0001 1.1 1.2 位置 position 1.3 普通名词和专有名词 common nouns and proper nouns 1.4 限定词与普通名词连用 determiners with common nouns 0002 1.5 personal and demonstrative pronouns 1.6 indefinite pronouns 1.7 adding extra information 0003 1.8 modifiers 1.9 adding information after the noun 1.10 1.11 linking noun phrases and linking words within them 0004 1.12 numbers and quantity expressions 1.13 0005 1.14 capital letters 1.15 1.16 noun–verb agreement 1.17 use of determiners 0006 1.18 list of countable nouns 0007 1.19 singular and plural forms 1.20 same form for singular and plural 1.21 singular form with plural meaning 1.22 BE CREATIVE 0008 1.23 1.24 noun–verb agreement 1.25 list of uncountable nouns 0009 1.26 BE CAREFUL 1.27 quantifying: some rice, a bowl of rice 1.28 mass nouns 1.29 0010 1.30 1.31 list of mass nouns 1.32 nouns that are uncountable and countable 0011 1.33 uncountable nouns ending in -s 0012 1.34 1.35 noun–verb agreement 1.36 things that are unique 1.37 using the context 1.38 used in verb + object idioms 0013 1.39 singular noun structures 1.40 USAGE NOTE 0014 1.41 1.42 noun–verb agreement 1.43 use with modifiers 1.44 with or without determiners 0015 1.44 with or without determiners 0016 1.45 modifiers and other forms of extra information 1.46 typical meanings: clothes and tools 0017 1.47 0018 1.48 singular or plural verb 1.49 USAGE NOTE 0019 1.50 BE CAREFUL 1.51 list of collective nouns 1.52 1.53 0020 1.54 relationship nouns 1.55 titles 0021 1.56 titles used without names 1.57 titles used as countable nouns 1.58 other proper nouns 1.59 0022 1.60 used with modifiers 1.61 extra information after the noun 1.62 always used with modifiers 1.63 always used with possessives 0023 1.64 metaphorical uses 1.65 list of nouns that are rarely used alone 1.66 0024 1.67 BE CREATIVE 1.68 noun–verb agreement 1.69 being more specific 1.70 qualities 0025 1.71 colours 1.72 USAGE NOTE 1.73 1.74 -ess and -woman 1.75 -man and -person 0026 1.76 USAGE NOTE 1.77 0027 1.78 uncountable nouns 1.79 1.80 used with adjectives 1.81 1.82 countable nouns 0028 1.83 1.84 two words, one word or a hyphen? 0029 1.85 lists of compound nouns 1.86 0030 1.87 1.88 1.89 composition of compound nouns 0031 1.90 USAGE NOTE 1.91 plural forms 0032 1.92 1.93 0033 1.94 types of pronoun 1.95 1.96 subject pronouns 0034 1.97 I 1.98 you 0035 1.99 he and she 1.100 it 0036 1.101 USAGE NOTE 1.102 we 1.103 they 1.104 object pronouns 1.105 position in clause 0037 1.106 1.107 1.108 typical use 0038 1.109 used with of 1.110 1.111 0039 1.112 BE CAREFUL 1.113 used as object 1.114 BE CAREFUL 1.115 used as objects of prepositions 0040 1.116 used for emphasis or contrast 1.117 1.118 0041 1.119 1.120 you, yours and yourself 1.121 one and oneself 0042 1.122 we, us, ours and ourselves 1.123 they, them, theirs and themselves 0043 1.124 1.125 this and that 1.126 1.127 these and those 0044 1.128 1.129 used only with singular verbs 0045 1.130 referring to things 1.131 referring to people 1.132 used with personal pronouns and possessive determiners 1.133 USAGE NOTE 1.134 ’s 1.135 BE CAREFUL 0046 1.136 adding information 1.137 1.138 used with else 1.139 structures used with some- and every- 0047 1.140 structures used with any- 1.141 structures used with no- 1.142 0048 1.143 1.144 each as subject 1.145 ’s 1.146 0049 1.147 who and whom 1.148 which 1.149 that 1.150 whose 0050 1.151 1.152 1.153 reported questions 0051 1.154 1.155 1.156 all, both, and each for emphasis 1.157 numbers 0052 1.158 other pronouns 1.159 1.160 1.161 1.162 1.163 1.164 1.165 pronouncing the 1.166 the with a noun 1.167 nouns referring to one thing only 1.168 specific places and organizations 1.169 generalizing about people and things 1.170 using adjectives as nouns 1.171 formal generalizations 1.172 USAGE NOTE 1.173 referring back 1.174 1.175 the with longer noun phrases 1.176 adding adjectives 1.177 adjectives: expanding 1.178 adding clauses or phrases 1.179 the with uncountable nouns 1.180 superlatives 1.181 emphasizing the 1.182 the with indefinite determiners 1.183 the with numbers 1.184 1.185 this and these 1.186 1.187 that and those 1.188 1.189 USAGE NOTE 1.190 1.191 1.192 using those instead of the 1.193 informal use of this and these 1.194 1.195 table of possessive determiners 1.196 BE CAREFUL 1.197 position 1.198 BE CAREFUL 1.199 agreement with noun 1.200 use of own 1.201 uses of possessives 1.202 1.203 1.204 USAGE NOTE 1.205 1.206 1.207 BE CAREFUL 1.208 generic use 1.209 other possessives 1.210 possessive determiners used in titles 1.211 1.212 spelling and pronunciation 1.213 other uses of ’s 1.214 showing close connection 1.215 1.216 1.217 other structures 1.218 used in prepositional phrases with of 1.219 USAGE NOTE 1.220 1.221 1.222 other ways of showing possession 1.223 1.224 with countable nouns 1.225 with uncountable nouns 1.226 BE CAREFUL 1.227 using nouns without determiners 1.228 1.229 choosing a or an 1.230 not being specific about which person or thing you are referring to 1.231 adding extra information 1.232 a or an after linking verbs 1.233 a and an with uncountable nouns 1.234 using individuals to generalize 1.235 nouns referring to one thing only 1.236 some 1.237 1.238 1.239 any 1.240 another and other 1.241 selecting from a group 1.242 all, both, and either 1.243 each and every 1.244 little and much 1.245 certain, numerous, and various 1.246 more, few, and less 1.247 other expressions 1.248 modifying determiners: four more rooms, too much time 1.249 using one 1.250 1.251 predeterminers: all the people, quite a long time 2.1 2.2 2.3 main points about adjectives 2.4 BE CAREFUL 2.5 structure 2.6 2.7 types of adjective 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 2.12 structural restrictions 2.13 2.14 order of adjectives 2.15 -ing and -ed adjectives 2.16 compound adjectives 2.17 comparing things 2.18 talking about the amount of a quality 2.19 2.20 2.21 2.22 2.23 gradability: very sad, rather funny 2.24 2.25 2.26 2.27 2.28 2.29 adjectives that are of both types 2.30 2.31 adding extra information to colour adjectives 2.32 approximate colours 2.33 BE CREATIVE 2.34 comparison of colour adjectives 2.35 colour nouns 2.36 2.37 adjectives for showing disapproval 2.38 BE CAREFUL 2.39 very as an emphasizing adjective 2.40 2.41 2.42 adjectives that are only used in front of a noun 2.43 2.44 adjectives that always follow a linking verb 2.45 2.46 USAGE NOTE 2.47 2.48 2.49 2.50 2.51 adjectives followed by to-infinitive clauses 2.52 2.53 adjectives followed by that-clauses 2.54 2.55 2.56 position of noun modifiers and adjectives 2.57 two or more adjectives after a linking verb 2.58 adjectives after nouns 2.59 USAGE NOTE 2.60 2.61 2.62 2.63 2.64 describing an effect 2.65 2.66 2.67 2.68 describing a process or state 2.69 2.70 2.71 2.72 BE CREATIVE 2.73 form and meaning 2.74 2.75 2.76 2.77 2.78 2.79 2.80 qualitative -ed adjectives 2.81 form and meaning 2.82 2.83 classifying -ed adjectives 2.84 2.85 modifying -ed adjectives 2.86 2.87 -ed adjectives with an active meaning 2.88 -ed adjectives after linking verbs 2.89 BE CREATIVE 2.90 BE CREATIVE 2.91 -ed adjectives formed from nouns 2.92 -ed adjectives unrelated to verbs or nouns 2.93 2.94 2.95 formation patterns 2.96 2.97 compound qualitative adjectives 2.98 compound classifying adjectives 2.99 compound colour adjectives 2.100 long compound adjectives 2.101 2.102 foreign compound adjectives 2.103 2.104 in front of a noun 2.105 after a linking verb 2.106 structures used after comparatives 2.107 position of comparatives 2.108 more and more than 2.109 comparatives used as nouns 2.110 less 2.111 contrasted comparatives 2.112 2.113 BE CAREFUL 2.114 used in front of a noun 2.115 used after a linking verb 2.116 structures used after superlatives 2.117 USAGE NOTE 2.118 used with other adjectives 2.119 superlatives used as nouns 2.120 USAGE NOTE 2.121 used with ordinal numbers: the second biggest city 2.122 the least 2.123 2.124 talking about things with the same quality 2.125 2.126 2.127 2.128 USAGE NOTE 2.129 2.130 2.131 2.132 like 2.133 2.134 USAGE NOTE 2.135 same as 2.136 USAGE NOTE 2.137 2.138 adjectives meaning the same 2.139 modifying adjectives used in comparisons 2.140 2.141 submodifying adverbs: extremely narrow, slightly different 2.142 2.143 intensifying qualitative adjectives 2.144 2.145 reducing qualitative adjectives 2.146 talking about extent 2.147 USAGE NOTE 2.148 2.149 saying that there is enough of something 2.150 USAGE NOTE 2.151 2.152 saying that there is not enough of something 2.153 saying that there is too much of something 2.154 BE CAREFUL 2.155 2.156 BE CREATIVE 2.157 2.158 2.159 2.160 USAGE NOTE 2.161 2.162 2.163 2.164 2.165 2.166 2.167 2.168 2.169 2.170 singular and plural forms 2.171 using more than one noun modifier 2.172 used with adjectives 2.173 use of proper nouns 2.174 BE CREATIVE 2.175 2.176 2.177 2.178 2.179 only with definite determiners 2.180 with place names 2.181 verb agreement 2.182 with plural nouns 2.183 with uncountable nouns and singular nouns 2.184 with plural nouns and uncountable nouns 2.185 with all types of noun 2.186 USAGE NOTE 2.187 BE CAREFUL 2.188 USAGE NOTE 2.189 2.190 omitting of 2.191 USAGE NOTE 2.192 modifying quantity expressions 2.193 2.194 2.195 partitives with uncountable nouns 2.196 2.197 BE CREATIVE 2.198 BE CREATIVE 2.199 measurement nouns 2.200 referring to contents and containers 2.201 ending in -ful 2.202 BE CREATIVE 2.203 USAGE NOTE 2.204 referring to parts and fractions 2.205 referring to individual items 2.206 pair of 2.207 BE CREATIVE 2.208 cardinal numbers 2.209 ordinal numbers 2.210 fractions 2.211 measuring things 2.212 age 2.213 2.214 one 2.215 2.216 talking about negative amounts 2.217 numbers and agreement 2.218 2.219 numbers with ordinals and postdeterminers 2.220 numbers as pronouns 2.221 expressing large numbers 2.222 BE CAREFUL 2.223 BE CAREFUL 2.224 approximate quantities 2.225 USAGE NOTE 2.226 numbers as labels 2.227 numbers as quantity expressions 2.228 number quantity expressions as pronouns 2.229 numbers after subject pronouns 2.230 numbers in compound adjectives 2.231 numbers with time expressions 2.232 2.233 as modifiers 2.234 written forms 2.235 ordinals with of 2.236 as pronouns 2.237 2.238 ordinals used as adverbs 2.239 other uses of ordinals 2.240 2.241 singular fractions 2.242 USAGE NOTE 2.243 plural fractions 2.244 agreement with verb 2.245 fractions as pronouns 2.246 numbers followed by fractions 2.247 half as predeterminer 2.248 fractions expressed in figures 2.249 expressing percentages 2.250 2.251 imperial and metric measurements 2.252 after linking verbs 2.253 adjectives after measurements 2.254 phrases beginning with in after measurements 2.255 measurement nouns used as modifiers 2.256 USAGE NOTE 2.257 2.258 2.259 talking about exact age 2.260 talking about approximate age 2.261 2.262 2.263 talking about the age of a thing 2.264 2.265 expressing minimum amounts 2.266 USAGE NOTE 2.267 expressing maximum amounts 2.268 USAGE NOTE 2.269 expressing approximate amounts 2.270 USAGE NOTE 2.271 2.272 2.273 possible structures 2.274 2.275 2.276 2.277 of 2.278 BE CAREFUL 2.279 2.280 2.281 2.282 2.283 2.284 with 2.285 in 2.286 by 2.287 with prepositional phrases 2.288 2.289 USAGE NOTE 2.290 2.291 2.292 other structures 2.293 2.294 nouns followed by to-infinitive clauses 2.295 2.296 2.297 2.298 USAGE NOTE 2.299 2.300 nouns followed by -ed participle clauses 2.301 nouns followed by -ing participle clauses 2.302 with an identifying noun phrase 3.1 3.2 intransitive verbs 3.3 transitive verbs 3.4 intransitive or transitive verbs 3.5 reciprocal verbs 3.6 verbs with two objects 3.7 phrasal verbs, compound verbs 3.8 3.9 3.10 intransitive verbs followed by phrases that begin with a preposition 3.11 3.12 intransitive verbs followed by an adverb or prepositional phrase 3.13 verbs that are occasionally transitive 3.14 3.15 different types of object 3.16 3.17 human objects 3.18 3.19 transitive verbs that need to be followed by an adverb or prepositional phrase 3.20 3.21 transitive verbs of position and movement 3.22 USAGE NOTE 3.23 3.24 reporting verbs 3.25 3.26 BE CREATIVE 3.27 true reflexive verbs 3.28 3.29 reflexive pronouns used for emphasis 3.30 BE CAREFUL 3.31 3.32 3.33 verbs that are often delexical 3.34 3.35 with singular noun 3.36 with plural noun 3.37 with uncountable noun 3.38 talking about a brief event 3.39 using adjectives 3.40 nouns with no equivalent verb 3.41 nouns used with have 3.42 nouns used with take 3.43 nouns used with give 3.44 nouns used with make 3.45 nouns used with have and take 3.46 3.47 different meanings 3.48 3.49 verbs that do not always need an object 3.50 3.51 object already mentioned 3.52 3.53 3.54 speaker’s decisions 3.55 3.56 3.57 3.58 verbs of movement 3.59 3.60 changes 3.61 3.62 food, movement, vehicles 3.63 3.64 restrictions on ergative subjects 3.65 3.66 ergative verbs that need extra information 3.67 comparison of passive and ergative use 3.68 3.69 reciprocal verbs with plural subject 3.70 emphasizing equal involvement 3.71 showing unequal involvement 3.72 3.73 3.74 indirect objects in phrases that begin with a preposition 3.75 pronouns as objects 3.76 indirect objects with to 3.77 indirect objects with for 3.78 USAGE NOTE 3.79 USAGE NOTE 3.80 3.81 USAGE NOTE 3.82 verbs that usually have both a direct object and an indirect object 3.83 3.84 3.85 intransitive phrasal verbs with adverbs 3.86 3.87 intransitive phrasal verbs with prepositions: look after, call on 3.88 3.89 preposition or adverb: We looked around the old town, Would you like to look around? 3.90 3.91 transitive phrasal verbs: look something up, let someone down 3.92 3.93 phrasal verbs used both with and without an object: The plane took off, She took off her coat 3.94 3.95 3.96 3.97 ergative phrasal verbs 3.98 3.99 3.100 3.101 position of the object 3.102 3.103 when the object is a pronoun 3.104 when the object is an abstract noun 3.105 cases where the object is always placed after the first word of the verb 3.106 objects with prepositions 3.107 transitive phrasal verbs with prepositions: She talked me into buying it 3.108 3.109 preposition or adverb: I’ll cross you off, I’ll cross you off the list 3.110 3.111 intransitive three-word phrasal verbs: look forward to, catch up with 3.112 3.113 transitive three-word phrasal verbs: He talked me out of buying the car 3.114 BE CAREFUL 3.115 phrasal verbs in questions and relative clauses 3.116 3.117 3.118 BE CAREFUL 3.119 written forms of compound verbs 3.120 forms of compound verbs 3.121 3.122 intransitive compound verbs 3.123 transitive compound verbs 3.124 transitive or intransitive compound verbs 3.125 inflecting compound verbs 3.126 3.127 adjectives and nouns after linking verbs 3.128 verbs with object complements: The film made me sad 3.129 phrases that begin with a preposition 3.130 it with be 3.131 there with be 3.132 3.133 3.134 USAGE NOTE 3.135 3.136 3.137 BE CAREFUL 3.138 3.139 qualities 3.140 using one: That’s a nice one 3.141 size, age, colour, shape 3.142 types of people and things 3.143 talking about identity 3.144 USAGE NOTE 3.145 pronouns after linking verbs 3.146 other structures that follow linking verbs 3.147 combinations of verbs and prepositions 3.148 3.149 commenting on behaviour: You’re crazy to do that 3.150 commenting on suitability: She’s the right person to do the job 3.151 commenting on an event: That was an awful thing to happen 3.152 commenting on willingness: Chris is anxious to meet you 3.153 commenting on something: This case is easy to carry 3.154 commenting on an action: That was a silly thing to do 3.155 3.156 USAGE NOTE 3.157 3.158 3.159 3.160 fixed phrases 3.161 3.162 verbs that relate to causing something to happen: Their comments made me angry 3.163 keep, hold, leave 3.164 verbs that relate to giving someone a job or role 3.165 verbs of opinion 3.166 3.167 3.168 3.169 describing and naming 3.170 titles 3.171 describing states 3.172 3.173 use after be 3.174 use after other verbs 3.175 referring to place 3.176 referring to time 3.177 use in transitive structures 3.178 3.179 use in intransitive structures 3.180 use in transitive structures 3.181 3.182 3.183 3.184 3.185 verb forms 3.186 3.187 3.188 3.189 3.190 verbs followed by an -ing participle 3.191 USAGE NOTE 3.192 verbs followed by a to-infinitive 3.193 USAGE NOTE 3.194 3.195 verbs used with either form 3.196 USAGE NOTE 3.197 BE CAREFUL 3.198 3.199 to-infinitive showing purpose 3.200 USAGE NOTE 3.201 get with an -ed participle 3.202 3.203 use of possessive determiner 3.204 transitive verbs with an -ing participle 3.205 verbs with an infinitive without to 3.206 transitive verbs with a to-infinitive 3.207 using the passive 3.208 USAGE NOTE 3.209 verbs followed by for and a to-infinitive 3.210 transitive verbs with an infinitive without to 3.211 have and get used for showing cause 3.212 want and need with an -ed participle 4.1 4.2 4.3 position of time adverbial 4.4 duration and frequency 4.5 4.6 subordinate clauses 4.7 4.8 the present moment 4.9 general present including present moment 4.10 general truths 4.11 regular or habitual actions 4.12 used in reviews 4.13 USAGE NOTE 4.14 used in commentaries 4.15 used in reporting 4.16 used in commenting 4.17 the moment of speaking 4.18 emphasizing the present moment 4.19 progressive change 4.20 habitual actions 4.21 4.22 general truths 4.23 regular actions 4.24 frequent actions 4.25 time adverbials with present verb forms 4.26 4.27 4.28 past situations 4.29 4.30 habitual and regular actions 4.31 repeated actions 4.32 contrasting events 4.33 4.34 BE CAREFUL 4.35 situations that still exist 4.36 emphasizing duration of event 4.37 4.38 emphasizing time and duration 4.39 expectations and wishes 4.40 4.41 types of time adverbial 4.42 BE CAREFUL 4.43 used for emphasis 4.44 used with the past simple 4.45 used with the past progressive 4.46 used with the present perfect 4.47 4.48 4.49 used with the past perfect 4.50 4.51 4.52 4.53 4.54 general truths 4.55 indicating certainty 4.56 4.57 indicating duration 4.58 be going to 4.59 planned events 4.60 firm plans for the future 4.61 vague time reference 4.62 tomorrow 4.63 next 4.64 4.65 the present 4.66 4.67 events planned in the past 4.68 4.69 4.70 4.71 referring to an earlier or a later time 4.72 4.73 4.74 necessary time 4.75 previously mentioned time 4.76 4.77 still for existing situations 4.78 still for expected situations 4.79 yet for expected situations 4.80 4.81 4.82 likely change 4.83 a past situation that has stopped existing 4.84 already for emphasizing occurrence 4.85 4.86 clock times 4.87 times of the day 4.88 naming days 4.89 months, seasons, and dates 4.90 years, decades, and centuries 4.91 at for specific times 4.92 at for relating events 4.93 4.94 in for periods of time 4.95 in for specific time 4.96 on for short periods of time 4.97 on for longer periods of time 4.98 on for subsequent events 4.99 ordering of time adverbials 4.100 approximate times 4.101 BE CAREFUL 4.102 4.103 during for periods of time 4.104 4.105 BE CAREFUL 4.106 over for events 4.107 relating events and times 4.108 order of events 4.109 events that happen at the same time 4.110 linking adverbs 4.111 by for specific time 4.112 4.113 4.114 4.115 USAGE NOTE 4.116 estimating frequency 4.117 regular intervals 4.118 USAGE NOTE 4.119 particular occurrences of an event 4.120 -ly time adverbs 4.121 prepositional phrases 4.122 development and regular occurrence 4.123 4.124 prepositional phrases 4.125 for for length of time 4.126 4.127 4.128 for for emphasis 4.129 USAGE NOTE 4.130 in and within for end of a period 4.131 4.132 for and in with general or specific time 4.133 noun phrases that express duration 4.134 approximate duration 4.135 4.136 4.137 start time 4.138 4.139 4.140 end time 4.141 4.142 start and end times 4.143 4.144 5.1 5.2 5.3 word order 5.4 statements, questions, and orders 5.5 5.6 giving information 5.7 expressing opinions 5.8 making promises 5.9 emphasis 5.10 5.11 types of question 5.12 position of auxiliary verbs 5.13 5.14 be and have as main verbs 5.15 5.16 forming question tags 5.17 checking statements 5.18 replying to tags 5.19 other uses of question tags 5.20 5.21 5.22 wh-words 5.23 wh-word as subject 5.24 wh-word as object or adverb 5.25 questions without a verb 5.26 who and whom 5.27 whose 5.28 which 5.29 when and where 5.30 why 5.31 how 5.32 how with other words 5.33 what 5.34 whatever, wherever, and whoever 5.35 orders and instructions 5.36 advice and warnings 5.37 appeals 5.38 explanations 5.39 let 5.40 confirming 5.41 instructing 5.42 offers and invitations 5.43 requests, orders, and instructions 5.44 questions that do not expect an answer 5.45 questions without a verb 5.46 suggestions 5.47 5.48 5.49 5.50 BE CAREFUL 5.51 5.52 not 5.53 position in verb phrases 5.54 adding do 5.55 not with be 5.56 not with have and have got 5.57 position with -ing forms and to-infinitives 5.58 with an inflected form and an -ing form or to-infinitive 5.59 contractions of not 5.60 USAGE NOTE 5.61 other uses of not 5.62 5.63 not used for contrast 5.64 never 5.65 with simple forms of be 5.66 with simple forms of other verbs 5.67 emphasis 5.68 never in imperatives 5.69 no 5.70 5.71 none 5.72 none of 5.73 words beginning with no- 5.74 followed by but 5.75 neither and nor 5.76 neither in replies 5.77 5.78 neither with singular nouns 5.79 neither of 5.80 5.81 position in clause 5.82 5.83 with simple form of be 5.84 with other verbs 5.85 as first word in the clause 5.86 USAGE NOTE 5.87 almost 5.88 at all 5.89 whatsoever 5.90 ever 5.91 other expressions 5.92 5.93 5.94 5.95 attitude to information 5.96 attitude to intentions 5.97 attitude to people 5.98 use in sentences containing more than one clause 5.99 form of following verb 5.100 5.101 no inflections 5.102 negatives 5.103 questions 5.104 question tags 5.105 contractions 5.106 USAGE NOTE 5.107 5.108 the future: shall and will 5.109 5.110 ability in the past: could 5.111 reported speech 5.112 things that happened regularly in the past: would 5.113 thinking about the future: would 5.114 refusing to do something: would not 5.115 5.116 skills and abilities: can and could 5.117 awareness: can and could 5.118 general truths: can and could 5.119 BE CAREFUL 5.120 5.121 assuming that something is the case: will and would 5.122 certainty: would and should 5.123 belief: must and cannot 5.124 present possibility: could, might, and may 5.125 negative possibility: might not and may not 5.126 impossibility: could not and cannot 5.127 strong assertion: could not with comparatives 5.128 talking about the future 5.129 certainty: will 5.130 certainty: shall, must, and cannot 5.131 expectation: should and ought to 5.132 future possibility: could, might, and may 5.133 talking about the past 5.134 expectation: should have, ought to have 5.135 possibility: would have 5.136 possibility: could have, might have 5.137 uncertainty: could have, might have, may have 5.138 negative possibility: might not have, may not have 5.139 impossibility: could have with negative 5.140 permission: can 5.141 formal permission: may 5.142 permission in the past: could 5.143 BE CAREFUL 5.144 5.145 saying that something is forbidden: cannot 5.146 saying that something is forbidden: may not 5.147 saying that something is forbidden: will not 5.148 saying that something is forbidden: shall not 5.149 saying that something is forbidden: imperatives 5.150 undesirable actions: should not 5.151 undesirable actions: must not 5.152 5.153 5.154 5.155 instructions and appeals for help 5.156 instructions and appeals for help: will 5.157 instructions and appeals for help: would 5.158 instructions and appeals for help: could 5.159 appeals for help: can 5.160 requests 5.161 requests: can 5.162 requests: could 5.163 requests: can’t and couldn’t 5.164 requests: may and might 5.165 instructions: would like 5.166 firm instructions: will 5.167 formal instructions: shall 5.168 imperatives 5.169 requests: would like, should like 5.170 polite additions to requests 5.171 5.172 offers and invitations: will 5.173 offers and invitations: would and wouldn’t 5.174 offers of help: can 5.175 offers of help: may 5.176 offers of help: shall and should 5.177 emphasizing ability: can 5.178 persuasive invitations: must and have to 5.179 5.180 5.181 suggesting: could 5.182 suggesting: should and ought to 5.183 persuading: must 5.184 polite suggestions: might 5.185 suggesting: might as well, may as well 5.186 suggesting: shall 5.187 5.188 5.189 intentions: will 5.190 5.191 intentions: shall 5.192 intentions: must 5.193 5.194 5.195 refusal: will not and won’t 5.196 refusal: would not 5.197 unwillingness: cannot 5.198 unwillingness: couldn’t 5.199 5.200 5.201 wishes: would 5.202 5.203 wishes: should 5.204 preference: would rather, would sooner 5.205 wishes: would have 5.206 USAGE NOTE 5.207 regret: would that 5.208 hopes and wishes: may 5.209 5.210 importance: must 5.211 necessity: will have to, will need to 5.212 necessity: shall have to 5.213 importance: should and ought to 5.214 5.215 importance: must 5.216 importance: should and ought to 5.217 politeness: can and could 5.218 5.219 approval: may and might 5.220 politeness: should and would 5.221 5.222 saying whether something is possible 5.223 5.224 5.225 5.226 5.227 5.228 5.229 5.230 saying how likely something is 5.231 5.232 5.233 giving instructions and making requests 5.234 5.235 stating an intention 5.236 5.237 5.238 5.239 expressing unwillingness 5.240 5.241 5.242 indicating importance 5.243 5.244 5.245 5.246 5.247 dare and need 5.248 inflected forms 5.249 use with other modals 5.250 use with do 5.251 other uses of dare and need 5.252 used to 5.253 5.254 omitting the following verb phrase 5.255 negatives 5.256 questions 6.1 6.2 adverb phrases 6.3 prepositional phrases 6.4 noun phrases 6.5 adding meaning to verb phrases 6.6 adding meaning to clauses 6.7 6.8 beginning of clause for emphasis 6.9 between subject and verb 6.10 6.11 USAGE NOTE 6.12 minor points about position 6.13 manner, place, then time 6.14 adverbials of the same type 6.15 changing word order after adverbials 6.16 6.17 -ly adverbs 6.18 spelling 6.19 6.20 adverb meaning 6.21 6.22 6.23 6.24 same form as adjective: a fast car, drive fast 6.25 6.26 two forms: dear/dearly, hard/hardly, etc. 6.27 no adverb from adjective 6.28 USAGE NOTE 6.29 adverbs not related to adjectives 6.30 6.31 6.32 irregular forms 6.33 6.34 6.35 USAGE NOTE 6.36 adverbs of manner 6.37 how something is done: sing beautifully, walk briskly 6.38 6.39 feelings and manner: smile happily, walk wearily 6.40 6.41 circumstances: talk privately, work part-time 6.42 6.43 forms 6.44 USAGE NOTE 6.45 6.46 6.47 from adjectives 6.48 position in clause 6.49 emphasizing adverbs 6.50 6.51 adverbs of degree in front of other adverbs: very carefully, fairly easily 6.52 other adverbs of degree 6.53 6.54 adverbs showing position 6.55 6.56 USAGE NOTE 6.57 USAGE NOTE 6.58 adverbs of position with a following adverbial 6.59 deep, far, high, low 6.60 adverbs of position: comparatives and superlatives 6.61 anywhere, everywhere, somewhere, nowhere 6.62 adding information 6.63 different or additional places 6.64 6.65 adverbs indicating destinations and targets 6.66 relative direction 6.67 movement in several directions 6.68 movement away 6.69 movement along a path 6.70 movement across or past something 6.71 indefinite direction: somewhere, everywhere, nowhere, etc. 6.72 adverbs after nouns: the man opposite, the road south 6.73 6.74 6.75 6.76 BE CAREFUL 6.77 6.78 after verbs showing position 6.79 6.80 after verbs indicating activities 6.81 6.82 at the beginning of a clause: for emphasis or contrast 6.83 at the beginning of a clause: verb before subject 6.84 6.85 prepositions showing position 6.86 USAGE NOTE 6.87 USAGE NOTE 6.88 prepositions with comparative forms 6.89 more specific position 6.90 6.91 specific distances 6.92 showing position and distance 6.93 6.94 prepositions used 6.95 USAGE NOTE 6.96 direction relative to the front 6.97 several directions 6.98 starting point 6.99 from before prepositions and adverbs 6.100 6.101 6.102 6.103 referring to time 6.104 referring to the way something is done 6.105 6.106 like and as in comparison 6.107 6.108 6.109 circumstances of an action 6.110 reason, cause, or purpose 6.111 in phrasal verbs 6.112 verbs with optional prepositional phrases 6.113 indirect objects of verbs with two objects 6.114 with reciprocal verbs 6.115 with passive verbs 6.116 position of prepositional phrases and adverbs after verbs 6.117 6.118 particular prepositions after nouns and adjectives 6.119 comparisons with than and like 6.120 of 6.121 6.122 noun phrases referring to place: place names 6.123 6.124 verbs after place names 6.125 place names used for talking about people 6.126 place names used for talking about events 6.127 place names used as modifiers before nouns 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 basic reporting verbs 7.7 showing the purpose of speaking 7.8 BE CAREFUL 7.9 verbs of thinking and knowing 7.10 verbs of learning and perceiving 7.11 7.12 indicating the way that something is said 7.13 negatives in reporting clauses 7.14 reporting speech and thought in informal spoken English 7.15 7.16 7.17 7.18 7.19 verbs that describe the way in which something is said 7.20 BE CREATIVE 7.21 BE CREATIVE 7.22 position of reporting verb 7.23 7.24 7.25 changing the order of the subject and the reporting verb 7.26 punctuation of quotes 7.27 7.28 types of reported clause 7.29 7.30 verbs used with that-clauses 7.31 position of reported clauses 7.32 7.33 the reporting verb 7.34 BE CAREFUL 7.35 yes/no questions 7.36 7.37 wh-questions 7.38 7.39 reporting requests 7.40 USAGE NOTE 7.41 7.42 7.43 reporting suggestions 7.44 7.45 reporting intentions and hopes 7.46 USAGE NOTE 7.47 7.48 7.49 7.50 past tense for both verbs 7.51 reporting verb in other tenses 7.52 tense of verb in reported clause 7.53 modals in reported clauses 7.54 USAGE NOTE 7.55 7.56 7.57 7.58 7.59 reporting conditional statements 7.60 7.61 referring to people and things 7.62 referring to time 7.63 referring to places 7.64 7.65 7.66 7.67 USAGE NOTE 7.68 7.69 use of passives to express general beliefs 7.70 seem and appear 7.71 USAGE NOTE 7.72 referring to the speaker 7.73 use of the passive 7.74 USAGE NOTE 7.75 referring to the hearer 7.76 verbs with or without the hearer as object 7.77 the hearer in prepositional phrases 7.78 7.79 7.80 7.81 reflexive pronouns 7.82 objects with reporting verbs 7.83 7.84 USAGE NOTE 7.85 prepositional phrases with reporting verbs 7.86 nouns used with reported clauses 8.1 8.2 conjunctions 8.3 8.4 subordinating conjunctions 8.5 coordinating conjunctions 8.6 8.7 position of adverbial clause 8.8 8.9 tenses in time clauses 8.10 8.11 8.12 USAGE NOTE 8.13 repeated events 8.14 8.15 events in sequence 8.16 8.17 8.18 8.19 saying when a situation began 8.20 saying when a situation ends 8.21 8.22 USAGE NOTE 8.23 using non-finite clauses 8.24 using prepositional phrases and adjectives 8.25 8.26 8.27 modals and imperatives 8.28 verb forms in conditional sentences 8.29 talking about things that often happen 8.30 talking about things that often happened in the past 8.31 possible situations 8.32 things that might happen in the future 8.33 USAGE NOTE 8.34 unlikely situations 8.35 what might have been 8.36 putting the verb first 8.37 USAGE NOTE 8.38 necessary conditions 8.39 8.40 8.41 USAGE NOTE 8.42 8.43 8.44 types of purpose clause 8.45 to-infinitive clauses 8.46 8.47 that-clauses 8.48 8.49 8.50 8.51 8.52 8.53 8.54 8.55 8.56 8.57 8.58 USAGE NOTE 8.59 8.60 USAGE NOTE 8.61 8.62 8.63 8.64 8.65 8.66 contrast 8.67 8.68 8.69 exceptions 8.70 USAGE NOTE 8.71 -ing participle clauses 8.72 8.73 8.74 8.75 8.76 8.77 8.78 8.79 saying how something is done 8.80 making comparisons 8.81 8.82 8.83 8.84 relative pronouns 8.85 types of relative clause 8.86 punctuation 8.87 use after pronouns 8.88 -ing participle clauses 8.89 8.90 referring to people 8.91 referring to things 8.92 8.93 referring to people 8.94 referring to things 8.95 8.96 no pronoun 8.97 indirect objects 8.98 formal use 8.99 phrasal verbs 8.100 USAGE NOTE 8.101 8.102 8.103 8.104 non-defining clauses 8.105 defining clauses 8.106 8.107 8.108 USAGE NOTE 8.109 8.110 commenting on a fact 8.111 commenting on a time or situation 8.112 8.113 8.114 8.115 8.116 8.117 8.118 8.119 adjectives with nominal that-clauses: I was afraid that he would fall 8.120 mentioning the cause of a feeling 8.121 saying what someone knows 8.122 commenting on a fact 8.123 commenting on a fact or idea 8.124 8.125 8.126 nominal use of wh-clauses 8.127 8.128 BE CAREFUL 8.129 8.130 types of non-finite clause 8.131 position of non-defining clauses 8.132 8.133 -ing participle: events happening at the same time 8.134 -ing participle: one action after another 8.135 -ing participle: reasons 8.136 8.137 having and -ed participle: results 8.138 -ed participle: earlier events 8.139 mentioning the subject 8.140 8.141 -ing participle 8.142 -ed participle 8.143 USAGE NOTE 8.144 8.145 use after pronouns 8.146 8.147 8.148 8.149 8.150 8.151 8.152 omitting words in the second clause 8.153 functions of coordinating conjunctions 8.154 related facts 8.155 sequence 8.156 two negative facts 8.157 contrast 8.158 alternatives 8.159 USAGE NOTE 8.160 USAGE NOTE 8.161 USAGE NOTE 8.162 non-finite clauses 8.163 8.164 8.165 intransitive verbs 8.166 transitive verbs 8.167 leaving out the auxiliary 8.168 emphasizing repetition or duration 8.169 USAGE NOTE 8.170 8.171 8.172 8.173 alternatives 8.174 omitting determiners 8.175 referring to one person or thing 8.176 omitting adjectives 8.177 verb agreement 8.178 linking pronouns together 8.179 8.180 8.181 qualitative adjectives 8.182 colour adjectives 8.183 classifying adjectives 8.184 different types of adjective 8.185 adjectives with plural nouns 8.186 adjectives after verbs 8.187 using other conjunctions 8.188 linking adverbs together 8.189 8.190 8.191 linking prepositions together 8.192 linking prepositional phrases together 8.193 linking modifiers and determiners together 8.194 8.195 8.196 8.197 8.198 8.199 8.200 8.201 linking adjectives together 9.1 9.2 9.3 the passive 9.4 split sentences 9.5 impersonal it 9.6 there with be 9.7 adverbials 9.8 9.9 formation of the passive 9.10 not mentioning the person or thing that performed the action 9.11 9.12 9.13 USAGE NOTE 9.14 mentioning the performer with by 9.15 mentioning things or methods used 9.16 passive of verbs referring to states 9.17 phrasal verbs 9.18 verbs usually used in the passive 9.19 verbs that are rarely used in the passive 9.20 verbs with two objects 9.21 transitive verbs with object complement: The wall was painted blue 9.22 reflexive verbs 9.23 intransitive phrasal verbs with prepositions 9.24 USAGE NOTE 9.25 9.26 it as the subject: It was Fiona who told me 9.27 other kinds of focus 9.28 what or all to focus on an action 9.29 focusing on the topic 9.30 focusing on what someone wants or needs: What I want is a holiday, All I need is to win this game 9.31 9.32 9.33 9.34 9.35 using it as an object 9.36 describing the weather: It’s raining, It’s sunny 9.37 giving times and dates 9.38 emphasizing time 9.39 using linking verbs 9.40 using other verbs 9.41 other ways of talking about actions 9.42 9.43 USAGE NOTE 9.44 other verbs 9.45 passive of reporting verbs 9.46 saying that something exists: There are four people in my family 9.47 9.48 saying that something happened: There was a sudden noise 9.49 describing something that is happening: There was a man standing next to her 9.50 verb agreement 9.51 contractions with there 9.52 there with adjectives 9.53 there with other verbs 9.54 formal and literary uses 9.55 9.56 9.57 being specific: financially,…, politically speaking,… 9.58 BE CREATIVE 9.59 generalizing: basically, on the whole, etc. 9.60 BE CREATIVE 9.61 BE CREATIVE 9.62 9.63 emphasizing that something is exact: exactly, just, precisely, etc. 9.64 9.65 restricting: only, just, etc. 9.66 selecting: especially, notably, etc. 9.67 position of focusing adverbials 9.68 USAGE NOTE 9.69 9.70 adverbials first 9.71 reported question first 9.72 other parts of the clause 9.73 9.74 pointing forward to the second part of sentence 9.75 classifying 9.76 labelling 9.77 other ways of labelling 9.78 using whole sentences to point forward 9.79 9.80 indicating your opinion 9.81 USAGE NOTE 9.82 distancing and being more specific 9.83 indicating your point of view 9.84 indicating a quality shown by the performer of an action 9.85 mentioning your justification for a statement 9.86 showing that you assume your hearer agrees 9.87 indicating reality or possibility 9.88 indicating your attitude 9.89 using infinitive clauses 9.90 politeness 9.91 9.92 showing your reactions 9.93 other clause elements 9.94 questions that do not expect an answer 9.95 9.96 position 9.97 titles 9.98 BE CAREFUL 9.99 other ways of addressing people 10.1 10.2 10.3 pronouns 10.4 determiners 10.5 10.6 other ways of referring back 10.7 demonstratives referring to things 10.8 10.9 10.10 demonstratives referring to sentences 10.11 previous 10.12 above 10.13 former and latter 10.14 USAGE NOTE 10.15 time 10.16 place 10.17 manner 10.18 10.19 referring to spoken or written texts 10.20 referring to ideas 10.21 referring to what is mentioned 10.22 BE CREATIVE 10.23 referring to pieces of writing 10.24 so as a substitute for an adjective 10.25 so and not after if 10.26 so and not with reporting verbs 10.27 do so 10.28 10.29 such as a determiner 10.30 such as a predeterminer 10.31 such as an adjective 10.32 adjectives 10.33 same 10.34 10.35 10.36 opposite and reverse 10.37 other adjectives 10.38 adverbials 10.39 10.40 10.41 this and these 10.42 10.43 following 10.44 next 10.45 below 10.46 such 10.47 other ways 10.48 10.49 indicating an addition 10.50 indicating a similar point 10.51 contrasts and alternatives 10.52 causes 10.53 showing sequence in time 10.54 putting points in order 10.55 conjunctions 10.56 sentence connectors after and or but 10.57 10.58 10.59 USAGE NOTE 10.60 10.61 contrasting subjects 10.62 contrasting the verb form or the modal verb 10.63 do 10.64 be as a main verb 10.65 have as a main verb 10.66 leaving words out with not 10.67 USAGE NOTE 10.68 10.69 10.70 repeating the main verb 10.71 contrasting objects and adverbials 10.72 USAGE NOTE 10.73 10.74 10.75 leaving words out in questions 10.76 10.77 leaving words out in replies 10.78 10.79 10.80 leaving words out when you are agreeing 10.81