-** becoming **\*kaw-**. **CAVA, CAVE, CAVERN, CAVETTO, CAVITY; CONCAVE, EXCAVATE**, from Latin *cavus*, hollow. **2.** Suffixed form **\*kow-ilo-**. **CELIAC, COEL, COELOM; COELACANTH, ACOELOMATE**, from Greek *koilos*, hollow. **3.** Suffixed lengthened-grade form **\*kōw-o-**. **CODEINE**, from Greek *kōos*, hollow place, cavity. II. Zero-grade form **\*kū-** (< **\*kuə-**). **1.** Suffixed shortened form **\*ku-m-olo-**. **CUMULATE, CUMULUS; ACCUMULATE**, from Latin *cumulus*, heap, mass. **2.** Basic form **\*kū-**. a. Suffixed form **\*kū-ro-**, “swollen,” strong, powerful. (i) **CHURCH, KIRK, KYRIE; KERMIS**, from Greek *kūrios* (vocative *kūrie*), master, lord; (ii) **CYRIL** (personal name), from Late Greek *Kūrillos*, “lordly;” c. suffixed form **\*kuw-eyo-**. **CYMA, CYMATIUM, CYME; CYMOPHANE, KYMOGRAPH, PSEUDOCYESIS**, from Greek *kuein*, to swell, and derivative *kūma* (< **\*kū-mņ**), “a swelling” wave; c. suffixed form **\*en-kū-yo-** (**\*en**, in; see **en**). **ENCEINTE'**, from Latin *inciēns*, pregnant. [Pokorny 1. **keu-** 592.] **keuk-** To be white, be bright, shine. (Oldest form **\*keuk-**.) Suffixed zero-grade form **\*kuk-no-**. **CYGNET, CYGNUS**, from Greek *kuknos*, swan. [Pokorny **keuk-** 597.] **kēw-(e)ro-** North, north wind. (Oldest form **\*keh₁w-(e)ro-**, with zero-grade **\*kuh₁-(e)ro-** becoming **\*kū-ro-**.) **1.** **SHOWER¹**, from Old English *scūr*, shower, storm, from West Germanic **\*skūraz**. **2.** **SCOUR²**, from Middle English *scouren*, to range over, probably from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse *skūr*, a shower. Both 1 and 2 from Germanic **\*skūr-**. [Pokorny **kēuero-** 597.] **kīgh-** Fast, violent. (Oldest form **\*kīgh-**.) **HIE**, from Old English *hīgian*, to strive, exert oneself, from Germanic **\*hīg-**. [Pokorny **kei-gh-** 542.] **klā-** To spread out flat. (Oldest form **\*kleh₂-**, colored to **\*klah₂-**, contracted to **\*klā-**.) Extended shortened form **\*klat-**. **1.** **LADE**, from Old English *hladan*, to lade, lay on, load, from Germanic **\*hlathan**. **2.** Suffixed form **\*klat-sto-**. a. **LAST⁴**, from Old English *hlæst*, burden, load; b. **BALLAST**, from Old Swedish and Old Danish *last*, burden. Both a and b from Germanic **\*hlasta-**. [Pokorny **klā-** 599.] **klāu-** Possibly hook, peg. (Oldest form **\*kleh₂u-**, colored to **\*klah₂u-**, contracted to **\*klau-** [before consonants] and **\*klāw-** [before vowels].) **1.** Suffixed form **\*klau-do-**. **CLAUSE, CLAUSTRUM, CLOISONNÉ, CLOISTER, CLOSE, CLOSET, CLOSURE, CLOZE; CONCLUDE, ECLOSION, EXCLUDE, INCLUDE, OCCLUDE, PRECLUDE, RECLUSE, SECLUDE**, from Latin *claudere*, to close. **2.** Suffixed form **\*klāw-i-**. a. **CLAVE¹, CLAVICLE, CLAVIER, CLEF, KEVEL; CLAVICHORD, CONCLAVE, ENCLAVE**, from Latin *clāvis*, key; b. further suffixed form **\*klāw-i-d-**. **OPHICLEIDE, STERNOCLEIDOMASTOID**, from Greek *klēïs* (stem *klēïd-*), key. **3.** Suffixed form **\*klāw-o-**. a. **CLOVE², CLOY; CLAFOUTI**, from Latin *clāvus*, nail; b. **CLAVATE; CLAVIFORM**, from Latin *clāva*, club. **4.** Suffixed form **\*klāw-(i)yo-**. a. **CLATHRATE**, from Greek *kleiein*, to close; b. **CLEISTOGAMOUS, CLEISTOTHECIUM**, from Greek verbal adjective *kleistos*, closed. [Pokorny **klēu-** 604.] **kleg-** To cry, sound. Extension of **kel-** ¹. Variant form **\*klag-**. **1.** Variant form **\*klak-**. a. **LAUGH**, from Old English *hlieh(h)an*, to laugh, from Germanic **\*hlahjan**; b. **LAUGHTER**, from Old English *hleahtor*, laughter, from Germanic **\*hlahtraz**. **2.** Nasalized form **\*kla-n-g-**. **CLANG**, from Latin *clangere*, to sound. [Pokorny **klēg-** 599.] **klei-** To lean. (Oldest form **\*klei-**.) I. Full-grade form **\*klei-**. **1.** Suffixed form **\*klei-n-**. **DECLINE, INCLINE, RECLINE**, from Latin *-clīnāre*, to lean, bend. **2.** Suffixed form **\*klei-tro-**. **CLITELLUM**, from Latin *clītellae*, packsaddle, from diminutive of **\*clītra**, litter. **3.** Suffixed form **\*klei-wo-**. **ACCLIVITY, DECLIVITY, PROCLIVITY**, from Latin *clīvus*, a slope. **4.** Suffixed form **\*klei-tor-**, “incline, hill.” **CLITORIS**, from Greek diminutive *kleitoris*, clitoris. II. Zero grade form **\*kli-**. **1.** **LID**, from Old English *hlid*, cover, from Germanic **\*hlid-**, “that which bends over,” cover. **2.** Suffixed form **\*kli-n-**. **LEAN¹**, from Old English *hlinian* and *hleonian*, to lean, from Germanic **\*hlinēn**. **3.** Suffixed form **\*kli-ent-**. **CLIENT**, from Latin *cliēns*, dependent, follower. **4.** Suffixed form **\*kli-to-** in compound **\*aus-klit-ā-** (see **ous-**). **5.** Suffixed form **\*kli-n-yo-**. **-CLINAL, CLINE, -CLINE, -CLINIC, CLINO-, CLISIS, KLISMOS; ACLINIC LINE, ANACLISIS, CLINANDRIUM, ENCLITIC, MATRICLINOUS, PATROCLINOUS, PERICLINE, PROCLITIC**, from Greek *klīnein*, to lean. **6.** Suffixed form **\*kli-mņ**. **CLIMATE**, from Greek *klima*, sloping surface of the earth. **7.**. Lengthened zero-grade form **\*klī-**, with lengthening of obscure origin. a. Suffixed form **\*klī-n-ā-**. **CLINIC; DICLINOUS, MONOCLINOUS, TRICLINIUM**, from Greek *klīnē*, bed; b. suffixed form **\*klī-m-**. **CLIMAX**, from Greek *klimax*, ladder. III. Suffixed o-grade form **\*kloi-tr-**. **LADDER**, from Old English *hlæd(d)er*, ladder, from Germanic **\*hlaid-ri-**. [Pokorny **klei-** 600.] **kleng-** To bend, turn. **1.** a. **LINKS**, from Old English *hlinc*, ridge; b. **LINK¹**, from Middle English *linke*, loop of a chain, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse **\*hlenkr**, loop of a chain; c. **FLINCH**, from Old French *flenchir*, to turn aside, flinch. a-c all from Germanic **\*hlink-**. **2.** a. **LANK**, from Old English *hlanc*, lean, thin (< “flexible”); b. **FIANCHETTO, FLANGE, FLANK, FLANKEN**, from Old French *flanc*, hip, side (where the body curves). Both a and b from Germanic **\*hlanka-**. [Pokorny **kleng-** 603.] **klep-** To steal. (Oldest form **\*klep-**; extension of **kel-** ².) Suffixed form **\*klep-yo-**. **CLEPSYDRA, KLEPTOCRACY, KLEPTOMANIA**, from Greek *kleptein*, to steal. [Pokorny **klep-** 604.] **kleu-** To hear. (Oldest form **\*kleu-**.) I. Extended form **\*kleus-**. **LEER**, from Old English *hlēor*, cheek (< “side of the face” < “ear”), from Germanic **\*hleuza-**. II. Zero-grade form **\*klu-**. **1.** **LIST³**, from Old English *hlystan*, to listen, from Germanic **\*hlustjan**. **2.** **LISTEN**, from Old English *hlysnan*, to listen, from Germanic **\*hlusinōn**. **3.** Suffixed lengthened form **\*klū-to-**. a. **LOUD**, from Old English *hlūd*, loud; b. **ABLAUT, UMLAUT**, from Old High German *hlūt*, sound; c. Germanic personal name **\*hlūda-wīgaz**, “famous in battle.” (i) **LOUIS, LUDWIG**, from Old High German *Hluod(o)wīg* (> Old French *Looïs*); (ii) **CLOVIS**, from Frankish *Chlodovech* (> French *Clovis*). a-c all from Germanic **\*hlūdaz**, “heard,” loud. III. Full-grade form **\*kleu-**. **1.** Suffixed form **\*klew-yo-**. **CLIO**, from Greek *kleiein*, to praise, tell. **2.** Suffixed form **\*klew-es-**, “fame,” in Greek personal names ending in **-klēs** (earlier **-kleēs**). a. **DAMOCLES**, from Greek (Doric) *Dāmoklēs*, “having the people’s fame” (*dēmos*, *dāmos*, people; see **dā-**); b. **EMPEDOCLES**, from Greek *Empedoklēs*, “having lasting fame” (*empedos*, “on the ground,” firmly set, lasting, from **en**, in, and *pedon*, ground; see **en** and **ped-**); c. **HERCULES**, from Latin *Hercules*, from Greek *Hēraklēs*, *Hērakleēs*, “having Hera’s fame” (*Hērā*, Hera); d. **PERICLES**, from Greek *Periklēs*, “far-famed” (*peri-*, all around; see **per**¹); e. **SOPHOCLES**, from Greek *Sophoklēs*, “famed for wisdom” (*sophos*, wise); f. **THEMISTOCLES**, from Greek *Themistoklēs*, “famed in law and righť” (*themis*, custom, law, right). **3.** Suffixed form **\*kleu-to-**. **SAROD**, from Middle Persian *srōd*, *sarod*, akin to Avestan *sraota-*, hearing, sound, from Iranian **\*srauta-**. **4.** Suffixed <44> form **\*kleu-ko-**. **SLOKA**, from Sanskrit *ślokaḥ*, sound, hymn, sloka. IV. Lengthened o-grade form **\*klōu-**. Slavic **\*slava**, fame, glory, appearing as **\*-slavŭ** in personal names. **1.** a. **MIROSLAV**, from Russian *Miroslav*, “having peaceful fame” (*mir*, world, peace; see **mei-** ⁴); b. **MSTISLAV**, from Russian *Mstislav*, “having vengeful fame” (*mstit’*, to have revenge; see **meit-**); c. **YAROSLAV**, from Russian *Jaroslav*, “famed for fury” (*jaryi*, furious). **2.** a. **BOHUSLAV**, from Czech *Bohuslav*, “having god’s fame” (*boh*, god; see **bhag-**); b. **WENCESLAS**, from Old Czech **\*Vęceslavŭ** (> Medieval Latin *Venceslaus*, Modern Czech *Václav*), “having greater glory” (**\*vęce-**, from Slavic **\*vętye-**, greater). [Pokorny 1. **kleu-** 605.] Language and Culture Note Occasionally comparative linguists are able not only to reconstruct individual words in Indo-European, but also whole phrases; these are crucial for filling out our picture of the world-view of the Proto-Indo-Europeans, since they allow us to see how particular words and concepts were put together in discourse. Probably the most famous such phrase is **\*klewos n̥dʰgʷʰitom**, “imperishable fame.” The most ancient texts in Indo- European languages, such as the Vedic hymns of ancient India, the Homeric epics, the Germanic sagas, and Old Irish praise-poetry, all demonstrate that the perpetuation of the fame of a warrior or king was of critical importance to early Indo-European society. The preservation of their fame was in the hands of poets, highly skilled and highly paid professionals, who acted both as the repositors and the transmitters of the society’s oral culture. The phrase **\*klewos n̥dʰgʷʰitom** (where **\*klewos** is a noun built to the root **kleu-**, “to hear,” and can be thought of literally as “what is heard about someone, reputation”) was reconstructed on the basis of the exact equation of Greek *kleos aphthiton* and Sanskrit *śravaḥ ákṣitam*. (Although these phrases look superficially rather different, they can both be shown to derive, sound for sound, from **\*klewos n̥dʰgʷʰitom** by regular sound change.) The Greek phrase appears in Homer’s *Iliad* as the fate awaiting that poem’s central character, Achilles, if he chooses to die young in battle rather than live a long but obscure peaceful life.. Not surprisingly, “fame” is a recurring element in Indo-European personal names. The name of the Greek poet Sophocles (*Sophoklēs*) meant “famed for wisdom”; the German name Ludwig (Old High German *Hlūd-wīg*) means “famed in battle”; and the Czech name Bohuslav means “having the fame (glory) of God.” **kleuə-** To wash, clean. (Oldest form **\*kleuh₁-**.) **1.** **CLOACA**, from Latin *cloāca*, sewer, canal. **2.** Zero-grade form **\*klu(ə)-**. **CLYSTER; CATACLYSM**, from Greek *kluzein*, to wash out. [Pokorny 2. **kleu-** 607.] **kḷə-wo-** Bald. (Oldest form **\*kḷh₂-wo-**.) **1.** **CALVARIUM**, from Latin *calvāria*, skull. **2.** **CALVARY¹**, from Late Latin *Calvāria*, translation of Greek *Kraniou topos*, place of skull(s) (itself a translation of Aramaic *gulgultā*, skull, Golgotha). Both 1 and 2 from Latin *calvus*, bald. [Pokorny **klauo-** 554.] **kneigʷh-** To lean on. **1.** **CONNIVE**, from Latin *cōnīvēre* (< **\*con-nīvēre**; **com-**, together; see **kom**), “to lean together” (said of eyelids), to close the eyes, be indulgent. **2.** Suffixed zero-grade form **\*knigʷh-to-**. **NICTITATE**, from Latin *nictāre*, to move the eyelids, wink. **3.** **NISUS; RENITENT**, from Latin *nītī*, to lean forward (preform uncertain). [Pokorny **knei-gʷh-** 608.] **kneu-** Nut. **1.** Extended zero-grade form **\*knud-**. **NUT**, from Old English *hnutu*, nut, from Germanic **\*hnut-**. **2.** Extended zero-grade form **\*knuk-**. **NEWEL, NOISETTE, NOUGAT, NUCELLUS, NUCLEUS**, from Latin *nux*, nut. [In Pokorny 1. **ken-** 558.] **knid-** Egg of a louse. (Oldest form **\*knid-**.) Suffixed form **\*knid-ā-**. **NIT¹**, from Old English *hnitu*, egg of a louse, from Germanic **\*hnitō**. [Pokorny **knid-**, **knid-** 608.] **ko-** Stem of demonstrative pronoun meaning “this.” (Oldest form **\*ko-**.) I. Variant form **\*ki-**. **1.** a. **HE¹**, from Old English *hē*, he; b. **HIM**, from Old English *him*, him (dative of *hē*); c. **HIS**, from Old English *his*, his (genitive of *hē*); d. **HER**, from Old English *hīre*, her (dative and genitive of *hēo*, she); e. **IT**, from Old English *hit*, it (neuter of *hē*); f. **HERE**, from Old English *hēr*, here; g. **HENCE**, from Old English *heonane*, *heonon*, from here; h. **HARASS**, from Old French *hare*, call used to set dogs on, from Frankish **\*hara**, over here, over there, alteration (perhaps influenced by **\*dara**, thither) of earlier **\*hera** (compare Old High German *hera*, hither); a-h all from Germanic **\*hi-**. **2.** Suffixed form **\*ki-tro-**. **HITHER**, from Old English *hider*, hither, from Germanic **\*hi-thra-**. **3.** Suffixed form **\*ki-s**. **CIS-**, from Latin *cis*, on this side of. II. Variant form **\*ke-**. **1.** Preposed in **\*ke-etero-** (**\*e-tero-**, a second time, again; see **i-**). **ET CETERA**, from Latin *cēterus* (neuter plural *cetera*), the other part, that which remains. **2.** Postposed in Latin **-ce** (see **gho-**, **nu-**). III. Attributed by some to this root (but more likely of obscure origin) is Germanic **\*hind-**, behind. **1.** **BEHIND, HIND¹**, from Old English *behindan*, in the rear, behind (*bi*, at; see **ambhi**). **2.** **HINTERLAND**, from Old High German *hintar*, behind. **3.** **HINDER¹, HINDRANCE**, from Old English *hindrian*, to check, hinder, from Germanic derivative verb **\*hindrōn**, to keep back. [Pokorny 1. **ko-** 609.] **kō-** To sharpen, whet. (Oldest form **\*keh₃-**, colored to **\*koh₃-**, contracted to **\*kō-**.) **1.** Suffixed extended form **\*kōəi-no-**. **HONE¹**, from Old English *hān*, stone, from Germanic **\*hainō**. **2.** Possibly Greek *kōnos*, cone, conical object (< “a sharp-pointed object”): **CONE, CONIC; CONIFER, CONODONT**. [Pokorny **kē(i)-** 541.] **-ko-** See **-(i)ko-**. **kob-** To suit, fit, succeed. **HAP, HAPPEN, HAPPY; HAPLESS, MISHAP**, from Old Norse *happ*, chance, good luck, from Germanic **\*hap-**. [Pokorny **kob-** 610.] **koksā-** Body part; hip, thigh. **COXA, CUISSE, CUSHION**, from Latin *coxa*, hip. [Pokorny **koksā** 611.] **kolə-mo-** Grass, reed. (Oldest form **\*kolh₂-mo-**.) **1.** a. **HAULM**, from Old English *healm*, halm, straw. b. **MARRAM GRASS**, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse *marálmr*, beach grass, from *hálmr*, straw (*marr*, sea; see **mori-**). Both a and b from Germanic **\*halmaz**. **2.** **CULM¹**, from Latin *culmus*, stalk. **3.** Zero-grade form **\*kḷə-mo-**. **CALAMARI, CALAMITE, CALAMUS, CALUMET, CARAMEL, SHAWM**, from Greek *kalamos*, a reed, straw. [Pokorny **koləmo-s** 612.] **kom** Beside, near, by, with. **1.** a. **ENOUGH, GEMOT, HANDIWORK, WITENAGEMOT, YCLEPT, YEAN**, from Old English *ge-*, with, also participial, collective, and intensive prefix; b. **GEBRAUCHSMUSIK, GEMÜTLICH, GEMÜTLICHKEIT**, from Old High German *gi-*, abstract, collective, and intensive prefix. c. **GIBLETS**, from Germanic **\*ga-baiti-** (see **bheid-**). a-c from Germanic **\*ga-**, together, with (collective and intensive prefix and marker of the past participle). **2.** **CUM¹; COONCAN**, from Latin *cum*, *co-*, with. **3.** **CO-, COM-**, from Latin **com-**, with (collective and intensive prefix). **4.** British Celtic **\*kom-**, collective prefix, in compound **\*kombrogos** (see **merg-**). **5.** Suffixed form **\*kom-trā-**. **CON¹, CONTRA-, CONTRARY, COUNTER, COUNTER-, COUNTRY; ENCOUNTER**, from Latin *contrā*, against, opposite. **6.** Suffixed form **\*kom-yo-**. **COENO-; CENOBITE, EPICENE, KOINE**, from Greek *koinos*, common, shared. **7.** Reduced form **\*ko-** in compounds (see **gher-** ¹, **mei-** ¹, **smei-**). [Pokorny **kom** 612.] **konə-mo-** Shin, leg, bone. (Oldest form **\*konh₂-mo-**.) **1.** **HAM**, from Old English *hamm*, ham, thigh, from Germanic **\*hamma-** (assimilated from **\*hanma-**). **2.** <45> Zero-grade form **\*knā-mā-**. **GASTROCNEMIUS**, from Greek *knēmē*, calf of the leg. [Pokorny **konəmo-** 613.] **konk-** To hang. (Oldest form **\*konk-**.) **1.** a. **HANG**, from Old English *hōn*, to hang; b. **HANKER**, from Dutch (dialectal) *hankeren*, to long for; c. **HINGE**, from Middle English *henge*, hinge, possibly related (ultimately from the base of Old English *hangian*, to hang). a-c all from Germanic **\*hanhan** (transitive), **\*hangēn** (intransitive), hang. **2.** Suffixed form **\*konk-i-t-ā-**. **CUNCTATION**, from Latin *cūnctārī*, to delay. [Pokorny **kenk-** 566, **konk-** 614.] **ko(n)kho-** Possible word for mussel, shellfish. **1.** **COCKLE¹, CONCH, CONCHA, CONCHO-**, from Greek *konkhē*, *konkhos*, mussel, conch. **2.** **COCHLEA**, from Greek *kokhlos*, land snail. [Pokorny **ko(n)kho-** 614.] **kop-** To beat, strike. **1.** Suffixed form **\*kop-yo-**. **APOCOPE, SARCOPTIC MANGE, SYNCOPE**, from Greek *koptein*, to strike. **2.** Suffixed form **\*kop-mņ**. **COMMA**, from Greek *komma*, piece cut off, short clause. **3.** Suffixed form **\*kop-yā-**. a. **PIOLET**, from Old Provençal *apcha*, small ax, from a Germanic source akin to Old High German *hāppa*, sickle; b. **HASH¹, HATCHET; NUTHATCH, QUEBRACHO**, from Medieval Latin *hapia*, ax, and Old French *hache*, small ax. Both a and b from Germanic **\*hapjō**. **4.** Suffixed lengthened-grade form **\*kōp-əo-**. **HOOF**, from Old English *hōf*, hoof, from Germanic **\*hōfaz**. **5.** **KOPEK**, from Middle Russian *kop’ë*, spear from *kopat’*, to hack. [Pokorny **kap-** 530.] **kormo-** Pain. **HARM**, from Old English *hearm*, harm, from Germanic **\*harmaz**. [Pokorny **kormo-** 615.] **koro-** War; also war-band, host, army. **1.** **HERIOT**, from Old English *here*, army, also in personal names (see **albho-**). **2.** Old High German *heri*, army, in personal names (see **bherəg-**, **man-** ¹, **wal-**). **3.** **ARRIÈRE-BAN**, from Old French *herban*, a summoning to military service (*ban*, proclamation, summons; see **bhā-** ²). **4.** a. **HARBOR**, from Old English *herebeorg*, lodging; b. **HARBINGER**, from Old French *herberge*, lodging. Both a and b from Germanic compound **\*harja-bergaz**, “army hill,” hill-fort, later shelter, lodging, army quarters (**\*bergaz**, hill; see **bhergh-** ²). **5.** a. **HERALD**, from Anglo-Norman *herald*, herald; b. **HAROLD** (personal name), from Old Norse *Haraldr*. Both a and b from Germanic compound **\*harja-waldaz**, “army commander” (**\*wald-**, rule, power; see **wal-**). **6.** **HARNESS**, from Old French *harneis*, harness, from Germanic compound **\*harja-nestam**, “army provisions” (**\*nestam**, food for a journey; see **nes-** ¹). **7.** **HARRY, HURRY**, from Old English *hergian*, to ravage, plunder, raid, from Germanic denominative **\*harjōn**. **8.** **HARANGUE**, from Old Italian *aringo*, *arringa*, public square, from Germanic compound **\*harihring**, assembly, “host- ring” (**\*hringaz**, ring; see **(s)ker-** ²). **1-8** all from Germanic **\*harjaz**, army. [Pokorny **koro-s** 615.] **koselo-** Hazel. **HAZEL**, from Old English *hæsel*, hazel, from Germanic **\*haselaz**. [Pokorny **kos(e)lo-** 616.] **kost-** Bone. Probably related to **ost-**. **COAST, COSTA, COSTARD, COSTREL, CUESTA, CUTLET; ACCOST, INTERCOSTAL, STERNOCOSTAL**, from Latin *costa*, rib, side. [Pokorny **kost-** 616.] **kous-** To hear. (Oldest form **\*h₂kous-**.) **1.** a. **HEAR**, from Old English *hīeran*, to hear; b. **HEARKEN**, from Old English *he(o)rcnian*, to hearken. Both a and b from Germanic **\*hauzjan**. **2.** Suffixed form **\*akous-yo-**. **ACOUSTIC**, from Greek *akouein*, to hear. [Pokorny 1. **keu-** 587.] **krāu-** To conceal, hide. (Oldest form **\*kreh₂u-** [colored to **\*krah₂u-**], with variant [metathesized] form **\*kreuh₂-**, whence zero-grade **\*kruh₂-**, contracted to **\*krū-**.) Suffixed extended variant form **\*krup-yo-**. **CRYPT, CRYPTIC, CRYPTO-, GROTESQUE, GROTTO, KRYPTON; APOCRYPHA, PHALLOCRYPT**, from Greek *kruptein*, to hide. [Pokorny **krā[u]-** 616.] **kred-** Framework, timberwork. Possible root. **ROOST**, from Old English *hrōst*, roost, from Germanic **\*hrō(d)-st-**. [Pokorny **kred-** 617.] **krei-** To sieve, discriminate, distinguish. **1.** Basic form with variant instrumental suffixes. a. Suffixed form **\*krei-tro-**. **RIDDLE¹**, from Old English *hridder*, *hriddel*, sieve, from Germanic **\*hridrā-**; b. suffixed form **\*krei-dhro-**. **CRIBRIFORM, GARBLE**, from Latin *cribrum*, sieve. **2.** Suffixed form **\*krei-men-**. a. **CRIME, CRIMINAL; RECRIMINATE**, from Latin *crīmen*, judgment, crime; b. **DISCRIMINATE**, from Latin *discrīmen*, distinction (*dis-*, apart). **3.** Suffixed zero-grade form **\*kri-no-**. **CERTAIN; ASCERTAIN, CONCERN, CONCERT, DECREE, DISCERN, DISCONCERT, DISCREET, DISCRETE, EXCREMENT, EXCRETE, INCERTITUDE, RECREMENT, SECERN, SECRET, SECRETARY**, from Latin *cernere* (past participle *crētus*), to sift, separate, decide. **4.** Suffixed zero-grade form **\*kri-n-yo-**. **CRISIS, CRITIC, CRITERION; APOCRINE, DIACRITIC, ECCRINE, ENDOCRINE, EPICRITIC, EXOCRINE, HEMATOCRIT, HYPOCRISY, PARACRINE**, from Greek *krinein*, to separate, decide, judge, and *krīnesthai*, to explain. [Pokorny 4. **sker-**, Section II. 945.] **kreiə-** To be outstanding, brilliant, masterly, beautiful. Greek and Indo-Iranian root. (Oldest form **\*kreih₁-**.) **1.** Suffixed form **\*kreiə-on(t)-** in Greek personal names. **CREON; ANACREON**, from Greek *Kreiōn*, *Kreōn*, ruler, master, and *Anakreōn*, “up-lord” (*ana-*, up; see **an**). **2.** Zero-grade form **\*kri-** (< **\*kriə-**). **SRI**, from Sanskrit *śrī-*, beauty, also used as honorific prefix in proper names: a. **CEYLON, SRI LANKA**, from Sanskrit *Śrī Laṅkā* (> Ceylon via Portuguese; *Laṅkā*, older name for Sri Lanka and its chief city); b. **SRINAGAR**, from Sanskrit *Śrīnagaram*, splendid city (*nagaram*, city). [Pokorny **krei-** 618.] **krek-** ¹ To weave, beat. **1.** **REEL¹**, from Old English *hrēol*, reel, spool for winding cord, from Germanic **\*hreh-ulaz**. **2.** Suffixed o-grade form **\*krok-u-**. **CROCIDOLITE**, from Greek *krokus*, nap of cloth. [Pokorny 1. **krek-** 618.] **krek-** ² Frog spawn, fish eggs. **ROE¹**, from Middle English *row*, *roe*, from Germanic **\*hrog-**. [Pokorny 2. **krek-** 619.] **krem-** Wild garlic, onion. O-grade form **\*krom-**. **RAMP³, RAMPS, RAMSON**, from Old English *hramsa*, onion, garlic, from Germanic **\*hram-**. [Pokorny **(kerem-)** 580.] **kremə-** To be suspended. (Oldest form **\*kremh₂-**.) Suffixed form **\*kremə-s-**. **ASHRAM**, from Sanskrit *śramati*, he is weary. [Not in Pokorny; compare Greek *kreman*, to hang (semantic connection with the Sanskrit unclear).] **kret-** ¹ To shake. O-grade form **\*krot-**. **RATHE, RATHER; RARERIPE**, from Old English *hræth(e)*, nimble, quick, prompt, ready, from Germanic **\*hratha-**, swift, nimble. [Pokorny 1. **kret-** 620.] **kret-** ² To beat. (Perhaps ultimately identical with **kret-** ¹, to shake.) O-grade form **\*krot-**. **CROTAL BELL, CROTOXIN, DICROTISM, TRICROTISM**, from Greek *krotein*, to strike, beat. [Pokorny 2. **kret-** 621.] **kreuə-** ¹ Raw flesh. (Oldest form **\*kreuh₂-**.) **1.** Suffixed o-grade form **\*krowə-o-**. **RAW**, from Old English *hrēaw*, raw, from Germanic **\*hrawaz**. **2.** Suffixed form **\*krewə-s-**. **CREATINE, CREODONT, CREOSOTE, PANCREAS**, from Greek *kreas*, flesh. **3.** Suffixed zero-grade form **\*krū-do-** (< **\*kruə-do-**). a. **CRUDE; ECRU, RECRUDESCE**, from Latin *crūdus*, bloody, raw; b. **CRUEL**, from Latin *crūdēlis*, cruel. [Pokorny 1. A. **kreu-** 621.] **kreuə-** ² To push, strike. **1.** **RUE², RUTH**, from Old English *hrēowan*, to distress, grieve, from Germanic **\*hrewwan**. **2.** Extended o-grade form **\*krous-**. **ANACRUSIS**, from Greek *krouein*, to strike. [Pokorny 3. **kreu-** 622.] **kreus-** To begin to freeze, form a crust. **1.** Suffixed zero-grade form **\*krus-to-**. a. **CROUTON, CRUST, CRUSTACEAN, CRUSTACEOUS, CRUSTOSE; ENCRUST**, from Latin <46> *crusta*, crust; b. **CRYSTAL, CRYSTALLINE, CRYSTALLO-; KRISTALLNACHT**, from Greek *krustallos*, ice, crystal. **2.** Suffixed zero-grade form **\*krus-es-**. **CRYO-**, from Greek *kruos*, icy cold, frost. **3.** Suffixed zero-grade form **\*krus-mo-**. **CRYMOTHERAPY**, from Greek *krūmos*, icy cold, frost. [Pokorny 1. B. **kreu-** 621.] **kreut-** Reed. **REED**, from Old English *hrēod*, reed, from Germanic **\*hreudam**. [Pokorny **kreu-t-** 623.] **krōpo-** Roof. (Oldest form **\*krōpo-**.) **ROOF**, from Old English *hrōf*, roof, from Germanic **\*hrōfam**. [Pokorny **krāpo-** 616.] **krut-** Musical instrument. **1.** **ROTE³**, from Old French *rote*, a stringed instrument, from Germanic **\*hrut-**. **2.** Geminated form **\*kruttā-**. **CROWD²**, from Welsh *crwth*, an ancient Celtic musical instrument. [Pokorny **krŭt-** 624.] **ksero-** Dry. (Oldest form **\*ksero-**.) **1.** Lengthened-grade form **\*ksēro-**. **XERO-; ELIXIR, PHYLLOXERA**, from Greek *xēros*, dry. **2.** Perhaps suffixed variant form **\*kseres-no-**. **SERENE**, from Latin *serēnus*, serene, bright, clear. [Pokorny **kse-ro-** 625.] **ksun** Preposition and preverb meaning “with.” **1.** **SYN-**, from Greek *sun*, *xun*, together, with. **2.** Reduced form **\*su(n)-**. a. **SOVIET**, from Old Russian compound *sŭvětŭ*, assembly; b. **SPUTNIK**, from Russian *so-*, *s-*, with, together. a and b from Old Russian **\*sŭ(n)-**, with, together. [In Pokorny 2. **sem-** 902.] **kwas-** To kiss. Zero-grade form **\*kus-**. **KISS**, from Old English *cyssan*, to kiss, from Germanic **\*kussjan**, to kiss, denominative from **\*kussaz**, a kiss (with expressive gemination). [Pokorny **ku-** 626.] **kwat-** To ferment, be sour. Possible root. Suffixed variant form **\*kwat-so-**. **KVASS**, from Russian *kvas*, from Slavic **\*kvasŭ**. [Pokorny **kuat(h)-** 627.] **kwe** And (enclitic). **SESQUI-, UBIQUITY**, from Latin *-que*, and, generalizing particle. [Pokorny 1. **kwe** 635.] **kwed** To sharpen. **1.** **WHET**, from Old English *hwettan*, to whet, from Germanic **\*hwatjan**. **2.** **TRIQUETRA, TRIQUETROUS, TRIQUETRUM**, from Latin *triquetrus*, three-cornered, probably from prefixed and suffixed form **\*tri-kwed-ro-**, “having three points” (**\*tri-**, three; see **trei-**). [Pokorny **ked-** 636.] **kwei-** To hiss, whistle. Imitative root. **1.** a. **WHINE**, from Old English *hwīnan*, to whine, from Germanic suffixed form **\*hwī-n-**; b. **WHINGE**, from Old English *hwinsian*, to complain, whine, from Germanic **\*hwinisōn**. **2.** a. **WHISPER**, from Old English *hwisprian*, to whisper; b. **WHISTLE**, from Old English *hwistlian*, to whistle. Both a and b from Germanic extended form **\*hwis-**. [Pokorny 2. **kuei-** 628.] **kʷei-** ¹ To pay, atone, compensate. Suffixed o-grade form **\*kʷoi-nā-**. **PAIN, PENAL, PENALTY, PINE¹, PUNISH; IMPUNITY, PENOLOGY, PUNITORY, REPINE, SUBPOENA**, from Greek *poinē*, fine, penalty. [Pokorny 1. **kʷei-(t-)** 636.] **kʷei-** ² To pile up, build, make. O-grade form **\*kʷoi-**. **1.** **CHEETAH**, from Sanskrit *kāyaḥ*, body. **2.** suffixed form **\*kʷoi-wo-**, making, in denominative verb **\*kʷoiw-eyo-**. **POEM, POESY, POET, POETIC, -POIESIS, -POIETIC; EPOPEE, MYTHOPOEIC, ONOMATOPOEIA, PHARMACOPOEIA**, from Greek *poiein*, to make, create. [Pokorny 2. **kuei-** 637.] **kʷei-** ³ To perceive, observe, with derivatives referring to the acts of valuing and honoring. **1.** Extended root form **\*kʷei-ə-** in zero-grade suffixed form **\*kʷi-mā-** (< **\*kʷiə-mā-**). **TIMOCRACY**, from Greek *tīmē*, honor, worth. **2.** Extended root form **\*kʷei-s-** in zero-grade suffixed form **\*kʷoi-s-ā-**. **CURATE, CURATOR, CURE, CURETTE, CURIO, CURIOUS; ACCURATE, ASSURE, ENSURE, INSURE, MANICURE, PEDICURE, POCOCURANTE, PROCTOR, PROCURATOR, PROCURE, PROXY, SCOUR¹, SECURE, SINECURE, SURE**, from Latin noun *cūra* (Archaic Latin *coisā-*), care, with derived verb *cūrāre*, to care for (for the semantics, compare Avestan *čoiš-*, *čiš-*, to assign, determine, and *tkaēša-*, doctrine < “that which has been determined”). **3.** Perhaps Hindi and Urdu *ciṭṭhī*, note, letter, bill, probably ultimately from an unattested Indic past participial form **\*ciṣṭa-** (? “noted, observed, determined”) akin to Avestan *kaēš-*, *čiš-*, to determine, assign (see above): **CHIT¹**. [In Pokorny 1. **kʷei-(t-)** 636.] **kʷeiə-** To rest, be quiet. (Oldest form **\*kʷeih₁-**, with variant [metathesized] form **\*kʷyeh₁-**, contracted to **\*kʷye-**.) I. Suffixed zero-grade form **\*kʷī-lo-** (< **\*kʷiə-lo-**). **1.** a. **WHILE**, from Old English *hwīl*, while; b. **WHILOM**, from Old English *hwīlum*, sometimes. Both a and b from Germanic **\*hwīlō**. **2.** Possibly Latin *tranquillus*, tranquil (*trāns*, across, beyond; see **terə-** ²): **TRANQUIL**. II. Variant form **\*kʷye-** (< **\*kʷyeə-**). **1.** Suffixed form **\*kʷye-t-**. **REQUIEM**, from Latin *quiēs*, rest, quiet. **2.** Suffixed form **\*kʷye-ske-**. **COY, QUIET, QUIT; ACQUIESCE, ACQUIT, QUITCLAIM, QUITE, QUITRENT, REQUIESCAT**, from Latin *quiēscere* (past participle *quiētus*), to rest. [Pokorny **kʷeiə-** 638.] **kweit-** Also **kweid-**. White; to shine. (Oldest forms **\*kweit-**, **\*kweid-**.) **1.** Suffixed variant form **\*kweid-o-**. a. **WHITE; WHITSUNDAY**, from Old English *hwīt*, white; b. **WITLOOF**, from Middle Dutch *wit*, white; c. **WHITING²**, from Middle Dutch *wijting*, whiting; d. (i) **EDELWEISS**, from Old High German *hwīz*, *wīz*, white; (ii) **BISMUTH**, from obsolete German *Wismuth*, *Bismuth* (Modern German *Wismut*), perhaps obscurely related to Old High German *wīz*, white. a-d all from Germanic **\*hwītaz**. **2.** Suffixed o-grade variant form **\*kwoid-yo-**. **WHEAT**, from Old English *hwǣte*, wheat (from the fine white flour it yields), from Germanic **\*hwaitjaz**. [Pokorny 3. **kuei-** 628.] **kwek-** Also **kweg-**. To appear, see, show. (Oldest forms **\*kʷek-**, **\*kʷeg-**.) Variant form **\*kʷeg-**. **UKASE**, from Russian *ukazat’*, to order, from Slavic **\*kaz-**. [Pokorny **kek-** 638.] **kʷel-** ¹ Also **kʷelə-**. I. Basic form **\*kʷel-**. **COLONIA, COLONY, CULT, CULTIVATE, CULTURE, KULTUR; INCULT, INQUILINE, SILVICOLOUS**, from Latin *colere*, to till, cultivate, inhabit (< **\*kʷel-o-**). II. Suffixed form **\*kʷel-es-**. **TELIC, TELIUM, TELO-, TELOS; ENTELECHY, TALISMAN, TELEOLOGY, TELEOST, TELEUTOSPORE**, from Greek *telos*, “completion of a cycle,” consummation, perfection, end, result. III. Suffixed reduplicated form **\*kʷ(e)-kl-o-**, wheel, circle. **1.** **WHEEL**, from Old English *hwēol*, *hwēogol*, wheel, from Germanic **\*hwewlaz**. **2.** **CYCLE, CYCLO-, CYCLOID, CYCLONE, CYCLOSIS; BICYCLE, ENCYCLICAL, EPICYCLE**, from Greek *kuklos*, circle, wheel. **3.** **CHAKRA, CHAKRAM, CHUKKER**, from Sanskrit *cakram*, circle, wheel. **4.** Metathesized form **\*kʷe-lk-o-**. **CHARKHA**, from Old Persian **\*čarka-**, wheel. IV. O-grade form **\*kʷol-**. **1.** Suffixed form **\*kʷol-so-**, “that on which the head turns,” neck. a. (i) **HAWSE**, from Old Norse *hals*, neck, ship’s bow; (ii) **RINGHALS**, from Middle Dutch *hals*, neck; (iii) **HABERGEON, HAUBERK**, from Old French *hauberc*, hauberk, from Germanic compound **\*h(w)als-berg-**, “neck- protector,” gorget (**\*bergan**, to protect; see **bhergh-** ¹). (i)-(iii) all from Germanic **\*h(w)alsaz**; b. **COL, COLLAR, COLLET, CULLET; ACCOLADE, DECOLLATE, DÉCOLLETÉ, MACHICOLATE, TORTICOLLIS**, from Latin *collum*, neck. **2.** Suffixed form **\*kʷol-ə-**. **-COLOUS; PRATINCOLE**, from Latin *-cola* and *incola*, inhabitant (*in-*, in; see **en**). **3.** Suffixed form **\*kʷol-o-**. a. **ANCILLARY**, from Latin *anculus*, “he who bustles about,” servant (*an-*, short for **ambi-**, around, about; see **ambhi**); b. **POLE¹, PULLEY**, from Greek *polos*, axis of a sphere; c. **BUCOLIC**, from Greek *boukolos*, cowherd, from *-kolos*, herdsman. **4.** Suffixed form **\*kʷol-es-** (probably a blend of o-grade **\*kʷol-o-** and expected e-grade **\*kʷel-es-**). **CALASH, KOLACKY**, from Slavic **\*kolo**, **\*koles-**, wheel. **5.** Suffixed <47> o-grade form **\*kʷol-eno-** in Old Iranian compound **\*vahā-cārana-** (see **wes-** ¹). V. Suffixed zero-grade variant form **\*kʷlā-i-**. **PALIMPSEST, PALINDROME, PALINGENESIS, PALINODE**, from Greek *palin*, again (< “revolving”). [Pokorny 1. **kʷel-** 639.] **kʷel-** ² Far (in space and time). **1.** Lengthened-grade form **\*kʷēl-**. **TELE-**, from Greek *tēle*, far off. **2.** Suffixed zero-grade form **\*kʷəl-ai**. **PALEO-**, from Greek *palai*, long ago. [Pokorny 2. **kʷel-** 640.] **kʷelp-** To arch. **1.** **WHELM**, from Old English **\*hwel-fan**, *hwylfan*, with parallel form **\*hwelman** (> Middle English *whelmen*), to turn over, from Germanic **\*hwalbjan**. **2.** Suffixed o-grade form **\*kʷolp-o-**. **GULF; COLPITIS, COLPOSCOPE, COLPOSCOPY**, from Greek *kolpos*, bosom, womb, vagina. [Pokorny 2. **kuelp-** 630.] **kʷen-** Holy. (Oldest form **\*kʷen-**.) Suffixed zero-grade form **\*kʷn-slo-**. **HOUSEL**, from Old English *hūsl*, *hūsel*, sacrifice, Eucharist, from Germanic **\*hunslam**. [Pokorny **kuen-** 630.] **kʷent(h)-** To suffer. **1.** Suffixed form **\*kʷenth-es-**. **NEPENTHE**, from Greek *penthos*, grief. **2.** Zero-grade form **\*kʷnth-**. **PATHETIC, PATHIC, PATHO-, PATHOS, -PATHY; APATHY, PATHOGNOMONIC, SYMPATHY**, from Greek *pathos*, suffering, passion, emotion, feelings. [Pokorny **kʷenth-** 641.] **kʷēp-** To smoke, cook, move violently, be agitated emotionally. Hypothetical base of possibly related words; root form uncertain. **1.** Suffixed variant form **\*kup-yo-**. **COVET, CUPID, CUPIDITY; CONCUPISCENCE**, from Latin *cupere*, to desire. **2.** Zero-grade form **\*kʷap-**, becoming **\*kwap-**, possibly in: a. **VAPOR; EVAPORATE**, from Latin *vapor*, steam, vapor; b. **VAPID**, from Latin *vapidus*, that has emitted steam or lost its vapor, flat, poor; c. **ACAPNIA**, from Greek *kapnos*, smoke. [Pokorny **(keuəp-)** 596.] **kʷer** To make. **1.** **NAMASKAR, PRAKRIT, PUGGREE, SANSKRIT**, from Sanskrit *karoti*, he makes. **2.** Suffixed form **\*kʷer-ōr** with dissimilated form **\*kʷel-ōr**. **PELORIA**, from Greek *pelōr*, monster (perhaps “that which does harm”). **3.** Suffixed form **\*kʷer-as-**. **TERA-, TERATO-**, from Greek *teras*, monster. **4.** Suffixed form **\*kʷer-mņ**. **KARMA**, from Sanskrit *karma*, act, deed. **5.** Suffixed form **\*kʷer-o-**. **LASCAR**, from Middle Persian *laškar*, army, from Old Iranian **\*-kara-** in compound **\*raxša-kara-** “furnishing protection” (**\*raxša-**, protection; see **lek(s)-**). [Pokorny 1. **kuer-** 641.] **kʷes-** To pant, wheeze. (Oldest form **\*kʷes-**.) **1.** **WHEEZE**, from Old Norse *hvǣsa*, to hiss, from Germanic **\*hwēsjan**. **2.** **QUARREL¹, QUERULOUS**, from Latin *querī*, to complain. **3.** Suffixed zero-grade form **\*kus-ti-**. **CYST, CYSTO-**, from Greek *kustis*, bladder, bag (< “bellows”). [Pokorny **kues-** 631.] **kʷet-** To shake. (Contracted from earlier **\*kʷeh₁t-**.) Zero-grade form **\*kʷat-**, becoming **\*kʷat-**. **1.** **CASK; CASCARA BUCKTHORN, CASCARA SAGRADA, CONCUSS, DISCUSS, PERCUSS, RESCUE, SCUTCH, SOUKOUS, SQUASH², SUCCUSSION**, from Latin *quatere* (past participle *quassus*, in composition *-cussus*), to shake, strike. **2.** **PASTA, PASTE¹, PASTEL, PASTICHE, PASTIS, PASTRY, PATÉ, PATISSERIE, PATTY**, from Greek *passein*, to sprinkle. [Pokorny **kuēt-** 632.] **kʷetwer-** Four. I. O-grade form **\*kʷetwor-**. **1.** Probably Germanic **\*fe(d)wor-** (with *f-* from following numeral **\*fimf**, five; see **penkʷe**). a. **FOUR**, from Old English *fēower*, four; b. **FORTY**, from Old English *fēowertig*, forty; c. **FOURTEEN; FORTNIGHT**, from Old English *fēowertēne*, fourteen (**-tēne**, ten; see **dekm**). **2.** **QUATRAIN; CATER-CORNERED, QUATTROCENTO**, from Latin *quattuor*, four. **3.** **CZARDAS**, from Persian *čahār*, four, from Old Iranian *čathwārō*, four. II. Multiplicatives **\*kʷeturs**, **\*kʷetrus**, and combining forms **\*kʷetur-**, **\*kʷetru-**. **1.** **CAHIER, CARILLON, CARNET, CASERN, QUATERNARY, QUATERNION, QUIRE¹**, from Latin *quater*, four times. **2.** **CADRE, QUADRATE, QUADRILLE, QUARREL², QUARRY²; ESCADRILLE, SQUAD, SQUARE, TROCAR**, from Latin *quadrum*, square. **3.** **QUADRI-; UNUNQUADIUM**, from Latin *quadri-*, four. **4.** **QUADRANT**, from Latin *quadrāns*, a fourth part. **5.** **QUARANTINE**, from Latin *quadrāgintā*, forty (**-gintā**, ten times; see **dekm̥**). **6.** **QUADRICENTENARY**, from Latin *quadri(n)gentī*, four hundred. **7.** Variant form **\*kʷet(w)r-**. a. **TETRA-**, from Greek *tetra-*, four; b. **TESSERA; DIATESSARON**, from Greek *tessares*, *tettares*, four; c. **TETRAD**, from Greek *tetras*, group of four; d. zero-grade form **\*kʷt(w)-**. **TRAPEZIUM**, from Greek *tra-*, four. III. Ordinal adjective **\*kʷetur-to-**. **1.** a. **FOURTH**, from Old English *fēorþa*, *fēowerþa*, fourth; b. **FIRKIN**, from Middle Dutch *veerde*, fourth; c. **FARTHING**, from Old English *fēorþing*, *fēorþung*, fourth part of a penny; a-c all from Germanic **\*fe(d)worþon-**. **2.** **QUADRILLE, QUADROON, QUART, QUARTAN, QUARTER, QUARTO; ÉCARTÉ**, from Latin *quārtus*, fourth, quarter. [Pokorny **kʷetuer-** 642.] **kʷezd-** A part, piece. **PATCH², PIECE; APIECE, CODPIECE, PIECEMEAL**, from Old French *pece*, *piece*, piece, from Gaulish **\*petssi**, from Celtic suffixed form **\*kʷezd-i-**. [Not in Pokorny; compare Russian *chast’*, part (< Slavic **\*čęsti** < earlier nasalized form **\*kʷe-n-zd-**).] **kʷo-** Also **kʷi-**. Stem of relative and interrogative pronouns. **1.** a. **WHO, WHOSE, WHOM**, from Old English *hwā*, *hwæs*, *hwām*, who, whose, whom, from Germanic personal pronouns **\*hwas**, **\*hwasa**, **\*hwam**; b. **WHAT**, from Old English *hwæt*, what, from Germanic pronoun **\*hwat**; c. **WHY**, from Old English *hwȳ*, why, from Germanic adverb **\*hwī**; d. **WHICH**, from Old English *hwilc*, *hwelc*, which, from Germanic relative pronoun **\*hwa-līk-** (**\*līk-**, body, form; see **līk-**); e. **HOW**, from Old English *hū*, how, from Germanic adverb **\*hwō**; f. (i) **WHEN**, from Old English *hwenne*, *hwanne*, when; (ii) **WHENCE**, from Old English *hwanon*, whence. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic adverb **\*hwan-**; g. **WHITHER**, from Old English *hwider*, whither, from Germanic adverb **\*hwiþrē**; h. **WHERE**, from Old English *hwǣr*, where, from Germanic adverb **\*hwar-**. a-h all from Germanic **\*hwa-**, **\*hwi-**. **2.** a. **WHETHER; NEITHER**, from Old English *hwæþer*, *hweþer*, which of two, whether; b. **EITHER**, from Old English *ǣghwæþer*, *ǣgþer*, either, from Germanic phrase **\*aiwō gi-hwaþaraz**, “ever each of two” (**\*aiwō**, **\*aiwi**, ever, and **\*gi-** from **\*ga-**, collective prefix; see **aiw-** and **kom**). Both a and b from Germanic **\*hwaþaraz**. **3.** **QUA, QUIBBLE, QUORUM**, from Latin *qui*, who. **4.** **HIDALGO, QUIDDITY, QUIDNUNC, QUIP; KICKSHAW**, from Latin *quid*, what, something. **5.** **QUASI**, from Latin *quasi*, as if (< *quam* + *sī*, if; see **swo-**), from *quam*, as, than, how. **6.** **QUODLIBET**, from Latin *quod*, what. **7.** Suffixed form **\*kʷo-ti**. a. **QUOTE, QUOTIDIAN, QUOTIENT; ALIQUOT**, from Latin *quot*, how many; b. further suffixed form **\*kʷo-ty-o-**. **POSOLOGY**, from Greek *posos*, how much. **8.** **QUONDAM**, from Latin *quom*, when. **9.** **COONCAN**, from Latin *quem*, whom. **10.** **QUANTITY**, from Latin *quantus*, how great. **11.** **QUALITY; KICKSHAW**, from Latin *quālis*, of what kind. **12.** **CUE²**, from Latin *quandō*, when (from **\*kʷām** + **-dō**, to, till; see **de-**). **13.** **NEUTER**, from Latin *uter*, either of two, ultimately from **\*kʷo-tero-** (becoming *-cuter* in such compounds as *necuter*, neither, from which *uter* was abstracted out by false segmentation). **14.** **UBIQUITY**, from Latin *ubi*, where, ultimately from locative case **\*kʷo-bhi** (becoming *-cubi* in such compounds as *alicubi*, somewhere, from which *ubi* was abstracted out by false segmentation, perhaps under the influence of *ibi*, there). **15.** **CHEESE³**, from Old Persian **\*čiš-čiy**, something (< **\*kid-kid**). [Pokorny **kʷo-** 644.] **kʷon-** Dog. (Oldest form **\*kʷon-**.) **1.** **CYNIC; CYNOSURE, PROCYON, QUINSY**, from Greek *kuōn*, dog. **2.** Suffixed zero-grade form **\*kʷn-to-**. a. **HOUND**, from Old English *hund*, dog; b. **DACHSHUND**, from Old <48> High German *hunt*, dog; c. **KEESHOND**, from Middle Dutch *hond*, dog. a-c all from Germanic **\*hundaz**. **3.** Nominative form **\*kʷō**. **CORGI**, from Welsh *ci*, dog. **4.** Variant **\*kan-i-**. **CANAILLE, CANARY, CANICULAR, CANINE, CHENILLE, KENNEL¹**, from Latin *canis*, dog. [Pokorny **kʷon-** 632.] **kʷrep-** Body, form, appearance. Probably a verbal root meaning “to appear.” **1.** Suffixed form **\*kʷrep-es-**. **MIDRIFF**, from Old English *hrif*, belly from Germanic **\*hrefiz-**. **2.** Suffixed zero-grade form **\*kʷrp-es-**. **CORPORAL¹, CORPORAL², CORPORATE, CORPOREAL, CORPOSANT, CORPS, CORPSE, CORPULENCE, CORPUS, CORPUSCLE, CORSAGE, CORSE, CORSET; LEPRECHAUN**, from Latin *corpus*, body, substance. [Pokorny 1. **krep-** 620.] **kʷr̥mi-** Worm. Rhyme word to **\*wr̥mi-**, worm (see **wer-** ³). **CARMINE, CRIMSON, KERMES**, from Arabic *qirmiz*, kermes, borrowed from Sanskrit compound *kṛmi-ja-*, “(red dye) produced by worms” (**-ja-**, produced; see **genə-**), from *kṛmi-*, worm. [Pokorny **kʷr̥mi-** 649.] **lab-** Lapping, smacking the lips; to lick. Variant of **leb-** ². **1.** **LAP³**, from Old English *lapian*, to lap up, from Germanic **\*lapjan**. **2.** Nasalized form **\*la-m-b-**. a. **LAMPOON**, from French *lamper*, to gulp down, from Germanic **\*lamp-**; b. **LAMBENT**, from Latin *lambere*, to lick. [Pokorny **lab-** 651.] **lādh-** To be hidden. (Oldest form **\*leh₂dh-**, colored to **\*lah₂dh-**, contracted to **\*lādh-**.) **1.** **LETHE; LETHARGY**, from Greek *lēthē*, forgetfulness. **2.** Zero-grade form **\*ladh-** becoming **\*lađ-**, with nasalized form **\*lanđh-**. **LANTHANUM; ALASTOR**, from Greek *lanthanein* (aorist *lathein*), to escape the notice of, with middle voice *lanthanesthai*, to forget. **3.** Suffixed (stative) variant form **\*lat-ē-**. **LATENT**, from Latin *latēre*, to lie hidden. [In Pokorny 2. **lā-** 651.] **laiwo-** Left. **LEVO-; LEVOROTATION, LEVOROTATORY**, from Latin *laevus*, left. [Pokorny **laivo-** 652.] Language and Culture Note While the root for “right (hand),” **deks-**, has derivatives in most branches of the Indo-European family, the root **laiwo-**, “left (hand),” only shows up in Greek (*laios*), Latin (*laevus*), and Slavic (Russian *levyi*). The reason for this is likely that the left side has traditionally been considered inauspicious, and terms for “left” are subject to taboo replacement. Particularly common are various euphemisms. In Greek, instead of *laios* one often said *aristeros*, “the better one,” or *euōnumos*, “(the one) having a good name.” Latin *sinister*, “left,” may have been a euphemism originally, if (as some suppose) it is related to Sanskrit *sanīyān*, “more winning.” The Old Irish term for “left” has cognates in Latin and Germanic meaning “good, safe,” and in the Scandinavian languages, the words for “left” literally mean “friendlier, more desirable.” English *left*, however, is not a euphemistic expression—just the opposite: it comes from an Old English word meaning “useless, weak.” **laks-** Salmon. (Oldest form **\*laks-**.) Suffixed form **\*laks-o-**. **1.** **LOX¹**, from Old High German *lahs*, salmon. **2.** **GRAVLAX**, from Swedish *lax*, salmon. Both 1 and 2 from Germanic **\*lahsaz**. [In Pokorny **lak-** 653.] **laku-** Body of water, lake, sea. **1.** **LACUNA, LAGOON, LAKE¹**, from Latin *lacus*, lake, pond, basin. **2.** **LACCOLITH**, from Greek *lakkos*, cistern. **3.** O-grade form **\*loku-**. **LOCH, LOUGH**, from Old Irish *loch*, lake. [Pokorny **laku-** 653.] **lap-** To light, burn. Nasalized form **\*la-m-p-**. **LAMP, LANTERN; ECLAMPSIA**, from Greek *lampein*, to shine. [Pokorny **lā[i]p-** 652.] **las-** To be eager, wanton, or unruly. **1.** a. **LUST**, from Old English *lust*, lust; b. **WANDERLUST**, from Old High German *lust*, desire; c. **LIST³**, from Old English *lystan*, to please, satisfy a desire, from Germanic denominative verb **\*lustjan**. a-c all from suffixed Germanic zero-grade form **\*lustuz**. **2.** Suffixed form **\*las-ko-**. **LASCIVIOUS**, from Latin *lascīvus*, wanton, lustful. [Pokorny **las-** 654.] **lat-** Wet, moist. **LATEX**, from Latin *latex*, liquid. [Pokorny **lat-** 654.] **lau-** Gain, profit. (Oldest form **\*leh₂u-**. colored to **\*lah₂u-**, contracted to **\*lau-**.) **1.** Suffixed form **\*lau-no-**. **GUERDON**, from Old High German *lōn*, reward from Germanic **\*launam**. **2.** Suffixed zero-grade form **\*lu-tlo-**. **LUCRATIVE, LUCRE**, from Latin *lucrum*, gain, profit. [Pokorny **lāu-** 655.] **lē-** ¹ To get. (Contracted from earlier **\*leh₁-**.) Suffixed zero-grade form **\*lə-tr-**. **1.** **-LATRY**, from Greek *latreia*, service (for pay), duties, worship. **2.** **LARCENY**, from Latin *latrō*, robber, from a Greek source akin to Greek *latron*, pay. **3.** **IDOLATER**, from Greek *-latrēs*, worshiper. [Pokorny 2. **le(i)-** 665.] **lē-** ² To let go, slacken. (Contracted from earlier **\*leh₁-**.) I. Extended form **\*lēd-**. **1.** a. **LET¹**, from Old English *lǣtan*, to allow, leave undone, from Germanic **\*lētan**; b. **LIEGE; ALLEGIANCE**, from Late Latin *laetus*, semifree colonist, from Germanic derivative **\*lēthiga-**, freed. **2.** Zero-grade form **\*lad-**. a. **LATE, LATTER, LAST¹**, from Old English *læt*, late, with its comparative *lætra*, latter, and its superlative *latost*, last, from Germanic **\*lata-**; b. **LET²**, from Old English *lettan*, to hinder, impede (< “to make late”), from Germanic **\*latjan**; c. suffixed form **\*lad-to-**. **LASSITUDE; ALAS**, from Latin *lassus*, tired, weary. II. Suffixed basic form **\*lē-ni-**. **LENIENT, LENIS, LENITIVE, LENITY**, from Latin *lēnis*, soft, gentle. [Pokorny 3. **lē(i)-** 666.] **leb-** To lick; lip. **1.** **LIP**, from Old English *lippa*, lip, from Germanic **\*lep-**. **2.** Variant form **\*lab-**. a. Suffixed form **\*lab-yo-**. **LABIAL, LABIUM**, from Latin *labium*, lip; b. suffixed form **\*lab-ro-**. **LABELLUM, LABRET, LABRUM**, from Latin *labrum*, lip. [Pokorny **leb-** 655.] See also variant root **lab-**. **leg-** ¹ To collect; with derivatives meaning “to speak” (Oldest form **\*leĝ-**.) **1.** Perhaps Germanic **\*lēkjaz**, enchanter, one who speaks magic words. **LEECH¹**, from Old English *lǣce*, physician. **2.** **LECTERN, LECTION, LECTURE, LEGEND, LEGIBLE, LEGION, LESSON; COIL, COLLECT¹, DILIGENT, ELECT, FLORILEGIUM, INTELLIGENT, NEGLECT, PRELECT, SACRILEGE, SELECT, SORTILEGE**, from Latin *legere*, to gather, choose, pluck, read. **3.** **LEXICON, LOGION, LOGUE, -LOGY; ALEXIA, ANALECTS, ANTHOLOGY, CATALOG, DIALECT, DIALOGUE, DYSLEXIA, ECLECTIC, ECLOGITE, ECLOGUE, HOROLOGE, LECTOTYPE, PROLEGOMENON**, from Greek *legein*, to gather, speak, with o-grade derivative *logos*, a gathering, speech (see also 6 below for derivatives independently built to *logos*). **4.** Suffixed form **\*leg-no-**. **LIGNEOUS, LIGNI-**, from Latin *lignum*, wood, firewood (< “that which is gathered”). **5.** Possibly lengthened-grade form **\*lēg-**. a. **LEGAL, LEGIST, LEGITIMATE, LEX, LOYAL; LEGISLATOR, PRIVILEGE**, from Latin *lēx*, law (? < “collection of rules”); b. **LEGACY, LEGATE; COLLEAGUE, COLLEGIAL, DELEGATE, RELEGATE**, from Latin denominative *lēgāre*, to depute, commission, charge (< “to engage by contract”). (It is also possible, but uncertain, that Latin *lēx* comes, like English *law*, from a form meaning “that which is set or laid down,” from **legh-**.) **6.** Suffixed o-grade form **\*log-o-**. **LOGIC, LOGISTIC, LOGO-, LOGOS, -LOGY; ANALOGOUS, APOLOGUE, APOLOGY, DECALOGUE, EPILOGUE, HOMOLOGOUS, LOGARITHM, PARALOGISM, PROLOGUE, SYLLOGISM**, from Greek *logos*, speech, word, reason. [Pokorny **leĝ-** 658.] **leg-** ² To dribble, trickle. **1.** **LEAK; LITMUS**, from Middle English *leke*, a leak. **2.** **LACK**, from Middle English *lack*, deficiency. Both 1 and 2 from Germanic **\*lek-**. [Pokorny 1. **leg-** 657.] <49> **legh-** To lie, lay. **1.** Suffixed form **\*legh-yo-**. a. **LIE³**, from Old English *licgan*, to lie, from Germanic **\*ligjan**; b. (i) **LAY¹, LEDGE, LEDGER**, from Old English *lecgan*, to lay; (ii) **BELAY**, from Old English *belecgan*, to cover, surround (*be-*, over; see **ambhi**). Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic **\*lagjan**. **2.** Suffixed form **\*legh-ro-**. a. **LAIR**, from Old English *leger*, lair; b. **LEAGUER¹; BELEAGUER**, from Middle Dutch *leger*, lair, camp; c. **LAAGER, LAGER; LAGERSTÄTTE, STALAG**, from Old High German *legar*, bed, lair. a-c all from Germanic **\*legraz**. **3.** **LEES**, from Medieval Latin *lia*, sediment, from Celtic **\*leg-yā-**. **4.** Lengthened-grade form **\*lēgh-**. **LOW¹**, from Old Norse *lāgr*, low, from Germanic **\*lēga-**, “lying flat,” low. **5.** Suffixed form **\*legh-to-**. **COVERLET, LITTER; WAGON-LIT**, from Latin *lectus*, bed. **6.** Suffixed o-grade form **\*logh-o-**. a. **LAW; BYLAW, DANELAW**, from Old Norse **\*lagu**, *lag-*, law, “that which is set down”; b. **FELLOW**, from Old Norse *lag*, a laying down; c. **OUTLAW**, from Old Norse *lōg*, law; d. **ANLAGE, VORLAGE**, from Old High German *lāga*, act of laying. a-d all from Germanic **\*lagam**. **7.** **LAGAN**, from Old Norse *lǫgn*, dragnet (< “that which is laid down”), from Germanic **\*lag-inō-**. **8.** Suffixed o-grade form **\*logh-o-**. **LOCHIA**, from Greek *lokhos*, childbirth, place for lying in wait. [Pokorny **legh-** 658, 2. **lēĝh-** 660.] **legʷh-** Light, having little weight. **1.** Suffixed form **\*legʷh-t-**. a. **LIGHT²**, from Old English *līht*, *lēoht*, light; b. **LIGHTER²**, from Old English *līhtan*, to lighten. Both a and b from Germanic **\*līht(j)az**. **2.** Suffixed form **\*legʷh-wi-**. **LEAVEN, LEVER, LEVITY; ALEVIN, ALLEVIATE, CARNIVAL, ELEVATE, LEGERDEMAIN, MEZZO-RELIEVO, RELEVANT, RELIEVE**, from Latin *levis*, light, with its derivative *levāre*, to lighten, raise. **3.** Variant form **\*lagʷh-**. **LEPRECHAUN**, from Old Irish *lū-*, small. **4.** Nasalized form **\*l(e)ngʷh-**. **LUNG**, from Old English *lungen*, lungs (from their lightness), from Germanic **\*lung-**. **5.** Latin *oblīvīscī*, to forget, attributed by some to this root, is more likely from **(s)lei-**. [Pokorny **legʷh-** 660.] **lei-** To flow. **1.** Extended form **\*leib-**. **LIBATION; PRELIBATION**, from Latin *lībāre* to pour out, taste. **2.** Possibly **leikʷ-** To leave. **1.** Basic form **\*leikʷ-**. **ECLIPSE, ELLIPSIS**, from Greek *leipein*, to leave. **2.** O-grade form **\*loikʷ-**. a. Suffixed form **\*loikʷ-nes-**. **LOAN**, from Old Norse *lān*, loan, from Germanic **\*laihwniz**; b. **LEND**, from Old English *lǣnan*, to lend, loan from Germanic denominative **\*laihwnjan**. **3.** Zero-grade form **\*likʷ-**. a. **LIPOGRAM**, from Greek *lipo-*, lacking; b. (i) Germanic compound **\*ain-lif-** (see **oi-no-**); (ii) Germanic compound **\*twa-lif-** (see **dwō-**). Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic **\*-lif-**, left. **4.** Nasalized zero-grade form **\*li-n-kʷ-**. **DELINQUENT, DERELICT, RELIC, RELINQUISH**, from Latin *linquere*, to leave. [Pokorny **leikʷ-** 669.] **leip-** To stick, adhere; fat. **1.** **LIFE, LIVELY**, from Old English *līf*, life (< “continuance”), from Germanic **\*lībam**. **2.** a. **LIVE¹**, from Old English *lifian*, *libban*, to live; b. **LEBENSRAUM**, from Old High German *lebēn*, to live. Both a and b from Germanic **\*libēn**. **3.** a. **LEAVE¹**, from Old English *lǣfan*, to leave, have remaining; b. **DELAY, RELAY**, from Old French *laier*, to leave, from Frankish **\*laibjan**. Both a and b from o-grade Germanic causative **\*-laibjan**. **4.** **LIVER¹**, from Old English *lifer*, liver (formerly believed to be the blood-producing organ), from Germanic **\*librō**. **5.** Zero-grade form **\*lip-**. **LIPO-**, from Greek *lipos*, fat. **6.** Variant form **\*aleibh-** (earliest form **\*h₂leibh-**). **ALIPHATIC; SYNALEPHA**, from Greek *aleiphein*, to anoint with oil. [Pokorny 1. **leip-** 670.] **leis-** ¹ Track, furrow. **1.** O-grade form **\*lois-**. a. **LAST³**, from Old English *lāst*, *lǣst*, sole, footprint, from Germanic **\*laist-**; b. **LAST²**, from Old English *lǣstan*, to continue, from Germanic **\*laistjan**, “to follow a track”; c. suffixed form **\*lois-ā-**. **LORE¹**, from Old English *lār*, learning, from Germanic **\*laizō**. **2.** **LEARN**, from Old English *leornian*, to learn, from Germanic zero-grade form **\*liznōn**, “to follow a course (of study).” **3.** Suffixed full-grade form **\*leis-ā-**. **DELIRIUM**, from Latin *līra*, a furrow. [Pokorny **leis-** 671.] **leis-** ² Small. **LEAST, LESS**, from Old English comparative *lǣs*, *lǣssa* and superlative *lǣst*, *lǣrest*, from Germanic comparative **\*lais-izō** and superlative **\*lais-ista-**. [In Pokorny 2. **lei-** 661.] <50> haps Swedish dialectal *loma*, to move heavily, akin to the Scandinavian source of Middle English *lōmeren*, to lumber: **LUMBER²**. [Pokorny 1. **lem-** 674.] **lendh-** ¹ Loin. Suffixed o-grade form **\*londh-wo-**. **LAMBADA, LOIN, LUMBAGO, LUMBAR; HUMBLE PIE, SIRLOIN**, from Latin *lumbus*, loin. [Pokorny 2. **lendh-** 675.] **lendh-** ² Open land. **1.** a. **LAND; ISLAND**, from Old English *land*, land; b. **BILANDER, LANDSCAPE, UITLANDER**, from Middle Dutch *land*, land; c. **AUSLANDER, GELÄNDESPRUNG, HINTERLAND, LANDSLEIT, LANDSMAN**, from Old High German *lant*, land; d. **LANDGRAVE, LANDGRAVINE**, from Middle Low German *lant*, country; e. **LANDSMÅL**, from Old Norse *land*, land. a-e all from Germanic **\*landam**. **2.** **LAWN¹**, from Old French *launde*, heath, pasture, from Germanic, or from Celtic **\*landā-**. [Pokorny 3. **lendh-** 675.] **lent-o-** Flexible. **1.** Suffixed form **\*lent-yo-**. a. **LITHE**, from Old English *līthe*, flexible, mild, from Germanic **\*linthja-**; b. **LINDEN**, from Old English *lind(e)*, linden tree (from its pliant bast), from Germanic **\*lindjō**. **2.** Suffixed form **\*lent-o-**. **LENTAMENTE, LANTANA, LENTANDO, LENTISSIMO, LENTO; RALLENTANDO, RELENT**, from Latin *lentus*, flexible, tenacious, sluggish, slow. [Pokorny **lento-** 677.] **lep-** ¹ To peel. **1.** **LEMMA¹, LEPTO-, LEPTON¹; OOLEMMA, PLASMALEMMA, SARCOLEMMA**, from Greek *lepein*, to peel, and derivative *lemma* (< **\*lep-mņ**), husk. **2.** Suffixed form **\*lep-i-**. **LEPER, LEPIDO-, LEPIDOTE**, from Greek *lepis*, *lepos*, a scale. **3.** Suffixed variant form **\*lap-aro-**. **LAPAROTOMY, LAPAROSCOPE**, from Greek *laparos*, soft. **4.** O-grade form **\*lop-**. **ELAPID**, from Greek *elops*, *ellops*, a fish (< **\*en-lopos**, having scales; **en-**, in; see **en**). [Pokorny 2. **lep-** 678.] **lep-** ² To be flat; palm, sole, shoulder blade. Lengthened o-grade form **\*lōp-**. **1.** **GLOVE**, from Old English *glōf*, glove, from Germanic **\*galōfō**, “covering for the hand” (*ga-*, collective prefix; see **kom**). **2.** **LUFF**, from Old French *lof*, spar, probably from a Germanic source akin to Middle Dutch **\*loef**, windward side of a ship. Both 1 and 2 from Germanic **\*lōfō**. [Pokorny 2. **lēp-** 679.] **letro-** Leather. **1.** **LEATHER**, from Old English *lether-*, leather. **2.** **LEDERHOSEN**, from Old High German *ledar*, leather. Both 1 and 2 from Germanic **\*lethram**. [Pokorny **letro-** 681.] **leu-** ¹ To loosen, divide, cut apart. I. Extended Germanic root **\*leus-**. **1.** a. **LORN, LOSEL**, from Old English *-lēosan*, to lose; b. (i) **FORLORN**, from Old English *forlēosan*, to forfeit, lose; (ii) **FORLORN HOPE**, from Dutch *verliezen* (past participle *verloren*), to lose. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic **\*fer-leusan**, **\*far-leusan** (**\*fer-**, **\*far-**, prefix denoting rejection or exclusion; see **per**¹). Both a and b from Germanic **\*leusan** (with Old English and Dutch past participle *loren* from Germanic **\*luzana-**, from Indo-European suffixed zero-grade form **\*lus-ono-**). **2.** a. **LEASING, -LESS**, from Old English *lēas*, “loose, free from, without, untrue, lacking”; b. **LOSE, LOSS**, from Old English *los*, loss; c. **LOOSE**, from Old Norse *lauss*, *louss*, loose; d. **LOESS**, from German dialectal *lösch*, loose. a-d all from Germanic **\*lausa-**. **3.** **LEISTER**, from Old Norse *ljōsta*, to strike, perhaps from Germanic **\*leustan**. II. Basic form **\*leu-**. **1.** **LAG²**, probably from a source akin to Swedish *lagg*, barrel stave (< “split piece of wood”), from Germanic **\*lawwō**. **2.** Zero-grade form **\*lu-**. a. **LYO-, LYSIS, LYSO-, -LYTE, LYTIC, -LYTIC; ANALYSIS, CATALYSIS, DIALYSIS, LYASE, PALSY, PARALYSIS, TACHYLYTE**, from Greek *lūein*, to loosen, release, untie; b. **LUES**, from Latin *luēs*, plague, pestilence (< “dissolution, putrefaction”); c. prefixed form **\*se-lu-** (**\*se-**, apart; see **s(w)e-**). **SOLUBLE, SOLUTE, SOLVE; ABSOLUTE, ABSOLVE, ASSOIL, CONSOLUTE, DISSOLVE, RESOLUTE, RESOLVE**, from Latin *solvere*, to loosen, untie. [Pokorny 2. **leu-** 681.] **lēu-** ² Dirt; to make dirty. **1.** **POLLUTE**, from Latin *polluere*, to pollute (< **\*por-luere**; **por-** for **\*prō-**, forth, forward; see **per**¹). **2.** Suffixed zero-grade form **\*lu-to-**. **LUTE²**, from Latin *lutum*, mud, mire, clay. [Pokorny 1. **leu-** 681.] **lēu-** ³ Stone. **CROMLECH**, from Welsh *llech*, flat stone (preform uncertain). [Pokorny 2. **lēu-** 683.] **leubh-** To care, desire; love. I. Suffixed form **\*leubh-o-**. **LIEF; LEMAN, LIVELONG**, from Old English *lēof*, dear, beloved, from Germanic **\*leubaz**. II. O-grade form **\*loubh-**. **1.** a. **LEAVE²**, from Old English *lēaf*, permission (< “pleasure, approval”); b. **FURLOUGH**, from Middle Dutch *verlof*, leave, permission (*ver-*, intensive prefix, from Germanic **\*fer-**; see **per**¹); c. **BELIEF**, from Old English *gelēafa*, belief, faith, from Germanic **\*galaubō** (**\*ga-**, intensive prefix; see **kom**). a-c all from Germanic **\*laubō**. **2.** **BELIEVE**, from Old English *gelēfan*, *belēfan*, to believe, trust (*be-*, about; see **ambhi**), from Germanic **\*galaubjan**, “to hold dear,” esteem, trust (**\*ga-**, intensive prefix; see **kom**). III. Zero-grade form **\*lubh-**. **1.** Suffixed form **\*lubh-ā-**. **LOVE**, from Old English *lufu*, love, from Germanic **\*lubō**. **2.** Suffixed (stative) form **\*lubh-ē-**. **QUODLIBET**, from Latin *libēre*, to be dear, be pleasing. **3.** **LIBIDO**, from Latin *libīdō*, pleasure, desire. [Pokorny **leubh-** 683.] **leud-** Small. **1.** a. **LITTLE**, from Old English *lȳtel*, little, from West Germanic **\*luttila-**; b. **LOUT²**, from Old English *lūtan*, to bend down (< “to make small”); c. **LOUT¹**, from Old Norse *lūta*, to bend down. a-c all from Germanic **\*lūt-**. **2.** **LOITER**, from Middle English *loitren*, to idle away time, perhaps akin to Middle Dutch *loteren*, to shake, totter (< “to make smaller”), perhaps from Germanic **\*lūt-**. [Pokorny **leud-** 684.] **leudh-** ¹ To go. (Oldest form **\*h₁leudh-**.) Zero-grade form **\*h₁ludh-**, in suffixed Greek unextended form **\*elu-to-**. **PROSELYTE**, from Greek *prosēlutos*, “one who comes to a place,” stranger (*pros-*, to; see **per**¹). [In Pokorny 6. **el-** 306.] **leudh-** ² To mount up, grow. (Oldest form **\*h₁leudh-**.) **1.** Basic form **\*leudh-**. **LANDSLEIT**, from Old High German *liut*, person, people (also in personal names; see **bhel-** ²), from Germanic **\*liud-i-**. **2.** Suffixed form **\*leudh-ero-**. **LIBERAL, LIBERATE, LIBERO, LIBERTINE, LIBERTY, LIVERY; DELIVER**, from Latin *līber*, free (the precise semantic development is obscure). [Pokorny 1. **leudh-** 684.] **leu(ə)-** To wash. (Oldest form **\*leu(h₂)-**.) **1.** Suffixed form **\*lou-kā-**. **LYE**, from Old English *lēag*, lye, from Germanic **\*laugō**. **2.** Suffixed form **\*lou-tro-**. a. **LATHER**, from Old English *lēthran*, *līthran*, to lather; b. **LUTEFISK**, from Old Norse *lauðr*, soap, foam. **3.** Variant form **\*law-**. a. **LOMENT, LOTION; ABLUTION, ALLUVION, COLLUVIUM, DELUGE, DILUTE, ELUENT, ELUTE, ELUVIUM**, from Latin *lavere*, to wash (in compounds, *-luere*); b. suffixed form **\*law-ā-**. **LAUNDER, LAVABO, LAVAGE, LAVATORY, LAVE, LAVISH**, from Latin *lavāre*, to wash; c. **LATRINE**, from Latin *lavātrīna*, *lātrīna*, a bath, privy. **4.** O-grade form **\*lou-**. **PYROLUSITE**, from Greek *louein*, to wash. [Pokorny **lou-** 692.] **leug-** To break. Suffixed (stative) form **\*leug-ē-**. **LUGUBRIOUS**, from Latin *lūgēre*, to mourn (< “to be broken”). [Pokorny **leuĝ-** 686.] **leugh-** To tell a lie. **1.** a. **WARLOCK**, from Old English *lēogan*, to lie; b. **BELIE**, from Old English *belēogan*, to deceive (*be-*, about; see **ambhi**). Both a and b from Germanic **\*leugan**. **2.** **LIE¹**, from Old English *lyge*, a <51> lie, falsehood, from Germanic **\*lugiz**. [Pokorny 1. **leugh-** 686.] **leuk-** Light, brightness. I. Basic form **\*leuk-**. **1.** Suffixed form **\*leuk-to-**. a. **LIGHT¹**, from Old English *lēoht*, *līht*, light; b. **LIGHTNING**, from Old English *līhtan*, to shine, from Germanic **\*leuhtjan**, to make light. Both a and b from Germanic **\*leuhtam**. **2.** Basic form **\*leuk-**. **LUCULENT, LUX; LUCIFER, LUCIFERIN**, from Latin *lūx*, light. **3.** Suffixed form **\*leuk-smen-**. **LIMBERS, LIMN, LUMEN, LUMINARY, LUMINOUS; ILLUMINATE, PHILLUMENIST**, from Latin *lūmen*, light, opening. **4.** Suffixed form **\*leuk-snā-**. **LUNA, LUNAR, LUNATE, LUNATIC, LUNE, LUNULA; MEZZALUNA, SUBLUNARY**, from Latin *lūna*, moon. **5.** Suffixed form **\*leuk-stro-**. a. **LUSTER, LUSTRUM**, from Latin *lūstrum*, purification; b. **ILLUSTRATE**, from Latin *lūstrāre*, to purify, illuminate. **6.** Suffixed form **\*leuko-dhro-**. **LUCUBRATE; ELUCUBRATION**, from Latin *lūcubrāre*, to work by lamplight. **7.** Suffixed form **\*leuk-o-**. **LEUKO-; MELALEUCA**, from Greek *leukos*, clear, white. **8.** Suffixed form **\*leuk-os-**, **\*leuk-es-**. **RISK**, perhaps from Arabic *rizq*, what God provides (for the day), daily bread, from Syriac *ruziqa*, daily bread, from Middle Iranian *rōzīg*, from *rōz*, day, from Old Iranian **\*raocah-** (Old Persian *raocah-*). II. O-grade form **\*louk-**. **1.** Suffixed form **\*louk-o-**. a. **LEA**, from Old English *lēah*, meadow (< “place where light shines”), from Germanic **\*lauhaz**; b. **LEVIN**, from Middle English *levin*, lightning, from Germanic **\*lauhubni-**. **2.** Suffixed (iterative) form **\*louk-eyo-**. **LUCENT, LUCID; ELUCIDATE, NOCTILUCA, PELLUCID, RELUCENT, TRANSLUCENT**, from Latin *lūcēre*, to shine. III. Zero-grade form **\*luk-**. **1.** Suffixed form **\*luk-sno-**. **LINK², LYCHNIS**, from Greek *lukhnos*, lamp. **2.** Attributed by some to this root (but more likely of obscure origin) is Greek *lunx*, lynx (as if from its shining eyes): **LYNX, OUNCE²**. [Pokorny **leuk-** 687.] **leup-** To peel off, break off. **1.** **LEAF**, from Old English *lēaf*, leaf, from Germanic **\*laubaz**. **2.** a. **LODGE, LOGE**, from Old French *loge*, lodge; b. **LOBBY**, from Medieval Latin *lobium*, *lobia*, *laubia*, monastic cloister. Both a and b from Germanic **\*laubjā-**, “roof made from bark,” shelter. **3.** Attributed by some to this root, but probably a separate Germanic root, is Germanic **\*luftuz**, sky (traditionally explained as < “roof of the world”). a. **LOFT; ALOFT**, from Old Norse *lopt*, air, attic, sky; b. **LIFT**, from Old Norse *lypta*, to lift, from Germanic **\*luftjan**, to hold up in the air. [Pokorny **leup-** 690.] **[līk-** Body, form; like, same. Germanic root. **1.** **LYCH-GATE**, from Old English *līc*, form, body. **2.** **-LY¹, -LY²**, from Old English *-līc*, having the form of. **3.** a. **ALIKE, LIKE¹, LIKELY**, from Old English *gelīc*, similar, and Old Norse *(g)līkr*, like, both from Germanic **\*galīka-** (**\*ga-**, with, intensive prefix; see **kom**); b. **EACH; EVERY**, from Old English *ǣlc*, each, from Germanic phrase **\*aiwō galīka-**, “ever alike” (**\*aiwō**, **\*aiwi**, ever; see **aiw-**). **4.** Germanic compound **\*īs-līk-** (see **i-**). **5.** **ALIKE**, from Old English *onlīc*, from Germanic **\*ana-līkaz**. **6.** **FROLIC**, from Middle Dutch *-lijc*, *-like*. **7.** **LIKE²**, from Old English *līcian*, to please, from Germanic **\*līkjan**. **8.** Germanic compound **\*hwa-līk-** (see **kʷo-**). [Pokorny 2. **lig-** 667.]] **līno-** Flax. **1.** Form **\*līno-**. **LINOLEIC ACID**, from Greek *linon*, flax. **2.** Form **\*līno-**. **LENO, LINE¹, LINE², LINEAGE, LINEN, LINGERIE, LINNET, LINT; ALIGN, CRINOLINE, LINEA ASPERA, LINSEED**, from Latin *līnum*, flax, linen, thread. [Pokorny **lī-no-** 691.] **[lithrā** A scale. Mediterranean word, probably the source of Latin *lībra*, a pound, balance, and Greek *litra*, unit of weight, pound. **1.** **LEVEL, LIBRA, LIRA, LIVRE; DELIBERATE, EQUILIBRIUM**, from Latin *lībra*, a pound, balance. **2.** **LITER**, from Greek *litra*, unit of weight, pound.] **-lo-** Secondary suffix, forming diminutives. **1.** **-ULAR, -ULE**, from Latin *-ulus*, diminutive suffix, from **\*-o)lo-**. **2.** **-LET**, from Latin *-ellus*, diminutive suffix, from double diminutive suffix **\*-olo-lo-**. **2.** **-LING¹**, from Old English *-ling*, diminutive suffix and nominal suffix, from Germanic **\*-linga-** (< **\*-l-inga-**; see **(i)ko-**). **3.** Italic i-stem form **\*-li-**, appearing in various Latin adjective suffixes. a. **-AL¹, -AL², -AR**, from Latin *-ālis* (originally suffix **\*-li-** attached to stems in **\*-ā-**), adjective suffix, and dissimilated form *-āris* (after bases containing *l*); b. **-ILE¹**, from Latin *-ilis*, *-īlis*, adjective suffixes. [Not in Pokorny.] **lobho-** Top or back of the head. **LOPHOPHORE**, from Greek *lophos*, top of the head, crest. [Not in Pokorny; compare Tocharian A *lap*, head.] **lūs-** Louse. **LOUSE**, from Old English *lūs*, louse, from Germanic **\*lūs-**. [Pokorny **lūs-** 692.] **mā-** ¹ Good; with derivatives meaning “occurring at a good moment, timely, seasonable, early.” (Oldest form **\*meh₂-**, colored to **\*mah₂-**, contracted to **\*mā-**.) **1.** Suffixed form **\*mā-tu-**. a. Further suffixed form **\*mā-tu-ro-**. **MATURE; IMMATURE, PREMATURE**, from Latin *mātūrus*, seasonable, ripe, mature; b. further suffixed form **\*mā-tu-to-**. **MATINEE, MATINS, MATUTINAL**, from Latin *Mātūta*, name of the goddess of dawn. **2.** Suffixed form **\*mā-ni-**. a. **MAÑANA**, from Latin *māne*, (in) the morning; b. **MANES**, from Latin *mānis*, *mānus*, good. [Pokorny 2. **mā-** 693.] **mā-** ² Mother. A linguistic near-universal found in many of the world’s languages, often in reduplicated form. **1.** **MAMMA, MAMMAL, MAMMILLA, MAMONCILLO**, from Latin *mamma*, breast. **2.** Probably from this root is Greek *Maia*, “good mother” (respectful form of address to old women), also nurse: **MAIA, MAIEUTIC; MAIASAUR**. **3.** **MAMA**, more recently formed in the same way. [Pokorny 3. **mā** 694.] **mā-** ³ Damp. (Oldest form **\*mah₂-**, colored to **\*mah₂-**, contracted to **\*mā-**.) **1.** Suffixed form **\*mā-ro-**. **MOOR¹**, from Old English *mōr*, marsh, wilderness, from Germanic **\*mōra-**. **2.** Suffixed form **\*mā-no-**. **EMANATE**, from Latin *mānāre*, to flow, trickle. [Pokorny **mā-no-** 699.] **mad-** Moist, wet; also refers to various qualities of food. **1.** Suffixed (stative) form **\*mad-ē-**. **MATTE²; CASEMATE**, from Latin *madēre*, to be sodden, be drunk, with past participle *mattus*, stupefied (< **\*mad-to-**; see **3** below). **2.** **MYNA**, from Sanskrit *madati*, it bubbles, gladdens, and derivative *madana-*, delightful, joyful. **3.** Suffixed form **\*mad-to-**. **MUSTH**, from Middle Persian *mast*, drunk, from Iranian **\*masta-**. **4.** Suffixed form **\*mad-i-**. a. **MEAT**, from Old English *mete*, food; b. **MATE¹**, from Middle Low German *(ge)mate*, “he with whom one shares one’s food,” companion (*ge-*, together, from Germanic **\*ga-**; see **kom**). Both a and b from Germanic **\*mati-**. **5.** Suffixed form **\*mad-sta-**, becoming **\*mazda-**. **MAST²**, from Old English *mæst*, fodder, from Germanic **\*mastō**. **6.** **MUESLI**, from Old High German *muos*, meal, mushlike food, from Germanic suffixed lengthened-grade form **\*mōd-sa-**. [Pokorny **mad-** 694.] **mag-** Also **mak-**. To knead, fashion, fit. (Oldest forms **\*mag-**, **\*mak-**.) **1.** a. (i) **MAKE**, from Old English *macian*, to make; (ii) **MASON**, from Old French *masson*, mason; (iii) **MAQUILLAGE**, from Middle Dutch *maken*, to make. (i)-(iii) all from Germanic verb **\*makōn**, to fashion, fit; b. **MATCH¹**, from Old English *gemacca*, mate, spouse, from Germanic compound noun **\*gamak-(j)ōn-**, “one who is fitted with (another)” (**\*ga-**, with, together; see **kom**). Both a and b from Germanic **\*mak-**. **2.** a. **MINGLE**, from Old English *mengan*, to mix; b. **AMONG, MONGREL**, from Old English *gemang*, mixture, crowd (*ge-*, together; see **kom**). Both a and b from Germanic nasalized form **\*mangjan**, to knead together. **3.** Suffixed form **\*mak-yo-**. **MAGMA**, from Greek *magma*, unguent, from *massein* (aorist stem *mag-*), to knead. **4.** Suffixed lengthened-grade form **\*māg-yā-**. **MASS; AMASS**, from Greek *māza*, *mâza*, <52> a (kneaded) lump, barley cake. **5.** Suffixed lengthened-grade form **\*māk-ero-**. **MACERATE**, from Latin *mācerāre*, to tenderize, to soften (food) by steeping. [Pokorny **maĝ-** 696, 2. **māk-** 698, **men(ə)k-** 730.] **magh-** ¹ To be able, have power. **1.** a. **MAY¹**, from Old English *magan*, to be able; b. **DISMAY**, from Old French *esmaier*, to frighten. Both a and b from Germanic **\*magan**, to be able. **2.** **MIGHT¹**, from Old English *miht*, power, from Germanic suffixed form **\*mah-ti-**, power (also in personal names; see **kel-** ²). **3.** **MAIN**, from Old English *mægen*, power, from Germanic suffixed form **\*mag-inam**, power. **4.** Suffixed lengthened-grade form **\*māgh-anā-**, “that which enables.” **MACHINE, MECHANIC, MECHANISM, MECHANO-; DEUS EX MACHINA**, from Greek (Attic) *mēkhanē*, (Doric) *mākhanā*, device. **5.** Possibly suffixed form **\*magh-u-**. **MAGIC, MAGUS**, from Old Persian *maguš*, member of a priestly caste (< “mighty one”). [Pokorny **magh-** 695.] **magh-** ² To fight. (Oldest form **\*magh-**.) **1.** **TITANOMACHY**, from Greek *makhesthai*, to fight. **2.** **AMAZON**, from Greek *Amazōn*, Amazon, possibly borrowed from a hypothetical Iranian compound **\*ha-maz-an-**, “(one) fighting together,” warrior (**\*ha-**, with; see **sem-** ¹). [Pokorny **maĝh-** 697.] **maghu-** Young person of either sex. Suffixed form **\*magho-ti-**. **1.** **MAID, MAIDEN**, from Old English *mægden*, virgin. **2.** **MATJES HERRING**, from Dutch *maagd*, maid. Both 1 and 2 from Germanic **\*magadi-**, with diminutive **\*magadin-**. [Pokorny **maghos** 696.] **mai-** ¹ To cut. (Oldest form **\*meh₂i-**, colored to **\*mah₂i-**, contracted to **\*mai-**.) **1.** Suffixed form **\*mai-d-**. a. **ANT, EMMET**, from Old English *ǣmette*, ant, from Germanic **\*ē-mait-jōn-**, “the biter” (prefix **\*ē-**, meaning uncertain; see **ē**); b. (i) **MITE¹**, from Old English *mīte*, mite; (ii) **MITE²**, from Middle Dutch *mīte*, insect, small object, small coin. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic **\*mīton-**, “the biter”; c. **MAIM, MANGLE¹, MAYHEM**, from Old French *mahaignier*, to maim (> Anglo-Norman *mangler*, to hack). a-c all from Germanic **\*mait-**. **2.** Suffixed form **\*mai-lo-**. a. **MALCOLM** (personal name), from Old Irish *Máel Coluim*, “servant of Saint Columba,” from *máel*, hornless, bald, shorn, servant; b. **MULEY**, from a source akin to Old Irish *máel* (see above). [Pokorny 1. **mai-** 697.] **mai-** ² To soil, defile. Possible root. **1.** Suffixed form **\*mai-lo-**. **MOLE¹**, from Old English *māl*, spot, blemish, from Germanic **\*mail-**. **2.** Suffixed variant form **\*mi-an-yo-**. **MIASMA; AMIANTHUS**, from Greek *miainein*, to pollute. [Pokorny 2. **mai-** 697.] **mak-** (Leather) bag. **1.** **MAW**, from Old English *maga*, stomach, from Germanic **\*magōn-**, bag, stomach. **2.** Suffixed form **\*mak-no-**, altered in British Celtic to **\*mēk-no-** (possibly due to a crossing with the unrelated noun **\*menō-**, face, cheek). **MINAUDIÈRE**, from Breton *min*, muzzle. [Pokorny **mak-** 698.] **māk-** Long, thin. (Oldest form **\*meh₂k-**, colored to **\*mah₂k-**, contracted to **\*māk-**.) **1.** Zero-grade form **\*mak-** becoming **\*mək-**. a. (i) **MAGRET, MEAGER**, from Latin *macer*, thin; (ii) **MACRO-, MACRON; AMPHIMACER**, from Greek *makros*, long, large. Both (i) and (ii) from suffixed form **\*mak-ro-**; b. **EMACIATE**, from Latin *maciāre*, to make thin, from suffixed form **\*mak-ye-**. **2.** Suffixed full-grade form **\*māk-es-**. **MECOPTERAN, PARAMECIUM**, from Greek *mēkos*, length. [Pokorny **māk-** 699.] **man-** ¹ Also **mon-**. Man. **1.** Extended forms **\*manu-**, **\*manw-**. a. **MAN; LEMAN, NORMAN³**, from Old English *man(n)* (plural *menn*), man; b. **PUGLEMAN, LANDSMAN¹**, from Old High German *man*, man, also in personal name **HERMAN**, from Old High German *Hariman*, *Heriman*, “army man” (*heri*, army; see **koro-**); c. **MANIKIN, MANNEQUIN**, from Middle Dutch *man*, man; d. **YEOMAN**, from Old Frisian *man*, man; e. **NORMAN¹, OMBUDSMAN**, from Old Norse *maðr*, *mannr*, man; f. **ALEMANNI**, possibly from Germanic **\*Ala-manniz**, tribal name (< “all men”: **\*ala-**, all; see **al-** ⁵). a-f all from Germanic **\*manna-** (plural **\*manniz**); g. **MANU**, from Sanskrit *manuḥ*, man, from Indo-Iranian **\*manu-**. **2.** **MENSCH**, from Old High German *mennisco*, human, from Germanic adjective **\*manniska-**, human, from **\*manna-** (see **1**). **3.** **MUZHIK**, from Russian *muzh*, man, male, from Slavic suffixed form **\*mon-gyo-**. [Pokorny **manu-s** 700.] **man-** ² Hand. **1.** a. **MANACLE, MANAGE, MANÈGE, MANNER, MANUAL, MANUBRIUM, MANUS; AMANUENSIS, MAINTAIN, MANEUVER, MANICOTTI, MANICURE, MANIFEST, MANSUETUDE, MANUFACTURE, MANUMIT, MANURE, MANUSCRIPT, MASTIFF, MORTMAIN, QUADRUMANOUS**, from Latin *manus*, hand; b. **MANIPLE, MANIPULATION**, from Latin *manipulus*, handful (**-pulus**, perhaps *-ful*; see **pelə-** ¹). **2.** Suffixed form **\*man-ko-**, maimed in the hand. **MANQUÉ**, from Latin *mancus*, maimed, defective. **3.** **EMANCIPATE**, from Latin compound *manceps*, “he who takes by the hand,” purchaser (**-ceps**, agential suffix, “taker”; see **kap-**). **4.** **MANDAMUS, MANDATE, MAUNDY THURSDAY; COMMAND, COMMANDO, COMMEND, COUNTERMAND, DEMAND, RECOMMEND, REMAND**, from Latin compound *mandāre*, “to put into someone’s hand,” entrust, order (**-dere**, to put; see **dhē-**). **5.** Suffixed zero-grade form **\*mņ-to-**. a. Old English *mund*, protection, in personal names: (i) **EDMUND**, from Old English *Ēadmund*, “protector of riches” (*ēad*, happiness, riches); (ii) **OSMUND**, from Old English *Ōsmund*, “having divine protection” (*ōs*, god; see **ansu-**); b. Old High German *mund*, protection, in **SIGISMUND**, “victorious protection” (see **segh-**); c. **RAYMOND** (personal name), from Frankish *Raginmund* (> Old French *Raimund*), “counsel protection” (**\*ragin**, counsel), from **\*mund**, protection. a-c all from Germanic **\*mundō-**, “guarding hand,” protection. [Pokorny **ma-r** 740.] **mari-** Young woman. Suffixed form **\*mari-to-**, “provided with a bride.” **MARIACHI, MARITAL, MARRIAGE, MARRY¹**, from Latin *marītus*, married, a husband. [Pokorny **mer-yo-** 738.] **marko-** Horse. **1.** **MARSHAL**, from Old French *mareschal*, from Germanic **\*marha-skalkaz**, “horse-servant, servant who cares for his lord’s horses” from **\*marhaz**, horse (**\*skalkaz**, servant, of obscure origin). **2.** **MARE¹**, from Old English *mere*, *miere*, mare, from Germanic feminine **\*marhjōn-**. [Pokorny **marko-** 700.] **māter-** Mother. Based ultimately on the baby-talk form **mā-** ², with the kinship term suffix **\*-ter-**. **1.** a. **MOTHER¹**, from Old English *mōdor*, mother; b. **MOTHER²**, from Middle Dutch *moeder*, mother. Both a and b from Germanic **\*mōdēr-**. **2.** **ALMA MATER, MATER, MATERNAL, MATERNITY, MATRICULATE, MATRIX, MATRON, MATRYOSHKA; MADREPORE, MATRIMONY**, from Latin *māter*, mother. **3.** **METRO-; METROPOLIS**, from Greek *mētēr*, mother. **4.** **MATERIAL, MATTER**, from Latin *māteriēs*, *māteria*, tree trunk (< “matrix,” the tree’s source of growth), hence hard timber used in carpentry, hence (by a calque on Greek *hulē*, wood, matter) substance, stuff, matter. **5.** **DEMETER**, from Greek compound *Dēmētēr*, name of the goddess of produce, especially cereal crops (*dē-*, possibly meaning “earth”). [Pokorny **mātér-** 700.] **math-** Various insect names. (Apparent oldest form **\*math₂-**.) **1.** **MOTH**, from Old English *mohthe*, moth, from uncertain (perhaps expressive) preform. **2.** Either the same or a homophonous root is **\*math₂-**, to steal, in Sanskrit *mathnāti*, he steals, also in myths relating to the theft of fire, and possibly Greek *math-*, base of the name Prometheus: **EPIMETHEUS, PROMETHEUS**. (The name Prometheus was later interpreted by the Greeks as meaning “forethought,” leading to the creation of the name Epimetheus, “afterthought,” for his brother.) [Pokorny 1. **math-** 700.] **[Māwort-** Name of an Italic deity who became the god of war at Rome (and also had agricultural attri- <53> butes), hence also the name of the planet Mars (doubtless from its red color, the color of blood). **1.** **MARCH¹, MARS, MARTIAL, MARTIAN**, from Latin *Mārs* (stem *Mārt-*), Mars. **2.** Suffixed (adjectival) form **\*mārt-iko-**. **MARCIA, MARCUS, MARK** (personal names), from Latin *Mārcus*, a Roman praenomen.] **mazdo-** Pole, rod, mast. **MAST¹**, from Old English *mæst*, mast, from Germanic **\*mastaz**. [Pokorny **maz-do-s** 701.] **me-** ¹ Oblique form of the personal pronoun of the first person singular. For the nominative see **eg**. **1.** **ME, MYSELF**, from Old English *mē* (dative and accusative), from Germanic **\*mē-**. **2.** Possessive adjective **\*mei-no-**. a. **MINE, MY**, from Old English *mīn*, my; b. **MYNHEER**, from Middle Dutch *mīn*, my. Both a and b from Germanic **\*min-**. **3.** Possessive adjective **\*me-yo-**. **MADAME, MADONNA, MONSIEUR**, from Latin *meus*, mine. **4.** Genitive form **\*me-wo**. **MAVOURNEEN**, from Old Irish *mo*, my. [Pokorny 1. **me-** 702.] **me-** ² In the middle of. **1.** Suffixed form **\*me-dhi**. **MIDWIFE**, from Old English *mid*, among, with, from Germanic **\*mid-**. **2.** Suffixed form **\*me-tā**. **META-**, from Greek *meta*, between, with, beside, after. [Pokorny 2. **me-** 702.] See also **medhyo-**. **mē-** ¹ Expressing certain qualities of mind. (Contracted from earlier **\*meh₁-**.) **1.** Suffixed o-grade form **\*mō-to-**. a. **MOOD¹**, from Old English *mōd*, mind, disposition; b. **GEMÜTLICH, GEMÜTLICHKEIT**, from Old High German *gimuoti*, spirits, feelings, from *muot*, mind (*gi-*, collective prefix; see **kom**). Both a and b from Germanic **\*mōthaz**. **2.** Perhaps suffixed o-grade form **\*mō-s-**. **MORAL, MORALE, MORES, MOROSE**, from Latin *mōs*, wont, humor, manner, custom. [Pokorny 5. **mē-** 704.] **mē-** ² To measure. (Contracted from earlier **\*meh₁-**.) I. Basic form **mē-**. **1.** Suffixed form **\*mē-lo-**. **MEAL²; PIECEMEAL**, from Old English *mǣl*, “measure, mark, appointed time, time for eating, meal,” from Germanic **\*mēlaz**. **2.** Suffixed form **\*mē-ti-**. a. **MEASURE, MENSURAL; COMMENSURATE, DIMENSION, IMMENSE**, from Latin *mētīrī*, to measure; b. **METIS**, from Greek *mētis*, wisdom, skill. **3.** Possibly Greek *metron*, measure, rule, length, proportion, poetic meter (but referred by some to **med-**): **METER¹, METER², METER³, -METER, METRICAL, -METRY; DIAMETER, GEMATRIA, GEOMETRY, ISOMETRIC, METROLOGY, METRONOME, SYMMETRY**. **4.** Reduplicated zero-grade form **\*mi-mə-**. **MAHOUT, MAUND**, from Sanskrit *mimīte*, he measures. II. Extended and suffixed forms **\*mēn-**, **\*mēn-en-**, **\*mēn-ot-**, **\*mēn-s-**, moon, month (an ancient and universal unit of time measured by the moon). **1.** **MOON; MONDAY**, from Old English *mōna*, moon, from Germanic **\*mēnōn-**. **2.** **MONTH**, from Old English *mōnath*, month, from Germanic **\*mēnōth-**. **3.** **MENO-; AMENORRHEA, CATAMENIA, DYSMENORRHEA, EMMENAGOGUE, MENARCHE, MENISCUS, MENOPAUSE**, from Greek *mēn*, *mēnē*, month. **4.** **MENSES, MENSTRUAL, MENSTRUATE; BIMESTRIAL, SEMESTER, TRIMESTER**, from Latin *mēnsis*, month. [Pokorny 3. **mē-** 703, **mēnôt** 731.] **mē-** ³ Big. (Contracted from earlier **\*meh₁-**.) **1.** Suffixed (comparative) form **\*mē-is-**. **MORE**, from Old English *māra*, greater, and *māre* (adverb), more, from Germanic **\*maizōn-**. **2.** Suffixed (superlative) form **\*mē-isto-**. **MOST**, from Old English *mǣst*, most, from Germanic **\*maista-**. **3.** Suffixed form **\*mē-ro-**, **\*mē-ri-**. **MÄRCHEN**, from Old High German *māri*, news, narration. **4.** Suffixed o-grade form **\*mō-ro-**. **CLAYMORE**, from Gaelic *mōr*, big, great. [Pokorny 4. **mē-** 704.] **mē-** ⁴ To cut down grass or grain with a sickle or scythe. (Oldest form **\*h₂meh₁-**, contracted to **\*h₂mē-**.) **1.** **MOW²**, from Old English *māwan*, to mow, from Germanic **\*mē-**. **2.** Suffixed form **\*mē-ti-**. **AFTERMATH**, from Old English *mæth*, a mowing, a mown crop, from Germanic **\*mēthaz**. **3.** Suffixed form **\*mē-twā-**, a mown field. **MEAD², MEADOW**, from Old English **mēd**, meadow, from Germanic **\*mēdwō**. [Pokorny 2. **mē-** 703.] **med-** To take appropriate measures. **1.** a. **METE¹**, from Old English *metan*, to measure (out), from Germanic **\*metan**; b. **MEET²**, from Old English *gemǣte*, “commensurate,” fit (*ge-*, with; see **kom**), from Germanic derivative **\*mētō**, measure. **2.** a. **MEDICAL, MEDICATE, MEDICINE, MEDICO; METHEGLIN, REMEDY**, from Latin *medērī*, to look after, heal, cure; b. **MEDITATE**, from Latin *meditārī*, to think about, consider, reflect. **3.** Suffixed form **\*med-es-**. a. **MODEST; IMMODEST**, from Latin *modestus*, “keeping to the appropriate measure,” moderate; b. **MODERATE; IMMODERATE**, from Latin *moderārī*, “to keep within measure,” to moderate, control. Both a and b from Latin **\*modes-**, replacing **\*medes-** by influence of *modus* (see **6** below). **4.** **MEDUSA**, from Greek *medein*, to rule (feminine participle *medousa* < **\*med-ont-ya**). **5.** Suffixed lengthened e- grade form **\*mēd-es-**. **DIOMEDES** (personal name), from Greek *Diomēdēs*, “having Zeus’s counsel” (*Dio-*, Zeus; see **dyeu-**), from *mēdos*, counsel, plan. **6.** Suffixed o-grade form **\*mod-o-**. **MODAL, MODE, MODEL, MODERN, MODICUM, MODIFY, MODULATE, MODULE, MODULUS, MOLD¹, MOOD², MOULAGE; ACCOMMODATE, COMMODE, COMMODIOUS, COMMODITY**, from Latin *modus*, measure, size, limit, manner, harmony, melody. **7.** Suffixed o-grade form **\*mod-yo-**. **MODIOLUS, MUTCHKIN**, from Latin *modius*, a measure of grain. **8.** Possibly lengthened o-grade form **\*mōd-**. a. **MOTE³, MUST¹**, from Old English *mōtan*, to have occasion, to be permitted or obliged; b. **EMPTY**, from Old English *ǣmetta*, rest, leisure, from Germanic compound **\*ē-mōt-ja-** (prefix **\*ē-**, meaning uncertain; see **ē**). Both a and b from Germanic **\*mōt-**, ability, leisure. [Pokorny 1. **med-** 705.] **medhu-** Honey; also mead. **1.** **MEAD¹**, from Old English *meodu*, mead, from Germanic **\*medu-**. **2.** **AMETHYST, METHYLENE**, from Greek *methu*, wine. [Pokorny **médhu-** 707.] **medhyo-** Middle. **1.** a. **MID, MIDST; AMID**, from Old English *midd(e)*, middle; b. **MIDDLE**, from Old English *middel*, middle, from West Germanic diminutive form **\*middila-**; c. **MIDGARD**, from Old Norse *Miðgarðr*, Midgard, from Germanic compound **\*midja-gardaz**, “middle zone,” name of the earth conceived as an intermediate zone lying between heaven and hell (**\*gardaz**, enclosure, yard; see **gher-** ¹). a-c all from Germanic **\*midja-**. **2.** **MEAN³, MEDAL, MEDIAL, MEDIAN, MEDIASTINUM, MEDIATE, MEDIUM, MEZZALUNA, MEZZANINE, MEZZOTINT, MIZZEN, MOIETY, MULLION; INTERMEDIATE, MEDIEVAL, MEDIOCRE, MEDITERRANEAN, MERIDIAN, MILIEU**, from Latin *medius*, middle, half. **3.** **MESO-**, from Greek *mesos*, middle. **4.** Celtic **\*medio-** in Gaulish *medio-*. **MILAN**, from Italian *Milano*, from Gallo-Roman *Mediolānum*, “in the middle of the plain” (**-lānum**, plain; see **pelə-** ²). [Pokorny **medhi-** 706.] See also **me-** ². **meg-** Great. (Oldest form **\*meĝ-**.) **1.** a. **MICKLE, MUCH**, from Old English *micel*, *mycel*, great; b. **MICKLE**, from Old Norse *mikill*. Both a and b from Germanic suffixed form **\*mik-ila-**. **2.** Suffixed form **\*mag-no-**. **MAGNATE, MAGNITUDE, MAGNUM; MAGNANIMOUS, MAGNIFIC, MAGNIFICENT, MAGNIFICO, MAGNIFY, MAGNILOQUENT**, from Latin *magnus*, great. **3.** Suffixed (comparative) form **\*mag-yos-**. a. **MAJOR, MAJOR-DOMO, MAJORITY, MAJUSCULE, MAYOR**, from Latin *maior*, greater; b. **MAESTOSO, MAJESTY**, from Latin *maiestās*, greatness, authority; c. **MAESTRO, MAGISTERIAL, MAGISTRAL, MAGISTRATE, MASTER, MISTER, MISTRAL, MISTRESS**, from Latin *magister*, master, high official (< “he who is greater”). **4.** Suffixed (superlative) form **\*mag-samo-**. **MAXIM, MAXIMUM**, from Latin *maximus*, greatest. **5.** Suffixed (feminine) form **\*mag-yā-**, “she who is great.” **MAY², MAYA**, from Latin *Maia*, name of a goddess. **6.** Suffixed root form **\*meg-a-** (< oldest form **\*meĝ-h₂-**). a. Basic form **\*meg-ə-** with suppletive further suffixed <54> form **\*meg-a-(l-)**. **MEGA-, MEGALO-; ACROMEGALY, OMEGA**, from Greek *megas* (stem *megal-*), great. b. Suffixed (superlative) form **meg-(a)-isto-**. **ALMAGEST, HERMES TRISMEGISTUS**, from Greek *megistos*, greatest. **7.** Zero-grade **\*m̥g-a-** (< oldest form **\*m̥g-h₂-**) in Greek combining form *aga-*, great (an intensifier found in such Greek forms as the names as *Agamemnōn*, Agamemnon, the adjective *agathos*, good, and the adverb *agān*, too much, as in the famous proverb *mēden agān*, “nothing to excess”) in compound **\*m̥g-a-pā-**, “(one) offering great protection.” **AGAPE²**, from Greek *agapē*, non-sexual love, *agapē*, back-formation from *agapā-*, to greet with affection (< “to offer the protection due to a guest from a host”), contracted from *aga-pā-ye-*, from earlier **\*m̥g-a-pā-ye-**, to offer the protection due to a guest from a host, verbal stem derived from **\*m̥g-a-pā-**, “(one) offering great protection” (**-pā-**, protector; see **pā-**). **8.** Variant (satem language) form **\*megh-** (< earlier **\*meĝ-h₂-**). **MAHABHARATA, MAHARAJA, MAHARANI, MAHARISHI, MAHATMA, MAHAYANA, MAHOUT**, from Sanskrit *mahā-*, *mahat-*, great. [Pokorny **meĝ(h)-** 708.] **mei-** ¹ To change, go, move; with derivatives referring to the exchange of goods and services within a society as regulated by custom or law. **1.** **MEATUS; CONGÉ, IRREMEABLE, PERMEATE**, from Latin *meāre*, to go, pass. **2.** Suffixed o-grade form **\*moi-to-**. a. **MAD**, from Old English **\*gemǣdan**, to make insane or foolish, from Germanic **\*ga-maid-jan**, denominative from **\*ga-maid-az**, “changed (for the worse),” abnormal (**\*ga-**, intensive prefix; see **kom**); b. **MEW¹, MOLT, MUTATE; COMMUTE, PERMUTE, REMUDA, TRANSMUTE**, from Latin *mūtāre*, to change; c. **MUTUAL**, from Latin *mūtuus*, “done in exchange,” borrowed, reciprocal, mutual. **3.** Suffixed zero-grade form **\*mi-tā-**. **AZIMUTH, ZENITH**, from Latin *sēmita*, sidetrack, side path (< “thing going off to the side”; **sē-**, apart; see **s(w)e-**). **4.** Suffixed extended zero-grade form **\*mit-to-**. a. **MIS-¹**, from Old English *mis-*, *mis-*, and Old French *mes-* (from Frankish **\*miss-**); b. **AMISS, MISTAKE**, from Old Norse *mis(s)*, *mis(s)-*, miss, mis-; c. **MISS¹**, from Old English *missan*, to miss, from Germanic **\*missjan**, to go wrong. a-c all from Germanic **\*missa-**, “in a changed manner,” abnormally, wrongly. **5.** Suffixed o-grade form **\*moi-n-** in compound adjective **\*ko-moin-i-**, “held in common” (**\*ko-**, together; see **kom**). a. **MEAN², DEMEAN?**, from Old English *gemǣne*, common, public, general, from Germanic **\*gamaini-**; b. **COMMON, COMMUNE¹, COMMUNE², COMMUNICATE, COMMUNISM; EXCOMMUNICATE, INCOMMUNICADO**, from Latin *commūnis*, common, public, general. **6.** Suffixed o-grade form **\*moi-n-es-**. a. **MUNICIPAL, MUNIFICENT, REMUNERATE**, from Latin *mūnus*, “service performed for the community,” duty, work, “public spectacle paid for by a magistrate,” gift; b. **IMMUNE**, from Latin *immūnis*, exempt from public service (**in-**, negative prefix; see **ne**). **7.** Suffixed extended zero-grade form **\*mit-ti-**. Slavic **\*misti**, revenge, and **\*mistiti**, to take revenge, in Russian *mstit’*, to take revenge, in personal name *Mstislav* (see **kleu-**). **8.** Perhaps extended form **\*(a)meigʷ-** (oldest form **\*h₂meigʷ-**) but more likely a separate root. a. **AMOEBA**, from Greek *ameibein*, to change; b. **MIGRATE; EMIGRATE**, from Latin *migrāre*, to change one’s place of living. [Pokorny 2. **mei-**, 3. **mei-** 710, **meig-** 713, 2. **mei-t(h)-** 715.] **mei-** ² Small. **1.** **MEIOSIS; MEIOFAUNA, MIOCENE**, from Greek *meiōn*, less, lesser, from extended variant **\*meiu-**. **2.** Zero-grade compounded suffixed form **\*ne-mi-s** (see **ne**). **3.** Suffixed zero-grade form **\*mi-nu-**. a. **MENU, MINCE, MINUEND, MINUET, MINUTE, MINUTIAE, COMMINUTE, DIMINISH**, from Latin *minuere*, to reduce, diminish; b. **MINOR, MINUS; MINUSCULE**, from Latin *minor* (influenced by the comparative suffix **-or**), less, lesser, smaller; c. further suffixed (superlative) form **\*minu-mo-**. **MINIM, MINIMUM**, from Latin *minimus*, least; d. **MINESTRONE, MINISTER, MINISTRY, MYSTERY²**, from Latin *minister*, an inferior, servant (formed after *magister*, master; see **meg-**); e. **MENSHEVIK**, from Russian *men’she*, less. [Pokorny 5. **mei-** 711.] **mei-** ³ To fix; to build fences or fortifications. **1.** Suffixed o-grade form **\*moi-ro-**. a. **MERE³**, from Old English *mǣre*, boundary, border, landmark, from Germanic **\*mair-ja-**; b. **MURAL, MURE; IMMURE, MURAMIC ACID**, from Latin *mūrus*, wall. **2.** Suffixed o-grade form **\*moi-ni-**. **MUNIMENT, MUNITION; AMMUNITION, PRAEMUNIRE, PREMUNITION**, from Latin *mūnīre*, to fortify, protect, strengthen. **3.** Possibly suffixed lengthened-grade form **\*mēi-t-**. **METE²**, from Latin *mēta*, boundary stone, limit. [Pokorny 1. **mei-** 709.] **mei-** ⁴ To tie. **1.** Suffixed zero-grade form **\*mi-tro-**, “that which binds.” a. **MITER**, from Greek *mitrā*, headband, earlier a piece of armor worn around the waist; b. **MITRA**, from Sanskrit *Mitraḥ*, Mitra; c. **MITHRAS, MITHRAEUM**, from Avestan and Old Persian *Mithra-*, Mithras. Both b and c from Indo-Iranian **\*mitram**, contract, whence **\*mitras**, contractual partner, friend, divinized as a god **\*Mitras**; d. (i) **MIR**, from Russian *mir*, world, peace; (ii) Old Church Slavonic *mirŭ*, peace, in personal name *Vladimirŭ* (see **wal-**). Both (i) and (ii) from Slavic **\*mirŭ**, commune, joy, peace (possibly borrowed from Iranian). **2.** Possibly suffixed zero-grade **\*mi-to-**. **MITOSIS; DIMITY, MITOCHONDRION, SAMITE**, from Greek *mitos*, a warp thread. [Pokorny 4. **mei-** 710.] Language and Culture Note The contract was an important type of reciprocal exchange relationship in ancient Indo-European societies. In fact, the first documentarily attested word in any Indo- European language is the Hittite word for “contract,” appearing as a loanword in Akkadian (see note at **sai-** ²). In Indo-Iranian, the word for “contractual partner,” **\*mitra-**, was divinized as the god *Mitra*, one of the preeminent deities in the pantheon. His name is also one of the earliest Indic words we possess, being found in clay tablets from Anatolia dating to about 1500 BC. **mēi-** Mild. (Oldest form **\*mehi-**, with variant [metathesized] form **\*meih₁-**, whence zero-grade **\*mih₁-**, contracted to **\*mī-**.) Suffixed zero-grade form **\*mī-ti-**. **MITIGATE**, from Latin *mītis*, soft. [Pokorny 7. **mei-** 711.] **meigh-** To urinate. (Oldest form **\*h₃meigh-**.) **1.** a. **MIST**, from Old English *mist*, mist; b. **MIZZLE¹**, from Middle English *misellen*, to drizzle, from a source perhaps akin to Dutch dialectal *mieselen*, to drizzle; c. **MISSEL THRUSH, MISTLETOE**, from Old English *mistel*, mistletoe, from Germanic diminutive form **\*mihst-ila-**, mistletoe (which is propagated through the droppings of the missel thrush). a-c all from Germanic suffixed form **\*mih-stu-**, urine, hence mist, fine rain. **2.** Suffixed form **\*migh-tu-**. **MICTURATE**, from Latin *micturīre*, to want to urinate (desiderative of *meiere*, to urinate). [Pokorny **meiĝh-** 713.] **meik-** Also **meig-**. To mix. (Oldest forms **\*meik-**, **\*meiĝ-**.) **1.** Zero-grade variant form **\*mig-**. **AMPHIMIXIS, APOMIXIS, MIGMATITE, PANMIXIA**, from Greek *mignunai*, to mix, and noun *mixis* (< **\*mig-ti-**), a mingling. **2.** Suffixed zero-grade form **\*mik-sk-**. **MEDDLE, MEDLEY, MÉLANGE, MELEE, MESCLUN, MESTIZO, MISCELLANEOUS, MISCIBLE, MIX, MIXTURE, MUSTANG; ADMIX, COMMIX, IMMIX, MISCEGENATION, PELL-MELL, PROMISCUOUS**, from Latin *miscēre* (past participle *mixtus*), to mix. **3.** Possibly Germanic **\*maisk-** (phonological details unclear). **MASH**, from Old English **\**māsc*, **\**mācs*, *max-*, mashed malt. [Pokorny **mei-k-** 714.] **mei-no-** Opinion, intention. **1.** **MOAN**, from Old English **\**mān*, opinion, complaint, from Germanic **\*main-**. **2.** **MEAN¹; BEMOAN**, from Old English *mǣnan*, to sig- <55> nify, tell, complain of, moan, from Germanic **\*mainjan**. [Pokorny **mei-no-** 714.] **mel-** ¹ Soft; with derivatives referring to soft or softened materials of various kinds. I. Extended form **\*meld-**. **1.** **MELT**, from Old English *meltan*, to melt, from Germanic **\*meltan**. **2.** Possibly Germanic **\*miltjam**. **MILT**, from Old English *milte*, spleen, and Middle Dutch *milte*, milt. **3.** Possibly Germanic **\*maltam**. **MALT**, from Old English *mealt*, malt. **4.** Suffixed variant form **\*mled-sno-**. **BLENNY**, from Greek *blennos*, slime, also a name for the blenny. **5.** Suffixed zero-grade form **\*mld-wi-**. **MOIL, MOJITO, MOLLIFY, MOLLUSK, MOUILLÉ; EMOLLIENT**, from Latin *mollis*, soft. **6.** Possibly nasalized variant form **\*mlad-**. **BLAND, BLANDISH**, from Latin *blandus*, smooth, caressing, flattering, soft-spoken. II. Variant form **\*smeld-**. **1.** Germanic **\*smelt-**. a. **SMELT¹**, from Middle Dutch or Middle Low German *smelten*, to smelt; b. **SCHMALTZ**, from Old High German *smalz*, animal fat; c. **SMALT**, from Italian *smalto*, enamel, glaze; d. **ENAMEL**, from Old French *esmail*, enamel. **2.** **SMELT²**, from Old English *smelt*, *smylt*, a marine fish, smelt, perhaps from Germanic **\*smelt-**. III. Extended form **\*meldh-**. **1.** a. **MILD**, from Old English *milde*, mild; b. **MILDRED** (personal name), from Old English *Mildthryth*, “mild strength” (*thryth*, strength). Both a and b from Germanic **\*mildja-**. **2.** Zero-grade form **\*mldh-**, possibly in Greek *maltha*, a mixture of wax and pitch: **MALTHA**. IV. Suffixed form **\*mel-sko-**. **MULCH**, from Old English *mel(i)sc*, *mylsc*, mild, mellow, from Germanic **\*mil-sk-**. V. Extended form **\*mlak-** (oldest form **\*mlh₂ak-**). **BONANZA, CHONDROMALACIA, MALACOLOGY, OSTEOMALACIA**, from Greek *malakos*, soft. VI. Possibly Celtic **\*molto-**, sheep. **MUTTON**, from Old French *moton*, sheep. VII. Suffixed zero-grade form **\*(ə)ml-u-** (oldest form **\*h₂ml-u-**). **AMBLYGONITE, AMBLYOPIA**, from Greek *amblus*, blunt, dull, dim. [Pokorny 1. **mel-** 716.] **mel-** ² Of a darkish color. **1.** **MELANO-, MELENA; MELALEUCA, MELANCHOLY, PSILOMELANE**, from Greek *melās*, black. **2.** **MULLET¹,** from Greek *mullos*, a marine fish. **3.** **MULE²**, from Latin *mulleus*, reddish purple (used only to designate a ceremonial shoe worn by Roman magistrates). **4.** Perhaps Germanic **\*mal-**. **MAULSTICK**, from Middle Dutch *mālen*, to paint. [Pokorny 6. **mel-** 720.] **mel-** ³ A limb. **MELISMA; ACROMELIC, MELODRAMA, MELODY**, from Greek *melos*, limb, hence a musical member or phrase, hence music, song, melody. [Pokorny 5. **mel-** 720.] **mel-** ⁴ Strong, great. **1.** Suffixed (comparative) form **\*mel-yos-**. **AMELIORATE, MELIORATE, MELIORISM**, from Latin *melior*, better. **2.** Possibly suffixed (comparative) zero-grade form **\*ml-yes-** and derived adjective **\*ml-yes-ri-**. **MULIEBRITY**, from Latin *muliebris*, womanly (< **\*ml-yes-ri-**), akin to *mulier* (< **\*ml-yes-**), woman, wife (perhaps < “senior wife,” designating the primary spouse of a man at a prehistoric stage of Italic society in which polygyny was practiced). **3.** Suffixed zero-grade form **\*ml-to-**. **MOLTO, MUCHO, MULTI-, MULTITUDE**, from Latin *multus*, much, many. [Pokorny 4. **mel-** 720.] **mel-** ⁵ False, bad, wrong. **1.** **MAL-, MALICE, MALIGN; DISMAL, MALADY, MALARIA, MALEDICT, MALEFACTOR, MALEFIC, MALENTENDU, MALEVOLENCE, MALISON, MALVERSATION**, from Latin *malus*, bad, and *male*, ill (> *malignus*, harmful). **2.** Perhaps suffixed zero-grade form **\*ml-s-**. **BLAME, BLASPHEME**, from Greek *blasphēmos*, blasphemous, perhaps from **\*mls-bhā-mo-**, “speaking evil” (**\*bhā-**, to speak; see **bhā-** ²). [Pokorny 2. **mel-** 719, **mēlo-** 724.] **meldh-** To pray, speak words to a deity. Suffixed form **\*meldh-ə-**. **MELD¹**, from Old High German *meldōn*, to proclaim, reveal, from Germanic **\*meldōn**, from **\*meldō**, declaration. [Pokorny 1. **meldh-** 722.] **melə-** Also **mel-**. To crush, grind; with derivatives referring to various ground or crumbling substances (such as flour) and to instruments for grinding or crushing (such as millstones). (Oldest form **\*melh₂-**.) **1.** O-grade form **\*mol-**. **MAELSTROM**, from Middle Dutch *mālen*, to whirl, from Germanic **\*mal-**. **2.** Full-grade form **\*mel-**. **MEAL¹**, from Old English *melu*, flour, meal, from Germanic suffixed form **\*mel-wa-**. **3.** Zero-grade form **\*ml-**. **MOLD³, MOLDER**, from Old English *molde*, soil, from Germanic suffixed form **\*mul-dō**. **4.** Full-grade form **\*mel-**. a. **MEUNIÈRE, MILL¹, MOLA², MOLAR, MOLE², MOULIN; EMOLUMENT, IMMOLATE, ORMOLU**, from Latin *molere*, to grind (grain), and its derivative *mola*, a millstone, mill, coarse meal customarily sprinkled on sacrificial animals; b. possible suffixed form **\*mel-iyo-**. **MEALIE, MILIARY, MILIUM, MILLET; GROMWELL**, from Latin *milium*, millet. **5.** Suffixed variant form **\*mal-ni-**. **MALLEABLE, MALLEOLUS, MALLET, MALLEUS, MAUL; PALL-MALL**, from Latin *malleus*, hammer, mallet. **6.** Zero-grade form **\*mļ-**. **AMYLUM, MYLONITE**, from Greek *mulē*, *mulos*, millstone, mill. **7.** Possibly extended form **\*mlī-**. **BLINI, BLINTZ**, from Old Russian *blinŭ*, pancake. [Pokorny 1. **mel-** 716.] **melg-** To rub off; also to milk. (Oldest form **\*h₂melg-**.) I. **1.** Zero-grade form **\*mļg-**. **EMULSION**, from Latin *mulgēre*, to milk. **2.** Full-grade form **\*melg-**. a. **MILK**, from Old English *meolc*, *milc*; b. **MILCH**, from Old English *-milce*, milch, from Germanic suffixed form **\*meluk-ja-**, giving milk; c. **MILCHIG**, from Old High German *miluh*, milk. a-c all from Germanic **\*melkan**, to milk, contaminated with an unrelated noun for milk, cognate with the Greek and Latin forms given in II below, to form the blend **\*meluk-**. II. Included here to mark the unexplained fact that no common Indo-European noun for milk can be reconstructed is another root **\*g(a)lag-**, **\*g(a)lakt-**, milk, found only in: a. **GALACTIC, GALACTO-, GALAXY; AGALACTIA, POLYGALA**, from Greek *gala* (stem *galakt-*), milk; b. **LACTATE, LACTEAL, LACTESCENT, LACTO-, LATTE, LETTUCE; ARROZ CON LECHE, DULCE DE LECHE**, from Latin *lac*, milk; c. the blended Germanic form cited in I. 2. above. [Pokorny **mélĝ-** 722, **glag-** 400.] **melit-** Honey. **1.** a. **HYDROMEL, MARMALADE, MELILOT, MEMBRILLO, OENOMEL**, from Greek *meli* (stem *melit-*), honey; b. suffixed form **\*melit-ya**. **MELISSA** (personal name), from Greek (Ionic) *melissa*, honeybee. **2.** a. **MELLIFEROUS, MELLIFLUOUS, MOLASSES**, from Latin *mel* (stem *mell-*), honey, from **\*meld-**, syncopated from **\*melid-**; b. suffixed zero-grade form **\*mld-to-**, “honied.” **MOUSSE**, from Latin *mulsus*, honey-sweet. **3.** **MILDEW**, from Old English *mildēaw*, honeydew, nectar, from Germanic compound **\*melith-dauwaz**, honeydew (a substance secreted by aphids on leaves; it was formerly imagined to be distilled from the air like dew; **\*dauwaz**, dew; see **dheu-** ²), from **\*melith-**. [Pokorny **meli-t** 723.] **melkʷ-** To harm. Possibly the source of Kurdish *merg*, death, in *pēšmerge*, one who faces death, peshmerga. See **merk-** ². [Pokorny **melkʷ-** 737.] **[mēlon** An apple, or any seed- or pit-bearing fruit. Attic Greek noun (Doric *mālon*), possibly borrowed from a Mediterranean language (compare Hittite *maḫla-*, grapevine, branch). **MELON; CHAMOMILE, CHRYSOMELID, MALIC ACID, MARMALADE, MEMBRILLO**.] **mēms-** Flesh, meat. **1.** Suffixed form **\*mems-ro-**. **MEMBER, MEMBRANE**, from Latin *membrum*, limb, member. **2.** Suffixed form **\*mēms-no-**. **MENINX, MYRINGITIS**, from Greek *mēninx*, membrane. **3.** Thought <56> by some to come from this root is Latin *mēnsa*, table (? < “food (on a table)”): **MESA, MENSA¹, MENSA², MENSAL; COMMENSAL**. [Pokorny **mēmso-** 725.] **men-** ¹ To think; with derivatives referring to various qualities and states of mind and thought. I. Zero-grade form **\*mņ-**. **1.** Suffixed form **\*mņ-ti-**. a. **MIND**, from Old English *gemynd*, memory, mind, from Germanic **\*ga-mundi-** (**\*ga-**, collective prefix; see **kom**); b. **MENTAL; AMENTIA, DEMENT**, from Latin *mēns* (stem *ment-*), mind; c. **MENTION**, from Latin *mentiō*, remembrance, mention. **2.** Suffixed form **\*mņ-to-**. **AUTOMATIC**, from Greek *-matos*, “willing.” **3.** Suffixed form **\*mņ-yo-**. a. **MAENAD**, from Greek *mainesthai*, to be mad; b. **AHRIMAN**, from Avestan *mainiiuš*, spirit. **4.** a. **MANIA, MANIAC, MANIC**, from Greek *mania*, madness; b. **BALLETOMANE**, from Greek *-manēs*, ardent admirer. II. Full-grade form **\*men-**. **1.** Suffixed form **\*men-ti-**. a. **MINNESINGER**, from Old High German *minna*, love; b. **MINIKIN**, from Middle Dutch *minne*, love. Both a and b from Germanic **\*minthjō**. **2.** a. **MEMENTO**, from Latin reduplicated form *meminisse*, to remember; b. **COMMENT**, from Latin *comminīscī*, to contrive by thought (*com-*, intensive prefix; see **kom**); c. **REMINISCENT**, from Latin *reminīscī*, to recall, recollect (*re-*, again, back; see **re-**); d. possibly Latin *Minerva*, name of the goddess of wisdom: **MINERVA**. **3.** a. **MENTOR**, from Greek *Mentōr*, Mentor, man’s name (probably meaning “adviser”); b. **-MANCY, MANTIC, MANTIS**, from Greek *mantis*, seer (vocalism obscure). **4.** **MANDARIN, MANTRA**, from Sanskrit *mantraḥ*, counsel, prayer, hymn. **5.** Suffixed form **men-es-**. **EUMENIDES**, from Greek *menos*, spirit. III. O-grade form **\*mon-**. **1.** Suffixed (causative) form **\*mon-eyo-**. **MONISH, MONITION, MONITOR, MONSTER, MONUMENT, MUSTER; ADMONISH, DEMONSTRATE, PREMONITION, SUMMON**, from Latin *monēre*, to remind, warn, advise. **2.** Suffixed o-grade form **\*mon-twā**. **MOSAIC, MUSE, MUSEUM, MUSIC**, from Greek *Mousa*, a Muse. IV. Extended form **\*mnā-** (contracted from **\*mnah₂-**, colored from oldest form **\*mneh₂-**). **1.** **AMNESIA, AMNESTY, ANAMNESIS**, from Greek reduplicated form *mimnēskein*, to remember. **2.** **MNEMONIC**, from Greek *mnēmōn*, mindful. **3.** **MNEMOSYNE**, from Greek *mnēmē*, memory. V. Suffixed form **\*men-s** (zero-grade **\*mņ-s**), mind, in Indo-European verb phrase **\*mens dhe-**, “to set mind” (**\*dhē-**, to put; see **dhē-**), underlying compound noun **\*mn̥s-dhe-**. **AHURA MAZDA, MAZDAISM, ORMAZD**, from Avestan *mazdā-*, wise. [Pokorny 3. **men-** 726, **mendh-** 730.] **men-** ² To project. **1.** Suffixed zero-grade form **\*mņ-to-** in a western Indo-European word for a projecting body part, variously “chin, jaw, mouth.” a. **MOUTH**, from Old English *mūth*, mouth, from Germanic **\*munthaz**; b. **MENTAL²**, from Latin *mentum*, chin. **2.** **MENACE, MINACIOUS; AMENABLE, DEMEAN², PROMENADE**, from Latin *minae*, projecting points, threats. **3.** **EMINENT, IMMINENT, PROMINENT, PROMONTORY**, from Latin *-minēre*, to project, jut, threaten. **4.** Suffixed o-grade form **\*mon-ti-**. **MONS, MONTAGNARD, MONTANE, MONTE, MONTICULE, MOUNT¹, MOUNT², MOUNTAIN; AMOUNT, ULTRAMONTANE**, from Latin *mōns* (stem *mont-*), mountain. [Pokorny 1. **men-** 726, 2. **menth-** 732.] **men-** ³ To remain. Variant suffixed (stative) form **\*man-ē-**. **MANOR, MANSE, MANSION, MÉNAGE; IMMANENT, PERMANENT, REMAIN**, from Latin *manēre*, to remain. [Pokorny 5. **men-** 729.] **men-** ⁴ Small, isolated. **1.** **MANOMETER**, from Greek *manos*, rare, sparse. **2.** Suffixed o-grade form **\*mon-wo-**. **MONAD, MONASTERY, MONK, MONO-; PSEUDOMONAD**, from Greek *monos*, alone, single, sole. **3.** Possibly also suffixed form **\*men-i-**, a small fish. **MINNOW**, from Middle English *meneu*, a small fish, from a source akin to Old English *myne*, *mynwe*, minnow. [Pokorny 4. **men-** 728, **meni-** 731.] **-men-** Ablaut variants **\*-mon-**, **\*-mņ-**. Suffix forming nouns and adjectives, as in **\*krei-men-**, a judging (see **krei-**). [Not in Pokorny.] **mend-** Physical defect, fault. **1.** **MENDICANT; AMEND, EMEND, MEND**, from Latin *mendum*, *menda*, defect, fault. **2.** **MENDACIOUS**, from Latin *mendāx*, lying, liar. [Pokorny **mend(ə)** 729.] **mendh-** ¹ To learn. Zero-grade form **\*mņdh-**. **MATHEMATICAL, MATHEMATICS; CHRESTOMATHY, POLYMATH**, from Greek *manthanein* (aorist stem *math-*), to learn. [Pokorny **mendh-** 730.] **mendh-** ² To chew. **1.** **MANDIBLE, MANGE, MANGER; BLANCMANGE**, from Latin *mandere*, to chew. **2.** Zero-grade form **\*mņdh-**. a. **MASSETER**, from Greek *masāsthai*, to chew (< **\*math-yə-**); b. **MOSTACCIOLI, MUSTACHE**, from Greek (Doric) *mustax*, upper lip, mustache, expressive word modeled on *mastax*, mouth; c. **MASTICATE**, from Greek *mastikhān*, to grind the teeth. [Pokorny 2. **menth-** 732.] **menegh-** Copious. **MANY**, from Old English *manig*, *mænig*, many, from Germanic **\*managa-**. [Pokorny **men(e)gh-** 730.] **mer-** ¹ To flicker; with derivatives referring to dim states of illumination. **1.** Suffixed form **\*mer-o-**. **MERE¹**, from Latin *merus*, pure, unadulterated (< “unmixed wine”). **2.** Extended form **\*merk-**. a. **MORN, MORNING, MORROW**, from Old English *morgen*, morning; b. **MORGEN**, from Middle Dutch *morghen*, morning; c. **MORGANATIC**, from Old High German *morgan*, morning. a-c all from Germanic **\*murgana-**. **3.** Possibly extended root **\*mergʷ-**. a. Suffixed form **\*mergʷ-yo-**. **MURK**, from Old English *mirce*, darkness, from Germanic **\*merkwia-**, twilight. b. Suffixed o-grade form **\*morgʷ-iyo-**. **MOLYBDENUM**, from Greek *molubdos*, lead, probably from Lydian *mariwda-*, dark, black (lead being “the dark metal”). [Pokorny 2. **mer-** 733.] **mer-** ² To rub away, harm. I. **1.** **NIGHTMARE**, from Old English *mare*, *mære*, goblin, incubus, from Germanic **\*marōn-**, goblin. **2.** **MARASMUS; AMARANTH**, from Greek *marainein*, to waste away, wither. **3.** Probably suffixed zero-grade form **\*mņ-to-**, “ground down.” **MORTAR**, from Latin *mortārium*, mortar. **4.** Possibly extended root **\*merd-**. **MORDACIOUS, MORDANT, MORDENT, MORSEL; PREMORSE, REMORSE**, from Latin *mordēre*, to bite. **5.** Possibly suffixed form **\*mor-bho-**. **MORBID**, from Latin *morbus*, disease (but this is more likely of unknown origin). II. Possibly the same root is **\*mer-**, “to die,” with derivatives referring to death and to human beings as subject to death. **1.** Zero-grade form **\*mr-**. a. Suffixed form **\*mr-tro-**. **MURDER**, from Old English *morthor*, murder, from Germanic suffixed form **\*mur-thra-**; b. suffixed form **\*mr-ti-**. **MORT, MORTAL; AMORTIZE, MORTIFY, POSTMORTEM**, from Latin *mors* (stem *mort-*), death; c. suffixed form **\*mr-yo-**. **MORIBUND, MORTGAGE, MORTMAIN, MORTUARY, MURRAIN**, from Latin *morī*, to die, with irregular past participle *mortuus* (< **\*mr-two-**), replacing older **\*mr-to-** (for which see **d**); d. prefixed and suffixed form **\*n-mr-to-**, “undying, immortal.” (**\*n-**, negative prefix; see **ne**). (i) **IMMORTAL**, from Latin *immortālis*; (ii) **AMBROSIA**, from Greek *ambrotos*, immortal, divine (*a-* + *-mbrotos*, *brotos*, mortal); (iii) **AMRITA**, from Sanskrit *amṛtam*, immortality (*a-* + *mṛta-*, dead). **2.** Suffixed o-grade form **\*mor-t-yo-**. **MANTICORE**, from Greek *mantikhōras* (corrupted from *marti(o)khōras*), manticore, probably from Iranian compound **\*martiya-khvāra-**, “man-eater” (**\*khvāra-**, eating; see **swel-** ¹), from Old Persian *martiya-*, a mortal man. [Pokorny 4. **mer-**, 5. **mer-** 735.] See also extended root **smerd-**. <57> **merǝ-** To hinder, delay. (Oldest form *merh₂-.) MORA, MORATORIUM, MORATORY; DEMUR, REMORA, from Latin mora, a delay. (In Pokorny (s)mer-969.] **merg-** Boundary, border. (Oldest form *merg-.) 1a. MARK¹, from Old English mearc, boundary, landmark, sign, trace; b. MARGRAVE, from Middle Dutch marc, border; C. MARCH, MARQUEE, MARQUIS, MARQUISE, from Old French marc, marche, border country; d. MARCHESE, MARCHIONESS, from Medieval Latin marca, boundary, border; e. DEMARCATION, from Old Italian marcare, to mark out; f. MARK², from Old English marc, a mark of weight or money; g. MARKKA, from Swedish mark, a mark of money; h. MARKA, from Middle High German marke, mark of money. a-h all from Germanic *mark-, boundary, border territory; also to mark out a boundary by walking around it (ceremonially "beating the bounds"); also a landmark, boundary marker, and a mark in general (and in particular a mark on a metal currency bar, hence a unit of currency); these various meanings are widely represented in Germanic descendants and in Romance borrowings. 2. LETTERS OF MARQUE, MARQUETRY; REMARK, from Old Norse merki, a mark, from Germanic *markja-, mark, border. 3. MARC, MARCH, from Frankish *markōn, to mark out, from Germanic denominative verb *markōn. 4. MARGIN; EMARGINATE, from Latin margā, border, edge. 5. Celtic variant form *mrog-, territory, land. CYMRY, from Welsh Cymro, Wales, from British Celtic *kom-brogos, fellow countryman (*kom-, collective prefix; see kom), from *brogos, district. [Pokorny mereĝ- 738.] **mergh-** To wet, sprinkle, rain. Variant form *mregh-. EMBROCATE, from Greek brekhein, to wet. [Pokorny meregh-738.] **merk-1** To decay. MARCESCENT, from Latin marcere, to decay, wither. [Pokorny 1. merk-739.] **merk-2** To cut up, injure (?). Possibly the source from Kurdish pesmerge, one who faces death, peshmerga, from merg, death (pes, in front of, before; see poti), from Old Iranian *mrka-, death (Avestan mahrka-): PESHMERGA. Others have seen the source of Old Iranian *mrka- in a root *melk"-, also seen in Greek blaptein (<*mik-ye-), to harm, injure; since the roots *merk- amd *melk"- would fall together as *mark- in Indo-Iranian, the attested Indo-Iranian forms may present a blending of the two roots. [Not in Pokorny; compare Hittite mark-, to cut up.] [**merk-3**] Italic root, possibly from Etruscan, referring to aspects of commerce. 1. MARKET, MART, MERCER, MERCHANT; COMMERCE, from Latin merx, merchandise, and derivative mercārī, to trade. 2. MERCENARY, MERCY, from Latin mercês, pay, reward, price. 3. Probably Latin Mercurius, the god of (inter alia) commerce: MERCURY. [In Pokorny merk- 739.] [**merph-**] Form. Greek root of unknown origin. 1. Suffixed o-grade form *morph-. -MORPH, MORPHEME, MORPHO-, MORPHOSIS, from Greek morphe, form, beauty, outward appearance. 2. FORM, -FORM, FORMAL, FORMANT, FORMAT, FORMULA; CONFORM, DEFORM, FIRMER CHISEL, INFORM, PLATFORM, REFORM, TRANSFORM, UNIFORM, from Latin forma, form, shape, contour, apearance, beauty, possibly borrowed from Greek morphē via Etruscan. (In Pokorny 2. mer- 733.] **mers-** To trouble, confuse. Suffixed o-grade form *mors-eyo-. MAR, from Old English merran, mierran, to impede, from Germanic *marzjan. (In Pokorny 6. mer-737.] **meuǝ-1** To push away. MOB, MOBILE, MOMENT, MOMENTOUS, MOMENTUM, MOSSO, MOTIF, MOTION, MOTIVE, MOTOR, MOVE, MOVEMENT; COMMOTION, EMOTION, PROMOTE, REMOTE, REMOVE, from Latin movère, to move. [Pokorny 2. meu-743.] **meuǝ-2** Abundant, reproductively powerful. A root found in Anatolian, Greek, Latin, and Irish. (Oldest form *meuh₁- or *meuh3-.) Suffixed zero-grade form *mu-ri- (< *mua-ri-), abundance, in possessive derivative form *mûri-o-, "having abundance," abundant. MYRIAD, from Greek mūrios, countless. (Not in Pokorny; compare Hittite mūri-, cluster of grapes, Hittite (from Luvian) mūwa-, power (< "that comes from or results in abundance"), Latin mūtō, penis, and Middle Irish moth, penis.] **meuǝ-3** To be silent. (Oldest form *meuh₂-.) 1. Zero-grade form *mü- (< *mua-). MUTE, from Latin mūtus, silent, dumb. 2. MIOSIS, MYSTERY, MYSTIC; MYΟΡΙΑ, from Greek müein, to close the eyes (< "to close the lips"). 3. MUM, independent creation imitative of the vocal gesture of closing the lips. [Pokorny 1. ma- 751.] **meug-** Slimy, slippery; with derivatives referring to various wet or slimy substances and conditions. Related to meus-. 1. Nasalized zero-grade form *mu-n-g-. EMUNCTORY, from Latin mungere, to blow the nose. 2. Possibly Germanic *(s)muk-, referring to wetness and also to figurative slipperiness. a. smoск, from Old English smoc, shirt; b. SMUG, from Middle Low German smucken, to adorn (< "to make sleek"); C. SCHMUCK, from Middle High German smuck, "clothing," adornment, jewels; d. MUGGY, from Middle English muggen, to drizzle, from a source akin to Old Norse mugga, drizzle; e. SMUGGLE, from Low German smukkelen, smuggeln, to smuggle (< "to slip contraband through"); f. MOLD², from Middle English molde, mold, from a source akin to Old Norse mygla, mold, mildew. 3. MEEK, from Old Norse mjūkr, soft, from Germanic *meuk-. 4. Variant form *meuk-. MOIST, MUCILAGE, MUCO-, MUCUS, MUSTY, from Latin mūcus, mucus. 5. Zero-grade form *muk-. a. -MYCETE, MYCO-; SACCHAROMYCES, STREPTOMYCES, STREPTOMYCIN, from Greek mukės, fungus, mushroom; b. suffixed form *muk-so-. MATCH², МУХО-, from Greek muxa, mucus, lamp wick (< "nozzle of a lamp" < "nostril"). (Pokorny 2. meug-744.] **meus-** Damp; with derivatives referring to swampy ground and vegetation and to figurative qualities of wetness. Related to meug-. 1a. Moss, from Old English mos, bog; b. LITMUS, from Middle Dutch mos, moss, and from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse mosi, bog, moss. Both a and b from Germanic *meus-, *mus-. 2. MIRE; QUAGMIRE, from Old Norse myrr, bog, from Germanic suffixed form *meuz-i-. 3. Suffixed zero-grade form *mus-to-. MUST³, MUSTARD, from Latin mustus, new, newborn (< "wet"). 4. Possibly suffixed zero-grade form *mus-so-, MYSOPHОВІА, from Greek musos, uncleanness. [Pokorny 1. meu-741.] **mezg-1** To dip, plunge. MERGE; DEMERSAL, EMERGE, IMMERSE, SUBMERGE, from Latin mergere, to dip, dive. 2. MERGANSER, from Latin mergus, diver (water bird). [Pokorny 1. mezg- 745.] **mezg-2** To knit. Mesh, from Middle Dutch masche, maesche, knitted fabric, from Germanic *mēsk-. [Pokorny 2. mezg-746.] [**mittere**] To let go, send off, throw. Latin verb of unclear origin and formation; oldest form probably *smittere (in archaic spelling cosmittere of Classical Latin compound committere, to bring together). MASS, MESS, MESSAGE, MISSILE, MISSION, MISSIVE; ADMIT, CHRISTMAS, COMMIT, COMPROMISE, DEMIT, DISMISS, EMIT, INTERMIT, INTROMIT, LAMMAS, MARTINMAS, MICHAELMAS, OMIT, PERMIT, PREMISE, PRETERMIT, PROMISE, REMIT, SUBMIT, SURMISE, TRANSMIT. [In Pokorny *smeit-968.] **mizdho-** Reward. MEED, from Old English med, reward, compensation, meed, from West Germanic *mēdő-, from Germanic *mizdō. [Pokorny mizdhó- 746.] <58> **-mno-** Suffix forming passive participles to verbs, such as *al-o-mno-, being nourished (see **al-3**). [Not in Pokorny.] **mō-** To exert oneself. (Oldest form *meh3-, colored to *moh3-, contracted to *mo-.) Suffixed form *mo-l-. MOLE³, MOLECULE, MOLEST; DEMOLISH, from Latin mōlēs, heavy bulk, mass, massive structure, and irregular derivative molestus, labored, difficult, troublesome. [Pokorny mō-746.] **-mo-** Adjective and noun suffix, appearing ultimately in English -ISM, from Greek-ismos, abstract noun suffix to verbs in stem -id-. (Not in Pokorny.] **mōd-** To meet, assemble. (Oldest form *meh3d-, colored to *mohad-, contracted to *mōd-.) 1. MEET¹, from Old English metan, to meet, from Germanic *mõtjan. 2. MOOT, FOLKMOOT, GEMOT, WITENAGEMот, from Old English mōt, gemōt, meeting, moot, assembly, council (ge-, together; see **kom**), from Germanic *mōta-. 3. Perhaps suffixed zero-grade form *madtlo-. a. MELVIN (personal name), from Old English Mælwine, "friend of the council" (wine, friend; see **wen-1**), from mæl, council; b. MAIL³; BLACKMAIL, BOKM. AL, RIKSMAL, from Old Norse mal, speech, agreement. Both a and b from Germanic *mathla-. [Pokorny mod-746.] **modhro-** A color. MADDER¹, from Old English mædere, madder, from Germanic *madraz. [Pokorny modhro-747.] **molko-** Skin bag. MAIL¹, from Old French male, bag, from a Germanic source akin to Old High German malha, pouch, bag, from Germanic *malho. [Pokorny molko-747.] **mon-** Neck, nape of the neck. 1. MANE, from Old English manu, mane, from Germanic *mano. 2a. MONILIFORM, from Latin monile, necklace. b. Possibly the Latin divine epithet Monēta in the name Jūnō Monēta (the form of Juno in whose temple in Rome coins were struck), if originally meaning "wearing a necklace"; compare the Norse goddess Menglödh, literally "rejoicing in her necklace," and the Norse myth in which Freya, the goddess of love, obtains a beautiful necklace after agreeing to lie with the dwarfs who have fashioned it: MINT), MONEY. (Pokorny mono- 747.] **mori-** Body of water; lake (?), sea (?). 1a. MERE²; MERMAID, from Old English mere, sea, lake, pond; b. MARRAM GRASS, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse marálmr, beach grass, from marr, sea (hálmr, straw; see **kolə-mo-**); C. MEERSCHAUM, from Old High German mari, sea; d. MEERKAT, from Middle Dutch meer, sea. a-d all from Germanic *mari-. 2a. MARSH, from Old English mersc, merisc, marsh; b. MORASS, from Old French maresc, mareis, marsh. Both a and b from Germanic *mariska-, water-logged land. 3. MAAR, MARE, MARINARA, MARINE, MARITIME; BÊCHE-DE-MER, CORMORANT, MARICULTURE, ORMER, ULTRAMARINE, from Latin mare, sea. 4. MURIEL (personal name), from a Celtic source akin to Gaelic Muirgheal, "sea-bright" from Old Irish muir, sea (gheal, bright, from Old Irish gel; see **gel-1**). [Pokorny mori 748.] **moro-** Blackberry, mulberry. 1. SYCAMORE, from Greek sūkomoros, an African fig tree, probably borrowed from Semitic but folk-etymologized under the influence of Greek moron, mulberry. 2. MORULA, MURREY; MULBERRY, from Latin mõrum, mulberry (probably from Greek moron). [Pokorny moro- 749.] **morwi-** Ant. 1. PISMIRE, from Middle English mire, ant, from a Scandinavian source akin to Danish myre, ant, from Germanic variant form *meur-. 2. Variant form *morm-. a. MYRMECO-, from Greek murmēx, ant; b. FORMIC, FORMICARY; FORMICIVOROUS, from Latin formīca, ant (with dissimilation). (Pokorny morut-749.] **mozgho-** Marrow. MARROW, from Old English mærg, mærh, marrow, from Germanic *mazgō. [Pokorny moz-g-o- 750.] **mregh-m(n)o-** Brain. 1. BRAIN, from Old English brægen, brain, from Germanic *brag-na-. 2. BREGMA, from Greek bregma, the front part of the head. [Pokorny mregh-m(n)o-750.] **mregh-u-** Short. (Oldest form *mreĝh-u-.) I. Suffixed form *mregh-wi-. BRIEF, BRUMAL; ABBREVIATE, ABRIDGE, from Latin brevis, short. II. Zero-grade form *mrghu-. 1a. MERRY, from Old English myrge, mirige, pleasant; b. MIRTH, from Old English myrgth, pleasure, joy, from Germanic *murgithō, pleasantness. Both a and b from Germanic *murgja-, short, also pleasant, joyful. 2. BRACHY-; AMPHIBRACH, TRIBRACH, from Greek brakhus, short. 3. BRACE, BRACERO, BRACHIUM, BRASSARD, BRASSIERE, PRETZEL; ABRACHIA, EMBRACE, from Greek comparative brakhiōn, shorter, hence also "upper arm" (as opposed to the longer forearm). (Pokorny mreĝhu-750.] **mu-** Gnat, fly. Imitative root. 1. MIDGE, from Old English mycg, midge, from Germanic *mugjō. 2. Suffixed extended form *mus-kā-. MOSQUITO, MUSCA, MUSCID, MUSCARINE, MUSH², MUSKET, from Latin musca, a fly. 3. Suffixed extended form *mus-ya. MYIASIS, from Greek muia, mùa, a fly. [Pokorny 2. mù- 752.] **mūs-** A mouse; also a muscle (from the resemblance of a flexing muscle to the movements of a mouse). 1. MOUSE, from Old English mus (plural mŷs), mouse, from Germanic *mus- (plural *mūsiz). 2. MURINE, MUSCLE, MUSSEL, MUSTELID, MUSTELINE, from Latin mūs, mouse. 3. MYELO-, MYO-; EPIMYSIUM, MYOSOTIS, MYSTICETE, PERIMYSIUM, SYRINGOMYELIA, from Greek mūs, mouse, muscle. 4. Perhaps suffixed shortened form *mus-ko-. MUSCADET, MUSCAT, MUSCATEL, MUSK, MUSTS; NUTMEG, from Sanskrit muskah, testicle, scrotum (?< "little mouse"). (Pokorny mūs 752.] **-n-** Verbal infix to form transitive presents. Infixed to verbal root in the zero grade, as in "yu-n-g-, to yoke (see **yeug-**). Reflected in English in such pairs as tangible: tactile, where the first word comes from a Latin nasal present and the second from a Latin past participle without the nasal (see **tag-**). [Not in Pokorny.] **nā-** To help. (Oldest form *haneh2-, colored to *h3nah2", contracted to *hana-.) JUGGERNAUT, from Sanskrit nathate, he helps, protects (exact preform obscure). [Pokorny 1. nà-754.] **nana** Child's word for a nurse or female adult other than its mother. 1. NANISM, NANO-, from Greek nanna, aunt, whence nannās, uncle, whence nannos, nānos "little old man," dwarf. 2. NUN¹, from Late and Medieval Latin nonna, aunt, old woman, nun. 3. NANA, NANNY, from English baby-talk. [Pokorny nana 754.] **nas-** Nose. 1. NOSE, NUZZLE; NOSTRIL, from Old English nosu, nose, from Germanic zero-grade form *nuso. 2. NESS, from Old English næss, headland, from Germanic *nasjaz. 3. Lengthened-grade form *nās. a. NARIS, from Latin nāris, nostril; b. expressive form *nāss-. NASAL, NASO-; NASTURTIUM, PINCE-NEZ, from Latin nāsus, nose. 4. NARK?, from Romany nāk, nose, from expressive Indo-Aryan form *nakka-. [Pokorny nas-755, neu-ks-768.] **nau-1** Death; to be exhausted. (Oldest form *nehu-, colored to *nah₂u-, contracted to *nau- [before consonants) and *nāw- [before vowels).) 1. Suffixed form *nau-ti-. NEED, from Old English neod, ned, distress, necessity, from Germanic *naudi-. 2. Suffixed form *nāw-i-, corpse. NARWHAL, from Old Norse ndr, corpse, from Germanic *nawi-. 3a. NUDNIK, from Polish nuda, boredom; b. NUDGE², from Russian nudnyi, tedious. Both a and b from Slavic suffixed extended form *naud-ā-. [Pokorny 2. nāu- 756.] **nāu-2** Boat. (Oldest form *neh₂u-, colored to *nahzu-, contracted to *nau- [before consonants) and *nāw- [before vowels).) 1. NACELLE, NAVAL, NAVE, NAVICULAR, NAVIGATE, NAVY, from Latin nāvis, ship. 2. <59> NAUSEA, NAUTICAL, NAUTILUS, NOISE; AERONAUT, AQUANAUT, ARGONAUT, ASTRONAUT, COSMONAUT, CYBERNAUT, from Greek naus, ship, and nautēs, sailor. [Pokorny 1. nāus-755.] **ndher-** Under. 1a. UNDER, UNDER-, from Old English under, under; b. U-BOAT, from Old High German untar, under. Both a and b from Germanic *under-. 2. INFERIOR, from Latin înferus, lower. 3. INFERNAL, INFERNO, from Latin infernus, lower. 4. INFRA-, from Latin infrā, below. [Pokorny ndhos 771.] **ne** Not. 1a. NAUGHT, NAUGHTY, NEITHER, NEVER, NILL, NO, NO2, NONE, NOR', NOT, NOTHING, from Old English ne, not, and nā, no; b. NAY, from Old Norse ne, not; C. NIX², from Old High German ne, ni, not. a-c all from Germanic *ne-, *na-. 2. ANNUL, NEFARIOUS, NESCIENCE, NEUTER, NICE, NULL, NULLIFY, NULLIPARA, from Latin ne-, not, and nüllus, none (ne- + ullus, any; see **oi-no-**). 3. NIMIETY, from Latin nimis, too much, excessively, very (< *ne-mi-s, "not little"; *mi-, little; see **mei-2**). 4. NIHILISM, NIHILITY, NIL; ANNIHILATE, from Latin nihil, nil, nothing, contracted from nihilum, nothing(<*ne-hīlum, "not a whit, nothing at all"; hilum, a thing, trifle; origin unknown). 5. NON-; NONPLUS, NONSUIT, from Latin nōn, not (<*ne-oinom, "not one thing"; *oino-, one; see **oi-no-**). 6. NISI, from Latin nisi, unless, from Archaic Latin nesei (sei, if; see **swo-**). 7a. NEGLECT, NEGLIGEE, NEGOTIATE, from Latin prefix neg-, not; b. NEGATE; ABNEGATE, DENY, RENEGADE, RENEGE, from Latin negare, to deny. Both a and b from Italic *nek, not. 8. NEPENTHE, from Greek ně-, not. 9. Zero-grade combining form *p-. a. (i) UN-¹, from Old English un-, not; (ii) ZUG- UNRUHE, from Old High German un-, not. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *un-; b. IN-¹, from Latin in-, not; C. A-1, AN-, from Greek a-, an-, not; d. AHIMSA, from Sanskrit a-, an-, not; e. compound *y-mr-to- (see **mer-2**). [Pokorny 1. ně 756.] **nebh-** Cloud. 1. Suffixed form *nebh-(e)lo-. a. NIFLHEIM, from Old Norse nifl-, "mist" or "dark," probably from Germanic *nibilaz; b. NIBELUNG, from Old High German Nibulunc, Nibilung, from Germanic suffixed patronymic form *nibul-unga-, beside Old High German nebul, mist, fog, from Germanic *neb- laz. 2. Suffixed form *nebh-elā-. a. NEBULA, NEBULOUS, from Latin nebula, cloud; b. NEPHELINE; NEPHELOMETER, from Greek nephelē, cloud. 3. Suffixed form *nebh-es-. NEPHOLOGY, from Greek nephos, cloud. 4. Nasalized form *ne-m-bh-. NIMBUS, from Latin nimbus, rain, cloud, aura. [Pokorny 2. (enebh-) 315.] **ned-** To bind, tie. 1. O-grade form *nod-. a. NET, from Old English net(t), a net, from Germanic *nati-; b. NETTLE, from Old English netel(e), netle, nettle, from Germanic *nat-ilon-, a nettle (nettles or plants of closely related genera such as hemp were used as a source of fiber); C. OUCH², from Anglo-Norman nouch, brooch, from Germanic *nat-sk-. 2. Lengthened o-grade form *nōdo-. NODE, NODULE, NODUS, NOIL, NOOSE; DENOUEMENT, from Latin nõdus, a knot. 3. With re-formation of the root. NEXUS; ADIPONECTIN, ADNEXA, ANNEX, CONNECT, FIBRONECTIN, from Latin nectere (past participle nexus), to tie, bind, connect. [Pokorny 1. ned- 758.) **negwh-ro-** Kidney. NEPHRO-, NEPHRON; MESONEPHROS, METANEPHROS, PERINEPHRIUM, PRONEPHROS, from Greek nephros, kidney. (In Pokorny eng+- 319.] **nei-** To be excited, shine. 1. Suffixed zero-grade form *ni-to-. NATTY, NEAT¹, NET2, NIT2, from Latin nitère, to shine. 2. Possibly suffixed form *nei-t-slo-. NEIL (personal name), from Old Irish níall, brave. 3. Possibly Sanskrit nila-, dark blue: LILAC; ANIL, NILGAI. [Pokorny 2. nei-760.] **neiǝ-** To lead. NAINSOOK, from Sanskrit nayati, he leads. [Pokorny 1. nei- 760.] **neigw-** To wash. NIX¹, from Old High German nihhus, river monster, water spirit, from Germanic *nikwiz, *nikuz. [Pokorny neig 761.] **nek-1** Death. (Oldest form *nek-.) 1. INTERNECINE, PERNICIOUS, from Latin nex (stem nec-), death. 2. Suffixed (causative) o-grade form *nok-eyo-. NOCENT, NOCUOUS, NUISANCE; INNOCENT, INNOCUOUS, from Latin nocere, to injure, harm. 3. Suffixed o-grade form *nok-s-. NOXIOUS; OBNOXIOUS, from Latin noxa, injury, hurt, damage entailing liability. 4. Suffixed full-grade form *nek-ro-. NECRO-, NECROSIS; NECROMANCY, from Greek nekros, corpse. 5. NECTAR, NECTARINE, from Greek nektar, the drink of the gods, "overcoming death" (*tar-, overcoming; see **tera-2**). [Pokorny nek-762.] **nek-2** To reach, attain. (Oldest form *h₂nek-.) Ο-grade form *nok-. ENOUGH, from Old English genog, enough, from Germanic *ganōga-, sufficient, from *ga-nah, "suffices" (*ga-, intensive prefix; see **kom**). [Pokorny enek-316.] **nek-3** To bring. (Oldest form *hnek-.) Variant form *enk-. 1. ONCOGENESIS, ONCOLITE, ONCOLOGY, from Greek reduplicated enenkein, to carry (suppletive aorist of pherein, to carry; see **bher-1**), with derived noun onkos, a burden, mass, hence a tumor (from suffixed o-grade *onk-o-; see 2 below). 2. Suffixed o-grade form *onk-o-, perhaps in Sanskrit amśaḥ, part, portion: PAISA, PICE. 3. Compound root *bhrenk- (see **bher-1**). [Pokorny enek- 316.] **nekw-t-** Night. Probably from a verbal root *neg"-, to be dark, be night. O-grade form *nok-t-. 1a. NIGHT; FORTNIGHT, from Old English niht, neaht, night; b. KRISTALLNACHT, from Old High German naht, night. Both a and b from Germanic *naht-. 2. NOCTI-, NOCTURN, NOCTURNAL, EQUINOX, from Latin nox (stem noct-), night. 3. NOCTUID, NOCTULE, from Latin noctua, night owl. 4. NIX; NYCTALOPIA, NYCTINASTY, from Greek nux (stem nukt-), night. 5. Perhaps zero-grade form *nk"-t-. ACTINIUM, ACTINO-, from Greek aktīs (stem aktīn-), ray, traditionally taken as from *nk"-t-. This derivation is supported by the Sanskrit cognate aktuh, meaning both "ray" and "night," but has recently contested in favor of a derivation from **ak-**, "sharp," the rays of the sun originally having been conceived of as a pointed weapon. If the oldest meaning of *nek"-t- is "twilight," however, the traditional derivation of Greek aktis, from *nk"-t- can be upheld if the Greek word is considered to have originally referred to the rays of the sun seen in the morning and evening twilight. The night itself would then have originally been designated in Proto-Indo-European by *k"sep-, seen for example in Hittite (i)špant-(<*ksp-ent-, with simplification of the initial cluster) and in Sanskrit kşap, both meaning "night." 6. Suffixed plain verbal root *neg"-ro-, dark. NEGRO, NIELLO, NIGELLA, NIGRESCENCE, NIGROSINE, NOIR; DENIGRATE, PINOT NOIR, from Latin niger, black. [Pokorny nek*-(t-) 762.] **nem-** To assign, allot; also to take. 1a. NUMB; BENUMB, from Old English niman, to take, seize; b. NIMBLE, from Old English namel, quick to seize, and numol, quick at learning, seizing; C. NIM², from Old High German nëman, to take. a-c all from Germanic *neman, to take. 2. NEMESIS; ECONOMY, from Greek nemein, to allot. 3. Suffix form *nem-oS. NAMASKAR, NAMASTE, from Sanskrit namah (stem namas-), obeisance (< "due portion, due reverence"). 4. O-grade form *nom-. a. NOME, -NOMY; ANOMIE, ΑNTINOMIAN, ANTINOMY, ASTRONOMER, ASTRONOMY, AUTONOMOUS, CHIRONOMID, DEUTERONOMY, METRONOME, NOMOGRAPH, NOMOLOGY, NOMOTHETIC, NUMISMATIC, from Greek nomos, portion, usage, custom, law, division, district; b. NOMA, from Greek nomē, pasturage, grazing, hence a spreading, a spreading ulcer; C. NOMAD, from Greek nomas, wandering in search of pasture; d. NUMMULAR, NUMMULITE, from Greek nomimos, legal. <60> 5. Perhaps suffixed o-grade form *nom-eso-. NUMBER, NUMERAL; ENUMERATE, INNUMERABLE, SUPERNUMERARY, from Latin numerus, number, division. [Pokorny 1. nem-763.] **nepōt-** Grandson, nephew. Feminine *nepti-. NEPHEW, NEPOTISM, NIECE, from Latin nepos, grandson, nephew, and neptis, granddaughter, niece. [Pokorny nepot-764.] **ner-1** Under, also on the left; hence, with an eastward orientation, north. Suffixed zero-grade form *ng-t(r) 0-. 1. NORDIC, NORTH, NORTEÑO, from Old English north, north. 2. NORTHERN, from Old English northerne, northern. 3. NORSE, from Middle Dutch nort, north. 4. NORMAN¹, NORWEGIAN, from Old Norse nordhr, north. 1-4 all from Germanic *northa-. [Pokorny 2. ner- 765.] Compare **deks-**. **ner-2** Man; basic sense “vigorous, vital, strong.” (Oldest form *h₂ner-.) 1a. ANDRO-, -ANDROUS, -ANDRY; PHILANDER, from Greek aner (stem andr-, from zero-grade form *anr-), man; b. Greek combining form andro-, -andros, man, hero, in personal names: (i) ANDROMEDA, from Greek Andromeda, feminine of *Andromedos, probably "ruling over men" (-medos, from medein, to rule over; see **med-**); (ii) ALEXANDER, ALEXANDRINE, ALEXANDRITE, from Greek Alexandros, "defender of men" (alex-, from alexein, to defend; see **lek-**); (iii) LYSANDER, from Greek Lūsandros, "releasing men" (lus-, from luein, to release; see **leu-1**). 2. Italic *ner-, magistrate, “strongman," base of the Latin name Nero: NERO. [Pokorny 1. ner-(t-) 765.] **nes-1** To return safely home. 1. HARNESS, from Old French harneis, harness, possibly from a Germanic source akin to Old English, Old High German (in composition), and Old Norse nest, food for a journey, from Germanic *nes-tam. 2. Suffixed o-grade form *nos-to-. NOSTALGIA, from Greek nostos, a return home. [Pokorny nes- 766.] **nes-2** Oblique cases of the personal pronoun of the first person plural. For the nominative see **we-**. 1. Zero-grade form *ns-. us, from Old English ūs, us (accusative), from Germanic *uns. 2. Suffixed (possessive) zero-grade form *ns-ero-. OUR, OURS, from Old English ūser, ure, our, from Germanic *unsara-. 3. O-grade form *nos-, with suffixed (possessive) form *nos-t(e) ro-. NOSTRATIC, NOSTRUM; PATERNOSTER, from Latin nōs, we, and noster, our. [Pokorny 3. ne-758.] **nē-tr-** Snake. (Contracted from earlier *neh₁-tr-.) ADDER, from Old English nædre, snake, from Germanic *nēthrō. [Pokorny ně-tr 767.] **neu-1** To shout. Suffixed (participial) o-grade form *now-ent-(yo-), "shouting." NUNCIO; ANNOUNCE, DENOUNCE, ENUNCIATE, INTERNUNCIO, PRONOUNCE, RENOUNCE, from Latin nuntius, "announcing,” hence a messenger, also a message, and nuntium, message. [Pokorny 1. neu-767.] **neu-2** To nod. 1. NUTATION; INNUENDO, from Latin *nuere, to nod (attested only in compounds), and frequentative nutare, to nod. 2. Suffixed form *neu-men-. NUMEN, from Latin nūmen, "a nod," hence "command" divine power, deity. (Pokorny 2. neu-767.] **neud-** To make use of, enjoy. 1. NEAT2, from Old English neat, bovine animal. 2a. MATELOTE, from Middle Dutch ghenôt, noot, fellow; b. HUGUENOT, from Old High German ginōz, companion. Both a and b from Germanic compound *ga-nautaz, *ga-nauto-, "he with whom one shares possessions, companion, fellow (*ga-, with; see **kom**). Both 1 and 2 from Germanic *nautam, "thing of value, possession." [Pokorny neu-d-768.] **newn** Nine. 1. NINE, NINETEEN, NINETY, NINTH, from Old English nigon, nine, with derivatives nigontig, ninety, and nigontene, nineteen (-tène, ten; see **dekm**), from Germanic *nigun, variant of *niwun. 2. NOVEMBER, NOVENA; NONAGENARIAN, from Latin novem, nine (< *noven, with m for n by analogy with the m of septem, seven, and decem, ten). 3. Ordinal form *neweno-. NONA-, NONES, NOON; NONAGON, NONANOIC ACID, from Latin nõnus, ninth. 4. Prothetic or prefixed oldest forms *h,newn, *hinwn. ENNEAD, ENNEAGRAM, from Greek ennea, nine (<*ennewa, *enwa-). [Pokorny e-neuen 318.] **newo-** New. Related to **nu-**. 1. Suffixed form *newyo-. a. NEW, from Old English nłowe, niwe, new; b. NYNORSK, SPAN-NEW, from Old Norse nŷr, new. Both a and b from Germanic *neuja-. 2. Basic form *newo-. NEO-, NEON, NEOTERIC; MISONEISM, from Greek newos, neos, new. 3. Suffixed form *new-aro-. ANEROID, from Greek neron, water, from nēros, fresh (used of fish and of water), contracted from nearos, young, fresh. 4. Basic form *newo-, NOVA, NOVATION, NOVEL¹, NOVEL2, NOVELTY, NOVICE, NOVILLADA, NOVILLERO; ERGONOVINE, INNOVATE, RENOVATE, from Latin novus, new. 5. Suffixed form *new-er-ko-. NOVERCAL, from Latin noverca, stepmother (< "she who is new"). 6. Slavic *novů. Russian novyj, new, in compound Novgorod (see **gher-1**). [Pokorny neyos 769.] **ni** Down. 1. Suffixed form *ni-t-. BENEATH, UNDERNEATH, from Old English nithan, neothan, below, from Germanic *nith-. 2. Suffixed (comparative) form *nitero-, lower. NETHER, from Old English nither, lower, from Germanic *nithra-. 3. Perhaps suffixed form *ni-mno-, "lowland, marshland," perhaps dissimilated in Greek limnē, lake, pool: LIMNETIC; HYPOLIMNION, LIMNOLOGY. 4. Basic form *ni. SANNYASI, UPANISHAD, from Sanskrit ni-, down. 5. Compound *ni-zdo- (see **sed-1**). [In Pokorny 1. en 311.] **-no-** Also **-eno-**, **-ono-**. Suffix forming adjectives. When the base is verbal, they are participial (tak-en); when the base is nominal, they are adjectival (brazen). Found ultimately in the following English suffixes: a. -EN³, from Old English -en, past participle suffix, from Germanic *-ana-, from Indo-European variant form *-ono-; b. -EN2, from Old English -en, suffix forming adjectives of material, from Germanic *-ina-; C. -AN, -ANA, -IAN, -IANA, from Latin -ānus, adjective suffix (originally from *-no- suffixed to nouns with stem vowel *-ā-); d. -INE², from Latin -īnus and Greek -inos, adjective suffixes. (Not in Pokorny.] Compare **-to-**. **nobh-** Also **ombh-**. Navel; later also "central knob," boss of a shield, hub of a wheel. (Oldest form *əznobh-, with variant [metathesized form *h3onbh- becoming *h3ombh-.) 1a. NAVE2, from Old English nafu, nafa, hub of a wheel; b. AUGER, from Old English nafogar, auger, from Germanic compound *nabōgaizaz, tool for piercing wheel hubs (*gaizaz, spear, piercing tool; see **ghaiso-**). Both a and b from Germanic *nabo. 2. Variant form *ombh-. UMBO, from Latin umbo, boss of a shield. 3. Suffixed form *nobh-alo-. NAVEL, from Old English nafela, navel, from Germanic *nabalō. 4. Suffixed variant form *ombh-alo-. a. UMBILICUS; NOMBRIL, from Latin umbilicus, navel; b. OMPHALOS, from Greek omphalos, navel. (Pokorny 1. (enebh-) 314.] **nogh-** Nail, claw. (Oldest form *h3nogh-, with variant [metathesized] form *hongh-.) 1. Suffixed (diminutive) form *nogh-elo-. NAIL, from Old English nægi, nail, from Germanic *naglaz. 2. Form *anogh-. ONYX; DEINONYCHUS, PARONYCHIA, PERIONYCHIUM, SARDONYX, from Greek onux (stem onukh-), nail. 3. Variant form *ongh-. UNGUICULATE, UNGUIS, UNGULATE, from Latin unguis, nail, claw, hoof, with diminutive ungula, hoof, claw, talon (< *ongh-elā-). [Pokorny onogh-780.] **nogw-** Naked. 1. Suffixed forms *nogw-eto-, *nogwoto-. NAKED, from Old English nacod, naked, from Germanic *nakweda-, *nakwada-. 2. Suffixed form *nog-edo-. NUDE, NUDI-; DENUDE, from Latin nūdus, naked. 3. Suffixed form *nog"-mo-. GYMNASIUM, GYMNAST; GYMNOSOPHIST, GYMNOSPERM, from Greek gumnos, naked (with metathesis due to taboo deformation). <61> 4. Suffixed form *nog-no-. NAAN, from Old Iranian *nagna-, bare, naked. [Pokorny nog- 769.] **nỗ-mn** Name. (Oldest form *h,no(13)-mn; zero-grade form *hip(hz)-men-.) 1. NAME, from Old English nama, name, from Germanic *namon-. 2. NOMINAL, NOMINATE, NOUN; AGNOMEN, ANOMIA, BINOMIAL, COGNOMEN, DENOMINATE, IGNOMINY, MISNOMER, NOMENCLATOR, NUNCUPATIVE, PRAENOMEN, PRO- NOUN, RENOWN, from Latin nomen, name, reputation. 3. ONOMASTIC, -ONYM, -ONYMY; ALLONYM, ANONYMOUS, ANTONOMASIA, EPΟΝΥΜ, ΕΡΟNYMOUS, EUONYMUS, HETERONYMOUS, HOMONYMOUS, MATRONYMIC, METONYMY, ΟΝΟΜΑΤΟΡΟΕΙΑ, PARONOMASIA, PARONYMOUS, PATRONYMIC, PSEUDONYM, SYNONYMOUS, from Greek onoma, onuma, name (assimilated from enuma, preserved in proper names in Laconian). 4. MONIKER, from Old Irish ainm, name. [Pokorny en(o)mp-321.) **not-** Buttock, back. (Oldest form *neh3t-, colored to *noh3t-, contracted to *not-.) 1. NOTOCHORD, from Greek nōton, nōtos, back. 2. Zero-grade *nat-. NATES; AITCHBONE, from Latin natis, buttock. [Pokorny nōt- 770.] **ņsi-** Sword. ENSIFORM, from Latin ensis, sword. [Pokorny psi-s 771.] **-nt-** Also **-ent-**, **-ont-**. Suffix forming active participles to verbs. Appears ultimately in the following English suffixes: a. -ING¹, from Old English -ende, present participial suffix; b. -ANCE, -ANCY, -ANT, -ENCE, -ENCY, -ENT, from Latin -ans, -ēns (stems -ant-, -ent-), present participial suffixes to verbs in -a- and --; C. -ONT, from Greek ōn (stem ont-), present participle of einai, to be (see **es-**); d. -ON¹, from Greek ion (stem iont-,), neuter present participle of ienai, to go (see **ei-**). [Not in Pokorny.] **nu-** Now. Related to **newo-**. 1. NOW, from Old English nù, now. 2. QUIDNUNC, from Latin nunc, now (< *nun-ce; -ce, a particle meaning "this," "here"; see **ko-**). [Pokorny nu-770.] **-nu-** Verbal suffix marking present tense, usually transitive, as in *mi-nu-, to reduce (see **mei-2**). Derives from what was originally a nasal infix -n- (see **-n-**) to roots ending in -u-. (Not in Pokorny.] **6-** To believe, hold as true. (Oldest form *(h2)eh3-, colored to *(h2)0h3-, contracted to *(h2)0-.) Suffixed form *ō-men-. OMEN, from Latin ōmen, a prognostic sign, omen. (Not in Pokorny; compare Hittite ha-, to consider true.] **-o-** The "thematic" suffix, forming nouns, adjectives, and verbs. Ultimately appears in the English combining vowel -o-, from Latin and Greek combining vowel -o- (used to join the members of a compound). [Not in Pokorny.] **obhel-** To avail. (Oldest form *h3(e) bhel-.) ANOPHELES, from Greek ophelos, advantage. [Pokorny obhel-772.] **od-1** To smell. 1. Suffixed form *od-os-. ODOR, from Latin odor, smell. 2. Suffixed form *od-es-. CACODYL, COLLODION, GEODE, PHYLLODE, from Greek -ōdēs, adjective suffix, originally "having the smell of," hence characterized by (with secondary lengthening). 3. Suffixed form *od-e-. OLFACTORY, REDOLENT, from Latin olêre, to smell (with i for d representing a Sabine borrowing). 4. Suffixed form *od-yo-. OZONE; OZOSTOMIA, from Greek ozein, to smell. 5. Suffixed form *od-mā-. OSMATIC, OSMIUM; ANOSMIA, OSMETERIUM, PAROSMIA, from Greek osmē (earlier odmē), smell. [Pokorny 1. od- 772.] **od-2** To hate. ANNOY, ENNUI, NOISOME, ODIUM, from Latin ōdī, I hate, and odium, hatred. [Pokorny 2. od- 773.] **ōg-** Fruit, berry. (Oldest form *eh3g-, colored to *oh3g-, contracted to *ōg-.) 1. Zero-grade form *ag-. ACORN, from Old English æcern, acorn, from Germanic *akran-. 2. UVEA, UVULA; PYRUVIC ACID, from Latin ūva (preform uncertain), grape. [Pokorny ōg- 773.] **ogwhi-** Snake, eel. OPHIDIAN, OPHIOLITE, OPHITE; OPHICLEIDE, OPHIUCHUS, OPHIUROID, from Greek ophis, snake, serpent. To **ogwhi-** should be compared the phonetically and semantically similar **angwhi-** and **eghi-**, all three of which have influenced each other through the millennia, both in the daughter languages of Proto-Indo-European (as in Greek enkhelos, eel, probably deriving primarily from **eghi-** but showing the nasal of **angwhi-**) and also already in the parent language as well. **oid-** To swell. (Oldest form *h3eid-, colored to *h3oid-.) 1. OAT, from Old English āte, oat, possibly ultimately from this root, but the cultivation of oats is no earlier than the Iron Age. 2. EDEMA; OEDIPUS, from Greek oidein, to swell. 3a. Possibly suffixed nasalized zero-grade form *i-n-d-ro-. INDRA, from Sanskrit Indrah, Indra (divine name); b. Suffixed nasalized zero-grade form *i-n-d-u-. BINDI, from Sanskrit binduh, drop, probably akin to induh, drop (with initial b- of obscure origin). [Pokorny oid-774.] **oi-no-** One, unique. I. Basic form *oi-no-. 1a. A, AN, ONCE, ONE; ALONE, ANΟΝ, ΑΤΟΝΕ, LONE, LONELY, NONCE, NONE, from Old English an, one; b. ELEVEN, from Old English endleofan, eleven, from Germanic compound *ain-lif-, "one left (beyond ten)," eleven (*lif-, left over; see **leikw-**); C. EINKORN, TURNVEREIN, from Old High German ein, one. a-c all from Germanic *aina-. 2. UNI-, UNION, UNITE, UNITY; COADUNATE, TRIUNE, UNANIMOUS, UNICORN, UNIVERSE, from Latin ūnus, one. 3. Celtic *oino-. Old Irish oen, one, in personal name Oengus (see **geus-**). 4. INDRICOTHERE, from Old Russian inŭ, one. 5. Latin compound *ne-oinom (see **ne**). II. Suffixed form *oino-ko-. 1. ANY, from Old English ænig, one, anyone, from Germanic *ainiga-. 2. UNIQUE, from Latin ûnicus, sole, single. 3. INCH¹, OUGUIYA, OUNCE, UNCIAL; QUINCUNX, from Latin ūncia, one twelfth of a unit. III. Suffixed form *oino-lo-. Latin ûllus, any, in compound *ne-ūllus, núllus (see **ne**). (Pokorny 3. D. e-281.) **oit-** To take along, fetch. (Oldest form *hzeit-, colored to *h3oit-.) 1a. USAGE, USE, USUAL, USURY, UTENSIL, UTILIZE, UTILITY; ABUSE, PERUSE, from Latin ūti, to use. b. USURP, from Latin üsürpāre, to usurp (see **reup-**). 2. Suffixed form *oit-to-. ESOPHAGUS, from Greek ois-, nominal stem and future tense stem corresponding to pherein, to carry, abstracted from verbal oistos, able to be borne, endurable, from earlier *oit-to-s, carried, by regular phonological change. [Not in Pokorny; compare Cuneiform Luwian hizza(i)-, to fetch.] **oito-** An oath. Probably a suffixed o-grade form *oito- (*hoi-to-) derived from **ei-**. 1. OATH, from Old English ath, oath. 2. HUGUENOT, from Old High German eid, oath. Both 1 and 2 from Germanic *ai-thaz. [In Pokorny 1. ei- 293.] **oktō(u)** Eight. (Oldest form *oktō(u).) 1a. EIGHT, EIGHTEEN, EIGHTY, from Old English eahta, eight, with derivatives eahtatig, eighty, and eahtatene, eighteen (-tene, ten; see **dekm**); b. ATTO-, from Old Norse attjan, eighteen (tjan, ten; see **dekm**). Both a and b from Germanic *ahto. 2. OCTANS, OCTANT, OCTAVE, OCTAVO, OCTET, ОСТО-, ОCTOBER, OCTONARY; OCTODECIMO, OCTOGENARIAN, from Latin octō, eight. 3. OCTAD, OCTO-; OCTOPUS, from Greek oktō, eight. 4. UNUNOCTIUM, partly from Greek oktō, eight, and partly from Latin octo, eight. [Pokorny okto(u) 775.] **ōku-** Swift. (Oldest form *ōku-.) 1. OXYTOCIC, from Greek õkus, swift. 2. Possibly altered zero-grade form *aku- in compound *aku-petro-, "swift-flying" (*petro-, flying; see **pet-**). <62> ACCIPITER, from Latin accipiter, hawk. (Pokorny ōkú-s 775.) See also **ekwo-**. **okw-** To see. (Oldest form *h₂ek"-, colored to *h3ok"-; zero-grade *h3k"-.) 1a. EYE; DAISY, from Old English čage, eye; b. WALLEYED, WINDOW, from Old Norse auga, eye; C. OGLE, from Low German oog, oge, eye. d. AUGEN, from German Augen, plural of Auge, eye, ultimately from Old High German ouga, eye. a-d all from Germanic *augōn- (perhaps with taboo deformation). 2. Suffixed form *ok"-olo-. a. EYBLET, OCELLUS, OCULAR, OCULIST, OCULUS, ULLAGE; ANTLER, INOCULATE, MONOCLE, OCULOMOTOR, PINOCHLE, from Latin oculus, eye; b. INVEIGLB, from French aveugle, blind, from Gallo-Latin compound *ab-oculus, blind, calqued on Gaulish exs-ops, blind ("with eyes out": exs-, out + ops, eye). 3. Form *ok-s. CERATOPSIAN, METOPIC, MYΟΡΙΑ, NYCTALOPIA, PELOPS, PHLOGOPITE, PROSOPOGRAPHY, PROSOPOPEIA, PYROPE, TRICERATOPS, from Greek ops, eye (and stem *op-, to see). 4. Suffixed form *okw-ti-. OPSIN, OPSIS, -OPSY; AUTOPSY, DROPSY, IODOPSIN, RHODOPSIN, SYNOPSIS, from Greek opsis, sight, appearance. 5. Suffixed form *ok-to-. OPTIC; DIOPTER, OPTOELECTRONICS, OPTOMETRY, PANOPTIC, PANOPTICON, from Greek optos, seen, visible. 6. Suffixed form *ok-a-. METOPE, from Greek opě, opening. 7. Suffixed form *ok-mp. OMMATIDIUM, OMMATOPHORE, from Greek omma (< *opma), eye. 8. Suffixed form *ok-tro-. CATOPTRIC, from Greek katoptron, "back-looker," mirror (kata-, down, back; see **kat-**). 9. OPHTHALMO-; EXOPHTHALMOS, from Greek ophthalmos, eye (with taboo deformation). 10. Zero-grade form *ak"-, in compounds (see **ant-**, **āter-**, **ghwer-**). 11. Perhaps full-grade *ok-s- (suffix uncertain). CUSHY, from Persian xuš (Modern Iranian Persian xoš), good, perhaps from an Old Iranian compound *x*-axжа- (< *su-ok-s-o-), "having good eyes, a good aspect" (< *su-, good; see **esu-**). (Pokorny oku- 775.] **ola-** To destroy. (Oldest form *haelhi, colored to *h3olh₁-, with variant (metathesized] form *haleh-, contracted to *hale-.) Possibly suffixed variant form *le-to-. LETHAL, from Latin lētum, lethum, death. [Pokorny ol-(e)-777.] **om-** Raw; sharp-tasting. 1. Possibly Latin amārus, bitter-tasting (though doubtful in form): AMARELLE, AMARETTO, MARASCA, MARASCHINO, MORELLO. 2. Suffixed form *om-ro-. AMBARELLA, from Sanskrit amla-, tart. [Pokorny om- 777.] **ombh-ro-** Rain. 1. Zero-grade form *mbh-ro-. IMBRICATE; IGNIMBRITE, from Latin imber, rain. 2. Possibly suffixed zero-grade form *mbh-u-. IMBUE, from Latin imbuere, to moisten, stain. (In Pokorny 2. (enebh-) 315.] **om(e)so-** Shoulder. 1. Form *omso-. os³, from Old Norse ass, a (mountain) ridge, from Germanic *amsa-. 2. Form *omeso-. HUMERUS, from Latin humerus, shoulder. 3. Lengthened-grade form *ōmso-. ACROMION, from Greek ōmos, shoulder. [Pokorny om(e) so-s 778.] **oner-** Dream. Suffixed form *oner-yo-. ONEIROMANCY, from Greek oneiros, dream. [Pokorny oner- 779.] **ongw-** To salve, anoint. OINTMENT, UNCTION, UNCTUOUS, UNGUENT; ANOINT, INUNCTION, PREEN, from Latin unguere, to smear, anoint. [Pokorny ong- 779.] **-ono-** See **-no-**. **-ont-** See **-nt-**. **op-1** To work, produce in abundance. (Oldest form *hep-, colored to *h3op-.) 1. Suffixed form *op-es-. OPERA¹, OPERATE, OPEROSE, OPUS; COOPERATE, INURE, MANEUVER, MANURE, OFPICINAL, STOVER, from Latin opus (stem oper-), work, with its denominative verb operārī, to work, and secondary noun opera, work. 2. Italic compound *opi-fici-om (see **dhe-**). 3. Suffixed form *op-en-ent-. OPULENT, from Latin dissimilated opulentus, rich, wealthy. 4. Suffixed form *op-ni-. OMNI-, OMNIBUS; OMNIUM-GATHERUM, from Latin omnis, all (< "abundant"). 5. Suffixed (superlative) form *op-tamo-. OPTIMUM, from Latin optimus, best (< "wealthiest"). 6. COPIOUS, COPY; CORNUCOPIA, from Latin copia, profusion, plenty, from prefixed form *co-op- (co-, collective and intensive prefix; see **kom**). (Pokorny 1. op- 780.] **op-2** To choose. 1. OPTION, from Latin optiō, choice (from *opere, to choose). 2. OPT, OPTATIVE; ADOPT, CO-OPT, from Latin optare, to choose (frequentative of *opere, to choose). 3. Possibly suffixed form *op- ein-o-, whence Italic denominative verb *op-ein-a-. OPINE, OPINION, from Latin opināri, to be of an opinion. [Pokorny 2. op-781.] **or-** Large bird. (Oldest form *h3er-, colored to *h3or-.) 1. Suffixed form *or-n-. a. BRNE, from Old English earn, eagle; b. ARNOLD (personal name), from Old High German Arenwald, "eagle power," from aro, arn, eagle (-walt, power; see **wal-**). Both a and b from Germanic *aron- (extended to *arnuz), eagle. 2. Suffixed form *or-n-ith-. ORNITHO-; AEPYORNIS, NOTORNIS, from Greek ornis (stem ornith-), bird. [Pokorny 1. er- 325.] **ōr-** To pronounce a ritual formula. ORACLE, ORATION, ORATOR, ORATORY, ORATORY; ADORE, INEXORABLE, PERORATE, from Latin drare, to speak, plead, pray. [Pokorny ōr- 781.] **orbh-** To turn, with derivatives referring to change of allegiance and the passage from one status to another. (Oldest form *h3erbh-, colored *horbh-.) 1. Suffixed form *orbh-o-. a. In words referring to the act of turning: GASTARBEITER, from Old High German arabeit(i), labor, from Germanic *arb-aithi- (source of suffix uncertain), perhaps from *orbo-iti-, "a going of a turn," in reference to the repetitive nature of agricultural labor, such as the repeated turning of an ox while plowing a field (*iti-, a going; see **ei-**); b. In words referring to orphans and persons of reduced and changed status: (i) ORPHAN, from Greek orphanos, orphaned; (ii) ROBOT, from Czech robota, compulsory labor, drudgery, from Old Church Slavonic rabota, servitude, from rabů, slave, from Old Slavic *orbu. 2. Suffixed form *orbh-i-. a. ORB, ORBICULAR, ORBICULATE, from Latin orbis, disc, sphere (< "that which turns"); a. Further suffixed form *orbh-i-t-, ORBIT, from Latin orbita, rut, track made by a wheel. 3. Perhaps from this root is the Greek mythological name Orpheus (? < "he who goes to the other side" or "he who turns"): ORPHEUS, ORPHIC, ORPHISM. [Pokorny orbho-781.] **Language and Culture Note** Reconstructing the form of roots and words in a dead language like Proto-Indo-European is often easy; the phonetic shape of the reconstructed word may be easy to deduce on the basis of its descendant cognates and a knowledge of sound laws. But the meanings of these reconstructed roots and words are often much harder to determine. A case in point is the root **orbh-**, some of whose descendants mean "orphan" or "orphaned” (Greek orphanos, Latin orbus, Armenian orb), some "inheritance" (Old Irish orbe, German Erbe), and some "slave" (Russian rab). Formally, all these words must go together, but the meaning of the putative root from which they are all derived was not clear until a Hittite cognate was discovered in the 20th century. Hittite has a verb harb-, with the basic meaning "change allegiance": in the Hittite Laws it is used of a cow that wanders out of its owner's fold into another's. With this new piece of information, the American scholar Craig Melchert proposed that the disparate senses "orphan," "inheritance," and "slave" could now all be understood as stemming from an original concept "to go from one sphere of belonging to another" or "to change status or allegiance." Orphans were no longer in the tutelage of their kin-group; inherited property passed from one holder to another; and slaves were persons whose social status had changed from being free to being unfree. More recently, the American scholar Michael Weiss has proposed that the basic meaning of the root was "to turn," and that the Latin words orbis, "disc, sphere," and orbita, “track made by a wheel, rut," are also derivatives of this root. The notion of changing status or allegiance found in the derivatives of **orbh-** would be natural development from the central meaning "turn." <63> [**ōrd-**] To arrange; arrangement. Italic root of uncertain origin; oldest form *ōrhd(h)-. 1a. ORDAIN, ORDER, ORDINAL, ORDINANCE, ORDINARY, ORDINATE, ORDO; COORDINATION, INORDINATE, SUBORDINATE, from Latin ōrdo, order (originally a row of threads in a loom); b. ORNAMENT, ORNATE; ADORN, SUBORN, from Latin õrnāre (< *õrd(i)nā) to adorn. 2. EXORDIUM, PRIMORDIAL, from Latin ōrdīrī, to begin to weave. [In Pokorny 1. ar- 55.]] **ors-** Buttocks, backside. 1. Suffixed form *ors-o-. a. ARSE, ASS², from Old English ærs, ears, backside; b. DODO, from Middle Dutch ærs, backside, tail. Both a and b from Germanic *arsaz. 2. Suffixed form *ors-a-. a. URO-2, -UROUS; ANTHURIUM, ANURAN, COENURUS, CYNOSURE, DASYURID, EREMURUS, GONDOLA, OPHIUROID, OXYURIASIS, SCIURID, SQUIRREL, TRICHURIASIS, from Greek ourā, tail; b. SILURID, from Greek silouros, sheatfish, probably from ourā, tail (with an obscure first element). [Pokorny ers- 340.] **os-** Ash tree. ASH², from Old English æsc, ash, from Germanic *askiz. [Pokorny *ōs- 782.] **ōs-** Mouth. (Oldest form perhaps *h₂ōs-, but precise preform uncertain.) 1. ORAL, OS¹, OSCILLATE, OSCULATE, OSCULUM, OSTIARY, OSTIUM, USHER; INOSCULATE, ORIFICE, ORONASAL, OROTUND, OSCITANCY, PERORAL, from Latin ōs (stem or-), mouth, face, orifice, and derivative ostium (< suffixed form *ōs-to-), door. 2. Possibly Latin auriga, charioteer (<*ōr-ig-, "he who manages the (horse's) bit"; -Ig-, lengthened from -ig-, driving, from *ag-; see **ag-1**): AURIGA. [Pokorny 1. õus-784.] **-OS-** See **-es-**. **ost-** Bone. (Oldest forms *h₂ost-, *h₂est-, the latter colored to *h₂ast-.) 1. OS, OSSEOUS, OSSICLE, OSSUARY; OSSIFRAGE, OSSIFY, from Latin os (stem oss-), bone. 2. OSTEO-, OSTEON; ENDOSTEUM, EXOSTOSIS, PERIOSTEUM, SYNOSTOSIS, TELEOST, from Greek osteon, bone. 3. Suffixed form *ost-r-. a. OSTRACIZE, OSTRACOD, OSTRACON; OSTRACODERM, PERIOSTRACUM, from Greek ostrakon, shell, potsherd; b. form *ast-. OYSTER, from Greek ostreon, oyster; C. ASTRAGAL, ASTRAGALUS, from Greek astragalos, vertebra, ball of the ankle joint, knucklebone, Ionic molding. 4. Suffixed basic form *ost-n-ko-. ASTAXANTHIN, from Greek ostakos, astakos, lobster (< "creature with a bony shell"). (Pokorny ost(h)-783.] **-oto-** See **-to-**. **owi-** Sheep. (Oldest form *h₂owi-.) 1. EWB, from Old English êwe, eōwu, ewe, from Germanic *awiz. 2. OVINE, from Latin ovis, sheep. [Pokorny óui-s 784.] **pā-** To protect, feed. (Oldest form *peh₂-, colored to *pahy, contracted to *pā-.) 1. Suffixed form *pa-trom. a. FODDER, from Old English foōdor, fodder; b. FORAGE, FORAY, FOURRAGÈRE, from Old French feurre, fodder; C. FUR, FURRIER, from Old French forre, fuerre, trimming made from animalskin, fur (<"sheath, case, lining"). a-c all from Germanic *fodram. 2. Suffixed form *pā-dhlom(doublet of *på-trom). PABULUM, from Latin pābulum, food, fodder. 3. Extended form *pat-. a. FOOD, from Old English fõda, food, from Germanic *fod-, food; b. FEED, from Old English fedan, to feed, from Germanic denominative *fodjan, to give food to; C. suffixed form *pat-tro-. FOSTER, from Old English fostor, food, nourishment, from Germanic *fostra-. 4. Extended form *pås-. a. Suffixed form *pās-sko-. PASTURE; ANTIPASTO, REPAST, from Latin pascere, to feed; b. suffixed form *pās-tor-. PASTERN, PASTOR, PESTER, from Latin pastor, shepherd; c. suffixed form *pås-t-ni-. PANADA, PANATELA, PANIC GRASS, PANNIER, PANOCHA, PANTRY, PASTILLE, PENUCHE; APPANAGE, COMPANION, COMPANY, PANFORTE, PANKO, from Latin pānis, bread. 5. Suffixed form *pā-tor-. BEZOAR, from Persian pad, protecting against, from Iranian *pātar- (Avestan patar-). 6. Suffixed form *pā-won-, protector. SATRAP, from Old Persian khshathra-pāvā, protector of the province. 6. Compound form *mg-a-pa- in Greek agapān, to greet with affection (see **meg-**). [Pokorny pā- 787, 1. põ(i)-839.] **paawr** Fire. (Oldest form *peh2wr, colored to *pahzwr, with zero-grade *ph₂ur- metathesized to *puhar-, contracted to pur-.) Zero-grade form *pür-.1. FIRE, from Old English fyr, fire, from Germanic suffixed form *für-i-. 2. PYRE, PYRETIC, PYRITES, PYRO-, PYROSIS, PYRRHOTITE; EKPYROTIC, EMPYREAL, from Greek pūr, fire. [Pokorny peuōr 828.] **pag-** Also **pak-**. To fasten. (Oldest forms *pag-, *pak-.) 1. Lengthened-grade form *pak-. FAY', from Old English fegan, to fit closely, from Germanic *fogjan, to join, fit. 2. Nasalized form "pa-n-g-, also *pa-n-k-. a. (i) FANG, from Old English fang, feng, plunder, booty, from Germanic *fangam, *fangiz; (ii) VANG, from Dutch vangen, to catch, from remade Germanic verb *fangan; (iii) NEWFANGLED, from Middle English *-fangel, taken, akin to Old High German -fangolon, to close, from Germanic *fanglon, to grasp. (i)-(iii) all derivatives of Germanic *fanhan, to seize; b. cом- PACT, IMPACT, IMPINGE, SPINTO, from Latin pangere, to fasten. 3. Root form *pak-. a. PACE, PAX, PAY¹, PEACE; APPEASE, PACIFIC, PACIFY, from Latin pax, peace (< "a binding together by treaty or agreement"); b. PACT, PATIO, from Latin pacisci, to agree. 4. Suffixed form *pak-slo-. a. PALE, PALISADE, PAWL, FEEL³, POLE; IMPALE, TRAVAIL, TRAVEL, from Latin pālus, stake (fixed in the ground); b. probably Latin pāla, spade: PALETTE, PEEL2. 5. Lengthened-grade form *pāg-. a. PAGAN, PEASANT, from Latin pāgus, "boundary staked out on the ground," district, village, country; b. PAGE, PAGEANT, from Latin pagina, "trellis to which a row of vines is fixed," hence (by metaphor) column of writing, page; C. PROPAGATE, from Latin propāgāre, to propagate (< "to fix before"; prō-, before, in front; see **per¹**); d. PECTIN, PBGMATITE; AREOPAGUS, MASTOPEXY, PAGOPHAGIA, from Greek pēgnunai, to fasten, coagulate, with derivative pagos (< *pag-o-), stiff mass, hill, frost. [Pokorny pak- 787.] **pāl-** To touch, feel, shake. (Oldest form "pehl-, colored to *pah₂l-, contracted to *pal-.) 1a. FEBL, from Old English felan, to examine by touch, feel; b. SPRACH-GEFÜHI., from Old High German vuolen, to feel. Both a and b from Germanic *följan, to feel. 2. Reduplicated zero-grade form *pal-p- (from *pal- p(a)-. a. PALP from Latin palpus, a touching; b. PALPABLE, PALPATE, PALPITATE, from Latin palpārī, palpāre, to stroke gently, touch; C. PALPEBRA, from Latin palpebra, eyelid (< "that which shakes or moves quickly"). 3. Perhaps expressive reduplicated form *pal-pal-, PAPILIONACEOUS, PAPILLON, PAPILLOTE, PAVILION, from Latin pāpilio, butterfly. 4. Perhaps suffixed zero-grade form *palyo-. CATAPULT, from Greek pallein, to sway, brandish. 5. Perhaps suffixed form *psal-yo-. PSALM, PSALTERY, from Greek psallein, to pluck, play the harp (but more likely of imitative origin). [Pokorny 1. G. pel- 801, polo- 841.] **pan-** Fabric. 1a. VANE, from Old English fana, flag, banner, weathercock; b. Germanic compound *gundfanon- (see **gwhen-**). Both a and b from Germanic *fanōn. 2. Extended form *panno-. PANE, PANEL; PANNA COTTA from Latin pannus, piece of cloth, rag. [Pokorny pan-788.] **pant-** All. Root found only in Tocharian and Greek. PAN-; DIAPASON, PANCRATIUM, PANCREAS, from Greek pās (neuter pan, stem pant-), all. [In Pokorny 1. keu- 592.] <64> **papa** A child's word for "father,” a linguistic near-universal found in many languages. 1. PAPA, from French papa, father. 2. PAPPUS, POPE, from Greek pappās, father, and pappos, grandfather. (Pokorny pap(p)a 789.] **pāso-** Kinsman. PARRICIDE, from Latin parricida (oldest form paricidas), murderer of a near relative, with parri- perhaps for pāri- (but parri- is more likely from *parso-, related to Sanskrit păruşah, man). [Pokorny pāsó-s 789.] **past-** Solid, firm. 1a. FAST¹; SHAMEFACED, STEADFAST, from Old English fæst, fixed, firm; b. AVAST, from Middle Dutch vast, firm, fast. Both a and b from Germanic *fastu-, firm, fast. 2. FASTEN, from Old English fæstnian, to fasten, establish, from Germanic *fastinōn, to make firm or fast. 3. HANDFAST, from Old Norse festa, to fix, affirm, from Germanic causative *fastjan, to make firm. 4a. FAST2, from Old English fæstan, to abstain from food; b. BREAKFAST, from Old Norse fasta, to abstain from food. Both a and b from Germanic *fasten, to hold fast, observe abstinence. [Pokorny pasto-789.] **pau-1** Few, little. (Oldest form *peh₂u-, colored to *pah₂u-, contracted to *pau-.) I. Adjectival form *pau-, few, little. 1. FEW, from Old English feawe, few, from Germanic *fawa-. 2. Suffixed form *pau-ko-. PAUCITY, POCO, from Latin paucus, little, few. 3. Suffixed form *pau-ro-. a. Metathetical form *par-wo-. PARAFFIN, PARVORDER, PARVOVIRUS, from Latin parvus, little, small, neuter parvum, becoming parum, little, rarely; b. further suffixed form *pau-ro-lo-. PAUL (personal name), from Latin paullus, paulus, small. 4. Compound *pau-paros, producing little, poor (*-paros, producing; see **pera-1**). PAUPER, POOR, POVERTY; DEPAUPERATE, IMPOVERISH, from Latin pauper, poor. II. Suffixed zero-grade form *pu-lo-, young of an animal. 1. FOAL, from Old English fola, young horse, colt, from Germanic *fulōn-. 2. FILLY, from Old Norse fylja, young female horse, from Germanic derivative *fuljo. III. Basic form *pau- and zero-grade form *pă-, boy, child. 1. Suffixed form *pu-ero-. PUERILE, PUERPERAL, from Latin puer, child. 2. Extended form *put-. a. POLTROON, PONY, POOL, POULARD, POULTRY, PULLET, PUNCHINELLO; CATCHPOLE, POULTER'S MEASURE, from Latin pullus (< *putslo-), young of an animal, chicken; b. PUSILLANIMOUS, from Latin pusillus (< *putslo-lo-), old diminutive of pullus; c. further suffixed form *put-o-. PUTTO, from Latin putus, boy. 3. Suffixed form *paw-id-. PEDO-2; ENCYCLOPEDIA, ORTHOPEDICS, from Greek pais (stem paid-), child (> paideia, education). [Pokorny pōu-842.] **pau-2** To cut, strike, stamp. (Oldest form *pehu-, colored to *pahzu-.) 1. Suffixed (participial) zero-grade form *pu-to-, cut, struck. a. PUTAMEN, PUTATIVE; ACCOUNT, AMPUTATE, COMPUTE, COUNT¹, DEPUTE, DISPUTE, IMPUTE, REPUTE, from Latin putare, to prune, clean, settle an account, think over, reflect; b. possibly Latin puteus, well: PIT¹. 2. Basic form *pau-. a. Suffixed form *pau-yo. PAVE, Pavé, from Latin pavire, to beat; b. suffixed (stative) form *paw-e-. PAVID, from Latin pavēre, to fear (< "to be struck"); c. perhaps Greek paiein, to beat: ANAPEST. [Pokorny 3. pêu-827.] **paus-** To leave, desert, cease, stop. PAUSE, PESADE, POSADA, POSE'; COMPOSE, DIAPAUSE, MARIPOSA LILY, REPOSE¹, from Greek pauein, to stop (> Latin pausa, a stopping). (Pokorny paus- 790.] **ped-1** Foot. I. Nominal root. 1. Lengthened o-grade form *pōd-. a. Foot, from Old English fot, foot, from Germanic *fot-. a. FOOSBALL, from Old High German fuoz, foot. Both a and b from Germanic *fot-, 2. Suffixed form *ped-ero-. FETTER, from Old English fetor, feter, leg iron, fetter, from Germanic *feterō. 3. Suffixed form *ped-el-. FETLOCK, from Middle English fitlock, fetlock, fetlock, from a Germanic source akin to Old High German vizzelach, fetlock, from Germanic *fetel-. 4. Basic form *ped-. PAWN2, -PED, PEDAL, PEDATE, PEDESTRIAN, PBDI-, PEDI CEL, PEDUNCLE, PEON, PES, PIONEER; MILLIPEDE, SESQUIPEDAL, TRIPEDAL, TRIVET, VAMP¹, from Latin pes (stem ped-), foot. 5. Suffixed form *ped-yo-. a. EXPEDITE, from Latin expedire, to free from a snare (ex-, out of; see **eghs**); b. IMPEDE, from Latin impedire, "to put in fetters, hobble, shackle" entangle, hinder (in-, in; see **en**). 6. Suffixed form *ped-ika-. IMPEACH, from Latin pedica, fetter, snare. 7. O-grade form *pod-. a. PEW, -POD, PODIUM; ANTIPODES, APODAL, APPOGGIATURA, APUS, CHENOPOD, LYCOPODIUM, MACROPOD, MONOPODIUM, OCTOPUS, OEDIPUS, PELECYPOD, PHALAROPE, PLATYPUS, PODAGRA, PODIATRY, PODOPHYLLIN, POLYP, POLYPOD, RHIZOPUS, SYMPODIUM, XENOPUS, from Greek pous (stem pod-), foot; b. PODZOL, from Russian pod, under. 8. Suffixed form *ped-ya. TRAPEZIUM, from Greek peza, foot. 9. Suffixed form *ped-o-. a. PEDO-1; PARALLELEPIPED, from Greek pedon, ground, soil; b. PADA, PAISA, PICE, PIE³, PUG³, from Sanskrit padam, footstep, foot, and pat, foot; C. CHARPOY, PAJAMA, TEAPOY, from Middle Persian påy, foot; d. lengthened-grade form *pēd-o-. (i) PILOT, from Greek pēdon, rudder, steering oar; (ii) DIAPEDESIS, from Greek pēdān, to leap. 10. Suffixed form *ped-i-. CYPRIPEDIUM, from Greek pedilon, sandal. II. Verbal root *ped-, to walk, stumble, fall. 1. FETCH', from Old English fetian, feccean, to bring back, from Germanic *fetēn. 2a. Suffixed (comparative) form *ped-yos-, PEJORATION; IMPAIR, from Latin pēior, worse (< "stumbling"); b. suffixed (superlative) form *ped-samo-. PESSIMISM, from Latin pessimus, worst; c. suffixed form *ped-ko-. PECCADILLO, PECCANT, PECCAVI; IMPECCABLE, from Latin peccare, to stumble, sin. a-c all from Latin *ped-. [Pokorny 2. ped-790.] **ped-2** Container. 1. Suffixed o-grade form *pod-om. VAT, from Old English fæt, cask, from Germanic *fatam. 2. Suffixed o-grade form *pod-ilo-. FETTLE, from Old English fetel, girdle, from Germanic *fatilaz. 3. Probably full-grade form *ped-. FRITTER¹, from obsolete English fritter, fragment, probably from a source akin to Middle High German vetze, "clothes," rags, from Germanic *fet-. [Pokorny 1. ped-790.] **peg-** Breast. 1. Suffixed variant form *pek-tos-. PECTORAL; EXPECTORATE, PARAPET, from Latin pectus, breast. 2. Possibly suffixed variant form *pek-so-. PUNKA, from Sanskrit pakşah, wing. (Pokorny (peg-) 792.] **pē(i)-** To hurt. (Oldest form *peh₁(i)-, zero-grade *ph₁(i)-, with variant (metathesized] full-grade form *peih,-, whence zero-grade *pih,-, contracted to "pi-.) 1. Suffixed (participial) form *pi-ont- (< *pia-ont-). FIEND, from Old English feond, fiond, enemy, devil, from Germanic *fijand-, hating, hostile. 2. Possibly *pe- in suffixed zero-grade form *pa-to-. PASSIBLE, PASSION, PASSIVE, PATIENT; COMPASSION, from Latin pati, to suffer. [Pokorny pē(i)-792.] **peia-** To be fat, swell. I. Zero-grade form *pi- (< *pia-). 1. Possibly suffixed form *pi-tu-. PIPS, PITUITARY, from Latin pituita, moisture exuded from trees, gum, phlegm. 2. Possibly suffixed form *pi-nu-. PINE¹, PINEAL, PINNACE, PIÑON, PINOT; PIÑA CLOTH, from Latin pīnus, pine tree (yielding a resin). 3. Suffixed form *pi-won-. PROPIONIC ACID, from Greek pion, fat. 4. Suffixed form *pi-wer-, "fat, fertile." a. EIRE, ERIN, ERSE, HIBERNIA, IRISH; IRELAND, from *Iwer-in, the prehistoric Celtic name for Ireland, whence Latin Hibernia, Ireland, Old Irish Ériu, Ireland, dative Érinn (> Irish Gaelic Éire), and Old English Iras, the Irish; b. PIERIAN SPRING, from Greek Pieria, a region of Macedonia, from *Piwer-id-. <65> II. Extended o-grade form *poid-. FAT, from Old English fæt(t), fat, from Germanic past participle *faitida-, fattened, from derivative verb *faitjan, to fatten, from *faita-, plump, fat. [Pokorny pej(a)-793.) **peig-1** Also **peik-** (oldest forms *peik-, *peik-). To cut, mark (by incision). 1. Alternate form *peik-. FILE2, from Old English fil, feol, file, from Germanic *fihalō, cutting tool. 2. Nasalized zero-grade form *pi-n-g-. PAINT, PICTOR, PICTURE, PICTURESQUE, PIGMENT, PIMENTO, PINT, PINTO; DEPICT, PICTOGRAPH, from Latin pingere, to embroider, tattoo, paint, picture. 3. Suffixed zero-grade form *pik-ro-. PICRO-, from Greek pikros, sharp, bitter. 4. O-grade form *poik-. POIKILOTHERM, from Greek poikilos, spotted, pied, various. [Pokorny 1. peig-794.] **peig-2** Also **peik-**. Evil-minded, hostile. 1. Suffixed zero-grade form *pig-olo-. FICKLE, from Old English ficol, treacherous, false, from Germanic *fikala-. 2. Suffixed o-grade form *poik-o-. FOE, from Old English gefah, enemy, from Germanic *gafaihaz (*ga-, collective prefix; see **kom**). 3. Suffixed o-grade form *poikyo-. FEY, from Old English fæge, fated to die, from Germanic *faigja-. 4. Suffixed o-grade form *poik-itā-. FEUD¹, from Old French faida, hostility, feud, from Germanic *faihithō. [Pokorny 2. peiĝ-795.] **peis-1** To crush. 1. Suffixed zero-grade form *pis-to-. PESTO, PESTLE, PISTE, PISTIL, PISTOU, from Latin pistillum, pestle. 2. Nasalized zero-grade form *pi-n-s-. PISTON, from Latin pinsāre, to pound. 3. Possibly suffixed zero-grade form *pis-lo-. PILE2, from Latin pīlum, javelin, pestle. 4. Perhaps Greek ptissein (pt- for p-), to crush, peel: PTISAN, TISANE. [Pokorny 1. (peis-?) 796.] **peis-2** To blow. FIZZLE, from Middle English fise, fart, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse fisa, to fart. [Pokorny 2. peis- 796.] **peisk-** Fish. Zero-grade form *pisk-. 1a. FISH, from Old English fisc, fish; b. WEAKFISH, from Middle Dutch vische, vis, fish; C. LUTEFISK, from Old Norse fiskr, fish. a-c all from Germanic *fiskaz, fish. 2. Suffixed form *pisk-i-. PISCARY, PISCATORIAL, PISCES, PISCI-, PISCINA, PISCINE; GRAMPUS, PESCO-VEGETARIAN, PORPOISE, REPECHAGE, from Latin piscis, fish. [Pokorny peisk-796.] **pek-1** To make pretty. (Oldest form *pek-.) 1. Possibly Germanic *fagra-. FAIR', from Old English fæger, beautiful. 2. Possibly Germanic *fagin-, *fagan-, to enjoy. FAIN, FAWN', from Old English fægen, joyful, glad, and derivative fagnian, to rejoice. [Pokorny 1. pek-796.) **pek-2** To pluck the hair, fleece, comb. (Oldest form *pek-.) 1. Extended form *pekt-. FIGHT, from Old English feohtan, to fight, from Germanic *fehtan, to fight. 2. Suffixed extended form *pekt-en-. a. PECTEN, from Latin pecten, a comb; b. zero-grade form *pkten-. CTENIDIUM; CTENOID, CTENOPHORE, from Greek kteis (stem kten- < *pkten-), a comb. 3. Suffixed extended form *pek-smen-. PASHMINA, from Persian pašm, wool. [Pokorny 2. pek-797.] **peku-** Wealth, movable property, livestock. (Oldest form *peku-.) 1a. FELLOW, from Old Norse fe, property, cattle; b. FEE, FIEF; ENFEOFF, FEOFFMENT, from Old Frenchfie, fief, and Old English feoh, cattle, goods, money; C. FEUD², from Medieval Latin feudum, feudal estate. a-c all from Germanic *fehu-. 2. PECORINO, from Latin pecus, cattle. 3. Suffixed form *peku-n-. PECUNIARY; IMPECUNIOUS, from Latin pecūnia, property, wealth. 4. Suffixed form *peku-l-. PECULATE, PECULIAR, from Latin pecūlium, riches in cattle, private property. [In Pokorny 2. pek- 797.) **Language and Culture Note** The Indo- Europeans typically differentiated between movable and immovable wealth, and in the case of the former, between two- and four-footed wealth. Slaves constituted two-footed chattels, typically expressed by the root **wl-ro-**, "man." Four-footed chattels, or livestock, were designated **peku-**, also a general term for "wealth” and the source of English **fee**. Both these roots are frequently combined in phrases referring to the totality of one's movable wealth: compare San- skrit vīrapśa- (< earlier *vira-pśva- < *wiro-pkw-o-), "abundance of men and livestock," Avestan pasu vīra "men (and) livestock, Latin pecudēsque virosque "both men and livestock," and Umbrian uiro pequo "men (and) livestock" These phrases continue an Indo-European phrase, *wiro- **peku-**, *peku- wiro-, for the same concept. Another way in which the Indo-Europeans expressed this partitioning was to use words that literally translate as "two-footed" and "four-footed," as in Sanskrit dvipade catuspade and Umbrian dupursus peturpursus, both meaning "two-footed (and) four-footed (chattels)." In an inherited verb phrase found in Sanskrit and Avestan, and Latin and Umbrian, "man (and) livestock" is the object of a verb meaning "protect, keep safe," **på-**, the root of Latin pastor, "shepherd." (See also note at **sol-**.) **pekw-** To cook, ripen. 1. Assimilated form (in Italic and Celtic) *k*ek"-. а. соок, CUISINE, KITCHEN, QUITTOR; APRICOT, BISCOTTO, BISCUIT, CHARCUTERIE, CONCOCT, DECOCT, PRECOCIOUS, RICOTTA, SANCOCHO, STERRA COTTA, from Latin coquere, to cook; b. CULINARY, KILN, from Latin culīna, kitchen, deformed from coquina. 2. PEPO; PUMPKIN, from Greek pepōn, ripe. 3. PEPTIC, PEPTIZE; DRUPE, EUPEPTIC, PEPSIN, PEPTONE, from Greek peptein, to cook, ripen, digest (> peptos, cooked). 4. DYSPEPSIA, from Greek -pepsia, digestion. 5. PUKKA; PAKORA, from Sanskrit pakva-, cooked, roasted, ripe. 6. CEVICHE, ESCABECHE, from Middle Persian *sikbag, dish made of meat, wheat flour, and vinegar (sik, vinegar), from bag, food, broth, from Old Iranian *-pāka-, cooked. [Pokorny pek-798.] **pel-1** Dust, flour. 1. POLENTA, POLLEN, from Latin pollen, fine flour, dust, and polenta (? < *pollen-tā), crushed grain. 2. POWDER, PULVERIZE, from Latin pulvis, dust. 3. PAILLASSE, PALEA, from Latin palea, chaff. 4. PALYNOLOGY, from Greek palunein, to sprinkle flour. 5. POULTICE, PULSE², from Latin puls, pottage, probably borrowed (via Etruscan) from Greek poltos, porridge (made from flour). 5. Probably Latin pulpa, fruit pulp: PAUPIETTE, PULP. (Pokorny 2b. pel- 802.] **pel-2** Pale. 1. Suffixed variant form *pal-wo-. a. (i) FALLOW DEER, from Old English fealu, fealo, reddish yellow; (ii) FAUVISM, from Frankish *falw-, reddish-yellow. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *falwa-; b. PALE2, PALLID, PALLIDUM, PALLOR; APPALL, from Latin pallère, to be pale; C. PALOMINO, from Latin palumbēs (influenced in form by Latin columbus, dove), ringdove, "gray-bird." 2. Probably suffixed form *pel-ko-. FALCON; GYRFALCON, from Late Latin falco, falcon, from Germanic *falkon-, falcon (< "gray bird"; but this is also possibly from the Late Latin). 3. Suffixed extended form *peli-wo-. a. PELOPS, from Greek pelios, dark; b. o-grade form *poli-wo-. POLIOMYELITIS, from Greek polios, gray. 4. Perhaps Greek pelargos, stork (< *pelawo-argos, "black-white bird"; argos, white; see **arg-**): PELARGONIUM. 5. Suffixed extended form *plei-to-. FLOYD, LLOYD (personal names), from Welsh llwyd, gray. [Pokorny 6. pel- 804.] **pel-3** To fold. 1. Extended o-grade form *polt-. a. FOLD', from Old English fealdan, faldan, to fold; b. FALTBOAT, from Old High German faldan, to fold; c. FURBELOW, from Italian falda, fold, flap, pleat; d. (i) FALDSTOOL, from Medieval Latin compound faldistolium, folding chair; (ii) FAUTEUIL, from Old French faldestoel, faldstool. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic compound *faldistōlaz, "folding stool" (*stōlaz, stool; see **stā-**); e. -FOLD, from Old English -feald, -fald, -fold, from Germanic combining form *-falthaz, *-faldaz. a-e all from Germanic *falthan, *faldan. <66> 2. Combining form *-plo-. a. DECUPLE, MULTIPLE, OCTUPLE, QUADRUPLE, QUINTUPLE, SEPTUPLE, SEXTUPLE, TRIPLE, from Latin -plus, -fold (as in triplus, threefold); b. -PLOID; TRIPLOBLASTIC, from Greek -plos, -ploos, -fold (as in haploos, haplous, single, and triploos, triple). [Pokorny 3a. pel- 802.] **pel-4** Skin, hide. 1. Suffixed form *pel-no-. PELL³, from Old English fell, skin, hide, from Germanic *felnam. 2. PILM, from Old English filmen, membrane, from Germanic suffixed form *fel-man-ja-. 3. Suffixed form *pel-ni-. PELISSE, PELLICLE, PELT¹, PELTRY, PILLION; PELLAGRA, SURPLICE, from Latin pellis, skin. 4. ERYSIPELAS, from Greek -pelas, skin. 5. Suffixed form *pel-to-, PELTATE, from Greek peltē, a shield (made of hide). (Pokorny 3b. pel-803.] **pel-5** To sell. Lengthened o-grade form *pol-. BIBLIOPOLE, MONOPOLY, from Greek põlein, to sell. [Pokorny 5. pel- 804.] **pel-6** To thrust, strike, drive. L. Suffixed form *pel-de-. 1a. ANVIL, from Old English anfilt(e), anfealt, anvil ("something beaten on"); b. (i) FELT¹, from Old English felt, felt; (ii) FILTER, FILTRATE, from Medieval Latin filtrum, filter, piece of felt. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *feltaz, *filtiz, compressed wool. Both a and b from Germanic *felt-, *falt-, to beat. 2. PELT, POUSSETTE, PULSATE, PULSE¹, PUSH; COMPEL, DISPEL, EXPEL, IMPEL, IMPULSE, PROPEL, REPEL, from Latin pellere (past participle pulsus), to push, drive, strike. 3a. Suffixed o-grade form *polo-, fuller of cloth. POLISH, from Latin polire, to make smooth, polish (< "to full cloth"); b. suffixed o-grade form *pol-o- (with different accentuation from the preceding), fulled (of cloth). INTERPOLATE, from Latin compound adjective interpolis (also interpolus), refurbished (inter-, between; see **en**). II. Extended form *pelh2-. 1. Present stem *pelnā-. a. APPEAL, PEAL, RAPPEL, REPEAL, from Latin appellare, "to drive to," address, entreat, appeal, call (ad-, to; see **ad-**); b. COMPELLATION, from Latin compellare, to accost, address (com-, intensive prefix; see **kom**). 2. Possible suffixed zero-grade extended adverbial form *pla-ti-, or locative plural *pla-si. PLESIOMORPHY, PLESIOSAUR, from Greek plēsios, near (< "pushed toward"), from pre-Greek *plāti or *plāsi. [Pokorny 2a. pel- 801.] **pela-1** To fill; with derivatives referring to abundance and multitude. (Oldest form *pelh₁-, with variant [metathesized] form *pleh,-, contracted to *plē-.) I. Zero-grade form *pla-. 1. Suffixed form *pla-no-. PULL¹, from Old English full, full, from Germanic *fulla- (< *fulna-), full. 2. FILL, from Old English fyllan, to fill (from Germanic derivative verb *fulljan, to fill), and fyllu, full amount (from Germanic abstract noun *full-ino-, fullness). 3. PLENARY, PLENITUDE, PLENTY, PLENUM; PLENIPOTENTIARY, REPLENISH, TERREPLEIN, from Latin plēnus, full, from Latin stem *plēno-, replacing *plāno- (influenced by Latin verb plère, to fill; see IV. 1. below). 4. Suffixed form *pla-go-. a. POLK, from Old English folc, people; b. HERRENVOLK, VOLKSLIED, from Old High German folc, people. Both a and b fróm Germanic *folkam. II. Suffixed form *p(e)la-u-. 1. Obscure comparative form. PIÙ, PLURAL, PLUS; NONPLUS, PLUPERFECT, PLURIPOTENT, SURPLUS, from Latin plus, more (Archaic Latin plous). See also IV. 5. below. 2. O-grade form *pol(a)-u-. POLY-; HOI POLLOI, from Greek polus, much, many. 3. Possibly from this root (but more likely from **pel-1**) is Latin palūs, marsh (? < "inundated*): PALUDAL, PALUSTRINE. III. Suffixed form *p(e)la-o-. Latin compound manipulus (see **man-2**). IV. Variant form *ple-. 1. ACCOMPLISH, COMPLEMENT, COMPLETE, COMPLIMENT, COMPLY, DEPLETE, EXPLETIVE, IMPLEMENT, REPLETE, SUPPLETION, SUPPLY, from Latin plère, to fill. 2. Possibly suffixed form *ple-dhw-. PLEBE, PLEBEIAN, PLEBS; PLEBISCITE, from Latin plēbs, plēbēs, the people, multitude. 3. Suffixed form *ple-dhwo-. PLETHORA; PLETHYSMOGRAPH, from Greek derivative verb plēthein, to be full. 4. Suffixed adjective (positive) form *ple-ro-. PLEROCERCOID, from Greek plērēs, full. 5. Suffixed (comparative) form *plē-i(s)on-. PLEO-, PLEONASM; PLEIOTAXY, PLEIOTROPISM, PLIOCENE, from Greek pleōn, pleiōn, more. 6. Suffixed (superlative) form *ple-isto-, PLEISTOCENE, from Greekpleistos, most. V. Possibly Sanskrit pūrah, cake (< "that which fills or satisfies"): POORI. [Pokorny 1. pel-798.] **pela-2** Flat; to spread. (Oldest form *pelh2-, with variant [metathesized] form *pleh₂-, colored to *plah2-, contracted to *pla-.) 1. Suffixed form *pel(a)-tu-. FIELD, from Old English feld, open field, from Germanic *felthuz, flat land. 2. Suffixed form *pel(a)-t-es- (by-form of *pel(a)-tu-). a. FELDSPAR, from Old High German feld, field; b. VELDT, from Middle Dutch veld, velt, field. Both a and b from Germanic *feltha-, flat land. 3. Variant form *pla-. a. Suffixed form *plā-ru-. FLOOR, from Old English flor, floor, from Germanic *floruz, floor; b. suffixed form *plā-no-. (1) LLANO, PIANO, PLAIN, PLANARIAN, PLANE, PLANE, PLANE³, PLANISH, PLANO-, PLANULA; ESPLANADE, EXPLAIN, PIANOFORTE, from Latin plānus, flat, level, even, plain, clear; (ii) Celtic *lānon, plain. Gaulish -lānon in Gallo-Roman place name Mediolanum (see **medhyo-**). 4. Suffixed zero-grade form *pla-mā-, PALM, PALM², PALMARY, PALMIER, from Latin palma (< *palama), palm of the hand. 5. Possibly extended variant form *plan-. a. PLANET; APLANATIC, from Greek planāsthai, to wander (< "to spread out"); b. perhaps Germanic *flan-. FLÅNEUR, from French flâner, to walk the streets idly, from a source akin to Old Norse flana, to wander aimlessly. 6. Suffixed zero-grade form *pladh-. -PLASIA, PLASMA, -PLAST, PLASTER, PLASTIC, PLASTID, -PLASTY; DYSPLASIA, METAPLASM¹, тохоPLASMA, from Greek plassein (< *plath-yein), to mold, "spread out." 7. O-grade form *pola-. a. POLYNYA, from Russian polyi, open; b. POLACK, POLKA, from Slavic *polje, broad flat land, field. [Pokorny pela- 805.] See also extended roots **plāk-1** and **plat-**. **pela-3** Citadel, fortified high place. (Oldest form perhaps *pelh3-, but exact laryngeal uncertain.) Zero-grade form *pla-. 1. POLICE, POLICY, POLIS, POLITIC, POLITY; ACROPOLIS, COSMOPOLIS, COSMOPOLITE, MEGALOPOLIS, METROPOLIS, NECROPOLIS, POLICLINIC, PROPOLIS, from Greek polis, city (phonological development unclear). 2. Sanskrit pür, puram, fortress, city. a. GOPURAM, from Sanskrit puram. b. compounded in numerous place names such as SINGAPORE, from Sanskrit simhapuram, "lion city" (simhah, lion). [In Pokorny 1. pel- 798.] **pel(i)s-** Rock, cliff. 1. HORNFELS, from Old High German felis, rock, from Germanic *felesaz, rock. 2. FELL, FJELD, from Old Norse fjall, fell, rock, mountain, barren plateau, from Germanic *felzam, rock. [Pokorny peli-s-807.] **pen-** Swamp. Suffixed o-grade form *pon-yo-. FEN, from Old English fenn, marsh, from Germanic *fanjam, swamp, marsh. [Pokorny 2. pen- 807.] **penkwe** Five. I. Basic form *penke. 1. Assimilated form *pempe. a. (i) FIVE; FIFTY, from Old English fif, five, with derivative fiftig, fifty (-tène, ten; see **dekm**); (ii) PIN, from Old High German finf, funf, five. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic "fimf, b. (i) FIFTEEN, from Old English fiſtene, fifteen; (ii) FEMTO-, from Old Norse fimmtan, fifteen. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic compound *fimftehun, fifteen (*tehun, ten; see **dekm**). 2. Assimilated form (in Italic and Celtic) *kwenke. a. CINQUAIN, CINQUE, QUINQUE-; CINQUECENTO, CINQUEPOIL, QUINCUNX, from Latin quinque, five; b. KENO, QUINATE, from Latin distributive quini, five each; C. QUINCEAÑERA, DECENNIAL, QUINDECENNIAL, <67> from Latin compound quindecim, fifteen (decem, ten; see **dekm**); d. QUINCENTENARY, from Latin quingenti, five hundred. 3. PENTA, PENTAD; PENSTEMON, PENTAGON, PENTAMETER, PENTATHLON, UNUNPENTIUM, from Greek pente, five. 4a. PUNCH³; PACHISI, from Sanskrit pañca, five; b. Persian panj, five, in place name panjab (see **ap-2**). Both a and b from Indo-Iranian *panca. II. Compound *penk"e-(d)konta, "five tens," fifty (*-(d)konta, group of ten; see **dekm**). 1. QUINQUAGENARIAN, QUINQUAGESIMA, from Latin quinquagintā, fifty. 2. PENTECOST, PINKSTER FLOWER, from Greek pentēkonta, fifty. III. Ordinal adjective *penkw-to-. 1. FIFTH, from Old English fifta, fifth, from Germanic *fimfton-. 2. QUINT, QUINTAIN, QUINTET, QUINTILE; QUINTESSENCE, QUINTILLION, QUINTUPLE, from Latin quintus (<*quinc-tos), feminine quinta, fifth. IV. Suffixed form *penk-ro-. FINGER, from Old English finger, finger, from Germanic *fingwraz, finger (< "one of five"). V. Suffixed reduced zero-grade form *pnk-sti-. 1. FIST, from Old English fyst, fist. 2. FOIST, from Dutch vuist, fist. Both 1 and 2 from Germanic *funhstiz. [Pokorny penkue 808, pņksti- 839.] **pent-** To tread, go. 1. FIND, from Old English findan, to find, from Germanic *finthan, to come upon, discover. 2. Suffixed o-grade form *pont-i-. a. PONS, PONTIFEX, PONTIFF, PONTINE, PONTOON, PUNT¹; OSTEOPONTIN, TRANSPONTINE, from Latin põns (stem pont-), bridge (earliest meaning, "way, passage," preserved in the priestly title pontifex, "he who prepares the way"; -fex, maker; see **dhe-**); b. SPUTNIK, from Russian sputnik, fellow traveler, sputnik, from put', path, way, from Slavic *poti. 3. Zero-grade form *pnt-. PERIPATETIC, from Greek patein, to tread, walk. 4. Suffixed zero-grade form *put-a-. a. PATH, from Old English path, path; b. PAD; FOOTPAD¹, from Middle Dutch pad, way, path. Both a and b from Germanic *patha-, way, path, probably borrowed (? via Scythian) from Iranian *path- (compare Old Persian pathť, path). (Pokorny pent-808.] **per¹** Base of prepositions and preverbs with the basic meanings of "forward" "through," and a wide range of extended senses such as "in front of," "before," "early," "first," "chief," "toward," "against," "near," "at" "around." I. Basic form *per and extended form *peri. 1a. (i) TURNVEREIN, from Middle High German vereinen, to unite; (ii) FARKLEMPT, from Middle High German verklemmen, to grip, clamp, choke up. Both (i) and (ii) from Old High German far-; b. VEER², from Middle Dutch vieren, to let out, slacken; c. Germanic compound *fergetan (see **ghend-**); d. FRUMP, from Middle Dutch verrompelen, to wrinkle. a-d all from Germanic *fer-, *far-, used chiefly as an intensive prefix denoting destruction, reversal, or completion. 2. Suffixed (comparative) form *per-ero-, farther away. FAR, from Old English feor(r), far, from Germanic *fer(e)ra. 3. PER, PER-; PARAMOUNT, PARAMOUR, PARGET, PARTERRE, PARVENU, from Latin per, through, for, by. 4. PERI-; PERISSODACTYL, from Greek peri, around, near, beyond. 5a. PANTOUM, from Sanskrit pari-, around; b. PARADISE, from Avestan pairi-, around; C. BARD2, PURDAH, from Old Persian pari, around, over; d. Old Iranian compound *pari- vāraka- (see **wer-5**). a-d all from Indo-Iranian *pari-, around. 6. PERESTROIKA, from Old Russian pere-, around, again, from Slavic *per-. II. Zero-grade form *pr-. 1a. FOR, from Old English for, before, instead of, on account of; b. FOR-, from Old English for-, prefix denoting destruction, pejoration, exclusion, or completion. Both a and b from Germanic *fur, before, in. 2. Extended form *prt-. FORTH; AFFORD, from Old English forth, from Germanic *furth-, forward. 3. Suffixed (comparative) form *pr-tero-. FURTHER, from Old English furthra, furthor, farther away, from Germanic *furthera-. 4a. Compound *pr-st-i- or *por-st-i-, with o-grade form *por- (see **stā-**); b. PORRECT, from Latin por-, forth, forward. Both a and b from Latin por- from *pr-. 5. Suffixed form *pr-sōd. PARGET, from Latin porro, forward. III. Extended zero-grade form *pra- (earlier *prh3-). 1. Suffixed (superlative) form *pra-mo-. а. FORMER', from Old English forma, first, from Germanic *fruma-, *furma-; b. FOREMOST, from Old English formest, first, from Germanic *frumista-, *furmista-; C. Latin compound prandium, "first meal," late breakfast, lunch (probably < *prām-d-ium <*pram-(e) d-yo-; second element *-(e)d-, to eat; see **ed-**). 2. Suffixed (superlative) form *pra-isto-. FIRST, from Old English fyrst, fyrest, first, from Germanic *furista-, foremost. 3. Suffixed form *pra-wo-. a. Prow, from Greek prōira, forward part of a ship, from analogically suffixed form *prōw-arya; b. PROTEIN, PROTIST, PROTO-, PROTON, from Greek prōtos, first, foremost, from suffixed (superlative) form *prow- ato-. Both a and b from Greek *prowo-, first, foremost. 4. Suffixed form *pra-i. ARPENT, from Latin arepennis, half-acre (second element obscure), from Gaulish ari (combining form are-), before, from Celtic *(p)ari, *are. IV. Extended form *prā. 1a. FORE, FORE-; FOREFATHER, from Old English fore, for, before; b. VORLAGE, from Old High German fora, before; C. BEFORE, from Old English beforan, before, from Germanic prefixed and suffixed form *bi-fora-na, in the front (*bi-, at, by; see **ambhi**). a-c all from Germanic *fura, before. 2. PARA-1; PALFREY, from Greek para, beside, alongside of, beyond. 3. PURANA, from Sanskrit purā, before. V. Extended form *prð. 1a. FRAE, FRO; FROWARD, from Old Norse frā, from, from Germanic *fra, forward, away from; b. Germanic *fra-, completely, in compounds (see **ed-**, **aik-1**). 2. Suffixed form *pro-mo-. a. FRAME, FROM, from Old English fram, forward, from, from Germanic *fram, from; b. FURNISH, FURNITURE, VENEER, from Old French f(o)urnir, to supply, provide, from Germanic derivative verb *frumjan, to further, from Germanic *frum, forward; C. PRAM², from Czech prám, raft. 3. Suffixed form *pro-wo-. a. (i) FRAU, FRÄULEIN, from Old High German frouwa, lady; (ii) FREYA, from Old Norse freyja, lady. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *frōwō, lady, lengthened-grade feminine of *frawan-; lord; b. FREY, from Old Norse Freyr, from Germanic *frawaz, alteration of *frawan-. lord; c. form *prō-wo-, independently created in Slavic. NAPRAPATHY, from Old Church Slavonic pravă, true. 4. PRIDE, PRO¹, PRO-1, PRODIGALITY, PROUD, PROWESS; IMPROVE, PURCHASE, from Latin prō, prð-, before, for, instead of. 5. Suffixed form *pro-no-. PRONE, from Latin pronus, leaning forward. 6. Possible suffixed form *pro-ko-. RECIPROCAL, from Latin compound reciprocus, alternating, "backward and forward" (*re-ko-, backward; see **re-**). 7. Suffixed adverb *pro-kwe. a. APPROACH, RAPPROCHEMENT, REPROACH, from Latin prope, near; b. suffixed form *prok"-inko-. PROPINQUITY, from Latin propinquus, near; C. suffixed (superlative) form *prok-isamo-. PROXIMATE; APPROXIMATE, from Latin proximus, nearest. 8. Compound *pro-bhw-o-, growing well or straightforward (*bhw-o-, to grow; see **bheua-**). PROBABLE, PROBE, PROBITY, PROOF, PROVE; APPROVE, IMPROBITY, REPROVE, from Latin probus, upright, good, virtuous. 9. PRO-2, from Greek pro, before, in front, forward. 10. Suffixed (comparative) form *pro-tero-. HYSTERON PROTERON, PROTEROZOIC, from Greek pro- teros, before, former. 11. PRAKRIT, from Sanskrit pra-, before, forth. 12. Celtic *ro-, intensive prefix. GALORE, from Old Irish roar, enough, from Celtic compound *ro-wero-, sufficiency (*-wero-, from root *wer- also found in Old Irish feraid, he provides, supplies). <68> VI. Extended forms "prai-, *prei-. 1a. PRE-; PRETERISM, PRETERITE, from Latin prae, before; b. compound *prai-ghes-to- (see **ghes-**). 2. Suffixed (comparative) form *prei-yos-. PRIOR?, from Latin prior, former, higher, superior. 3. Suffixed form *preiwo-, a. PRIVATE, PRIVILEGE, PRIVITY, PRIVY; DEPRIVE, from Latin privus, single, alone (< "standing in front," "isolated from others"); b. PROPER, PROPERTY; APPROPRIATE, EXPROPRIATE, PROPRIOCEPTION, PROPRIOCEPTOR, PROPRIUM, from Latin proprius, one's own, particular (< prō privõ, in particular, from the ablative of privus, single; prō, for; see V. 4.). 4. Extended form *preis-. a. Suffixed (superlative) form *preis-mo-. (i) PREMIER, PRIMAL, PRIMARY, PRIMATE, PRIME, PRIMITIVE, PRIMO, PRIMUS; IMPRIMIS, PRIMAVERA, PRIMEVAL, PRIMIPARA, PRIMOGENITOR, PRIMOGENITURE, PRIMORDIAL, from Latin primus (< *prismus), first, foremost; (ii) PRINCE, PRINCIPAL, PRINCIPLE, from Latin compound princeps, "he who takes first place" leader, chief, emperor (-ceps, "-taker"; see **kap-**); b. suffixed form *preis-tano-, PRISTINE, from Latin pristinus, former, earlier, original; c. suffixed form *preis-ko-. PRISCILLA (personal name), from Latin Priscilla, feminine diminutive of priscus, ancient. VII. Extended form *pres- in compound *presgu-, "going before" (*g"-u-, going; see **gwa-**). PRESBYTER, PRESTER JOHN, PRIEST; PRESBYOPIA, from Greek presbus, old, old man, elder. VIII. Extended form *proti. PROS-, from Greek pros, against, toward, near, at. [Pokorny 2. A. per 810.] Other possibly related forms are grouped under **per-2**, **per-3**, **per-4**, and **per-5**. **per-2** To lead, pass over. A verbal root belonging to the group of **per**. I. Full-grade form *per-. 1. Suffixed form *per-tu-. FIRTH, FJORD, from Old Norse fjördhr, an inlet, estuary, from Germanic ferthuz, place for crossing over, ford. 2. Suffixed form *per-ona-. PERONEAL, from Greek peronē, pin of a brooch, buckle (< "that which pierces through"). 3. Suffixed form *per-yo-. DIAPIR, from Greek peirein, to pierce. 4. Suffixed form *pertrā-. PETRO-, PETROUS, PIER; PARSLEY, PETRIFY, PETROLEUM, SALTPETER, from Greek petrā, cliff, rock (dissimilated from *pertra-), with possible earlier meaning "bedrock" (< "what one comes through to"). 5. Suffixed form *per-wr, *per-wn-, bedrock, "a coming through, what one comes through to," and derived adjective *per-wn-to-, rocky. PARVATI, from Sanskrit Pārvati, from parvatah, mountain (since Parvati is associated with the Himalayas). II. O-grade form *por-. 1a. (i) FARE; WARFARE, WAYFARER, WAYFARING, WELFARE, from Old English faran, to go on a journey, get along; (ii) FIELDPARE, from Old English feldeware, possibly altered by folk etymology in Old English from an earlier *feldefare, from *fare, a goer, from faran (see (i) above); b. GABERDINE, from Old High German faran, to go, travel; C. FARTLEK, from Old Norse fara, to go, move, a-c all from Germanic *faran, to go. 2. Suffixed form *poro-, passage, journey. PORE²; APORIA, EMPORIUM, POROMERIC, from Greek poros, journey, passage. 3. Suffixed (causative) form *por-eyo-, to cause to go, lead, conduct. a. FERRY, from Old English ferian, to transport, from Germanic *farjan, to ferry; b. GUAR, WALLAH, from Sanskrit pārayati, pālayati, he leads across, brings to safety. 4. Suffixed form *por-ti- in Germanic *fardiz, journey. FERDINAND (personal name), from Germanic *fardi-nanth-, "adventurer" (> French Ferdinand; *nanthiz, risk). 5. Lengthened-grade form *pōr-. a. FERE, from Old English (ge)fera, "fellow-traveler," companion (ge-, together, with; see **kom**), from Germanic suffixed form *for-ja-; b. PÜHRER, from Old High German fuoren, to lead, from Germanic suffixed (causative) form *for-jan. 6. Possibly suffixed form *por-no-, feather, wing (< "that which carries a bird in flight"). a. FERN, from Old English fearn, fern (having feathery fronds), from Germanic *farnō, feather, leaf; b. PAAN, from Sanskrit parņam, leaf, feather. III. Zero-grade form *pr-. 1. Suffixed form *pr-tu-, passage. a. PORD, from Old English ford, shallow place where one may cross a river, from Germanic *furduz; b. PORT¹; IMPORTUNE, OPPORTUNE, PASSPORT, from Latin portus, harbor (< "passage"); c. EUPHRATES, from Avestan hupərəthuua-, "good to cross over" (> Greek Euphrātēs), from paratu-, ford (hu-, good; see **(e)su-**). 2. Suffixed form *pr-ta-. PORCH, PORT³, PORTAL, PORTCULLIS, PORTER, PORTICO, PORTIÈRE, PORTULACA, PURSLANE, from Latin porta, gate. 3. Suffixed (denominative) form *pr-to-. PORTS, PORTABLE, PORTAGE, PORTAMENTO, PORTATIVE, PORTER¹; COMPORT, DEPORT, EXPORT, IMPORT, IMPORTANT, PORTFOLIO, PURPORT, RAPPORT, REPORT, SPORT, SUPPORT, TRANSPORT, from Latin portare, to carry. [Pokorny 2. B. per 816.] **per-3** To try, risk (< "to lead over," "press forward"). A verbal root belonging to the group of **per¹**. 1. Lengthened grade *pēr-. FEAR, from Old English fær, danger, sudden calamity, from Germanic *feraz, danger. 2. Suffixed form *peri tlo-. PARLOUS, PERIL, from Latin periclum, periculum, trial, danger. 3. Suffixed form *per-yo-. EXPERIENCE, EXPERIMENT, EXPERT, from Latin experiri, to try, learn by trying (ex-, from; see **eghs**). 4. Suffixed form *per-ya. PIRATE; EMPIRIC, from Greek peira, trial, attempt. [Pokorny 2. E. per 818.] **per-4** To strike. A verbal root possibly belonging to the group of **per¹**. Extended forms *prem-, *pres-. PREGNANT, PRESS, PRESSURE, PRINT; APPRESSED, APRÈS, COMPRESS, DEPRESS, ESPRESSO, EXPRESS, IMPRESS¹, IMPRIMATUR, IMPRINT, OPPRESS, REPRESS, REPRIMAND, SUPPRESS, from Latin premere (past participle pressus), to press. [Pokorny 3. per- 818.] **per-5** To traffic in, sell (< "to hand over," "distribute"). A verbal root belonging to the group of **per¹**. Base of two distinct extended roots, I. Root form *pret-. 1. INTERPRET, from Latin compound inter-pres (stem inter-pret-), go-between, negotiator (inter-, between; see **en**). 2. Suffixed form *pretyo-. PRAISE, PRECIOUS, PRICE; APPRAISE, APPRECIATE, DEPRECIATE, from Latin pretium, price. II. Variant root form *pera- (oldest form *perh₂-). Suffixed form *p(e)r-n-a-, with o-grade *por(ə)-nā-. PORNOGRAPHY, from Greek pornē, prostitute, from pernanai, to sell. (In Pokorny 2. C. per 817.] **perd-** To fart. 1a. FART, from Old English *feortan, to fart, from Germanic *fertan, *fartōn; b. FUTZ, perhaps from Yiddish arumfartsn zich, to fart around, from Middle High German varzen, to fart. Both a and b from Germanic *fertan, *farton. 2. PARTRIDGE, from Greek perdix, partridge (which makes a sharp whirring sound when suddenly flushed). [Pokorny perd- 819.] Compare **pezd-**. **pera-1** To produce, procure. (Oldest form perh3-; possibly related to **perǝ-2**. See also **per-5** II.) 1. Zero-grade form "pra- (becoming *par- in Latin). a. Suffixed form *par-a-. PARADE, PARE, PARLAY, PARRY, PARURE; APPARATUS, APPAREL, COMPRADOR, DISPARATE, EMPEROR, IMPERATIVE, IMPERATOR, IMPERIAL, PARACHUTE, PARASOL, PREPARE, RAMPART, REPAIR¹, SEPARATE, SEVER, SEVERAL, from Latin parare, to try to get, prepare, equip; b. suffixed form *paryo-. -PARA, PARITY, -PAROUS, PARTURIENT; POSTPARTUM, REPERTORY, VIPER, from Latin parere, parire, to get, beget, give birth; c. parallel suffixed (participial) form *par-ent-. PARENT, from Latin parēns, parent; d. suffixed form *par-o-, producing: (i) JUNIPER, from Latin iūniperus, juniper, perhaps from compound *yoini-paros, "producing juniper berries" (*yoini-, juniper berry); (ii) compound *pau-paros (see **pau-**); (iii) Italic compound *wiwo-paros (see **geia-1**); e. suffixed form *par-ikā-. PARCAE, from Latin Parcae, the Fates (who assign one's destiny). 2. Suffixed o-grade form *por(a)-si-. <69> HEIFER, from Old English heahfore, calf, a compound (with obscure first element) of fearr, calf, from Germanic *farzi-. [Pokorny 2. D. per 818.) **pera-2** To grant, allot (reciprocally, to get in return). (Oldest form *perh3-; possibly related to **pera-1**. See also **per-5** II.) Zero-grade form *pra- (becoming *par- in Latin). 1. Suffixed form *par-ti-. a. PARCEL, PARCENER, PARSE, PART, PARTICLE, PARTISAN, PARTISAN2, PARTITA, PARTY; BIPARTITE, COMPART, IMPART, PARTICIPATE, REPARTEE, from Latin pars (stem part-), a share, part; b. possibly suffixed form *par-tion-. PORTION, PROPORTION, from Latin portiō, a part (first attested in the phrase pro portione, in proportion, according to each part, perhaps assimilated from *pro partiōne). 2. Perhaps Latin pār, equal: PAIR, PAR, PARITY¹, PEER2; COMPARE, IMPARITY, NONPAREIL, PAREVE, PARI-MUTUEL. 3. Perhaps nasalized suffixed zero-grade pr-n-k-. PUJA, from Sanskrit pūjā, puja, perhaps a reborrowing into Sanskrit of a Prakrit form from Sanskrit prică, a mixing, a filling up, satisfaction, from prnakti, he mixes, fills, sates. [Pokorny 2. C. per 817.] **perk-1** Speckled. Often used in names of spotted or pied animals. (Oldest form *perk-.) PERCH², from Greek perke, the perch. (Pokorny 2. perk- 820.] **perk-2** To dig out, tear out. (Oldest form *perk-.) Zero-grade form *prk-. FURROW; FURLONG, from Old English furh, trench, from Germanic *furh-. [Pokorny 3. perk-821.] **perku** Oak. 1. Zero-grade form *prk"-. FIR, probably from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Icelandic fyri, fir, from Germanic furh-jon-. 2. Assimilated form *kwerkwu-. QUERCETIN; QUERCITRON, from Latin quercus, oak. [Pokorny perku-s822.] **perso-** Sheaf (of ears of grain). 1. Possibly Greek Persephone, Persephone, whose name is also recorded in such early variants as Persōphata, Perrophatta, from *perso-ghutya, probably "she who beats the sheaves, she of the sheaf-beating (*-gwhn-t-ya, suffixed zero-grade of *g"hen-, to strike; see **gwhen-**); compare the formerly widespread European folk custom of making the last sheaf of grain of the harvest into a female figurine playing in a role in harvest celebrations. 2. Possibly (although uncertain) Greek prason, leek (from its sheaflike shape; alternatively, the Greek word along with its Latin cognate porrum may be independent borrowings from an unknown Mediterranean source): PRASE; CHRYSOPRASE, PRASEODYMIUM. [Not in Pokorny, compare Sanskrit parsa-, Avestan parša-, sheaf.] **persnā-** Heel. PEARL¹, from Latin perna, ham, leg, sea mussel. [Pokorny persnā 823.] **pes-** To rub. This root is found as a verb only in Hittite pešš, to rub, but it is continued by a number of nominal derivatives formed with varying suffixes and meaning "penis," such as Greek peos and Sanskrit pasas, both < *pes-os. Suffixed form *pes-ni-. PENCIL, PENICILLIN, PENICILLIUM, PENIS, from Latin penis (< *pesnis), penis, tail. [Pokorny 3. pes- 824.] **pet-** To rush, fly. Also **peta-** (oldest form *peth₁-, with variant [metathesized] form *pteh,-, contracted to *ptē-.) 1. Suffixed form *pet-rā-, FEATHER, from Old English fether, feather, from Germanic *fethrō, feather. 2. -PETAL, PETITION, PETULANT; APPETITE, COMPETE, IMPETIGO, IMPETUOUS, IMPETUS, PERPETUAL, REPEAT, from Latin petere, to go toward, seek. 3. Suffixed form *pet-na-. PANACHE, PEN, PENNA, PENNATE, PENΝΟΝ, PIN, PINNA, PINNACLE, PINNATE, PINNATI-, PINNULE; EMPENNAGE, from Latin penna, pinna, feather, wing. 4. Suffixed form *pet-ro- in compound *aku-petro- (see **ōku-**). 5. Suffixed form *pet-yo-. PROPITIOUS, from Latin propitius, favorable, gracious, originally a religious term meaning "falling or rushing forward," hence "eager," "well-disposed" (said of the gods; pro-, forward; see **per¹**). 6. Suffixed zero-grade form *pt-ero-. -PTER; AMINOPTERIN, APTERYX, ARCHAEOPTERYX, COLEOPTERAN, DIPTERAL, MECOPTERAN, MONOPTEROS, ORTHOPTERAN, PERIPTERAL, PLECOPTERAN, PTERIDOLOGY, PTEROYLGLATAMIC ACID, PTERYGOID, SAUROPTERYGIAN, from Greek pteron, feather, wing, and pterux, wing. 7. Suffixed zero-grade form *pt-ilo-. COLEOPTILE, from Greek ptilon, soft feathers, down, plume. 8. Reduplicated form *pi-pt-. PTOMAINE, PTOSIS; ASYMPTOTE, PERIPETEIA, PROPTOSIS, SYMPTOM, from Greek piptein, to fall, with verbal adjective ptōtos (< *ptō-to-), falling, fallen, and nominal derivatives ptosis (< *ptō-ti-), a fall, and ptoma (< *ptō-mn), a fall, fallen body, corpse. 9. O-grade form *pot-. HIPPOPOTAMUS, POTAMOLOGY, from Greek potamos "rushing water," river (-amo-, Greek suffix). 10. Suffixed form *pet-tro-. TALIPOT, from Sanskrit pattram, feather, leaf. [Pokorny 2. pet- 825.] **peta-** To spread. (Oldest form *peth2-.) 1. Suffixed o-grade form *pot(a)-mo-. FATHOM, from Old English fæthm, fathom, from Germanic *fathmaz, "length of two arms stretched out." 2. Suffixed (stative) variant zero-grade form *pat-e-. PATENT, PATULOUS, from Latin patere, to be open. 3. Probably variant zero-grade form in remade nasalized form *pat-no-. PACE¹, PANDY, PAS, PASEO, PASS, PASSÉ, PASSIM; COMPAS, COMPASS, EXPAND, PASO FINO, PASQUEFLOWER, PASSACAGLIA, PASSAGE, PASSAGE, PASSPORT, REPAND, SPAWN, from Latin pandere (past participle passus < *pat-to-), to spread out. 4. Suffixed form *pet-alo-. PETAL, from Greek petalon, leaf. 5. Suffixed form *pet-ano-. PAELLA, PAN, PATEN, PATINA, PATINA?, from Greek patanē (? <*petanā-), platter, "thing spread out." 6. PETASOS, from Greek petasos, broad-brimmed hat, from Greek suffixed form *peta-so-. [Pokorny 1. pet- 824.] **peuǝ-** To purify, cleanse. (Oldest form *peuh.) 1. Suffixed zero-grade form *pu-ro (< *pua-ro-). POUR, PURE, PURÉE, PURGE, PURITAN; COMPURGATION, DEPURATE, EXPURGATE, PURBLIND, SPURGE, from Latin pūrus, pure, and pürgāre, to purify (< *pur-igare < *pur-agare; *ag-, to drive; see **ag-1**). 2. Suffixed zero-grade form *pů-yo- (< *pua-yo). PIACULUM, PIETY, PIOUS, PITY; EXPIATE, IMPIOUS, from Latin pius, devout, dutiful in religious matters (< *"in a state of purity", from earlier *pios, assimilated from *puyos), with associated verb piare, to purify, expiate. [Pokorny 1. peu-827.] **peuk-** Also **peug-**. To prick. (Oldest forms *peuk-, *peuĝ-.) Zero-grade form *pug-. 1. Suffixed form *pugmo-. PONIARD, PUGILISM, PUGIL STICK, PUGNACIOUS; IMPUGN, OPPUGN, REPUGN, from Latin pugil, pugilist, and pugnus, fist, with denominative pugnare, to fight with the fist. 2. Nasalized zero-grade form *pu-n-g-. BUNG, PINK, POIGNANT, POINT, POINTILLISM, PONTIL, POUNCE, POUNCE, PUNCHEON, PUNCTILIO, PUNCTUAL, PUNCTUATE, PUNCTURE, PUNGENT; BONTEBOK, COMPUNCTION, EXPUNGE, SPONTOON, TRAPUNTO, from Latin pungere, to prick. 3. PYGMAEAN, PYGMY, from Greek pugmē, fist. 3. Seen by some as the base of Germanic *fuk(k)-, in words relating to sexual intercourse: FUCK. [Pokorny peuk- 828.] **pezd-** To fart. 1. Suffixed form *pezd-i-. FEIST, from Old English fisting, a breaking wind, and Middle English fisten, to fart, from Germanic *fistiz, a fart. 2. PETARD, from Latin pēdere, to fart. 3. Perhaps Latin pēdis, louse (? < "foul-smelling insect"): PEDICULAR¹. [Pokorny pezd-829, 2. peis- 796.] Compare **perd-**. **pater-** Father. (Oldest form *phater-.) 1. FATHER; FOREFATHER, from Old English fæder, father, from Germanic *fadar. 2. PADRE, PATER, PATERNAL, PATRI-, PATRICIAN, PATRIMONY, PATRON, PÈRE; COMPADRE, EX- PATRIATE, GOOMBAH, PERPETRATE, from Latin pater, father. 3. PATRI-, PATRIOT; ALLOPATRIC, EUPATRID, PATRIARCH, SYMPATRIC, from Greek patēr, father. [Pokorny paté(r) 829.] **pik-** Pitch. 1. PAY, PICEOUS, PITCH¹; PICOLINE, PITCHBLENDE, from Latin pix (stem pic-), pitch. 2. Suffixed form *pik-ya. <70> PITTOSPORUM, from Greek pissa, pitta, pitch. [In Pokorny pej(a)- 793.] **pilo-** Hair. Possible root. 1. PELAGE, PILAR, PILE, PILOSE, PILUS, PLUCK, PLUSH, POILU; CATERPILLAR, DEPILATE, PILIFEROUS, STRAMENOPILE, from Latin pilus, hair. 2. Possibly suffixed reduced form *pil-so-. a. PILEUS, PILLAGE, from Latin pīleus, felt cap; b. PILOCARPINE, from Greek pilos, felt. [Pokorny pi-lo- 830.] **pip(p)-** To peep. Imitative root. 1. PIFE, PIPE; PIBROCH, from Latin pīpāre, to chirp. 2. PIGEON, from Latin pipire, to chirp. [Pokorny pip(p)-830.) **plāk-1** Also **plak-**. To be flat. (Oldest form *pleh,k-, colored to *plah₂k-, contracted to *plāk-; extension of **pela-2**.) 1. FLOE, from Old Norse flo, layer, coating, from Germanic *flōhō. 2. Variant form *plāg-. a. FLUKE', from Old English floc, flatfish, from Germanic *flök-; b. PLAKB¹, from Middle English flake, flake, from a Scandinavian source probably akin to Norwegian flak, flat piece, flake, from Germanic *flakaz; C. FLAKE?, from Old Norse flaki, fleki, hurdle, from Germanic *flak-. 3. Extended form *plakā-. FLAG, FLAW, from Old Norse flaga, layer of stone, from Germanic *flagō. 4. Possibly suffixed (stative) form *plak-e-, to be calm (as of the flat sea). PLACEBO, PLACID, PLEA, PLEAD, PLEASANT, PLEASE; COMPLACENT, from Latin placere, to please, be agreeable. 5. Root noun *plak-. SUPPLE, SUPPLICATE, from Latin supplex, suppliant (whence denominative supplicare, to beg humbly, first attested in Archaic Latin as sub võs placō, I entreat you; sub, under; see **upo**.) 6. Lengthened suffixed form *plāk-ā-. PLACABLE, PLACATE, from Latin plācāre, to calm (causative of placere). 7. Nasalized form *plan-k-. PLANCHET, PLANK, from Latin plancus, flat, flat-footed. 8. Variant form *plag-. a. Perhaps Latin plaga, net (? < "something extended"): PLAGIARY; b. PLAGAL, PLAGIO-, PLAYA, from Greek plagos, side. 9. Root form *plak-. PLACENTA, PLACOID; LEUKOPLAKIA, PLACODERM, from Greek plax, flat, flat land, surface, plate. 10. Possible variant form *pelag-. PELAGIC; ARCHIPELAGO, from Greek pelagos, sea. [Pokorny 1. plā-k- 831.] **plāk-2** To strike. (Oldest form *plehak-, colored to *plah2k-, contracted to *plāk-.) 1. Nasalized variant forms *pla-n-k-, *pla-n-g-. a. FLING, from Middle English flingen, to fling, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse flengja, to flog, whip, from Germanic *flang-; b. PLAINT, PLANGENT; COMPLAIN, from Latin plangere, to strike (one's own breast), lament; c. suffixed form *plang-yo-. PLANKTON, from Greek plazein, to drive away, turn aside. 2. Variant form *plāg-. PLAGUE, from Latin plāga, a blow, stroke. 3. Suffixed form *plāk-yo-. PLECTRUM, -PLEGIA, PLEXOR; APOPLEXY, CATAPLEXY, PARAPLEGIA, from Greek plēssein, to beat, strike. [Pokorny 2. plāk- 832.] **plat-** To spread. Also **plete-** (oldest form *pleth₂-). Extension of **pela-2**. 1. Variant form *plad-. а. FLAT¹, from Old Norse flatr, flat; b. FLATTER¹, from Old French flater, to flatter. Both a and b from Germanic *flata-, flat. 2. Suffixed variant form *plad-yo-. FLAT2, from Old English flet(t), floor, dwelling, from Germanic *flatjam. 3. Basic form *plat-. FLAN, from Late Latin flado, flat cake, pancake, from Germanic *flathō(n), flat cake. 4. FLOUNDER², from Anglo-Norman floundre, flounder, from a Scandinavian source probably akin to Old Swedish flundra, flatfish, flounder, from Germanic suffixed nasalized form *flu-n-thr-jā. 5. Nasalized form *pla-n-t-. CLAN, PLAN, PLANT, PLANTAIN, PLANTAR; PLANTIGRADE, SUPPLANT, TRANSPLANT, from Latin planta, sole of the foot, and denominative plantare, to drive in with the sole of the foot, plant, whence planta, a plant. 6. Suffixed zero-grade form *pit(a)-u-. PIAZZA, PLACE, PLAICE, PLANE, PLANE TREE, PLATE, PLATEAU, PLATERESQUE, PLATINA, PLATINUM, PLATITUDE, PLATY, PLATY-, PLAZA: PLATEOSUARUS, from Greek platus, flat, broad. [Pokorny plat- 833.] **plē-(1)k-** Also **pleik-**. To tear. (Oldest form *pleh₁(i)k-.) 1. Zero-grade form *plak-. FLAY, from Old English flean, to strip the skin from, from Germanic *flahan. 2. Perhaps suffixed o-grade form *ploik-sk-. FLESH, from Old English flæsc, piece of flesh torn off, from Germanic *flaiskjan, piece of meat torn off. 3. Zero-grade form *plik-. a. FLITCH, from Old English flicce, side of a hog; b. FLECK, from Old Norse flekkr, piece of skin or flesh, spot, stain, from Germanic ablaut form *flekkja. [Pokorny plēk-835.] **plek-** To plait. (Oldest form *plek-; extension of **pel-2**.) 1. Suffixed o-grade form *plok-so-. FLAX, from Old English fleax, flax, from Germanic *flahsam, flax. 2. Full-grade form *plek-. MULTIPLEX, from Latin -plex, -fold (in compounds such as duplex, twofold; see **dwo-**). 3. PLAIT, PLEAT, PLIANT, PLICA, PLICATE, PLIGHT, PLISSÉ, PLY; APPLY, COMPLICATE, COMPLICE, DEPLOY, DISPLAY, EMPLOY, EXPLICATE, EXPLICIT, EXPLOIT, IMPLICATE, IMPLICIT, REPLICATE, REPLY, SPLAY, from Latin plicare, to fold (also in compounds used as denominatives of words in -plex, genitive -plicis). 4. Suffixed forms *plek-to- and *plek-t-to-. PLEACH, PLEXUS; AMPLEXICAUL, AMPLEXUS, COMPLECT, COMPLEX, PERPLEXED, from Latin plectere (past participle plexus), to weave, plait, entwine. 5. PLECOPTERAN, from Greek plekein, to plait, twine, and plektos, twisted. [Pokorny plek-834.j **pleu-** To flow. I. Basic form *pleu-. 1. PLOVER, PLUVIAL, PLUVIous, from Latin pluere, to rain. 2. PLEOPOD, from Greek plein (<*plewein), to swim. 3. PLEUSTON, from Greek pleusis, sailing. 4. Suffixed zero-grade form *plu-elos. PYELITIS, from Greek dissimilated puelos, trough, basin. 5. Suffixed form *pl(e)u-mon-, "floater," lung(s). a. PULMONARY, FULMONOLOGY, from Latin pulmo (< *plumones), lung(s); b. PNEUMO-, PNEUMONIA, PNEUMONIC, from Greek pleumōn, pneumon (influenced by pneuma, breath; see **pneu-**), lung. 6. Suffixed o-grade form *plou-to-. PLUTO; PLUTOCRACY, from Greek ploutos, wealth, riches (<"overflowing"). 7. Lengthened o-grade form *plō(u)-. a. (i) FLOW, from Old English flowan, to flow; (ii) perhaps Middle Dutch vluwe, fishnet: FLUB2. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *flowan, to flow; b. suffixed form *plo-tu-. FLOOD, from Old English flod, flood, from Germanic *flōduz, flowing water, deluge. II. Extended form *pleuk-. 1. FLY¹, from Old English flēogan, to fly, from Germanic *fleugan, to fly. 2. FLY², from Old English floge, a fly, from Germanic *fleugon-, flying insect, fly. 3. Probably Germanic *fleuhan, to run away. FLEE, from Old English fleon, to flee. 4. FLEY, from Old English flygan, flēgan, to put to flight, from Germanic causative flaugjan. 5. FLÈCHE, FLETCHER, from Old French fleche, arrow, from Germanic suffixed form *fleug-ika-. 6. Zero-grade form *pluk-. a. FLEDGE, from Old English *flycge, with feathers (only in unfligge, featherless), from Germanic *flugfa-, ready to fly; b. FLIGHT¹, FLIGHT2, from Old English flyht, act of flying, and *flyht, act of fleeing, escape, from Germanic suffixed form "flug-ti-; C. POWL, from Old English fugol, bird, from Germanic *fuglaz, bird, dissimilated from possible (but unlikely) suffixed form *flug-laz; d. PLUGELHORN, FUGLEMAN, from Middle High German vlügel, wing, from Germanic suffixed form *flug-ilaz. III. Extended form *pleud-. 1. PLEET, FLEET2, from Old English fleotan, to float, swim (from Germanic *fleutan), and Old Norse fijōtr, fleet, swift (from Germanic *fleuta-). 2. Zero-grade form *plud-. a. (i) FLOAT, from Old English flotian, to float; (ii) FLOTSAM, from Old French floter, to float. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic derivative *floton, to float; b. FLOTILLA, from Old Norse floti, raft, fleet; C. FLUTTER, from Old English floterian, flotorian, to float back and forth (-erian, iterative and frequentative suffix); d. FLIT, from Old Norse flytja, to further, convey, from Germanic derivative verb *flutjan. <71> manic *flutjan*, to float. a-d all from Germanic **flut-*, **flot-*. 3. **FLUSTER**, probably from a Scandinavian source akin to Icelandic *flaustr*, hurry, and *flaustra*, to bustle, from Germanic **flausta-*, contracted from suffixed form **flaut-stā-*, probably from **pleud-*, o-grade **ploud-*. [Pokorny pleu- 835, pl(e)u-mon- 837.] **pleus-** To pluck; a feather, fleece. 1. **FLEECE**, from Old English *flēos*, from Germanic **fleusaz*. 2. Suffixed zero-grade form **plus-mā-*. **PLUMATE**, **PLUME**, **PIUMOSE**, **PLUMULE**; **DEPLUME**, from Latin *plūma*, a feather. [Pokorny pleus- 838.] **plou-** Flea. 1. Extended form **plouk-*. **FLEA**, from Old English *flea(h)*, flea, from Germanic **flauhaz*. 2. Extended zero-grade form **plus-*, metathesized to **pusi-*. a. **PUCE**, from Latin *pūlex*, flea; b. **PSYLLID**, **PSYLLIUM**, from Greek *psulla*, flea. [Pokorny blou- 102.] **pneu-** To breathe. Imitative root. 1. **SNEEZE**, from Old English *fnēosan*, to sneeze, from Germanic **fneu-s-*. 2. **SNORE**, **SNORT**, from Old English *fnora*, sneezing, from Germanic **fnu-s-*. 3. **APNEA**, **DIPNOAN**, **DYSPNEA**, **EUPNEA**, **HYPERPNEA**, **HYPOPNEA**, **POLYPNEA**, **TACHYPNEA**, from Greek *pnein*, to breathe, with o-grade nouns *pnoia*, *-pnoia*, breathing, and *pnoë*, breath. 4. Suffixed form **pneu-mp*. **PNEUMA**, **PNEUMATIC**, **PNEUMATO-**, **PNEUMO-**; **AMPHIUMA**, from Greek *pneuma*, breath, wind, spirit. 5. Germanic variant root **fnes-*. **SNEER**, possibly from Old English *fnæran*, to snort, gnash one's teeth. [Pokorny pneu- 838.] **po(i)-** To drink. (Oldest form **peh₃(i)-*, colored to **poh₃(i)-*, contracted to **po(i)-*.) I. Unextended form **pō-*. 1. Suffixed form **pō-to-*. **POTABLE**, **POTATION**, **POTATORY**, from Latin *pōtus*, drunk, a drink (whence *pōtāre*, to drink). 2. Suffixed form **pō-ti-*. **POISON**, **POTION**, from Latin *potio*, a drink. 3. Suffixed form **pō-tlo-*, drinking vessel. **HIBACHI**, from Sanskrit *pātram*, cup, bowl. 4. Suffixed reduplicated zero-grade form **pi-pǝ-o-*, whence **pi-bō-*, assimilated to **bi-bo-*. **BEER**, **BEVERAGE**, **BIB**, **BIBULOUS**; **IMBIBE**, **IMBRUE**, from Latin *bibere*, to drink. 5. Suffixed zero-grade form **pǝ-ti-*, **po-ti-*. **SYMPOSIUM**, from Greek *posis*, drink, drinking. II. Zero-grade form **pi-** (< **piǝ-*). 1. Suffixed form **pi-ro-*. **PIEROGI**, **PIROZHKI**, from Slavic **pirŭ*, feast (Old Church Slavonic *pirů*). 2. Suffixed (nasal present) form **pi-nō-*. **PINOCYTOSIS**, from Greek *pinein*, to drink. [Pokorny 2. po(i)- 839.] **pol-** To fall. Suffixed form **phol-no-*. 1.a. **FALL**, from Old English *feallan*, to fall; b. **BEFALL**, from Old English *befeallan*, to fall, from Germanic **bi-fallan*, to fall, happen (**bi-*, by, at; see **ambhi**). Both a and b from Germanic **fallan*. 2. **FELL¹**, from Old English *fellan*, *fyllan*, to cut down, from Germanic **falljan*, "to cause to fall," strike down. [Pokorny phol- 851.] **porko-** Young pig. (Oldest form **pork'o-.)** 1.a. **FARROW¹**, from Old English *fearh*, little pig; b. **AARDVARK**, from Middle Dutch diminutive form *varken*, small pig. Both a and b from Germanic **farhaz*. 2. **PORCELAIN**, **PORCINE**, **PORK**; **PORCUPINE**, **PORPOISE**, from Latin *porcus*, pig. [Pokorny porko-s 841.] **poti** Against, towards. **PESHMERGA**, from Kurdish *pěšmerge*, one who faces death, peshmerga, from *pēš*, in front of, before, from Old Iranian **patiš*, against (Kurdish *merg*, death; see **merk-**). [Pokorny po-ti 842.] **poti-** Powerful; lord. 1. **PODESTA**, **POSSESS**, **POWER**, from Latin *potis*, powerful, able, and compound *possidēre* (*pos-* < **pots*), to hold in one's control, possess. 2. **POSSIBLE**, **POTENT**; **IMPOTENT**, **OMNIPOTENT**, **PREPOTENT**, from Latin compound *posse*, to be able (contracted from *potis*, able + *esse*, to be; see **es-**). 3.a. **VANASPATI**, from Sanskrit *patiḥ*, lord; b. **BASHAW**, **PADISHAH**, **PASHA**, from Old Persian *pati-*, master. Both a and b from Indo-Iranian **pati-*, lord, master. 4. Form **pot-*. a. Compound **ghos-pot-** (see **ghosti-**); b. compound **dems-pot-** (see **dem-**). [Pokorny **poti-s** 842.] **prek-** To ask, entreat. (Oldest form **prek-**.) 1. Basic form **prek-*. **PRAY**, **PRAYER**, **PRECARIOUS**; **DEPRECATE**, **IMPRECATE**, **PRIE-DIEU**, from **prex*, prayer (attested only in the plural *precēs*), with Latin denominative *precārī*, to entreat, pray. 2. Suffixed zero-grade form **pr(k)-sk-** becoming **por(k)-sk-** in Italic, contracted to **posk-** in suffixed form **posk-to-**, contracted to **pos-to-*. **POSTULATE**; **EXPOSTULATE**, from Latin *postulāre*, to ask, request. [Pokorny 4. perk- 821.] **prep-** To appear. Probably the same root as **kwrep-**, body, appearance. Suffixed zero-grade form **prp-yo-*. **FURBISH**, from Old French *fo(u)rbir*, to polish, burnish, from Germanic **furbjan*, to cause to have a (good) appearance, polish. [Pokorny prep- 845.] **preu-** To hop. 1. Zero-grade form **pru-*. **PROG**, from Old English *frogga* (with obscure expressive suffix *-gga*), frog, from Germanic **fru-*. 2. Suffixed o-grade form **prow-o-*. a. **FROLIC**, from Middle Dutch *vro*, "leaping with joy," happy; b. **SCHADENFREUDE**, from Old High German *frō*, happy, and derivative *frewida*, joy. Both a and b from Germanic **frawa-*. [Pokorny preu- 845.] **preus-** To freeze, burn. 1. **FREEZE**, **FRORE**, from Old English *frēosan*, to freeze (past participle *froren*), from Germanic **freusan*, to freeze (with Old English past participle *froren* from Germanic **fruzana-*, from Indo-European suffixed zero-grade form **prus-ono-*). 2. Suffixed zero-grade form **prus-to-*. **FROST**, from Old English *forst*, frost, from Germanic **frustaz*, frost. 3. Suffixed form **preus-i-*. **PRURIENT**, **PRURIGO**, **PRURITUS**, from Latin denominative *prūrīre*, to burn, itch, yearn for, from **preusis*, **preuris*, act of burning. 4. Suffixed zero-grade form **prus-winā-*. **PRUINOSE**, from Latin *pruīna*, hoarfrost. [Pokorny preus- 846.] **pri-** To love. (Oldest form **prih-,** contracted to **pri-** [before consonants] and **priy-** [before vowels].) 1. Suffixed form **priy-o-*. a. **FREE**, from Old English *frēo*, free, and *frēon*, *frēogan*, to love, set free; b. **FILIBUSTER**, **FREEBOOTER**, from Dutch *vrij*, free. Both a and b from Germanic **frija-*, beloved, belonging to the loved ones, not in bondage, free, and **frijōn*, to love. 2. Suffixed (participial) form **priy-ont-*, loving. **FRIEND**, from Old English *frīond*, *frēond*, friend, from Germanic **frijand-*, lover, friend. 3. Suffixed shortened form **pri-tu-*. a. Old High German *fridu*, peace, in personal names: (i) **SIEGFRIED**, from Old High German *Sigifrith*, "victorious peace" (*sigu*, victory; see **segh-**); (ii) **GODFREY**, from Old High German *Godafrid*, "peace of god" (*got*, god; see **gheu(a)-**); b. **AFFRAY**, **AFRAID**, from Old French *esfreer*, to disturb, from Vulgar Latin **exfredāre*, to break the peace, from *ex-*, out, away (see **eghs**) + **fridāre*, to make peace, from Germanic **frithu-*, peace; c. Germanic compound name **Frithu-rīk*, "peaceful ruler" (**-rīk*, ruler; see **reg-¹**). **FREDERICK**, **FRIEDRICH** (personal names), from Old High German *Fridurīh* (> French *Frédéric*); d. Germanic compound name **Gawja-frithu-*, "(having a) peaceful region" (**gawjam*, region). **GEOFFREY** (personal name), from Medieval Latin *Galfridus*, *Gaufridus* (> Old French *Geoffroi*); e. Germanic compound **berg-frithu-** (see **bhergh-²**). a-e all from Germanic **frithuz*, peace. 4. Suffixed feminine form **priy-ā-**, beloved. a. **FRIGG**, from Old Norse *Frigg*, goddess of the heavens, wife of Odin; b. **FRIDAY**, from Old English *Frīgedæg*, Friday, from Germanic compound **frije-dagaz*, "day of Frigg" (translation of Latin *Veneris diēs*, "Venus's day"). Both a and b from Germanic **frijjō*, beloved, wife. [Pokorny prāi- 844.] **prōkto-** Anus. (Oldest form **prōkto-**.) **PROCTITIS**, **PROCTODEUM**, **PROCTOLOGY**, **PROCTOSCOPE**, from Greek *prōktos*, anus. [Pokorny prokto- 846.] **pster** Also **ster-**. To sneeze. Imitative root. 1. Suffixed form **ster-nu-*. **STERNUTATION**, from Latin *ster* <72> *nuere*, to sneeze. 2. Suffixed form **ster-t-*. **STERTOR**, from Latin *stertere*, to snore. [Pokorny pster- 846.] **pŭ-¹** Also **phu-**. To blow, swell. Imitative root. 1. Extended form **pus-*. **PUSTULE**, from Latin *pustula*, a bubble, blister. 2. Perhaps extended form **pūt-**, penis. **PREPUCE**, from Latin *praepūtium*, foreskin (*prae-*, before, in front; see **per¹**). 3. Variant form **phū-*. **EMPHYSEMA**, from Greek *phūsa*, bellows, bladder. [Pokorny 1. pŭ- 847.] **pŭ-²** To rot, decay. (Oldest form probably **puh-,** becoming **puw-** before vowels.) 1. Suffixed form **pū-lo-*. a. **FOUL**, from Old English *fūl*, unclean, rotten; b. **FULMAR**, from Old Norse *fūll*, foul; c. **FILTH**, from Old English *fȳlth*, foulness, from Germanic abstract noun **fūlithō*; d. **FILE³**, **FOIL¹**; **DEFILE¹**, from Old English *fȳlan*, to sully, from Germanic denominative **fūljan*, to soil, dirty. a-d all from Germanic **fūla-*, rotten, filthy. 2. Extended form **pug-*. **FOG²**, from Middle English *fog*, *fogge*, aftermath grass, from a Scandinavian source probably akin to Icelandic *fūki*, rotten sea grass, and Norwegian *fogg*, rank grass, from Germanic **fuk-*. 3. Extended variant form **pous-*. **FUZZY**, from Low German *fussig*, spongy, from Germanic **fausa-*. 4. Suffixed form **pū-tri-*. **POONTANG**, **PUTRESCENT**, **PUTRID**, **PUTTANESCA**; **OLLA PODRIDA**, **POTPOURRI**, **PUTREFY**, from Latin *puter* (stem *putri-*), rotten. 5. Suffixed form **puw-os-*. a. **PURULENT**, **PUS**; **SUPPURATE**, from Latin *pūs*, pus; b. **PYO-**, from Greek *puon*, *puos*, pus. 6. **EMPYEMA**, from Greek compound *empuein*, to suppurate (*en-*, in; see **en**). [Pokorny 2. pŭ- 848.] **puk-** Bushy-haired. In part a taboo deformation of **wĺ̥kʷo-** and **wl̥p-ē-**. Suffixed form **puk-so-*. 1. **FOX**, from Old English *fox*, fox, from Germanic **fuhsaz*, fox. 2. **VIXEN**, from Old English *fyxe*, she-fox, from Germanic feminine **fuhsin-**. [Pokorny pŭk- 849.] **pūro-** A kind of grain. 1. Possibly suffixed form **pūr-iso-**, suggested by some (but unlikely for semantic reasons) as the source of Old English *fyrs*, furze: **FURZE**. 2. Suffixed form **pūr-en-**. **PYRENE**, from Greek *pūrēn*, stone of fruit. [Pokorny pū-ro- 850.] **p(y)el-** Tree name. Possible root. Possibly broken reduplicated form **pō-pel-**. **POPLAR**, **POPPLE²**, from Latin *populus*, poplar. [Pokorny ptel(e)iā- 847.] **[re-** Also **red-**. Backward. Latin combining form conceivably from Indo-European **wret-**, metathetical variant of **wert-**, to turn (< "turned back"), an extended form of **wer-³**. 1. **RE-**, from Latin *re-*, *red-*, backward, again. 2. Suffixed form **re(d)-tro-**. **RETRAL**, **RETRO-**; **ARREARS**, **REAR GUARD**, **REARWARD²**, **REREDOS**, from Latin *retrō*, backward, back, behind. 3. Suffixed form **re-ko-** in Latin *reciprocus* (see **per¹**).] **rē-¹** To bestow, endow. (Contracted from earlier **reh₁-**.) Suffixed form **reh₁-i-**, goods, wealth, property. **RE²**, **REAL¹**, **REBUS**; **REIFY**, **REPUBLIC**, from Latin *rēs*, thing. [Pokorny 4. rei- 860.] **rē-²** Dark-colored, possible root (oldest form **reh₁-**) with suffixed form **rē-mo-**. 1. **RAMA**, from Sanskrit *Rāmaḥ*, Rama, from *rāma-*, dark (traditionally said to be in reference to his dark skin). 2. **WOLFRAM**, from Middle High German *rām*, dirt, grime (attested earlier in Old High German in the adjective *rāmach*, dirty). [Pokorny 5. rē- 853.] **rebh-¹** Violent, impetuous. Suffixed zero-grade form **rabh-yo-**. **RABID**, **RABIES**, **RAGE**; **ARRABBIATA**, from Latin *rabere*, to rave, be mad. [Pokorny rabh- 852.] **rebh-²** To roof over. 1. **RIB**, from Old English *ribb*, rib. 2. **REEF¹**, **REEF²**, from Old Norse *rif*, rib, ridge. 3. **SPARERIBS**, from Middle Low German *ribbe*, rib. 1-3 all from Germanic **rebja-*, **rebjō*, "covering of the chest cavity." [Pokorny 2. rebh- 853.] **red-** To scrape, scratch, gnaw. (Contracted from earlier **reh₁d-**.) 1. O-gradeform **rōd-*. a. **RODENT**; **CORRODE**, **ERODE**, from Latin *rōdere*, to gnaw; b. suffixed (instrumental) form **rōd-tro-**. **ROSTRUM**, from Latin *rōstrum*, beak, ship's bow. 2. Possibly extended zero-grade form **rad-d-**, becoming **razd-**, whence **rād-** in Latin. a. **RADULA**, **RASCAL**, **RASH**, **RASORIAL**, **RATTEEN**, **RAZE**, **RAZOR**; **ABRADE**, **CORRADE**, **ERASE**, from Latin *rādere*, to scrape; b. suffixed (instrumental) form **rād-tro-**. **RACLETTE**, **RASTER**, from Latin *rāstrum*, rake. 3. Zero-grade form **rad-**. **RAT**, from Old English *ræt*, rat, from Germanic **ratton-**. [Pokorny 2. red- 854.] **reg-¹** To move in a straight line, with derivatives meaning "to direct in a straight line, lead, rule." (Oldest form **h₃reĝ-**.) I. Basic form **reg-**. 1. Suffixed form **reg-to-**. **RIGHT**, from Old English *riht*, right, just, correct, straight, from Germanic **rehta-**. 2. **REALM**, **RECTITUDE**, **RECTO**, **RECTOR**, **RECTUM**, **RECTUS**, **REGENT**, **REGIME**, **REGIMEN**, **REGIMENT**, **REGION**; **ADDRESS**, **ADROIT**, **ALERT**, **DERECHO**, **CORRECT**, **DIRECT**, **ERECT**, **INCORRIGIBLE**, **PORRECT**, **RECTANGLE**, **RECTIFY**, **RECTILINEAR**, **RESURGE**, **RISORGIMENTO**, **SORD**, **SOURCE**, **SURGE**, from Latin *regere*, to lead straight, guide, rule (past participle *rectus*, whence adjective *rectus*, right, straight). 3. **ANORECTIC**, **ANOREXIA**, from Greek *oregein*, to stretch out, reach out for (with *o-* from oldest root form **h₃reĝ-**). II. Lengthened-grade form **rēg-**, Indo-European word for a tribal king. 1.a. Old High German *-rīh*, king, ruler, in personal names (see **albho-**, **tkei-**); b. Gothic **reiks*, king, in personal names (see **teutā-**). Both a and b from Germanic **rīks*, king, from Celtic **rīg-**, king. 2.a. **BISHOPRIC**, **ELDRITCH**, from Old English *rīce*, realm; b. **RIKSMAL**, from Old Norse *rīki*, realm; c. **REICH**; **REICHSMARK**, from Old High German *rīchi*, realm, also in personal name *Ricohard* (see **kar-¹**); d. **RICH**, from Old English *rīce*, strong, powerful, and Old French *riche*, wealthy; e. Germanic compound **aiza-rīkjąz*, "honored ruler" (**aizō*, honor). **ERIC** (personal name), from Old Norse *Eirīkr*. a-e all from Germanic **rīkja-**, from Celtic suffixed form **rīg-yo-**. 3. **REAL**, **REGAL**, **REGULUS**, **REIGN**, **REX**, **RIAL**, **RIYAL**, **ROYAL**; **ARIARY**, **REGICIDE**, **REGIUS PROFESSOR**, **VICEREINE**, **VICEROY**, from Latin *rēx*, king (royal and priestly title). 4. Suffixed form **rēg-en-**. **RAJ**, **RAJA**, **RANI**, **RYE⁴**; **MAHARAJA**, **MAHARANI**, from Sanskrit *rājā*, *rājan-*, king, rajah (feminine *rājñī*, queen, rani), and *rājati*, he rules. III. Suffixed lengthened-grade form **rēg-olā-**. **RAIL**, **REGLET**, **REGULAR**, **REGULATE**, **RILLETTES**, **RULE**, from Latin *rēgula*, straight piece of wood, rod. IV. O-grade form **rog-**. 1. **RAKE¹**, from Old English *raca*, *racu*, rake (implement with straight pieces of wood), from Germanic **rakō**. 2. **RACK¹**, from Middle Dutch *rec*, framework, from Germanic **rak-**. 3. Possibly Germanic **ranka-** (with nasal infix). **RANK²**, from Old English *ranc*, straight, strong, hence haughty, overbearing. 4. **RECKON**, from Old English *gerecenian*, to arrange in order, recount (*ge-*, collective prefix; see **kom**), from Germanic **rakina-*, ready, straightforward. 5. Suffixed form **rog-ā-**. **ROGATION**, **ROGATORY**; **ABROGATE**, **ARROGATE**, **CORVÉE**, **DEROGATE**, **INTERROGATE**, **PREROGATIVE**, **PROROGUE**, **SUBROGATE**, **SUPEREROGATE**, from Latin *rogāre*, to ask (< "stretch out the hand"). 6. Suffixed form **rog-o-**. **ERGO**, from Latin *ergō*, therefore, in consequence of, perhaps contracted from a Latin phrase **e rogō*, "from the direction of" (*ē* < *ex*, out of; see **eghs**), from a possible Latin noun **rogus*, "extension, direction." V. Lengthened o-grade form **rōg-**. 1. **RECK**, from Old English *rec(c)an*, to pay attention to, take care (formally influenced by Old English *reccan*, to extend, stretch out, from Germanic **rakjan*), from Germanic **rōkjan**. 2. **RECKLESS**, from Old English *rēcelēas*, careless (*-lēas*, lacking; see **leu-¹**), from Germanic **rōkja-**. VI. Suffixed zero-grade form **r̥g-yo-**. **RAITA**, from Sanskrit *r̥jyati*, he stretches out. [Pokorny 1. reĝ- 854.] **reg-²** Moist. (Oldestform **reg-**.) 1. Suffixedvariant form **rek-no-**. **RAIN**; **RAINBOW**, from Old English *reg(e)n*, *rēn*, rain, from Germanic **regnaz*, rain. 2. Possibly <73> Latin *rigāre*, to wet, water: **IRRIGATE**. [Pokorny 2. reĝ- 857.] **reg-³** To dye. Lengthened-grade form **rēg-**. 1. Suffixed form **rēg-es-**. **REGOLITH**, from Greek *rhēgos*, blanket, rug. 2. **RAGA**, from Sanskrit *rāgaḥ*, color, red. 3. Possibly Sanskrit *rākṣā* (earlier form of *lākṣā*), red dye: **LAC¹**, **LAKE²**. [Pokorny 1. reg- 854.] **regʷ-es-** Darkness. (Oldest form **h₁regʷ-**.) **EREBUS**, from Greek *Erebos*, a place of darkness under the earth. [Pokorny regʷos- 857.] **rei-¹** To scratch, tear, cut. Hypothetical base of various extended forms. I. Extended form **reik-**. 1. **RIGATONI**, from Italian *riga*, line (< "something cut out"), from Germanic **rigōn-**. 2. Suffixed form **rei-mā-** or **reig-smā-**. **RIMOSE**, from Latin *rima*, crack, cleft, fissure. 3. Suffixed o-grade form **roik-wo-**. **ROW¹**, from Old English *rāw*, *rǣw*, a line, row, from Germanic **rai(h)-wa-**. II. Possibly extended Germanic form **raip-**. 1. **ROPE**, from Old English *rāp*, rope, from Germanic **raipaz*, rope. 2. Germanic compound **stīg-raipaz** (see **steigh-**). III. Extended form **reip-**. 1. **RIVE**, from Old Norse *rīfa*, to tear, from Germanic **rīfan**. 2. Zero-grade form **rip-**. a. **RIFT¹**, from Middle English *rift*, rift, from a Scandinavian source akin to Danish *rift*, breach, from Germanic **rifti-**; b. **RIFE**, from Old English *ryfe*, abundant, from Germanic **rif-**. 3. Suffixed form **reip-ā-**. **RIPARIAN**, **RIVAGE**, **RIVER**; **ARRIVE**, from Latin *rīpa*, bank (< "that which is cut out by a river"). IV. Extended form **reib-**. 1. **RIPE**, from Old English *rīpe*, ripe, ready for reaping, from Germanic **rīp-ja-**. 2. **REAP**, from Old English *rīpan*, to reap, from Germanic **rīpan**. 3. **RIPPLE²**, from Middle English *ripelen*, to remove seeds, from a source akin to Middle Low German *repelen*, to remove seeds. 1-3 all from Germanic **rīp-**. [Pokorny 1. rei- 857.] **rei-²** Striped in various colors, flecked. Suffixed o-grade form **roi-ko-**. **ROE²**, from Old English *rā*, deer, from Germanic **raihaz**. [Pokorny 2. rei- 859.] **rē(i)-** To reason, count. (Oldest form **h₂reh₁(i)-,** contracted to **h₂rē(i)-,** with zero-grade extended form **h₂rhi-** and metathesized zero-grade **h₂rih₁-,** the latter contracted to **h₂ri-**.) I. Basic form **(a)rē-**. 1. **RATE¹**, **RATIO**, **RATION**, **REASON**; **ARRAIGN**, from Latin *rērī*, to consider, confirm, ratify. 2. Suffixed form **re-dh-**. a. (i) **READ**, **REDE**; **DREAD**, from Old English *rǣdan*, to advise; (ii) **HATRED**, **KINDRED**, from Old English *-rǣden*, condition. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic **rēdan**; b. (i) Old English *rǣd*, advice, counsel, in personal names (see **al-³**, **albho-**, **at-al-**); (ii) **RATHSKELLER**, from Old High German *rāt*, counsel; (iii) **CONRAD** (personal name), from Old High German *Kuonrāt*, "bold counsel" (*kuon*, bold); (iv) **RALPH** (personal name), from Old Norse *Rādhulfr*, "counsel wolf," from Old Norse *rādh*, counsel (*ulfr*, wolf; see **wĺ̥kʷo-**); (v) **RIDDLE²**, from Old English *rǣdels(e)*, opinion, riddle. (i)-(v) all from Germanic **rēdaz**. 3. Suffixed zero-grade form **ra-t-**. Germanic **radam*, number, in dialectal North and West Germanic compound **hund(a)-rada-** (see **dekm**). II. Zero-grade extended form **ǝr(a)i-** and (metathesized) **ǝri-**. 1. Suffixed form **ri-tu-**. **RITE**, from Latin *rītus*, rite, custom, usage. 2. Suffixed form **arai-dhmo-**. **ARITHMETIC**, **LOGARITHM**, from Greek *arithmos*, number, amount. 3. **RHYME**, from a Germanic source akin to Old High German *rīm*, number, series. [In Pokorny 1. ar- 55.] **reidh-** To ride. I. Basic form **reidh-**. 1. **RIDE**, from Old English *rīdan*, to ride, from Germanic **rīdan**. 2. **PALFREY**, from Latin *verēdus*, post horse, from Celtic **wo-rēd-** (**wo-*, under; see **upo**). II. O-grade form **roidh-**. 1. Germanic **raidō**. a. **RAID**, **ROAD**, from Old English *rād*, a riding, road; b. possibly in Middle High German *reidel*, rod between upright stakes (<"wooden horse"): **RADDLE¹**. 2. Probably Germanic **raid-ja-**. **READY**; **ALREADY**, from Old English *rǣde*, *gerǣde*, ready (< "prepared for a journey"). 3. Probably Germanic **raidjan**. **RAIMENT**; **ARRAY**, **CURRY¹**, from Vulgar Latin **-rēdāre*, to arrange. [Pokorny reidh- 861.] **reiǝ-** To flow, run. (Oldest form **h₁reih₂-**.) 1. Nasalized zero-grade form **ri-ne-ǝ-,** remade as **ri-nu-**. a. **RUN**, **RUNNEL**, from Old English *rinnan*, to run, and Old Norse *rinna*, to run (from Germanic **rinnan*, to run, from **ri-nw-an*), and from Old English causative *ærnan*, *eornan*, to run (from secondary Germanic causative **rannjan**); b. **EMBER DAY**, from Old English *ryne*, a running, from secondary Germanic derivative **runiz**; c. **RENNET**, from Old English **rynet*, from secondary Germanic derivative **runita-**. 2. Suffixed zero-grade form **ri-l-**. **RILL**, from Dutch *ril* or Low German *rille*, running stream, from Germanic **ril-**. 3. Suffixed form **rei-wo-**. **RIVAL**, **RIVULET**; **DERIVE**, from Latin *rīvus*, stream. 4. Suffixed form **rei-no-**. **RHINE**, from Gaulish *Rēnos* (ultimately > German *Rhein*), "river." [Pokorny 3. er- 326.] **reig-¹** To bind. 1. **RIG¹**, from Middle English *riggen*, to rig, from a Scandinavian source akin to Norwegian *rigga*, to bind, from Germanic **rigg-** (the *-gg-* is anomalous). 2. Zero-grade form **rig-**. **SCOURGE**, from Latin *corrigia* (probably borrowed from Gaulish), thong, shoelace (*cor-*, from *com-*, together; see **kom**). [Pokorny reig- 861.] **reig-²** To reach, stretch out. (Oldest form **reiĝ-**.) 1. O-grade form **roig-**. **REACH**, from Old English *rǣcan*, to stretch out, reach, from Germanic **raikjan**. 2. Possibly suffixed (stative) zero-grade form **rig-ē-**. **RIGID**, **RIGOR**, from Latin *rigēre*, to be stiff (? < "be stretched out"). [Pokorny (reiĝ-) 862.] **rem-** To come to rest, rest. (Oldest form **h₁rem-**.) 1. **KALANCHOE**, from Sanskrit *ārāmaḥ*, pleasure, pleasure garden, from *āramati*, he rests, takes pleasure, from Germanic *ramate*, he rests, takes pleasure (*ā-*, to; see **ē**). [Pokorny rem- 864.] **rendh-** To tear up. 1. **REND**, from Old English *rendan*, to tear, from Germanic **randjan**. 2. **RIND**, from Old English *rind(e)*, rind (< "thing torn off"), from Germanic **rind-**. [Pokorny rendh- 865.] **rep-** To snatch. Suffixed zero-grade form **rap-yo-**. **RAPACIOUS**, **RAPE¹**, **RAPID**, **RAPINE**, **RAPT**, **RAVAGE**, **RAVEN²**, **RAVIN**, **RAVISH**; **EREPSIN**, **SUBREPTION**, **SURREPTITIOUS**, from Latin *rapere*, to seize. [Pokorny rep- 865.] **rēp-¹** To creep, slink. **REPENT**, **REPTILE**, from Latin *rēpere*, to creep. [Pokorny 1. rēp- 865.] **rēp-²** Stake, beam. Suffixed variant form **rap-tro-**. 1. **RAFTER**, from Old English *ræfter*, rafter. 2. **RAFT¹**, from Old Norse *raptr*, beam. Both 1 and 2 from Germanic **raf-tra-**. [Pokorny 2. rēp- 866.] **ret-** To run, roll. 1. Prefixed Celtic form **to-wo-ret-**, "a running up to" (**to-*, to; see **to-**; **wo-*, under, up, up from under; see **upo**). **TORY**, from Old Irish *tóir*, pursuit. 2. Suffixed o-grade form **rot-ā-**. **RODEO**, **ROLL**, **ROTA**, **ROTARY**, **ROTATE**, **ROULETTE**, **ROWEL**; **BAROUCHE**, **CONTROL**, **PRUNE²**, **ROTAVIRUS**, **ROTAXANE**, **ROTIFORM**, **ROTOGRAVURE**, from Latin *rota*, wheel. 3. Suffixed form **rot-ā-o-** (oldest form **rot-h₂-o-,** probably derived from **rot-eh₂**, wheel, oldest form of **rot-ā**, wheel; see 2 above). **ROOK²**, from Persian *rukh*, rook (probably influenced by Arabic *ruhh*, roc, the medieval chesspiece sometimes having the form of a roc), from Prakrit *raha-*, chariot, rook (the original form of the chesspiece being a chariot), from Sanskrit *rathaḥ*, chariot. 4. Suffixed (participial) form **ret-ondo-**. **ROTUND**, **ROTUNDA**, **ROUND¹**, from Latin *rotundus*, <74> round, probably from earlier *retundus*, "rolling." [Pokorny ret(h)- 866.] **rēt-** Post. (Contracted from earlier **reh₁t-**.) O-grade form **rōt-** (< **roǝt-**). **ROOD**, from Old English *rōd*, cross, from Germanic **rōd-**. [Pokorny rēt- 866.] **reu-** To bellow. 1. Extended form **reud-**. a. **ROUT³**, from Old Norse *rauta*, to roar; b. **ROTE²**, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse *rauta*. Both a and b from Germanic **rautōn**. 2. Suffixed extended form **reum-os-**. **RUMOR**, from Latin *rūmor*, rumor, "common talk." 3. Extended form **reug-**. **RIOT**, **RUT²**, from Latin *rūgīre*, to roar. 4. Variant **rau-ko-**. **RAUCOUS**, from Latin *raucus*, hoarse. [Pokorny 1. reu- 867.] **reudh-¹** Red, ruddy. (Oldest form **h₁reudh-**.) I. O-grade form **roudh-**. 1.a. **RED**, from Old English *rēad*, red; b. **RORQUAL**, from Old Norse *rauðr*, red; c. **ROOIBOS**, from Middle Dutch *rood*, red. a-c all from Germanic **raudaz**. 2. Perhaps ultimately also from Germanic **raudaz**, red, is Old Spanish *roan*, *roano*, roan, possibly from Gothic *rauda-*, red, or a kindred Germanic source: **ROAN**. 2. **ROWAN**, from a source akin to Old Norse *reynir*, mountain ash, rowan (from its red berries), from Germanic **raudnia-**. 3. **RUFESCENT**, **RUFOUS**, from Latin *rūfus* (of dialectal Italic origin), reddish. 4. **ROUILLE**, **RUBIGINOUS**, from Latin *rōbus*, red. 5. **ROBLE**, **ROBORANT**, **ROBUST**; **CORROBORATE**, **RAMBUNCTIOUS**, from Latin *rōbur*, *rōbus*, red oak, hardness, and *rōbustus*, strong. 5. **LOLLIPOP**, perhaps from Romani *lolo*, red, from Middle Indic *lohita-*, red, from Sanskrit *rohita-*, *lohita-*. II. Zero-grade form **rudh-**. 1. Suffixed form **rudh-ā-**. a. **RUDDLE**, from Old English *rudu*, red color; b. **RUDDOCK**, from Old English *rudduc*, robin; c. **RUDDY**, from Old English *rudig*, ruddy. a-c all from Germanic **rudō**. 2. Suffixed form **rudh-sto-**. **RUST**, from Old English *rūst* (and perhaps also **rust*), rust, from Germanic **rūstaz**. 3. **ROUGE**, **RUBEOLA**, **RUBY**; **RUBEFACIENT**, from Latin *rubeus*, red. 4. **RUBICUND**, from Latin *rubicundus*, red, ruddy. 5. **RUBIDIUM**, from Latin *rūbidus*, red. 6. Suffixed (stative) form **rudh-ē-**. **RUBESCENT**, from Latin *rubēre*, to be red. 7. Suffixed form **(ǝ)rudh-ro-**. a. **RUBELLA**, **RUBRIC**; **BILIRUBIN**, from Latin *ruber*, red; b. **RUTILANT**, **RUTILE**, from Latin *rutilus*, reddish; c. **ERYTHEMA**, **ERYTHRO-**, from Greek *eruthros*, red; d. **ERYSIPELAS**, from possibly remade Greek *erusi-*, red, reddening. 8. Suffixed form **rudh-to-**. **RISSOLE**, **ROUX**, **RUSSET**, from Latin *russus*, red. [Pokorny reudh- 872.] **reudh-²** To clear land. 1. Suffixed zero-grade form **rudh-yo-**. **RID**, from Old Norse *ryðja*, to clear land, from Germanic **rudjan**. 2. Zero-grade form **rudh-**. **ROD**, from Old English *rodd*, stick, from Germanic **rudd-**, stick, club, possibly expressive variant of **rud-**. [In Pokorny 2. reu- 868.] **reuǝ-¹** To open; space. 1. Suffixed zero-grade form **rū-mo-** (< **ruǝ-mo-**). a. **ROOM**, from Old English *rūm*, space; b. **LEBENSRAUM**, from Old High German *rūm*, space; c. **RUMMAGE**, from Old Provençal *run*, ship's hold, space. a-c all from Germanic **rūmaz**; d. **REAM²**, from Old English *rȳman*, to widen, open up, from Germanic denominative **rūmjan**. 2. Suffixed form **reu(ǝ)-es-**. **RURAL**, **RUSTIC**, from Latin *rūs*, "open land," the country. [Pokorny reuǝ- 874.] **reuǝ-²** To smash, knock down, tear out, dig up, uproot. 1. Suffixed o-grade form **rouǝ-lo-**. a. **RAG¹**, from Old Norse *rögg*, *röggr*, woven tuft of wool; b. **RUG**, from a Scandinavian source akin to Norwegian *rugga*, *rogga*, coarse coverlet. Both a and b from Germanic **rawwa-**. 2. Basic form **reuǝ-**. **RABBLE²**, **RUIN**, from Latin *ruere*, to collapse, cause to collapse. 3. Extended zero-grade form **rūk-** (< **ruǝ-k-**). **ROUGH**, from Old English *rūh*, rough, coarse, from Germanic **rūhwa-**. 4. Extended zero-grade variant form **rūg-** (< **ruǝ-g-**). **RUANA**, **RUGA**, **RUGOSE**; **CORRUGATE**, from Latin *rūga*, wrinkle. [Pokorny 2. reu- 868.] **reug-** To vomit, belch; smoke, cloud. 1. **REEK**, from Old English *rēocan*, to smoke, reek, and *rēcan*, to fumigate, from Germanic **reukan**. 2. Suffixed zero-grade form **rug-to-**. **ERUCT**, from Latin *rūctāre*, to belch. [In Pokorny reu-b- 871.] **reugh-men-** Cream. O-grade form **rough-men-**. **RAMEKIN**, from Middle Low German *rōm(e)*, cream, from Germanic **rau(g)ma-**. [Pokorny reugh-m(e)n- 873.] **reup-** Also **reub-**. To snatch. I. Basic form **reub-**. **RIP¹**, from Flemish *rippen*, to rip, from Germanic **rupjan**. II. O-grade form **roup-**. 1.a. **REAVE¹**, from Old English *rēafian*, to plunder; b. **BEREAVE**, from Old English *berēafian*, to take away (*be-*, *bi-*, intensive prefix; see **ambhi**); c. **ROVER²**, from Middle Dutch and Middle Low German *rōven*, to rob. a-c all from Germanic **(bi-)raubōn**. 2.a. **ROB**, from Old French *rober*, to rob; b. **RUBATO**, from Italian *rubare*, to rob. Both a and b from a Romance borrowing from Germanic **raubōn**, to rob. 3. **ROBE**; **GARDEROBE**, from Old French *robe*, robe (< "clothes taken as booty"), from Germanic **raubō**, booty. 4. Suffixed form **roup-tro-**. **LOOT**, from Sanskrit *loptram*, booty. 5. **RUBLE**, from Old Russian *rubiti*, to chop, hew, from Slavic **rub-**. III. Zero-grade form **rup-**. 1. **USURP**, from Latin *ūsūrpāre* (< **ūsu-rup-**; *ūsus*, use, usage, from *ūtī*, to use; see **oit-**), originally "to interrupt the orderly acquisition of something by the act of using," whence to take into use, usurp. 2. Nasalized zero-grade form **ru-m-p-**. **ROUT¹**, **RUPTURE**; **ABRUPT**, **BANKRUPT**, **CORRUPT**, **DISRUPT**, **ERUPT**, **INTERRUPT**, **IRRUPT**, **RUPICOLOUS**, from Latin *rumpere*, to break. [In Pokorny 2. reu- 868.] **rezg-** To plait, weave, wind. 1. **RUSH²**, from Old English *risc*, *rysc*, rush, from Germanic **ruski-**. 2. Suffixed form **rezg-ti-**. **RISTRA**; **RESTIFORM**, from Latin *restis*, cord, rope. [Pokorny rezg- 874.] **-r/-n-** An ancient noun category usually of neuter gender with nominative and accusative case in **-r*, and the remaining case endings added to **-n-**, as in **yakr*, **yekwn-**, liver (see **yēkʷr**). [Not in Pokorny.] **-ro-** Adjectival suffix, as in **arudh-ro-**, red (see **reudh-¹**). [Not in Pokorny.] **r̥tko-** Bear. (Oldest form **h₂r̥tko-**.) 1. **URSINE**, from Latin *ursus*, bear (< **orcsos*). 2. **ARCTIC**, **ARCTURUS**, from Greek *arktos*, bear. 3. **ARTHUR** (personal name), from Welsh (> Medieval Latin *Arthūrus*, *Artorius*), from Celtic **arto-wiro-**, "bear-man," from Celtic **artos*, bear (**wiros*, man; see **wi-ro-**). [Pokorny r̥kþo-s 875.] **Language and Culture Note** The Proto-Indo-European word for "bear," **r̥tko-**, was inherited in Hittite *hartaggaš*, Sanskrit *ṛkṣaḥ*, Greek *arktos*, Latin *ursus* (with *ur-* the regular Latin continuation of **r̥** and *s* the regular continuation of **tk*), and Old Irish *art*. But in the northern branches, the word has undergone taboo replacement. The names of wild animals are often taboo to hunters; that is, uttering them is forbidden. The actual name can be distorted in what is called taboo deformation (compare English *Judas Priest*, *Jiminy Cricket* for *Jesus Christ*) or entirely replaced with a descriptive moniker in taboo replacement (compare English *rack* for antlers among deer hunters). The Old Irish word *art*, in fact, was no longer the ordinary word for bear, but was instead used as a personal name (surviving today as the masculine name *Art*). Among the new expressions for "bear" were "the good calf" in Irish, "honey pig" in Welsh, "honey eater" in Russian, and "the licker" in Lithuanian. English *bear* and its other Germanic cognates are also the result of taboo replacement, as etymologically they mean "the brown one" (see **bher-³**). <75> **ruk-** Fabric, spun yarn. Celtic and Germanic root (compare Old Irish *rucht*, tunic). 1.a. **ROCKET¹**, from Italian *rocca*, distaff; b. **RATCHET**, from Old French *rocquet*, head of a lance. Both a and b from Germanic **rukkōn-**. 2. **ROCHET**, from Old French *rochet*, rochet, from Germanic **rukka-**. [Pokorny ruk(k)- 874.] **rū-no-** Mystery, secret. Germanic and Celtic technical term of magic. (Oldest form **ruh-no-**; probably derived from the zero-grade of a root **reuh-,** to intone or mumble.) 1. **ROUND²**, from Old English *rūnian*, to whisper. 2. **RUNNYMEDE**, from Middle English *Runimede*, "meadow on the council island," from Old English *Rūnieg*, "council island," with *Rūni-* from Old English *Rūnieg*, from *rūn*, council (*īeg*, island; see **akʷ-ā-**). 3. **RUNE¹**, **RUNE²**, from Old Norse *rūn*, secret writing, akin to the Germanic source of Finnish *runo*, song, poem. 1-3 all from Germanic **rūnaz**. [In Pokorny 1. reu- 867.] **sā-** To satisfy. (Oldest form **seh₂-,** colored to **sah₂-,** contracted to **sā-**.) 1. Suffixed zero-grade form **sa-to-**. a. **SAD**, from Old English *sæd*, sated, weary, from Germanic **sada-**, sated; b. **SATE¹**, from Old English *sadian*, to sate, from derivative Germanic verb **sadōn**, to satisfy, sate. 2. Suffixed zero-grade form **sa-ti-**. **SATIATE**, **SATIETY**; **ASSAI²**, **ASSET**, **SATISFY**, from Latin *satis*, enough, sufficient. 3. Suffixed zero-grade form **sa-tu-ro-**. **SATIRE**, **SATURATE**, from Latin *satur*, full (of food), sated. 4. Suffixed zero-grade form **sa-d-ro-**. **HADRON**, from Greek *hadros*, thick. [Pokorny sā- 876.] **sab-** Juice, fluid. 1.a. **SAP¹**, from Old English *sæp*, sap; b. **ZAFTIG**, from Old High German *saf*, juice. Both a and b from Germanic **sapam**, juice of a plant. 2. **ZABAGLIONE**, from Italian *zabaglione*, *zabaione*, a frothy dessert, probably from a source akin to Illyrian *sabaium*, beer. [In Pokorny sap- 880.] **saǝwel-** The sun. (Oldest form **seh₂wel-,** colored to **sah₂wel-,** contracted to **sāwel-**; zero-grade **s(u)wel-**. The element **-el-** was originally suffixal, and alternated with **-en-,** yielding the variant zero-grades **s(u)wen-** and [reduced] **sun-**.) 1. Variant forms **swen-,** **sun-**. a. (i) **SUN**, from Old English *sunne*, sun; (ii) **SUNDEW**, from Middle Dutch *sonne*, sun. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic **sunnōn-**; b. **SUNDAY**, from Old English *sunnandæg*, Sunday, from Germanic compound **sunnon-dagaz**, "day of the sun" (translation of Latin *diēs sōlis*); c. **SOUTH**, **SOUTHERN**, from Old English *sūth*, south, and *sūtherne*, southern, from Germanic derivative **sunthaz**, "sun-side," south. 2. Variant form **s(a)wōl-**. **SOL³**, **SOL**, **SOLAR**, **SOLARIUM**; **GIRASOL**, **INSOLATE**, **PARASOL**, **SOLANACEOUS**, **SOLANINE**, **SOLSTICE**, **TURNSOLE**, from Latin *sōl*, the sun. 3. Suffixed form **sāwel-yo-**. **HELIACAL**, **HELIO-**, **HELIUM**; **ANTHELION**, **APHELION**, **HELIOTROPE**, **ISOHEL**, **PARHELION**, **PERIHELION**, from Greek *hēlios*, sun. [Pokorny saųel- 881.] **sāg-** To seek out. (Oldest form **seh₂g-,** colored to **sah₂g-,** contracted to **sāg-**.) 1. Suffixed form **sāg-yo-**. **SEEK**, from Old English *sǣcan*, *sēcan*, to seek, from Germanic **sōkjan**. 2. Suffixed form **sāg-ni-**. **SOKE**, from Old English *sōcn*, attack, inquiry, right of local jurisdiction, from Germanic **sōkniz**. 3. Zero-grade form **sag-**. a. **SAKE¹**, from Old English *sacu*, lawsuit, case, from Germanic derivative noun **sakō**, "a seeking," accusation, strife; b. (i) **FORSAKE**, from Old English *forsacan*, to renounce, refuse (*for-*, prefix denoting exclusion or rejection; see **per¹**); (ii) **RAMSHACKLE**, **RANSACK**, from Old Norse **saka*, to seek. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic **sakan**, to seek, accuse, quarrel. Both a and b from Germanic **sak-**. 4. Independent suffixed form **sāg-yo-**. **PRESAGE**, from Latin *sāgīre*, to perceive, "seek to know." 5. Zero-grade form **sag-**. **SAGACIOUS**, from Latin *sagāx*, of keen perception. 6. Suffixed form **sāg-eyo-**. **DIEGESIS**, **EXEGESIS**, **HEGEMONY**, from Greek *hēgeisthai*, to lead (< "to track down"). 7. Suffixed variant form **seg-no-** (from earlier **seh₂g-no-,** with regular loss of laryngeal before a cluster consisting of a plain voiced stop and a resonant). **SCARLET**, **SCARLATINA**, **SEAL¹**, **SEGNO**, **SIGIL**, **SIGN**; **ASSIGN**, **CONSIGN**, **DESIGNATE**, **INSIGNIA**, **RESIGN**, from Latin *signum*, identifying mark, sign. [Pokorny sāg- 876.] **sai-¹** Suffering. (Oldest form **seh₂i-,** colored to **sah₂i-,** contracted to **sai-**.) 1. **SORE**, from Old English *sār*, painful, from Germanic **saira-**, suffering, sick, ill. 2. **SORRY**, from Old English *sārig*, suffering mentally, sad, from Germanic **sairiga-**, painful (derivative of **saira-** in 1 above). [Pokorny sai- 877.] **sai-²** To bind, tie. (Oldest form probably **sheh₁i-,** colored to **sh₂eh₁i-**; laryngeal *h₂* preserved in Hittite *išhāi-*, *išhiya-*, to bind.) 1. Suffixed form **sai-tlo-**. **SECULAR**, from Latin *saeculum*, lifetime, age, century. 2. Suffixed form **sai-ta-**. **SETA**; **EQUISETUM**, **PADUASOY**, from Latin *saeta*, animal hair, bristle. 3. Zero-grade form **si-**. **SINEW**, from Old English *sinu*, *seonu*, tendon, from Germanic **sinwā**. [Pokorny 3. sē(i)- 891.] **Language and Culture Note** The root **sai-²** furnishes the first attested Indo-European word. In the 19th century BC, Assyrian merchants had set up trading colonies in central Anatolia among the Hittites, from whom they borrowed the word *ishiul*, "contract," a derivative of the Hittite verb *ishāi-*, *išhiya-*, "to bind," from the Indo-European zero- grade form **sh₂i-**. Contractual obligations and ritualized reciprocal relationships were a particular hallmark of ancient Indo-European societies (see also the note at **ghos-ti-**), so it is fitting that this is the first word in an Indo-European language to appear in a written document. The basic meaning of **sai-,²** "to bind," was extended metaphorically to refer to successive human generations as the links that "bind" the chain of human life. This is seen clearly in the derivatives of the suffixed form **sai-tlo-** (< earlier **seh₂i-tlo-**). This form literally means "that which binds" (**-tlo-** is an "instrumental" suffix; see **-tlo-**), but also "generation, life-span," as in its Latin descendant *saeculum*, "lifetime, age" (whence English *secular*), and its Welsh descendant *hoedl*, "lifespan." **sai-³** Thick liquid. Possible root. (Oldest form **seh₂i-,** colored to **sah₂i-,** contracted to **sai-**.) Suffixed form **sai-mṇ-**. **-EMIA**, **HEMATIC**, **HEMATITE**, **HEMATO-**, **HEMO-**; **ANEMIA**, **HEMORRHAGE**, **HEMORRHOID**, **ISCHEMIA**, from Greek *haima* (stem *haimat-*), blood. [Pokorny sei- 889.] **sak-** To sanctify. 1. Suffixed form **sak-ro-**. a. **SACRED**, **SACRISTAN**, **SEXTON**; **CONSECRATE**, **EXECRATE**, from Latin *sacer*, holy, sacred, dedicated; b. compound **sakro-dōt-**, "he who gives out the sacralized offering (to the other participants in the sacrifice)" (**-dōt-**, giver; see **dō-**. For the semantics, compare Messapic *tabarnas*, priest, and Old Irish *do-beir*, *tabir*, Old Irish; both are compounds of a preposition **to**, derived from **to-**, and **bher-**, to bear, carry.): **SACERDOTAL**, from Latin *sacerdōs*, priest. 2. Nasalized form **sa-n-k-**. **SAINT**, **SANCTUM**; **CORPOSANT**, **SACROSANCT**, **SANCTIFY**, from Latin *sancīre* (past participle *sānctus*), to make sacred, consecrate. [Pokorny sak- 878.] **sal-¹** Salt. 1. Extended form **sald-**. a. Suffixed form **sald-o-**. **SALT**, from Old English *sealt*, salt, from Germanic **saltam**; b. (i) **SOUSE¹**, from Old French *sous*, pickled meat; (ii) **SILT**, from Middle English *cylte*, fine sand, from a source probably akin to Danish and Norwegian *sylt*, salt marsh. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic zero-grade suffixed extended form **sult-jō**; c. **SALSA**, **SAUCE**, **SAUSAGE**, from Latin *sallere* (past participle *salsus* < **sald-to-**), to salt. 2. **SAL**, **SALAD**, **SALAMI**, **SALARY**, **SALI-**, **SALINE**; **SALMAGUNDI**, **SALTCELLAR**, **SALTPETER**, from Latin *sal* (genitive *salis*), salt. 3. **HALO-**, <76> from Greek *hals* (stem *hal-*), salt, sea. 4. **SOLONCHAK**, from Russian *solonets*, salty soil, akin to Old Church Slavonic *slanŭ*, salt. [Pokorny 1. sal- 878.] **sal-²** Dirty, gray. Suffixed form **sal-wo-**. **SALLOW¹**, from Old English *salu*, *salo*, dusky, dark, from Germanic **salwa-**. [Pokorny 2. sal- 879.] See also derivative **sal(i)k-**. **sal(i)k-** Willow. A derivative of **sal-²**. 1. Variant form **salk-**. **SALLOW²**, from Old English *sealh*, willow, from Germanic suffixed form **salh-jon-**. 2. **SALICIN**, from Latin *salix*, willow. [In Pokorny 2. sal- 879.] **sam-** To sing. (Oldest form **sh₂em-,** colored to **sh₂am-**.) Suffixed o-grade form **saom-n-**. **HYMN**; **HYMNODY**, **HYMNOLOGY**, from Greek *humnos*, song. [Not in Pokorny; compare Hittite *išhamai*, "he sings," and Sanskrit *sāman-*, hymn, song.] **[sāno-** Healthy. Italic root. **SANE**, **SANITARY**, **SAINFOIN**, from Latin *sānus*, healthy. [Pokorny sāno-s 880.]] **saus-** Dry. 1. Suffixed (thematic) form **saus-o-**. a. **SEAR¹**, **SERE¹**, from Old English *sēar*, withered; b. **SORREL²**, from Old French *saur*, *sor*, red-brown, from Frankish **saur*, dry. Both a and b from Germanic **sauza-**. 2. Suffixed form **saus-t-**. **AUSTERE**, from Greek *austēros*, harsh. [Pokorny saus- 880.] **sē-¹** To sow. (Contracted from earlier **seh₁-**.) 1. **SOW¹**, from Old English *sāwan*, to sow, from Germanic **sēan**. 2. Suffixed form **sē-ti-**, sowing. a. **SEED**, from Old English *sǣd*, seed; b. **COLZA**, from Middle Dutch *saet* and Middle Low German *sāt*, seed. Both a and b from Germanic **sēdiz**, seed. 3. Reduplicated zero-grade form **si-s(ǝ)-**. **SEASON**, from Latin *serere*, to sow, and derived noun *satiō* (< **sǝ-tiō*), sowing. 4. Suffixed form **sē-men-**, seed. **SEMÉ**, **SEMEN**, **SEMINARY**; **DISSEMINATE**, **INSEMINATE**, **SINSEMILLA**, from Latin *sēmen*, seed. [In Pokorny 2. sē(i)- 889.] **sē-²** Long, late. (Contracted from earlier **seh₁-,** with extended form **seh₁i-,** metathesized to **seih₁-,** with zero-grade **sih₁-,** contracted to **sī-**.) 1. Suffixed form **sē-ro-**. a. **SEROTINOUS**, **SOIREE**, from Latin *sērus*, late; b. **MENHIR**, from Middle Breton *hir*, long. 2. Germanic **sī-**, perhaps from zero-grade variant form **si-** (< **siǝ-**). a. **SIDE**, from Old English *sīde*, side, from Germanic **sīdō**, "long surface or part"; b. **SINCE**, **SITH**, **SYNE**, from Old English *siththon*, *siththan*, after, after that, since, from Germanic **sith**, "later," after. [In Pokorny 2. sē(i)- 889.] **sē-³** To sift. (Contracted from earlier **seh₁-**.) Suffixed form **sē-dho-**. **ETHMOID**, from Greek *ēthein*, to sift. [Pokorny 1. sē(i)- 889.] **sed-¹** To sit. I. Basic form **sed-**. 1. Suffixed form **sed-yo-**. a. **SIT**, from Old English *sittan*, to sit; b. **SITZ BATH**, **SITZMARK**, from Old High German *sizzen*, to sit. Both a and b from Germanic **sitjan**. 2. Suffixed form **sed-lo-**, seat. **SETTLE¹**, from Old English *setl*, seat, from Germanic **setlaz**. 3. Suffixed (stative) form **sed-ē-**. **SÉANCE**, **SEDENTARY**, **SEDERUNT**, **SEDILE**, **SEDIMENT**, **SESSILE**, **SESSION**, **SEWER²**, **SIEGE**; **ASSESS**, **ASSIDUOUS**, **ASSIZE**, **DISSIDENT**, **INSIDIOUS**, **OBSESS**, **POSSESS**, **PRESIDE**, **RESIDE**, **SUBSIDY**, **SUPERSEDE**, **SURCEASE**, from Latin *sedēre*, to sit. 4. Suffixed form **sed-rā-**. **-HEDRON**; **CATHEDRA**, **CATHEDRAL**, **CHAIR**, **EPHEDRINE**, **EXEDRA**, **SANHEDRIN**, from Greek *hedrā*, seat, chair, face of a geometric solid. 5. Prefixed and suffixed form **pi-sed-yo-**, to sit upon (**pi*, on; see **epi**). **PIEZO-**; **ISOPIESTIC**, from Greek *piezein*, to press tight. 6. Basic form **sed-**. a. **EDAPHIC**, from Greek *edaphos*, ground, foundation (with Greek suffix *-aphos*); b. **UPANISHAD**, from Sanskrit *upaniṣad*, Upanishad, from *-sad*, sitting; c. **TANIST**, from Old Irish *tānaise*, designated successor, from Celtic **tānihessio-**, "one who is waited for," from **to-ad-ni-sed-tio-**, from **to-ad-ni-sed-**, to wait for (**to-*, to; **ad-**, to; **ni-**, down; see **ad-** and **ni**). 7. Suffixed form **sed-o-**, sitting. **EISTEDDFOD**, from Welsh *eistedd*, sitting, from Celtic **eks-di-sedo-** (**eks-*, out, and **di-**, out, from; see **eghs** and **de-**). II. O-grade form **sod-**. 1. Perhaps suffixed form **sod-dhlo-**. **SADDLE**, from Old English *sadol*, saddle, from Germanic **sadulaz**, seat, saddle. 2. Suffixed (causative) form **sod-eyo-**. a. **SET¹**, from Old English *settan*, to place; b. **BESET**, from Old English *besettan*, to set near; c. **ERSATZ**, from Old High German *irsez-zan*, to replace, from *sezzan*, to set. a-c all from Germanic **(bi-)satjan**, to cause to sit, set. 3. Suffixed form **sod-yo-**. **SOIL¹**, from Latin *solium*, throne, seat. III. Zero-grade form **-sd-** (in compounds), assimilated to **-zd-**. 1. Reduplicated form **si-sd-** becoming **si-zd-**. a. **SUBSIDE**, from Latin *sīdere*, to sit down, settle; b. **SYNIZESIS**, from Greek *hizein*, to sit down, settle down. 2. Compound suffixed form **ni-zd-o-**, nest, literally "(bird's place of) sitting down" (**ni-**, down). a. **NEST**, from Old English *nest*, from Germanic **nistaz**; b. **NICHE**, **NICK**, **NIDE**, **NIDUS**; **EYAS**, **NIDICOLOUS**, **NIDIFUGOUS**, **NIDIFY**, from Latin *nīdus*, nest. 3. Compound suffixed form **kuzdho-zd-** (see **(s)keu-**). IV. Lengthened-grade form **sēd-**. 1. **SEE²**, from Latin *sēdēs*, seat, residence. 2. Suffixed form **sēd-i-**, settler. a. **COSSET**, possibly from Old English *-sǣta*, *-sǣte*, inhabitant(s), also in place names in (Modern English) *-set*, such as **SOMERSET**, from Old English *Sumorsǣtan*, "inhabitants of Sumortūn, summer-dwelling"; b. Old High German *sāzzo*, settler, inhabitant, in compound *Eli-sazzo* (see **al-¹**). Both a and b from Germanic **sētōn-**, **sāti-**. 3. Suffixed form **sēd-yo-**. **SEAT**, from Old Norse *sæti*, seat, from Germanic **(ge)sētjam**, seat (**ge-**, **ga-**, collective prefix; see **kom**). 4. Suffixed form **sēd-ā-**. **SEDATE¹**, from Latin *sēdāre*, to settle, calm down. 5. Suffixed form **sēd-es-**, seat. **BANSHEE**, from Old Irish *síd*, fairy mound. V. Lengthened o-grade form **sōd-**. **SOOT**, from Old English *sot*, soot (< "that which settles"), from Germanic **sōtam**, from suffixed form **sōd-o-**. [Pokorny sed- 884.] **sed-²** To go. Suffixed o-grade form **sod-o-**. **-ODE**; **ANODE**, **CATHODE**, **EPISODE**, **EXODUS**, **HYATHODE**, **METHOD**, **ODOGRAPH**, **ODOMETER**, **PERIOD**, **PROCTODEUM**, **STOMODEUM**, **SYNOD**, from Greek *hodos*, way, journey. [Pokorny sed- B. 887.] **segh-** To hold. (Oldest form **segh-**.) 1. Suffixed form **segh-es-** in Germanic **sigiz-**, victory (< "a holding or conquest in battle") in Old High German *sigu*, *sigo*, victory, in personal names: a. **SIEGFRIED**, from Old High German *Sigifrith*, "having victorious peace" (*fridu*, *-frith*, peace; see **pri-**); b. **SIGISMUND**, **SIGMUND**, from Old High German *Sigismund*, "protector of peace" (*mund*, protector; see **man-²**). 2.a. **HECTIC**; **CACHEXIA**, **CATHEXIS**, **ENTELECHY**, **EUNUCH**, **OPHIUCHUS**, from Greek *ekhein*, to hold, possess, be in a certain condition, and *hexis*, habit, condition; b. suffixed (agent noun) form **segh-tor**, "holder, guarder, defender." **HECTOR**, **HECTOR** (personal name), from Greek *Hektōr*. 3. a. Possible suffixed (abstract noun) form **segh-wēr**, toughness, steadfastness, with derivative **segh-wer-o-**, tough, stern. **SEVERE**; **ASSEVERATE**, **PERSEVERE**, from Latin *sevērus*, stern; b. **STHENIA**; **ASTHENIA**, **CALISTHENICS**, **HYPERSTHENE**, **HYPOSTHENIA**, **MYASTHENIA**, **THROMBOSTHENIN**, from Greek *sthenos*, physical strength, from a possible related abstract noun form **sgh-wen-es-** (with zero-grade of the root). 4. O-grade form **sogh-**. **EPOCH**, from Greek *epokhē*, "a holding back," pause, cessation, position in time (*epi-*, on, at; see **epi**). 5. Zero-grade form **sgh-**. a. **SCHEME**, from Greek *skhēma*, "a holding," form, figure; b. **SCHOLAR**, **SCHOLASTIC**, **SCHOLIUM**, **SCHOOL¹**, from Greek *skholē*, "a holding back," stop, rest, leisure, employment of leisure in disputation, school. 6. Reduplicated form **si-sgh-**. **ISCHEMIA**, from Greek *iskhein*, to keep back. [Pokorny seĝh- 888.] **seib-** To pour out, sieve, drip, trickle. 1. Basic form **seib-**. **SEEP**, from Old English *sīpian*, *sypian*, to drip, <77> seep, from Germanic **sīpōn**. 2. Suffixed o-grade form **soib-on-**. a. **SOAP**, from Old English *sāpe*, soap (originally a reddish hair dye used by Germanic warriors to give a frightening appearance); b. **SAPONACEOUS**, **SAPONATE**, **SAPONIFY**, **SAPONIN**, **SAPONITE**, from Latin *sāpō*, soap. Both a and b from Germanic **saipōn-**, "dripping thing," resin. 3.a. **SIEVE**, from Old English *sife*, a filter, sieve; b. **SIFT**, from Old English *siftan*, to sieve, drain. Both a and b from variant Germanic form **sib-**. [Pokorny seip- 894.] **seikʷ-** To flow out. Extended expressive zero-grade form **sikko-**. **SACK³**, **SECCO**, **SICCATIVE**; **DESICCATE**, **EXSICCATE**, from Latin *siccus*, dry. [Pokorny seikʷ- 893.] **sek-** To cut. 1. **SCYTHE**, from Old English *sīthe*, *sigthe*, sickle, from Germanic **segithō**, sickle. 2. Suffixed o-grade form **sok-ǝ-**. **SAW¹**; **HACKSAW**, from Old English *sagu*, *sage*, saw, from Germanic **sagō**, a cutting tool, saw. 3. Suffixed o-grade form **sok-yo-**. **SEDGE**, from Old English *secg*, sedge, from Germanic **sag-jaz**, "sword," plant with a cutting edge. 4. Suffixed o-grade form **sok-so-** in Germanic **sahsam**, knife. a. **ZAX**, from Old English *seax*, knife; b. traditionally (but doubtfully) regarded as from Germanic **sahsam** is the West Germanic tribal name **Saxon-**, Saxon (as if "warrior with knives"). (i) **SAXON**, from Late Latin *Saxō* (plural *Saxones*), a Saxon; (ii) **ESSEX**, **MIDDLESEX**, **SUSSEX**, **WESSEX**, from Old English *Ēast-Seaxe*, "East Saxons," *Middel-Seaxe*, "Middle Saxons," *Sūth-Seaxe*, "South Saxons," and *West-Seaxe*, "West Saxons," from *Seax*, a Saxon. 5. Extended root **skend-**, to peel off, flay. **SKIN**, from Old Norse *skinn*, skin, from Germanic **skinth-**. 6. Basic form **sek-**. a. **SECANT**, **-SECT**, **SECTILE**, **SECTION**, **SECTOR**, **SEGMENT**; **DISSECT**, **INSECT**, **INTERSECT**, **RESECT**, **TRANSECT**, from Latin *secāre*, to cut; b. **EXTISPICY**, from Latin *extispex*, diviner who observes entrails, from *exta*, perhaps contracted from *exsecta*, things cut out, neuter plural past participle of *exsecāre*, to cut out, from *secāre*, to cut (**-spex**, he who sees; see **spek-**); c. **SEECATCH**, from Russian *sech'*, to cut. 7. Lengthened-grade form **sēk-**. **SICKLE**, from Latin *sēcula*, sickle. 8. Possible suffixed variant form **sak-so-**. **SASSAFRAS**; **SAXICOLOUS**, **SAXIFRAGE**, from Latin *saxum*, stone (< "broken-off piece"?). [Pokorny 2. sek- 895, sken-(d-) 929.] See also extended roots **sked-**, **skei-**, and **(s)ker-¹**. **sekʷ-¹** To follow. 1. **SECT**, **SEGUE**, **SEGUIDILLA**, **SEQUACIOUS**, **SEQUEL**, **SEQUENCE**, **SUE**, **SUIT**, **SUITE**, **SUITOR**; **CONSEQUENT**, **ENSUE**, **EXECUTE**, **OBSEQUIOUS**, **PERSECUTE**, **PROSECUTE**, **PURSUE**, **SUBSEQUENT**, from Latin *sequī*, to follow. 2. **SEQUESTER**, **SEQUESTRUM**, from Latin *sequester*, "follower," mediator, depositary. 3. Suffixed (participial) form **sekʷ-ondo-**. **SECOND²**, **SECONDO**, **SECUND**, **SECUNDINES**, from Latin *secundus*, following, coming next, second. 4. Suffixed form **sekʷ-os**, following. **EXTRINSIC**, **INTRINSIC**, from Latin *secus*, along, alongside of. 5. Suffixed o-grade form **sokʷ-yo-**. **SOCIABLE**, **SOCIAL**, **SOCIETY**, **SOCIO-**; **ASSOCIATE**, **CONSOCIATE**, **DISSOCIATE**, from Latin *socius*, ally, companion (< "follower"). [Pokorny 1. sekʷ- 896.] **sekʷ-²** To perceive, see. 1. **SEE¹**, from Old English *sēon*, to see, from Germanic **sehwan**, to see. 2. **SIGHT**, from Old English *sihth*, *gesiht*, vision, spectacle, from Germanic abstract noun **sih-tiz**. [Pokorny 2. sekʷ- 897.] **sekʷ-³** To say, utter. 1. O-grade form **sokʷ-**. a. Suffixed form **sokʷ-yo-**. **SAY**; **GAINSAY**, from Old English *secgan*, to say, from Germanic **sagjan**; b. suffixed form **sokʷ-ā-**. (i) **SAW²**, from Old English *sagu*, a saying, speech; (ii) **SAGA**, from Old Norse *saga*, a saying, narrative. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic **sagō**, a saying. 2. Perhaps suffixed zero-grade form **skʷ-ē-tlo-**, narration. a. **SKALD**, from Old Norse *skāld*, poet, "satirist"; b. **SCOLD**, from Middle English *scolde*, an abusive person, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse *skāld* (see above). Both a and b from North Germanic **skathla-**. [In Pokorny 2. sekʷ- 897.] **sel-¹** Human settlement. 1. O-grade form **sol-**. **SALON**, **SALOON**, from Italian *sala*, hall, room, from Germanic **sal-**, room. 2. Suffixed e-grade form **sel-o-**. **SOLE²**, **SOLUM**; **ENTRESOL**, **LATOSOL**, **SOLIFLUCTION**, from Latin *solum*, bottom, foundation, hence sole of the foot. [Pokorny 1. sel- 898, 3. (suel-) 1046.] **sel-²** Also **selǝ-** (oldest form **selh₂-**.) Of good mood; to favor. 1. **SILLY**, from Old English *gesǣlig*, happy (*ge-*, completely; see **kom**), from Germanic lengthened-grade form **sēl-**. 2. Suffixed lengthened o-grade form **sōl-ā-**. **SOLACE**; **CONSOLE**, from Latin *sōlārī*, to comfort, console. 3. Possibly suffixed variant form **selǝ-ro-**. **HILARITY**; **EXHILARATE**, from Greek *hilaros* (< **helaros*), gay. [Pokorny 3. sel- 899.] **sel-³** To take, grasp. 1. Suffixed o-grade (causative) form **sol-eyo-**. **SELL**, from Old English *sellan*, to sell, betray, from Germanic *saljan*, to offer up, deliver (whence West and North Germanic, "to sell"). 2.a. **SALE**, from Old Norse *sala*, sale; b. **HANDSEL**, from Old Norse compound *handsal*, giving of the hand (in closing a bargain). Both a and b from Germanic **sal-**, giving, sale. [Pokorny 3. sel- 899.] **sel-⁴** To jump. 1. Suffixed zero-grade form **sal-yo-**. a. **SALACIOUS**, **SALIENT**, **SALLY**, **SALTO**, **SAUTÉ**; **ASSAIL**, **ASSAULT**, **DESULTORY**, **DISSILIENT**, **EXULT**, **INSULT**, **RESILE**, **RESULT**, **SOMERSAULT**, from Latin *salīre*, to leap; b. **HALTER²**, from Greek *hallesthai*, to leap, jump. 2. Probably Latin *salmō* (borrowed from Gaulish), salmon (< "the leaping fish"): **SALMON**. [Pokorny 4. sel- 899.] **sel-es-** Swamp, marsh, sea. 1. **ELOIDEA**, from Greek *helos*, marsh. 2.a. **SARUS CRANE**, from Sanskrit *saraḥ* (stem *saras-*), lake; b. **SARASVATI**, from Sanskrit *Sarasvati*, name of a sacred river, Sarasvati, from Indo-Iranian **sarasvatī**, "of waters" (**-vatī**, feminine of **-vat**, containing). Both a and b from Indo-Iranian **saras-**, body of water. [Pokorny selos- 901.] **selk-** To pull, draw. 1. Perhaps Germanic **selhaz**, seal (the animal), "that which drags its body along with difficulty" (but more likely an early Germanic borrowing from Finnic). **SEAL²**, from Old English *seolh*, seal. 2. Suffixed o-grade form **solk-o-**. **SULCATE**, **SULCUS**, from Latin *sulcus*, furrow, groove (< "result of drawing or plowing"). 3. Full-grade form **selk-**. **HULK**; **FELUCCA**, from Greek *helkein*, to pull, with o-grade derivative *holkos*, machine for pulling ships. [Pokorny selk- 901.] **selp-** Fat, butter. 1. **SALVE¹**, from Old English *sealf*, healing ointment, from Germanic **salb-**. 2. **QUACKSALVER**, from Middle Dutch *salven*, to anoint, from Germanic denominative verb **salbōn**. [Pokorny selp- 901.] **sem-¹** One; also adverbially "as one," together with. I. Full-grade form **sem-**. 1.a. **HENDECASYLLABIC**, **HENDIADYS**, **HENOTHEISM**, **HYPHEN**, from Greek *heis* (< nominative singular masculine **hen-s** < **hem-s*), one; b. Greek *he-* in *hekaton*, one hundred (? dissimilated from **hem-katon**; see **dekm**). Both a and b from Greek **hem-**. 2. Suffixed form **sem-el-**. **SIMULTANEOUS**; **ASSEMBLE**, **ENSEMBLE**, from Latin *simul*, at the same time. 3. Suffixed form **sem-golo-**. **SINGLE**, from Latin *singulus*, alone, single. 4. Compound **sem-per-** (**per*, during, for; see **per¹**). **SEMPRE**; **SEMPERVIVUM**, **SEMPITERNAL**, from Latin *semper*, always, ever (< "once for all"). II. O-grade form **som-**. 1. **BONZE**, **KALANCHOE**, **SAMBAL**, **SAMHITA**, **SAMSARA**, **SANDHI**, **SANGHA**, **SANKHYA**, **SANNYASI**, **SANSKRIT**, from Sanskrit *sam*, together. 2. Suffixed form **som-o-**. a. **SAME**, from Old Norse *samr*, same, from Germanic **sama-**, same; b. **HOMEO-**, **HOMO-**; **ANOMALOUS**, from Greek *homos*, same; c. **HOMILY**, from Greek *homilos*, crowd. 3. Suffixed form **som-alo-**. **HOMOLOGRAPHIC**, from Greek *homalos*, like, even, level. <78> III. Lengthened o-grade form **sōm-**. 1. Suffixed form **sōm-i-**. **SEEM**, **SEEMLY**, from Old Norse *sǣmr*, fitting, agreeable (< "making one," "reconciling"), from Germanic **sōmi-**. 2. Suffixed lengthened o-grade form **sōm-o-**. **SAMIZDAT**, **SAMOVAR**, from Russian *sam(o)-, self. IV. Zero-grade form **sm̥-**. 1. **ACOLYTE**, **ANACOLUTHON**, from Greek compound *akolouthos*, accompanying (*-kolouthos*, from o-grade of *keleuthos*, way, path), from *ha-*, *a-*, together. 2. Compound form **sm̥-plo-** (**-plo-**, -fold; see **pel-³**). a. **SIMPLE**, from Latin *simplus*, simple; b. **HAPLOID**, **HAPLORRHINE**, from Greek *haploos*, *haplous*, single, simple. 3. Suffixed form **sm̥m-o-**. a. **SOME**, from Old English *sum*, one, a certain one; b. **-SOME¹**, from Old English *-sum*, -like. Both a and b from Germanic **suma-**. 4. Suffixed form **sm̥m-alo-**. **SIMILAR**; **ASSIMILATE**, **RESEMBLE**, from Latin *similis*, of the same kind, like. 5. Compound **sm̥-kero-**, of one growing (see **ker-³**). 6. Suffixed form **sm̥-tero-**. **HETERO-**, from Greek *heteros* (earlier *hateros*), one of two, other. 7. Compound **sm̥-plek-**, "one-fold," simple (**-plek-**, -fold; see **plek-**). **SEMPLICE**, **SIMPLEX**, **SIMPLICITY**, from Latin *simplex*, simple. 8. Suffixed compound form **sm̥-gʷelbh-(e)yo-** (see **gʷelbh-**). 9. Extended form **sm̥ma**. **HAMADRYAD**, from Greek *hama*, together with, at the same time. [Pokorny 2. sem- 902.] **sem-²** Summer. Also **semə-** (oldest form **semh₂-**). 1. Suffixed zero-grade form **sm̥ǝ-ero-**. **SUMMER¹**, from Old English *sumor*, summer, from Germanic **sumaraz**. 2. Suffixed zero-grade form **sm̥ǝ-oni-**. **SAMHAIN**, from Old Irish *samain*, Samhain (for the discrepancy in time of occurrence, Samhain taking place in the autumn, compare English *Indian summer*). [Pokorny 3. sem- 905.] **sēmi-** Half-, as first member of a compound. 1. **SANDBLIND**, from Old English *sām-*, half, from Germanic **sēmi**. 2. **SEMI-**, from Latin *sēmi-*, half. 3. **SESQUI-**, **SESTERCE**, from Latin *sēmis*, half. 4. **HEMI-**, from Greek *hēmi-*, half. [Pokorny sēmi- 905.] **sen-** Old. 1. **SEIGNIOR**, **SENATE**, **SENECTITUDE**, **SENESCENT**, **SENILE**, **SENIOR**, **SEÑOR**, **SIGNORE**, **SIGNORY**, **SIR**, **SIRE**, **SURLY**; **SENOPIA**, from Latin *senex*, old, an elder. 2. **SHANACHIE**, from Old Irish *sen*, old. 3. **SENESCHAL**, from Old French *senechal*, from Frankish **siniskalkaz**, literally "old servant," or a kindred Germanic source (attested in Medieval Latin as *siniscalcus*), from **sin(i)-**, old (compare Gothic *sineigs*, old; Germanic **skalkaz**, servant). [Pokorny sen(o)- 907.] **sendhro-** Crystalline deposit. 1. **CINDER**, from Old English *sinder*, iron slag, dross. 2. **SINTER**, from Old High German *sintar*, slag. Both 1 and 2 from Germanic **sendra-**, slag. [Pokorny sendhro- 906.] **senə-¹** Also **sen-**. Apart, separated. 1. Suffixed variant form **sn̥-ter-**. a. **ASUNDER**, from Old English *sundor*, *sunder*, apart, from Germanic **sundrō**; b. **SUNDER**, from Old English *syndrian*, *sundrian*, to put apart, from Germanic denominative verb **sundrōn**; c. **SUNDRY**, from Old English *syndrig*, apart, separated, from Germanic derivative adjective **sundriga-**. 2. Zero-grade form **sn̥ǝ-i** (with a locative case ending). **SANS**; **SINECURE**, **SINSEMILLA**, from Latin *sine*, without. [Pokorny seni- 907.] **senə-²** To accomplish, achieve. (Oldest form **senh₂-**.) **AUTHENTIC**, **EFFENDI**, from Greek *authentēs*, author (< **aut-hen-tēs**; *aut-*, *auto-*, self). [Pokorny sen- 906.] **sengʷ-** To sink. 1. **SINK**, from Old English *sincan*, to sink. 2. **SAG**, from Middle English *saggen*, to subside, from a Scandinavian source akin to Swedish *sacka*, to sink, from Scandinavian intensive form **sakk-**. Both 1 and 2 from Germanic **sinkwan**. [Pokorny sengʷ- 906.] **sengʷh-** To sing, make an incantation. 1.a. **SING**, from Old English *singan*, to sing; b. **MEISTERSINGER**, **MINNESINGER**, **SINGSPIEL**, from Old High German *singan*, to sing. Both a and b from Germanic **singan**. 2. Suffixed o-grade form **songʷh-o-**, singing, song. **SONG**, from Old English *sang*, *song*, from Germanic **sangwaz**. [Pokorny sengʷh- 906.] **senk-** To burn. Suffixed (causative) o-grade form **sonk-eyo-**. **SINGE**, from Old English *sengan*, to singe, from Germanic **sangjan**, to cause to burn. [Pokorny senk- 907.] **sent-** To head for, go. 1. **WIDDERSHINS**, from Old High German *sin(d)*, direction, from Germanic form **sint-haz**. 2. Suffixed (causative) o-grade form **sont-eyo-**. **SEND¹**, from Old English *sendan*, to send, from Germanic **sandjan**, to cause to go. 3. Suffixed o-grade form **sont-o-**. **GODSEND**, from Old English *sand*, message, messenger, from Germanic **sandaz**, that which is sent. 4. Perhaps suffixed form **sent-yo-**. **SCENT**, **SENSE**, **SENSILLUM**, **SENTENCE**, **SENTIENT**, **SENTIMENT**, **SENTINEL**; **ASSENT**, **CONSENT**, **DISSENT**, **PRESENTIMENT**, **RESENT**, **SENSU LATO**, **SENSU STRICTO**, from Latin *sentīre*, to feel (< "to go mentally"). [Pokorny sent- 908.] **sep-¹** To taste, perceive. Suffixed zero-grade form **sap-yo-**. **SAGE¹**, **SAPID**, **SAPIENT**, **SAPOR**, **SAVANT**, **SAVOR**, **SAVVY**; **INSIPID**, from Latin *sapere*, to taste, have taste, be wise. [Pokorny sap- 880.] **sep-²** To handle (skillfully), hold (reverently). Suffixed form **sep-el-yo-**. **SEPULCHER**, **SEPULTURE**, from Latin *sepelīre*, to embalm, bury (originally, "to perform ritual manual operations on a corpse"). [Pokorny sep- 909.] **septm̥** Seven. 1. **SEVEN**; **SEVENTEEN**, **SEVENTY**, from Old English *seofon*, seven, with derivatives *(hund) seofontig*, seventy, and *seofontīne*, seventeen (**-tīne**, ten; see **dekm**), from Germanic **sebun**. 2. **SEPTEMBER**, **SEPTENNIAL**, **SEPTET**, **SEPTUAGINT**, **SEPTUPLE**; **SEPTENTRION**, **UNUNSEPTIUM**, from Latin *septem*, seven. 3. **HEBDOMAD**, **HEPTA-**, **HEPTAD**, from Greek *hepta*, seven. [Pokorny septm̥ 909.] **ser-¹** To protect. 1. Extended form **serw-**. **CONSERVE**, **OBSERVE**, **PRESERVE**, **RESERVE**, **RESERVOIR**, from Latin *servāre*, to keep, preserve. 2. Perhaps suffixed lengthened-grade form **sēr-ōs-**. **HERO**, from Greek *hērōs*, "protector," hero. [Pokorny 2. ser- 910.] **ser-²** To flow. 1. Suffixed form **ser-o-**. **SERAC**, **SERUM**, from Latin *serum*, whey. 2. Basic form **ser-**. **SAMSARA**, from Sanskrit *sarati*, *sasarti*, it flows, runs. 3. Extended root forms **sr-edh-,** **sr-et-,** to whirl, bubble. **STRUDEL**, from Middle High German *strudel*, whirlpool, from (by ablaut) Old High German *stredan*, to whirl, swirl. [Pokorny 1. ser- 909, sr-edh- 1001.] **ser-³** To line up. 1. **SERIES**, **SERTULARIAN**; **ASSERT**, **DESERT³**, **DISSERTATE**, **EXERT**, **EXSERT**, **INSERT**, from Latin *serere*, to arrange, attach, join (in speech), discuss. 2. Suffixed form **ser-mon-**. **SERMON**, from Latin *sermō* (stem *sermōn-*), speech, discourse. 3. Perhaps suffixed form **ser-ā-**. **SEAR²**, **SERRIED**, from Latin *sera*, a lock, bolt, bar (? < "that which aligns"). 4. Suffixed zero-grade form **sr̥-ti-**. **SORCERER**, **SORT**; **ASSORT**, **CONSORT**, **ENSORCEL**, **SORTILEGE**, from Latin *sors* (stem *sort-*), lot, fortune (perhaps from the lining up of lots before drawing). [Pokorny 4. ser- 911.] **ser-⁴** Base of prepositions and preverbs with the basic meaning "above, over, up, upper." Possibly zero-grade variant form **sro-**. **FRONS**, **FRONT**, **FRONTAL¹**, **FRONTAL²**, **FRONTIER**, **FRONTLET**, **FRONTON**; **AFFRONT**, **CONFRONT**, **EFFRONTERY**, **FRONTISPIECE**, **FRONTENIS**, from Latin *frons*, forehead, front. [Not in Pokorny; compare Hittite *šarā*, up (< **sro*), and Greek *rhion*, peak, foreland (< **sri-**).] **ser-⁵** To seize. Zero-grade form **sr̥-**. **HERESY**; **APHAERESIS**, **DIERESIS**, **SYNERESIS**, from Greek *hairein*, to seize, from **sr̥-yo-** (details of formation unclear). [Not in Pokorny; compare Hittite *šāru*, booty, Welsh *herw*, booty (both from suffixed o-grade form **sor-u-**).] **serk-** To make whole. **SARTORIUS**, from Latin *sarcīre*, to mend, repair. [Pokorny serk- 912.] <79> **Language and Culture Note** In Roman customary law, if a son or a slave committed an offense that demanded restitution (such as theft or murder), the restitution could be met by the father or the master paying the damages or surrendering his son or slave to the offended party. The Latin phrase meaning "pay for the damages in this particular context" was *noxiam sarcīre*, where *sarcīre*, basically meaning "to mend, repair," has here the technical meaning "to pay or make amends for (damages done by one's son or slave)." The Latin verb comes from the Indo-European verbal root **serk-**, "to make whole." The root also appears with nasal infix (see **-n-**) in the Hittite verb *šarnik-*, which has the same legal usage as the Latin verb. The precise equivalence of both legal expression and legal content in these two branches of Indo-European suggests that the Indo-European root **serk-** had the same legal meaning, and that the Indo-Europeans employed the same procedure. **serp-¹** Sickle, hook. 1. **SARMENTOSE**, from Latin *sarpere*, to cut off, prune (> *sarmentum*, twigs). 2. **HARPOON**, from Greek *harpē*, sickle. [In Pokorny 5. ser- 911.] **serp-²** To crawl, creep. 1. **SERPENT**, **SERPIGINOUS**, from Latin *serpere*, to crawl. 2. **HERPES**; **HERPETOLOGY**, from Greek *herpein*, to crawl, creep. [Pokorny serp- 912.] **seuǝ-¹** To give birth. Suffixed zero-grade form in derivative noun **su(ǝ)-nu-,** son. **SON**, from Old English *sunu*, son, from Germanic **sunuz**. [Pokorny 2. seu- 913.] See also **sū-**. **seuǝ-²** To take liquid. I. Suffixed zero-grade form **suǝ-yo-,** contracted to **su-yo-**. **HYETAL**; **ISOHYET**, from Greek *huetos*, rain, from *huein*, to rain. II. Possible extended zero-grade form **sub-**. 1.a. **SUP¹**, from Old English *sūpan*, *sūpian*, to drink, sip; b. **SOUP**, **SUP²**, from Old French *soup(e)*, soup; c. **SOPAIPILLA**, from Old Spanish *sopa*, food soaked in liquid. a-c all from Germanic **sūp-**. 2.a. **SOP**, from Old English *sopp-* in *soppcuppe*, cup for dipping bread in, from Germanic **supp-**; b. **SIP**, from Middle English *sippen*, to sip, from a source probably akin to Low German *sippen*, to sip, possibly from Germanic **supp-**. III. Possible extended zero-grade form **sūg-**. 1. **SUCK**, from Old English *sūcan*, to suck, from Germanic **sūk-**. 2. **SOAK**, from Old English *socian*, to steep, from Germanic shortened form **sukōn**. 3. **SUCTION**, **SUCTORIAL**; **PROSCIUTTO**, from Latin *sūgere*, to suck. 4. Variant form **sūk-**. **SUCCULENT**, from Latin *sūcus*, *succus*, juice. [Pokorny 1. seu- 912.] **seut-** To seethe, boil. 1. **SEETHE**, **SODDEN**, from Old English *sēothan*, to boil, from Germanic **seuthan**, with Old English past participle *soden*, boiled, from Germanic **sudana-** (from Indo-European suffixed zero-grade **sut-ono-**). 2.a. **SUDS**, from Middle Dutch *sudde*, *sudse*, marsh, swamp; b. **SUTLER**, from Middle Dutch *soetler*, *sutler*, akin to Middle High German *sudelen*, to soil, do sloppy work, from Germanic suffixed form **suth-l-**. Both a and b from Germanic **suth-**. [Pokorny 4. seu- 914.] **[servus** Slave. Latin noun of uncertain origin (perhaps < *"protector of cattle and sheep, shepherd," and thus a derivative of **serw-**, extended form of **ser-¹**). **SERF**, **SERGEANT**, **SERVE**, **SERVANT**, **SERVILE**, **SERVITUDE**, **SIRVENTE**; **CONCIERGE**, **SERVOMECHANISM**, **SERVOMOTOR**.] **si-lo-** Silent. Suffixed (stative) form **sil-ē-**. **SILENT**, from Latin *silēre*, to be silent. [In Pokorny 2. sē(i)- 889.] **skabh-** To prop up, support. Suffixed form **skabh-no-**. **SHAMBLES**, from Latin *scamnum*, a bench (< Old English *sceamel*, table, stool). [Pokorny skabh- 916.] **skai-** To gleam. (Oldest form **skeh₂i-,** colored to **skah₂i-,** contracted to **skai-,** with zero-grade **sk(h₂)i-** and variant [metathesized] zero-grade **skih₂-,** contracted to **ski-**.) 1. Suffixed zero-grade form **ski-no-**. a. **SHINE**, from Old English *scīnan*, to shine; b. **GEGENSCHEIN**, from Old High German *scīnan*, to shine. Both a and b from Germanic **skīnan**, to gleam, shine. 2. **SHIMMER**, from Old English *scimerian*, *scymrian*, to shine brightly, from Germanic extended form **ski-m-**. 3. Possibly suffixed form **ski-nto-**, shining. **SCINTILLA**, **SCINTILLATE**, **STENCIL**, **TINSEL**, from Latin *scintilla*, a spark. 4. Suffixed zero-grade form **skia-ā-** becoming **skiyā-**. **SCIAENOID**, **SCIURID**, **SKIAGRAM**, **SKIASCOPE**, **SQUIRREL**, from Greek *skiā*, shadow. [Pokorny skai- 917.] **skand-** Also **skend-**. To leap, climb. Seen by some as an extended variant form of **ken-¹**. 1. **SCAN**, **SCANDENT**, **SCANSION**, **SCANSORIAL**, **SCANTLING**; **ASCEND**, **CONDESCEND**, **DESCEND**, **TRANSCEND**, from Latin *scandere*, to climb. 2. Suffixed form **skand-alo-**. **SCANDAL**, **SLANDER**, from Greek *skandalon*, a snare, trap, stumbling block. 3. Suffixed form **skand-slā-**. **ECHELON**, **ESCALADE**, **SCALE²**, from Latin *scālae*, steps, ladder. [Not in Pokorny; compare Sanskrit *skandati*, he jumps, and Old Irish *scendim*, I jump.] **sked-** To split, scatter. Extension of **sek-**. 1. O-grade form **skod-**. **SCATTER**, **SHATTER**, from Old English **sc(e)aterian*, to scatter, from Germanic **skat-**. 2. Variant nasalized form **skǝ-n-d-**. **SHINGLE¹**, from Latin *scandula*, a shingle for roofing (< "split piece"). [Pokorny (s)k(h)ed- 918.] **skei-** To cut, split. Extension of **sek-**. 1.a. **SHIN¹**, from Old English *scinu*, shin, shinbone (< "piece cut off"); b. **CHINE**, from Old French *eschine*, backbone, piece of meat with part of the backbone. Both a and b from Germanic suffixed form **ski-nō-**. 2. **SCIENCE**, **SCILICET**, **SCIOLISM**; **ADSCITITIOUS**, **CONSCIENCE**, **CONSCIOUS**, **NESCIENCE**, **NICE**, **OMNISCIENT**, **PLEBISCITE**, **PRESCIENT**, from Latin *scire*, to know (< "to separate one thing from another," "discern.") 3. Suffixed zero-grade form **skiy-enā-**. **SKEAN**, from Old Irish *scīan*, knife. 4. Extended root **skeid-**. a. (i) **SHIT**, **SHITE**; **GOBSHITE**, from Old English **scītan*, to defecate; (ii) **SKATE³**; **BLATHERSKITE**, from Old Norse *skīta*, to defecate; (iii) **SHYSTER**, from Old High German *skīzzan*, to defecate. (i)-(iii) all from Germanic **skītan**, to separate, defecate; b. suffixed zero-grade form **sk(h)id-yo-**. **SCHISM**, **SCHIST**, **SCHIZO-**, from Greek *skhizein*, to split; c. nasalized zero-grade form **ski-n-d-**. **SCISSION**; **ABSCISSA**, **ABSCISSION**, **EXSCIND**, **PRESCIND**, **RESCIND**, from Latin *scindere*, to split. 5. Extended root **skeit-**. a. (i) **SHED¹**, **SHODDY**, from Old English *scēadan*, to separate, from Germanic **skaith-**, **skaidan**; (ii) **SHEATH**, from Old English *scēath*, sheath (< "split stick"), perhaps from Germanic **skaith-**; b. **SKI**, from Old Norse *skīdh*, log, stick, snowshoe, from Germanic **skīdam**; c. o-grade form **skoit-**. **ÉCU**, **ESCUDO**, **ESCUTCHEON**, **ESQUIRE**, **SCUDO**, **SCUTUM**, **SQUIRE**, from Latin *scūtum*, shield (< "board"). 6. Extended root **skeip-**. a. **SHEAVE²**, from Middle English *shēve*, pulley (< "piece of wood with grooves"); b. **SKIVE**, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse *skīfa*, to slice, split; c. **SHIVER²**, from Middle English *shivere*, *scivre*, splinter, possibly from a Low German source akin to Middle Low German *schēver*, splinter. a-c all from Germanic **skif-**. [Pokorny skei- 919.] **(s)kel-¹** To cut. 1.a. **SHELL**, from Old English *scell*, *sciell*, shell; b. **SCAGLIOLA**, from Italian *scaglia*, chip. Both a and b from Germanic **skaljō**, piece cut off, shell, scale. 2.a. **SHALE**, from Old English *sc(e)alu*, husk, shell; b. **SCALE¹**, from Old French *escale*, husk, shell. Both a and b from Germanic **skalō**. 3.a. **SCALL**, from Old Norse *skalli*, bald head (< "closely shaved skull"); b. **SCALP**, from Middle English *scalp*, top of the head, from a source akin to Old Norse *skalpr*, sheath, shell. Both a and b from Germanic **skal-**. 4. **SCALE³**, **SKOAL**, from Old Norse *skāl*, bowl, drinking vessel (made from a shell), from Germanic **skēlō**. 5. <80> **SHIELD**, from Old English *scield*, shield (< "board"), from Germanic **skelduz**. 6.a. **SKILL**, from Old Norse *skil*, reason, discernment, knowledge (< "incisiveness"); b. **SHEL-DRAKE**, from Middle English *scheld*, variegated, from a Low German source akin to Middle Dutch *schillen*, to diversify, with past participle *schillede*, separated, variegated. Both a and b from Germanic **skeli-**. 7. **SCHOOL²**, **SHOAL²**, from Middle Low German *schōle*, troop, or Middle Dutch *scōle*, both from Germanic **skulō**, a division. 8. Suffixed variant form **kel-tro-**. **COULTER**, **CULTRATE**, **CUTLASS**, from Latin *culter*, knife. 9. Suffixed zero-grade form **skl̥-yo-**. **SCALENE**, from Greek *skallein*, to stir up, hoe (> *skalēnos*, uneven). 10. Extended root **skelp-**. a. **SHELF**, from Middle Low German *schelf*, shelf (< "split piece of wood"), from Germanic **skelf-**; b. possibly Germanic **halbaz** (< variant root **kelp-**), divided. **HALF**, **HALVE**, from Old English *healf*, half; c. perhaps variant **skalp-**. **SCALPEL**, **SCULPTURE**, from Latin *scalpere*, to cut, scrape, with derivative *sculpere* (originally as the combining form of *scalpere*), to carve. [Pokorny 1. (s)kel- 923.] **skel-²** To be under an obligation. O-grade (perfect) form **skol-**. **SHALL**, from Old English *sceal* (used with the first and third person singular pronouns), shall, from Germanic **skal**, I owe, hence I ought. [Pokorny 2. (s)kel- 927.] **(s)kel-³** Crooked. With derivatives referring to a bent or curved part of the body, such as a leg, heel, knee, or hip. 1. Suffixed form **skel-o-**. **SALWAR**, from Old Iranian compound **šara-vāra-**, "thigh covering," from **šara-**, thigh (**vāra-**, covering; see **wer-⁵**). 2. Suffixed form **skel-ko-**. **SCHILLER**, from Old High German *scilihen*, to wink, blink. 3. Suffixed form **skel-es-**. **ISOSCELES**, **TRISKELION**, from Greek *skelos*, leg. 4. Suffixed o-grade form **skol-yo-**. **SCOLIOSIS**, from Greek *skolios*, crooked. 5. Lengthened o-grade form **skōl-**. **SCOLEX**, from Greek *skōlēx*, earthworm, grub (< "that which twists and turns"). 6. Suffixed lengthened o-grade variant form **kōl-o-**. **COLON¹**, from Greek *kōlon*, limb, member. 7. Attributed (doubtfully) by some to this root is Greek *kulindein*, to roll: **CYLINDER**. [Pokorny 4. (s)kel- 928.] **skelǝ-** To parch, wither. (Oldest form **skelh₁-,** with variant [metathesized] form **skleh₁-,** contracted to **sklē-**.) 1. **SKELETON**, from Greek *skellesthai*, to dry, whence *skeletos* (< suffixed form **skelǝ-to-**), dried up (body), mummy. 2. Suffixed variant form **sklē-ro-**. **SCLERA**, **SCLERO-**, **SCLEROMA**, **SCLEROSIS**, **SCLEROTIC**, **SCLEROTIUM**, **SCLEROTIZATION**, **SCLEROUS**, from Greek *sklēros*, hard. [Pokorny 3. (s)kel- 927.] **skeng-** Crooked. **SHANK**, from Old English **sc(e)anca*, shinbone, from Germanic **skankōn-**, "that which bends," leg. [Pokorny (s)keng- 930.] **(s)kep-** Base of words with various technical meanings such as "to cut," "to scrape," "to hack." 1.a. **SHAPE**, from Old English *gesceap*, form, creation (< "cutting"; *ge-*, collective prefix; see **kom**), and verb *sceppan*, to form (from Germanic **skapjan**); b. **-SHIP**, from Old English *-scipe*, state, condition (collective suffix); c. **LANDSCAPE**, from Dutch *-schap*, -ship, condition (collective suffix). a-c all from Germanic **skap-**. 2. **SCOOP**, **SCUPPER¹**, from Middle Dutch and Middle Low German *schōpe*, bucket for bailing water, from Germanic ablaut variant **skāpō**, "thing cut out," container. 3. **SHAFT¹**, from Old English *sceaft*, rod of a spear, from Germanic **skaftaz**. 4.a. **SHABBY**, from Old English *sceabb*, a scab, scratch; b. **SCAB**, from Old Norse *skabb*, a scab. Both a and b from Germanic expressive form **skabb-**. 5. Variant form **skabh-**. a. (i) **SHAVE**, from Old English *sceafan*, to scrape, pare away; (ii) **SAPSAGO**, from Old High German *skaban*, to scrape. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic **skaban**; b. **SCABIES**, from Latin *scabere*, to scrape; c. suffixed form **skabh-ro-**. **SCABROUS**, from Latin *scaber*, rough (< "scratched"); d. **SCAPHOID**; **BATHYSCAPHE**, **SCAPHOCEPHALIC**, **SCAPHOPOD**, from Greek *skaphē*, boat (< "thing cut out"). 6. Variant form **skap-**. **SCAPULA**, from Latin *scapula*, shoulder blade (used as a tool for scraping). 7. Variant form **kap-**. a. **CAPON**, from Latin *capō*, castrated cock; b. **SCABBLE**, from Late Latin *capulāre*, to cut. [Pokorny 2. (s)kep- 931.] **(s)ker-¹** To cut. I. Basic form **sker-,** **ker-**. 1.a. **SHEAR**, from Old English *scieran*, *sceran*, to cut; b. **SHEER¹**, from Low German *scheren*, to move to and fro, and Dutch *scheren*, to withdraw, depart. Both a and b from Germanic **skeran**. 2.a. **SHARE²**, from Old English *scear*, plowshare; b. **SHARE¹**, from Old English *scearu*, *scaru*, portion, division (but recorded only in the sense of "fork of the body," "tonsure"). Both a and b from Germanic **skeraz**. 3.a. **SHEARS**, from Old English *scēar*, scissors, from Germanic **skēr-ō** and **skēr-iz-**; b. compound **skēr-berg-**, "sword protector," scabbard (**berg-**, protector; see **bhergh-¹**). **SCABBARD**, from Old French *escauberc*, scabbard, possibly from a Germanic source akin to Old High German *scarberc*, scabbard. Both a and b from Germanic **skēr-**. 4. **SCORE**, from Old Norse *skor*, notch, tally, twenty, from Germanic **skur-**. 5. **SCAR²**, **SKERRY**, from Old Norse *sker*, low reef (< "something cut off"), from Germanic suffixed form **skar-jam**. 6. Suffixed o-grade extended form **skorp-o-**. **SCARP²**, from Old Norse *skarfr*, diagonally-cut end of a board, from Germanic **skarfaz**. 7. Suffixed o-grade extended form **skord-o-**. **SHARD**, from Old English *sceard*, a cut, notch, from Germanic **skardaz**. 8. Extended form **skerd-** in suffixed zero-grade form **skr̥d-o-**. a. **SHORT**, from Old English *scort*, *sceort*, "cut," short; b. **SHIRT**, from Old English *scyrte*, skirt (< "cut piece"); c. **SKIRT**, from Old Norse *skyrta*, shirt. a-c all from Germanic **skurtaz**. 9.a. **SCARAMOUCH**, **SCRIMMAGE**, **SKIRMISH**, from Old French *eskermir*, to fight with a sword, fence, and Old Italian *scaramuccia*, skirmish, from a source akin to Old High German *skirmen*, to protect; b. **SCREEN**, from Middle Dutch *scherm*, shield. Both a and b from Germanic extended form **skerm-**. 10. Variant form **kar-**. **CARNAGE**, **CARNAL**, **CARNASSIAL**, **CARNATION**, **CARNIVAL**, **CARRION**, **CARUNCLE**, **CHARNEL**, **CRONE**; **CARNE ASADA**, **CARNIVOROUS**, **CHARCUTERIE**, **INCARNATE**, from Latin *carō* (stem *carn-*), flesh. 11. Suffixed o-grade form **kor-yo-**. **CORIACEOUS**, **CORIUM**, **CUIRASS**, **CURRIER**; **EXCORIATE**, from Latin *corium*, leather (originally "piece of hide"). 12. Suffixed zero-grade form **kr̥-to-**. **CURT**, **CURTAL**, **KIRTLE**, from Latin *curtus*, short. 13. Suffixed o-grade form **kor-mo-**. **CORM**, from Greek *kormos*, a trimmed tree trunk. 14. Suffixed o-grade form **kor-i-**. **COREOPSIS**, from Greek *koris*, bedbug (< "cutter"). 15. Suffixed zero-grade form **skr̥-ǝ-**. **SHORE¹**, from Old English *scora*, shore, from Germanic **skur-ō**. II. Extended roots **skert-,** **kert-**. 1. Zero-grade form **kr̥t-** or o-grade form **kort-**. **CORTEX**; **DECORTICATE**, from Latin *cortex*, bark (< "that which can be cut off"). 2. Suffixed form **kert-snā-**. **CENACLE**, from Latin *cēna*, meal (< "portion of food"). III. Extended root **skerp-**. **SCURF**, probably from a Scandinavian source akin to Old English *sceorf*, scab, scurf, from Germanic **skerf-**. IV. Extended root **skerb(h)-,** **skreb(h)-**. 1.a. **SHARP**, from Old English *scearp*, sharp; b. **SCARP¹**, from Italian *scarpa*, embankment, possibly from a Germanic source akin to Gothic *skarpō*, pointed object. Both a and b from Germanic **skarpa-**, cutting, sharp. 2.a. **SCRAP¹**, from Old Norse *skrap*, "pieces," remains; b. **SCRAPE**, from Old Norse *skrapa*, to scratch. Both a and b from Germanic **skrap-**. 3.a. **SCRABBLE**, from Middle Dutch *schrabben*, to scrape; b. **SCRUB¹**, from Middle Dutch *schrobben*, to scrape. Both a and b from Germanic **skrab-**. 4. **SHRUB¹**, from Old English *scrybb*, shrub (< "rough plant"), from Germanic **skrub-**. 5. **SCROBICULATE**, from Latin *scrobis*, trench, <81> ditch. 6. **SCREW**, **SCROFULA**, from Latin *scrōfa*, a sow (< "rooter, digger"). V. Extended root **(s)kers-**. **BIAS**, from Greek *epikarsios*, at an angle (*epi-*, at; see **epi**), from suffixed zero-grade form **kr̥s-yo-**. [Pokorny 4. (s)ker-, Section 1. 938.] See also extended roots **skreu-** and **skrībh-**. **(s)ker-²** To leap, jump about. Perhaps same root as **(s)ker-³**. 1. Extended form **skerd-**. **SCHERZO**, from Middle High German *scherzen*, to leap with joy, from Germanic **skert-**. 2. O-grade variant form **kor-**. **CORUSCATE**, from Latin *coruscāre*, to vibrate, glisten, glitter. [Pokorny 2. (s)ker- 933.] **(s)ker-³** To turn, bend. Presumed base of a number of distantly related derivatives. 1. Extended form **(s)kreg-** in nasalized form **(s)kre-n-g-**. a. **SHRINK**, from Old English *scrincan*, to wither, shrivel up, from Germanic **skrink-**; b. variant **kre-n-g-**. (i) **RUCK²**, from Old Norse *hrukka*, a crease, fold; (ii) **FLOUNCE¹**, from Old French *fronce*, pleat, from Frankish **hrunkjan**, to wrinkle. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic **hrunk-**. 2. Extended form **(s)kregh-** in nasalized form **skre-n-gh-**. a. **RING¹**, from Old English *hring*, a ring; b. **RANCH**, **RANGE**, **RANK¹**, **RINK**; **ARRANGE**, **DERANGE**, from Old French *renc*, *reng*, line, row; c. **RINGHALS**, from Middle Dutch *rinc* (combining form *ring-*), a ring. a-c all from Germanic **hringaz**, something curved, circle. 3. Extended form **kreuk-**. a. **RIDGE**, from Old English *hrycg*, spine, ridge; b. **RUCKSACK**, from Old High German *hrukki*, back. Both a and b from Germanic **hrugjaz**. 4. Suffixed variant form **kur-wo-**. **CURB**, **CURVATURE**, **CURVE**, **CURVET**, from Latin *curvus*, bent, curved. 5. Suffixed extended form **kris-ni-**. **CRINOLINE**, from Latin *crīnis* (< **crisnis*), hair. 6. Suffixed extended form **kris-tā-**. **CREST**, **CRISTA**, **CRISTATE**, from Latin *crīsta*, tuft, crest. 7. Suffixed extended form **krip-so-**. **CREPE**, **CRISP**, **CRISPATE**, from Latin *crispus* (metathesized from **cripsus*), curly. 8. Extended expressive form **kriss-**. **CRISSUM**, from Latin *crīsāre*, (of women) to wiggle the hips during copulation. 9. Perhaps reduplicated form **ki-kr-o-**. **CERCLAGE**, **CIRCA**, **CIRCADIAN**, **CIRCINATE**, **CIRCINUS**, **CIRCLE**, **CIRCUM-**, **CIRCUS**, **CIRQUE**, **SEARCH**; **CRICOID**, **RECHERCHÉ**, **RESEARCH**, from Greek *kirkos*, *krikos*, a ring. 10. Suffixed o-grade form **kor-ōno-**. **CORONA**, **CROWN**, **KORUNA**, **KRONA¹**, **KRONA²**, **KRONE¹**, **KRONE²**, from Greek *korōnos*, curved. 11. Suffixed variant form **kur-to-**. **KURTOSIS**, from Greek *kurtos*, convex. [Pokorny 3. (s)ker- 935.] See also extended root **(s)kerb-**. **sker-⁴** Excrement, dung. (Oldest form **sker-**; derived from the noun for "excrement," **sk-ōr**, stem **sk-n-**.) 1. Noun form **sk-ōr**, **sk-n-**. a. **SCATO-**, **SCORIA**, **SKATOLE**, from Greek *skōr* (stem *skat-* < **sk-n-t-*), dung. b. **SKARN**, from Old Norse *skarn*, dung, from Germanic **skar**, alternating with a stem derived from **sk-n-**. 2. Form **sker-**. Extended form **skert-** in taboo metathesis **sterk-os-**. a. **STERCORACEOUS**, from Latin *stercus*, dung; b. variant forms **(s)terg-,** **(s)treg-**. **DRECK**, from Middle High German *drëc*, dung, from Germanic **threkka-**. [Pokorny sker-(d-) 947, 8. (s)ter- 1031.] **(s)kerb-** To turn, bend. Extension of **(s)ker-³**. 1. **SCORCH**, from Middle English *scorchen*, to scorch, probably from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse *skreppa*, to shrink, be shriveled, and derivative *skorpna*, to shrink, be shriveled. 2. Nasalized variant form **(s)kre-m-b-**. a. (i) **RIMPLE**, from Old English *hrympel*, wrinkle, fold; (ii) **RUMPLE**, from Middle Dutch *rompelen*, to wrinkle; (iii) **RAMP²**, from Old French *ramper*, to climb, rear up. (i)-(iii) all from Germanic **hrimp-**, **hrump-**; b. (i) **SHRIMP**, from Middle English *shrimp*, pygmy, shrimp, possibly from a Low German source perhaps akin to Middle Low German *schrempen*, to shrink, wrinkle; (ii) **SCRIMP**, possibly from a Scandinavian source perhaps akin to Swedish *skrympa*, to shrink. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic **skrimp-**. 3. Variant form **kramb-**. **CRAMBO**, from Greek *krambē*, cabbage (having wrinkled, shrunken leaves). 4. Perhaps Celtic suffixed nasalized variant form **krumb-i-**. **CROMLECH**, from Welsh *crwm*, crooked, arched. [Pokorny (s)kerb(h)- 948.] **skēt-** To injure. (Contracted from earlier **skeh₁t-**.) Suffixed zero-grade form **sh₂et-on-**. 1.a. **SCATHE**, from Old Norse *skadha*, to harm; b. **SCHADENFREUDE**, from Old High German *scado*, harm, injury. Both a and b from Germanic **skathon-**. 2. Perhaps Germanic **scathi-** in **Skathinaujō**, Scandinavia (see **akʷ-ā-**). [Pokorny skēth- 950.] **(s)keu-** To cover, conceal. Zero-grade form **(s)ku-**. Variant **(s)keuǝ-**, zero-grade form **(s)kuǝ-**, contracted to **(s)kū-**. 1. Suffixed basic form. a. **SKY**, from Old Norse *ský*, cloud; b. **SKEWBALD**, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse *ský*, cloud. Both a and b from Germanic **skeu-jam**, cloud ("cloud cover"). 2. Zero-grade form **skū-**. a. Suffixed form **skū-mo-**. (i) **SKIM**, from Old French *escume*, scum; (ii) **MEERSCHAUM**, from Old High German *scūm*, scum; (iii) **SCUM**, from Middle Dutch *schūm*, scum. (i)-(iii) all from Germanic **skūmaz**, foam, scum (< "that which covers the water"); b. suffixed form **skū-ro-**. **OBSCURE**; **CHIAROSCURO**, from Latin *obscūrus*, "covered," dark (*ob-*, away from; see **epi**). 3. Zero-grade form **kū-**. a. Suffixed form **kū-ti-**. **HIDE²**, from Old English *hȳd*, skin, hide, from Germanic **hūdiz**; b. suffixed form **ku-ti-**. **CUTANEOUS**, **CUTICLE**, **CUTIS**; **CUTIN**, from Latin *cutis* skin; c. possibly suffixed form **kū-lo-**. **CULET**, **CULOTTE**; **BASCULE**, **RECOIL**, from Latin *cūlus*, the rump, backside; d. suffixed form **kū-to-**. **-CYTE**, **CYTO-**, from Greek *kutos*, a hollow, vessel. 4. Extended zero-grade form **kus-**. a. (i) **HOSE**, **HOSEL**, from Old English *hosa*, hose, covering for the leg; (ii) **LEDERHOSEN**, from Old High German *hosa*, leg covering. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic **husōn-**; b. suffixed form **kuz-dho-** (or suffixed extended form **kudh-to-**). (i) **HOARD**, from Old English *hord*, stock, store, treasure (< "thing hidden away"), from Germanic **huzdam**; (ii) compound **kuzdho-zd-,** "sitting (over) a treasure" (**-zd-**, sitting; see **sed-¹**). **CUSTODY**, from Latin *custōs*, guard; c. **KISHKE**, from Russian *kishka*, gut (< "sheath"). 5. Suffixed extended zero-grade form **kut-no-**. **CUNNILINGUS**, from Latin *cunnus*, vulva (< "sheath"). 6. Extended root **keudh-**. a. **HIDE¹**, from Old English *hȳdan*, to hide, cover up, from Germanic suffixed lengthened zero-grade form **hūd-jan**; b. **HUT**, from French *hutte*, hut, from Germanic suffixed zero-grade form **hūd-jon-**; c. **HUDDLE**, from Low German *hudein*, to crowd together, probably from Germanic **hud-**. 7. **SHIELING**, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse *skāli*, hut, from Germanic suffixed o-grade form **skaw-ala-**. [Pokorny 2. (s)keu- 951.] **skeubh-** To shove. 1.a. **SHOVE**, from Old English *scūfan*, to shove; b. **SCUFF**, **SCUFFLE¹,** probably from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse *skūfa*, to push. Both a and b from Germanic **skeuban** and derivative lengthened zero-grade form **skūban**. 2.a. **SHOVEL**, from Old English *scofl*, a shovel; b. **SCUFFLE²**, from Middle Dutch *schoffel*, *schuffel*, a shovel, hoe. Both a and b from Germanic suffixed form **skub-ilō**. 3.a. **SCOFF¹**, from Middle English *scof*, mocking, from a Scandinavian source probably akin to Danish *skof*, jest, teasing; b. **SHUFFLE**, probably from a source akin to Low German *schüffeln*, to walk clumsily, shuffle cards. Both a and b from Germanic **skub-**, **skuf-**. 4. Germanic **skup-**, perhaps (but quite doubtfully) in Old English *scop*, poet ("jester"): **SCOP**. [Pokorny skeub- 955.] **skeud-** To shoot, chase, throw. 1. **SHOOT**, from Old English *scēotan*, to shoot, from Germanic **skeutan**, to shoot. 2.a. **SHOT¹**, from Old English *sceot*, *scot*, shooting, a shot; b. **SCHUSS**, from Old High German *scuz*, shooting, a shot; c. **SCOT**, **SCOT AND LOT**, from Old Norse *skot* and Old French *escot*, contribution, tax (< "money thrown down"); d. **WAINSCOT**, from Middle <82> Dutch *sc(h)ot*, crossbar, wooden partition. a-d all from Germanic **skutaz**, shooting, shot. 3. **SHUT**, from Old English *scyttan*, to shut (by pushing a crossbar), probably from Germanic **skutjan**. 4. **SHUTTLE**, from Old English *scytel*, a dart, missile, from Germanic **skutilaz**. 5.a. **SHEET²**, from Old English *scēata*, corner of a sail; b. **SHEET¹**, from Old English *scēte*, piece of cloth. Both a and b from Germanic **skautjōn-**. 6.a. **SCOUT²**, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse *skūta*, mockery (< "shooting of words"); b. **SHOUT**, from Old Norse *skūta*, a taunt. Both a and b from Germanic **skūt-**. [Pokorny 2. (s)keud- 955.] **(s)keuǝ-** To pay attention, perceive. 1. Suffixed (stative) variant form **kouǝ-ē-,** becoming **kaw-ē-** in Latin. **CAUTION**, **CAVEAT**; **PRECAUTION**, from Latin *cavēre*, to beware, watch, guard against. 2. Variant o-grade form **skou-**. a. (i) **SHOW**, from Old English *scēawian*, to look at; (ii) **WELTANSCHAUUNG**, from Old High German *scouwôn*, to look at; (iii) **SCAVENGER**, from Flemish *scauwen*, to look at. (i)-(iii) all from Germanic **skauwōn**; b. **SCONE**, from Middle Dutch *schoon*, beautiful, bright (< "conspicuous, attractive"), from Germanic **skaunjaz**; c. **SHEEN**, from Old English *scīene*, bright, sheen, from Germanic **skauniz**. 3. Suffixed o-grade form **kouǝ-ēi-,** **kouǝ-i-**. **KAVYA**, from Sanskrit *kavyam*, power of a seer, poet's magical power, poetry, from *kaviḥ*, seer, poet. [Pokorny 1. keu- 587.] **(s)keup-** Cluster, tuft, hair of the head. 1. O-grade form **skoup-**. **SHEAF**, from Old English *scēaf*, bundle, sheaf, from Germanic **skauf-**. 2. Possibly Germanic **hupp-**. **HOP²**, from Middle Dutch *hoppe*, the hop plant (having tuftlike inflorescence). [Pokorny (s)keup- 956.] **[skipam** Ship. Germanic noun of obscure origin. 1. **SHIP**, from Old English *scip*, ship. 2. **SHIPPERKE**, **SKIPPER¹**, from Middle Dutch *schip*, ship. 3. **SKIFF**, from Italian *schifo*, ship, skiff. 4. **EQUIP**, from Old French *esquiper*, to embark, prepare for embarcation, equip, probably from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse *skipa*, to man a vessel, from *skip*, ship. [In Pokorny skei- 919.]] **-sko-** (Oldest form **-sko-**.) Verbal suffix marking iterative or imperfective aspect in the present tense, as **g̑nǝ-sko-** (< earlier **g̑n̥h₁-sko-**), to be born (see **genǝ-**). Appears ultimately in the English suffixes **-ESCENCE**, **-ESCENT**, from Latin verbs in **-ēscere**, inchoative suffix (< **-ē-sko-**). [Not in Pokorny.] **skot-** Dark, shade. 1. Suffixed form **skot-wo-**. **SHADE**, **SHADOW**, **SHED²**, from Old English *sceadu*, shade, from Germanic **skadwaz**. 2. Suffixed form **skot-o-**. **SCOTIA**, **SCOTOMA**, **SCOTOPHOBIA**, from Greek *skotos*, darkness. [Pokorny skot- 957.] **skreu-** To cut; cutting tool. Extension of **(s)ker-¹**. 1. Basic form **skreu-**. a. **SHREW**, **SHREWD**, from Old English *scrēawa*, shrew (having a pointed snout), from Germanic **skraw-**; b. **SCREED**, **SHRED**, from Old English *scrēade*, piece, fragment, from Germanic **skraud-**; c. (i) **SHROUD**, from Old English **scrūd*, garment (< "piece of garment"); (ii) **SCROLL**, from Old French *escro(u)e*, scroll. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic **skrūd-**. 2. Extended form **skreut-**. **SCRUTINY**; **INSCRUTABLE**, from Latin *scrūta*, trash, frippery. 3. Extended variant form **skraut-**. **SCROTUM**, from Latin *scrotum*, scrotum (probably identified with *scrautum*, leather quiver for arrows). [In Pokorny 4. (s)ker-, Section III, 947.] **skrībh-** To cut, separate, sift. Extension of **(s)ker-¹**. 1. **SCRIBBLE**, **SCRIBE**, **SCRIPT**, **SCRIPTORIUM**, **SCRIPTURE**, **SERIF**, **SHRIVE**; **ASCRIBE**, **CIRCUMSCRIBE**, **CONSCRIPT**, **DESCRIBE**, **FESTSCHRIFT**, **INSCRIBE**, **MANUSCRIPT**, **POSTSCRIPT**, **PRESCRIBE**, **PROSCRIBE**, **RESCRIPT**, **SUBSCRIBE**, **SUPERSCRIBE**, **TRANSCRIBE**, from Latin *scrībere*, to scratch, incise, write. 2. **SCARIFY¹**, from Greek *skariphos*, scratching, sketch, pencil. [Pokorny 4. (s)ker-, Section II. 945.] **(s)kʷal-o-** Big fish. 1.a. **WHALE¹**, from Old English *hwæl*, whale; b. **NARWHAL**, **RORQUAL**, from Old Norse *hvalr*, whale. Both a and b from Germanic **hwalaz**. 2. **SQUALENE**, from Latin *squalus*, a sea fish. 3. Variant form **kʷal-i-** or **kʷal-es-**. **WELS CATFISH**, from German *Wels*, sheatfish. [Pokorny (s)kʷalo-s 958.] **(s)lagʷ-** To seize. 1. Suffixed variant form **lagʷ-yo-**. **LATCH**, from Old English *læccan*, to seize, grasp, from Germanic **lakjan**. 2. Variant form **slagʷ-** becoming **lab-** in Greek, nasalized to **la-m-b-**. **LEMMA¹**, **-LEPSY**; **ANALEPTIC**, **ASTROLABE**, **CATALEPSY**, **EPILEPSY**, **NYMPHOLEPT**, **ORGANOLEPTIC**, **PROLEPSIS**, **SYLLABLE**, **SYLLEPSIS**, from Greek *lambanein*, to take, seize (verbal adjective *lēptos*). [Pokorny (s)lagʷ- 958.] **slak-** To strike. 1. **SLAY**, from Old English *slēan*, to strike, from Germanic **slahan**. 2. **SLEDGEHAMMER**, from Old English *slecg*, hammer, from Germanic suffixed form **slag-jō**. 3. **SLAUGHTER**, from Middle English *slaughter*, killing, probably from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse *slātr*, butchery, "striking," from Germanic suffixed form **slah-tram**. 4.a. **SCHLOCK**, from Old High German *slag*, a blow; b. **ONSLAUGHT**, from Middle Dutch *slag*, a blow. Both a and b from Germanic **slag-**; c. **SLAG**, from Middle Dutch *slagge*, metal dross (< "that which falls off in the process of striking"), probably from Germanic **slag-**. 5. **SLEIGHT**, **SLY**, from Old Norse *slægr*, clever, cunning (< "able to strike"), from Germanic suffixed lengthened-grade form **slōgi-**. [Pokorny slak- 959.] **slēb-** To be weak, sleep. Possibly related to **slēg-** through a hypothetical base **slē-** (contracted from earlier **sleh₁-**.) **SLEEP**, from Old English *slǣpan*, to sleep, and *slǣp*, sleep, from Germanic **slēpan**, **slēpaz**. [In Pokorny lēb- 655.] **(s)lēg-** To be slack, be languid. Possibly related to **slēb-** through a hypothetical base **slē-** (contracted from earlier **sleh₁-**.) Zero-grade form **slag-,** becoming **slag-**. 1. **SLACK¹**, from Old English *slæc*, "loose," indolent, careless, from Germanic **slak-**. 2. Suffixed form **lag-so-**. **LAX**, **LEASE**, **LESSOR**; **RELAX**, **RELEASE**, **RELISH**, from Latin *laxus*, loose, slack. 3. Suffixed nasalized form **la-n-g-u-**. **LACHES**, **LANGUID**, **LANGUISH**, **LUSH¹**, from Latin *languēre*, to be languid. 4. Compound **lag-ō-ǝ-**, "with drooping ears" (derived from **ous-**, ear; see **ous-**). **LAGOMORPH**, from Greek *lagōs*, *lagos*, hare. 5. Suffixed form **lag-no-**. **ALGOLAGNIA**, from Greek *lag-nos*, lustful, lascivious. 6. Basic form **slēg-**. **CATALECTIC**, from Greek *lēgein*, to leave off. [Pokorny (s)lēg- 959.] **(s)lei-** Slimy. 1.a. **SLIME**, from Old English *slīm*, slime; b. **SLIPPERY**, from Old English *slipor*, slippery; c. **SLICK**, from Old English **slice*, smooth, and *-slīcian*, to make smooth; d. **LIME³**, from Old English *līm*, cement, birdlime; e. **LOAM**, from Old English *lām*, loam; f. **SLIGHT**, from Middle English *slight*, slender, probably from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse *slēttr*, smooth, sleek; g. **SLIP¹**, from Middle English *slippen*, to slip, probably from a source akin to Middle Dutch and Middle Low German *slippen*, to slip, slip away; h. **SCHLEP**, from Middle Low German *slēpen*, to drag. a-h all from Germanic **slī-** with various extensions. 2. Suffixed form **lei-mo-**. **LIMACINE**, **LIMICOLINE**, from Latin *līmus*, slime. 3. Suffixed form **lei-w-**. **OBLIVION**, **OUBLIETTE**, from Latin *oblīvīscī*, to forget (< "to wipe, let slip from the mind"; *ob-*, away; see **epi**). 4. Suffixed form **lei-wo-**. **LEIOMYOMA**, from Greek *leios*, smooth. 5. Extended form **(s)leiǝ-,** with metathesis **(s)leǝ(i)-**. a. Zero-grade form with nasal infix **li-n-ǝ-**. **LINIMENT**, from Latin *linere* (perfect *lēvī*), to anoint; b. suffixed zero-grade form **lī-** (< **liǝ-**). **LITOTES**, from Greek *lītos*, plain, simple; c. suffixed metathesized form **leǝ-wo-,** whence **lē-wo-**. **LEVIGATE**, from Latin *lēvis*, smooth; d. Sanskrit *lināti*, <83> *lāyate*, sticks, stays, in compound derivative *ālayaḥ*, abode (*ā-*, to; see **ē**), in compound *Himālayaḥ* (see **ghei-²**). [Pokorny 3. lei- 662.] **sleidh-** To slip, slide. 1. **SLIDE**, from Old English *slīdan*, to slide, from Germanic **slīdan**, to slip, slide. 2.a. **SLED**, from Middle Low German *sledde*, a sled, sledge; b. **SLEIGH**, from Middle Dutch *slēde*, a sled; c. **SLEDGE¹,** from Middle Dutch *sleedse*, sleigh. a-c all from Germanic **slid-**. [Pokorny (s)leidh- 960.] **sleiǝ-** Bluish. 1. O-grade form **sloi(ǝ)-**. **SLOE**, from Old English *slāh*, *slā*, sloe (< "bluish fruit"), from Germanic **slaihwōn**. 2. Zero-grade form **sli-**. a. Suffixed form **sli-wo-**. **LAVENDER**, **LIVID**, from Latin *līvēre*, to be bluish; b. suffixed form **sli-wā-**. **SLIVOVITZ**, from Serbo-Croatian *šljiva*, plum. [Pokorny (s)li- 965.] **slengʷh-** To slide, make slide, sling, throw. 1. **SLING¹**; **SLINGSHOT**, from Middle English *sling*, sling, possibly from a source akin to Old Frisian *slenge*, sling, from Germanic verb **slingwan** and suffixed form **slingw-ō**. 2. **SLINK**, from Old English *slincan*, to creep, from Germanic variant verb **slinkan**. 3. Possible suffixed o-grade form **slongʷh-ri-ko-**. **LUMBRICOID**, from Latin *lumbricus*, intestinal worm, earthworm. [In Pokorny (s)leidh- 960, slenk- 961.] **sleubh-** To slide, slip. I. Basic form **sleubh-**. 1. **SLEEVE**, from Old English *slēf*, *slīf*, *slief*, sleeve (into which the arm slips), from Germanic **sleub-**. 2. **SLOVEN**, from Middle Low German *sloven*, to put on clothes carelessly, from Germanic **slaubjan**. 3. Suffixed form **sleubh-ro-**. **LUBRICATE**, **LUBRICIOUS**, **LUBRICITY**, from Latin *lūbricus*, slippery. II. Variant Germanic root form **sleup-**. 1.a. **SLIP²**; **COWSLIP**, **OXLIP**, from Old English *slypa*, *slyppe*, *slipa*, slime, slimy substance; b. **SLOP¹**, from Old English **sloppe*, dung; c. **SLOP²**, from Old English *(ofer)slop*, surplice. a-c all from Germanic **slup-**. 2. **SLOOP**, from Middle Dutch *slūpen*, to glide. [Pokorny sleub(h)- 963.] **sloug-** Help, service. Celtic and Balto-Slavic root. Suffixed form **sloug-o-**. **SLEW¹**, **SLOGAN**, from Old Irish *slúag*, *slóg*, army, host. [Pokorny slougo- 965.] **smē-** To smear. (Contracted from earlier **smeh₁-**.) 1. Zero-grade form **smǝ-**. Suffixed zero-grade form **smǝ-tlā-** perhaps in Latin *macula*, a spot, blemish, also a hole in a net, mesh: **MACKLE**, **MACLE**, **MACULA**, **MACULATE**, **MACULE**, **MAIL**, **MAILLOT**, **MAQUETTE**, **MAQUIS**; **IMMACULATE**, **TRAMMEL**. 2. Extended root **smeid-** (< **smeǝ-id-**). **SMITE**, from Old English *smītan*, to daub, smear, pollute, from Germanic **smītan** (the semantic channel may have been slapping mud on walls in wattle and daub construction). [Pokorny smē- 966.] **smeg-** To taste. Germanic and Baltic root. 1. **SMACK²**, from Old English *smæc*, flavor, taste. 2. **SMACK¹**, from a source akin to Middle Dutch and Middle Low German *smacken*, to taste, make a sound with the lips while tasting food. Both 1 and 2 from Germanic **smak-**. [Pokorny smeg(h)- 967.] **smei-** To laugh, smile. 1. **SMIRK**, from Old English *smercian*, to smile (with *-k-* formative), from Germanic reshaped forms **smer-**, **smar-**. 2. **SMILE**, from Middle English *smilen*, to smile, from a Scandinavian source probably akin to Swedish *smila*, to smile, from Germanic extended form **smīl-**. 3. Suffixed form **smei-ro-**. **MARVEL**, **MIRACLE**, **MIRAGE**, **MIRROR**; **ADMIRE**, from Latin *mīrus*, wonderful. 4. Prefixed zero-grade form **ko(m)-smi-,** smiling with (**ko-**, **kom-**, together; see **kom**). **COMITY**, from Latin *cōmis* (Archaic Latin *cosmis*), courteous. [Pokorny 1. (s)mei- 967.] **(s)mēlo-** Small animal. (Contracted from earlier **smeh₁lo-**.) Zero-grade form **smalo-**. **SMALL**, from Old English *smæl*, small, from Germanic **smal-**, small animal, hence also small. [Pokorny mēlo- 724.] **(s)mer-¹** To remember. 1. Suffixed zero-grade form **mr̥-no-**. **MOURN**, from Old English *murnan*, to mourn, from Germanic **murnan**, to remember sorrowfully. 2. Reduplicated form **me-mor-**. **MEMORABLE**, **MEMORANDUM**, **MEMORY**; **COMMEMORATE**, **REMEMBER**, from Latin *memor*, mindful. [Pokorny (s)mer- 969.] **(s)mer-²** To get a share of something. 1. Suffixed (stative) form **mer-ē-**. **MERETRICIOUS**, **MERIT**; **DEMERIT**, **EMERITUS**, **TURMERIC**, from Latin *merēre*, *merērī*, to receive a share, deserve, serve. 2. Suffixed form **mer-o-**. **-MER**, **-MERE**, **MERISTEM**, **MERO-**, **-MEROUS**; **ALLOMERISM**, **CRYPTOMERIA**, **DIMER**, **ISOMER**, **MONOMER**, **POLYMER**, **TRIMER**, from Greek *meros* (feminine *meris*), a part, division. [In Pokorny (s)mer- 969.] **(s)mer-³** Grease, fat. 1. Suffixed form **smer-wo-**. a. **SCHMEER**, from Old High German *smero*, fat; b. **SMORGASBORD**, from Old Norse *smjör*, grease, butter. Both a and b from Germanic **smerwa-**, grease, fat. 2.a. **SMEAR**, from Old English *smierwan*, *smerian*, to smear; b. **SMEARCASE**, from Old High German *smirwen*, *smerian*, to apply salve, smear. Both a and b from Germanic denominative verb **smerwjan**, to spread grease on. 3. Variant form **mer-**. **MEDULLA**, from Latin *medulla*, marrow (perhaps < **merulla*, influenced by *medius*, middle). [Pokorny smeru- 970.] **smerd-** Pain. Extension of **mer-²**. **SMART**, from Old English *smeart*, causing pain, painful, from Germanic **smarta-**. [Pokorny smerd- 970.] **smeug-** To smoke; smoke. **SMOKE**, from Old English *smoca*, smoke, from Germanic **smuk-**. [Pokorny (s)meukh- 971.] **smi-** To cut, work with a sharp instrument. (Contracted from earlier **smih₁-**.) 1. **SMITH**, from Old English *smith*, smith, from Germanic **smithaz**. 2. **SMITHY**, from Old Norse *smidhja*, smithy, from Germanic **smith-jā-**. 3. Suffixed form **smi-lā-**. **KERATOMILEUSIS**, from Greek *smīlē*, knife. [Pokorny 2. smēi- 968.] **smīk-** Small. 1. **MICA**, from Latin *mīca*, crumb, small piece, grain. 2. **MICRO-**, **MICRON**; **CHYLOMICRON**, **OMICRON**, from Greek *(s)mikros*, small. [In Pokorny smē- 966.] **snā-** To swim. (Oldest form **sneh₂-,** colored to **snah₂-,** contracted to **snā-**.) 1. Extended form **snāgh-**. **NEKTON**, from Greek *nekhein*, to swim. 2. Suffixed zero-grade form **(s)nǝ-to-**. **NATANT**, **NATATION**, **NATATORIAL**, **NATATORIUM**; **SUPERNATANT**, from Latin *nāre*, to swim, and frequentative *natāre*, to swim. 3. Attributed by some to this root (but more likely obscure) is Greek *nēsos*, island: **CHERSONESE**, **MELANESIA**, **MICRONESIA**, **POLYNESIA** (the last three being geographical names meaning "black islands," "small islands," and "many islands"). [Pokorny snā- 971.] See also extended root **(s)nāu-**. **(s)nāu-** To swim, flow, let flow, whence suckle. (Oldest form **sneh₂u-,** colored to **snah₂u-,** contracted to **(s)nāu-** [before consonants] and **(s)nāw-** [before vowels]). Extension of **snā-**.) 1. Suffixed basic form **nāw-yo-**. **NAIAD**, from Greek *Naias*, fountain nymph, probably from *nan*, to flow. 2. Variant (metathesized) root form **(s)neu(ǝ)-**. **NEUSTON**, from Greek *nein*, to swim. 3. Zero-grade form **(s)nū-** (< **snuǝ-**) in suffixed form **nū-trī-** (with feminine agent suffix). **NOURISH**, **NURSE**, **NURTURE**, **NUTRIENT**, **NUTRIMENT**, **NUTRITION**, **NUTRITIOUS**, **NUTRITIVE**; **NUTRIFY** from Latin *nūtrīx*, nurse, and *nūtrīre*, to suckle, nourish. [In Pokorny snā- 971.] **(s)nē-** To spin, sew. (Contracted from earlier **sneh₁-**.) 1. Suffixed form **nē-tlā-**. **NEEDLE**, from Old English *nǣdl*, needle, from Germanic **nēthlō**. 2. Suffixed form **snē-mṇ-**. **NEMATO-**; **AGLAONEMA**, **AXONEME**, **CHROMONEMA**, **PROTONEMA**, **SYNAPTINEMAL COMPLEX**, **TREPONEMA**, from Greek *nēma*, thread. 3. Suffixed o-grade form **snō-tā-**. **SNOOD**, from Old English *snōd*, headband, from Germanic **snōdō**. [Pokorny (s)nē- 973.] See also extended root **(s)nēu-**. **sneg-** To creep; creeping thing. 1. Suffixed o-grade form **snog-ōn-**. **SNAKE**, from Old English *snaca*, snake, from Germanic **snak-ōn-**. 2. Variant (Germanic) root <84> **sneg-**. a. O-grade form **snog-**. **SNAIL**, from Old English *snæg(e)l*, *sneg(e)l*, snail, from Germanic suffixed form **snag-ila-**. b. Variant geminated form **snegg-**. **SNICKERDOODLE**, from Middle High German *snecke*, *snegge*, from Old High German *sneggo*. [Pokorny ? sneig- 974.] **sneigʷh-** Snow; to snow. 1. Suffixed o-grade form **snoigʷh-o-**. **SNOW**, from Old English *snāw*, snow, from Germanic **snaiwaz**. 2. Zero-grade form **snigʷh-**. **NÉVÉ**, **NIVAL**, **NIVEOUS**, from Latin *nix* (stem *niv-*), snow. [Pokorny sneigʷh- 974.] **sneit-** To cut. 1. **SNICKERSNEE**, from Dutch *snijden*, to cut, from Germanic **snīthan**. 2. **SCHNITZEL**, from Middle High German *sniz*, slice, from Germanic expressive form **snitt-ja-**. [Pokorny sneit- 974.] **sner** Expressive root of various verbs for making noises. 1. **SNEER**, perhaps from a source possibly akin to North Frisian *sneere*, scornful remark, from Germanic **sner-**. 2. O-grade form **snor-**. a. **SCHNORRER**, from Middle High German *snurren*, to hum, whirr; b. **SNORKEL**, from German *schnarchen*, to snore; c. **SNARL¹**, from Middle Low German *snarren*, to snarl; d. possibly Old Norse *Norn*, goddess of fate (< "the whisperer"): **NORN**. [Pokorny 1. (s)ner- 975.] Compare **snu-**. **(s)nēu-** Tendon, sinew. (Contracted from earlier **sneh₁u-;** extension of **sneh₁-,** to sew; see **(s)nē-**.) Suffixed form **(s)new-r-,** with further suffixes. 1. **neu-r-o-**. **NEURO-**, **NEURON**, **NEURULA**; **APONEUROSIS**, from Greek *neuron*, sinew. 2. Metathesized form **nerwo-**. **NERVE**; **ENERVATE**, from Latin *nervus*, sinew. [Pokorny snēu- 977.] **sneubh-** To marry. 1. **NUBILE**, **NUPTIAL**; **CONNUBIAL**, from Latin *nūbere*, to marry, take a husband. 2. Possibly nasalized zero-grade form **nu-m-bh-**. **NYMPH**, from Greek *numphē*, nymph, bride. [Pokorny sneubh- 977.] **sneudh-** Mist, cloud. **NUANCE**; **NUÉE ARDENTE**, **OBNUBILATE**, from Latin *nūbēs*, cloud. [Pokorny 2. sneudh- 978.] **sneud(h)-** To be sleepy. Expressive root. Zero-grade form **snud-to-**. **NYSTAGMUS**, from Greek *nustazein*, to be sleepy (with *nust-* < **nud-t-**). [Pokorny 1. sneud(h)- 978.] Compare **snu-**. **[snu-** Imitative beginning of Germanic words connected with the nose. 1.a. **SNOT**, from Old English *gesnot(t)*, nasal mucus (*ge-*, collective prefix; see **kom**); b. **SNOUT**, from Middle English *snute*, snout, probably from a source akin to Middle Dutch *snut(e)*, snout; c. **SCHNAUZER**, **SCHNOZ**, from German *Schnauze*, snout. a-c all from Germanic **snut-**, **snut-**. 2.a. **SNUFFLE**, from Low German or Dutch *snuffelen*, to sniff at; b. **SNUFF¹**, from Middle Dutch *snuffen*, to snuffle; c. **SNIVEL**, from Old English **snyflan* (> Middle English *snyvelen*), to run at the nose; d. **SNIFF**, from Middle English *sniffen*, to sniff. a-d all from Germanic **snuf-**. 3. **SNOOP**, from Dutch *snoepen*, to eat on the sly, pry, from Germanic **snup-**. 4. **SNIP**, from Low German and Dutch *snippen*, to snap at, from Germanic **snip-**. 5. **SNAP**, from Middle Low German and Middle Dutch *snappen*, to snap at, from Germanic **snap-**. 6. **SNUB**, from Old Norse *snubba*, "to snub, turn one's nose at," scold, from Germanic **snub-**. 7. **SNATCH**, from Middle English *snacchen*, to snatch, from a Low German source akin to Middle Dutch *snakken*, to snap at. [In Pokorny snā- 971.] Compare **sner-** and **sneud(h)-**.] **so-** This, that (nominative). For other cases see **to-**. 1. **THE¹**, from Late Old English *the*, masculine demonstrative pronoun, replacing *se* (with *th-* from oblique forms; see **to-**). 2. **HOI POLLOI**, from Greek *ho*, the. 3. Feminine form **syā-**. **SHE**, from Old English *sēo*, *sīe*, she, from Germanic **sjō**. 4. Compound variant form **sei-ke** (**-ke**, "this"; see **ko-**). **SIC¹**, from Latin *sic*, thus, so, in that manner. [Pokorny so(s) 978.] **sol-** Whole. Also **solǝ-** (oldest form **solh₂-**). I. Basic form **sol-**. 1. Suffixed form **sol-ido-**. **SOLDER**, **SOLDIER**, **SOLID**, **SOU**; **CONSOLIDATE**, from Latin *solidus*, solid. 2. Suffixed form **sol-wo-**. **HOLO-**; **CATHOLIC**, from Greek *holos*, whole. 3. Dialectal geminated form **soll-o-**. a. **SOLICIT**, **SOLICITOUS**; **INSOUCIANT**, from Latin *sollus*, whole, entire, unbroken; b. **SOLEMN**, from Latin *sollemnis* (second element obscure), celebrated at fixed dates (said of religious rites), established, religious, solemn. II. Variant form **solǝ-**. 1. Suffixed zero-grade form **sl̥ǝ-u-** giving **sal-u-**. **SALUBRIOUS**, **SALUTARY**, **SALUTE**, from Latin *salūs* (stem *salūt-*), health, a whole or sound condition, from earlier **salu-t-s**, from **saluǝ-t-**, metathesized from **sl̥ǝ-u-t-**. 2. Suffixed zero-grade form **sl̥ǝ-wo-** giving **sala-wo-**. **SAFE**, **SAGE²**, **SALVAGE**, **SALVO¹**, **SALVO²,** **SAVE¹**, **SAVE²**, from Latin *salvus*, whole, safe, healthy, uninjured. [Pokorny solo- 979.] **Language and Culture Note** The Latin word *salvus*, "safe, whole" (the source of such English words as *safe* and *save*), appears in an ancient prayer to the god Mars in the phrase *pāstōrēs pecuaque salva servāssīs*, "(I pray that) you keep (servāssīs) shepherds (pāstōrēs) and livestock (pecuaque) safe." The same sentiment, using three of the four same words, appears in a prayer in another ancient Italic language, Umbrian: *uiro pequo salua seritu*, "may he keep (seritu) men (uiro) (and) livestock (pequo) safe (salua)." The phrase meaning "keep safe" (Latin *salva servāssīs*, Umbrian *salua seritu*) continues two Indo- European forms, **sl̥ǝ-wo-**, "safe," and **serw-**, "to protect" (see **ser-¹**), and both Latin and Umbrian have cognate words for "livestock" (Latin *pecua*, Umbrian *pequo*), which is likewise an Indo-European inheritance (see **peku-**). The phrasal association of these roots with one another in the formulaic language of prayer in fact goes back to Proto-Indo-European itself, because the combination of **sl̥ǝ-wo-** and **serw-** with **peku-** is found also in Iranian. **spē-¹** To thrive, prosper. (Contracted from earlier **speh₁r-**.) 1. Suffixed o-grade form **spō-ti-**. **SPEED**; **GODSPEED**, from Old English *spēd*, success, from Germanic **spōdiz**. 2. Suffixed form **spē-s-**. **DESPAIR**, **ESPERANCE**, from Latin *spērāre*, to hope, denominative of *spēs* (plural *spērēs*), hope. 3. Suffixed zero-grade form **spa-ro-**. **PROSPER**, from Latin *prosperus*, favorable, prosperous (traditionally regarded as from *pro spērē*, according to one's hope; *prō*, according to; see **per¹**). [Pokorny 3. sp(h)ē(i)- 983.] **spē-²** Long, flat piece of wood. (Contracted from earlier **speh₁-**.) I. Basic form **spē-**. 1.a. **SPOON**, from Old English *spōn*, chip of wood, splinter; b. **SPAN-NEW**, from Old Norse *spānn*, shingle, chip. Both a and b from Germanic **spē-nu-**. 2. Possibly Greek *sphēn*, wedge (formation unclear; earliest Greek form **sphān*): **SPHENE**, **SPHENO-**. II. Suffixed zero-grade form **spa-dh-**. 1.a. **SPADE¹**, from Old English *spadu*, digging tool; b. **SPATHIC**, from Middle High German *spat*, spar. Both a and b from Germanic **spadan**. 2. **ÉPAULEMENT**, **EPAULET**, **ESPALIER**, **SPADE²**, **SPATHE**, **SPATULA**, **SPAY**, from Greek *spathē*, broad blade. [Pokorny sp(h)ē- 980.] **spei-** Sharp point. I. Basic form **spei-**. 1. Zero-grade form **spi-**. a. **SPIT²**, from Old English *spitu*, stake on which meat is roasted, from Germanic **spituz**; b. **SPITZ**, from German *spitz*, pointed, from Germanic **spitja-**. 2. Germanic **spi-ra-**. a. **SPIRE¹**, from Old English *spīr*, slender stalk; b. possibly Middle Dutch *spierlinc*, a small, slender fish, smelt, akin to the source of Old French *esperlinge*, smelt: **SPARLING**. 3. **SPIKE¹**, from Middle English *spÿk*, spike, perhaps from a source possibly akin to Old Norse *spīk*, nail, from Germanic **spīk-**. 4. **SPILE**, **SPILL²**, from Middle Low German *spīle*, wooden <85> peg, from Germanic *spil-. 5. Suffixed form **spei-nā-**. SPINE, SPINEL, SPINNEY; PORCUPINE, from Latin spīna, thorn, prickle, spine. 6. Suffixed form **spei-kā-**. SPICA, SPICA, SPICULUM, SPIKE², from Latin spīca, point, ear of grain. II. Extended o-grade form **spoig-**. SPOKE¹, from Old English spāca, spoke, from Germanic **spaikōn-**. [Pokorny 1. (s)p(h)ei- 981.] **(s)peik-** Bird's name, woodpecker, magpie. 1. Suffixed form **peik-o-**. PICARO, PICKET, PIKE⁴, PIQUE, from Latin pīcus, woodpecker. 2. Suffixed form **peik-ā-**. PICA², PIE², from Latin pīca, magpie. [Pokorny (s)piko- 999.] **spek-** To observe. (Oldest form **spek-**.) I. Basic form **spek-**. 1a. ESPY, SPY, from Old French espier, to watch; b. ESPIONAGE, from Old Italian spione, spy, from Germanic derivative **spehōn-**, watcher. Both a and b from Germanic **spehōn-**. 2. Suffixed form **spek-yo-**. SPECIMEN, SPECTACLE, SPECTRUM, SPECULATE, SPECULUM, SPICE; ASPECT, CIRCUMSPECT, CONSPICUOUS, DESPISE, EXPECT, FRONTISPIECE, INSPECT, INTROSPECT, PERSPECTIVE, PERSPICACIOUS, PROSPECT, RESPECT, RESPITE, RETROSPECT, SPIEGELEISEN, SUSPECT, TRANSPICUOUS, from Latin specere, to look at. 3. SPECIES, SPECIOUS; ESPECIAL, from Latin speciēs, a seeing, sight, form. 4. Suffixed form **spek-s**, “he who sees,” in Latin compounds extispex (see **sek-**), haruspex (see **gherə-**), and auspex (see **awi-**). 5. Suffixed form **spek-ā-**. DESPICABLE, from Latin (denominative) dēspicārī, to despise, look down on (dē-, down; see **de-**). 6. Suffixed metathetical form **skep-yo-**. SKEPTIC, from Greek skeptesthai, to examine, consider. II. Extended o-grade form **spoko-**. SCOPE, -SCOPE, -SCOPY; BISHOP, EPISCOPAL, HOROSCOPE, TELESCOPE, from metathesized Greek skopos, one who watches, also object of attention, goal, and its denominative skopein (< **skop-eyo-**), to see. [Pokorny spek- 984.] **spel-**¹ To split, break off. 1. Extended form **speld-**. SPELT¹, from Late Latin spelta, spelt, from a Germanic source akin to Middle Dutch spelte, wheat (probably from the splitting of its husks at threshing), from Germanic **spilt-**. 2. Extended form **spelt-**. SPILL¹, from Old English spillan, to spill, destroy, from Germanic **spilthjan**. 3. Suffixed o-grade form **spol-yo-** perhaps in Latin spolium, hide torn from an animal, armor stripped from an enemy, booty: SPOIL; DESPOIL. [Pokorny 1. (s)p(h)el- 985.] See also extended root **(s)plei-**. **spel-**² To say aloud, recite. Suffixed form **spel-no-**. 1a. SPELL², from Old English spell, discourse, story; b. GOSPEL, from Old English godspell, news. Both a and b from Germanic **spellam**. 2. SPELL¹, from Old French espeller, espelir, to read out, from Germanic denominative verb **spellōn**. [Pokorny (s)pel- 985.] **spelgh-** Spleen, milt. 1. SPLEEN, from Greek splēn, spleen (preform uncertain). 2. SPLANCHNIC; SPLANCHNOLOGY, SPLANCHNOPLEURE, from Greek splankhna, inward parts (exact preform uncertain). [Pokorny sp(h)elĝh(en) 987.] **(s)pen-** To draw, stretch, spin. I. Basic form **spen-**. 1. Suffixed form **spen-wo-**. a. SPIDER, SPIN, from Old English spinnan, to spin, and spīthra, spider, contracted from Germanic derivative **spin-thron-**, “the spinner”; b. SPINDLE, from Old English spinel, spindle, from Germanic derivative **spin-ilon-**. Both a and b from Germanic **spinnan**, to spin. 2. Extended form **pend-**. PAINTER², PANSY, PENCHANT, PENDANT, PENDENTIVE, PENDULOUS, PENDULUM, PENSILE, PENSION¹, PENSIVE, PESO, POISE¹; ANTEPENDIUM, APPEND, APPENDIX, AVOIRDUPOIS, COMPENDIUM, COMPENSATE, COUNTERPOISE, DEPEND, DISPENSE, EXPEND, IMPEND, PENTHOUSE, PERPEND, PERPENDICULAR, PREPENSE, PROPEND, RECOMPENSE, STIPEND, SUSPEND, VILIPEND, from Latin pendere, to hang (intransitive), and pendēre, to cause to hang, weigh, with its frequentative pensāre, to weigh, consider. 3. Perhaps suffixed form **pen-yā-**. -PENIA, from Greek peniā, lack, poverty (< “a strain, exhaustion”). 4. GEOPONIC, LITHOPONE, from Greek ponos, toil, and ponein, to toil, o-grade derivatives of penesthai, to toil. II. O-grade forms **spon-**, **pon-**. 1a. SPAN², SPANCEL, from Middle Dutch spannen, to bind; b. SPANNER, from Old High German spannan, to stretch. Both a and b from Germanic **spannan**. 2. SPAN¹, from Old English span(n), distance, from Germanic **spannō-**. 3. Perhaps Germanic **spangō**. SPANGLE, from Middle Dutch spange, clasp. 4. Suffixed and extended form **pond-o-**. POUND¹, from Latin pondō, by weight. 5. Suffixed and extended form **pond-es-**. PONDER, PONDEROUS; EQUIPONDERATE, PREPONDERATE, from Latin pondus (stem ponder-), weight, and its denominative ponderāre, to weigh, ponder. 6. Suffixed o-grade form **spon-t-**. SPONTANEOUS, from Latin sponte, of one's own accord, spontaneously (but this is more likely related to the Germanic verb **spanan**, to entice, from a homophonous root). [Pokorny (s)pen-(d-) 988.] **spend-** To make an offering, perform a rite, hence to engage oneself by a ritual act. O-grade from **spond-**. 1. Suffixed form **spond-eyo-**. SPONSOR, SPOUSE; DESPOND, ESPOUSE, RESPOND, from Latin spondēre, to make a solemn promise, pledge, betroth. 2. Suffixed form **spond-ā-**. SPONDEE, from Greek spondē, libation, offering. [Pokorny spend- 989.] **sper-**¹ Spear, pole. 1a. SPEAR¹, from Old English spere, spear; b. SPARERIBS, from Middle Low German spēr, spit. Both a and b from Germanic **speru**. 2. SPAR¹, from Old Norse sperra, rafter, beam, from Germanic **sparjōn-**. [Pokorny 1. (s)per- 990.] **sper-**² To turn, twist. 1. Suffixed form **sper-yā-**. SPIRE²; BUSPIRONE, from Greek speira, a winding, coil, spire. 2. Suffixed zero-grade form **spr-to-**. ESPARTO, SPARTEINE, from Greek sparton, rope, cable. [Pokorny 3. sper- 991.] **sper-**³ Bird's name, sparrow. Suffixed o-grade form **spor-wo-**. SPARROW, from Old English spearwa, spearwe, from Germanic **sparwan-**. [Pokorny sper-(g-) 991.] **sper-**⁴ To strew. I. Zero-grade form **spr-**. 1. SPRAWL, from Old English sprēawlian, to sprawl, from Germanic **spr-**. 2. Extended form **spreud-**. a. SPROUT, from Old English -sprūtan, to sprout (only in ā-sprūtan, to sprout forth); b. SPRITZ, SPRITZER, from Middle High German sprützen, to spurt, spray; c. SPRIT, from Old English sprēot, pole (< “sprout, stem”); d. BOWSPRIT, from Middle Low German bōchsprēt, bowsprit. a–d all from Germanic **sprūt-**. 3. Extended form **spreit-**. SPREAD, from Old English -sprǣdan, to spread, from Germanic **spraidjan**. II. Basic form **sper-**. 1. Suffixed form **sper-yo-**. DIASPORA, from Greek speirein, to scatter, with derivative sporā, a scattering, sowing (see III. 1.). 2. Suffixed form **sper-mn̥**. SPERM¹, from Greek sperma, sperm, seed (< “that which is scattered”). III. O-grade form **spor-**. 1. Suffixed form **spor-ā-**. SPORE, SPORO-, from Greek sporā, a sowing, seed. 2. Suffixed form **spor-ad-**. SPORADIC, from Greek sporas (stem sporad-), scattered, dispersed. IV. Extended Germanic root **sprē(w)-**. SPRAY¹, from Middle Dutch spraeien, sprayen, to sprinkle, from Germanic **sprēwjan**. [Pokorny 2. (s)p(h)er- 993.] **spera-** Ankle. (Oldest form **sperh₂-**.) Zero-grade form **spr̥(ə)-**. 1. SPUR, from Old English spura, spora, spur, from Germanic suffixed form **spur-on-**. 2. Nasalized zero-grade form **spr̥-n-ə-**. SPURN, from Old English spurnan, spornan, to kick, strike against, from Germanic **spurnōn-**. 3. SPOOR, from Middle Dutch <86> spor, spoor, track of an animal, from Germanic suffixed form **spur-am**. [Pokorny 1. sp(h)er- 992.] **spergh-** To move, hasten, spring. Nasalized European root form **sprengh-**. 1a. SPRING, from Old English springan, to spring; b. KLIPSPRINGER, SPRINGBOK, from Middle Dutch springen, to leap; c. GELÄNDESPRUNG, SPRINGERLE, from Old High German springan, to jump. a–c all from Germanic **springan**. 2a. BESPRENT, from Old English besprengan, to sprinkle, scatter; b. SPRINGE, from Old English **sprencg**, snare used to catch game. Both a and b from Germanic causative **sprangjan**, “to cause to spring.” [Pokorny sperĝh- 998.] **(s)peud-** To push, repulse. Zero-grade form **(s)pud-**. 1. PUDENCY, PUDENDUM; IMPUDENT, from Latin pudēre, to feel shame. 2. REPUDIATE, from Latin repudium, a casting off, divorce (re-, off; see **re-**). [In Pokorny pēu- 827.] **(s)ping-** Bird’s name, sparrow, finch. 1. FINCH, from Old English finc, finch. 2. FINK; DISTELFINK, from Old High German finco, finch. Both 1 and 2 from Germanic **finkiz**, **fink(j)ōn-**, finch. [Pokorny (s)pingo- 999.] **(s)plei-** To splice, split. European root form, perhaps an extension of **spel-**¹. 1. Variant form **plei-** in Germanic **flī-**. a. FLINT, from Old English flint, flint; b. FLINDERS, from Middle English flendris, bits, splinters, from a Scandinavian source akin to Norwegian flindra, splinter; c. perhaps Norwegian flense, flense: FLENSE. 2a. SPLINTER, from Middle Dutch splinter, splinter; b. SPLIT, from Middle Dutch splitten, to split; c. SPLICE, from Middle Dutch splissen, to splice; d. SPLINT, from Middle Low German and Middle Dutch splente, splinte, splint. a-d all from Germanic **spli-**. [Pokorny (s)plei- 1000.] **splend-** To shine, glow. European root form. SPLENDID, RESPLENDENT, from Latin splendēre, to shine. [In Pokorny 2. (s)p(h)el- 987.] **(s)poi-mo-** Foam. 1. Variant form **poi-mo-**. FOAM, from Old English fām, foam, from Germanic **faimaz**. 2. Variant form **spoi-mā-**. SPUME, from Latin spūma, foam. 3. Suffixed reduced form **poim-ik-**. POUNCE², PUMICE, from Latin pūmex, pumice (from its sponge-like appearance). [Pokorny (s)poimno- 1001.] **spreg-**¹ To speak. European root form in Germanic **sprek-**, **spek-** (with Germanic loss of r), to speak. 1. SPEAK, from Old English specan, to speak. 2. SPRECHSTIMME, from Old High German sprehhan, to speak. 3. BESPEAK, from Old English bisprecan, besprecan, to speak about, from Germanic **bisprekan** (**bi-**, about; see **ambhi**). 4. SPEECH, from Old English sprǣc, spēc, speech. [Pokorny *(s)p(h)ereg- 996.] **(s)preg-**² To jerk, scatter. European root form. 1a. SPRINKLE, from Middle English sprenklen, to sprinkle, possibly from a source akin to Middle Dutch sprenkelen, to sprinkle; b. FRECKLE, from Old Norse freknur, freckles (< “that which is scattered on the skin”); c. SPRAG, from a Scandinavian source akin to Swedish dialectal spragg, twig (< “that which is jerked off a branch”); d. SPRY, from a Scandinavian source akin to Swedish dialectal sprygg, brisk, active. a-d all from Germanic **sprek-**, **frek-** (the latter from variant Indo-European form **preg-**). 2. Zero-grade form **spr̥g-** in variant **sparg-**. SPARGE, SPARSE, SPURRY; ASPERSE, DISPERSE, INTERSPERSE, from Latin spargere, to strew, scatter. [Pokorny *(s)p(h)ereg- 996.] **sp(y)eu-** To spew, spit. Expressive root. 1. SPIT¹, from Old English spittan, to spit, from Germanic **spitjan**. 2. SPEW, from Old English spīwan, spīowan, to spew, from Germanic **speiw-**. 3. SPITTLE, from Old English spātl, spittle, from Germanic **spait-**. 4a. SPOUT, from Middle English spouten, to spout forth; b. SPUTTER, probably from a Low German source akin to Dutch sputteren, to sputter. Both a and b from Germanic **spūt-**. 5. Zero-grade form **spū-**. SPUTUM; CUSPIDOR, from Latin spuere, to spit. 6. Zero-grade form **(s)pyu-**. HEMOPTYSIS, PTYALIN, from Greek ptuein, to spit. [Pokorny (s)p(h)jēu- 999.] **srebh-** To suck, absorb. Zero-grade form **srbh-**. 1. SLURP, from Dutch slurpen, to slurp, altered from Germanic **surp-**. 2. Suffixed form **srbh-e-**. ABSORB, ADSORB, RESORB, from Latin sorbēre, to suck. [Pokorny srebh- 1001.] **srenk-** To snore. O-grade form **sronk-**. 1. RHONCHUS, from Greek rhonkos, rhonkhos, a snoring. 2. RHYNCHOCEPHALIAN, from Greek rhunkhos, snout, bill, beak. [Pokorny srenk- 1002.] **sreu-** To flow. 1. Suffixed o-grade form **srou-mo-**. a. STREAM, from Old English strēam, stream; b. MAELSTROM, from Middle Dutch stroom, stream. Both a and b from Germanic **straumaz**, stream. 2. Basic form **sreu-**. a. RHEO-, -RRHEA; CATARRH, DIARRHEA, HEMORRHOID, RHYOLITE, from Greek rhein, to flow, with o-grade rhoos, flowing, a flowing; b. suffixed form **sreu-mp-**. RHEUM, from Greek rheuma, stream, humor of the body. 3. Suffixed zero-grade form **sru-dhmo-**. RHYTHM, from Greek rhuthmos, measure, recurring motion, rhythm. 4. Suffixed zero-grade form **sru-to-**. RHYTON, from Greek rhutos, fluid, liquid. 5. Perhaps zero-grade extended form **srug-**. SASTRUGA, from Russian struga, deep place. [Pokorny sreu- 1003.] **srīg-** Cold. 1. Suffixed form **srig-es-**. REFRIGERATE, from Latin frīgus, the cold. 2. Suffixed (stative) form **srig-ē-**. FRIGID, FRISSON; SEMIFREDDO, from Latin frīgēre, to be cold, and adjective frīgidus, cold. [Pokorny srīg- 1004.] **stā-** To stand; with derivatives meaning “place or thing that is standing.” (Oldest form **steh₂-**, colored to **stah₂-**, contracted to **stā-**.) I. Basic form **stā-**. 1. Extended form **stādh-**. a. STEED, from Old English stēda, stallion, studhorse (< “place for breeding horses”), from Germanic **stōdjōn-**; b. STUD², from Old English stōd, establishment for breeding horses, from Germanic **stōdō**. 2. Suffixed form **stā-lo-**. a. STOOL, from Old English stōl, stool; b. Germanic compound **faldistōlaz** (see **pel-**³). Both a and b from Germanic **stōlaz**. 3. ESTANCIA, STAGE, STANCE, STANCH¹, STANCHION, STANZA, STATIVE, STATOR, STAY³, STET; ARREST, CIRCUMSTANCE, CONSTANT, CONTRAST, COST, DISTANT, EXTANT, INSTANT, OBSTACLE, OBSTETRIC, OUST, REST², RESTHARROW, RESTIVE, SUBSTANCE, from Latin stāre, to stand. 4. STIR², from Romani stiraben, jail, prison, from star, variant of astar, to seize, causative of ašt, to remain, stop, from Middle Indic aṭṭhaï, from earlier **āsthāti**, from Sanskrit atiṣṭhati (stem **ā-sthā-**), he stands by, remains on (a-, near, all the way up to, at; see **ē**). 4. Suffixed form **stā-men-**. ETAMINE, STAMEN, STAMMEL, from Latin stāmen, thread of the warp (a technical term). 5. Suffixed form **stā-mon-**. PENSTEMON, from Greek stēmōn, thread. 6. Suffixed form **stā-ro-**. STARETS, from Old Church Slavonic starŭ, old (“long-standing”). 7. Suffixed form **stā-no-** in Indo- Iranian **stānam**, place (“where one stands”), becoming Persian -stān, country, the source of names of Asian countries ending in -stan like AFGHANISTAN, BALUCHISTAN, HINDUSTAN. II. Zero-grade form **stə-** (before consonants). 1. Nasalized extended form **stə-n-t-**. a. STAND, from Old English standan, to stand; b. UNDERSTAND, from Old English understandan, to know, stand under (under-, under; see **ndher**); c. STANDARD, from Frankish **standan**, to stand; d. STOUND, from Old English stund, a fixed time, while, from secondary zero-grade form in Germanic **stundō**. a–d all from Germanic **standan**. 2. Suffixed form **stə-tyo-**. STITHY, from Old Norse stethi, anvil, from Germanic **stathjōn-**. 3. Suffixed form **stə-tlo-**. STADDLE, STALL², STARLING²; STALWART, from Old English stathol, foundation, from <87> Germanic **stathlaz**. 4. Suffixed form **stə-mno-**. a. (i) STEM¹, from Old English stefn, stem, tree trunk; (ii) STALAG, from Old High German stam, stem. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic **stamniz**; b. ESTAMINET, probably from Walloon stamen, post to which a cow is tied at the feeding-trough, from a source derived from or akin to Germanic **stamniz**. 5. Suffixed form **stə-ti-**. a. (i) STEAD, from Old English stede, place; (ii) SHTETL; LAGERSTÄTTE, from Old High German stat, place. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic **stadiz**; b. STAT², from Latin statim, at once; c. STATION, from Latin statiō, a standing still; d. ARMISTICE, SOLSTICE, from Latin -stitium, a stoppage; e. STASIS, from Greek stasis (see III. 1. b.), a standing, a standstill. 6. Suffixed form **stə-to-**. a. BESTEAD, from Old Norse staðr, place, from Germanic **stadaz**, placed; b. -STAT, STATIC, STATICE, STATO-; ASTASIA, ASTATINE, from Greek statos, placed, standing. 7. Suffixed form **stə-no-**. a. DESTINE, from Latin dēstināre, to make firm, establish (dē-, thoroughly; see **de-**); b. OBSTINATE, from Latin obstināre, to set one’s mind on, persist (ob-, on; see **epi**). 8. Suffixed form **stə-tū-**. ESTATE, ÉTAGÈRE, STAGE, STATE, STATISTICS, STATUE, STATURE, STATUS, STATUTE; CONSTITUTE, DESTITUTE, INSTITUTE, PROSTITUTE, RESTITUTE, SUBSTITUTE, SUPERSTITION, from Latin status, manner, position, condition, attitude, with derivatives statūra, height, stature, statuere, to set up, erect, cause to stand, and superstes (< **-stə-t-**), witness (“who stands beyond”). 9. Suffixed form **stə-dhlo-**. STABLE³; CONSTABLE, from Latin stabulum, “standing place,” stable. 10. Suffixed form **stə-dhli-**. ESTABLISH, STABLE¹, from Latin stabilis, standing firm. 11. Suffixed form **stə-tā-**. -STAT; ENSTATITE, from Greek -statēs, one that causes to stand, a standing. 12. Suffixed form **stə-mno-**. STAMNOS, from Greek stamnos, stamnos (< “one that stands upright”). 13. Perhaps in Latin īnstar, counterpart, equal, equivalent, possibly from compound suffixed form **en-stə-r**, “that which stands in the place of” (en-, in; see **en**): INSTAR. III. Zero-grade form **st**-, **st(ə)-** (before vowels). 1. Reduplicated form **si-st(ə)-**. a. ASSIST, CONSIST, DESIST, EXIST, INSIST, INTERSTICE, PERSIST, RESIST, SUBSIST, from Latin sistere, to set, place, stop, stand; b. APOSTASY, CATASTASIS, DIASTASE, ECSTASY, EPISTASIS, EPISTEMOLOGY, HYPOSTASIS, ICONOSTASIS, ISOSTASY, METASTASIS, PROSTATE, SYSTEM, from Greek histanai (aorist stēnai), to set, place, with stasis (**stə-ti-**), a standing (see II. 5. e.); c. HISTO-; HISTIOCYTE, HISTOGRAM, from Greek histos, web, tissue (< “that which is set up”). 2. Compound form **tri-st-i-** (see **trei-**). 3. Compound form **por-st-i-** (see **per**¹). POST¹, from Latin postis, post. 4. Suffixed form **st-o-** in compound **upo-st-o-** (see **upo**). IV. Extended root **stāu-** (< **stāu-**), becoming **stau-** before consonants, **staw-** before vowels; basic meaning “stout-standing, strong.” 1. Suffixed extended form **stāw-ā-**. STOW, from Old English stōw, place, from Germanic **stōwō**. 2. Probable o-grade suffixed extended form **stōw-yā-**. STOA, STOIC, from Greek stoā (also stoiā, stoia), porch. 3. Suffixed extended form **stau-ro-**. a. (i) STORE; INSTAURATION, from Latin īnstaurāre, to restore, set upright again (in-, on; see **en**); (ii) RESTORE, from Latin restaurāre, to restore, rebuild (re-, anew, again; see **re-**); b. STAUROLITE, from Greek stauros, cross, post, stake. 4. Variant **tau-ro-**, bull (see **tauro-**). V. Zero-grade extended root **stū-** (< **stuə-**). 1. Suffixed form **stū-lo-**. STYLITE; AMPHISTYLAR, ASTYLAR, EPISTYLE, HEXASTYLE, HYPOSTYLE, OCTASTYLE, PERISTYLE, PROSTYLE, STYLOBATE, from Greek stūlos, pillar. 2. Secondary full-grade form **steuə-**. Suffixed form **steuə-ro-**. THERAVADA, from Sanskrit sthavira-, thick, stout, old. 3. Variant zero-grade extended root **stu-**. Suffixed form **stu-t-**. STUD¹, from Old English stuthu, studu, post, prop. VI. Secondary full-grade form **steu-**. 1. Suffixed form **steu-rā-**. STARBOARD, from Old English stēor-, a steering, from Germanic **steurō**, “a steering.” 2a. STEER¹, from Old English stīeran, stēran, to steer; b. STERN², from Middle English sterne, stern of a boat, possibly from a source akin to Old Norse stjōrn, a rudder, a steering, derivative of stȳra, to steer. Both a and b from Germanic denominative **steurjan**. 3. Suffixed form **steu-ro-**, a larger domestic animal. STEER², from Old English stēor, steer, from Germanic **steuraz**, ox. 4. Probably Germanic diminutive **steur-ika-**. STIRK, from Old English stirc, stierc, calf. [Pokorny stā- 1004.] See also extended root **stāk-**. **stag-** To seep, drip. Possible root. 1. STAGNANT, from Latin stāgnum, pond, swamp. 2. Suffixed form **stag-yo-**. STACTE; EPISTAXIS, from Greek stazein, to ooze, drip. [Pokorny stag- 1010.] **stāi-** Stone. (Oldest form possibly **steh₂i-**, colored to **stah₂i-**, contracted to **stāi-** [before consonants] and **stāy-** [before vowels].) 1. Suffixed o-grade form **stoi-no-**. a. STONE, from Old English stān; b. STEENBOK, from Middle Dutch stēen, stone; c. TUNGSTEN, from Old Norse steinn, stone; d. STEIN, from Old High German stein, stone. a–d all from Germanic **stainaz**. 2. Possibly suffixed form **stāy-r-**. STEARIC, STEARIN, STEATITE, STEATO-; STEAPSIN, from Greek stēar, solid fat, suet. [Pokorny (s)tāi- 1010.] **stāk-** To stand, place. (Oldest form **steh₂k-**, colored to **stah₂k-**, contracted to **stāk-**; extension of **steh₂-**, to stand; see **stā-**.) Zero-grade form **stak-**. 1. Suffixed form **stək-o-**. a. STAY¹, in Old English stæg, rope used to support a mast; b. STAY², from Old French staie, a support. Both a and b from Germanic **stagaz**. 2. Suffixed form **stək-lo-**. STEEL, from Old English stēli, stȳle, steel (< “that which stands firm”). [Pokorny stāk- 1011.] **stebh-** Post, stem; to support, place firmly on, fasten. I. Basic form **stebh-**. 1. STAFF¹, from Old English stæf, stick, rod, from Germanic **stab-**. 2. STEMMA, STEPHANOTIS, from Greek stephein, to tie around, encircle, crown, wreathe. II. Unaspirated form **steb-**. 1a. STAPLE², from Old English stapol, post, pillar; b. STEP, from Old English stæpe, step (< “a treading firmly on, foothold”); c. STAPLE¹, from Middle Dutch stapel, pillar, foundation; d. STOOP², from Middle Dutch stoep, stoop; e. STOPE, from Low German stope, a step. a-e all from Germanic **stap-**. 2a. STAMP, from Middle English stampen, to pound, stamp; b. STUMP, from Middle Low German stump, stump; c. STAMPEDE, from Provençal estampier, to stamp. a–c all from Germanic nasalized form **stamp-**. III. Variant form **stabh-**. STAPHYLINID, STAPHYLO-, from Greek staphulē, grapevine, bunch of grapes. [Pokorny steb(h)- 1011.] **steg-**¹ Pole, stick. O-grade form **stog-**. 1. STAKE¹, from Old English staca, stake. 2. STACK, from Old Norse stakkr, a haystack. 3. STAGGER, from Old Norse staka, to push, cause to stumble (as with a stick). 4. ATTACK, from Italian attaccare, to attack. 5. ATTACH, from Old French attachier, to attack. 6. STOCKADE, from Spanish estaca, stake. 1–6 all from Germanic **stakōn-**, a stake. [Pokorny 2. (s)teg- 1014.] **(s)teg-**² To cover. I. O-grade form **tog-**. 1a. THATCH, from Old English theccan, to cover; b. DECK², from Middle Dutch decken, to cover; c. DECKLE, from Old High German decchen, to cover. a–c all from Germanic **thakjan**. 2a. THATCH, from Old English thæc, thatch; b. DECK¹, from Middle Dutch dec, decke, roof, covering. Both a and b from Germanic **thakam**. 3. Suffixed form **tog-ā-**, covering. TOGA, from Latin toga, toga. 4. Possibly Sanskrit sthagayati, he covers: THUG. II. Basic form **steg-**. STEGANOGRAPHY, STEGODON, STEGOSAUR, from Greek stegein, to cover. <88> III. Basic form **teg-**. TECTRIX, TECTUM, TEGMEN, TEGMENTUM, TEGULAR, TEGUMENT, TILE, TUILE, TUILLE; DETECT, INTEGUMENT, OBTECT, PROTECT, from Latin tegere, to cover, and tēgula, tile (with lengthened-grade root). [Pokorny 1. (s)teg- 1013.] **stegh-** To stick, prick; pointed. 1. Perhaps nasalized form **stengh-**. STING, from Old English stingan, to sting, from Germanic **stingan**. 2. O-grade form **stogh-**. a. STAG, from Old English stagga, stag, from Germanic **stag-**; b. STOCHASTIC, from Greek stokhos, pointed stake or pillar (used as a target for archers), goal. [Pokorny stegh- 1014.] **steig-** To stick; pointed. Partly blended with **stegh-**. I. Zero-grade form **stig-**. 1. STICKLEBACK, from Old English sticel, a prick, sting, from Germanic suffixed form **stik-ilaz**. 2. Suffixed form **stig-i-**. STITCH, from Old English stice, a sting, prick, from Germanic **stikiz**. 3. STICK, from Old English sticca, stick, from Germanic expressive form **stikkōn-**. 4. ETIQUETTE, TICKET, from Old French estiquier, to stick, from Germanic stative **stikkēn**, “to be stuck.” 5. SNICKERSNEE, from Middle Dutch steken, to stick, stab, from Germanic blended variant **stekan**. 6. Nasalized zero-grade form **sti-n-g-**. DISTINGUISH, EXTINGUISH, INSTINCT, from Latin stinguere, to quench, perhaps originally to prick, and its apparent derivative distinguere, to separate (phonological and semantic transitions obscure). 7. Suffixed form **stig-yo-**. STIGMA; ASTIGMATISM, from Greek stizein, to prick, tattoo. 8. Suffixed reduced form **tig-ro-**. TIGER, from Greek tigris, tiger (from its stripes), from the same Iranian source as Old Persian tigra-, sharp, pointed, and Avestan tighri-, arrow. II. Basic form **(s)teig-**. 1. INSTIGATE, from Latin īnstīgāre, to urge, from -stīgāre, to spur on, prod. 2. RAITA, from Sanskrit tejate (verbal adjective tikta- < suffixed zero-grade form **tig-to-**), it is sharp. 3. Suffixed o-grade form **stoig-ā-**. STEAK, from Old Norse steik, roast, steak, and steikja, to roast (on a spit), from Germanic **staikō**. III. Extended variant form **tigs-**. a. THISTLE, from Old English thistel; b. DISTELFINK, from Old High German distil, thistle. Both a and b from Germanic **thistilaz**, perhaps simplified from earlier **thihstilaz**. [Pokorny (s)teig- 1016.] **steigh-** To stride, step, rise. 1. Basic form **steigh-**. STY¹, STIRRUP, from Old English stīgan, to go up, rise, from Germanic **stīgan**. 2. Zero-grade form **stigh-**. a. STILE¹, from Old English stigel, series of steps, from Germanic **stigila-**; b. suffixed form **stigh-to-**. STICKLE, from Old English stiht(i)an, to settle, arrange, from Germanic **stihtan**, “to place on a step or base”; c. suffixed form **stigh-o-**. STICH; ACROSTIC, CADASTRE, DISTICH, HEMISTICH, PENTASTICH, STICHOMETRY, STICHOMYTHIA, from Greek stikhos, row, line, line of verse. 3. O-grade form **stoigh-**. a. Suffixed form **stoigh-ri-**. STAIR, from Old English stæger, stair, step, from Germanic **staigri-**; b. STOICHIOMETRY, from Greek stoikheion, shadow line, element. [Pokorny steigh- 1017.] **steip-** To stick, compress. 1. STIFF, from Old English stīf, rigid, stiff, from Germanic **stīfa-**. 2. STIPPLE, from Dutch stip, tip, point (preform uncertain). 3. STIPE, STIPES, from Latin stīpes, post, tree trunk. 4. Suffixed form **steip-ā-**. STEEVE, STEVEDORE; CONSTIPATE, from Latin stīpāre, to compress, stuff, pack. 5. Suffixed zero-grade form **stip-olā-**. ETIOLATE, STIPULE, STUBBLE, from Latin stipula, stalk, straw. [Pokorny steip- 1018.] **stel-** To put, stand; with derivatives referring to a standing object or place. I. Basic form **stel-**. 1. Suffixed form **stel-ni-**. STILL¹, from Old English stille, quiet, fixed, from Germanic **stilli-**. 2. Suffixed form **stel-yo-**. APOSTLE, DIASTOLE, EPISTLE, PERISTALSIS, SYSTALTIC, from Greek stellein, to put in order, prepare, send, make compact (with o-grade and zero-grade forms stol- and stal-). II. O-grade form **stol-**. 1. Suffixed form **stol-no-**. a. STALL¹; FORESTALL, from Old English steall, standing place, stable; b. STALE¹; INSTALLMENT¹, from Old French estal, place; c. STALLION, from Anglo-Norman estaloun, stallion; d. PEDESTAL, from Old Italian stallo, stall; e. INSTALL, from Medieval Latin stallum, stall; f. GESTALT, from Old High German stellen, to set, place, from Germanic denominative **stalljan**. a–f all from Germanic **stalla-**. 2. Suffixed form **stol-ōn-**. STOLON, from Latin stolō, branch, shoot. 3. Suffixed form **stol-ido-**. STOLID, from Latin stolidus, “firm-standing,” stupid. 4. Suffixed form **stol-ā-**. a. STALK¹, from Old English stalu, upright piece, stalk, from Germanic **stalō**; b. STOLE¹, from Greek stolē, garment, array, equipment. III. Zero-grade form **stl̥-**. 1. Suffixed form **stl̥-to-**. STULTIFY, from Latin stultus, foolish (< “unmovable, uneducated”). 2. Suffixed zero-grade form **stl̥-no-**. STULL, STOLLEN, from Old High German stollo, post, support, from Germanic **stullōn-**. 3. Suffixed zero-grade form **stəl-nā-**. STELE, from Greek stēlē, pillar. IV. Extended form **steld-**. 1. STILT, from Middle English stilte, crutch, stilt, from a source akin to Low German and Flemish stilte, stick, from Germanic **stiltjōn-**. 2. Zero-grade form **stl̥d-**. STOUT, from Old French estout, stout, from Germanic **stult-**, “walking on stilts,” strutting. [Pokorny 3. stel- 1019.] **stelə-** To extend. (Oldest form **stelh₂-**.) Zero-grade form **stlə-**. 1. Suffixed form **stlə-to-**. LATITUDE; DILATE, SENSU LATO, from Latin lātus, broad, wide. 2. Attributed by some to this root (as though suffixed zero-grade form **stlə-men-**), but more likely of obscure origin, is Latin lamina, plate, layer: LAME, LAMÉ, LAMELLA, LAMINA, LAMINARIN, LAMINATE, LAMINITIS, OMELET. [Pokorny 2. stel- 1018.] **sten-** Narrow. Suffixed form **sten-wo-**. STENO-, STENOSIS, from Greek stenos, narrow. [Pokorny 2. sten- 1021.] **(s)tenə-** To thunder. (Oldest form **stenh₂-**.) 1. Zero-grade form **stn̥ə-**. a. THUNDER; THURSDAY, from Old English thunor, thunder, Thor; b. BLUNDERBUSS, DUNDERHEAD, from Middle Dutch doner, donder, thunder; c. THOR, from Old Norse Thōrr (older form Thunarr), “thunder,” thunder god. a-c all from Germanic **thunaraz**. 2. O-grade form **tonə-**. TORNADO; ASTONISH, DETONATE, STUN, from Latin tonāre, to thunder. [Pokorny 1. (s)ten- 1021.] **ster-**¹ Stiff. I. O-grade form **stor-**. 1. Suffixed form **stor-ē-**. STARE, from Old English starian, to stare, from Germanic **starēn**. 2. Extended form **stor-g-**. a. STARK, from Old English stearc, hard, severe, from Germanic **starka-**; b. STARCH, from Old English **stercan**, to stiffen, from Germanic denominative **starkjan**, to make hard. II. Full-grade form **ster-**. 1. STERN¹, from Old English stierne, styrne, firm, from Germanic **sternja-**. 2. Suffixed form **ster-ewo-**. STERE, STEREO-; CHOLESTEROL, from Greek stereos, solid. 3. Lengthened-grade form **stēr-**. STERIGMA, from Greek stērizein, to support. III. Zero-grade form **str̥-**. 1. Extended form **str̥g-**. STORK, from Old English storc, stork (probably from the stiff movements of the bird), from Germanic **sturkaz**. 2. STRUT, from Old English strūtian, to stand out stiffly, from Germanic **strut-**. IV. Extended form **sterd-**. 1. REDSTART, STARK-NAKED, from Old English steort, tail, from Germanic **stertaz**. 2a. START, from Old English **styrtan**, to leap up (< “move briskly, move stiffly”); b. STARTLE, from Old English steartlian, to kick, struggle. Both a and b from Germanic **stert-**. <89> V. Extended form **sterbh-**. STARVE, from Old English steorfan, to die (< “become rigid”), from Germanic **sterban**. VI. Extended form **(s)terp-** in suffixed (stative) zero-grade form **tr̥p-ē-**. TORPEDO, TORPID, TORPOR, from Latin torpēre, to be stiff. [Pokorny 1. (s)ter- 1022.] See also extended root **(s)ter-n-**. **ster-**² Star. (Oldest form **h₂ster-**.) 1. Suffixed form **ster-s-**. STAR, from Old English steorra, star, from Germanic **sterzon-**. 2. Suffixed lengthened-grade form **stēr-lā-**. STELLAR, STELLATE; CONSTELLATION, from Latin stēlla, star. 3. Basic form **aster-**. ASTER, ASTERIATED, ASTERISK, ASTERISM, ASTEROID, ASTRAL, ASTRO-; APASTRON, ASTEROSEISMOLOGY, ASTRAPHOBIA, DISASTER, PERIASTRON, from Greek astēr, star, with its derivative astron, star, and possible compound astrapē, asteropē, lightning, twinkling (< “looking like a star”; ōps, op-, eye, appearance; see **okw-**). 4. ESTHER¹, perhaps from Persian sitāreh, star, from Iranian stem **star-** (or perhaps of Semitic origin). [Pokorny 2. stěr- 1027.] **ster-**³ To rob, steal. Possible variant form **stel-**. 1. STEAL, from Old English stelan, to steal, from Germanic **stelan**. 2. STEALTH, from Middle English stelthe, stealth, from Germanic derivative noun **stel-ithō** (**-ithō**, abstract suffix). 3. STALK², from Old English **stealcian**, to move stealthily, from extended variant form in Germanic frequentative **stalkōn**. [Pokorny 3. ster- 1028.] **ster-**⁴ Barren. STERILE, from Latin sterilis, unfruitful. [Pokorny 6. ster- 1031.] **sterə-** Also **ster-**. To spread. (Oldest form **sterh₃-**.) I. Extended variant form **streu-**. 1. STRAIN², from Old English strēon, something gained, offspring, from Germanic suffixed form **streu-nam**. 2. STRUCTURE; CONSTRUCT, DESTROY, INSTRUCT, INSTRUMENT, OBSTRUCT, SUBSTRUCTION, from Latin struere, to pile up, construct. 3. Zero-grade form **stru-**. INDUSTRY, from Latin industrius, diligent, from Archaic Latin indostruus (endo-, within; see **en**). 4. BREMSSTRAHLUNG, from Old High German strāla, arrow, lightning bolt, from Germanic **strēlō**. II. O-grade extended form **strou-**. 1. Suffixed form **strow-eyo-**. a. STREW, from Old English strē(o)wian, to strew; b. STREUSEL, from Old High German strouwen, strowwen, to sprinkle, strew. Both a and b from Germanic **strawjan**. 2. Suffixed form **strow-o-**. STRAW, from Old English strēaw, straw, from Germanic **strawam**, “that which is scattered.” III. O-grade extended form **stroi-**. PERESTROIKA, from Old Russian stroji, order. IV. Basic forms **ster-**, **sterə-**. 1. Nasalized form **ster-n-ə-**. ESTRAY, STRATUS, STRAY, STREET; CONSTERNATE, PROSTRATE, SUBSTRATUM, from Latin sternere (past participle strātus from suffixed zero-grade form **strə-to-**), to stretch, extend. 2. Suffixed form **ster-no-**. STERNUM; STERNOCLEIDOMASTOID, from Greek sternon, breast, breastbone. V. Zero-grade form **str̥-**, **strə-**. 1. Suffixed form **str̥-to-**. STRATAGEM; STRATOCRACY, from Greek stratos, multitude, army, expedition. 2. Suffixed form **strə-to-**. STRATH, from Old Irish srath, a wide river valley, from Celtic **s(t)rato-**. 3. Suffixed extended form **strə-mp-**. a. STROMA; BIOSTROME, STROMATOLITE, from Greek strōma, mattress, bed. b. STRAMENOPIL, from Latin strāmen, straw strewn as bedding. [Pokorny 5. ster- 1029.] **(s)ter-n-** Name of thorny plants. Extension of **ster-**¹. Suffixed zero-grade variant form **tr̥-n-u-**. THORN, from Old English thornu, from Germanic **thurnu-**. [Pokorny 7. ster-n- 1031.] **(s)teu-**¹ To push, stick, knock, beat; with derivatives referring to projecting objects, fragments, and certain related expressive notions and qualities. I. Extended forms **steup-**, **steub-**. 1. STEEP¹, from Old English stēap, lofty, deep, projecting, from Germanic **staup-**. 2. STEEPLE, from Old English stīpel, stēpel, steeple, from Germanic **staupilaz**. 3. STEP-, from Old English stēop-, step-, from Germanic **ste-up-**, “bereft” (< “pushed out”). 4. STOOP¹, from Old English stūpian, to stoop, from Germanic **stūp-**. 5. STUB, from Old English stubb, stybb, stump, from Germanic expressive form **stubb-**. 6. STIVER, from Middle Dutch stuyver, stiver, from Germanic **stuf-**, “fragment,” small coin. II. Extended form **steud-**. 1. Nasalized form **stu-n-d-**. STINT¹, from Old English styntan, to dull, from Germanic **stuntjan**. 2a. STOSS, from Old High German stōzan, to push; b. STUTTER, from Middle English stutten, to stutter, from a source akin to Middle Low German and Middle Dutch stōten, to force. Both a and b from Germanic **staut-**. III. Extended form **steug-**. 1a. STOCK, from Old English stocc, tree trunk; b. ALPENSTOCK, from Old High German stoc, staff; c. LINSTOCK, from Middle Dutch stoc, stick; d. TUCK³, from Old French estoc, rapier, sword. a–d all from Germanic **stukkaz**. 2a. SHTICK, from Old High German stukki, crust, fragment, covering; b. STUCCO, from Italian stucco, stucco. Both a and b from Germanic **stukkjam**. 3. STOKER, from Dutch stoken, to poke, from Germanic **stok-**. IV. Suffixed (stative) zero-grade extended form **stup-ē-**. STUPENDOUS, STUPID; STUPEFY, from Latin stupēre, to be stunned. V. Suffixed (stative) extended zero-grade form **stud-ē-**. ÉTUDE, ÉTUI, STUDENT, STUDY, TWEEZERS, from Latin studēre, to be diligent (< “to be pressing forward”). VI. Extended zero-grade form **stug-**. STYX, from Greek Stux, the river Styx (< “hatred”). VII. Variant extended zero-grade form **tud-**. 1. TOIL¹; RATATOUILLE, from Latin tudēs, hammer. 2. Suffixed form **tud-ti-**. TUSSIS; PERTUSSIS, from Latin tussis, cough. 3. Nasalized form **tu-n-d-**. CONTUSE, OBTUND, PERSE, PIERCE, RETUSE, from Latin tundere, to beat. VIII. Variant zero-grade form **tup-**. 1. Suffixed form **tup-o-**. TYPE; ANTITYPE, ARCHETYPE, from Greek tupos, a blow, mold, die. 2. Nasalized form **tu-m-p-**. TIMPANI, TIMPANO, TYMPANUM, from Greek tumpanon, drum. [Pokorny 1. (s)teu- 1032.] **steu-**² To praise. ZEND-AVESTA, from Avestan stavaiti, he praises. [Pokorny 2. steu- 1035.] **stom-en-** Denoting various body parts and orifices. STOMA, STOMACH, STOMATO-, STOMATOUS, -STOME, -STOMY; ANASTOMOSIS, ANCYLOSTOMIASIS, DEUTEROSTOME, GNATHOSTOME, OZOSTOMIA, PROSTOMIUM, PROTOSTOME, SCYPHISTOMA, XEROSTOMIA, from Greek stoma, mouth. [Pokorny stomen- 1035.] **storo-** Starling. STARLING¹, from Old English stær, starling, from Germanic **staraz**. [Pokorny storos 1036.] **streb(h)-** To wind, turn. European root. 1. STREPTO-, STROP, STROPHE, STROPHOID, STROPHULUS; ANASTROPHE, APOSTROPHE¹, BOUSTROPHEDON, CATASTROPHE, DIASTROPHISM, EPISTROPHE, STREPSIRHINE, from Greek strephein, to wind, turn, twist, with o-grade derivatives strophē, a turning, and strophion, headband. 2. Unaspirated o-grade form **strob-**. STROBILUS; STROBOSCOPE, from Greek strobos, a whirling, whirlwind. 3. Unaspirated zero-grade form **str̥b-**. STRABISMUS, STRABOTOMY, from Greek strabos, squinting. [In Pokorny 1. (s)ter- 1022.] **(s)trei-** To hiss, buzz. Imitative root. 1. Extended form **strīd-**. STRIDENT, from Latin strīdēre, to make a harsh sound. 2. Extended variant form **trig-**. TRISMUS, from Greek trismos, trigmos, a grinding, scream. [Pokorny 3. (s)treig- 1036.] **streig-** To stroke, rub, press. European root. <90> I. Basic form **streig-**. 1a. STRIKE, from Old English strīcan, to stroke; b. TRICOT, from Old French estriquier, to strike. Both a and b from Germanic **strīkan**. 2. STRICKLE, from Old English stricel, implement for leveling grain, from Germanic diminutive **strik-ila-**. 3. STREAK, from Old English strica, stroke, line, from Germanic **strikōn-**. II. O-grade form **stroig-**. STROKE¹, from Old English **strāc**, stroke, from Germanic **straik-**. III. Zero-grade form **strig-**. 1. Suffixed form **strig-ā-**. STRIGOSE, from Latin striga, row of grain, furrow drawn lengthwise over the field. 2. Suffixed form **strig-yā-**. STRIA, from Latin stria, furrow, channel. 3. Nasalized zero-grade form **stri-n-g-**. STRAIN¹, STRAIT, STRESS, STRETTO, STRICT, STRINGENDO, STRINGENT; ASTRINGENT, CONSTRAIN, DISTRAIN, DISTRESS, PRESTIGE, RESTRAIN, RESTRICT, SENSU STRICTO, from Latin stringere, to draw tight, press together. 4. STRIGIL, from Latin strigilis, strigil, possibly akin to stringere. [Pokorny 1. streig-, 2. streig- 1036; 4. ster- 1028.] **strenk-** Tight, narrow. Possible European root. 1. O-grade form **stronk-**. a. STRING, from Old English streng, string, from Germanic **strangi-**; b. STRONG, from Old English strang, strong, powerful, strict, from Germanic **stranga-**; c. STRENGTH, from Old English strengthu, strength, strictness, from Germanic **strangithō**. a–c all from Germanic **strang-**. 2. Variant **strang-**. a. STRANGLE, STRANGLES, STRANGULATE, from Greek strangalē, halter; b. STRANGURY, from Greek stranx, drop (< “that which is squeezed out”). [Pokorny strenk- 1036.] **strep-** To make a noise. Imitative European root. OBSTREPEROUS, from Latin strepere, to make noise. [Pokorny (s)trep- 1037.] **(s)twer-**¹ To turn, whirl. 1. Zero-grade form **stur-**. a. Suffixed form **stur-mo-**. STORM, from Old English storm, storm, from Germanic **sturmaz**, storm (< “whirlwind”); b. STIR¹, from Old English styrian, to move, agitate, from Germanic **sturjan**. 2. Suffixed zero-grade variant form **tur-bā-**. TROUBLE, TURBID, TURBINADO, TURBINE; BIOTURBATION, DISTURB, PERTURB, from Greek turbē, tumult, disorder (> Latin turba, disorder, turbō, spinning top, and turbāre, to confuse, disorder). [Pokorny 1. twer- 1100.] **(s)twer-**² To grasp, hold; hard. Variant form **twer-**. QUARTZ, from Middle High German quartz, quartz, from a source perhaps akin to West Slavic kvardy, quarte, altered from Slavic **tvrd-**. [Pokorny 2. twer- 1101.] **sū-** Pig. (Contracted from earlier **suə-**; probably a derivative of **seuə-**¹.) 1. Suffixed form **suə-ino-**. a. SWINE, from Old English swīn, swine; b. KEELSON, from Old Norse svīn, swine. Both a and b from Germanic **swīnam**. 2. Suffixed reduced form **su-kā-**. a. (i) HOG, from Old English hogg, hog, from British Celtic **hukk-**, from Celtic expressive form **sukko-**, swine, snout of a swine; (ii) SOCKET, from Anglo-Norman soc, plowshare, perhaps from Celtic **sukko-**; b. SOW¹, from Old English sugu, sow, from Germanic **sugō**. 3. Basic form **sū-**. SOW², from Old English sū, from Germanic **sū-**. 4. SOIL², from Latin sūs, pig. 5. HYADES, HYENA; HYOSCINE, from Greek hūs, swine. [Pokorny sūs 1038.] **sūro-** Sour, salty, bitter. 1. SOUR, from Old English sūr, sour. 2. CHOUCROUTE, SAUERBRATEN, SAUERKRAUT, from Old High German sûr, sour. 3. SORREL¹, from Old French sur, sour. 1–3 all from Germanic **sūra-**, sour. [Pokorny sū-ro- 1039.] **swād-** Sweet, pleasant. (Oldest form **sweh₂d-**, colored to **swah₂d-**, contracted to **swād-**.) 1. SWEET, from Old English swēte, sweet, from Germanic **swōtja-**. 2. Suffixed form **swād-ē-**. SUASION; ASSUASIVE, DISSUADE, PERSUADE, from Latin suādēre, to advise, urge (< “recommend as good”). 3. Suffixed form **swād-wi-**. SUAVE; ASSUAGE, from Latin suāvis, delightful. 4. Suffixed form **swād-es-**. AEDES, from Greek ēdos, pleasure. 5. Suffixed form **swād-onā-**. HEDONIC, HEDONISM, from Greek hēdonē, pleasure. [Pokorny swād- 1039.] **(s)wāgh-** To resound. 1. SOUGH, from Old English swōgan, to resound, from Germanic **swōgan**. 2. Suffixed form **wāgh-ā-**. CATECHIZE, from Greek ēkhē, sound. 3. Suffixed form **wāgh-ōi-**. ECHO, from Greek ēkhō, noise, echo. [Pokorny uāgh- 1110.] **s(w)e-** Pronoun of the third person and reflexive (referring back to the subject of the sentence); further appearing in various forms referring to the social group as an entity, “(we our)selves.” 1. Suffixed extended form **sel-bho-**. SELF, from Old English self, sylf, self, same, from Germanic **selbaz**, self. 2. Suffixed form **s(w)e-bh(o)-**. SIB; GOSSIP, from Old English sibb, relative, from Germanic **sibja-**, “one’s own,” blood relation, relative. 3. Suffixed form **se-ge**. BUSTLE¹, from Old Norse -sk, reflexive suffix (as in būask, to make oneself ready), from sik, oneself (reflexive pronoun), from Germanic **sik**, self. 4. Suffixed form **swoi-no-**. SWAIN; BOATSWAIN, from Old Norse sveinn, herdsman, boy, from Germanic **swai-naz**, “one’s own (man),” attendant, servant. 5. Suffixed form **s(u)w-o-**, one's own. a. SUICIDE, from Latin sui (genitive), of oneself; b. SWAMI, from Sanskrit svāmī, “one’s own master,” owner, prince, from sva- (< **swo-**), one's own; c. SOBER, from Latin compound sōbrius, not drunk (ēbrius, drunk; see **egwh-**). 6. Extended form **sed**. SECEDE, SECERN, SECLUDE, SECRET, SECURE, SEDITION, SEDUCTION, SEDULOUS, SEGREGATE, SELECT, SEPARATE, SEVER, SURE, from Latin sēd, sē, sē(d)-, without, apart (< “on one’s own”). 7. Possibly suffixed lengthened o-grade form **sō-lo-**. SOLE², SOLITARY, SOLITUDE, SOLO, SULLEN; DESOLATE, SOLILOQUY, SOLIPSISM, from Latin sōlus, by oneself alone. 8. Extended root **swedh-**, “that which is one’s own,” peculiarity, custom. a. SODALITY, from Latin sodālis (Archaic Latin suodāl-), companion (< “one’s own,” “relative”); b. suffixed form **swedh-sko-**. CONSUETUDE, CUSTOM, DESUETUDE, MANSUETUDE, MASTIFF, from Latin suēscere, to accustom, get accustomed; c. ETHIC, ETHOS; CACOËTHES, from Greek ēthos, custom, disposition, trait; d. suffixed form **swedh-no-**. ETHNIC, ETHNO-, from Greek ethnos, band of people living together, nation, people (< “people of one’s own kind”). 9. Suffixed extended form **swet-aro-**. HETAERA, from Greek hetairos, comrade, companion, earlier hetaros. 10. Suffixed extended form **swed-yo-**. IDIO-, IDIOM, IDIOT; IDIOPATHY, IDIOSYNCRASY, from Greek idios, personal, private (“particular to oneself”). 11. Suffixed form **swei-no-**. SINN FEIN, from Old Irish féin, self. 12. Suffixed (ablatival) form **swe-tos**, from oneself. KHEDIVE, from Old Iranian khvadāta-, lord, by haplology from compound form **khvatō-dāta-**, created from oneself (dāta-, created; see **dhē-**), 13. Perhaps suffixed form **swe-tono-**. KHOTANESE, from Khotanese Hvatana-, perhaps “those holding their own (power), masters.” [Pokorny se- 882.] Derivative **swo-**. **swei-**¹ To whistle, hiss. Imitative root. SIBILATE; CHUFA, PERSIFLAGE, from Latin sībilāre, to whistle at, hiss down. [Pokorny swei- 1040.] **swei-**² To bend, turn. Base of various Germanic forms. 1. SWOOP, from Old English swāpan, to sweep, drive, swing, from Germanic o-grade form **swaip-**. 2. SWIFT, from Old English swift, swift, quick (< “turning quickly”), from Germanic zero-grade form **swip-**. 3. SWIVEL, from Middle English swyvel, a swivel, from Germanic full-grade form **swif-**. 4. Possibly Germanic **swih-**. SWITCH, from Middle Dutch swijch, bough, twig. 5. SWAP, from Middle English swappen, to splash, from a source akin to German schwappen, to flap, splash. [Pokorny sue(i)- 1041.] **sweid-**¹ To shine. Possible suffixed form **sweid-es-**. 1. SIDEREAL, from Latin sīdus, constellation, star. 2. CON- <91> SIDER, DESIRE, from Latin augury terms cōnsīderāre, to examine, “observe the stars carefully” (con-, intensive prefix; see **kom**), and dēsīderāre, to long for, miss (“observe the absence of”; formed on analogy with cōnsīderāre; dē-, from; see **de-**). 3. Possible variant form **sweit-**. SWIDDEN, from Old Norse svītha, to be singed. [Pokorny 1. sueid- 1042.] **sweid-**² Sweat; to sweat. I. O-grade form **swoid-**. 1. SWEAT, from Old English swǣtan, to sweat, from Germanic **swaitaz**, sweat, with its denominative **swaitjan**, to sweat. 2. Suffixed form **swoid-os-**. SUDORIFIC; SUDORIFEROUS, from Latin sūdor, sweat. 3. O-grade form **swoid-ā-**. SUDATORIUM, SUINT; EXUDE, TRANSUDE, from Latin sūdāre, to sweat. II. Suffixed zero-grade form **swid-r-os-**. HIDROSIS, from Greek hidrōs, sweat. [Pokorny 2. sueid- 1043.] **s(w)eks** Six. (Oldest form **s(w)eks-**.) I. Form **seks**. 1. SIX; SIXTEEN, SIXTY, from Old English s(i)ex, six, with derivatives sixtig, sixty, and sixtȳne, sixteen (-tȳne, ten; see **dekm**), from Germanic **seks**. 2. SENARY, SEX-; SEICENTO, SEMESTER, from Latin sex, six. 3. Suffixed form **seks-to-**. SESTET, SESTINA, SEXT, SEXTANT, SEXTILE; SEXTODECIMO, SIESTA, SISTINE, from Latin sextus, sixth. II. Form **sweks**. HEXA-, HEXAD; UNUNHEXIUM, from Greek hex, six. [Pokorny sweks 1044.] **swel-**¹ To eat, drink. 1. Perhaps Germanic **swil-**. SWILL, from Old English swilian, to wash out, gargle. 2. Extended form **swelk-**. SWALLOW¹; GROUNDSEL¹, from Old English swelgan, to swallow, from Germanic **swelgan**, **swelhan**. 3. MANTICORE, MARKHOR, from Iranian **khvāra-**, eating. [Pokorny 1. suel(k-) 1045.] **swel-**² To shine, burn. 1. Extended form **sweld-**. SULTRY, SWELTER, from Old English sweltan, to die, perish (perhaps < “be overcome with heat”), from Germanic **swiltan**. 2. O-grade form **swol-**. SWALE, from Middle English swale, shade, shady place, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse svalr, cool (< “lukewarm” < “hot”), from Germanic **swal-**. [Pokorny 2. suel- 1045.] **swel-**³ Post, board. SILL, from Old English syll(e), doorsill, threshold, from Germanic **suljō**. [Pokorny 2. sel- 898.] **swelə-** To swell up, become swollen. (Oldest form **swelh₁-**.) 1. SWELL, from Old English swellan, to swell, from Germanic **swellan**. 2. Suffixed zero-grade form **swlə-ē-**. INSOLENT, from Latin īnsolēns, insolent (< “swollen with pride, puffed up”). [Not in Pokorny; compare Hittite šulle-, šulla-, to become an upstart, become disrespectful.] **swem-** To move, stir, swim. Possibly an Indo-European root, but perhaps Germanic only. 1. SWIM, from Old English swimman, to swim, from Germanic **swimjan**. 2. Suffixed zero-grade form **swum-to-**. a. SOUND³, from Old English sund, swimming, sea; b. SOUND⁴; RADIOSONDE, ROCKETSONDE, from Old French sonde, sounding line. Both a and b from Germanic **sundam**. [Pokorny suem- 1046.] **swen-** To sound. Also **swenə-** (oldest form **swenə₂-**). 1. Suffixed o-grade form **swon-o-**. a. SWAN, from Old English swan, swan, from Germanic **swanaz**, **swanōn-**, “singer.” b. SONE, SONIC, SONNET, SOUND¹; UNISON, from Latin sonus, a sound. 2. Basic variant form **swenə-**. SONANT, SONATA, SONOROUS; ASSONANCE, CONSONANT, DISSONANT, RESOUND, from Latin sonāre, to sound. [Pokorny suen- 1046.] **sweng(w)-** To swing, turn, toss. Germanic root. 1. SWING, from Old English swingan, to whip, strike, swing, from Germanic **swingan**. 2. SWINGLETREE, from Middle Dutch swinghel, instrument for beating hemp, from Germanic **swing-**. 3. O-grade form **swong-**. a. Suffixed (causative) form **swong-eyo-**. SWINGE, from Old English swengan, to swing, shake, from Germanic **swangjan**; b. SWANK, from Middle High German swanken, to turn, swing, from Germanic variant **swank-**. 4. SWAG, from a Scandinavian source akin to Norwegian swagga, to sway (preform uncertain). [Pokorny sweng- 1047.] **swen-to-** Healthy, strong. Germanic root, rhyming with the **kwen-to-** underlying the words for “holy” in Iranian and Balto-Slavic (see **kwen-**). Zero-grade form **sun-to-**. a. SOUND², from Old English gesund, healthy; b. GESUNDHEIT, from Old High German gisunt(i), healthy. Both a and b from Germanic **gasunda-** (**ga-**, intensive prefix; see **kom**), from **sund-**. [Pokorny swento- 1048.] **swep-**¹ To sleep. 1. Suffixed form **swep-os-**. SOPOR; SOPORIFIC, from Latin sopor, a deep sleep. 2. Suffixed form **swep-no-**. SOMNI-, SOMNOLENT; INSOMNIA, from Latin somnus, sleep. 3. Suffixed zero-grade form **sup-no-**. HYPNO-, HYPNOSIS, HYPNOTIC, from Greek hupnos, sleep. [Pokorny 1. suep- 1048.] **swep-**² To throw, sling, cast. 1. O-grade form **swōp-**, possibly in Germanic variant expressive form **swabb-**. SWAB, from Middle Dutch swabbe, mop, splash. 2. Suffixed zero-grade form **sup-ā-**. DISSIPATE, from Latin dissipāre (< **dissupāre**), to disperse (**dis-**, apart). [Pokorny 2. suep- 1049.] **swer-**¹ To speak, talk. O-grade form **swor-**. 1. SWEAR, from Old English swerian, to swear, proclaim, from Germanic **swarjan**. 2. ANSWER, from Old English andswaru, answer, from Germanic **and-swarō**, “a swearing against,” “rebuttal” (**andi-**, against; see **ant-**). [Pokorny 1. swer- 1049.] **swer-**² To buzz, whisper. Imitative root. 1. O-grade form **swor-**. SWIRL, from Middle English swyrl, eddy, from a Low German source akin to Dutch zwirrelen, to whirl, from Germanic **swar-**. 2. Suffixed o-grade form **swor-mo-**. SWARM, from Old English swearm, swarm, from Germanic **swarmaz**. 3. Possibly suffixed zero-grade form **sur-do-**. a. SORDINO, SOURDINE, SURD, from Latin surdus, deaf, mute; b. ABSURD, from Latin absurdus, discordant, away from the right sound, harsh (ab-, away; see **apo-**). 4. In names of small animals. a. Suffixed zero-grade form **sur-ak-**. HYRAX; HYRACOTHERE, from Greek hurax, hyrax; b. suffixed lengthened o-grade form **swōr-āk-**. SORICINE, from Latin sōrex, shrew. 5. Reduplicated expressive zero-grade form **su-surr-**. SUSURRATION, from Latin susurrus, whisper. [Pokorny 2. swer- 1049.] **swer-**³ To heft, weigh, lift. (Obscurely related to **wer-**², with oldest form **h₂wer-**, in the same meanings.) 1. SWORD, from Old English sweord, sword, sword, from Germanic **swerdam** (for the semantics, note the image of “hefting” an object by holding in the two hands to guess its weight). 2. Suffixed lengthened-grade variant form **ser-yo-**. SERIOUS, from Latin sērius, serious, grave (< **“heavy”**). [Pokorny 5. swer- 1050, wer- 1150.] **swerbh-** To turn, wipe off. 1. SWERVE, from Old English sweorfan, to file away, scour, polish, from Germanic **swerb-**. 2. O-grade form **sworbh-**. SWARF, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse svarf, filings. [Pokorny swerbh- 1050.] **swergh-** To worry, be sick. SORROW, from Old English sorh, sorg, anxiety, sorrow, from Germanic **sorg-**. [Pokorny swergh- 1051.] **swesor-** Sister. Perhaps originally a compound of **s(w)e-** and **esōr**, woman, so literally “woman of one’s own kin group” in an exogamous society. 1. Zero-grade form **swesr-**. a. SISTER, from Old English sweostor, sister, and Old Norse systir, sister, both from Germanic **swestar** (with -t- from stem **swestr-** < **swesr-**); b. suffixed form **swesr-īno-**. COUSIN, from Latin sobrīnus, maternal cousin. 2. SORORAL, SORORITY; SORORICIDE, from Latin soror, sister. [Pokorny swesor- 1051.] **swī-** To be silent. APOSIOPESIS, from Greek siōpē, silence (expressive formation). [Pokorny swī- 1052.] <92> **swo-** Pronominal stem; so. Derivative of **s(w)e-**. 1a. SO¹, from Old English swā, so; b. SUCH, from Old English swylc, such, from Germanic compound **swalik-**, “so like,” of the same kind (**līk-**, same; see **līk-**). 2. Adverbial form **swai**. NISI, QUASI, from Latin sī (Archaic Latin sei), if, in nisi, unless (Archaic Latin nesei; ne, not; see **ne**), and quasi, as if (quam, as; see **kwo-**). [In Pokorny se- 882.] **s(w)okwo-** Resin, juice. Variant form **sokwo-**. OPIUM, from Greek opos (< **hopos**), juice. [Pokorny s(u)eko-s 1044.] **swombho-** Spongy; also a word for mushroom. 1. SUMP, from Middle Low German sump, swamp. 2. SWAMP, from a Low German source akin to Low German zwamp, swamp. [Pokorny s(u)omb(h)o-s 1052.] **swordo-** Black, dirty. 1. SWART, SWARTHY, from Old English sweart, swarthy, from Germanic **swarta-**. 2. Zero-grade suffixed (stative) form **swr̥d-ē-**. SORDID, from Latin sordēre, to be dirty. [Pokorny swordo-s 1052.] **syū-** Also **sū-**. To bind, sew. (Oldest form **syuh₁-**.) I. Basic form **syū-**. SEW, from Old English sēowian, sīowian, to sew, from Germanic **siwjan**. II. Variant form **sū-**. 1. SEAM, from Old English sēam, seam, from Germanic **saumaz**. 2. SUTURE; ACCOUTER, COUTURE, from Latin suere (past participle sūtus), to sew. 3. Suffixed form **sū-dhlā-**. SOUVLAKI, SUBULATE, from Latin sūbula, awl (< “sewing instrument”). 4. Suffixed form **sū-tro-**. SUTRA; KAMASUTRA, from Sanskrit sūtram, thread, string. III. Suffixed shortened form **syu-men-**. HYMEN, from Greek humēn, thin skin, membrane. [Pokorny syū- 915.] **tā-** To melt, dissolve. (Oldest form **teh₂-**, colored to **tah₂-**, contracted to **tā-**.) 1. Extended form **tāw-**. THAW, from Old English thawian, to thaw, from Germanic **thāwōn**. 2. Extended form **tābh-**. TABES, TABESCENT, from Latin tābēs, a melting, wasting away, putrefaction. 3. Extended form **tāk-**. EUTECTIC, from Greek tēkein, to melt. [Pokorny tā- 1053.] **tag-** To touch, handle. 1. Nasalized form **ta-n-g-**. TACT, TANGENT, TANGIBLE, TASK, TASTE, TAX; ATTACTIC, ATTAIN, CONTACT, INTACT, from Latin tangere, to touch, with derivatives taxāre, to touch, assess (possibly a frequentative of tangere, but probably influenced by Greek tassein, taxai, to arrange, assess), and tāctus, touch. 2. Compound form **n̥-tag-ro-**, “untouched, intact” (**n̥-**, negative prefix; see **ne**). ENTIRE, INTEGER, INTEGRATE, INTEGRITY, from Latin integer, intact, whole, complete, perfect, honest. 3. Suffixed form **tag-smen-**. CONTAMINATE, from Latin contāmināre, to corrupt by mixing or contact (< **con-tāmen-**, “bringing into contact with”; con-, com-, with; see **kom**). [Pokorny tag- 1054.] **tāg-** To set in order. (Oldest form probably **teh₂g-**, colored to **tah₂g-**, contracted to **tāg-**.) Suffixed form **tag-yo-** (probably < **tag-yo-**). TACTICS, TAGMA, TAXEME, TAXIS¹, TAXO-; ATAXIA, HYPOTAXIS, PARATAXIS, SYNTAX, from Greek tassein, tattein, to arrange, with derivatives taxis (< **tag-ti-**), arrangement, and tagma (< **tag-mn̥**), arrangement. [Pokorny tāg- 1055.] **tak-**¹ To be silent. Suffixed (stative) form **tak-ē-**. TACET, TACIT; PAPPATACI FEVER, RETICENT, from Latin tacēre, to be silent. [Pokorny tak- 1055.] [**tak-**² To take. Germanic root. TAKE; WAPENTAKE, from Old Norse taka, to take, from Germanic **takan**.] **tauro-** Bull. Derivative of **stā-** (via extended form **(s)təu-**), but an independent word in Indo-European. 1. TAURINE¹, TAURUS, TOREADOR, TORERO; BITTERN¹, from Latin taurus, bull. 2. TAURINE²; TAUROCHOLIC ACID, from Greek tauros, bull. [In Pokorny teu- 1080.] [**taw-** To make, manufacture. Germanic root. 1. TOW², from Old English tow-, spinning (only in compounds such as tow-hūs, spinning house or room). 2. TAW¹, from Old English tawian, to prepare, from Germanic **tawjan**, **tawōn**. 3. HERIOT, from Old English geatwa, geatwe, equipment, from Germanic **gatawja-**, equipment (**ga-**, collective prefix; see **kom**). 4. TOOL, from Old English or Old Norse tōl, implement, from Germanic variant **tō(w)lam**, implement. [In Pokorny 2. (deu-) 218.] **tegu-** Thick. THICK, from Old English thicce, thick, from Germanic **thiku-**. [Pokorny tegu- 1057.] **tek-** To beget, give birth to. 1. Suffixed form **tek-no-**, child. THANE, from Old English thegn, freeman, nobleman, military vassal, warrior, from Germanic **thegnaz**, boy, man, servant, warrior. 2. Suffixed o-grade form **tok-o-**. OXYTOCIC, POLYTOCOUS, TOCOLOGY, from Greek tokos, birth. [Pokorny 1. tek- 1057.] **teks-** To weave; also to fabricate, especially with an ax; also to make wicker or wattle fabric for (mud-covered) house walls. (Oldest form **teks-**.) 1. TEXT, TISSUE; CONTEXT, PRETEXT, from Latin texere, to weave, fabricate. 2. Suffixed form **teks-lā-**. a. TILLER¹, TOIL², from Latin tēla, web, net, warp of a fabric, also weaver’s beam (to which the warp threads are tied); b. SUBTLE, from Latin subtilis, thin, fine, precise, subtle (< **sub-tēla**, “thread passing under the warp,” the finest thread; sub, under; see **upo**). 3. Suffixed form **teks-ōn-**, weaver, maker of wattle for house walls, builder (possibly contaminated with **teks-tōr**, builder). TECTONIC; ARCHITECT, from Greek tektōn, carpenter, builder. 4. Suffixed form **teks-nā-**, craft (of weaving or fabricating). TECHNICAL, POLYTECHNIC, TECHNOLOGY, from Greek tekhnē, art, craft, skill. 5a. DACHSHUND, from Old High German dahs, badger; b. DASSIE, from Middle Dutch das, badger. Both a and b from Germanic **thahsuz**, badger, possibly from this root (“the animal that builds,” referring to its burrowing skill) but more likely borrowed from the same pre-Indo-European source as the Celtic totemic name **Tazgo-** (as in Gaulish Tazgo-, Gaelic Tadhg), originally “badger.” [Pokorny tekþ- 1058.] **tekw-** To run, flee. Possibly suffixed o-grade form **tok-so-**. TOXIC, from Greek toxon, bow, also (in the plural) bow and arrow (< “that which flies”), from Iranian **taxša-**, bow. [Pokorny tek- 1059.] **tel-** Ground, floor, boar. 1. DEAL², from Middle Low German and Middle Dutch dēle, plank, from Germanic **thil-jō**. 2. Suffixed form **tel-n-**. TELLURIAN, TELLURIC, TELLURION, TELLURIUM, TELLURO-, from Latin tellūs, earth, the earth. 3. Possibly reduplicated form **ti-tel-**. TITLE, from Latin titulus, placard, label, superscription. [Pokorny 2. tel- 1061.] **telə-** To lift, support, weigh; with derivatives referring to measured weights and thence to money and payment. (Oldest form **telh₂-**.) 1. Suffixed form **telə-mon-**. TELAMON, from Greek telamōn, supporter, bearer. 2. Suffixed form **tel(ə)-es-**. a. TOLL¹; PHILATELY, from Greek telos, tax, charge; b. TOLERATE, from Latin tolerāre, to bear, endure. 3. Suffixed zero-grade form **tḷə-i-**. TALION; RETALIATE, from Latin tāliō, reciprocal punishment in kind, possibly “something paid out,” from **tali-** (influenced by tālis, such). 4. Suffixed variant zero-grade form **talə-nt-**. TALENT, from Greek talanton, balance, weight, any of several specific weights of gold or silver, hence the sum of money represented by such a weight. 5. Perhaps (but unlikely) intensive reduplicated form **tantal-**. TANTALIZE, TANTALUS, from Greek Tantalos, name of a legendary king, “the sufferer.” 6. Perhaps (but unlikely) zero-grade form **tḷə-**. ATLANTIC, ATLAS, from Greek Atlās (stem Atlant-), name of the Titan supporting the world. 7. Suffixed zero-grade form **tḷə-to-**. ABLATION, ABLATIVE, ALLATIVE, COLLATE, DILATORY, ELATE, ELATIVE, ILLATION, ILLATIVE, LEGISLATOR, OBLATE¹, PRELATE, PROLATE, RELATE, SUBLATE, SUPERLATIVE, TRANSLATE, from Latin lātus, “carried, borne,” used <93> as the suppletive past participle of ferre, to bear (see **bher-**¹), with its compounds. 8. Suffixed zero-grade form **tḷə-ā-**. TOLA, from Sanskrit tulā, scales, balance, weight. 9. Nasalized zero-grade form **tl̥-n-ə-**. EXTOL, from Latin tollere, to lift. [Pokorny 1. tel- 1060.] **temə-**¹ To cut. 1. Nasalized form **t(e)m-n-ə-**. a. TMESIS, TOME, -TOME, -TOMY; ACROTOMOPHILIA, ANATOMY, APOTEMNOPHILIA, ATOM, DIATOM, DICHOTOMY, ENTOMO-, EPITOME, from Greek temnein, to cut, with o-grade forms tomos, cutting, a cut, section, volume, and tomē, a cutting; b. CONTEMN, from Latin temnere, to despise (< **“cut down, cut apart, wound, abuse verbally”**). 2. Suffixed form **temə-lo-**. TEMPLE¹, TEMPLE²; CONTEMPLATE, from Latin templum, temple, shrine, open place for observation (augury term < “place reserved or cut out”), small piece of timber, syncopated from earlier **teməlom**. 3. Extended root **tem-d-** becoming **tend-** in o-grade suffixed (iterative) form **tond-eyo-**. TONSORIAL, TONSURE, from Latin tondēre, to shear, shave. 4. Suffixed o-grade form **tomə-o-**. a. ESTIMATE, from Latin aestimāre, perhaps denominative verb from a pre-Latin compound **ais-tomos** (see **ayes-**); b. CONTUMELY, from Latin contumēlia, from an unattested adjective **comtumēlis**, degrading, disparaging, probably derived (on the model of the semantically similar crūdēlis, cruel; see **kreuə-**) from an earlier **kom-tom(ə)-os**, “one who cuts (another’s hair, beard, or garments with the intention of degrading him)” (**kom-**, intensive prefix, source of Latin com-; see **kom**). 3. Perhaps from this root is Latin autumnus, autumn, if from earlier **au-tom-ino-s**, pertaining to the harvest time, derived from a compound **au-tomos**, harvest (< “the cutting off, the cutting away”; **au-**, off, away; see **au-**): AUTUMN. [Pokorny 1. tem- 1062.] **temə-**² Dark. Suffixed form **temə-s-**. 1. TEMERARIOUS, TEMERITY, from Latin temere, blindly, rashly, originally ablative of a noun **temus**, stem **temer-**, “blindness.” 2. GÖTTERDÄMMERUNG, from Old High German demar, twilight. 3. Further suffixed form **temə-s-rā-**. TENEBRAE, TENEBRIONID, from Latin tenebrae (plural), darkness. [Pokorny tem(ə)- 1063.] **temp-** To stretch. Extension of **ten-** (assimilated from **tenp-**). 1. TEMPLE³, from Latin tempus, temple of the head (? where the skin is stretched from behind the eye to the ear), possibly from this root. 2. Perhaps zero-grade form **tṁp-**. a. TAFFETA, from Persian tāftan, to weave (the warp threads are stretched on the loom), from Iranian **tap-**; b. TAPESTRY, TAPIS, from Greek tapēs, carpet, from Iranian **tap-**, “carpet.” [Pokorny temp- 1064.] **ten-** To stretch. I. Derivatives with the basic meaning. 1. Suffixed form **ten-do-**. a. TEND¹, TENDER², TENDU, TENSE¹, TENT¹; ATTEND, CONTEND, DETENT, DÉTENTE, DISTEND, EXTEND, INTEND, OSTENSIBLE, PRETEND, SUBTEND, from Latin tendere, to stretch, extend; b. PORTEND, from Latin portendere, “to stretch out before” (por-, variant of pro-, before; see **per**¹), a technical term in augury, “to indicate, presage, foretell.” 2. Suffixed form **ten-yo-**. TENESMUS; ANATASE, BRONCHIECTASIS, CATATONIA, ENTASIS, EPITASIS, HYPOTENUSE, NEOTENY, PARATENIC HOST, PERITONEUM, PROTASIS, SYNTONIC, TELANGIECTASIA, from Greek teinein, to stretch, with o-grade form ton- and zero-grade noun tasis (< **tn̥-ti-**), a stretching, tension, intensity. 3. Reduplicated zero-grade form **te-tn̥-o-**. TETANUS, from Greek tetanos, stiff, rigid. 4. Suffixed full-grade form **ten-tro-**. a. TANTRA, from Sanskrit tantram, loom; b. SITAR, from Persian tār, string. 5. Basic form (with stative suffix) **ten-ē-**. TENABLE, TENACIOUS, TENACULUM, TENANT, TENEMENT, TENET, TENON, TENOR, TENURE, TENUTO; ABSTAIN, CONTAIN, CONTINUE, DETAIN, ENTERTAIN, LIEUTENANT, MAINTAIN, OBTAIN, PERTAIN, PERTINACIOUS, REIN, RETAIN, RETINACULUM, RETINUE, SUSTAIN, from Latin tenēre, to hold, keep, maintain (< “to cause to endure or continue, hold on to”). II. Derivatives meaning “stretched,” hence “thin.” 1. Suffixed zero-grade form **tn̥-u-**. THIN, from Old English thynne, thin, from Germanic **thunni-**, from **thunw-**. 2. Suffixed full-grade form **ten-u-**. TENUOUS; ATTENUATE, EXTENUATE, from Latin tenuis, thin, rare, fine. 3. Suffixed full-grade form **ten-ero-**. TENDER¹, TENDRIL; INTENERATE, from Latin tener, tender, delicate. III. Derivatives meaning “something stretched or capable of being stretched, a string.” 1. Suffixed form **ten-on-**. TENDON, TENO-, from Greek tenōn, tendon. 2. Suffixed o-grade form **ton-o-**. TONE; BARITONE, TONOPLAST, from Greek tonos, string, hence sound, pitch. 3. Suffixed zero-grade form **tn̥-yā-**. TAENIA; POLYTENE, from Greek tainiā, band, ribbon. [Pokorny 1. ten- 1065.] See also extended roots **temp-**, **tenk-**¹, and **tens-**. **teng-** To soak. 1. TAINT¹, TINCT, TINGE, TINT; INTINCTION, STAIN, from Latin tingere, to moisten, soak, dye. 2. Zero-grade form **tng-**. DUNK, from Old High German thunkōn, dunkōn, to soak, from Germanic **thunk-**. [Pokorny 1. teng- 1067.] **tenk-**¹ To stretch. Extension of **ten-**. Perhaps Germanic **thingam**, assembly (? < “meeting-time for an assembly” < “stretch of time”). 1. THING, from Old English thing, assembly, (legal) case, thing. 2. ALTHING, HUSTINGS, from Old Norse thing, assembly. 3. DINGUS, from Old High German thing, ding, thing. [Pokorny 1. tenk- 1067.] **tenk-**² To become firm, curdle, thicken. 1. Suffixed form **tenk-to-**, thickened. TIGHT, from Middle English thight, dense, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse thēttr, dense, watertight, from Germanic **thinhta-**. 2. Possibly suffixed o-grade form **tonk-lo-**. TANGLE², from a source akin to Old Norse thöngull, seaweed (? < “thick mass”), from Germanic **thangul-**. [Pokorny 2. tenk- 1068.] **tens-** To stretch, draw. Extension of **ten-**. Suffixed zero-grade form **tns-ero-**. TUSSAH, from Sanskrit tasaram, shuttle. [Pokorny tens- 1068.] **tep-** To be hot. 1. Suffixed (stative) form **tep-ē-**. TEPID, from Latin tepēre, to be warm. 2. Probably suffixed form **tep-n-**. BELTANE, from Old Irish tene, fire (Bel, Celtic deity; see **bhel-**¹). 3. Suffixed form **tep-es-**. TAPAS, from Sanskrit tapas, heat, austerity. [Pokorny tep- 1069.] **ter-** Base of derivatives meaning peg, post, boundary marker, goal. 1. Suffixed form **ter-men-**, boundary marker. TERM, TERMINATE, TERMINUS; DETERMINE, EXTERMINATE, from Latin terminus, boundary, limit. 2. Suffixed zero-grade form **tr̥-m-**. THRUM², from Old English -thrum, broken-off end (attested only in tunge-thrum, the ligament of the tongue), from Germanic **thrum-**. [Pokorny 4. ter- 1074.] **-ter-** Also **-tor-**. Suffix forming agent nouns from verbs. 1. -ATOR, -ATORY, from Latin -ātor, agent noun suffix to verbs with stem vowel **-ā-**. 2. Feminine **-tr-ī** (< **-tr-iə**). -TRIX, from Latin -trīx, feminine agent noun suffix, from **-trī-k-**. [Not in Pokorny.] **terə-**¹ To rub, turn; with some derivatives referring to twisting, boring, drilling, and piercing; and others referring to the rubbing of cereal grain to remove the husks, and thence to the process of threshing either by the trampling of oxen or by flailing with flails. (Oldest form **terh₁-**, with variant [metathesized] form **treh₁-**, contracted to **trē-**.) I. Full-grade form **ter(ə)-**. 1a. TRITE, TRITURATE; ATTRITION, CONTRITE, DETRIMENT, from Latin terere (past participle trītus), to rub away, thresh, tread, wear out; b. TEREDO, from Greek terēdōn, a kind of biting worm. 2. Suffixed form **ter-et-**. TERETE, from Latin teres (stem teret-), rounded, smooth. 3. Suffixed form **ter-sko-**. a. THRASH, THRESH, from Old English <94> therscan, to thresh; b. THRESHOLD, from Old English therscold, threscold, sill of a door (over which one treads; second element obscure). Both a and b from Germanic **therskan**, **threskan**, to thresh, tread. II. O-grade form **tor(ə)-**. 1. TOREUTICS, from Greek toreus, a boring tool. 2. Suffixed form **tor(ə)-mo-**, hole. DERMA², from Old High German darm, gut, from Germanic **tharma-**. 3. Suffixed form **tor(ə)-no-**. TURN; ATTORN, ATTORNEY, CONTOUR, DETOUR, RETURN, from Greek tornos, tool for drawing a circle, circle, lathe. III. Zero-grade form **tr̥-**. DRILL¹, from Middle Dutch drillen, to drill, from Germanic **thr-**. IV. Variant form **trē-** (< **treə-**). 1. THROW, from Old English thrāwan, to turn, twist, from Germanic **thrēw-**. 2. Suffixed form **trē-tu-**. THREAD, from Old English thrǣd, thread, from Germanic **thrēdu-**, twisted yarn. 3. Suffixed form **trē-mə** (< **treə-** or **trə-**). DIATREME, MONOTREME, TREMATODE, from Greek trēma, perforation. 4. Suffixed form **trē-ti-** (< **treə-** or **trə-**). ATRESIA, from Greek trēsis, perforation. V. Form **trī-** (< **triə-**, metathesized from **trəi-**, zero-grade of extended form **treəi-**). 1. Probably suffixed form **trī-ōn-**. SEPTENTRION, from Latin triō, plow ox. 2. Suffixed form **trī-dhlo-**. TRIBULATION, from Latin tribulum, a threshing sledge. VI. Various extended forms 1. Forms **trō-**, **trau-**. TRAUMA, from Greek trauma, hurt, wound. 2. Form **trīb-**. DIATRIBE, TRIBOELECTRICITY, TRIBOLOGY, TRIBOLUMINESCENCE, TRYPSIN, from Greek tribein, to rub, thresh, pound, wear out. 3. Form **trōg-**, **trag-**. a. TROGON, TROUT, from Greek trōgein, to gnaw; b. DREDGE², from Greek tragēma, sweetmeat. 4. Form **trūp-**. TREPAN¹; TRYPANOSOME, from Greek trupē, hole. 5. Possible form **trūg-**. TRUANT, from Old French truant, beggar. [Pokorny 3. ter- 1071.] **terə-**² To cross over, pass through, overcome. (Oldest form **terh₂-**, with variant [metathesized] form **treh₂-**, colored to **trah₂-**, contracted to **trā-**.) I. Zero-grade form **tr̥(ə)-**. 1. THRILL; NOSTRIL, from Old English thyr(e)l, thȳrel, a hole (< “a boring through”), from Germanic suffixed form **thur-ila-**. 2. Suffixed form **trə-kʷe**. THOROUGH, THROUGH, from Old English thurh, thuruh, through, from Germanic **thurh**. 3. Combining zero-grade form **-tr̥(ə)** in Greek nektar (see **nek-**¹). 4. Zero-grade form **trə-** and full-grade form **ter(ə)-**. AVATAR, from Sanskrit tirati, tarati, he crosses over. II. Variant form **trā-**. 1. TRANS-, TRANSIENT, TRANSOM, from Latin trāns, across, over, beyond, through (perhaps originally the present participle of a verb **trāre**, to cross over). 2. Suffixed form **trā-yo-**. SERAGLIO, SERAI; CARAVANSARY, LAMASERY, from Persian sarāy, inn, palace, from Iranian **thrāya-**, to protect. III. Possible extended form **trū-**. 1. Suffixed form **trū-k-**. TRUCULENT, from Latin trux (stem truc-), savage, fierce, grim (< “overcoming,” “powerful,” “penetrating”). 2. Suffixed nasalized zero-grade form **tru-n-k-o-**. TRANCHE, TRENCH, TRUNCATE, TRUNK, from Latin truncus, deprived of branches or limbs, mutilated, hence trunk (? < “overcome, maimed”). [Pokorny 5. ter- 1075.] Language and Culture Note The lowly Latin preposition trans “across, beyond” (familiar to us in words like transfigure and transmigrate) conceals a much more colorful past. It is a fossilized participle from the verbal root terə-² meaning “cross over, overcome.” In several traditions, this root is used especially of “crossing over” or overcoming death (nek-¹). Thus the mythical substance that the Olympian gods drank that bestowed immortality was called nektar in Greek, a compound of these two roots meaning literally “overcoming death.” In Hittite, the verb tarḫ-, “to overcome,” is used in combination with the related name of the storm god, Tarḫunnaš, in the Anatolian retelling of the Indo-European dragon-slaying myth (see note at gwhen-) with the initial temporary victory of the monster: “the Serpent (Illuyankas) overcame the Overcomer (Tarḫunnas).” The myth is told at the New Year’s festival (purulli), which has to do with renewal and rebirth; the serpent (in this and other versions of the Indo-European dragon-slaying myth) metaphorically represents death, dissolution, and the forces of chaos. **terkʷ-** To twist. 1. Possible variant (metathesized) form **twerkʷ-**. a. QUEER, from Middle Low German dwer, oblique; b. THWART, from Old Norse thverr, transverse. Both a and b from Germanic **thwerh-**, twisted, oblique. 2. Suffixed (causative) o-grade form **torkʷ-eyo-**. TORCH, TORMENT, TORQUE¹, TORQUE², TORSADE, TORSION, TORT, TORTUOUS, TORTURE, TRUSS; CONTORT, DISTORT, EXTORT, NASTURTIUM, RETORT¹, TORTICOLLIS, from Latin torquēre, to twist. [Pokorny terkʷ- 1077.] **-tero-** Adjectival suffix of comparative, marking contrast, as in **eks-tero-**, outer (see **eghs**). [Not in Pokorny.] Compare **-yos-**. **terp-** To take pleasure. 1. TERPSICHORE, from Greek terpein, to delight, cheer. 2. EUTERPE, from Greek Euterpē, “the well-pleasing one” (eu-, well; see **(e)su-**). [Pokorny terp- 1077.] **ters-** To dry. 1. Suffixed zero-grade form **tr̥s-**. a. THIRST, from Old English thurst, dryness, thirst, from Germanic suffixed form **thurs-tu-**; b. CUSK, TORSK, TUSK², from Old Norse thorskr, cod (< “dried fish”). Both a and b from Germanic **thurs-**. 2. Suffixed basic form **ters-ā-**. TERRACE, TERRAIN, TERRAN, TERRENE, TERRESTRIAL, TERRIER, TERRITORY, TUREEN; FUMITORY, INTER, MEDITERRANEAN, PARTERRE, SUBTERRANEAN, TARTUFO, TERRAQUEOUS, TERREPLEIN, TERREVERTE, TERRICOLOUS, TERRIGENOUS, TERROIR, TURMERIC, VERDITER, from Latin terra, “dry land,” earth. 3. Suffixed o-grade form **tors-eyo-**. TOAST¹, TORRENT, TORRID, TOSTONES, from Latin torrēre, to dry, parch, burn. 4. Suffixed zero-grade form **tr̥s-o-**. TARSUS, from Greek tarsos, frame of wickerwork (originally for drying cheese), hence a flat surface, sole of the foot, ankle. [Pokorny ters- 1078.] Language and Culture Note Etymologically, terrain is simply “dry land.” Already in Indo-European times, the root for “dry,” ters-, was used as a standard epithet for land or ground. A suffixed noun form of this root, **ters-ā-**, became terra in Latin, “land,” the source of English terrain, territory, and other such words. In this way, a word that started out as the word for “dry” in the phrase “dry land” became the word for “land” itself—an example of what linguists call a “transferred epithet.” A similar example from a much less familiar language is provided by the Tocharian words for “land,” yapoy in Tocharian B and ype in Tocharian A. These are descended from the Indo-European word **yewos**, “grain,” as used in the phrase “grain-giving earth.” **teuə-** To pay attention to, turn. 1. O-grade form **tou(ə)-**. THEW, from Old English thēaw, usage, custom (< “observance”), later good characteristic, strength. 2. Suffixed zero-grade form **tuə-ē-**. TUITION, TUTELAGE, TUTELARY, TUTOR; INTUITION, from Latin tuērī, to look at, watch, protect. [Pokorny 2. teu- 1079.] **teuə-**² Also **teu-**. To swell. (Oldest form **teuh₂-**.) 1. Extended form **teuk-**. THIGH, from Old English thēoh, thigh, from Germanic **theuham**, “the swollen or fat part of the leg,” thigh. 2. Extended form **tūs-**. THOUSAND, from Old English thūsend, thousand, from Germanic compound **thūs-hundi-**, “swollen hundred,” thousand (**hundi-**, hundred; see **dekm**). 3. Prob- <95> ably suffixed zero-grade form **tū-l-**. a. THOLE, from Old English thol(l), oar pin, oarlock (< “a swelling”), from Germanic **thul-**; b. TYLECTOMY, TYLOSIS¹, from Greek tulos, callus, lump. 4. Extended zero-grade form **tūm-**. a. THIMBLE, THUMB, from Old English thūma, thumb (< “the thick finger”), from Germanic **thūmōn-**; b. suffixed (stative) form **tum-ē-**. TUMESCENT, TUMID, TUMOR; DETUMESCENCE, INTUMESCE, TUMEFACIENT, TUMEFY, from Latin tumēre, to swell, be swollen, be proud; c. suffixed form **tum-olo-**. TUMULUS, from Latin tumulus, raised heap of earth, mound. 5. Extended zero-grade form **tūbh-**. TRUFFLE, TUBER; PROTUBERATE, TARTUFO, from Latin tūber, lump, swelling. 6. Suffixed zero-grade form **tū-ro-** (< **tuə-ro-**). a. BUTTER, TYROSINE, from Greek tūros, cheese (< “a swelling,” “coagulating”); b. OBTURATE, from Latin -tūrāre, to stop up, possibly from **tūros**, swollen, coagulated, stopped up. 7. Suffixed variant form **twō-ro-**. a. SORITES, SORUS, from Greek sōros, heap, pile; b. QUARK², from Old Church Slavonic tvarogŭ, curds, cottage cheese. 8. Suffixed variant form **twō-mn̥**. SOMA¹, SOMATO-, -SOME³; PROSOMA, from Greek sōma, body (< “a swelling,” “stocky form”). 9. Suffixed zero-grade form **tuə-wo-**. CREOSOTE, SOTERIOLOGY, from Greek saos, sōs, safe, healthy (< “swollen,” “strong”), with derivative verb sōzein, to save. 10. Perhaps nasalized extended form **tu-m-b(h)-** (or extended zero-grade form **tum-**). TOMB, from Greek tumbos, barrow, tomb. [Pokorny teu- 1080.] **teutā-** Tribe. 1a. DUTCH, from Middle Dutch duutsch, German, of the Germans or Teutons; b. PLATTDEUTSCH, from Old High German diutisc, of the people. Both a and b from Germanic **theudiskaz**, of the people; c. Germanic personal name **thiudō-rīk-**, “people’s king” (**rīk-**, king; see **reg-**¹). (i) THEODORIC, from Gothic **Thiudareiks** (> Late Latin Theodoricus); (ii) DIETRICH, from Old High German Diutarīh. a–c all from Germanic **theudō**, people. 2. Suffixed form **teut-onos**, “they of the tribe.” TEUTON, from Latin Teutonī, the Teutons, borrowed via Celtic from Germanic tribal name **theudanōz**. 3. Possibly Latin tōtus, all, whole (? < “of the whole tribe”): TOTAL, TUTTI; FACTOTUM, TEETOTUM. [In Pokorny tēu- 1080.] **-ti-** Suffix forming abstract nouns to verbal roots. Appears ultimately in the following English suffixes: a. -ATION, -IZATION, from Latin -tiō (stem -tiōn-), verbal abstract suffix, from **-ti-** plus extension by the nasal suffix **-ōn-**; b. -IASIS, from Greek -iasis (< **-iad-ti-**), abstract noun suffix to verbs formed with the stem formant **-iad-**; c. -OSIS, from Greek -ōsis (< **-ō-ti-**), abstract noun suffix to verbs with stem vowel -ō-. [Not in Pokorny.] **tit-** Also **tik-**, **kit-**. To tickle. Expressive root. 1. KITTLE, from Middle English kytyllen, to tickle, probably from a source akin to Old Norse kitla, to tickle. 2. TITILLATE, from Latin titillāre, to tickle, titillate. [In Pokorny geid- 356.] **tkē-** To gain control of, gain power over. (Oldest form **tkeh₁-**.) 1. Zero-grade form **tkə-**. a. KSHATRIYA, from Sanskrit kṣatram, rule, power; b. SATRAP, from Old Persian khshathra-, kingdom, province, in compound khshathra-pāvā, protector of the province (-pāvā, protector; see **pā-**). Both a and b from Indo-Iranian suffixed form **kṣa-tram** (built to verb **kṣayati** in 2 below). 2. Zero-grade suffixed (present) form **tkē-eyo-**. a. XERXES (personal name), from Old Persian khshayārshan-, “ruling over men” (arshan-, man, hero; see **ers-**²), from **khshaya-**, to rule over; b. CHECK, SHAH; BASHAW, CHECKMATE, EXCHEQUER, PADISHAH, PASHA, from Old Persian khshāyathiya-, king (> Modern Persian shāh, king). Both a and b from Indo-Iranian **kṣayati**, he has power over, rules. [Pokorny kþē(i)- 626.] **tkei-** To settle, dwell, be home. (Oldest form **tkei-**.) 1. Suffixed o-grade form **(t)koi-mo-**. a. HOME, from Old English hām, home; b. NIFLHEIM, from Old Norse heimr, home; c. HAIMISH, from Old High German heim, home, also in personal name HENRY, from Old High German Heimerīh, “ruler of the house” (rīh, ruler; see **reg-**¹); d. HAME, from Middle Dutch hāme, hame (< “covering”); e. HAMLET, from Old French ham, village, home; f. HAUNT, from Old French hanter, to frequent, haunt, from Germanic **haimatjan**, to go or bring home; g. HANGAR, from Old French hangard, shelter, possibly from Germanic **haimgardaz** (**gardaz**, enclosure; see **gher-**¹). a-g all from Germanic **haimaz**, home; h. dialectal Germanic **haima-**, home, in Latin Boihaemum (see **bheiə-**). 2. Zero-grade form **tki-**. a. AMPHICTYONY, PROTOCTIST, from Greek ktizein, to found, settle, from metathesized **kti-**; b. probably Italic **si-**. SITUATE, SITUS, from Latin situs, location, from suffixed form **si-tu-**. [Pokorny 1. kei- 539, kþei- 626.] **-tlo-** See **-tro-**. **to-** Demonstrative pronoun. For the nominative singular see **so-**. 1a. THE²; NATHELESS, from Old English thē, thȳ (instrumental case), by the; b. DECOY, from Middle Dutch de, the; c. LEST, from Old English the, a conjunction. a–c from Germanic **the**, from Indo-European instrumental form **tē**. 2. THOUGH, from Middle English though, though, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse thō, though, from Germanic **thauh**, “for all that.” 3. THESE, THIS, THOSE, from Old English thes, this, this, from Germanic **thasi-**. 4. THAN, THEN, from Old English thanne, thænne, thenne, than, then, from Germanic **thana-**. 5. THENCE, from Old English thanon, thence, from Germanic **thanana-**. 6. THERE, from Old English thǣr, thēr, there, from Germanic **ther**. 7. THITHER, from Old English thæder, thider, thither, from Germanic **thathrō**. 8a. THEY, from Old Norse their, they; b. BOTH, from Old Norse bāðir, both, from Germanic **bai thaiz**, “both the” (**bai**, both; see **ambhō**). Both a and b from Germanic nominative plural **thai**. 9. THEIR, from Old Norse their(r)a, theirs, from Germanic genitive plural **thaira**. 10a. THEM, from Old Norse theim and Old English thǣm, thām, them; b. NONCE, from Middle English for then ānes, for the nonce, for the occasion, from then, dative singular article, from Old English thǣm, thām, dative singular article, originally dative plural used as singular. Both a and b from Germanic dative plural **thaimiz**. 11. Extended neuter form **tod-**. THAT, from Old English thæt, that, from Germanic **that**. 12. THUS, from Old English thus, thus, from Germanic **thus-**. 13. Adverbial (originally accusative) form **tam**. TANDEM, TANTAMOUNT, from Latin tandem, at last, so much, and tantus, so much. 14. Suffixed reduced form **t-ali-**. TALES, from Latin tālis, such. 15. TAUTO-, from Greek to, the. 16. Probably related to this pronoun, although the details are obscure, is the Old Irish preverb to-, do-, to, towards (compare Albanian te, to, and Messapic ta- in tabaras, priest < “he who distributes the sacralized offering to others”; see **sak-**). a. TAOISEACH (see **wedh-**). b. TORY (see **ret-**). [Pokorny 1. to- 1086.] **-to-** Also **-eto-**, **-oto-**. Suffix forming adjectives marking the accomplishment of the notion of the base. Where the base is verbal, they are participial (finished); where the base is nominal, they mark possession (beard-ed). It is also found in superlative suffixes and ordinal numeral suffixes (as in Latin sex-tus, sixth, and English six-th; see **-is-to-** for a discussion of the semantics). It appears ultimately in the following English suffixes: a. -ED², from Old English -ed, -ad, -od, from Germanic **-da-** (preceded by stem vowel of verb); b. -ED³, from Old English -ed, -od, from Germanic **-da-**; c. -TH³, from Old English -the, ordinal numeral suffix, from Germanic **-tha-**; d. -ATE¹, -EE¹, from Latin -ātus, past participial suffix to verbs in -āre (< **-ā-to-**); e. -ETIC, from Greek -etos, verbal adjective <96> suffix. [Not in Pokorny.] See also compound suffix **-is-to-** and compare **-no-**. **tolkw-** To speak. Metathesized form **tlokw-**. LOCUTION, LOQUACIOUS; ALLOCUTION, CIRCUMLOCUTION, COLLOQUIUM, COLLOQUY, ELOCUTION, GRANDILOQUENCE, INTERLOCUTION, MAGNILOQUENT, OBLOQUY, PROLOCUTOR, SOLILOQUY, VENTRILOQUISM, from Latin loquī, to speak. [Pokorny tolkw- 1088.] **tong-** To think, feel. 1. THANK, from Old English thanc, thought, good will, and thancian, to thank, from Germanic **thankaz**, thought, gratitude, and **thankōn**, to think of, thank. 2. THINK; BETHINK, from Old English (bi)thencan, to think, from Germanic **(bi-)thankjan**. 3. THOUGHT, from Old English (ge)thōht, thought, from Germanic **(ga)thanht-** (**ga-**, collective prefix; see **kom**). 4. METHINKS, from Old English thyncan, to seem, from Germanic **thunkjan**. [Pokorny 1. tong- 1088.] **-tor-** See **-ter-**. **tragh-** To draw, drag, move. Rhyming variant **dhragh-**. TRACE¹, TRACE², TRACEUR, TRACT, TRACTABLE, TRACTION, TRAIL, TRAIN, TRAIT, TREAT; ABSTRACT, ATTRACT, CONTRACT, DETRACT, DISTRACT, EXTRACT, PORTRAY, PROTRACT, RETRACT, SUBTRACT, from Latin trahere (past participle tractus), to pull, draw. [Pokorny tragh- 1089.] **treb-** Dwelling. 1. Zero-grade form **tr̥b-**. a. THORP, from Old English thorp, village, hamlet; b. DORP, from Middle Dutch dorp, village. Both a and b from Germanic **thurpam**. 2. TRABEATED, TRABECULA, TRAVE; ARCHITRAVE, from Latin trabs, beam, timber. [Pokorny trěb- 1090.] **trei-** Three. I. Nominative plural form **treyes**. 1a. THREE, THRICE; THIRTEEN, THIRTY, from Old English thrīe, thrēo, thrī, three, with its derivatives thrīga, thriwa, thrice, thrītig, thirty, and thrēotīne, thirteen (-tīne, ten; see **dekm**); b. TRILLIUM, from Old Swedish thrīr, three. Both a and b from Germanic **thrijiz**. 2. TREY; TRAMMEL, TRECENTO, TREPHINE, TRIUMVIR, TROCAR, from Latin trēs, three. 3. TRISKAIDEKAPHOBIA, from Greek treis, tris, three. II. Zero-grade form **tri-**. 1. Suffixed form **trityo-**. a. (i) THIRD, from Old English thrid(d)a, thirdda, third; (ii) RIDING², from Old Norse thriðji, third. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic **thridja-**, third; b. TERCEL, TERCET, TERTIAN, TERTIARY, TIERCE; SESTERCE, from Latin tertius, third. 2. Combining form **tri-**. a. TRI-, TRIBE, TRIO, TRIPLE, from Latin tri-, three; b. TRI-; TRICLINIUM, TRICROTIC, TRIDACTYL, TRIGLYPH, TRITONE, from Greek tri-, three; c. TRIMURTI, from Sanskrit tri-, three. 3. TRIAD, from Greek trias, the number three. 4. TRICHOTOMY, from Greek trikha, in three parts. 5. TRIERARCH, from Greek compound triērēs, galley with three banks of oars, trireme (-ērēs, oar; see **erə-**¹). 6. Suffixed form **tri-to-**. TRITIUM, from Greek tritos, third. 7. Compound form **tri-pl-**, “threefold” (**-pl-** < combining form **-plo-**, -fold; see **pel-**³). TRIPLOBLASTIC, from Greek triploos, triple. 8. Compound form **tri-plek-**, “threefold” (**-plek-**, -fold; see **plek-**). TRIPLEX, from Latin triplex, triple. 9. Compound form **tri-st-i-**, “third person standing by” (**-st-**, standing; see **stā-**). TESTAMENT, TESTIMONY, TESTICLE, TESTIS; ATTEST, CONTEST, DETEST, OBTEST, PROTEST, TESTIFY, from Latin testis, a witness. 10. SITAR, TEAPOY, from Persian si, three. III. Extended zero-grade form **tris**, “thrice.” 1. TERN; TERPOLYMER, from Latin ter, thrice. 2. TRISOCTAHEDRON, HERMES TRISMEGISTUS, from Greek tris, thrice. 3. Suffixed form **tris-no-**. TRINE, TRINITY, from Latin trīnī, three each. IV. Suffixed o-grade form **troy-o-**. TROIKA, from Russian troje, group of three. [Pokorny trei- 1090.] **trem-** To tremble. Possibly related to **trep-**¹ and **tres-** through a hypothetical base **ter-**. TREMENDOUS, TREMOR, TREMULOUS, from Latin tremere, to shake, tremble. [Pokorny trem- 1092.] **trep-**¹ To tremble. Possibly related to **trem-** and **tres-** through a hypothetical base **ter-**. TREPID; INTREPID, from Latin trepidus, agitated, alarmed. [Pokorny 1. trep- 1094.] **trep-**² To turn. 1. -TROPOUS; APOTROPAIC, ATROPOS, HELIOTROPE, TREPONEMA, ZOETROPE, from Greek trepein, to turn, with o-grade derivative -tropos, turning. 2. O-grade form **trop-**. a. Suffixed form **trop-o-**. TROPE, TROUBADOUR, TROVER; CONTRIVE, RETRIEVE, from Greek tropos, a turn, way, manner; b. suffixed form **trop-ā-**. TROPHY, TROPIC, TROPO-; ENTROPY, from Greek tropē, a turning, change. [Pokorny 2. trep- 1094.] **tres-** To tremble. Possibly related to **trem-** and **trep-**¹ through a hypothetical base **ter-**. Metathesized form **ters-** in o-grade suffixed (causative) form **tors-eyo-**. TERRIBLE, TERROR; DETER, TERRIFIC, from Latin terrēre, to frighten (< “cause to tremble”), with -e- from terror, terror (from suffixed e-grade form **tersos-**). [Pokorny tres- 1095.] **treud-** To squeeze. 1. Suffixed o-grade form **troud-o-**. THREAT, from Old English thrēat, oppression, use of force, from Germanic **thrautam**. 2. Variant form **trūd-**. THRUST, from Old Norse thrȳsta, to squeeze, compress, from Germanic **thrūstjan**. 3. ABSTRUSE, EXTRUDE, INTRUDE, OBTRUDE, PROTRUDE, from Latin trūdere, to thrust, push. [Pokorny tr-eu-d- 1095.] **-tro-** Variant forms **-tlo-**, **-dhro-**, **-dhlo-**. Suffix forming nouns of instrument, as in **rē-tro-**, rudder (see **erə-**¹), **pō-tlo-**, drinking vessel (see **pō(i)-**), **krei-dhro-**, sieve (see **krei-**), and **sed-dhlo-**, saddle (see **sed-**¹). Appears ultimately in the English suffixes -ABILITY, -ABLE, -IBLE, -IBILITY, from Latin -bilis, adjective suffix, and compound suffix -ābilis (from verbs with stem vowel -ā-), from i-stem form **-dhli-**. [Not in Pokorny.] **trozdo-** Thrush. 1. THROSTLE, from Old English throstle, thrush, from Germanic **thrust-**. 2. THRUSH¹, from Old English thrysce, from Germanic **thruskjōn-**. 3. Zero-grade form **tr̥zdo-**. STURDY, from Latin turdus, thrush. 4. Perhaps altered in Greek strouthos, sparrow, ostrich: STRUTHIOUS; OSTRICH. [Pokorny trozdos 1096.] **tū** Second person singular pronoun; you, thou. 1. Lengthened form **tū** (accusative **te**, **tege**). THEE, THOU¹, from Old English thū (accusative thec, thē), thou, from Germanic **thū** (accusative **theke**). 2. Suffixed extended form **t(w)ei-no-**. THINE, THY, from Old English thīn, thine, from Germanic **thīna-**. [Pokorny tū 1097.] **-tū-** Suffix forming abstract nouns. Appears ultimately in the following English suffixes: a. -NESS, from Old English -ness, abstract noun suffix, from Germanic **-in-assu-** (**-in-**, noun stem + **-assu-**, abstract noun suffix, probably from Indo-European **-tu-** added to verb stems in final dental); b. -TUDE, from Latin -tūdō (stem -tūdin-), abstract noun suffix, from **-tū-** extended by a suffix **-din-**. [Not in Pokorny.] **twei-** To agitate, shake, toss. 1. Extended form **tweid-**. a. WHITTLE, from Old English thwītan, to strike, whittle down; b. DOIT, from Middle Dutch duit, a small coin (? < “piece cut or tossed off”). Both a and b from Germanic **thwīt-**. 2. Extended form **tweis-**. SEISM, SEISMO-, SISTRUM, from Greek seiein, to shake. [Pokorny 2. twei- 1099.] **twengh-** To press in on. 1. THONG, from Old English thwong, thwang, thong, band (< “constraint”), from Germanic **thwang-**. 2. TWINGE, from Old English twengan, to pinch, from Germanic suffixed variant form **twangjan**. [Pokorny twengh- (misprint for tuengh-) 1099.] **twerk-** To cut. (Oldest form **twerk-**.) Zero-grade form **twr̥k-**. SARCASM, SARCO-, SARCOID, SARCOMA, SARCOUS; ANASARCA, ECTOSARC, SARCOPHAGUS, SARCOPTIC MANGE, SYSSARCOSIS, from Greek sarx, flesh (< “piece of meat”). [Pokorny twerk- 1102.] <97> **ud-** Also **ūd-**. Up, out. 1a. OUT; UTMOST, from Old English ūt, out; b. CAROUSE; AUSLANDER, from Old High German ūz, out; c. OUTLAW, from Old Norse ūt, out; d. UITLANDER, from Middle Dutch ūte, uut, out; e. UTTER¹, from Middle Low German ūt, out; f. UTTER², from Old English ūtera, outer, from Germanic suffixed (comparative) form **ūt-era-**; g. BUT; ABOUT, from Old English būtan, būte, outside (adverb), from Germanic compound **bi-ūtana**, “at the outside” (**bi-**, by, at; see **ambhi**). a–g all from Germanic **ūt-**, out. 2. Extended form **uds**. a. ERSATZ, from Old High German irsezzan, to replace, from ir-, out; b. ORT, from Middle Dutch oor-, out; c. Germanic compound **uz-dailjam** (see **dail-**); d. URSPRACHE, from Old High German ur-, out of, original. a–d all from Germanic **uz-**, **uz-**, out. 3. Suffixed (comparative) form **ud-tero-**. HYSTERESIS, HYSTERON PROTERON, from Greek husteros, later, second, after. 4. HUBRIS, from Greek compound hubris, violence, outrage, insolence (bri-, perhaps “heavy,” “violent”; see **gwerə-**²), from hu-. 5. VIGORISH, from Russian vy-, out. [Pokorny ud- 1103.] **udero-** Abdomen, womb, stomach; with distantly similar forms (perhaps taboo deformations) in various languages. 1. UTERUS, from Latin uterus, womb (reshaped from **udero-**). 2. Perhaps taboo deformation **wen-tri-**. VENTER; VENTRILOQUISM, from Latin venter, belly. 3. Perhaps taboo deformation **wnd-ti-**. VESICA, from Latin vēsīca, bladder. 4. Variant form **ud-tero-**. HYSTERIC, HYSTERO-, from Greek husterā, womb. [Pokorny udero- 1104.] **uks-en-** Bull, ox. 1. OX, from Old English oxa, ox. 2. AUROCHS, from Old High German ohso, ox. Both 1 and 2 from Germanic **uhson-**. [In Pokorny wegʷ- 1118.] **uper** Over. 1. Extended form **uperi**. a. OVER, OVER-, from Old English ofer, over; b. ÜBER-, from Old High German ubar, uber (preposition) and ubari (adverb), over; c. ORLOP, from Middle Low German over, over. a–c all from Germanic **uberi**. 2. Variant form **(s)uper**. a. SOUBRETTE, SOVEREIGN, SUPER-, SUPERABLE, SUPERIOR, SUPREME, SUPREMO, SUR-; SIRLOIN, from Latin super, super-, above, over; b. suffixed form **(s)uper-no-**. SUPERNAL, from Latin supernus, above, upper, top; c. suffixed form **super-bhw-o-**, “being above” (**bhw-o-**, being; see **bheuə-**). SUPERB, from Latin superbus, superior, excellent, arrogant; d. suffixed (superlative) reduced form **sup-mo-**. SUM¹, SUMMIT, from Latin summus, highest, topmost; e. suffixed form **super-o-**. SOPRANINO, SOPRANO, SUPRA-; SOMERSAULT, from Latin suprā (feminine ablative singular), above, beyond. 3. Basic form **uper**. HYPER-, from Greek huper, over. [Pokorny upér 1105.] **upo** Under, up from under, over. 1a. UP, from Old English up, uppe, up; b. UP-, from Old English up-, upp-, up; c. UPROAR, from Middle Low German up, up; d. AUFKLÄRUNG, from Old High German ūf, up. a-d all from Germanic **upp-**, up. 2. OPEN, from Old English open, open, from Germanic **upana-**, “put or set up,” open. 3. ABOVE, from Old English ābūfan, above, over, from Germanic compound **bi-ufana**, “on, above” (**bi-**, by, at; see **ambhi**). 4. Possibly suffixed form **up-t-**. OFT, OFTEN, from Old English oft, often, from Germanic **ufta**, frequently. 5. Extended form **upes-**. a. EAVES, from Old English efes, eaves; b. EAVESDROP, from Old English yfesdrype, water from the eaves, from Germanic **obisdrup-**, dripping water from the eaves (**drup-**, to drip; see **dhreu-**). Both a and b from Germanic **ubaswō**, **ubizwō**, vestibule, porch, eaves (< “that which is above or in front”). 6. Variant form **(s)up-**. a. SOUTANE, SUB-, from Latin sub, under; b. SUPINE; RESUPINATE, from Latin supīnus, lying on the back (< “thrown backward or under”); c. suffixed form **sup-ter**. SUBTERFUGE, from Latin subter, secretly; d. Latin compound supplex (< **sub-plak-**; see **plāk-**¹). 7. Basic form **upo**. HYPO-, from Greek hupo, under. 8. Suffixed variant form **ups-o-**. HYPSO-, from Greek hupsos, height, top. 9. Basic form **upo-**. Celtic **wo-**, under, in compound **wo-rēd-** (see **reidh-**). 10. Probably compound **upo-st-o-**. VALET, VARLET, VASSAL, from Vulgar Latin **vassus**, vassal, from Celtic **wasso-**, “one who stands under,” servant, young man (**sto-**, standing; see **stā-**). 11a. OPAL, UPANISHAD, from Sanskrit upa, near to, under; b. ZEND-AVESTA, from Avestan upa, up to, at (in **upastāvaka-**, praise). Both a and b from Indo-Iranian **upa**. [Pokorny upo 1106.] **u(w)al-** To howl. Imitative root. (Oldest form **h₂u(wa)l-**.) 1. OWL, from Old English ūle, owl, from Germanic **uwwalōn-**. 2. HOWL, from Middle English houlen, to howl (like an owl), possibly from Germanic by-form **uwwilōn-**, owl. 3. Reduplicated contracted form **ul-ul-**. ULULATE, from Latin ululāre, to howl. [Pokorny 1. u- 1103, ul- 1105.] **wāp-** To cry, scream. Suffixed form **wāp-eyo-**. WEEP, from Old English wēpan, to weep, from Germanic **wōpjan**. [Pokorny uāb- 1109.] **wadh-**¹ A pledge; to pledge. 1a. WEDLOCK, from Old English wedd, a pledge, marriage; b. WED, from Old English weddian, to pledge, bind in wedlock; c. GAGE; DÉGAGÉ, ENGAGE, ENGAGÉ, MORTGAGE, from Old French gage, a pledge; d. WAGE, WAGER, from Old North French wage, a pledge, payment, and wagier, to pledge. a-d all from Germanic **wadi-**. 2. PRAEDIAL, from Latin praes, praed- (< **prai-vad-**), surety, pledge (< “that which is given before”; **prai-**, before; see **per**¹). [Pokorny yadh- 1109.] **wadh-**² To go. 1. Basic form **wadh-**. a. WADE, from Old English wadan, to go, from Germanic **wadan**; b. VADOSE, from Latin vadum, ford. 2. Lengthened-grade form **wādh-**. VAMOOSE; EVADE, INVADE, PERVADE, from Latin vādere, to go, step. [Pokorny yādh- 1109.] **wag-** To break, split, bite. (Oldest form perhaps **weh₂g-**, colored to **wah₂g-**, contracted to **wag-**.) Suffixed form **wag-īnā-**. VAGINA, VANILLA; EVAGINATE, INVAGINATE, from Latin vāgīna, sheath (probably made of a split piece of wood). [Pokorny 1. yag- 1110.] **wai** Alas (interjection). 1. WOE; WELLAWAY, from Old English wā, wei, woe (interjection), alas, from Germanic **wai**. 2. WAIL, from Middle English wailen, to wail, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse vēla, vǣla, **veila**, to lament. [Pokorny yai- 1110.] **wak-** Cow. (Oldest form **wak-**.) Expressive form **wakkā-**. BUCKAROO, VACCINE, VAQUERO, from Latin vacca, cow. [Pokorny wākā (misprint for yākā) 1111.] **wal-** To be strong. I. 1. Suffixed (stative) form **wal-ē-**. VALE², VALENCE, VALETUDINARIAN, VALIANT, VALID, VALOR, VALUE; AMBIVALENCE, AVAIL, CONVALESCE, COUNTERVAIL, EQUIVALENT, EVALUATE, INVALID¹, INVALID², PREVAIL, VALEDICTION, from Latin valēre, to be strong. 2. Suffixed form **wal-o-**. Celtic **walos**, “ruler,” in personal name **dubno-walos** (see **dheub-**). II. Extended o-grade form **wold(h)-**. 1. WIELD, from Old English wealdan, to rule, and wieldan, to govern, from Germanic **waldan**, to rule. 2a. Old English weald, power, in personal name Ōsweald (see **ansu-**); b. Old High German -walt, -wald, power, in personal names: (i) WALTER, probably from Old High German Walthari, “army commander” (hari, heri, army; see **koro-**); (ii) Old High German Gerald (see **ghaiso-**); (iii) Old High German Arenwald (see **or-**); c. RONALD (personal name), from Old Norse Rögnvaldr, “having the gods’ power” (rögn, “decreeing powers,” gods, plural of regin, decree), from Old Norse valdr, ruler; d. Germanic compound **harja-waldaz** (see **koro-**). a–d all from Germanic **waldaz**, power, rule. 3. Old Church Slavonic vlasti (stem vlad(i)-), <98> to rule over: VLADIMIR (> Russian Vladimir), “ruling prince” (*-mirŭ, peace; see **mei-**⁴). 4. Suffixed extended form **wal-dho-**. VATSALYA, from Sanskrit valdh- (?), child. [Pokorny ual- 1111.] **wald-** Wood, forest. Probably a derivative (meaning “wild growth”) of **wal-**, to be strong, with suffix **-dh-**. [Not in Pokorny.] 1. WEALD, WOLD, from Old English weald, wald, forest, woodland, from Germanic **waldaz**. **wap-** Bad. Evil. Oldest form **wap-**? Suffixed zero-grade form **up-ilo-**. EVIL, from Old English yfel, evil, from Germanic **ubilaz**, evil. [Not in Pokorny.] Compare Greek hupalos, deceitful. **wē-** Also **wō-**. Wet. Suffixed form **wō-to-**. WET, from Old English wǣt, wet, from Germanic **wēta-**. [Not in Pokorny.] **wē-**¹, **wē-**², etc. See **au-**¹, **au-**², etc. **webh-** To move back and forth, weave. See also **web-**. 1. WEAVE, from Old English wefan, to weave, from Germanic **weban**. 2. WAIVE, from Anglo-Norman weyver, to abandon, from a source akin to Old High German weibōn, to move from side to side. 3. WAFF, WAFFLE¹, from a source akin to Middle Dutch wafel, wafer, honeycomb. 4. WEFT, from Old English wefta, weft, from Germanic **weftō**. 5. WEB, WEBSTER, from Old English webb, web, from Germanic **wabjam**. 6. WAFER; WOBBLE, from Old English wafre, restless, from a source akin to Old Norse vāfa, to hover about, from Germanic **wabr-.** 7. WEEVIL, from Old English wifel, beetle, from Germanic **wibilaz.** 8. GOSSAMER, from Middle English gossomer, gossamer, perhaps from a source akin to Old Low German **gōs**, goose (**gans-**), and **sumer**, summer (**sem-**²), thus “goose-summer,” a late, mild autumn, time of year when goose is eaten, from a source akin to Old Low German **sumer**, summer. The connection with gossamer is obscure; perhaps it is a folk-etymological alteration of a word akin to Old Norse **vefr**, web. [Pokorny uebh- 1114.] **wed-**¹ Wet; water. I. Basic form **wed-**. 1a. WASH, from Old English wascan, to wash, from a source akin to Old High German waskan, to wash, from Germanic **waskan**; b. VODKA, from Russian voda, water. 2. WINTER, from Old English winter, winter, from Germanic **wentruz**. 3. WET, from Old English wǣt, wet, from Germanic **wētaz**. 4a. WATER, from Old English wæter, water; b. OTTER, from Old English otor, otter, from Germanic **otaraz**. 5. HOUNDFISH, from Old English hund, dog (**kwon-**), and **fisc**, fish (**pisk-**); the connection with hund is uncertain; perhaps it is a folk-etymological alteration of **wund**, water. 6. UNDINE, from Medieval Latin unda, wave, from a source akin to Latin unda, wave, from Germanic **unthō**, wave. 7. ONDATRA, from a source akin to Lithuanian unduo, otter. 8. HOUND'S-TOOTH, from Old English hund, dog (**kwon-**), and **tōth**, tooth (**dent-**). The connection with hund is uncertain; perhaps it is a folk-etymological alteration of **wund**, water. II. Zero-grade form **ud-**. 1a. UDOMETER, from Greek hudōr, water; b. HYDRANT, HYDRATE, HYDRIDE, HYDRO, HYDRO-, from Greek hudōr, water. 2a. HYDRA, from Greek hudra, water serpent; b. HYDROUS, from Greek hudros, watery. [Pokorny 1. au- 11, ued- 1115.] **wed-**² To speak. 1. O-grade form **wod-**. VOW, from Old French vouer, to vow, from a source akin to Latin vōtum, vow, from Germanic **wōd-**. 2. Possible reduplicated form **we-wkw-**. VOX POPULI, from Latin vōx, voice, from Germanic **wōkw-**. 3. Possibly from a separate root **wek-**. VOCABLE, VOCABULARY, VOCAL, VOUCH, from Latin vocāre, to call, from Germanic **wok-**. 4. Possibly from a separate root **wek-**. ELOQUENT, from Latin loquī, to speak, from Germanic **lokw-**. 5. Suffixed o-grade form **wokw-o-**. a. EPIC, from Greek epos, word, song; b. ORTHOEPY, from Greek epos, word. 6. Suffixed o-grade form **wokw-s**. a. VOICE, from Old English wōcs, voice, from Germanic **wōkw-s**; b. VOCIFERATE, from Latin vōx, voice. [Pokorny 1. uek- 1135.] **wedh-** To lead, marry. 1. WED, from Old English weddian, to marry. 2. GALA, from Old French gale, rejoicing. 3. GALLANT, from Old French galant, courteous, from a source akin to Old High German **gala**, rejoicing. 4. GALLEON, from Spanish galeón, galleon. [Pokorny uedh- 1116.] **weg-** To be strong, be lively. 1. WAKE¹, from Old English wacan, to arise, awake, and wacian, to be awake, from Germanic **wak-**. 2. AWAIT, WARD, from a source akin to Old North French warder, to guard. 3. WAKEN, from Old English wæcnan, wæcnian, to awake, from Germanic **wakn-**. 4. WATCH, from Old English wæccan, to be awake, from Germanic **wakj-**. 5. VIGIL, VIGILANT, VIGILANTE; REVEILLE, SURVEILLANCE, from Latin vigil, watchful, awake. 6. VIGOR, from Latin vigor, liveliness, activity. 7. VELOCIPEDE, VELOCITY, from Latin vēlōx, fast, swift. 8. WAFT, from a source akin to Middle Dutch and Middle Low German wachten, to guard. 9. BIVOUAC, from a source akin to Swiss German **biwacht**, guard. 10. VEDETTE, from Italian vedetta, lookout post. 11. WAIT, from Old North French waitier, to watch. [Pokorny ueg- 1117.] **wegh-** To go, transport in a vehicle. I. Basic form **wegh-**. 1. WAG, from Old English wagian, to move. 2. WAGON, WAGGON, from Middle Dutch wagen, wagon. 3. WAY, from Old English weg, way. 4. WEIGH, from Old English wegan, to carry, weigh. 5a. ALWAYS, WAYWARD, from Old English weg, way; b. NORWEGIAN, from Old Norse vegr, way. 6a. OGEE, from Old French augive, ogive; b. VOE, from Old Norse vāgr, sea. 7. DEVIOUS, ENVOY, OBVIOUS, PERVIOUS, PREVIOUS, TRIVIA, TRIVIAL, VOYAGE, from Latin via, way, road. 8. CONVEX, from Latin convexus, vaulted, arched. 9a. VECTURE, VEHICLE, VEIL, from Latin vehere, to carry; b. INVEIGH, from Latin invehere, to attack with words. 10. VEX, from Latin vexāre, to agitate. 11. WALLEYED, from Old Norse valdr, cast in the eye. 12. VEER, from a source akin to Dutch vieren, to slacken. II. O-grade form **wogh-**. 1. WOG, from a source akin to Old High German wagan, to rock. 2. WAVE, from Old English wagian, to sway. III. Zero-grade form **w̥gh-**. 1. WALRUS, from Dutch walrus, walrus. 2. OOLOGY, from Greek ōion, egg. 3. DISTICH, from Greek stikhos, row, line of verse. [Pokorny u̯egh- 1118.] <99> sway, from Germanic *wega-, water in motion; c. (i) **EARWIG**, from Old English wicga, insect (< "thing that moves quickly"); (ii) **WIGGLE**, from Middle Dutch and Middle Low German wiggelen, to move back and forth, wag. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *wig-. 8. Basic form *wegh-. **VECTOR**, **VEHEMENT**, **VEHICLE**; **ADVECTION**, **CONVECTION**, **EVECTION**, **INVECTIVE**, **INVEIGH**, from Latin vehere (past participle vectus), to carry. 9. Suffixed basic form *wegh-yā-. **FOY**, **VIA**, **VIATICAL**, **VOYAGE**; **CONVEY**, **CONVOY**, **DEVIATE**, **DEVIOUS**, **ENVOI**, **ENVOY**¹, **INVOICE**, **OBVIATE**, **OBVIOUS**, **OGEE**, **OGIVE**, **PERVIOUS**, **PREVIOUS**, **TRIVIAL**, **TRIVIUM**, **VIADUCT**, from Latin via, way, road. 10. Suffixed form *wegh-s-. vex, from Latin vexare, to agitate (< "to set in motion"). 11. Probably suffixed form *wegh-so-. **CONVEX**, from Latin convexus, "carried or drawn together (to a point)," convex (com-, together; see **kom**). [Pokorny yeĝh- 1118.] **Language and Culture Note** The root **wegh-**, "to convey, especially by wheeled vehicle," is found in virtually every branch of Indo-European, including now Anatolian. This root, as well as other widely represented roots such as **aks-** and **nobh-**, attests to the presence of the wheel-and vehicles using it at the time Proto-Indo-European was spoken. From this root was derived the word for "wagon, wheeled vehicle," variously *wegh-no-, *wogh-no-, or *ugh-no-, continued for example by English wain and wagon (the latter a borrowing from Old Norse). Wheeled vehicles were apparently an innovation of late Indo-European date; the word for wheel itself, reconstructed as *k*eklo-, is from a reduplicated form of the root **kwel-**¹, “to turn," and its reduplicated form has the feel of a slangy new term. Archaeologists have dated the invention of the wheel to about 4500 BC, which fits rather well with the date assumed by many linguists for late Proto-Indo-European. **wegw-** Wet. 1. **WAKE**², from Old Norse vök, a crack in ice (< "wet spot"), from Germanic *wakw-ō. 2. Proposed by some, but doubtfully, is suffixed zero-grade form *ug-sm- as the base of Latin (h)ûmère, to be wet, and (h)ūmor, fluid: **HUMECTANT**, **HUMID**, **HUMOR**. 3. Suffixed zero-grade form *ug-ro-. **HYGRO-**, from Greek hugros, wet, liquid. [Pokorny vegv- 1118.] **wegwh-** To preach, speak solemnly. (Oldest form probably *h₁wegwh-, with variant [metathesized] form *heugwh-.) Suffixed o-grade form *wogwh-eyo-. **VOTARY**, **VOTE**, **VOTIVE**, **VOW**; **DEVOTE**, **DEVOUT**, from Latin vovère, to plege, vow. [Pokorny eueguh-348.] **wei-**¹ Also **weiǝ-** (oldest form *weih₁-). To turn, twist; with derivatives referring to suppleness or binding. I. Form *wei-. 1a. **WIRE**, from Old English wir, wire; b. **GARLAND**, from Old French garlande, wreath, from Frankish *wiara, *weara, wire. Both a and b from Germanic suffixed form *wi-ra-, *we-ra-. 2. Probably suffixed Germanic form *wai-ra-. **SEAWARE**, from Old English war, seaweed. 3. Suffixed zero-grade form *wi-riā-. **FERRULE**, from Latin viriae, bracelets (of Celtic origin). 4. Suffixed form *wei-ti-. **WITHY**, from Old English withig, willow, withy, from Germanic *with-, willow. 5. Suffixed zero-grade form *wi-t-. **WITHE**, from Old English withthe, supple twig, from Germanic *withjōn-. II. Form *weia-, zero-grade *wi- (< *wia-). 1. Suffixed form *wi-ti-. **VISE**; **VITICULTURE**, from Latin vītis, vine. 2. Suffixed form *wi-ta- becoming *wittā-. **VITTA**, from Latin vitta, headband. 3. Suffixed form *wi-men-. **MIMBRES**, from Latin vimen, withy, wicker. 4. Probably suffixed form *wi-ri-, **IRIDACEOUS**, **IRIDO-**, **IRIS**, **IRIS**; **IRIDIUM**, **IRITIS**, from Greek iris, rainbow, and Iris, rainbow goddess. 5. Perhaps suffixed form *wi-n-. **INION**; **EXINE**, **INOSINE**, **INOSITOL**, **INOTROPIC**, from Greek is, sinew. [Pokorny 1. μεί- 1120.] **wei-**² To wither. Extended form *weis-. **WIZEN**, from Old English wisnian, to wither, shrivel, shrink, from Germanic suffixed form *wis-n-ōn, from Germanic *wis-. [Pokorny 2. uei- 1123.] **wei-**³ Vice, fault, guilt. 1. Suffixed zero-grade form *wi-tio-, **VICE**, **VICIOUS**, **VITIATE**, from Latin vitium, fault, vice. 2. Suffixed form *wi-tu-. a. **VITILIGO**, from Latin vitilīgā, tetter (< "blemish"); b. **VITUPERATE**, from Latin vituperare, to abuse (perhaps formed after Latin recuperare, to regain). [Pokorny 1. ut - 1175.] **weid-** To see. I. Full-grade form *weid-. 1a. **TWIT**, from Old English witan, to reproach; b. **GUIDE**, **GUIDON**, from Old Provençal guidar, to guide; c. **GUY**¹, from Old French guier, to guide; d. **WITE**, from Old English wite, fine, penalty, from Germanic derivative noun *witi-. a-d all from Germanic *witan, to look after, guard, ascribe to, reproach. 2. Suffixed form *weid-to-. a. **WISE**¹, from Old English wis, wise; b. **WISDOM**, from Old English wisdom, learning, wisdom (-dom, abstract suffix; see **dhē-**); c. **WISEACRE**, from Old High German wizag, knowledgeable; d. (i) **WISE**², from Old English wise, wis, manner; (ii) **GUISE**, from Old French guise, manner. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *wissōn-, appearance, form, manner. a-d all from Germanic *wissaz. 3. Suffixed form *weid-es-. **EIDETIC**, **EIDOLON**, **IDOL**, **IDYLL**, **-OID**; **IDOCRASE**, **KALEIDOSCOPE**, from Greek eidos, form, shape. II. Zero-grade form *wid-. 1a. **WIT**¹, from Old English wit, witt, knowledge, intelligence; b. **WIT- ENAGEMOT**, from Old English wita, wise man, councilor. Both a and b from Germanic *wit-. 2. **WIT**², **WOT**; **UNWITTING**, from Old English witan, to know, from Germanic *witan (Old English first and third person singular wat, from Germanic *wait, from Indo-European o-grade form *woid-). 3. Suffixed form *wid-to-. **IWIS**, from Old English gewis, gewiss, certain, sure, from Germanic *(ga)wissa-, known (*ga-, past participial prefix; see **kom**). 4. Form *wid-e- (with the participial form *weid-to-). **VIDE**, **VIEW**, **VISA**, **VISAGE**, **VISION**, **VISIT**, **VISOR**, **VISTA**, **VOYEUR**; **ADVICE**, **ADVISE**, **BELVEDERE**, **BLACK-A-VISED**, **CLAIRVOYANT**, **DÉJÀ VU**, **ENVY**, **EVIDENT**, **IMPROVISE**, **INTERVIEW**, **INVIDIOUS**, **PREVISE**, **PROVIDE**, **PRUDENT**, **PURVEY**, **PURVIEW**, **REVIEW**, **REVISE**, **SUPERVISE**, **SURVEY**, from Latin videre, to see, look. 5. Suffixed form *wid-es-yā-. **IDEA**, **IDEO-**, from Greek ideā, appearance, form, idea. 6. Suffixed form *wid-tor-. **HISTORY**, **STORY**¹; **POLYHISTOR**, from Greek histōr, wise, learned, learned man. 7. **HADAL**, **HADES**, from Greek Haïdes (also Aides), the underworld, perhaps "the invisible," and from *wid-. 8. Suffixed nasalized zero-grade form *wi-n-d-o-. a. **COLCANNON**, from Old Irish find, white (< "clearly visible"); b. **PENGUIN**, from Welsh gwyn, gwynn, white. 9. Celtic *wid-, seer, in compound *dru-wid- (see **deru-**). III. Suffixed o-grade form *woid-o-. **VEDA**; **RIG-VEDA**, from Sanskrit vedah, knowledge. [Pokorny 2. u(e)di- (misprint for u(e)id-) 1125.] **weidh-** To divide, separate. 1. Suffixed zero-grade form *widh-ewo-, "bereft," feminine *widh-ewa-, "woman separated (from her husband by death);" widow. **WIDOW**, from Old English widuwe, widow, from Germanic *widuwō. 2. Zero-grade form *widh-. **DEVISE**, **DIVIDE**; **POINT-DEVICE**, from Latin dividere, to separate (dis-, intensive prefix). [Pokorny weidh- 1127.] **weiǝ-** To go after someting, pursue with vigor, desire, with noun forms meaning force, power. Related to **wi-ro-**. 1. Zero-grade form *wi- (< *wia-). **VIM**, **VIOLATE**, **VIOLENT**, from Latin vis, force, with irregular derivatives violāre, to treat with force, and violentus, vehement. 2. Suffixed o-grade form *woi(a)-tyā-. **GAIN**'; **ROWEN**, from Old French, gaaignier, gaignier, to obtain, from Germanic *waithanjan, to hunt, plunder, denominative verb from *wai-thjō, "pursuit,” hunting. 3. Suffixed zero-grade form *wia-to- becoming *wi-to-. **INVITE**, from Latin invītāre, to invite (in-, in; see **en**). [Pokorny 3. vei- 1123.] <100> **weik-**¹ Clan (social unit above the household). (Oldest form *weik-.) 1. Suffixed form *weik-slā-. **VILLA**, **VILLAGE**, **VILLAIN**, **VILLANELLE**, **VILLEIN**; **BIDONVILLE**, **NASTY**, from Latin villa, country house, farm. 2. Suffixed o-grade form *woik-o-, a. **VICINAGE**, **VICINITY**; **BAILIWICK**, from Latin vicus, quarter or district of a town, neighborhood; b. **ANDROECIUM**, **AUTOECIOUS**, **DIOCESE**, **DIOECIOUS**, **ECESIS**, **ECOLOGY**, **ECONOMY**, **ECUMENICAL**, **HETEROECIOUS**, **MONOECIOUS**, **PARISH**, **PAROCHIAL**, from Greekoikos, house, and its derivatives oikiā, a dwelling, and oikēsis, dwelling, ad- ministration. 3. Zero-grade form *wik-. **VAISYA**, from Sanskrit viśaḥ, dwelling, house. [Pokorny yeik- 1131.] **weik-**² Consecrated, holy. In words connected with magic and religious notions in Germanic (German Weihnacht(en), Christmas) and perhaps Latin. 1. **GUILE**, from Old French guile, cunning, trickery, from a Germanic source akin to Old English wigle, divination, sorcery, from Germanic suffixed form *wih-l-, 2. Possibly suffixed zero-grade form *wik-t-. **VICTIM**, from Latin victima, animal used as sacrifice, victim (although this may belong to another root *(a)wek- not otherwise represented in English). [Pokorny 1. ueik- 1128.] **weik-**³ To be like. 1. Suffixed variant form *weik-on-. **ICON**, **ICONIC**, **ICONO-**; **ANISEIKONIA**, from Greek eikōn, likeness, image. 2. Prefixed and suffixed zero-grade form *n-wik-ēs, not like (*p-, not; see **ne**). **AECIUM**, from Greek aïkēs, unseemly. [Pokorny 3. ueik- 1129.] **weik-**⁴ Also **weig-**. To bend, wind. I. Form *weig-. 1a. **WYCH ELM**, from Old English wice, wych elm (having pliant branches); b. **WICKER**, from Middle English wiker, wicker, from a Scandinavian source akin to Swedish viker, willow twig, wand; c. **WICKET**, from Old North French wiket, wicket (< "door that turns"), from a Scandinavian source probably akin to Old Norse vikja, to bend, turn. a-c all from Germanic *wik-. 2a. **WEAK**, from Old Norse veikr, pliant; b. **WEAKFISH**, from Middle Dutch weec, weak, soft. Both a and b from Germanic *waikwa-. 3. **WEEK**, from Old English wicu, wice, week, from Germanic *wikōn-, "a turning," series. II. Form *weik-. Zero-grade form *wik-. 1. **VICAR**, **VICARIOUS**, **VICE-**; **VICISSITUDE**, from Latin *vix (genitive vicis), turn, situation, change. 2. **VETCH**, from Latin vicia, vetch (< "twining plant"). [Pokorny 4. yeik- 1130.] **weik-**⁵ To fight, conquer. 1. **WIGHT**², from Old Norse vīgr, able in battle, from Germanic *wīgr. 2. Nasalized zero-grade form *wi-n-k-. **VANQUISH**, **VICTOR**, **VINCIBLE**; **CONVICT**, **CONVINCE**, **EVICT**, **EVINCE**, from Latin vincere, to conquer. 3. Zero-grade form *wik-. **ORDOVICIAN**, from Celtic Ordovīcēs (*ordo-wik-), "those who fight with hammers" (*ordo-, hammer). [Pokorny 2. ueik- 1128.] **weip-** To turn, vacillate, tremble ecstatically. 1. O-grade form *woip-. **WAIF**, **WAIF**², **WAIVE**, **WAIVER**, from Anglo-Norman waif, ownerless property, from a Scandinavian source probably akin to Old Norse veif, waving thing, flag, from Germanic *waif-. 2. Variant form *weib-. a. **WIPE**, from Old English wīpian, to wipe; b. **GUIPURE**, from Old French guiper, to cover with silk; c. **WHIP**, from Middle English wippen, to whip. a-c all from Germanic *wipjan, to move back and forth. 3. Perhaps suffixed nasalized zero-grade form *wi-m-p-ila-. a. **WIMPLE**, from Old English wimpel, covering for the neck (< "something that winds around"); b. **GIMP**¹, **GUIMPE**, from Old High German wimpal, guimpe; c. perhaps Middle Dutch wimmel, auger (< "that which turns in boring"): **WIMBLE**. 4. Suffixed zero-grade variant form *wib-ro-. **VIBRATE**, from Latin vibrāre, to vibrate. [Pokorny ueip- 1131.] **weis-** To flow. I. 1. **OOZE**², from Old English wāse, mire, mud, from Germanic *wisōn-, *waisōn-. 2. Taken by many as a derivative of this root, but probably an independent Indo-European word, is the suffixed form *wis-o- in Latin vīrus, slime, poison: **VIRUS**. 3. Extended zero-grade form *wisk-. **VISCID**, **VISCOUS**, from Latin viscum, mistletoe, birdlime, possibly from this root. II. Attributed by some to this root, but more likely of obscure origin, are some Germanic words for strong-smelling animals. 1. **WEASEL**, from Old English wesle, weosule, weasel, from Germanic *wisulōn-. 2. Suffixed form *wis-ont-. a. **WISENT**, from Old High German wisunt, bison; b. **BISON**, from Latin bisōn (stem bisont-), bison. Both a and b from Germanic *wisand-, *wisund-, European bison (which emits a musky smell in the rutting season). [Pokorny 3. ueis- 1134.] **weit(a)-** To speak, adjudge. Suffixed o-grade form *woit-o-. Old Russian větů, council, in compound sŭ-větů (see **ksun**). [Not in Pokorny; compare Avestan vaēth-, to judge.] **wekti-** Thing, creature. 1. **WHIT**, **WIGHT¹**; **AUGHT**², **NAUGHT**, **NOT**, from Old English wiht, person, thing. 2. **NIX**², from Old High German wiht, thing, being. Both 1 and 2 from Germanic *wihti-. [Pokorny uekti- 1136.] **wekw-** To speak. 1. O-grade form *wokw-. a. **VOCAL**, **VOICE**, **VOWEL**, from Latin vōx, voice; b. **CALLIOPE**, from Greek ops, voice. 2. Suffixed o-grade form *wokw-ā-. **VOCABLE**, **VOCATION**, **VOUCH**; **ADVOCATE**, **AVOCATION**, **CONVOKE**, **EQUIVOCAL**, **EVOKE**, **INVOKE**, **PROVOKE**, **REVOKE**, **UNIVOCAL**, from Latin vocāre, to call. 3. Suffixed form *wek"-es-. **EPIC**, **EPOS**; **EPOPEE**, **ORTHOEPY**, from Greek epos, song, word. [Pokorny yek"- 1135.] **wel-**¹ To see. 1. Suffixed zero-grade form *wl-id-. **LITMUS**, from a source akin to Old Norse litr, appearace, color, dye, from Germanic *wlituz, appearance. 2. Suffixed form *wel-uno- perhaps in Sanskrit Varuṇah, "seer, wise one," sovereign god: **VARUNA**. [Pokorny 1. uel- 1136.] **wel-**² To wish, will. 1. **WELL**³, from Old English wel, well (< "according to one's wish"), from Germanic *welō. 2. **WEAL**¹, **WEALTH**, from Old English wela, weola, well-being, riches, from Germanic *welon-. 3a. **WILL**¹, from Old English willa, desire, will power; b. Old High German willo, will, in personal name Willahelm (see **kel-**¹). Both a and b from Germanic *wiljon-. 4. **WILL**²; **NILL**, **WILLY-NILLY**, from Old English willan, to desire, from Germanic *wil(l)jan. 5. Germanic compound *wil-kumōn- (see **gwā-**). 6. O-grade form *wol-. a. **GALLOP**, from Old French galoper, to gallop; b. **WALLOP**, from Old North French *waloper, to gallop; c. **GALLANT**; **GALLIMAUFRY**, from Old French galer, to rejoice, from Frankish Latin *walāre, to take it easy, from Frankish *wala, good, well. a-c all from Germanic *wal-. 7. Basic form *wel-. **VELLEITY**, **VOLITION**, **VOLUNTARY**; **BENEVOLENT**, **MALEVOLENCE**, from Latin velle (present stem vol-), to wish, will. 8. Probably suffixed extended form *wel-p-i-. **VOLUPTUARY**, **VOLUPTUOUS**, from Latin voluptās, pleasure, from an adjective *volupis, pleasing (probably preserved in the adverb volup, with pleasure, from neuter *volupe). [Pokorny 2. uel- 1137.] **wel-**³ To turn, roll; with derivatives referring to curved, enclosing objects. 1a. **WALTZ**, from Old High German walzan, to roll, waltz; b. **WELTER**, from Middle Low German or Middle Dutch welteren, to roll. Both a and b from Germanic *walt-. 2. **WHELK**¹, from Old English weoluc, weoloc, mollusk (having a spiral shell), whelk, from Germanic *weluka-. 3. Perhaps Germanic *wel-. **WILLOW**, from Old English welig, willow (with flexible twigs). 4. Perhaps Germanic *welk-. **WALK**, from Old English wealcan, to roll, toss, and wealcian, to muffle up. 5. O-grade form *wol-. a. **WELL**¹, from Old English wiella, wælla, welle, a well (< "rolling or bubbling water," "spring"); b. **GABERDINE**, from Old High German walion, to roam; c. **WALLET**, possibly from Old North French *walet, roll, knapsack. a-c all from Germanic *wall-. 6. Perhaps suffixed o-grade form *wol-ā-. a. **WALE**, from Old English walu, streak on the skin, weal, welt; b. Old High German *-walu, a roll, round stem, in compound *wurzwalu (see **wrād-**). Both a and b from Germanic *walō. 7. Extended form *welw-. a. **WALLOW**, from Old English wealwian, to roll (in mud), from Germanic *walwōn; b. **VAULT**¹, **VAULT**², **VOLT**, **VOLUBLE**, **VOLUME**, **VOLUTE**, **VOLUTIN**, **VOLVOX**, **VOUSSOIR**; **ARCHIVOLT**, **CIRCUMVOLVE**, **CONVOLVE**, **DEVOLVE**, **EVOLVE**, **INVOLUCRUM**, **INVOLVE**, **MULTIVOLTINE**, **REVOLVE**, from Latin volvere, to roll; c. suffixed o-grade form *wolw-ā-. **VOLVA**, **VULVA**, from Latin vulva, volva, covering, womb; d. suffixed zero-grade form *wlw-ā-. **VALVE**, **VALVULE**, from Latin valva, leaf of a door (< "that which turns"); e. suffixed form *welu-tro-. **ELYTRON**, from Greek elutron, sheath, cover. 8. Suffixed form *wel-n-. **ILEUS**; **NEURILEMMA**, from Greek eilein (<*welnein), to turn, squeeze. 9. Perhaps variant *wall-. **VAIL**¹, **VALE**, **VALLEY**, **VLEI**, from Latin vallēs, vallis, valley (< "that which is surrounded by hills"). 10. Possibly suffixed form *wei-ena-. **HELEN**; **ELECAMPANE**, **INULIN**, from the Greek name Helenē (oldest form Welenā), Helen. 11. Suffixed form *welik-. **HELICON**, **HELIX**; **HELICOPTER**, from Greek helix, spiral object. 12. Suffixed form *wel-mi-nth-. **HELMINTH**; **ASCHELMINTH**, **ANTHELMINTIC**, **PLATYHELMINTH**, from Greek helmis, helmins (stem helminth-), parasitic worm. [Pokorny 7. uel- 1140.] <101> **wel-**⁴ To tear, pull. 1. Suffixed form *wel-do-, **AVULSE**, **CONVULSE**, **DIVULSION**, **EVULSION**, **REVULSION**, **SVELTE**, from Latin vellere, to tear, pull. 2. Suffixed form *wel-no-. **VELOUR**, **VELVET**, **VILLUS**, from Latin villus, shaggy hair, wool. [Pokorny 8. uel- 1144.] **welǝ-**¹ Wool. (Oldest form *welh₂-; probably related to **wel-**⁴.) 1. Suffixed extended zero-grade form *wlā-nā-, a. **WOOL**, from Old English wul(l), wool, from Germanic *wullō; b. **LANATE**, **LANNER**, **LANOSE**, **LANUGO**; **LANOLIN**, from Latin lāna (< Italic *wlānā), wool, and its derivative lānāgō, down; c. **FLANNEL**, from Welsh gwlan, wool, from Celtic *wlanā. 2. Possibly suffixed o-grade form *wol(ə)- no-. **ULOTRICHOUS**, from Greek oulos, wooly, curly. 3. Suffixed full-grade form *wel(ə)-nes-. **VELLUS**, from Latin vellus, wool. [Pokorny 4. uel- 1139.] **welǝ-**² To strike, wound. (Oldest form *welh₂-.) 1. Suffixed o-grade form *wol(ə)-o-. a. **VALHALLA**, from Old Norse Valhöll, Valhalla; b. **VALKYRIE**, from Old Norse Valkyrja, "chooser of the slain," name of one of the twelve war goddesses (-kyrja, chooser; see **geus-**). Both a and b from Old Norse valr, the slain in battle, from Germanic *walaz. 2. Suffixed basic form *welə-nes-. **VULNERABLE**, from Latin vulnus (stem vulner-), a wound. 3. Suffixed zero-grade form *wlā-to-. **BERDACHE**, from Old Iranian *varta- (Avestan varəta-), seized, prisoner. [In Pokorny 8. uel- 1144.] **welg-** Wet. 1. **WELKIN**, from Old English wolc(e)n, cloud, sky. 2. **WILT**¹, from Middle English welken, to wilt. Both 1 and 2 from Germanic *welk-. [Pokorny 2. μelk- 1145.] **welt-** Woods; wild. 1. Suffixed o-grade form *wolt-u-. a. **WEALD**, **WOLD**¹, from Old English weald, wald, a forest; b. **VOLE**¹, from Old Norse völlr, field. Both a and b from Germanic *walthuz. 2. **WELD**², from Middle English welde, a plant yielding a yellow dye, weld, from Germanic *walthōn-. 3a. **WILD**, from Old English wilde, wild; b. **WILDERNESS**, from Old English wildēor, wilddeor, wild beast (dēor, animal; see **dheu-**¹); c. **WILDEBEEST**, from Dutch wild, wild. a-c all from Germanic *wilthja-. [In Pokorny 4. uel- 1139.] **wemǝ-** To vomit. (Oldest form *wemh₁-.) 1. **WAMBLE**, from Middle English wam(e)len, to feel nausea, stagger, from a Scandinavian source probably akin to Old Norse vamla, qualm, and Danish vamle, to become sick, from Germanic *wam-. 2. **VOMIT**, **VOMITORIUM**, **VOMITORY**; **NUX VOMICA**, from Latin vomere, to vomit. 3. **EMESIS**, **EMETIC**, from Greek emein, to vomit. [Pokorny uem- 1146.] **wen-**¹ To desire, strive for. 1. Suffixed form *wen-w-. **WIN**, from Old English winnan, to win, from Germanic *winn(w)an, to seek to gain. 2. Suffixed zero-grade form *wp-yā-. **WYNN**, **WINSOME**, from Old English wynn, wen, pleasure, joy, from Germanic *wunjō. 3. Suffixed (stative) zero-grade form *wņ-ē-, to be contented. **WON**¹, **WONT**, from Old English wunian, to become accustomed to, dwell, from Germanic *wunēn. 4. Suffixed (causative) o-grade form *won-eyo-. **WEAN**, from Old English wenian, to accustom, train, wean, from Germanic *wanjan. 5. **WEEN**, from Old English wēnan, to expect, imagine, think, from Germanic denominative *wēnjan, to hope, from *wēniz, hope. 6. Germanic *wini-, "beloved," in Old English wine, friend, protector, in personal names: a. **EDWIN**, from Old English Ēadwine, "friend of riches" (ead, wealth, joy); b. Old English Mælwine (see **mōd-**). 7. Suffixed zero-grade form *wņ-sko-. **WISH**, from Old English wӯscan, to desire, wish, from Germanic *wunsk-. 8. Perhaps o-grade form *won-. a. **VANIR**, from Old Norse Vanir, the Vanir; b. **VANADIUM**, from Old Norse Vanadis, name of the goddess Freya. Both a and b from Germanic *wana-. 9. Suffixed form *wen-es-. a. **VENERATE**, **VENEREAL**, **VENERY**¹, **VENUS**, from Latin venus, love; b. suffixed form *wen-es-no-. **VENOM**, from Latin venēnum, love potion, poison. 10. Possibly suffixed form *wen-eto-, "beloved." **WEND**, from Old High German Winid, Wend, from Germanic *Weneda-, a Slavic people. 11. Suffixed form *wen-yā-. **VENIAL**, from Latin venia, favor, forgiveness. 12. Lengthened-grade form *wēn-ā-. **VENERY**², **VENISON**, from Latin vēnārī, to hunt. 13. Suffixed basic form *wen-o-. **WANDEROO**, from Sanskrit vanam, forest. 14. Possibly zero-grade suffixed form *wņ-ig-. **BANYAN**, from Sanskrit vaṇik, vāṇijaḥ, merchant (? < "seeking to gain"). [Pokorny 1. uen- 1146.] **wen-**² To beat, wound. 1. Suffixed zero-grade form *wņ-to-. **WOUND**¹, from Old English wund, a wound, from Germanic *wundaz. 2. Suffixed o-grade form *won-yo-. **WEN**¹, from Old English wen(n), wæn(n), wen, from Germanic *wanja-, a swelling. [Pokorny yen- 1108 (misalphabetized).] **wendh-** To turn, wind, weave. 1a. **WIND**², from Old English windan, to wind; b. **WINDLASS**, from Old Norse vinda, to wind. Both a and b from Germanic *windan, to wind. 2a. **WEND**, **WENT**, from Old English wendan, to turn to; b. **WENTLETRAP**, from Dutch wenden, to turn. Both a and b from Germanic causative form *wandjan. 3a. **WANDER**, from Old English wandrian, to wander; b. **WANDERLUST**, from German wandern, to wander. Both a and b from Germanic *wandrōn, to roam about. 4. **WAND**, from Old Norse vöndr, a supple twig, from Germanic *wanduz. 5. Perhaps Germanic *wandljaz, "wanderer," Vandal. a. **VANDAL**, from Latin Vandalus, a Vandal. [Pokorny 1. uendh- 1148.] **weng-** To bend, curve. 1a. **WINK**, from Old English wincian, to close the eyes (< "to bend down the eyelids"); b. **LAPWING**, from Old English -wince, one that wavers, from *wincan, to waver. Both a and b from Germanic *wink-. 2. **WINCH**, from Old English wince, a reel, roller, from Germanic *winkja-. 3. **PERIWINKLE**¹, from Old English -wincel, spiral shell, from Germanic *winkil-. 4a. **WENCH**, from Old English wencel, youth, maid (< "inconstant one"); b. **WONKY**, from Old English wancol, inconstant, unsteady. Both a and b from Germanic *wankila-, *wankula-. 5a. **GAUCHE**, from Old French gauchir, to turn aside; b. **WINCE**, from Anglo-Norman *wencir, to turn aside, avoid (> Middle English wincen, to kick). Both a and b from Germanic *wankjan. [Pokorny ue-n-g- 1148.] <102> **wer-**¹ High raised spot or other bodily infirmity. 1. Suffixed form *wer-d-. **WART**, from Old English wearte, wart, from Germanic *wartōn-. 2. O-grade form *wor- possibly in Germanic *war-. **WARBLE**², from a source akin to obsolete Swedish varbulde, "pus swelling" (bulde, swelling; see **bhel-**²). 3. **VAIR**, **VARIEGATE**, **VARIETY**, **VARIOLA**, **VARIORUM**, **VARIOUS**, **VARY**, **MINIVER**, from Latin varius, spotty, speckled, changeable. 4. **VARIX**, from Latin varix, varicose vein. 5. Suffixed and extended zero-grade form *wrsu-ko-. **VERRUCA**, from Latin verrūca, wart. [Pokorny 2. er- 1151, 2. μα- 1108.] **wer-**² To raise, lift, hold suspended. (Oldest form *h₂wer-.) 1. Basic form *awer-, becoming *awer- in Greek. **AORTA**, **ARSIS**, **ARTERIO-**, **ARTERIOLE**, **ARTERY**; **METEOR**, from Greek aeirein, to raise, and artēriā, windpipe, artery. 2. Possibly from this root is Greek āēr, air (from an obscure basic form *āwer-): **AERIAL**, **AERO-**, **AIR**, **ARIA**; **MALARIA**. 3. Zero-grade form *aur-. **AURA**, from Greek aurā, breath, vapor (related to Greek āēr, air; see 2 above). [Pokorny 1. uer- 1150.] **wer-**³ Conventional base of various Indo-European roots; to turn, bend. I. Root *wert-, to turn, wind. 1. Germanic *werth-. a. (i) **-WARD**, from Old English -weard, toward (< "turned toward"); (ii) **INWARD**, from Old English inweard, inward, from Germanic *inwarth, inward (*in, in; see **en**). Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic variant *warth; b. perhaps Germanic derivative *wertha-, "toward, opposite," hence "equivalent, worth." **WORTH**¹; **STALWART**, from Old English weorth, worth, valuable, and derivative noun weorth, wierth, value. 2. **WORTH**², from Old English weorthan, to befall, from Germanic *werthan, to become (< "to turn into"). 3. Zero-grade form *wrt-. **WEIRD**, from Old English wyrd, fate, destiny (< "that which befalls one"), from Germanic *wurthiz. 4. **VERSATILE**, **VERSE**¹, **VERSION**, **VERSUS**, **VERTEBRA**, **VERTEX**, **VERTIGO**, **VORTEX**; **ADVERSE**, **ANNIVERSARY**, **AVERT**, **BOULEVERSEMENT**, **CONTROVERSY**, **CONVERSE**¹, **CONVERT**, **DEXTRORSE**, **DIVERT**, **EVERT**, **EXTRORSE**, **EXTROVERSION**, **EXTROVERT**, **INTRORSE**, **INTROVERT**, **INVERT**, **MALVERSATION**, **OBVERT**, **PEEVISH**, **PERVERT**, **PROSE**, **RETRORSE**, **REVERT**, **SINISTRORSE**, **SUBVERT**, **TERGIVERSATE**, **TRANSVERSE**, **UNIVERSE**, from Latin vertere, to turn, with its frequentative versāre, to turn, and passive versārī, to stay, behave (< "to move around a place, frequent"). 5. **VERST**, from Russian versta, line, from Balto-Slavic *wirstā-, a turn, bend. II. Root *wreit-, to turn. a. **WREATH**, from Old English writha, band (< "that which is wound around"); b. **WRITHE**, from Old English writhan, to twist, torture; c. **WRATH**, **WROTH**, from Old English wrāth, angry (< "tormented, twisted"). a-c all from Germanic *writh-, *wraith-. III. Root *wergh-, to turn. 1. **WORRY**, from Old English wyrgan, to strangle, from Germanic *wurgjan. 2. Nasalized variant *wrengh-. a. **WRING**, from Old English wringan, to twist, from Germanic *wreng-; b. (i) **WRONG**, from Middle English wrong, wrong, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse *vrangr, rangr, curved, crooked, wrong; (ii) **WRANGLE**, from Middle English wranglen, to wrangle, from a Low German source akin to wrangeln, to wrestle. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *wrang-. IV. Root *werg-, to turn. 1. Nasalized variant form *wreng-. a. **WRENCH**, from Old English wrencan, to twist; b. **WRINKLE**, from Old English gewrinclian, to wind (ge-, collective prefix; see **kom**). Both a and b from Germanic *wrankjan. 2. **VERGE**²; **CONVERGE**, **DIVERGE**, from Latin vergere, to turn, tend toward. 3. **VEDDA**, from Sinhalese väddā, perhaps from Middle Indic vajjita-, excluded, from Sanskrit varjita-, past passive participle of varjayati, he avoids, shuns, causative of vṛṇakti (stem vṛj-), he bends, turns. V. Root *wreik-, to turn. 1a. **WRY**; **AWRY**, from Old English wrīgian, to turn, bend, go; b. **WRIGGLE**, from Middle Low German wriggeln, to wriggle. Both a and b from Germanic *wrig-. 2a. **WRIST**, from Old English wrist, wrist; b. **GAITER**, from Old French guietre, gaiter, from Frankish *wrist-, Both a and b from Germanic *wristiz, from *wrihst-. 3. **WREST**, **WRESTLE**, from Old English wræstan, to twist, from secondary Germanic derivative *wraistjan. 4. Possibly from this root are European words for heather. a. **HYPERICIN**, **HYPERICUM**, from Greek ereikē, tree heath (exact preform uncertain); b. Possibly suffixed o-grade form *wroik-o-. **BRIAR**¹, **BRUSQUE**, from Late Latin brūcus, heather, from Gaulish *brūko-. VI. **RIBALD**, from Old French riber, to be wanton, from Germanic root *wrib-. VII. Root *werb-, also *werbh-, to turn, bend. 1. **WARP**, from Old English weorpan, to throw away, from Germanic *werpan, "to fling by turning the arm." 2. **REVERBERATE**, from Latin verber, whip, rod. 3. **VERBENA**, **VERVAIN**, from Latin verbēna, sacred foliage. 4. Zero-grade form *wrb-. **RHABDOMANCY**, **RHABDOVIRUS**, from Greek rhabdos, rod. 5. Nasalized variant form *wrembh-. **RHOMBUS**, from Greek rhombos, bull-roarer, from rhembesthai, to roll about. VIII. Root *werp-, to turn, wind. 1. Metathesized form *wrep-. **WRAP**, from Middle English wrappen, to wrap, from a source akin to Danish dialectal vravle, to wind, from Germanic *wrap-. 2. Zero-grade form *wrp-. **RAPHE**, **RAPHIDE**; **RHAPSODY**, **STAPHYLORRHAPHY**, **TENORRHAPHY**, from Greek rhaptein, to sew. IX. Root *wrmi-, worm; rhyme word to **krmi-**. 1. **WORM**, from Old English wyrm, worm, from Germanic *wurmiz. 2. **VERMEIL**, **VERMI-**, **VERMICELLI**, **VERMICULAR**, **VERMIN**, from Latin vermis, worm. [Pokorny 3. uer- 1152.] **wer-**⁴ To perceive, watch out for. I. O-grade form *wor-. 1. Suffixed form *wor-o-. a. **WARY**, from Old English wær, watchful; b. **AWARE**, from Old English gewær, aware (ge-, collective and intensive prefix; see **kom**); c. **WARE**², from Old English warian, to beware. a-c all from Germanic *waraz. 2. Suffixed form wor-to-. a. (i) **WARD**; **LORD**, **STEWARD**, from Old English weard, a watching, keeper; (ii) **WARDER**², from Old English weardian, to ward, guard; b. **WARDEN**; **AWARD**, **REWARD**, **WARDROBE**, from Old North French warder, to guard; c. **GUARD**; **GARDEROBE**, **REGARD**, from Old French guarder, to guard; d. **REARWARD**², from Anglo-Norman warde, guard. a-d all from Germanic *wardaz, guard, and *wardōn, to guard. 3. **WARE**¹, from Old English waru, goods, protection, guard, from Germanic *warō. 4. Suffixed form *wor-wo-. **ARCTURUS**, **PYLORUS**, from Greek ouros, a guard. 5. Probably variant *(s)wor-, *s(w)or-. **EPHOR**, **PANORAMA**, from Greek horān, to see. II. Suffixed (stative) form *wer-ē-. **REVERE**¹, from Latin verērī, to respect, feel awe for. [Pokorny 8. uer- 1164.] **wer-**⁵ To cover. I. Basic form *wer-. 1. **WEIR**, from Old English wer, dam, fish trap, from Germanic *wer-jon-. 2. Compound form *ap-wer-yo- (*ap-, off, away; see **apo-**). **APERIENT**, **APÉRITIF**, **APERTURE**; **OVERT**, **OVERTURE**, **PERT**, from Latin aperīre, to open, uncover. 3. Compound form *op-wer-yo- (*op-, over; see **epi**). **OPERCULUM**; **COVER**, **KERCHIEF**, from Latin operīre, to cover. 4. Suffixed form *wer-tro-. **WAT**; **AMBARELLA**, from Sanskrit vāțah, enclosure, from lengthened-grade derivative *vār-t(r)a-. II. O-grade form *wor-. 1. **WARN**, from Old English *war(e)nian, to take heed, warn, from Germanic *warnōn. 2a. (i) **GUARANTY**, from Old French garant, warrant, authorization; (ii) **WARRANT**, **WARRANTEE**, **WARRANTY**, from Old North French warant, warrant, and warantir, to guarantee; b. **GARAGE**, from Old French garer, to guard, protect; c. **GARRET**, **GARRISON**, from Old French g(u)arir, to defend, protect; d. **WARREN**, from Old North French warenne, enclosure, game preserve; e. **GARMENT**, **GARNISH**, **GARNITURE**, from Old French g(u)arnir, to equip. a-e all from Germanic *war-. 3. Suffixed form *wor-o-. a. Germanic *warōn-, protector, in compound *burg-waron- (see **bhergh-**²); b. **SALWAR**, from Old Iranian compound *šara-vāra-, thigh covering (*šara-, thigh; see (**s**)kel-**³). c. **BARBICAN**, from Old Iranian compound *pari-vāraka-, protective (*pari-, around; see **per**¹). [Pokorny 5. ver- 1160.] <103> **wer-**⁶ To burn. Suffixed lengthened o-grade (causative) form *wor-yo-. **SAMOVAR**, from Russian varit', to boil. [Pokorny 12. uer- 1166.] **wer-**⁷ Squirrel. Reduplicated expressive form *wiwer(r)-. **VIVERRID**, from Latin viverra, a ferret. [Pokorny 13. uer- 1166.] **wē-r-** Water, liquid, milk. (Contracted from earlier *weh₁-r-; zero-grade *uh₁-r-, contracted to *ūr-. Related to **euǝ-dh-r**.) Suffixed zero-grade form *ūrīnā-. **URINE**, from Latin ūrīna, urine. [In Pokorny 9. au(e)- 78.] **werǝ-**¹ Wide, broad. (Oldest form *werh₁-.) Zero-grade suffixed form *wrǝ-u-, metathesized to *eur-u-. **EURY-**; **ANEURYSM**, **EURYDICE**, from Greek eurus, wide. [Pokorny 8. uer- 1165.] **werǝ-**² To find. (Oldest form *werh₁-, with variant [metathesized] form *wreh₁-, contracted to *wrē-.) Reduplicated variant form *we-wrē-. **EUREKA**, **HEURISTIC**, from Greek heuriskein (perfect tense heurēka), to find. [Pokorny 4. ver- 1160.] **werǝ-**³ To speak. (Oldest form *werh₁-, with metathesized variant form *wreh₁-, contracted to *wrē-.) 1a. Compound form *werǝ-dh(ə)-o- ("a doing of speech"; **dhē-**, dhə-, to do; see **dhē-**). **VERB**, **VERVE**; **ADVERB**; **PROVERB**, from Latin verbum, word. b. Zero-grade form in compound *wrǝ-dh(ə)-o- ("a doing of speech"; **dhē-**, dhə-, to do; see **dhē-**). **WORD**, from Old English word, word, from Germanic *wurdam. In both a and b, the first member of the compound has undergone the regular loss of a laryngeal occurring when the laryngeal is preceded by a consonant and followed by a two-consonant cluster. 2. Also ultimately from this root is the Greek verbal present stem eir-, with infinitive eirein, to say, speak, possibly back-formed from future stem ere-, with infinitive erein, from *erǝ-s-: **IRONY**. 3. Variant form *wrē-. a. Suffixed form *wrē-tor-. **RHETOR**, from Greek rhētor, public speaker; b. suffixed form *wrē-mə. **RHEME**, from Greek rhēma, word. [Pokorny 6. uer- 1162.] **Language and Culture Note** There is a famous Greek epitaph attributed to the poet Simon-ides about the Spartans under Leonidas who died defending the pass at Thermopylae against the invading Persians: "O stranger, tell the Spartans that here we lie, obedient to their words." The phrase "obedient to their words" translates the Greek phrase rhēmasi peithomenoi. Peithomenoi means "obeying" and comes from the root **bheidh-** with derivatives referring to mutual trust and obedience (see the note there). Rhēmasi is a plural form of the word rhēma, which literally means "word" but refers here to the covenant of the spoken word. A close relative of this word, rhētra, is the term for the military and social contract of Sparta. Both rhēma (whence English rheme) and rhētra (related to English rhetoric) derive from the root **werǝ-**³ "to speak," a root also appearing in English verb and proverb. **wērǝ-o-** True, trustworthy. (Oldest form *wērh₁-o-.) 1. **WARLOCK**, from Old English wær, faith, pledge, from Germanic *wēra-. 2. **VERACIOUS**, **VERISM**, **VERITY**, **VERY**; **AVER**, **VERDICT**, **VERIDICAL**, **VERIFY**, **VERISIMILAR**, **VOIR DIRE**, from Latin vērus, true. [Pokorny 11. μer- 1165.] **werg-** To do. (Oldest form *werg-.) I. Suffixed form *werg-o-. 1a. **WORK**; **HANDIWORK**, from Old English weorc, werc, work; b. **BOULEVARD**, **BULWARK**, from Old High German werc, work. Both a and b from Germanic *werkam, work. 2. **ERG**¹, **ERGATIVE**, **-URGY**; **ADRENERGIC**, **ALLERGY**, **ARGON**, **CHOLINERGIC**, **DEMIURGE**, **DRAMATURGE**, **ENDERGONIC**, **ENDOERGIC**, **ENERGY**, **ERGOGRAPH**, **ERGOMETER**, **ERGONOMICS**, **EXERGONIC**, **EXERGUE**, **EXOERGIC**, **GEORGIC**, **HYPERGOLIC**, **LETHARGY**, **LITURGY**, **METALLURGY**, **SURGERY**, **SYNERGID**, **SYNERGISM**, **THAUMATURGE**, from Greek ergon, work, action, and o-grade agent noun (in composition) -orgos (< *worgos), doer, worker. II. Zero-grade form *wrg-. 1. Suffixed forms *wrg-yo-, *wrg-to-, a. **WROUGHT**, from Old English wyrcan, to work; b. **IRK**, from Old Norse yrkja, to work. Both a and b from Germanic *wurkjan, to work, participle *wurhta-. 2. Suffixed form *wrg-t-. **WRIGHT**, from Old English wryhta, maker, wright, from Germanic *wurhtjō-. III. O-grade form *worg-. 1. **ORGAN**, **ORGANON**, from Greek organon (with suffix -ano-), tool. 2. **ORGY**, from Greek orgia, secret rites, worship (< "service"). [Pokorny 2. uerĝ- 1168.] **wers-**¹ To confuse, mix up. I. Suffixed basic form. 1a. **WAR**, from Old North French werre, war; b. **GUERRILLA**, from Spanish guerra, war. Both a and b from Germanic *werra-, from *werz-ə-. 2. **WORSE**, from Old English wyrsa, worse, from Germanic comparative *wers-izōn-. 3. **WORST**, from Old English wyrsta, worst, from Germanic superlative *wers-istā-. II. Suffixed zero-grade form *wrs-ti-. **WURST**; **LIVERWURST**, from Old High German wurst, sausage (< "mixture"), from Germanic *wursti-. [Pokorny uers- 1169.] Compare **ers-**¹. **wers-**² To rain, drip. (Oldest form *h₂wers-.) Suffixed o-grade form *(ə)wors-o-. **URETER**, **URETHRA**, **URETIC**, **-URIA**, **URO-**¹; **DIURETIC**, **ENURESIS**, **NATRIURESIS**, from Greek ouron, urine, whence verb ourein, to urinate, make water. (In Pokorny 9. au(e)- 78.) Compare **ers-**². **-wer/-wen-** Suffix of the -r/-n- class (see **-r/-n-**), forming verbal abstracts, with nominative and accusative case in *-wer- (variant *-wr) and the remaining cases added to *-wen- (variants *-won-, *wņ-, *-un-), as in *pī-wer, *piwon-, fat (see **peiǝ-**). [Not in Pokorny.] **wes-**¹ To buy, sell, 1. Suffixed form *wes-no-. **VENAL**, **VEND**, from Latin vēnum, sale. 2. Suffixed o-grade form *wos-no-. **DUOPSONY**, **MONOPSONY**, from Greek ōneisthai, to buy. 3. Suffixed form *wes-ā-. **BAZAAR**, from Persian bāzār, from Old Iranian *vahā-cārana-, "sale-traffic." 4. Perhaps suffixed form *wes-li-. **VILE**; **REVILE**, **VILIFY**, **VILIPEND**, from Latin vīlis, cheap, base. [Pokorny 8. yes- 1173.] **wes-**² Wet. **OOZE**¹, from Old English wōs, juice, from Germanic *wōs-. [Pokorny 3. ues- 1171.] **wes-**³ To live, dwell, pass the night, with derivatives meaning "to be" (Oldest form *h₂wes-.) 1. O-grade (perfect tense) form *wos-, **was**, from Old English wæs, was, from Germanic *was-. 2. Lengthened-grade form *wēs-. **WERE**, from Old English wǣre (subjunctive), wǣron (plural), were, from Germanic *wēz-. 3. **WASSAIL**, from Old Norse vesa, vera, to be, from Germanic *wesan. 4. Perhaps suffixed form *wes-tā-. **VESTA**, from Latin Vesta, household goddess. 5. Possibly suffixed variant form *was-tu-. **ASTUTE**, from Latin astus, skill, craft (practiced in a town), from Greek astu, town (< "place where one dwells"). 6. Suffixed form *wes-eno-. **DIVAN**, from Old Persian vahanam, house. [Pokorny 1. ues- 1170.] **wes-**⁴ To clothe. Extension of **eu-**. 1. Suffixed o-grade (causative) form *wos-eyo-. **WEAR**, from Old English werian, to wear, carry, from Germanic *wazjan. 2. Suffixed form *wes-ti-. **VEST**; **DEVEST**, **INVEST**, **REVET**, **TRAVESTY**, from Latin vestis, garment. 3. Suffixed form *wes-nu-. **HIMATION**, from Greek hennunai, to clothe, with nominal derivative heima, hima (< *wesmn), garment. [Pokorny 5. ues- 1172.] <104> **wes-**⁵ To eat, consume. O-grade form *wos-. **GÂTEAU**, from Old French gastel, cake, from Frankish *wastil, cake, from suffixed Germanic form *was-tilaz. [Pokorny 2. ues- 1171.] **wes-pero-** Evening, night. I. Reduced form *wes-. 1. Suffixed form *wes-to-. a. **WEST**, from Old English west, west; b. **WESTERN**, from Old English westerne, western; c. **WESTERLY**, from Old English westra, more westerly. a-c all from Germanic *west-. 2. Possibly Germanic *wis-, west, in Late Latin Visigothī, "West Goths" (Gothī, the Goths): **VISIGOTH**. II. Basic form *wespero-. 1. **PIPISTRELLE**, **VESPER**, **VESPERTILIONID**, from Latin vesper, evening. 2. **HESPERIAN**, **HESPERIDES**, **HESPERUS**, from Greek hesperos, evening. [Pokorny uesperos 1173.] **wesr-** Spring. **VERNAL**; **PRIMAVERA**¹, from Latin vēr, spring (phonologically irregular). [Pokorny ues-r 1174.] **wesu-** Good. Old Persian va(h)u-, good, the good, in personal name Dārayava(h)uš (see **dher-**²). [Pokorny นูรน- 1174.] **wet-**¹ To blow, inspire, spiritually arouse. (Oldest form *h₂wet-; related to *h₂weh₁-, see **wē-**.) 1. Lengthened-grade form *wōt-. a. **WODEN**; **WEDNESDAY**, from Old English Wōden, Woden; b. **ODIN**, from Old Norse Ōdhinn, Odin; c. **WOTAN**, from Old High German Wuotan. a-c all from Germanic suffixed form *wōdeno-, *wōdono-, "raging," "mad," "inspired,” hence "spirit," name of the chief Teutonic god *Wōd-enaz; d. **WOOD**², from Old English wōd, mad, insane, from Germanic *wōda-; e. Celtic *wāt-. **VATIC**, from Latin vātēs, prophet, poet, from a Celtic source akin to Old Irish fāith, seer. 2. O-grade form *wot-. **WEDELN**, from Old High German wedil, fan, from Germanic suffixed form *wath-ilaz. 3. Suffixed variant form *wat-no-. **FAN**¹, **VAN**³, from Latin vannus, a winnowing fan. 4. Oldest basic form *awet- becoming Greek *awet- in suffixed form *awet-mo-. **ATMOS-PHERE**, from Greek atmos (< *aetmos), breath, vapor. [Pokorny 1. uat- 1113.] **wet-**² Year. 1. Suffixed form *wet-ru-. **WETHER**; **BELLWETHER**, from Old English wether, wether, from Germanic *wethruz, perhaps "yearling." 2. Suffixed form *wet-es-. a. **VETERAN**; **INVETERATE**, from Latin vetus, old (< "having many years"); b. **VETERINARY**, from Latin veterīnus, of beasts of burden, of cattle (perhaps chiefly old cattle); c. **ETESIAN**, from Greek etos, year. 3. Suffixed form *wet-olo-. **VEAL**, **VITELLUS**, from Latin vitulus, calf, yearling. [Pokorny uet- 1175.] **wi-** Apart, in half. 1. Suffixed form *wī-ito-. **WIDE**, from Old English wīd, wide (< "far apart"), from Germanic *wīdaz. 2. Suffixed (comparative) form *wi-tero-. a. **WITH**, **WITHERS**, from Old English wither, against, with its derivative with, with, against; b. **GUERDON**; **WIDDERSHINS**, from Old High German widar, against. Both a and b from Germanic *withrō, against. [Pokorny 1. uř- 1175.] **widhu-** Tree, wood. **WOOD**¹, from Old English wudu, wood, from Germanic *widu-. [Pokorny uidhu- 1177.] **wīkmtī-** Twenty. (Oldest form *wīkmtī-; compound of **wi-**, in half, hence two, and *(d)kmt-i (nominative dual), decade, reduced zero-grade form of **dekm**.) 1. **VICENARY**, **VIGESIMAL**, **VIGINTILLION**, from Latin vīgintī, twenty. 2. **EICOSANOID**, **EICOSAPENTAENOIC ACID**, **ICOSAHEDRON**, from Greek eikosi, twenty. 3. **PACHISI**, from Sanskrit viṁśatiḥ, twenty. [Pokorny μί-kmt-i 1177.] **[wīno-** Wine. Italic noun, related to words for wine in Greek, Armenian, Hittite, and non-Indo-European Georgian and West Semitic. Probably from a Mediterranean word *win-, *woin-, wine. 1. **VINACEOUS**, **VINE**, **VINI-**, **WINE**; **VINEGAR**, **VINHO VERDE**, from Latin vīnum, wine. 2. **ENOPHILE**, **ENOLOGY**, **OENOMEL**, **OINOCHOE**, from Greek oinos (earlier woinos), wine.] **wi-ro-** Man. (Oldest form *wih₁-ro-; derivative of **weiǝ-**.) 1a. **WEREWOLF**, **WERGELD**, from Old English wer, man; b. (i) **WORLD**, from Old English weorold, world; (ii) **WELTANSCHAUUNG**, **WELTSCHMERZ**, from Old High German weralt, world. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic compound *wer-ald-, "life or age of man" (*-ald-, age; see **al-**³); c. **LOUP-GAROU**, from Old French garoul, werewolf, from Frankish *wer-wulf, "man-wolf" (*wulf, wolf; see **wļkwo-**). Both a and b from Germanic *weraz, from shortened form *wiraz. 2. **VIRAGO**, **VIRILE**, **VIRTUE**, **VIRTUOSA**, **VIRTUOSO**; **DECEMVIR**, **DECURION**, **DUUMVIR**, **TRIUMVIR**, from Latin vir, man. 3. **CURIA**, from Latin cūria, curia, court, possibly from *co-vir-ia, "men together" (*co-, together; see **kom**). 4. Celtic *wiros. a. Old Irish fer, man, in personal name Fergus (see **geus-**); b. Gaulish viro- in Gallo-Roman place name Viro-dūnum (see **dheuǝ-**). [Pokorny utro-s 1177.] **Language and Culture Note** Proto-Indo-European was not limited to just one word for "man, male person": several Indo-European roots have furnished words for this concept in the daughter languages. The root **man-**¹, appearing in English man for instance, was apparently a fairly neutral, all-purpose term. The reconstructed word **wī-ro-**, a derivative of the root **weiǝ-** "be vigorous" was used especially of men in their capacity as warriors or as slaves. (Slaves were often captured warriors.) In Sanskrit, for example, vīraḥ means "man, hero," but is also paired with the word paśu, "cattle," to refer to two-footed property (slaves), as in the compound vīrapśa-, "(abundance of) men and cattle" (see note at **peku-**). In Italic languages, too, Latin vir "man" and its relatives can appear as a type of property, such as the Latin phrase pecudēsque virōsque "cattle and men." There is also the word **ner-**², "man," which embodied the notion of strength. This is the source of Greek anēr, andr-, "man," as well as various Italic words meaning "magistrate"; it also underlies the name of the Roman emperor Nero. **wleik-** To flow, run. Zero-grade form *wlik-. 1. Adjective *wlik-u-, wet. a. Suffixed form *wlik-w-ə-. **LIQUATE**, from Latin liquāre, to dissolve; b. suffixed form *wlik-w-ē-. **LIQUESCENT**, **LIQUID**, **LIQUOR**; **DELIQUESCE**, **LIQUEFY**, from Latin liquēre, to be liquid. 2. Suffixed form *wlik-s-. a. **LIXIVIATE**, from Latin lixa, lye; b. **PROLIX**, from Latin prōlixus, poured forth, stretched out in front, extended (prō-, forth; see **per**¹). [In Pokorny leik- 669.] **wlkwo-** Wolf. 1a. (i) **WOLF**, from Old English wulf, wolf; (ii) **RANDAL** (personal name), from Old English Randulf, "shield-wolf" (rand, shield); b. **AARDWOLF**, from Middle Dutch wolf, wulf, wolf; c. **WOLFRAM**, from Old High German wolf, wolf (also in personal names; see **at-al-**, **kar-**²); d. Frankish *wulf, wolf, in compound *wer-wulf (see **wī-ro-**); e. Old Norse ulfr, wolf, in personal name Rādhulfr (see **ar-**). a-e all from Germanic *wulfaz. 2. Taboo variant *lupo-. **LOBO**, **LUPINE**, **LUPINE**, **LUPUS**, **ROBALO**; **LOUP-GAROU**, from Latin lupus, wolf. 3. Taboo variant *luko-. a. **LYCANTHROPE**, **LYCOPENE**, **LYCOPODIUM**, from Greek lukos, wolf; b. suffixed form *lukw-yə. **LYTTA**; **ALYSSUM**, from Greek lussa, martial rage, madness, rabies ("wolfness"). [Pokorny ulkuos 1178.] **wlp-ē-** Fox. 1. **VULPINE**, from Latin vulpēs, fox. 2. Taboo variant *alōpek-. **ALOPECIA**, from Greek alōpēx, fox. [Pokorny ulp- 1179.] <105> **-wo-** Adjective suffix, as in *gī-wo-, alive (see **gweiǝ-**). It ultimately appears in English **-IVE**, from Latin -īvus, adjective suffix. [Not in Pokorny.] **wogwh-ni-** Plowshare, wedge. 1. Probably Germanic *wagjaz. **WEDGE**, from Old English wecg, wedge. 2. Probably Latin vōmer, plowshare: **VOMER**. [Pokorny yogshni-s 1179.] **wokso-** Wax. Related to **weg-**¹. **WAX**¹, from Old English wæx, weax, wax, from Germanic *wahsam. [Pokorny yokso- 1180.] **wopsā-** Wasp. Metathesized form *wosp-. 1. **WASP**, from Old English wæsp, wæps, wasp, from Germanic *wasp-. 2. **VESPIARY**, from Latin vespa, wasp. [Pokorny yobhsā 1179.] **wōs** You (plural). **RENDEZVOUS**, from Latin vōs, you. [In Pokorny 1. ju- 513.] **wrād-** Branch, root. (Oldest form *wreh₂d-, colored to *wrah₂d-, contracted to *wrad-.) I. Basic form *wrād-, **ROOT**¹; **RUTABAGA**, from Old Norse rōt, root, from Germanic *wrōt-. II. Zero-grade form *wrad-. 1a. **WORT**¹, from Old English wyrt, plant, herb; b. **GEWÜRZTRAMINER**, from Old High German wurz, plant, root; c. **MANGEL-WURZEL**, from German Wurzel, root (< *wurzwala, rootstock; *-wala, a roll, round stem; see **wel-**³), a-c all from Germanic *wurtiz. 2. Suffixed form *wrad-yā-. **WORT**², from Old English wyrt, brewer's wort, from Germanic *wurtjō. 3. Suffixed form *wrad-i-. **RADICAL**, **RADICLE**, **RADISH**, **RADIX**; **DERACINATE**, **ERADICATE**, **IRRADICABLE**, from Latin rādīx, root. 4. Suffixed form *wrad-mo-. **RAMOSE**, **RAMUS**; **RAMIFY**, from Latin rāmus, branch. 5. Perhaps suffixed reduced form *wr(a)d-yə. **RHIZO-**, **RHIZOME**; **COLEORHIZA**, **LICORICE**, **MYCORRHIZA**, from Greek rhiza, root. [Pokorny u(e)rād- 1167.] **wreg-** To push, shove, drive, track down. 1. Basic form *wreg-. a. **WREAK**, from Old English wrecan, to drive, expel; b. **WRECK**, from Anglo-Norman wrec, wreck, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse rek (older form vrek), wreckage. Both a and b from Germanic *wrekan. 2. O-grade form *wrog-. a. (i) **WRETCH**, from Old English wrecca, exile; (ii) **GASKET**, from French garce, girl, perhaps from Frankish *wrakjō, "one pursued, an exile." Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *wrakjōn-, "pursuer, one pursued"; b. (i) **WRACK**¹, from Old English wræc, exile, punishment, and Middle Dutch wrak, wreckage; (ii) **RACK**³, from Middle English rak, mass of driven clouds, from a source akin to Swedish rak, wreckage. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *wrakaz. 3. Suffixed zero-grade form *wrg-eyo-, *urg-eyo-. **URGE**, from Latin urgēre, to urge, drive. [Pokorny ureg- 1181.] **wrēg-** To break. (Oldest form *wreh₁g-, contracted to *wrēg-.) Suffixed form *wreg-nu-. **-RRHAGIA**, from Greek rhēgnunai, to burst forth. [Pokorny urēg- 1181.] **[wrod-** Rose. A word (not common Indo-European) of unknown origin. 1. Suffixed form *wrod-o-. **RHODO-**; **RHODIUM**, from Greek rhodon, rose. 2. Suffixed form *wrod-yə- (perhaps via Etruscan). **ROSE**¹, from Latin rosa. 3. Suffixed zero-grade form *wrd-o-. **JULEP**, from Persian gul, rose, from Iranian *vrda-.] **wrōt-** To root, gnaw, **ROOT**², from Old English wrōtan, to dig up, from Germanic *wrōt-. [In Pokorny 7. џет- 1163.] **wrōg-** To burgeon, swell with strength. (Oldest form *wreh₃g-, colored to *wroh₃g-, contracted to *wrog-.) Suffixed zero-grade form *wrag-ə-. **ORGASM**, from Greek orgān, to swell. [Pokorny 3. perĝ- 1169.] **wrughyo-** Rye. European root. **RYE**¹, from Old English ryge, rye, from Germanic *rugi-. [Pokorny urughjo- 1183.] **yā-** To seek, request, desire. (Oldest form *yeh₂-, colored to *yah₂, contracted to *yā-.) **JALOUSIE**, **JEALOUS**, **ZEAL**, **ZEALOT**, from Greek zēlos, zeal. [Pokorny jā- 501.] **yag-** To worship; reverence. 1. Perhaps suffixed form *yag-yo-. **HAGIO-**, from Greek hagios, holy. 2. Suffixed form *yag-no-. **AGNES** (personal name), from Greek hagnē (> Late Latin Agnes), feminine of hagnos, holy, pure. 3a. Perhaps suffixed form *yag-yu- in Latin iaiūnus, iēiūnus, fasting (perhaps < "worshiping the household gods reverently," since the Roman paterfamilias would begin the day by offering the Penates a ritual meal, before having his own breakfast; compare Sanskrit yajyu-, worshipping readily): **JEJUNE**. b. **DINE**, **DINNER**, from Vulgar Latin *disiēiūnāre, to break one's fast, from Latin iēiūnus, fasting (Latin dis-, apart, asunder). [Pokorny jag- 501.] **yē-** To throw, impel. (Oldest form *h₁yeh₁-, contracted to *h₁yē-.) 1. Extended zero-grade form *yak-, becoming *yak- in Italic. Suffixed forms *yak-yo- and *yak-ē- (stative). **GISANT**, **GIST**, **GITE**, **JACTITATION**, **JESS**, **JET**², **JETÉ**, **JETSAM**, **JETTISON**, **JETTY**¹, **JOIST**, **JUT**; **ABJECT**, **ADJACENT**, **ADJECTIVE**, **AMICE**, **CIRCUMJACENT**, **CONJECTURE**, **DEJECT**, **EJACULATE**, **EJECT**, **INJECT**, **INTERJECT**, **OBJECT**, **PARGET**, **PROJECT**, **REJECT**, **SUBJACENT**, **SUBJECT**, **SUPERJACENT**, **TRAJECT**, from Latin iacere, to throw, lay, iacēre, to lie down (< "to be thrown") and iaculum, dart. 2. Reduplicated form *(ə)yi-əyē-. **CATHETER**, **DIESIS**, **ENEMA**, **PARESIS**, **SYNESIS**, from Greek hienai, to send, throw, and combining noun form -esis, "a throwing" (< suffixed zero-grade form *(ə)yə-ti-). [Pokorny jē- 502.] **yeg-** Ice. **ICICLE**, from Old English gicel, icicle, ice, from Germanic *jakilaz, *jekilaz. [Pokorny jeg- 503.] **yēgw-ā-** Power, youthful strength. (Probably contracted from earlier *yeh₃gw-eh₂- [-eh₂-, feminine ending, becoming -ā-].) **HEBE**; **EPHEBE**, **HEBEPHRENIA**, from Greek hēbē, youth. [Pokorny jēgvā 503.] **yek-**¹ To speak. Suffixed o-grade form *yok-o-. **JEWEL**, **JOCOSE**, **JOCULAR**, **JOKE**, **JUGGLE**, **JUGGLER**; **JEOPARDY**, from Latin iocus, joke. [Pokorny jek- 503.] **yek-**² To hunt. Suffixed o-grade form *yok-o-. **JAEGER**, **YACHT**, from Old High German jagōn, to hunt. [Not in Pokorny; compare Hittite ekt- and Luvian aggat(i)- (both < *yek-t-), hunting net.] **yek-**³ To heal. (Contracted from earlier *yeh₁k-.) Possible suffixed zero-grade form *yak-es-. **AUTACOID**, **PANACEA**, from Greek akos, cure. [Pokorny jēk- 504.] **yekr-** Liver. 1. **HEPATIC**, **HEPATO-**; **HEPARIN**, **HEPATITIS**, from Greek hēpar, liver (stem hēpat-<*yēkwn-t- < Indo-European oblique stem *yēkwn-). 2. **GIZZARD**, from Persian jigar, liver. [Pokorny jek"-r(t-) 504.] **yem-** To pair. Perhaps altered in Latin geminus, twin: **GEMINATE**, **GEMINI**, **GIMMAL**; **BIGEMINAL**, **TRIGEMINUS**. [Pokorny jem- 505.] **yer-** Year, season. (Contracted from earlier *yeh₁r-; probably original meaning "that which makes (a complete cycle), derivative of a verbal root *yeh₁- meaning "to do, make.") 1. Suffixed basic form *yēr-o-. a. **YEAR**, from Old English gēar, year; b. **YAHRZEIT**, from Old High German jār, year. Both a and b from Germanic *jēram, year. 2. Suffixed o-grade form *yōr-ə-. **HORARY**, **HOUR**; **HOROLOGE**, **HOROLOGY**, **HOROSCOPE**, from Greek hōrā, season. [In Pokorny 1. ei- 293.] **yes-** To boil, foam, bubble. 1. **YEAST**, from Old English gist, yeast, from Germanic *jest-. 2. **KIESELGUHR**, from Old High German jësan, to ferment, and jerian, to cause to ferment, from Germanic *jesan. 3. **ECZEMA**, **ZEOLITE**, from Greek zeein, zein, to boil. [Pokorny jes- 506.] **yeu-** Vital force, youthful vigor. (Oldest form *h₂yeu-. Derivative of *h₂eyu-, vital force; see **aiw-**.) Suffixed zero-grade form *yuwen- (< *yu-əen-), "possessing youthful vigor," young. 1. Further suffixed form *yuwn-ti-. **YOUTH**, from Old English geoguth, youth, from Germanic *jugunthi-, *jugunthō. 2. Further suffixed form *yuwn-ko-. a. (i) **YOUNG**, from Old English geong, young; (ii) **JUNKER**, from Old High German junc, young; (iii) **YOUNKER**, from Middle Dutch jonc, young. (i)-(iii) all from Germanic *junga-, from *juwunga-; b. (i) **GALLOWGLASS**, from Old Irish ōac, young; (ii) **EVAN** (personal name), from Welsh ieuanc, young. Both (i) and (ii) from Celtic *yowanko-. 3a. **JUVENILE**; **REJUVENATE**, from Latin iuvenis, young; b. zero-grade form *yūn- (< *yu-ən-). (i) **JUNIOR**, from Latin comparative iūnior, younger; (ii) **JUNE**, **JUNO**, from Latin Iūnō, Juno (probably “the young one," perhaps because she was the goddess of the new moon), and Latin month name Iūnius, traditionally derived from Iūnō. [Pokorny 3. jeu- 510.] <106> **yeudh-** To move violently, fight. (Oldest form *h₁yeudh-.) Suffixed o-grade causative form *youdh-eye-. **JUSSIVE**, from Latin iubēre, to command (< "to set in motion"). The short u in iubēre was introduced analogically from other forms of the verb, such as the perfect participle iussus, from *yudh-to-. [Pokorny jeu-dh- 511.] **yeuǝ-** To blend, mix food. Zero-grade form *yū- (< *yuǝ-). 1. Suffixed form *yū-s-. **JUICE**, from Latin iūs, juice, broth. 2. Suffixed form *yū-s-mā-, **-ZYME**, **ZYMO-**; **ENZYME**, from Greek zūmē, leaven. [Pokorny 1. jeu- 507.] **yeug-** To join. I. Zero-grade form *yug-. 1. Suffixed form *yug-o-. a. **YOKE**, from Old English geoc, yoke, from Germanic *yukam; b. **JUGATE**, **JUGULAR**, **JUGUM**; **CONJUGATE**, **SUBJUGATE**, from Latin iugum, yoke; c. **ZYGO-**, **ZYGOMA**, **ZYGOTE**, **-ZYGOUS**; **AZYGOS**, **SYZYGY**, from Greek zugon, yoke, and zugoun, to join; d. **YUGA**, from Sanskrit yugam, yoke. 2. Suffixed (superlative) form *yug-isto-. **JOSTLE**, **JOUST**; **ADJUST**, **JUXTAPOSE**, **JUXTAPOSITION**, from Latin iūxtā, close by, perhaps from *iugistā (viā), "on a nearby (road)." 3. Nasalized zero-grade form *yu-n-g-. **JOIN**, **JOINDER**, **JOINT**, **JOINTURE**, **JUNCTION**, **JUNCTURE**, **JUNTA**; **ADJOIN**, **CONJOIN**, **CONJUGAL**, **CONJUNCT**, **ENJOIN**, **INJUNCTION**, **REJOIN**¹, **REJOINDER**, **SUBJOIN**, from Latin iungere, to join. II. Suffixed form *yeug-mə. **ZEUGMA**, from Greek zeugma, a bond. III. Suffixed o-grade form *youg-o-. **YOGA**, from Sanskrit yogaḥ, union. [Pokorny 2. jeu- 508.] **yewes-** Law. 1. **JURAL**, **JURIST**, **JURY**¹; **ABJURE**, **ADJURE**, **CONJURE**, **INJURY**, **JURIDICAL**, **JURISCONSULT**, **JURISDICTION**, **JURISPRUDENCE**, **NONJUROR**, **OBJURGATE**, **PERJURE**, from Latin iūs (stem iūr-), law, and its derivative iūrāre, "to pronounce a ritual formula," swear. 2. Compound form *yewes-dik- (see **deik-**). 3. Suffixed from *yewes-to-. **JUST**¹, from Latin iūstus, just. [Pokorny jeyos- 512.] **yewo-** A grain, probably barley. Suffixed form *yewyə. **ZEIN**, from Greek zeiā, one-seeded wheat. [Pokorny jevo- 512.] **Language and Culture Note** The root **yewo-** is the source of the noun *yewos, the basic Indo-European term for "grain." Its descendant in Sanskrit, yavaḥ, referred to grain in general and barley in particular. Barley was a sacred grain in numerous Indo-European societies, and probably in Proto-Indo-European as well. In Indic mythology, barley was the one plant that sided with the gods in their protean struggle against the demons. In the cognate Iranian (Avestan) tradition, the sowing of yauua- is equated with the sowing of religious truth. In ancient Rome, barley (far, see **bhars-**²) was described as pium, "holy, pious." **-yo-**¹ Verbal suffix marking present tense of verbs, as in *sed-yo-, to sit (see **sed-**¹). [Not in Pokorny.] **-yo-**² Verbal suffix used to form verbs from other parts of speech, as in *argu-yo-, to make clear (see **arg-**). Becomes *-jan in Germanic. By combining with the final sounds of stems that it is added to, many new verbal suffixes were created, such as the one ultimately appearing as English -ize, from Greek -izein, verbal suffix < *id-yo-. [Not in Pokorny.] **-yo-**³ Relational adjectival suffix, "of or belonging to.” Appears ultimately in the following English suffixes: a. **-ARY**, **-EER**, **-ER**¹, from Latin -ārius, adjective suffix, from Italic *-ās-io- (first element obscure); b. **-ATORY**, from Latin -ātōrius, adjective suffix for agent nouns in -ātor (see **-ter-**). [Not in Pokorny.] **yoi-ni-** Also **yoi-no-**. Juniper berry. **JUNIPER**, from Latin iūniperus, juniper, probably from *yoini-paros, "bearing juniper berries" (*-paros, bearing; see **perǝ-**¹). [Pokorny joi-ni- 513.] **yos-** To gird. (Oldest form *yehas, colored to *yoh₃s-. contracted to *yōs-.) 1. Suffixed form *yōs-ter-. **ZOSTER**, from Greek zōstēr, girdle. 2. Suffixed form *yōs-nā-. **ZONE**; **EVZONE**, from Greek zōnē, girdle. 3. Suffixed form *yōs-mə. **PAJAMA**, from Persian jāma, garment, from Middle Persian yāmak, jāmak. [Pokorny jō(u)s- 513.] **-yos-** Adjective suffix of comparative, marking intensity. Zero-grade form *-is-. **-ER**², from Old English -re, -ra, comparative suffix, from Germanic *-iz-ōn- (*-ōn-, individualizing suffix). [Not in Pokorny.] Compare **-tero-** and see also compound suffix **-is-to-**. **yu-** You. Second person (plural) pronoun. **YE**², **YOU**, from Old English gē and ēow, you, from Germanic *jūz (nominative) and *iwwiz (oblique). [Pokorny 1. ju- 513.]